ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA
KIJCVENTH
BDIT1ON.
VOL. XXVUI
; TO ZYM
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771.
SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 1823 1824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860.
NINTH twenty-five 18751889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
' All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVIII
VETCH to ZYMOTIC DISEASES
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
191 1
EL
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. B. Go. ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D.
Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector in the 1 Westphalia, Treaty of.
University of Kiel, 1896-1905.
A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. / WotKter Jnhn
See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES.
A. D. Mo. ANSON DANIEL MORSE, M.A., LL.D.
Emeritus Professor of History at Amherst College, Mass. Professor at Amherst -j Whig Party.
College, 1877-1908.
A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D. Sc., F.R.S. f Wasp (in Hart)-
Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. -\ ,*,,. , / \
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. ( weevil (tn part).
A. F. B. ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc. f Wool, Worsted and Woollen
Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College. \ Manufactures.
A. F. B.* ARCHIBALD FRANK BECKE.
Captain, Royal Field Artillery. Author of Introduction to the History of Tactics, -j Waterloo Campaign.
1740-1905; &c.
A. F. H. A. F. HUTCHISON, M.A. f Wa i lace Sir u/iiiiam
Sometime Rector of the High School, Stirling. \ W ' ce>
A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. [
Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. I Waynflete, William;
Formerly Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Education. Fellow of AH Souls ] vVilliara of Wykeham
College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c.
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. I" .,_,-,._,,,. , 5i , ,._...
Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University wal [ g"* m , Francis,
of London. Assistant-Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901.-^ Wishart, George;
Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Cranmer; Henry Wolsey, Cardinal.
VIII. ;&c. I
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE.
See the biographical article: CLERKE, AGNES M. \
Vulture; Wagtail; Warbler;
Waxwing; Weaver-bird;
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.
Wheatear; Whitethroat;
Wigeon; Woodcock;
Woodpecker; Wren;
Wryneck; Zosterops.
A. P. C. ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist, Bureau of Mines, J Yukon Territory.
Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of Reports of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario.
A. Sy. ARTHUR SYMONS. f Vllliers de 1'Isle-Adam,
See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR. \ Comte de.
A. S. C. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. [
Formerly Assistant-Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of J llr ,41 i -j A i
Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian 1 Weaving. Archaeology and Art.
Textiles in the Victoria and Albert Museum; &c.
A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. (
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford I Weber's Law;
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. | Wolff, Christian (i part).
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. L
A. v. 0. ALOYS VON ORELLI.
Formerly Professor of Law in the University of Zttrich. Author of Das Staatsrecht < Veto.
der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschafl. I
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
v
i
1997
VI
A. W. H.*
A. W. Hu.
A. W. R.
B. E. S.
B. H.-S.
C. El.
C. F. A.
C. P. K.
C. H. Ha.
C. H. T.*
C. K. W.
C. L. K.
C. R. B.
C. W. R.
D. B. M.
D. F. T.
D. G. H.
D. H.
D. H. S.
D. R.-M.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. . f
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ Widukind; Witan.
REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON. r
Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formerly Librarian of the National ,. _j.
Liberal Club. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman's Lives of the} Wiseman, Cardinal.
English Saints ; &c.
ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon.
of England.
Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Waste.
Whitney, William Dwight.
BENJAMIN ELI SMITH, A.M.
Editor of the Century Dictionary. Formerly Instructor in Mathematics at Amherst .
College, Mass., and in Psychology at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
Editor of the Century Cyclopaedia of Names; Century Atlas; &c. <-
B. HECKSTALL-SMITH. ("
Associate of the Institute of Naval Architects. Secretary of the International J Yachting
Yacht Racing Union ; Secretary of the Yacht Racing Association. Yachting 1
Editor of The Field. I
SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College,
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa -j Yue-chi.
Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German
East Africa, 1900-1904.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal -{ Wilderness: Grant's Campaign.
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor.
CHARLES FRANCIS KEARY, M.A.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of
Norway and the Norwegians ; &c.
The Vikings in Western Christendom ; -j Viking.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member
of the American Historical Association.
CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D.
See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL.
CHARLES KINGSLEY WEBSTER, M.A.
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
Victor HI. and IV. (Popes);
Visconti (Family).
Whewell Scholar, 1907.
f Wisdom, Book of;
i Wisdom Literature.
| Vienna, Congress of.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.Hisx.Soc., F.S.A.
Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor .
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.
Warwick, Richard Beau-
champ, Earl of;
Warwick, Richard Neville,
Earl of;
Whittington, Richard;
Worcester, John Tiptoft,
Earl of;
York, Richard, Duke of.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of
Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, -j Zemarchus.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, '1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of I
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c.
CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L. f
Major-General (retired). Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, J Vitoria.
1890-1892. Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, 1895-]
1898. Author of Strategy of the Peninsular War; &c.
DAVID BINNING MONRO, M.A., Lirr.D.
See the biographical article: MONRO, DAVID BINNING.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works.
| Wolf, Friedrich August.
Victoria, Tommasso L. da;
Wagner: Biography (in part)
and Critical Appreciation;
Weber: Critical Appreciation.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow
of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903;
Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens,
1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal
Navy ; Life of Emilia Caslelar ; &c.
DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, London, 1885-1892. Formerly
President of the Royal Microscopical Society and of the Linnean Society. Author
of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c. L
DAVID RANDALL-MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc. f
Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester -! Zimbabwe.
Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia ; &c. I.
Xanthus;
Zeitun.
Villeneuve;
Zumalaearregui.
Williamson, William Crawford.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
vn
E. Ar.*
B.C.*
E. Cu.
E. C. B.
E. C. S.
REV. ELKANAH ARMITAGE, M.A. f
Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor in Yorkshire United Independent College, ^ Zwineli
Bradford.
ERNEST CLARKE, M.D., F.R.C.S.
Surgeon to the Central London Ophthalmic Hospital, and Consulting Ophthalmic J Vision: Errors of Refraction,
Surgeon to the Miller General Hospital. Vice- President of the Ophthalmological ] &c.
Society. Author of Refraction of the Eye ; &c. L
| William I. and II. of Sicily.
EDMUND CURTIS, M.A.
Keble College, Oxford.
Lecturer on History in the University of Sheffield.
RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " \ Wadding, Luke,
in Cambridge Texts and Studies. L
EDMUND CLARENCE STEDMAN.
See the biographical article: STEDMAN, EDMUND CLARENCE.
E.G.
Ed. M.
E. M. W.
E.G.*
E. O'H.
E. Pr.
E. P. W.
E. R. L.
\ Whittier, John Greenleaf .
Villanelle; Virelay;
Vosmaer, Carel;
Waller, Edmund;
Walloons: Literature;
Watson, Thomas;
Wells, Charles Jeremiah;
Wennerberg, Gunnar;
Winther, Christian;
Wordsworth, Dorothy.
EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lirr., LL.D. f Vologaeses- Vonones I -II
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des i Y r Va',
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. I Aer ' es> Iazae 8 era -
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.W.
REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A.
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford.
J Xenophon (in part).
EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. r
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Wart;
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of 1 Whitlow.
A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (MRS H. O. O'NEILL).
Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of the University of Manchester.
Vicar.
Webster, Daniel (in part).
E.T.
F. A. C.
P. C. C.
F. G. M. B.
F. J. H.
F. Ke.
EDGAR PRESTAGE. r
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- J |D ^' **"
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal 1 Vieira, Antonio.
Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society ; &c. L
EVERETT PEPPERRELL WHEELER, A.M. f
Formerly Chairman of the Commission on International Law, American Bar
Association, and other similar Commissions. Author of Daniel Webster; Modern'
Law of Carriers ; Wages and the Tariff.
SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L. .
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906.
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London,
1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. -| Zoology.
Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907.
Vice- President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905.
Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c.
ELIHU THOMSON, A.M., D.Sc., PH.D.
Inventor of Electric Welding. Electrician to the Thomson-Houston and General
Electric Companies. Professor of Chemistry and Mechanics, Central High School, J Welding* Electric
Philadelphia, 1870-1880. President of the International Electro-technical Com-
mission, 1908. I
FRANKLYN ARDEN CRALLAN.
Formerly Director of Wood-carving, Gloucester County Council. Author of Gothic \ Wood-Carving.
Woodcarving. [
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. f
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford.
Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and'
Morals; &c.
FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.
FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. r
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brase-
nose College. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church. J Waiting Street.
Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Mono- I
graphs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c.
FRANK KEIPER, A.M., B.L., M.E.
Manager of the United States Voting Machine Company.
Examiner, United States Patent Office. L
Wessex.
[ Voting Machines.
Formerly Assistant -\
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. f
See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. \ Zaria.
F. H. H. COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. f
Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the-\ Worth.
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. I
r Victoria Falls;
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. J victoria Nyanza (in tart)-
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union'. [ Zambezi' ZuliUand
F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS, K.C.B. f _ . * ,
Formerly Accountant-General of the Army. Editor of the "Great Writers" Series. \ ^ OIa ' K
F. We. FREDERICK WEDMORE. f whistler.
See the biographical article: WEDMORE, FREDERICK. L
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER I.S 10, F.G.S. J Volcano; Wolframite;
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. 1 7j rpnn
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. L m
F. Y. P. FREDERICK YORK POWELL, D.C.L., LL.D. J !,. r ,-,jv,
See the biographical article : POWELL, FREDERICK YORK. \ Vigfusson, Gudbrandr.
G. LORD GRIMTHORPE. t f
See the biographical article: GRIMTHORPE, IST BARON. \ Watch (in part).
G. A. C.* REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, M.A., D.D. f
Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture in the University of Oxford, I 7 . .
and Fellow of Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's | *' en Dla -
Cathedral, Edinburgh. Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions; &c. L
G. C. L. GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G. r
Member of the Board of Advice to the Agent-General for Victoria. Formerly Editor
and Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal J
Commission to the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 1887."] Victoria (Australia): History.
Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Com-
missioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia I
and Melbourne.
William II., King of the
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. .
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society; and Foreign Member, Netherlands
Association of Literature.
Netherlands;
William III., King of the
Netherlands;
William the Silent;
William II., Prince of Orange.
G. PI. GEORGE FLEMING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.C.V.S.
Formerly Principal Veterinary Surgeon, War Office, London. Author of Animal 4 Veterinary Science (in part).
Plagues: their History, Nature and Prevention. [_
G. F. D. GEORGE FREDERICK DEACON, LL.D., M.INST.M.E., F.R.M.S. (1843-1909). r
Formerly Engineer-in-Chief for the Liverpool Water Supply (Vyrnwy Scheme),
and Member of the Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Borough and Water 4 Water Supply.
Engineer of Liverpool, 1871-1879. Consulting Civil Engineer, 1879-1909. Author [
of addresses and papers on Engineering, &c.
G. F. R. H. GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT HENDERSON. f w
See the biographical article: HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT. "\ w
G. G. P.* GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. f wraMt r
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple. \ *
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER. f , .
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: J wasp (t
their Structure and Life. [ Weevil (in part).
G. J. GEORGE JAMIESON, C.M.G., M.A. r
Formerly Consul-General at Shanghai, and Consul and Judge of the Supreme Court, -j Yangtsze-Kiang.
Shanghai.
G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER.
Barrister-at-law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J Wapentake.
Society.
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L, LL.D. { gV' A" r< ! d d ' .
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. < Villehardoum, Geoffrey de;
L Villon, Francois; Voltaire.
G. W. P. GEORGE WALTER PROTHERO, M.A., Lirr.D., LL.D.
Editor of the Quarterly Review. Honorary Fellow, formerly Fellow of King's f
College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of History in the J willlam TV TTlnir nf
University of Edinburgh, 1894-1899. Author of Life and Times of Simon de Mont- ] m 1V " ^^ OI
fort ; &c. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Modern History.
G. W. R. MAJOR GEORGE WILLIAM REDWAY. / TOIIJ--,,...- / _ *..-/*
Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War. \ "
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f WahMbls; WSqidl;
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old^ *! Yaqut;
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. [ Zamakhshari; Zuhair.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
H. Ch.
H. C. H.
H. De.
H. E. R.*
H. F. G.
H. H. C.
H. H. W.
H. Ja.
H. J. C.
H. Lb.
H. L. J.
H. M. C.
H. M. V.
H. R. T.
H. St.
H. Sw.
H. W. C. D.
H. W. R.*
I. A.
I. J. C.
Vincent, St; Vitus, St.
f Victoria, Queen;
M A Walter, John;
UG Formerly Scholar 'of 'Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of ] Ward, Mrs Humphry;
the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the loth edition. Wilde, Oscar;
I Wordsworth, William (in part).
REV. HORACE CARTER HOVEY, A.M., D.D.
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Geological
Society of America, the National Geographic Society and the Societe de Speieologie. -< Wyandotte Cave.
Author of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky;
&c. L .
HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J.
Bollandist. Joint Editor of the Acta Sanctorum ; and the Analtcta Bollandiana
HERBERT EDWARD RYLE, M.A., D.D. f
Dean of Westminster. Bishop of Winchester, 1903-191 1. Bishop of Exeter, 1901- I WestcotL Brooke Foss
1903. Formerly Hulsean Protessor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge;] BW >
and Fellow of King's College. Author of On Holy Scripture and Criticism; &c. &c. L
HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S.
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c.
SIR HENRY HARDINGE CUNYNGHAME, K.C.B., M.A.
Assistant Under-Secretary, Home Office, London. Vice-President, Institute of J Watch (in Part).
Electrical Engineers. Author of various works on Enamelling, Electric Lighting,
&c.
REV. HENRY HERBERT WILLIAMS, M.A.
Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Philosophy, Hertford College, Oxford. Examining -| Will: Philosophy.
Chaplain to the Bishop of Llandaff.
HENRY JACKSON, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D., O.M. f Xenocrates;
Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Trinity J Xenophanes of Colophon;
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to illustrate the History of -. ' f _.
Greek Philosophy from Tholes to Aristotle.
HENRY JAMES CHANEY, I.S.O. (1842-1906).
Formerly Superintendent of the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, I Weights and Measures:
and Secretary to the Royal Commission on Standards. Represented Great Britain 1 Scientific and Commercial
at the International Conference on the Metric System, 1901. Author of Treatise on
Weights and Measures.
f
. <
L
Viper.
Formerly Fellow and J
the Royal ^ * >6.
Woden.
HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Manchester.
Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council
Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical
Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics ; &c.
HENRY LEWIS JONES, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.
Medical officer in charge of the Electrical Department and Clinical Lecturer on J X-Ray Treatment
Medical Electricity at St Bartholomew's Hospital, London. Author of Medical
Electricity; &c.
HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A.
Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in i '
Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions.
HERBERT MURRAY VAUGHAN, M.A., F.S.A. J Wales: Geography and
Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici i Statistics and History
Popes; The Last Stuart Queen.
HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A.
Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London.
HENRY STURT, M.A.
Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; Personal Idealism.
HENRY SWEET, M.A., Pn.D., LL.D.
University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford University. Corresponding Member of the J
Academies of Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author cf A History }
i of English Sounds since the Earliest Period; A Primer of Phonetics; &c.
Wood, Anthony a.
-[ Vischer, Friedrich Theodor.
HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, -
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne.
REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A.
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, I
Oxford, 1901. Author of " Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropo- |
logy " in Mansfield College Essays; &c. I
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. [
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Shorts
History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c. \_
ISAAC JOSLIN Cox, PH.D. f
Assistant Professor of History in the University of Cincinnati. President of the J
Ohio Valley Historical Association. Author of The Journeys of La Satte and *]
Companions; &c. L
Volapuk.
Wace, Robert;
Walter of Coventry;
William I., King of England;
William II., King of England;
William of Malmesbury;
William of Newburgh.
Zechariah (in part).
Wise, Isaac Mayer;
Zunz, Leopold.
Wilkinson, James.
X
J. A. E.
J. A. P.
J. A. H.
J. Bt.
J. Bu.
J. E. O.
J. F.-K.
J. F. M'L.
J. Ga.
J. G. H.
J. G. M.
J. G. R.
J. G. Sc.
J. H. F.
J. H. H.
J. J. L.*
J. L. W.
J. Mac.
J. Mu.*
J. M. G.
J. M. J.
J. M. M.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Watt, James.
Wall-coverings.
| Whitman, Walt.
JAMES ALFRED EWING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNST.C.E.
Director of (British) Naval Education. Hon. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge,
1890-1903. Author of The Strength of Materials; &c. i
JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Fender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of Voltmeter- Wattmeter-
TT /-* 11 T^ i ? 11 f cj. T 1. r* 11 /- i_ i J vuiiuicier, wuiimeier,
University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John s College, Cambridge, 1 ri, oa f e * nn > n -j
and University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets o.nd Electric s BnQ ge.
Currents. [
JOHN ALLEN HOWE. f
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of ~\ Wealden; Wenlock Group.
The Geology of Building Stones. I
JAMES BARTLETT. f
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's.
College, London. Member of the Society of Architects. Member of the Institute of
Junior Engineers.
JOHN BURROUGHS.
See the biographical article: BURROUGHS, JOHN.
JULIUS EMIL OLSON, B.L. f
Professor of Scandinavian Languages and Literature at the University of Wisconsin. -< Vinland.
Author of Norwegian Grammar and Reader. [
JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.HisT.S.
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Vlllamediana, Count de;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. T Villena, Enrique de;
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Zorrilla V Moral Jose
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. (_
JOHN FERGUSSON M'LENNAN.
See the biographical article: M'LENNAN, JOHN FERGUSSON.
JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D.
See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES.
JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E.
Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; Practical Metal Turning ; &c.
JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of
Physiology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life of Helmholtz; &c.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.
| Werwolf (in part).
4 York, House of.
j Welding (in part).
j Vision;
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the J . , , _. .
Author of History of German Literature; Schiller after] Wieland, Chnstopn Martin.
Modern Language Journal,
a Century; &c.
SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E.
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States.
The Upper Burma Gazetteer.
JOHN HENRY FREESE. M.A.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
L
Author of Burma ; 1 Wa.
j Xenophon (in part}.
Wolfram von Eschenbach.
JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896).
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director VltrUVlUSJ
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South -j Wren, Sir Christopher;
Kensington Museum, 18921896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Zuccaro I.-II.
Times ; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediceval Times. [_
REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. r
Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and Lady J w j wii- am r O nr<ro
Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. Author of Miracles, Science and] ira ' wl1
Prayer; &c.
JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON.
Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory.
JAMES MACQUEEN, F.R.C.V.S.
Professor of Surgery at the Royal Veterinary College, London. Editor of Fleming's
Operative Veterinary Surgery (and edition) ; Dun's Veterinary Medicines (loth -| Veterinary Science (in part).
edition); and Neumann's Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated j
Animals (2nd edition). L
JOHN MUIR, A.M., LL.D. f"
Member o the American Academy of Arts and Letters. President of the Sierra
Club and the American Alpine Club. Visited the Arctic regions on the United < YOSemlt6
States steamer " Corwin " in search of the De Long expedition. Author of The
Mountains of California ; Our National Parks ; &c.
JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894). r
Art Critic. Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1884-1894. Author i Wilkie, Sir David.
of David Scott, R.S.A.; James and William Tassie.
JOHN MORRIS JONES, M.A. f
Professor of Welsh at the University College of North Wales, Bangpr. Formerly I Wales: Literature and
Research Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford. Author of The Elucidarium in Welsh; | Language.
&c.
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL.
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece,
Winekelmann (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
J. Si.
J. S. N.
J. S. R.
J.T.*
J. T. Be.
J. T. C.
J. V. B.
J. W.
J.We.
J. W. G.
J. W. He.
K. G.
K. G. J.
K. S.
L.
L. D.*
L. F. V.-H.
L. J. S.
L. R. P.
L. V.*
JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895).
Author of A. History of Germany ; &c.
JOSEPH SHIELD NICHOLSON, M.A., Sc.D.
Professor of Political Economy at Edinburgh University.
Academy. Author of Principles of Political Economy;
Problems; &c.
j Winckelmann (in part).
Fellow of the British I Wages;
Money and Monetary 1 vVealth.
JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.M., Lnr.D., LL.D.
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Cambridge and Fellow and Tutor .
of Gonville and Caius College. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer, of
Christ's College. Editor of Cicero's Academica; De Amtcitia; &c.
REV. JOHN TELFORD.
Wesleyan Methodist Connexional Editor. Editor of the .Wesleyan Methodist .
Magazine and the London Quarterly Review.
Life of Charles Wesley; &c.
Author of Life of John Wesley;
JOHN THOMAS BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.
Wyttenbach, Daniel Albert.
Wesley (Family);
Wesley, John;
Wesleyan Methodist Church.
Vladimir: Government (in part) ;
Volga (in part);
Vologda: Government (in part) ;
Vyatka: Government (in part) ;
Warsaw: Poland (in part);
Yakutsk (in part);
Yeniseisk (in part).
JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. (
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J
of University College, Oxford, and Assistant Professor of Natural History in the | Whitebait.
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I
JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic < Vinet, Alexandra R.
Age;&c. [
JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. (-Warranty; Water Rights;
All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln J \jyu] (Law);
College. Barrister-at-Law of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Law of the Universities ; &c. [\yomen (Early Law)' Writ
JULIUS WELLHAUSEN, D.D.
See the biographical article: WEL'LHAUSEN, JULIUS.
JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and I Victoria: Geology;
Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart 1 Western Australia: Geology,
of Australia; &c. I
JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A.
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly J
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek and Ancient History at "j "Windthorst, Ludwig.
gueen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German
mpire; &c.
| Zechariah (in part).
KARL FRIEDRICH GELDNER, PH.D.
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Marburg.
Author of Vedische Studien; &c.
KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE.
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford.
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors.
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Editor of The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology.
Orchestra.
COUNT Ltmow, Lrrr.D., D.Pn., F.R.G.S.
Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member of j
the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. Author 1 Zizka, John.
of Bohemia: a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester Lecture,
Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c.
Zend-Avesta; Zoroaster.
Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. j Xavier, Francisco de.
r Vielle; Viol; Virginal;
Author of The Instruments of the ] Wind Instruments;
I Xylophone.
Victor I.-II. (Popes).
Louis DUCHESNE.
See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, Louis M. O.
LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1830^1907).
Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. Author of J .. .
Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- ] ""
struction; &c. I
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of j Wavelllte; willemite;
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera- i Witherite; Wollastonite;
logical Magazine. t Zeolites; Zoisite.
LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., Lrrr.D. f
Fellow.and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Classical J i
Archaeology; and Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Author of Cults of |
Greek States ; Evolution of Religion. I
LUIGI VlLLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre-
spondent in the East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906 ; Phila- ~] Victor Emmanuel II.
delphia, 1907 ; and Boston, 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country;
&c.
Xll
L. W.
H. A. B.
M. Be.
M. Br.
M. C.
M. Ca.
M. H. S.
N. W. T.
P. A. K.
P. C. M.
P. Gi.
P. G. H.
P. G. K.
P.S.
P. Vi.
R. A. W.
R. C. D.
R. G.
R. G. M.
R.He.
R. J. H.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
LUCIEN WOLF. [
Vice- President, formerly President, of the Jewish Historical Society of England. T Zionism.
Joint-editor of the Bibhotheca Anglo-judaica. L
LADY BROOME (MARY ANNE BROOME). J
Author of Station Life in New Zealand; Stories About; Colonial Memories; &c. \ Western Australia: History.
MALCOLM BELL.
Author of Pewter Plate ; Sir E. Burne- Jones: a Record and Review.
MARGARET BRYANT.
RT. REV. MANDELL CREIGHTON, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: CREIGHTON, MANDELL.
MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D.
Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. Hofrat of '
the German Empire. Author of Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Mathematik ; &c.
Watts, George Frederick.
Virgil: The Virgil Legend.
\ Waldenses.
Vieta, Francois.
MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter-
national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome, and the Franco-British J Wauters, Eraile;
Exhibition, London. Author of History of " Punch "; British Portrait Painting 1 Wood-engraving (in part)
to the opening of the iQlh Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British Sculpture '
and Sculptors of To-Day ; Henriette Ronner ; &c.
NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the
Societ6 d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and
Marriage in Australia; &c.
PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A.
Week;
Werwolf (in part);
Witchcraft.
Vladimir: Government (in part) ;
Volga (in part) ;
Vologda: Government (in part) ;
Vyatka: Government (in part);
Warsaw: Poland (in part) ;
Yakutsk (in part);
Yeniseisk (in part).
PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.Z.S., F.R.S.
Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J Zoological Gardens;
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. ")
Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c.
PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f W.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University) X.
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- 1 Y.
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology. I ^
PHILIP GILBERT HAMERTON.
See the biographical article: HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT.
Wood-engraving (in part).
PAUL GEORGE KONODY. r
Art Critic of The Observer and The Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. J Watteau, Antoine.
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c.
PHILIP SCHIDROWITZ, Pn.D., F.C.S. c
Member of the Council, Institute of Brewing; Member of the Committee of the J Whisky;
Society of Chemical Industry. Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry and | Wine.
Technology of Brewing, Distilling; &c.
PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL.
I" Village Communities;
I Villenage.
COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G.j C.I.E.
Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served with Tirah Yemen
Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, "
Pamirs, 1895.
ROMESH CHUNDER DUTT, C.I.E. (1848-1909). r
Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature; Member of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Formerly Revenue Minister of Baroda State, -i. Vidyasagar, Iswar Chandra,
and Prime Minister of Baroda State. Author of Economic History of India in the
Victorian Age, 1837-1900; .&c. L
RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.
REGINALD GODFREY MARSDEN. r
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. -{ Wreck (in part).
{ Wakefleld, Edward Gibbon.
SIR REGINALD HENNELL, D.S.O., C.V.O.
Colonel in the Indian Army (retired). Lieutenant of the King's Body-Guard of the
Yeomen of the Guard. Served in the Abyssinian Expedition, 1867-68; Afghani Yeomen of the Guard.
War, 1879-80; Burmah Campaign, 1886-87. Author of History of the Yeomen of
the Guard, 1485-1904 ; &c. L
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. [
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Formerly Editor of the < Wentworth (Family).
St James's Gazette (London).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
R. K. D.
R. L.*
R. L. P.
R. Mu.
SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.
Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed
Books and MSS. at the British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese
Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China;
Europe and the Far East; &c.
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The Deer
oj all Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa ; &c.
REGINALD LANE POOLE, M.A., PH.D., LL.D.
Keeper of the Archives of the University of Oxford and Fellow of Magdalen College.
Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the English Historical Review. Author
of Wycliffe and movements for Reform ; &c.
ROBERT MUNRO, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Dalrymple Lecturer on Archaeology in the University of Glasgow, 1910. Rhind
Lecturer on Archaeology, 1888. Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,
1888-1809. Founder of the Munro Lectureship on Anthropology and Prehistoric
Archaeology in the University of Edinburgh. Author of The Lake-dwellings of
Europe; Prehistoric Scotland, and its place in European Civilization; &c.
I
R. N. B.
R. P. S.
R. S. C.
R. W. F. H.
S. A. C.
S. N.
S. P.
T. As.
T. A. A.
T. A. C.
T. Ba.
T. H. B.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia : the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900 ; The First Romanovs,
1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe : the Political History of Poland and Russia from
1460 to 1796; &c.
R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of the Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College,
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT.
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. .
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff ; and Fellow of Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects.
ROBERT WILLIAM FREDERICK HARRISON.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Assistant Secretary of the Royal Society, London.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK.
Wade, Sir Thomas F.
Viscacha; Vole;
Walrus (in part);
Water-Deer; Weasel;
Whale (in part) ;
Whale-fishery; Woll (in part);
Wombat; Zebra (in part) ;
Zoological Distribution.
Wyelifle (in part).
Vitrified Forts.
Vladimir, St;
Voluinsky, Artemy Petrovich;
Vorontsov (Family);
Vorosmarty, Mihaly;
Wallqvist, Olaf;
Wesselenyi, Baron;
Wielopolski, Aieksander;
Witowt;
Wladislaus I.-IV. of Poland.
Zamoyski, Jan;
Zolkiewski, Stanislaus;
Zrinyl, Count (1508-1566);
Zrinyi, Count (1620-1664).
Villa;
Window.
Volsci.
Violin.
NLEY ARTHUR COOK. c _ . .
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, I **"
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of 4 Zedekiah;
Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Zephaniah.
Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
{ Zodiacal Light
SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D.
See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.
STEPHEN PAGET, F.R.C.S. f
Surgeon to the Throat and Ear Department, Middlesex Hospital. Hon. Secretary, H Vivisection.
Research Defence Society. Author of Memoirs and Letters of Sir James Paget ; &c. L
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr. [ Vetulonium; Vicenza;
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ J viterbo* Volci'
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of "i ... ,' .. .. '
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography V01
of the Roman Campagna. ^ Volturno.
THOMAS ANDREW ARCHBR, M.A.
Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c.
Victoria: Geography and
Statistics;
Western Australia: Geography
and Statistics.
1 Vincent of Beauvais.
TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O.
Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales,
1886-1905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth
and Progress of New South Wales ; Statistical A ccount of A us tr alia and New Zealand ;
&c.
War: Laws of;
Waters, Territorial.
SIR THOMAS BARCLAY.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Black-
burn, 1910. l
THOMAS HUDSON BEARE, M.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E. f
Regius Professor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. Author of papers s Water Motors,
in the Transactions of the Societies of Civil and Mechanical Engineers, 1894-1902. L
XIV
T. R. G.
T. W.-D.
T. W. F.
U. B.
W. Ay.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. J. F.
W. A. P.
W. B.*
W. C. U.
W. E. G.
W. F. C.
W. Hy.
W. H. F.
W. L. G.
W. M.
W. MaeD.*
W. M. F. P.
W. M. R.
W. 0. S.
W. P. C.
W. P. J.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
TERROT REAVELEY GLOVER, M.A. f
Fellow and Classical Lecturer at St John's College, Cambridge. Professor of Latin, { Virgil (in part).
Queen's University, Kingston, Canada, 1896-1901. Author of Studies in Virgil ; &c. I
WALTER THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON.
See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE.
THOMAS WILLIAM Fox.
Wycherley, William.
>MAS WILLIAM tox. | Weaving-
Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics of \ ,,
Weaving. \ Yarn -
Villani, Giovanni.
COUNT UGO BALZANI, LITT.D.
Member of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Sometime President of the Reale
Societa Romana di Storia Patria. Corresponding Member Of the British Academy ;
Author of The Popes and the Hohenstaufen ; &c. i
WILFRID AIRY, M.lNST.C.E.
Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Technical Adviser to the Standards"! Weighing Machines.
Department of the Board of Trade. Author of Levelling and Geodesy ; &c.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BEEVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-^1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range
of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and
in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c.
WALTER ARMITAGE JUSTICE FORD.
Sometime Scholar of King's College, Cambridge.
College of Music, London.
Vevey; Vienne: Town;
Vorarlberg; Walensee;
Winkelried, Arnold von;
Winterthur; Zug: Canton;
Zug: Town; Zug, Lake of;
Zurich: Canton;
Zurich: Town;
Zurich, Lake of.
Teacher of Singing at the Royal -I. Wolf, Hugo.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c.
Walther von der Vogelweide;
Wyeliffe (in part).
WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S.
Chairman of the Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain, "j Wedgwood, Josiah.
Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c.
Windmill.
WILLIAM CAWTHORNE UNWIN, F.R.S., LL.D., M.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E.
Emeritus Professor, Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute.
Author of Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs; Treatise on Hydraulics; &c.
SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. f
British Government Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General oH Victoria Nyanza (in part).
Irrigation, Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. I
WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College,
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition).
WILLIAM HENRY.
Founder and Chief Secretary of the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the -
Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint Author of Swimming (Badminton Library) ;
&c.
SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.
Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly .
Beit Lecturer on Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy
Council (Canadian Series).
WILLIAM MINTO, M.A.
See the biographical article: MINTO, WILLIAM.
I Wager; Warrant;
[ Witness.
Water Polo.
Walrus (in part);
Whale (in part);
Wolf (in part) ;
Zebra (in part).
Wilson, Sir Daniel.
-I Wordsworth, William (in part).
WILLIAM MACDONALD, LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of American History in Brown University, Providence, R.I. Formerly
Professor of History and Political Science, Bowdoin. Member of the American -< Washington, George.
Historical Association, &c. Author of History and Government of Maine; &c.
Editor of Select Charters and other documents illustrative of American History.
WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S., D.C.L., LITT.D.
See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. FLINDERS.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
WILLIAM OSCAR SCROGGS, Pn.t).
Assistant Professor of History and Economics at Louisiana State University.
Formerly Goodwin and Austin Fellow, Harvard University.
WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY.
See the biographical article: COURTNEY, L. H. BARON.
f Weights and Measures:
\ Ancient Historical.
f Vivarini;
\ Zurbaran, Francisco.
Walker, William.
f Walpole, Horatio;
\ Wilkes, John.
WILLIAM PRICE JAMES.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
Romantic Professions ; &c.
High Bailiff, Cardiff County Court. Author of \ Watson, William (poet)
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xv
W. P. R.
W. Ri.
HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES.
Director of the London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Com-
missioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice, { Voeel Sir Julius
New Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New
Zealand; &c.
WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., LiTT.D. f
Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Brereton Reader in Classics, in the University I
of Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. Fellow of the British T Villanova.
Academy. President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The
Early Age of Greece ; &c.
WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO.
Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the Present
Period; &c.
Wagner: Biography (in part);
Weber.
WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S. f Water-flea;
Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. J i Wood-louse
Author of " Crustacea," in a Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. I
WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congrega- 1 Winthrop, John (1588-1649).
tional Churches in the United States ; The Reformation ; John Calvin ; &c. I.
WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, J Vulcan.
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; 1-
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c.
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Pn.D.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG.
| Westminster, Synods of.
| Virgil (in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Vicksburg.
Vienna.
Vine.
Vinegar.
Vingt-et-Un.
Violet.
Virginia.
Viscount.
Vlachs.
Volunteers.
Vote and Voting.
Wadai.
Wagram.
Wakefleld.
Waldeck-Pyrmont.
Wallingford.
Walnut.
War Game.
Warrington.
Warwick.
Warwickshire.
Washington.
Water.
Waterford.
Watertown.
Wax Figures.
Weimar.
Well.
Wells.
West Indies.
Westmeath.
Westminster.
Westmorland.
Westphalia.
West Point (N.Y.).
West Virginia.
Wexford.
Weymouth.
Wheat.
Wheeling.
Whig and Tory.
Whist.
Whitby.
White Plains.
Whooping-Cough.
Wicklow.
Wiesbaden.
Wig.
Wigan.
Wight, Isle of.
Wigtownshire.
Wilkes-Barre.
Williamsburg (Va.).
Willow.
Wilmington (Del.).
Wilton.
Wiltshire.
Winchester.
Windsor.
Winnipeg.
Wire.
Wisconsin.
Wisconsin, University
of.
Woolwich.
Worcester.
Worcestershire.
Worms.
Wrestling.
Writing.
Wurttemberg.
Wurzburg.
Wyoming.
Wyoming Valley.
Yale University.
Yarmouth.
Yaws.
Yellow Fever.
Yellowstone National
Park.
Yew.
Yezo.
York.
Yorkshire.
Yorktown.
Ypsilanti.
Yucatan.
Yukon.
Zanle.
Zanzibar.
Zeeland.
Zeuxis.
Zinc.
Zirconium.
Zuider Zee.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVIII
VETCH, in botany, the English name for Vicia saliva, also
known as tare, a leguminous annual herb with trailing or climb-
ing stems, compound leaves with five or six pairs of leaflets,
reddish-purple flowers borne singly or in pairs in the leaf-axis,
and a silky pod containing four to ten smooth seeds. The
wild form, sometimes regarded as a distinct species, V. angusti-
folia, is common in dry soils. There are two races of the
cultivated vetch, winter and spring vetches: the former, a
hardy form, capable of enduring frost, has smoother, more
cylindrical pods with smaller seeds than the summer variety,
and gives less bulk of stem and leaves. The spring vetch is a
more delicate plant and grows more rapidly and luxuriantly
than the winter variety.
The name vetch is applied to other species of the genus
Vicia. Vicia orobus, bitter vetch, and V. sylvatica, wood
vetch, are British plants. Another British plant, Hippocrepis,
is known as horseshoe vetch from the fact of its pod breaking
into several horseshoe-shaped joints. Anthyttis vulneraria
is kidney-vetch, a herb with heads of usually yellow flowers,
found on dry banks. Astragalus is another genus of Legumi-
nosae, and is known as milk-vetch.
Vetches are a very valuable forage crop. Being indigenous
to Britain, and not fastidious in regard to soil, they can be
cultivated successfully under a great diversity of circumstances,
and are well adapted for poor soils. By combining the winter
and spring varieties, and making several sowings of each in its
season at intervals of two or three weeks, it is practicable to
have them fit for use from May till October, and thus to carry
out a system of soiling by means of vetches alone. But it is
usually more expedient to use them in combination with grass
and clover, beginning with the first cutting of the latter in May,
taking the winter vetches in June, recurring to the Italian
ryegrass or clover as the second cutting is ready, and afterwards
bringing the spring vetches into use. Each crop can thus be
used when in its best state for cattle food, and so as gratefully
to vary their dietary.
Winter Vetches. There is no botanical difference between
winter and spring vetches, and the seeds being identical in
appearance, caution is required in purchasing seed to get it of
xxvm. i
the right sort. Seed grown in England is found the most
suitable for sowing in Scotland, as it vegetates more quickly,
and produces a more vigorous plant than that which is home-
grown. As the great inducement to cultivate this crop is the
obtaining of a supply of nutritious green food which shall be
ready for use about the ist of May, so as to fill up the gap which
is apt to occur betwixt the root crops of the previous autumn and
the ordinary summer food, whether for grazing or soiling, it is
of the utmost importance to treat it in such a way that it may be
ready for use by the time mentioned. To secure this, winter
tares should be sown in August if possible, but always as soon
as the land can be cleared of the preceding crop. They may
yield a good crop though sown in October, but in this case will
probably be very little in advance of early-sown spring vetches,
and possess little, if any, advantage over them in any respect.
The land on which they are sown should be dry and well sheltered,
clean and in good heart, and be further enriched by farmyard
manure. Not less than 3$ bushels of seed per acre should be
sown, to which some think it beneficial to add half a bushel of
wheat. Rye is frequently used for this purpose, but it gets
reedy in the stems, and is rejected by the stock. Winter beans
are better than either. The land having been ploughed rather
deeply, and well harrowed, it is found advantageous to deposit
the seed in rows, either by a drilling-machine or by ribbing.
The latter is the best practice, and the ribs should be at least
a foot apart and rather deep, that the roots may be well
developed before top-growth takes place. As soon in spring as
the state of the land and weather admits of it, the crop should
be hoed betwixt the drills, a top-dressing at the rate of 40 bushels
of soot or 2 cwt. of guano per acre applied by sowing broadcast,
and the roller then used for the double purpose of smoothing
the surface so as to admit of the free use of the scythe and of
pressing down the plants which may have been loosened by
frost. It is thus by early sowing, thick seeding and liberal
manuring that this crop is to be forced to an early and abundant
maturity. May and June are the months in which winter
vetches are used to advantage. A second growth will be
produced from the roots if the crop is allowed to stand; but it
is much better practice to plough up the land as the crop is
5
VETERAN VETERINARY SCIENCE
cleared, and to sow turnips upon it. After a full crop of vetches,
land is usually in a good state for a succeeding crop. When the
whole process has been well managed, the gross amount of cattle
food yielded by a crop of winter vetches, and the turnip crop
by which it is followed in the same summer, will be found
considerably to exceed what could be obtained from the fullest
crop of turnips alone, grown on similar soil, and with the same
quantity of manure. It is useless to sow this crop where game
abounds.
Spring vetches, if sown about the ist of March, will be ready for
use by the ist of July, when the winter vetches are just cleared
off. To obtain the full benefit of this crop, the land on which it
is sown must be clean, and to keep it so a much fuller allowance
of seed is required than is usually given in Scotland. When the
crop is as thick set as it should be, the tendrils intertwine, and
the ground is covered by a solid mass of herbage, under which
no weed can live. To secure this, not less than 4 bushels of
seed per acre should be used if sown broadcast, or 3 bushels if in
drills. The latter plan, if followed by hoeing, is certainly the
best; for if the weeds are kept in check until the crop is fairly
established, they have no chance of getting up afterwards.
With a thin crop of vetches, on the other hand, the land is so
certain to get foul, that they should at once be ploughed down,
and something else put in their place. As vetches are in the
best state for use when the seeds begin to form in the pods,
repeated sowings are made at intervals of three weeks, beginning
by the end of February, or as early in March as the season admits,
and continuing till May. The usual practice in Scotland has
been to sow vetches on part of the oat break, once ploughed
from lea. Sometimes this does very well, but a far better
plan is to omit sowing clover and grass seeds on part of the
land occupied by wheat or barley after a crop of turnips, and
having ploughed that portion in the autumn to occupy it with
vetches, putting them instead of " seeds " for one revolution of
the course.
When vetches are grown on poor soils, the most profitable
way of using them is by folding sheep upon them, a practice
very suitable also for clays, upon which a root crop cannot
safely be consumed in this way. A different course must,
however, be adopted from that followed when turnips are so
disposed of. When sheep are turned in upon a piece of tares,
a large portion of the food is trodden down and wasted. Cutting
the vetches and putting- them into racks does not much mend
the matter, as much is still pulled out and wasted, and the
manure unequally distributed over the land. To avoid those
evils, hurdles with vertical spars, betwixt which the sheep can
reach with head and neck, are now used. These are set close
up to the growing crop along a considerable stretch, and shifted
forward as the sheep eat up what is within their reach. This
requires the constant attention of the shepherd, but the labour
is repaid by the saving of the food, which being always fresh and
clean, does the sheep more good. A modification of this plan
is to use the same kind of hurdles, but instead of shifting them
as. just described, to mow a swathe parallel to them, and fork
this forward within reach of the sheep as required, repeating
this as often during the day as is found necessary, and at night
moving the sheep close up to the growing crop, so that they may
lie for the next twenty-four hours on the space which has yielded
food for the past day. During the night they have such pickings
as have been left on the recently mown space and so much of the
growing crop as they can get at through the spars. There is
less labour by this last mode than the other, and having piactised
it for many years, we know that it answers well. This folding
upon vetches is suitable either for finishing off for market sheep
that are in forward condition, or for recently weaned lambs,
which, after five or six weeks' folding on this clean, nutritious
herbage, are found to take on more readily to eat turnips, and to
thrive better upon them, than if they had been kept upon
the pastures all the autumn. Sheep folded upon vetches
must have water always at command, otherwise they will not
prosper.
As spring-sown vetches are in perfection at the season when
pastures usually get dry and scanty, a common practice is to
cart them on to grass land and spread them out in wisps, to be
eaten by the sheep or cattle. It is, however, much better either
to have them eaten by sheep where they grow, or to cart them to
the homestead.
VETERAN, old, tried, experienced, particularly used of a
soldier who has seen much -service. The Latin veteranus (vetus,
old), as applied to a soldier, had, beside its general application
in opposition to tiro, recruit, a specific technical meaning in the
Roman army. Under the republic the full term of service
with the legion was twenty years; those who served this period
and gained their discharge (missid) were termed emeriti, If they
chose to remain in service with the legion, they were then called
I'eierani. Sometimes a special invitation was issued to the
emeriti to rejoin; they were then styled evocati.
The base of Lat. vetus meant a year, as seen in the Gr. ih-os (for
F(TOS) and Sanskrit vatsa ; from the same base comes vitulus, a calf,
properly a yearling, vitellus, a young calf, whence O. Fr. veel, modern,
vetiu, English " veal," the flesh of the calf. The Teutonic cognate of
vitulus is probably seen in Goth, withrus, lamb, English " wether,"
a castrated ram.
VETERINARY SCIENCE (Lat. veterinarius, an adjective
meaning " connected with beasts of burden and draught,"
from veterinus, " pertaining to yearlings," and vitulus, " a calf "),'
the science, generally, that deals with the conformation and
structure of the domesticated animals, especially the horse;
their physiology and special racial characteristics; their breed-
ing, feeding and general hygienic management; their pathology,
and the preventive and curative, medical and surgical, treat-
ment of the diseases and injuries to which they are exposed;
their amelioration and improvement; their relations to the
human family with regard to communicable maladies; and
the supply of food and other products derived from them for
the use of mankind. In this article it is only necessary to
deal mainly with veterinary science in its relation with medicine,
as other aspects are treated under the headings for the par-
ticular animals, &c. In the present edition of the Encyclopaedia
Brilannica the various anatomical articles (see ANATOMY for a
list of these) are based on the comparative method, and the
anatomy of the lower animals is dealt with there and in the
separate articles on the animals.
History.
There is evidence that the Egyptians practised veterinary
medicine and surgery in very remote times; but it is not until
we turn to the Greeks that we obtain any very definite informa-
tion with regard to the state of veterinary as well as human
medicine in antiquity. The writings of Hippocrates (460-377
B.C.) afford evidence of excellent investigations in comparative
pathology. Diocles of Carystus, who was nearly a contem-
porary, was one of the first to occupy himself with anatomy,
which he studied in animals. Aristotle, too, wrote on physiology
and comparative anatomy, and on the maladies of animals,
while many other Greek writers on veterinary medicine are
cited or copied from by Varro, Columella and Galen. And we
must not overlook Mago of Carthage (200 B.C.), whose work in
twenty-eight books was translated into Greek and was largely
used by Varro and Columella.
1 Regarding the origin of the word " veterinary," the following
occurs in D'Arboval's Dictionnaire de m&decine et de chirurgie
veterinaires, edited by Zundel (1877), iii. 814: "Les mots
veterinaria et veterinarius 4taient employe's par les Remains pour
designer: le premier, la me'decine des btes de somme; le second,
pour indiquer celui qui la pratiquait; le mot veterinae indiquait les
b6tes de somme, et etait la contraction de veheterinae, du verbe
vehere, porter, tirer, trainer. L'e'tymologie reelle du rr.ot vet&rinaire,
ou plut6t du mot veterinarius des Remains, serait d'apres Lenglet
encore plus ancienne; elle viendrait du celtique, d'oti le mot serait
passd chez les Remains; cet auteur fait venir le mot de vee, betail
(d'ou 1'allemand Vieh), teeren, 6tre malade (d'oft 1'allemand Zehren,
consomption), aerts ou arts, artiste, mddecin (d'oti 1'allemand
Arzt)."
VETERINARY SCIENCE
Until after the conquest of Greece the Romans do not appear
to have known much of veterinary medicine. Varro (116-28 B.C.)
may be considered the first Roman writer who deals with
Amongst an ; ma i medicine in a scientific spirit in his De Re Rustica,
in three books, which is largely derived from Greek writers.
Celsus is supposed to have written on animal medicine,
and Columella (ist century) is credited with having utilized those
relating to veterinary science in the sixth and seventh parts of his
Di- Re Rustica, one of the best works of its class of ancient times;
it treats not only of medicine and surgery, but also of sanitary
ures for the suppression of contagious diseases. From the
}nl century onwards veterinary science had a literature of its own
and regular practitioners, especially in the service of the Roman
armies (mulomedici, veterinarii) . Perhaps the most renowned
veterinarian of the Roman empire was Apsyrtus of Bithynia, who
in 322 accompanied the expedition of Constantine against the Sar-
matians in his professional capacity, and seems to have enjoyed a
high and well-deserved reputation in his time. He was a keen
observer; he distinguished and described a number of diseases
which were badly defined by his predecessors, recognized the
contagious nature of glanders, farcy and anthrax, and prescribed
isolation for their suppression ; he also made interesting observations
on accidents and diseases of horses' limbs, and waged war against
certain absurd empirical practices then prevailing in the treatment
of disease, indicating rational methods, some of which are still
successfully employed in veterinary therapeutics, such as splints
for fractures, sutures for wounds, cold water for the reduction of
prolapsed vagina, hot baths for tetanus, &c. Not less eminent was
Hierocles, the successor of Apsyrtus, whose writings he larjgely
copied, but with improvements and valuable additions, especially
in the hygiene and training of horses. Pelagonius, again, was a
writer of empirical tendency, and his treatment of disease in general
was most irrational. Publius Vegetius (not to be confounded with
Flavius Vegetius Renatus, who wrote on the military art) was a
popular author of the end of the 5th century, though less distin-
guished than Apsyrtus, to whom and to Pelagonius he was to a great
extent indebted in the preparation of his Mulomedicina si'je Ars
Veterinaria. He appears to have been more of a horse-dealer than
a veterinary practitioner, and knew next to nothing of anatomy,
which seems to have been but little cultivated at that period. He
was very superstitious and a believer in the influence of demons and
sorcerers; nevertheless, he gives some interesting observations de-
rived from his travels. He had also a good idea of aerial infection,
recognized the utility of disinfectants, and describes some operations
not referred to by previous writers, such as removal of calculi from
the bladder through the rectum, couching for cataract, the extirpa-
tion of certain glands, and several serious operations on the horse's
foot. Though inferior to several works written by his predecessors,
the Mulomedicina of Vegetius maintained its popularity through
many centuries. Of most of the ancient veterinary writers we know
little beyond what can be gathered from the citations and extracts
in the two great collections of Hippiatrica and Geoponica compiled
by order of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the loth century.
It is unnecessary to dwell here on the progress of the veterinary
art during the middle ages. Towards the close of the medieval
period the subject was much cultivated in the cavalry schools of
Italy; and Spain also had an organized system of good practitioners
in the 15th century, who have left many books still extant. Ger-
many was far behind, and literature on the subject did not exist
until the end of the I5th century, when in 1492 there was published
anonymously at Augsburg a Pferdearzneibuchlein. In the following
century the influence of the Italian writers was becoming manifest,
and the works of Fugger and Fayser mark the commencement
of a new era. Fayser's treatises, Von der Gestuterei and Von der
Zucht der Kriegs- und Burger-Pferde- (1529-97), are remarkable for
originality and good sense. In Great Britain animal medicine was
perhaps in a more advanced condition than in Germany, if we
accept the evidence of the Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales
(London, 1841); yet it was largely made up of the grossest super-
stitions. * Among the Celts the healer of horse diseases and the
shoer were held in high esteem, as among the more civilized nations
of Europe, and the court farrier enjoyed special privileges. * The
earliest known works in English appeared anonymously towards
the commencement of the i6th century, viz. Propertees and
Medcynesfor a Horse and Mascal of Oxen, Horses, Sheepes, Hogges,
Dogges. The word " mascal " shows that the latter work was in its
origin Italian. There is no doubt that in the I5th century the
increasing taste for horses and horsemanship brought Italian nding-
masters and farriers into England; and it is recorded that Henry
VIII. brought over two of these men who had been trained by
Grisone in the famous Neapolitan school. The knowledge so intro-
duced became popularized, and assumed a concrete form in Blunde-
ville's Foure Chiefest Offices belonging to Horsemanship (1566), which
contains many references to horse diseases, and, though mainly a
compilation, is yet enriched with original observations. In the
1 See Leechdoms, Wortcunningand Starcraft of Early England (3 vols.
8vo, London, 1864).
1 See Fleming, Horse-shoes and Horse-Shoeing (London, 1869).
France
and Con-
tinental
Europe.
isth century the anatomy of the domesticated animals, formerly
almost entirely neglected, began to receive attention. A work on
comparative anatomy by Vplcher Koyter was issued at Nuremberg
in i73 ; about the same time a writer in Germany named Copho
or Cophon published a book on the anatomy of the pig, in which
were many original remarks on the lymphatic vessels; and Jehan
Hervard in France produced in 1594 his rather incomplete Hippo-
Osteologie. But by far the most notable work, and one which main-
tained its popularity for a century and a half, was that of Carlo
Ruini, a senator of Bologna, published in 1598 in that city, and
entitled Dell' Anotomia e dell' Infirmita del Cavallo, e suoi Remedii.
Passing through many editions, and translated into French and
German, this book was for the most part original, and a remarkable
one for the time in which it was composed, the anatomical portion
being especially praiseworthy. English books of the I7th century
exhibit a strong tendency towards the improvement of veterinary
medicine and surgery, especially as regards the horse. This is even
more notable in the writings of the i8th century, among which may
be particularized Gibson's Farrier's New Guide (1719), Method oj
Dieting Homes (1721) and (best of all) his New Treatise on the
Diseases of Horses, besides Braken's, Burdon's, Bridge's and Bartlet's
treatises. Veterinary anatomy was greatly advanced by the A natomy
of an Horse (1683) of Snape, farrier to Charles II., illustrated with
copperplates, and by the still more complete and original work of
Stubbs, the Anatomy of the Horse (1766), which decidedly marked
a new era in this line of study. Of foreign works it may suffice to
mention that of Solleysel, Veritable parfait mareschal (1664), which
passed through many editions, was translated into several languages,
and was borrowed from for more than a century by different writers.
Sir W. Hope's Compleat Horseman (1696) is a translation from
Solleysel by a pupil.
Modern Schools and Colleges. The most important era in the
history of modern veterinary science commenced with the institution
of veterinary schools. France was the first to take the
great initiative step in this direction. 1 in If on had recom-
mended the formation of veterinary schools, but his
recommendations were not attended to. Claude Bourgelat
(1712 1799), an advocate at Lyons and a talented hippolo-
gist, through his influence with Bertin, prime minister under Louis
XV., was the first to induce the government to establish a veterinary
school and school of equitation at Lyons, in 1761. This school
he himself directed for only a few years, during which the great
benefits that had resulted from it justified an extension of its teaching
to other parts of Fiance. Bourgelat, therefore, founded (1766) at
Alfort, near Paris, a second veterinary school, which soon became,
and has remained to this day, one of the finest and most advanced
veterinary schools in the world. At Lyons he was replaced by the
Abbe Rozier, a learned agriculturist, who was killed at the siege
of Lyons after a very successful period of school management,
during which he had added largely to agricultural and physical
knowledge by the publication of his Journal de Physique and Cours
d' Agriculture. Twenty years later the Alfort school added to its
teaching staff several distinguished professors whose names still
adorn the annals of science, such as Dauberton, who taught rural
economy; Vic d'Azyr, who lectured on comparative anatomy;
Fourcroy, who undertook instruction in chemistry; and Gilbert,
one of its most brilliant pupils, who had veterinary medicine and
surgery for his department. The last-named was also a distinguished
agriculturist and published many important treatises on agricultural
as well as veterinary subjects. The position he had acquired, added
to his profound and varied knowledge, made him most useful to
France during the period of the Revolution. It is chiefly to him
that it is indebted for the celebrated Rambouillet flock of Merino
sheep, for the conservation of the Tuileries and Versailles parks,
and for the creation of the fine experimental agricultural estab-
lishment organized in the ancient domain of Sceaux. The Alfort
school speedily became the nursery of veterinary science, and the
source whence all similar institutions obtained their first teachers
and their guidance. A third government school was founded in
1825 at Toulouse; and these three schools have produced thousands
of thoroughly educated veterinary surgeons and many professors
of high scientific repute, among whom may be named Bouley,
Chauveau, Colin, Toussaint, St Cyr, Goubaux, Arloing, Galtier,
Nocard, Trasbot, Neumann, Cadiot and Leclainche. The opening
of the Alfort school was followed by the establishment of national
schools in Italy (Turin, 1769), Denmark (Copenhagen, 1773), Austria
(Vienna, 1775), Saxony (Dresden, 1776), Prussia (Hanover, 1778:
Berlin, 1790), Bavaria (Munich, 1790), Hungary (Budapest, 1787)
and Spain (Madrid, 1793); and soon government veterinary schools
were founded in nearly every European country, except Great
Britain and Greece, mostly on a munificent scale. Probably all,
but especially those of France and Germany, were established as
much with a view to training veterinary surgeons for the army as
for the requirements of civil life. In 1907 France possessed three
national veterinary schools, Germany had six, Russia four (Kharkov,
Dorpat, Kazan and Warsaw), Italy six, Spain five, Austria-Hungary
three (Vienna, Budapest and Lemberg), Switzerland two (Zurich
and Bern), Sweden two (Skara and Stockholm), Denmark, Holland,
Belgium and Portugal one each. In 1849 r- government veterinary
VETERINARY SCIENCE
school was established at Constantinople, and in 1861 the govern-
ment of Rumania founded a school at Bucharest. The veterinary
schools of Berlin, Hanover and Vienna have been raised to the
position of universities.
In 1790 St Bel (whose real name was Vial, St Bel being a village
near Lyons, where was his paternal estate), after studying at the
Lyons school and teaching both at Alfort and Lyons, came
to England and published proposals for founding a school
g ' in which to instruct pupils in veterinary medicine and
surgery. The Agricultural Society of Odiham, which had been
meditating sending two young men to the Alfort school, elected
him an honorary member, and delegated a committee to consult
with him respecting his scheme. Some time afterwards this
committee detached themselves from the Odiham Society and formed
an institution styled the Veterinary College of London, of which
St Bel was appointed professor. The school was to be commenced
and maintained by private subscription. In March 1792 arrange-
ments were made for building temporary stabling for fifty horses
and a forge for shoeing at St Pancras. The college made rapid
progress in public estimation, notwithstanding considerable pecuniary
embarrassments. As soon as the building was ready for the recep-
tion of animal patients, pupils began to be enrolled ; and among the
earliest were some who afterwards gained celebrity as veterinarians,
as Bloxam, Elaine, R. Lawrence, Field and Bracy Clark. On the
death of St Bel in August 1793 there appears to have been some
difficulty in procuring a suitable successor; but at length, on the
recommendation of John Hunter and Cline, two medical men were
appointed, Coleman and Moorcroft, the latter then practising as a
veterinary surgeon in London. The first taught anatomy and
physiology, and Moorcroft, after visiting the French schools, directed
the practical portion of the teaching. Unfortunately, neither of
these teachers had much experience among animals, nor were they
well acquainted with their diseases; but Coleman (1765-1839) had
as a student, in conjunction with a fellow-student (afterwards Sir
Astley Cooper), performed many experiments on animals under the
direction of Cline. Moorcroft, who remained only a short time at
the college, afterwards went to India, and during a journey in 1819
was murdered in Tibet. Coleman, by his scientific researches and
energetic management, in a few years raised the college to a high
standard of usefulness ; under his care the progress of the veterinary
art was such as to qualify its practitioners to hold commissions in
the army; and he himself was appointed veterinary surgeon-
general to the British cavalry. In 1831 he was elected a fellow of
the Royal Society. Owing to the lack of funds, the teaching at
the college must have been very meagre, and had it not been for
the liberality of several medical men in throwing open the doors
of their theatres to its pupils for instruction without fee or reward,
their professional knowledge would have been sadly deficient.
The board of examiners was for many years chiefly composed of
eminent members of the medical profession. Coleman died in
1839, and with him disappeared much of the interest the medical
profession of London took in the progress of veterinary medicine.
Vet the Royal Veterinary College (first styled " Royal " during the
presidentship of the duke of Kent) continued to do good work in
a purely veterinary direction, and received such public financial
support that it was soon able to dispense with the small annual
grant given to it by the government. In the early years of the
institution the horse was the only animal to which much attention
was given. But at the instigation of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England, which gave 200 per annum for the purpose, an addi-
tional professor was appointed to investigate and teach the treatment
of the diseases of cattle, sheep and other animals; outbreaks of
disease among these were also to be inquired into by the officers
of the college. This help to the institution was withdrawn in 1875,
but renewed and augmented in 1886. For fifteen years the Royal
Agricultural Society annually voted a sum of 500 towards the
expenses of the department of comparative pathology, but in 1902
this grant was reduced to 200.
As the result of representations made to the senate of the uni-
versity of London by the governors of the Royal Veterinary College,
the university in 1906 instituted a degree in veterinary science
(B.Sc.). The possession of this degree does not of itself entitle
the holder to practise as a veterinary surgeon, but it was hoped that
an increasing number of students would, while studying for the
diploma of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, also adopt the
curriculum which is necessary to qualify for the university examina-
tions and obtain the degree of bachelor of science. To provide
equipment for the higher studies required for the university degree,
the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1906 made a grant to
the college of 800 per annum. At this school post-graduate instruc-
tion is given on the principles of bacteriological research, vaccination
and protective inoculation, the preparation of toxins and vaccines
and the bacteriology of the specific diseases of animals.
The London Veterinary School has been the parent of other schools
in Great Britain, one of which, the first in Scotland, was founded by
Professor Dick, a student under Coleman, and a man of great per-
severance and ability. Beginning at Edinburgh in 1819-20 with
only one student, in three years he gained the patronage of the
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, which placed a small
sum of money at the disposal of a committee appointed by itself
to take charge of a department of veterinary surgery it had formed.
This patronage, and very much in the way of material assistance
and encouragement, were continued to the time of Dick's death in
1866. During the long period in which he presided over the school
considerable progress was made in diffusing a sound knowledge of
veterinary medicine in Scotland and beyond it For many years
his examining board, which gave certificates of proficiency under the
auspices of the Highland and Agricultural Sodety, was composed of
the most distinguished medical men in Scotland, such as Goodsir,
Syme, Lizars, Ballingall, Simpson and Knox. By his will Dick
vested the college in the lord provost and town council of Edinburgh
as trustees, and left a large portion of the fortune he had made to
maintain it for the purposes for which it was founded. In 1859
another veterinary school was established in Edinburgh by John
Gamgee, and the Veterinary College, Glasgow, was founded in 1863
by James McCall. Gamgee's school was discontinued in 1865;
and William Williams established in 1873 the " New Veterinary
College," Edinburgh. This school was transferred in 1904 to the
university, Liverpool. In 1900 a veterinary school was founded in
Dublin.
In 1844 the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (to be carefully
distinguished from the Royal Veterinary College) obtained its
charter of incorporation. The functions of this body were until
1 88 1 limited almost entirely to examining students taught in the
veterinary schools, and bestowing diplomas of membership on those
who successfully passed the examinations conducted by the boards
which sat in London and Edinburgh. Soon after the Royal College
of Veterinary Surgeons obtained its charter of incorporation, a
difference arose between the college and Dick, which resulted in the
latter seceding altogether from the union that had been established,
and forming an independent examining board, the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland granting certificates of proficiency
to those students who were deemed competent. This schism
operated very injuriously on the progress of veterinary education
and on professional advancement, as the competition engendered
was of a rather deteriorating nature. After the death of Dick in
1866, the dualism in veterinary licensing was suppressed and the
Highland Society ceased to grant certificates. Now there is only
one portal of entry into the profession, and the veterinary students
of England, Ireland and Scotland must satisfy the examiners
appointed by the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons before they
can practise their profession.
Before beginning their professional studies students of veterinary
medicine must pass an examination in general education equivalent
in every respect to that required of students of human medicine.
The minimum length of the professional training is four years of
three terms each, and during that course four searching examinations
must be passed before the student obtains his diploma or licence to
practise as a veterinary surgeon. The subjects taught in the schools
have been increased in numbers conformably with the requirements
of ever extending science, and the teaching is more thorough and
practical. During the four years' curriculum, besides the pre-
liminary technical training essential to every scientist, the student
must study the anatomy and physiology of the domesticated animals,
the pathology and bacteriology of the diseases to which these animals
are exposed, medicine, surgery, hygiene, dietetics and meat inspec-
tion, and learn to know the results of disease as seen post mortem or
in the slaughter-house.
In 1881 an act of parliament was obtained protecting the title of
the graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons and
conferring other advantages, not the least of which is the power
granted to the college to remove the names of unworthy members
from its register. In some respects the Veterinary Surgeons Act is
superior to the Medical Act, while it places the profession on the
same level as other learned bodies, and prevents the public being
misled by empirics and imposters.
In 1876 the college instituted a higher degree than membership
that of fellow (F.R.C.V.S.), which can only be obtained after the
graduate has been five years in practice, and by furnishing a thesis
and passing a severe written and oral examination on pathology and
bacteriology, hygiene and sanitary science, and veterinary medicine
and surgery. Only fellows can be elected members of the examining
boards for the membership and fellowship diplomas. The graduates
of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons registered from its
foundation in 1844 until 1907 numbered about 6000.
In the British army a veterinary service was first instituted at the
beginning of the igth century, when veterinary surgeons with the
relative rank of lieutenant were appointed to regiments of cavalry,
the royal artillery and the royal wagon train. After the Crimean
War, and consequent on the abolition of the East India Company
(which then possessed its own veterinary service), the number of
veterinary surgeons employed was increased, and in 1878 they were
constituted a " department, " with distinctive uniform, instead of
being regimental officers as was previously the case. At the same
time they were all brought on to a general roster for foreign service,
so that every one in turn has to serve abroad. In 1903 the officers
of the department were given substantive rank, and in 1904 were
constituted a " corps, " with a small number of non-commissioned
officers and men under their command and specially trained by them.
In 1907 the Army Veterinary Corps consisted of 167 officers and 220
VETERINARY SCIENCE
non-commissioned officers and men. The men are stationed at the
veterinary hospitals, Woolwich depot, Aldershot, Bulford and the
Curragh, but when trained are available for duty under veterinary
officers at any station, and a proportion of them are employed at
the various hospitals in South Africa. Owing to their liability to
service abroad in rotation, it follows that every officer spends a
considerable portion of his service in India, Burma, Egypt or South
Africa. Each tour abroad is five years, and the average length of
service abroad is about one-half the total. This offers a wide and
varied field for the professional activities of the corps, but naturally
entails a corresponding strain on the individuals. Commissions
as lieutenants are obtained by examination, the candidates having
previously qualified as members of the Royal College of Veterinary
Surgeons. Promotion to captain and major is granted at five and
fifteen years' service respectively, and subsequently, by selection,
to lieutenant-colonel and colonel, as vacancies occur. The director-
general has the honorary rank of major-general.
The Indian civil veterinary department was at first recruited
from the A. V. Corps, but candidates who qualified as members of
the R.C.V.S. were subsequently granted direct appoint-
ments by the India Office, by selection. The service is
paid and pensioned on the lines of the other Indian civil services,
and offers an excellent professional career to those whose constitu-
tion permits them to live in the tropics. The work comprises the
investigation of disease in animals and the management of studs
and farms, in addition to the clinical practice which falls to the share
of all veterinary surgeons.
In India there are schools for the training of natives as veterinary
surgeons in Bombay, Lahore, Ajmere and Bengal. The courses
extend over two and three years, and the instruction is very thorough.
The professors are officers of the Indian civil veterinary depart-
ment, and graduates are given subordinate appointments in that
service, or find ready employment in the native cavalry or in civil
life.
In the United States of America, veterinary science made very
slow progress until 1884, when the Bureau of Animal Industry
was established in connexion with the Department of
Agriculture at Washington. The immediate cause of the
formation of the bureau was the urgent need by the
Federal government of official information concerning the nature
and prevalence of animal diseases, and of the means required to
control and eradicate them, and also the necessity of having an
executive agency to carry out the measures necessary to stop the
spread of disease and to prevent the importation of contagion into
the country, as well as to conduct investigations through which
further knowledge might be obtained. In 1907 the bureau consisted
of ten divisions, employing the services of 815 veterinary surgeons.
It deals with the investigation, control and eradication of contagious
diseases of animals, the inspection and quarantine of live stock,
horse-breeding, experiments in feeding, diseases of poultry and the
inspection of meat and dairy produce. It makes original investiga-
tions as to the nature, cause and prevention of communicable
diseases of live stock, and takes measures for their repression,
frequently in conjunction with state and territorial authorities. It
prepares tuberculin and mallein, and supplies these substances free
of charge to public health officers, conducts experiments with
immunizing agents, and prepares vaccines, sera and antitoxins for
the protection of animals against disease. It prepares and publishes
reports of scientific investigations and treatises on various subjects
relating to live stock. The diseases which claim most attention are
Texas fever, sheep scab, cattle mange, venereal disease of horses,
tuberculosis of cattle and pigs, hog cholera, glanders, anthrax,
black-quarter, and parasitic diseases of cattle, sheep and horses.
The effect of the work of the bureau on the health and value of
farm animals and their products is well known, and the people of
the United States now realize the immense importance of veterinary
science.
Veterinary schools were established in New York City in 1846,
Boston in 1848, Chicago in 1883, and subsequently in Kansas
City and elsewhere, but these, like those of Great Britain, were
private institutions. The American Veterinary College, N.Y.,
founded in 1875, is connected with New York University, and the
N.Y. State Veterinary College forms a department of Cornell
University at Ithaca. Other veterinary schools attached to state
universities or agricultural colleges are those in Philadelphia. Pa.;
Columbus, Ohio; Ames, Iowa; Pullman, Washington; Auburn,
Alabama; Manhattan, Kansas; and Fort Collins, Colorado. Other
veterinary colleges are in San Francisco; Washington, D.C. (two);
Grand Rapids, Michigan ;St Joseph, Missouri; and Cincinnati, Ohio.
In Canada a veterinary school was founded at Toronto in 1862,
and four years later another school was established at Montreal.
Canada ^ or sorne V ear ? the Montreal school formed a department
of McGill University, but in 1902 the veterinary branch
was discontinued. Veterinary instruction in French is given by
the faculty of comparative medicine at Laval University. The
Canadian Department of Agriculture possesses a fully equipped
veterinary sanitary service employing about 400 qualified
veterinary surgeons as inspectors of "live stock, meat and dairy
produce.
In the Australian commonwealth there is only one veterinary
school, which was established in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1888.
The Public Health Departments of New South Wales,
Western Australia, Tasmania and the other states employ AtatnU '-
qualified veterinary surgeons as inspectors of live stock, cowsheds,
meat and dairy produce.
There is no veterinary school in New Zealand, but the Depart-
ment of Agriculture has arranged to establish one at Wellington
in connexion with the investigation laboratory and farm
of the division of veterinary science at Wallaceville. The ^ ew .
government employs about forty qualified veterinarians
as inspectors of live stock, abattoirs, meat- works and dairies.
In Egypt a veterinary school with French teachers was founded
in 1830 at Abu-Zabel, near Cairo, by Clot-Bey, a doctor of medicine.
This school was discontinued in 1842. The Public Health Ervat
Department in 1901 established at Cairo a new veterinary
school for the instruction of natives. Ten qualified! veterinary
surgeons are employed in the sanitary service.
Each of the colonies Natal, Cape Colony, Transvaal, Orange River
Colony, Swaziland, Bechuanaland and Rhodesia has a veterinary
sanitary police service engaged in dealing with the south
contagious diseases of animals. Laboratories for the Alrkm
investigation of disease and the preparation of antitoxins
and protective sera have been established at Grahamstown, Pretoria
and Pietermaritzburg.
Characteristics of Veterinary Medicine.
Veterinary medicine has been far less exposed to the vagaries
of theoretical doctrines and systems than human medicine.
The explanation may perhaps be that the successful practice
of this branch of medicine more clearly than m any other
depends upon the careful observation of facts and the rational
deductions to be made therefrom. No special doctrines seem,
in later times at least, to have been adopted, and the dominating
sentiment in regard to disease and its treatment has been a
medical eclecticism, based on practical experience and anatomico-
pathological investigation, rarely indeed on philosophical or
abstract theories. In this way veterinary science has become
pre-eminently a science of observation. At times indeed it has
to some extent been influenced by the doctrines which have
controlled the practice of human medicine such as those of
Broussais, Hahnemann, Brown, Rasori, Rademacher and others
yet this has not been for long: experience of them when
tested upon dumb unimaginative animals soon exposed their
fallacies and compelled their discontinuance.
Of more moment than the cure of disease is its prevention,
and this is now considered the most important object in con-
nexion with veterinary science. More especially is this the case
with those contagious disorders that depend for their existence
and extension upon the presence of an infecting agent, and
whose ravages for so many centuries are written largely in the
history of civilization. Every advance made in human medicine
affects the progress of veterinary science, and the invaluable
investigations of Davaine, Pasteur, Chauveau, Lister and
Koch have created as great a revolution in veterinary prac-
tice as in the medicine of man. In " preventive medicine "
the benefits derived from the application of the germ theory
are now realized to be immense; and the sanitary police
measures based on this knowledge, if carried rigorously into
operation, must eventually lead to the extinction of animal
plagues. Bacteriology has thrown much light on the nature,
diagnosis and cure of disease both in man and animals, and it
has developed the beneficent practice of aseptic and antiseptic
surgery, enabling the practitioner to prevent exhausting
suppuration and wound infection with its attendant septic
fever, to ensure the rapid healing of wounds, and to undertake
the more serious operations with greater confidence of a success-
ful result.
The medicine of the lower animals differs from that of man
in no particular so much, perhaps, as in the application it makes
of utilitarian principles. The life of man is sacred ; but in the
case of animals, when there are doubts as to complete restora-
tion to health or usefulness, pecuniary considerations gener-
ally decide against the adoption of remedial measures. This
feature in the medicine of domesticated animals brings very
prominently before us the value of the old adage that " pre-
vention is better than cure." In Great Britain the value of
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veterinary pathology in the relations it bears to human medicine,
to the public health and wealth, as well as to agriculture, has not
been sufficiently appreciated; and in consequence but little
allowance has been made for the difficulties with which the
practitioner of animal medicine has to contend. The rare
instances in which animals can be seen by the veterinary surgeon
in the earliest stages of disease, and when this would prove
most amenable to medical treatment; delay, generally due to
the inability of those who have the care of animals to perceive
these early stages; the fact that animals cannot, except in a
negative manner, tell their woes, describe their sensations or
indicate what and where they suffer; the absence of those
comforts and conveniences of the sick-room which cannot be
called in to ameliorate their condition; the violence or stupor,
as well as the attitude and structural peculiarities of the sick
creatures, which only too frequently render favourable positions
for recovery impossible; the slender means generally afforded
for carrying out recommendations, together with the oftentimes
intractable nature of their diseases; and the utilitarian in-
fluences alluded to above all these considerations, in the great
majority of instances, militate against the adoption of curative
treatment, or at least greatly increase its difficulties. But
notwithstanding these difficulties, veterinary science has made
greater strides since 1877 than at any previous period in its
history. Every branch of veterinary knowledge has shared in
this advance, but in none has the progress been so marked as
in the domain of pathology, led by Nocard in France, Schiitz
and Kitt in Germany, Bang in Denmark, and McFadyean
in England. Bacteriological research has discovered new dis-
eases, has revolutionized the views formerly held regarding
many others, and has pointed the way to new methods of
prevention and cure. Tuberculosis, anthrax, black-quarter,
glanders, strangles and tetanus furnish ready examples of the
progress of knowledge concerning the nature and causation of
disease. These diseases, formerly attributed to the most varied
causes including climatic changes, dietetic errors, peculiar
condition of the tissues, heredity, exposure, close breeding,
overcrowding and even spontaneous origin have been proved
beyond the possibility of doubt to be due to infection by
specific bacteria or germs.
In the United Kingdom veterinary science has gained distinc-
tion by the eradication of contagious animal diseases. For
many years prior to 1865, when a government veterinary
department was formed, destructive plagues of animals had
prevailed almost continuously in the British islands, and
scarcely any attempt had been made to check or extirpate them.
Two exotic bovine diseases alone (contagious pleuro-pneumonia
or lung plague and foot-and-mouth disease) are estimated to
have caused the death, during the first thirty years of their
prevalence in the United Kingdom, of 5,549,780 cattle, roughly
valued at 83,616,854; while the invasion of cattle plague
(rinderpest) in 1865-66 was calculated to have caused a money
loss of from 5,000,000 to 8,000,000. The depredations made
in South Africa and Australia by the lung plague alone are quite
appalling; and in India the loss brought about by contagious
diseases among animals has been stated at not less than
6,000,000 annually. The damage done by tuberculosis a
contagious disease of cattle, transmissible to other animals
and to man by means of the milk and flesh of diseased beasts
cannot be even guessed at; but it must be enormous considering
how widely this malady is diffused. But that terrible pest of
all ages, cattle plague, has been promptly suppressed in England
with comparatively trifling loss. Foot-and-mouth disease,
which frequently proved a heavy infliction to agriculture, has
been completely extirpated. Rabies may now be included,
with rinderpest, lung plague and sheep-pox, in the category
of extinct diseases; and new measures have been adopted for
the suppression of glanders and swine fever. To combat such
diseases as depend for their continuance on germs derived from
the soil or herbage, which cannot be directly controlled by
veterinary sanitary measures, recourse has been had to pro-
tective inoculation with attenuated virus or antitoxic sera.
The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has an efficient staff
of trained veterinary inspectors, who devote their whole time
to the work in connexion with the scheduled diseases of animals,
and are frequently employed to inquire into other diseases of
an apparently contagious nature, where the circumstances are
of general importance to agriculturists.
Veterinary science can offer much assistance in the study
and prevention of the diseases to which mankind are liable.
Some grave maladies of the human species are certainly derived
from animals, and others may yet be added to the list. In
the training of the physician great benefit would be derived
from the study of disease in animals a fact which has been
strangely overlooked in England, as those can testify who
understand how closely the health of man may depend upon
the health of the creatures he has domesticated and derives
subsistence from, and how much more advantageously morbid
processes can be studied in animals than in our own species.
Although as yet few chairs of comparative pathology have
been established in British universities, on the European
continent such chairs are now looked upon as almost indis-
pensable to every university. Bourgelat, towards the middle
of the 1 8th century, in speaking of the veterinary schools he
had been instrumental in forming, urged that " leurs portes
soient sans cesse ouvertes a ceux qui, charges par 1'etat de la
conservation des hommes, auront acquis par le nom qu'ils
se seront fait le droit d'interroger la nature, chercher des
analogies, et verifier des idees dont la conformation ne peut elre
qu'utile a 1'espece humaine." And the benefits to be mutually
derived from this association of the two branches of medicine
inspired Vicq d'Azyr to elaborate his Nouveau plan de la
constitution de la medecine en France, which he presented to
the National Assembly in 1790. His fundamental idea was to
make veterinary teaching a preliminary (le premier dcgre) and,
as it were, the principle of instruction in human medicine. His
proposal went so far as to insist upon a veterinary school being
annexed to every medical college established in France. This
idea was reproduced in the Rapport sur I'instruclion publique
which Talleyrand read before the National Assembly in 1790.
In this project veterinary teaching was to form part of the
National Institution at Paris. The idea was to initiate students
of medicine into a knowledge of diseases by observing those of
animals. The suffering animal always appears exactly as it
is and feels, without the intervention of mind obscuring the
symptomatology, the symptoms being really and truly the
rigorous expression of its diseased condition. From this point
of view, the dumb animal, when it is ill, offers the same diffi-
culties in diagnosis as does the ailing infant or the comatose
adult.
Of the other objects of veterinary science there is only one
to which allusion need here be made: that is the perfectioning
of the domestic animals in everything that is likely to make
them more valuable to man. This is in an especial manner
the province of this science, the knowledge of the anatomy,
physiology and other matters connected with these animals
by its students being essential for such improvement.
Diseases of Domestic Animals.
Considerations of space forbid a complete or detailed descrip-
tion of all the diseases, medical and surgical, to which the
domesticated animals are liable. Separate articles are devoted
to the principal plagues, or murrains, which affect animals
RINDERPEST, FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE, PLEURO-PNEUMONIA,
ANTHRAX, &c. Reference will be made here only to the more
important other disorders of animals which are of a communic-
able nature.
Diseases of the Horse.
Every horseman should know something of the injuries, lame-
nesses and diseases to which the horse is liable. Unfortunately
not very much can be done in this direction by book instruction;
indeed, there is generally too much doctoring and too little nursing
of sick animals. Even in slight and favourable cases of illness
recovery is often retarded by too zealous and injudicious medication;
the object to be always kept in view in the treatment of animal
patients is to place them in those conditions which allow nature to
VETERINARY SCIENCE
operate most freely in restoring health. This can best be rendered
in the form of nursing, which sick animals greatly appreciate. How-
ever indifferent a horse may be to caressing or kind atten-
Nurslag. t ; on during health, when ill he certainly appreciates both,
and when in pain will often apparently endeavour to attract notice
and seek relief from those with whom he is familiar. Fresh air and
cleanliness, quiet and comfort, should always be secured, if possible.
The stable or loose-box should be warm, without being close, and
free from draughts. If the weather is cold, and especially if the
horse is suffering from inflammation of the air-passages, it may be
necessary to keep up the temperature by artificial means; but great
care should be taken that this does not render the air too dry to
breathe. The surface of the body can be kept warm by rugs, and
the legs by woollen bandages. Yet a sick horse is easily fatigued
and annoyed by too much clothing, and therefore it is better to
resort to artificial heating of the stable than to overload the body
or impede movement by heavy wrappings. If blankets are used, it
is well to place a cotton or linen sheet under them, should the horse
have an irritable skin. For bedding, long straw should be employed
as little as possible, since it hampers movement. Clean old litter,
sawdust or peat-moss litter is the best. If the hoofs are strong,
and the horse likely to be confined for some weeks, it affords relief
to take off the shoes. Tying up should be avoided, if possible,
unless it is urgently required, the horse being allowed to move
about or lie down as he may prefer.
When a sick horse has lost his appetite, he should be tempted to
eat by offering him such food as will be enticing to him. It should
be given frequently and in small quantities, but should not
Food for be forced on him ; food will often be taken if offered from
the hand, when it will not be eaten out of the manger.
horse. Whether the animal be fed from a bucket or from a
manger, any food that is left should be thrown away, and the
receptacle well cleaned out after each meal. As a rule, during
sickness a horse requires laxative food, in order to allay fever
or inflammatory symptoms, while supporting the strength. The
following list comprises the usual laxative foods employed: green
grass, green wheat, oats and barley, lucerne, carrots, parsnips,
gruel, bran mash, linseed and bran mash, boiled barley, linseed tea,
hay tea and linseed oil. Green grass, lucerne, and similar articles
of food if cut when in a wet state, should be dried before being given.
Boiled grain should be cooked with very little water, so that it may
be floury and comparatively dry when ready; a little salt should be
mixed with it. One gallon of good gruel may be made with a pound
of meal and cold water, which should be stirred till it boils, and
afterwards permitted to simmer over a gentle fire till the fluid is
quite thick. To make a bran mash, scald a stable bucket, throw
out the water, put in 3 Ib of bran and I oz. of salt, add 2j
pints of boiling water, stir up well, cover over and _ allow
the mash to stand for fifteen or twenty minutes until it is well
cooked. For a bran and linseed mash, boil slowly for two or three
hours i Jb of linseed, so as to have about a couple of quaYts of
thick fluid, to which 2 Ib of bran and I oz. of salt may be
added. The whole should be stirred up, covered over and allowed
to steam as before described. The thicker the mash the more readily
will the horse eat it. Linseed tea is made by boiling I ft of lin-
seed in a couple of gallons of water until the grains are quite soft.
It may be economically made by using less water to cook the linseed,
and afterwards making up the quantity of water to about a gallon
and a half. Hay tea may be prepared by filling a bucket, after
scalding it, with good sweet hay, pouring in as much boiling water
as the bucket will hold, covering it over, and allowing it to stand
until cold, when the fluid may be strained off and given to the horse.
This forms a refreshing drink. Linseed oil, in quantities of from
i oz. to 6 oz. daily, may be mixed with the food ; it keeps the
bowels in a lax condition, has a good effect on the skin and air-
passages, and is useful as an article of diet. When debility has to
be combated, as in low fever or other weakening diseases, strengthen-
ing and other easily digested food must be administered, though
some of the foods already mentioned, such as boiled grain, answer
this purpose to a certain extent. Milk, eggs, bread and biscuits,
malt, corn, &c., are often prescribed with this object. Milk may be
given skimmed or unskimmed ; a little sugar may be mixed with it ;
and one or two gallons may be given daily, according to circum-
stances. One or two eggs may be given beaten up with a little sugar
and mixed with milk, three or four times a day, or more frequently;
or they may be boiled hard and powdered, and mixed in the milk.
A quart of stout, ale or porter may be given two or three times a day,
or a half to one bottle of port wine daily. Scalded oats, with a little
salt added, are very useful when convalescence is nearly completed.
As a rule, a sick horse should have as much water as he likes to drink,
though it may be necessary in certain cases to restrict the quantity,
and to have the chill taken off ; but it should never be warmer than
75 to 80.
As little grooming as possible should be allowed when a horse is
very weak; it should be limited to sponging the mouth, nostrils,
eyes and forehead with clean water, to which a little eucalyptus
or sanitas may be added. Rub the legs and ears with the hand,
take off the clothing, and shake or change it once a day, and if
agreeable rub over the body with a soft cloth. Exercise is of course
not required during sickness or injury, and the period at which it is
allowed will depend upon circumstances. Care must be taken that
it is not ordered too early, or carried too far at first.
Much care is required in administering medicines in the form of
ball or bolus; and practice, as well as courage and tact, is needed
in order to give it without danger to the administrator or
the animal. The ball should be held between the fingers '
of the right hand, the tips of the first and fourth being
brought together below the second and third, which are '
placed on the upper side of the ball ; the right hand is thus made
as small as possible, so as to admit of ready insertion into the mouth.
The left hand grasps the horse's tongue, gently pulls it out and
places it on that part of the right side of the lower jaw which is
bare of teeth. With the right hand the ball is placed at the root
of the tongue. The moment the right hand is withdrawn, the tongue
should be released. This causes the ball to be carried still farther
back. The operator then closes the mouth and watches the left
side of the neck, to note the passage of the ball down the gullet.
Many horses keep a ball in the mouth a considerable time before
they will allow it to go down. A mouthful of water or a handful
of food will generally make them swallow it readily. It is most
essential to have the ball moderately soft ; nothing can be more
dangerous than a hard one.
To administer a drink or drench requires as much care as giving
a ball, in order to avoid choking the horse, though it is unattended
with risk to the administrator. An ordinary glass or stone bottle
may be used, providing there are no sharp points around the mouth ;
but either the usual drenching-horn or a tin vessel with a narrow
mouth or spout is safer. It is necessary to raise the horse's head,
so that the nose may be a little higher than the horizontal line.
The drink must be given by a person standing on the right side
(the attendant being in front or on the left side of the horse), the
cheek being pulled out a little, to form a sack or funnel, into which
the medicine is poured, a little at a time, allowing an interval now
and again for the horse to swallow. If any of the fluid gets into the
windpipe (which it is liable to do if the head is held too high), it
will cause coughing, whereupon the head should be instantly lowered.
Neither the tongue nor the nostrils should be interfered with.
Powders may be given in a little mash or gruel, well stirred up, or
in the drinking water.
If a wide surface is to be fomented (as the chest, abdomen or
loins), a blanket or other large woollen cloth should be dipped in
water as hot as the hand can comfortably bear it, moderately wrung
out and applied to the part, the heat and moisture being retained
by covering it with a waterproof sheet or dry rug. When it has
lost some of its heat, it should be removed, dipped in warm water
and again applied. In cases of acute inflammation, it may be
necessary to have the water a little hotter; and, to avoid the
inconvenience of removing the blanket, or the danger of chill when
it is removed, it may be secured round the body by skewers or twine,
the hot water being poured on the outside of the top part of the
blanket by any convenient vessel. To foment the feet, they should be
placed in a bucket or tub (the latter with the bottom resting wholly
on the ground) containing warm water; a quantity of moss litter put
in the tub or bucket prevents splashing and retains the heat longer.
Poultices are used for allaying pain, softening horn or other
tissues, and, when antiseptic, cleansing and promoting healthy
action in wounds. To be beneficial they should be large ^^
and always kept moist. For applying poultices to the feet,
a piece of sacking, or better a poultice-boot, supplied by saddlers,
may be used with advantage. Poultices are usually made with
bran, though this has the disadvantage of drying quickly, to prevent
which it may be mixed with linseed meal or a little linseed oil.
Antiseptic poultices containing lysol, izal, carbolic acid or creolin,
are very useful in the early treatment of foul and punctured wounds.
A charcoal poultice is sometimes employed when there is an offensjve
smell to be got rid of. It is made by mixing linseed meal with
boiling water and stirring until a soft mass is produced; with this
some wood charcoal in powder is mixed, and when ready to be
applied some more charcoal is sprinkled on the surface. It may be
noted that, in lieu of these materials for poultices, spongiopiline
can be usefully employed. A piece of sufficient size is steeped
in hot water, applied to the part, covered with oiled silk or water-
proof sheeting, and secured by tapes. Even an ordinary sponge,
steeped in hot water and covered with waterproof material, makes
a good poulticing medium; it is well adapted for the throat, the
space between the branches of the lower jaw, as well as for the lower
joints of the limbs.
Enemata or clysters are given in fevers, constipation, colic, &c.,
to empty the posterior part of the bowels. They can be administered
by a large syringe capable of containing a quart or more
of water, with a nozzle about 12 in. long, or by a large
funnel with a long nozzle at a right angle. Water, soap and ^/Lj<er
water, or oil may be employed. To administer an enema, c v* 1
one of the horse's fore feet should be held up, while the operator
introduces the nozzle, smeared with oil or lard, very gently and
steadily into the rectum, then injects the water. The quantity
injected will depend on the nature of the malady and the size of
the horse; from 2 or 3 quarts to several gallons may be used.
8
VETERINARY SCIENCE
laglous
diseases.
Glanders:
farcy.
The epizootic diseases affecting the horse are not numerous, and
may generally be considered as specific and infectious or contagious
in their nature, circumstances of a favourable kind leading
to their extension by propagation of the agent upon which
their existence depends. This agent, in most of the
maladies, has been proved to be a micro-organism, and
there can be little doubt that it is so for all of them.
Glanders (q.v.), or equinia, one of the most serious maladies of
the horse, ass and mule, prevails in nearly every part of the world.
It is a contagious, inoculable disease, caused by the bacillus
mallei, and specially affects the lungs, respiratory mucous
membrane and the lymphatic system. The virulent
agent of glanders appears to establish itself most easily among
horses kept in foul, crowded, badly ventilated stables, or among
such as are over-worked, badly fed or debilitated. Glanders,
however, is always due to contagion, and in natural infection it
may be contracted by inhalation of the bacilli, by ingestion of the
virus with food or water, or by inoculation of a wound of the skin
or a mucous membrane. Carnivorous animals lions, tigers, dogs
and cats have become infected through eating the flesh of glandered
horses; and men attending diseased horses are liable to be infected,
especially if they have sores on the exposed parts of their bodies.
Though in man infection through wounds is the readiest way of
receiving the disease, the bacillus may also obtain access through
the digestive organs, the lungs and mucous membranes of the eyes,
nose and lips.
In descriptions of the equine disease sometimes a distinction is
made between glanders with nasal ulcers and other symptoms of
respiratory disease, and glanders of the skin, or farcy, but there is
no essential difference between them. Glanders and farcy are due
to the same causal organism, and both may be acute or chronic.
Acute glanders is always rapidly fatal, and chronic glanders may
become acute or it may terminate by apparent recovery.
The symptoms of acute glanders are initial fever with its accom-
paniments, thirst, loss of appetite, hurried pulse and respiration,
emaciation, languor and disinclination to move. Sometimes the legs
or joints are swollen and the horse is stiff; but the characteristic
symptoms are a greyish-yellow viscid discharge from one or both
nostrils, a peculiar enlarged and nodulated condition of one or both
submaxillary lymphatic glands, which though they may be painful
very rarely suppurate, and on the nasal membrane small yellow
pimples or pustules, running into deep, ragged-edged ulcers, and
sometimes on the septum large patches of deep ulceration. The
discharge from the nose adheres to the nostrils and upper lip, and
the infiltrated nasal lining, impeding breathing, causes snuffling
and frequent snorting. The lymphatic vessels of the face are often
involved and appear as painful subcutaneous " cords " passing
across the cheek. These vessels sometimes present nodules which
break and discharge a glutinous pus. As the disease progresses,
the ulcers on the nose increase in number, enlarge or become con-
fluent, extend in depth and sometimes completely perforate the
septum. The nasal discharge, now more abundant and tenacious,
is streaked with blood and offensive, the respiration is noisy or
roaring, and there may be coughing with bleeding from the nose.
Painful oedematous swellings appear on the muzzle, throat, between
the fore legs, at the flank or on the limbs, and " farcy buds " may
form on some of the swollen parts. Symptoms of congestion of
the lungs, or pneumonia and pleurisy, with extreme prostration,
diarrhoea and gasping respiration, precede death, which is due to
asphyxia or to exhaustion.
Chronic or latent glanders generally presents few definite symptoms.
The suspected animal may have a discharge from the nose, or an
enlarged submaxillary gland, or both, and small unbroken nodules
may exist on the septum, but usually there is no visible ulceration
of the nasal membrane. In some horses suspicion of glanders may
be excited by lameness and sudden swelling of a joint, by profuse
staling, sluggishness, loss of condition and general unthriftiness,
or by refusal of food, rise of temperature, swollen fetlocks, with
dry hacking cough, nasal catarrh and other symptoms of a common
cold. With rest in the stable the horse improves, but a one-sided
nasal discharge continues, the submaxillary gland enlarges, and,
after an interval, ulcers appear in the nose or " farcy buds " form
on a swollen leg. In occult glanders the horse may appear to be
in good health and be able to perform ordinary work. In these
cases the existence of glanders can only be discovered by resorting
to inoculation or the mallein test.
In cutaneous glanders, or farcy, symptoms occur on the skin of
a limb, usually a hind one, or on the body, where the lymphatics
become inflamed and ulcerated. The limb is much swollen, and
the animal moves with pain and difficulty. The lymphatic vessels
appear as prominent lines or "cords," hard and painful on manipula-
tion, and along their course arise nodular swellings the so-called
" farcy buds. " These small abscesses break and discharge a yellow,
glutinous, blood-stained pus, leaving sores which heal very slowly.
There is a rise of temperature with other symptoms of constitutional
disturbance.
Medical treatment of glanders or farcy should not be attempted.
The disease is dealt with under the Contagious Diseases (Animals)
Acts. Horses which present suspicious symptoms, or those which
have been in contact, or have stood in the same stable with glandered
horses, should be isolated and tested with mallein. Animals which
are found affected should immediately be destroyed, and their
harness, clothing and the utensils employed with them thoroughly
cleansed, while the stalls, horse-boxes and places which the horses
have frequented should be disinfected. Forage left by glandered
horses should be burned or fed to cattle.
Mallein, which is almost indispensable in the diagnosis of latent
glanders, was discovered in 1888 by Helman, a Russian military
veterinary surgeon, and the first complete demonstration of its
diagnostic value was given in 1891 by Kalning, also of Russia.
Mallein, prepared for the diagnosis of glanders in animals, is the
sterilized and filtered liquid-culture of glanders bacilli. It there-
fore does not contain even dead bacilli, but it has in solution certain
substances which are added to the liquid by the bacilli during their
growth (McFadyean). Employed under proper precautions and
subcutaneously injected in a glandered horse, mallein causes a
marked rise of temperature and an extensive painful swelling at
the seat of injection.
Epizootic lymphangitis is a contagious eruptive disease of the
horse caused by the cryptococcus farciminosus, and characterized
by nodular swellings and suppuration of the superficial _. ..
lymphatics. Infection can be transmitted by mediate j *
or immediate contagion. The eruption usually appears y ltl ^
on the limbs, but it may occur on the body or on the head
and neck. The symptoms closely resemble those of cutaneous
glanders or farcy, from which this disease may readily be distin-
guished by microscopic examination of the pus discharged from the
sores, or by testing the horse with mallein. Glanders and epizootic
lymphangitis may coexist in the same animal. It is a scheduled
disease, and treatment should not be attempted.
Strangles is a specific contagious eruptive fever peculiar to horses,
and is more especially incidental to young animals. It is particu-
larly characterized by the formation of abscesses in the siruules
lymphatic glands, chiefly those between the branches of "
the lower jaw (submaxillary). Various causes have been ascribed
for its production, such as change of young horses from field to
stable, from grass to dry feeding, from idleness to hard work,
irritation of teething, and change of locality and climate. But the
sole cause is infection by the strangles streptococcus. Languor and
feverishness, diminution of appetite, cough, redness of the nasal
membrane, with discharge from the eyes and nose, and thirst are
among the earliest symptoms. Then there is difficulty in swallowing,
coincident with the development of swelling between the branches
of the lower jaw, which often causes the water in drinking to be
returned through the nose and the masticated food to be dropped
from the mouth. The swelling is hot and tender, diffused, and uni-
formly rounded and smooth; at first it is hard, with soft, doughy
margins; but later it becomes soft in the centre, where an abscess
is forming, and soon "points " and bursts, giving exit to a quantity
of pus. Relief is now experienced by the animal; the symptoms
subside, and recovery takes place. In some cases the swelling is so
great or occurs so close to the larynx that the breathing is interfered
with, and even rendered so difficult that suffocation is threatened.
In other cases the disease assumes an irregular form, and the swelling,
instead of softening in the centre, remains hard for an indefinite
time, or it may subside and abscesses form in various parts of the
body, sometimes in vital organs, as the brain, lungs, liver, kidneys,
&c., or in the bronchial or mesenteric glands, where they generally
produce serious consequences. Not unf requently a pustular eruption
accompanies the other symptoms. The malady may terminate
in ten days or be protracted for months, sometimes terminating
fatally from complications, even when the animal is well nursed and
kept in a healthy stable.
Good nursing is the chief part of the treatment. The strength
should be maintained by soft nutritious food, and the body kept
warm and comfortable; the stable or loose-box must have plenty of
fresh air and be kept clean. The swelling may be fomented with
warm water or poulticed. The poultice may be a little bag con-
taining bran and linseed meal mixed with not water and applied
warm to the tumefaction, being retained there by a square piece
of calico, with holes for the ears and eyes, tied down the middle of
the face and behind the ears. If the breathing is disturbed and
noisy, the animal may be made to inhale steam from hot water in
a bucket or from bran mash. If the breathing becomes very difficult,
the windpipe must be opened and a tube inserted. Instead of the
swelling being poulticed, a little blistering ointment is sometimes
rubbed over it, which hastens pointing of the abscess. When the
abscess points, it may be lanced, though sometimes it is better to
allow it to break spontaneously.
It is important to distinguish strangles from glanders, and the
distinction can, with certainty, be ascertained by resorting to the
mallein test for glanders, or by microscopical examination of the
pus from the strangles abscess.
Under influenza several diseases are sometimes included, and in
different invasions it may (and doubtless does) assume vary-
ing forms. It is a specific fever of a low or asthenic / a /j uenia
type, associated with inflammation of the mucous mem-
brane lining the air-passages, and also sometimes with that of
VETERINARY SCIENCE
other organs. At various times it has prevailed extensively over
different parts of the world, more especially during the i8th and
igth centuries. Perhaps one of the most widespread outbreaks
recorded was that of 1872, on the American continent. It usually
radiates from the district in which it first appears. The symptoms
have been enumerated as follows: sudden attack, marked by ex-
treme debility and stupor, with increased body-temperature, quick
weak pulse, rigors and cold extremities. The head is pendent, the
eyelids swollen and half closed, eyes lustreless, and tears often
flowing down the face. There is great disinclination to move; the
body sways on the animal attempting to walk; and the limb-joints
crack. The appetite is lost and the mouth is hot and dry; the
bowels are constipated and the urine scanty and high-coloured;
there is nearly always a deep, painful and harassing cough; on
auscultation of the chest, crepitation or harsh blowing sounds are
audible; and the membrane lining the eyelids and nose assumes
either a bright pink colour or a dull leaden hue. A white, yellowish
or greenish-coloured discharge flows from the nostrils. In a few
days the fever and other symptoms subside, and convalescence
rapidly sets in. In unfavourable cases the fever increases, as well
as the prostration, the breathing becomes laboured, the cough more
painful and deep, and auscultation and percussion indicate that the
lungs are seriously involved, with perhaps the pleura or the heart.
Clots sometimes form in the latter organ, and quickly bring about a
fatal termination. When the lungs do not suffer, the bowels may,
and with this comolication there are, in addition to the stupor and
torpor, tension and tenderness of the abdominal walls when pressed
upon, manifestations of colic, great thirst, a coated tongue, yellow-
ness of the membranes of nose and eyes, high-coloured urine, con-
stipation, and dry faeces covered with mucus. Sometimes rheu-
matic swelling and tenderness takes place in the muscles and joints
of the limbs, which may persist for a long time, often shifting from
leg to leg, and involving the sheaths of tendons. At other times
acute inflammation of the eyes supervenes, or even paralysis.
In this disease good nursing is the chief factor in the treatment.
Comfortable, clean and airy stables or loose-boxes should be pro-
vided, and the warmth of the body and limbs maintained. Cold
and damp, foul air and uncleanliness, are as inimical to health and
as antagonistic to recovery as in the case of mankind. In influenza
it has been generally found that the less medicine the sick animal
receives the more likely it is to recover. Nevertheless, it may be
necessary to adopt such medical measures as the following. For
constipation administer enemata of warm water or give a dose of
linseed oil or salines. For fever give quinine_ or mild febrifuge
diuretics (as liquor'of acetate of ammonia or spirit of nitrous ether),
and, if there is cough or nervous excitement, anodynes (such as
extract of belladonna). When the fever subsides and the prostration
is great, it may be necessary to give stimulants (carbonate of
ammonia, nitrous ether, aromatic ammonia) and tonics, both vege-
table (gentian, quassia, calumba) and mineral (iron, copper, arsenic).
Some veterinary surgeons administer large and frequent doses of
quinine from the onset of the disease, and, it is asserted, with
excellent effect. If the abdominal organs are chiefly involved,
demulcents may supplement the above (linseed boiled to a jelly,
to which salt may be added, is the most convenient and best), and
drugs to allay pain (as opium and chloral hydrate). Olive oil is a
safe laxative in such cases. When nervous symptoms are mani-
fested, it may be necessary to apply wet cloths and vinegar to the
head and neck; even blisters to the neck have been recommended.
Bromide of potassium has been beneficially employed. To combat
inflammation of the throat, chest or abdomen, counter-irritants
may be resorted to, such as mustard, soap liniment or the ordinary
white liniment composed of oil of turpentine, solution of ammonia
and olive oil. The food should be soft mashes and gruel of oatmeal,
with carrots and green food, and small and frequent quantities of
scalded oats in addition when convalescence has been established.
Dourine, maladie du coil, or covering disease of horses, is a
contagious malady caused by the Trypanosoma equiperdum, and
_ characterized by specific lesions of the male and female
la" or genital organs, the lymphatic and central nervous sys-
coverlag terns. It occurs in Arabia and continental Europe, and
disease nas recently been carried from France to the United States
of America (Montana, Nebraska, the Dakotas, Iowa and
Illinois) and to Canada. In some of its features it resembles human
syphilis, and it is propagated in the same manner. From one to
ten days after coitus, or in the stallion not unfrequently after some
weeks, there is irritation, swelling and a livid redness of the external
organs of generation (in stallions the penis may shrink), followed
by unhealthy ulcers, which appear in successive crops, often at
considerable intervals. In mares these are near the clitoris, which
is frequently erected, and the animals rub and switch the tail
about, betraying uneasiness. In horses the eruption is on the
penis and sheath. In the milder forms there is little constitutional
disturbance, and the patients may recover in a period varying from
two weeks to two months. In the severe forms the local swell-
ing increases by intermittent steps. In the mare the vulva is the
seat of a deep violet congestion and extensive ulceration; pustules
appear on the perinaeum, tail and between the thighs; the lips of
the vulva are parted, exposing the irregular, nodular, puckered.
ulcerated and lardaceous-looking mucous membrane. If the mare
happen to be pregnant, abortion occurs. In all cases emaciation
sets in; lameness of one or more limbs occurs; great debility is
manifested, and this runs on to paralysis, when death ensues after
a miserable existence of from four or five months to two years.
Indorses swelling of the sheath may be the only symptom for a
long time, even for a year. Then there may follow dark patches
of extravasated blood on or swellings of the penis; the testicles
may become tumefied; a dropsical engorgement extends forward
beneath the abdomen and chest; the lymphatic glands in different
parts of the body may be enlarged; pustules and ulcers appear
on the skin; there is a discharge from the eyes and nose; emacia-
tion becomes extreme; a weak and vacillating movement of the
posterior limbs gradually increases, as in the mare, to paralysis;
and after from three months to three years death puts an end to
loathsomeness and great suffering. This malady appears to be
spread only by the act of coition. The indications for its suppres-
sion and extinction are therefore obvious. They are (i) to prevent
diseased animals coming into actual contact, especially per coitum,
with healthy ones; (2) to destroy the infected; and (3) as an addi-
tional precautionary measure, to thoroughly cleanse and disinfect
the stables, clothing, utensils and implements used for the sick
horse. Various medicines have been tried in the treatment of
slowly developing cases of dourine, and the most successful remedy
is atoxyl a prepaiation of arsenic.
Horse-pox, which is somewhat rare, is almost, if not quite, identical
with cow-pox, being undistinguishable when inoculated on men
and cattle. It most frequently attacks the limbs, though
it may appear on the face and other parts of the body.
There is usually slight fever; then swelling, heat and poj
tenderness are manifest in the part which is to be the seat of erup-
tion, usually the heels; firm nodules form, increasing to one-third
or one-half an inch in diameter; the hair becomes erect; and the
skin, if light-coloured, changes to an intense red. On the ninth to
the twelfth day a limpid fluid oozes from the surface and mats
the hairs together in yellowish scabs; when one of these is removed,
there is seen a red, raw depression, whereon the scab was fixed. In
three or four days the crusts fall off, and the sores heal spontaneously.
No medical treatment is needed, cleanliness being requisite to
prevent the pocks becoming sloughs. If the inflammation runs
high, a weak solution of carbolic acid may be employed.
Diseases of Cattle.
The diseases of the bovine species are not so numerous as those
of the horse, and the more acute contagious maladies are dealt
with under RINDERPEST and other articles already mentioned.
Tuberculosis is a most formidable and widespread disease of
cattle, and it is assuming greater proportions every year, in con-
sequence of the absence of legislative measures for its _ .^
suppression. It is a specific disease, contracted through
cohabitation, and caused by the Bacillus tuberculosis, dis-
covered by Koch in 1882. Infection takes place by inhalation of
the bacilli or their spores, derived from the dried expectorate or
other discharges of tuberculous animals; by ing_estion of the
bacilli carried in food, milk or water, or by inoculation of a wound
of the skin or of a mucous or serous membrane. Occasionally
the disease is transmitted by an infected female to the foetus
in utero. Its infective properties and communicability to other
species render it a serious danger to mankind through the con-
sumption of the milk or flesh of tuberculous cows. The organs
chiefly involved are the lymphatic glands, lungs, liver, intestine
and the serous membranes the characteristic tubercles or " grapes "
varying in size from a millet seed to immense masses weighing
several pounds. The large diffused nodular growths are found
principally in the chest and abdomen attached to the membranes
lining these cavities.
The symptoms somewhat resemble those of contagious pleuro-
pneumonia (q.v.) in its chronic form, though tubercles, sometimes
in large numbers, are often found after death in the bodies of
cattle which exhibited no sign of illness during life and which when
killed were in excellent condition. When the lungs are extensively
involved there are signs of constitutional disturbance, irregular
appetite, fever, difficult breathing, dry cough, diarrhoea, wasting
and debility, with enlarged throat glands, and, in milch cows,
variation in the quantity of milk. Auscultation of the chest dis-
covers dullness or absence of respiratory sounds over the affected
parts of the lungs. If the animal is not killed it becomes more
and more emaciated from anaemia, respiratory difficulty, defective
nutrition and profuse diarrhoea. Tuberculosis of the mammary
glands usually begins as a slowly developing, painless, nodular
induration of one quarter of the udder. The milk at first may be
normal in quantity and quality, but later it becomes thin or watery
and assumes a blue tint. Cattle with tubercular lesions unaltered
by retrogressive char.ges may appear to be in an ordinary state
of health, and in such animals the existence of the disease can
only be discovered by resorting to the tuberculin test. Tuber-
culin, as prepared for the purpose of diagnosis, is a sterilized culture
of tubercle bacilli, and when employed with proper precautions
it causes a marked rise of temperature in affected cattle, but in
10
VETERINARY SCIENCE
non-tuberculous animals it has no appreciable action. Medical
treatment is of little if any avail. Preventive measures are of the
utmost importance. Animals proved free of tuberculous taint
should alone be bred from, and those found diseased should be
at once completely segregated or slaughtered. Before being used
as food the flesh should be well cooked, and the milk from tuber-
culous cows should be boiled or heated to a temperature of 155 F.
Black-quarter, or black-leg, is a specific, inoculable disease which
occurs in young stock from a few months to two years old, in
Black- various parts of the country, and generally in low-lying
quarter damp situations. It was classed with anthrax until
1879. when its nature was investigated by Arloing, Cor-
nevia and Thomas, who termed it symptomatic anthrax (Charbon
symflomatique) a misleading name for a disease which is perfectly
distinct from anthrax. This disease is caused by the Bacillus
Chauvaei, and natural infection takes place through small wounds
of the legs and feet or other parts. At first it is a local disease
affecting usually a hind quarter, though sometimes the character-
istic swelling forms on the shoulder, neck, breast, loins or flank.
The chief symptoms are sudden loss of appetite, accelerated pulse
and respiration, high temperature, debility, lameness or stiffness,
followed by the formation of a small, painful swelling which rapidly
increases in extent, becomes emphysematous, and in the centre
cold and painless. Incision of the tumour gives escape to a red,
frothy, sour-smelling fluid. This disease runs its course very
rapidly and nearly always terminates fatally, even when medical
treatment is promptly applied. Infection can be prevented by
resorting to protective inoculation by one of the methods intro-
duced by Arloing, Kitt and others. The natural virus-muscle
from the lesion, dried, reduced to powder and attenuated by heat
at a high temperature, and a pure culture of the causal organism,
are employed as vaccines. The vaccine is introduced subcutane-
ously at the tip of the tail or behind the shoulder. Immunity lasts
for about twelve months.
Abortion, or the expulsion of the foetus before viability, is a
contagious disease in cows. In a herd a case of abortion or pre-
Abortloa mat ure birth from accident or injury sometimes occurs,
but when a number of pregnant females abort the cause
is due to specific infection of the womb. The microbe of abortion
induces catarrh of the uterus and the discharge contains the infective
agent. The virus may be transmitted by the bull, by litter, attendants,
utensils, or anything which has been contaminated by the discharge
from an infected cow. Whenever abortion occurs in a shed the
cow should be at once isolated from the others, if they are pregnant,
and cleansing and disinfection immediately resorted to, or preferably
the pregnant cows should be quickly removed out of the shed and
every care should be taken to keep them away from the affected cow
and its discharges; the litter and the aborted foetus being burned
or otherwise completely destroyed, and the cowshed thoroughly
disinfected with quicklime. To prevent further infection, the hinder
parts of the in-calf cows should be washed and disinfected from time
to time.
Contagious mammitis is a common disease in milch cows. It
has been investigated by Nocard and Mollereau, and proved
g oa . to be caused by a streptococcus which is transmitted
taglous from one cow to another by the hands of the milkers.
mammitis. T^ e m ^ CI ^ gains access to the quarter by the teat and
induces catarrhal inflammation of the milk ducts and
sinuses, with induration of the gland tissue. This disease develops
slowly, and except in cases complicated by suppuration, there is
little or no constitutional disturbance, though sometimes the affected
cows lose condition. The milk at first preserves its normal appear-
ance, but is less in quantity; it curdles quickly, is acid, and when
mixed with good milk produces clotting ; then it becomes thin and
watery, and finally viscous, yellowish and foetid. At the base of
the teat of the affected quarter induration begins and gradually
extends upwards, and if not checked the disease passes from one
quarter to another until the whole udder is attacked. Prevention
can be secured by washing and disinfecting the udder and teats
and the milkers' hands before and after milking. Diseased cows
should be isolated, their milk destroyed or boiled and fed to pigs,
and after each milking the teats should be injected with a warm
solution of boracic acid or sodium fluoride. Infected cowsheds
should be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected.
Parturient paralysis, or mammary toxaemia, also known as milk
fever, though neither a febrile nor a contagious malady, was until
quite recently a very fatal affection of dairy cows. It is
caused by a nerve poison which is formed in the udder
soon after parturition; and, according to Schmidt, the
toxin enters the circulation and affects especially, the central nervous
system and the muscles, and in a less degree all the organs of the
body. This disease usually attacks good milking cows within a
few days of an easy labour and seldom before the third or fourth
parturition. In twenty-four to forty-eight hours after calving the
cow becomes excited and restless, strikes at the abdomen with the
hind feet, whisks the tail, lows, grinds the teeth, staggers, falls,
makes ineffectual attempts to rise, and eventually lies comatose,
stretched on her side with the head extended or inclined towards
the shoulder. The eyes are dull, injected and insensitive; general
Mttk
fever.
sensation, voluntary motion and the power of swallowing are lost.
Secretion of milk fails, digestion is suspended, fermentation of the
contents of the paunch sets in, with tympany, constipation and
retention of urine. The pulse becomes feeble or imperceptible.
Respiration is slow, sometimes stertorous or groaning, and the
temperature is low or subnormal. If not treated the animal dies
in two or three days from prolonged coma or heart failure.
The curative treatment of this disease continued very unsatis-
factory until 1897, when Schmidt, a veterinarian of Kolding,
Denmark, introduced the method of injecting the teats with a
solution of potassium iodide in conjunction with insufflation of
atmospheric air. The immediate results of this line of treatment
were astonishing. Rapid recovery became the rule, and in most
cases the comatose condition disappeared in less than six hours,
and the average mortality (40 to 60%) was reduced to 6%.
Afterwards chinosol and other antiseptics were substituted for the
potassium salt, and later pure oxygen or atmospheric air alone was
injected into the udder, with the result of increasing the recoveries
to 99%.
Cowpox is a contagious disease of much less frequent occurrence
now than formerly, probably owing to improved hygienic manage-
ment. In many localities the disease appears in all ,,
heifers which have recently calved on certain farms.
There is usually a slight premonitory fever, which is generally
overlooked; this is succeeded by some diminution in the quantity
of the milk, with some increased coagulability, and by the appear-
ance of the eruption or " pox " on the udder and teats. In well-
observed cases the udder is hot and tender on manipulation for a
day or two previous to the development of small pale-red nodules
about the size of peas; these increase in dimensions to from three-
fourths to one inch in diameter by the eighth or tenth day, when
their contents have become fluid and they present a depressed
centre. This fluid, at first clear and limpid, becomes yellowish
white as it changes to pus, and soon dries up, leaving a hard, button-
shaped black crust, which gradually becomes detached. On the
teats, owing to the handling of the milker or to the cow lying on
the hard ground, or on straw, the vesicles are early ruptured and
sores are formed, which often prove troublesome and may cause
inflammation of the udder.
Actinomycosis, though affecting man, horses, pigs and other
creatures, is far more common in the bovine species. The fungus
(Actinomyces) may be found in characteristic nodules in
various parts of the body, but it usually invades the bones
of the jaws, upper and lower, or the soft parts in the ~
neighbourhood of these, as the tongue, cheeks, face, throat and
glands in its vicinity. About the head the disease appears to com-
mence with slight sores on the gums or mucous membrane of the
mouth or with ulcers alongside decaying teeth, and these extend
slowly into the tissues. If the jaw is affected, a large rounded
tumour grows from it, the dense outer bone becoming absorbed
before the increasing soft growth within. Soon the whole becomes
ulcerated and purulent discharges take place, in which are found
the minute, hard, yellow granules which contain the fungus. When
the tongue is affected, it becomes enlarged and rigid; hence the
designation of " wooden tongue " given to it by the Germans. In
the course of time the surface of the organ becomes ulcerated, and
yellowish masses or nodules may be seen on the surface. Sometimes
the entire face is involved, the lips and nostrils becoming swollen,
hard and immovable, often rendering respiration difficult. Around
the throat there are rounded dense swellings, implicating the glands.
When the disease is well-defined and of slight extent, the parts
involved may be removed by the knife, wholly or partially. If the
latter only, then the remaining affected tissues should be dressed
with tincture of iodine or iodized carbolic acid. Chromic acid has
also been found useful. A course of potassium iodide internally
is sometimes curative and always beneficial.
Diseases of Sheep.
The contagious diseases of the sheep (other than those of foot-
and-mouth disease, anthrax, rinderpest, black-quarter) are com-
paratively few.
The formidable disorder of sheep-pox is confined chiefly to the con-
tinent of Europe. It is extremely contagious and fatal, and in these
and some other characteristics resembles human smallpox.
From three to twelve days after being exposed to infec-
tion the sheep appears dull and listless, and eats little, if
anything; the temperature rises; there are frequent tremblings;
tears flow from the eyes; and there is a nasal discharge. Red
patches appear inside the limbs and under the abdomen; and on
them, as well as on other parts where the skin is thin, dark red
spots show themselves, which soon become papules, with a deep
hard base. These are generally conical, and the apex quickly
becomes white from the formation of pus. This eruption is char- .
acteristic and unmistakable; and the vesicles or pustules may
remain isolated (discrete pox) or coalesce into large patches (con-
fluent pox). The latter form of the disease is serious. In bad
cases the eruption may develop on the eyes and in the respiratory
and digestive passages. The course of the disease lasts about
three weeks or a month, and the eruption passes through the same
VETERINARY SCIENCE
ii
Swlae
fever.
stages as that of cowpox. The mortality may extend from 10%
in mild outbreaks to 90 or 95 % in very virulent ones. Diseased
animals should be sheltered, and fed on nourishing food, especially
gruels of oatmeal flour or linseed; acidulated water may _be
allowed. If there is sloughing of the skin or extensive sores, oxide
of zinc ointment should be applied. But treatment should not
be adopted unless there is general infection over a wide extent of
country. All diseased animals should be destroyed, as well as
those which have been in contact with them, and thorough disin-
fection resorted to.
Foot-rot is a disease of the claws of sheep. It occurs most
frequently in badly drained, low-lying, marshy land, and is caused
by the Bacillus necrophorus. Infection appears to be
Foot-rot, transmitted by cohabitation, litter, manure and in-
fected pastures. The disease begins at the sole or between the
claws and gradually extends, causing changes in the bones and
tendons, with suppuration, degeneration of horn and sloughing.
The symptoms are lameness, foot or feet hot, tender and swollen
at the coronet; the horn soft and rotten. Affected sheep when
feeding may rest on the knees, or, if fore and hind feet are involved,
they lie down consrantly. The claws must be cleansed, loose
and underrun horn removed, abscesses opened, and the foot thor-
oughly disinfected and protected from further infection by an
appropriate bandage. Some cases require daily dressing, and all
affected feet should receive frequent attention. When large
numbers of sheep are attacked they should be slowly driven through
a foot-bath containing an antiseptic solution. Pastures on which
foot-rot has been contracted should be avoided, the feet examined
every month or oftener, and where necessary pared and dressed
with pine tar.
Diseases of the Pig.
The pig may become affected with anthrax, foot-and-mouth
disease and tuberculosis, and it also has its own particular variola.
But the contagious diseases which cause enormous destruction of
pigs are swine fever and swine erysipelas in Great Britain, hog
cholera and swine plague in the United States, and swine erysipelas
and swine plague in France, Germany and other countries of the
European continent.
Swine fever is an exceedingly infectious disease, caused by a
bacillus, and associated with ulceration of the intestine, enlarge-
ment of the lymphatic glands, and limited disease of
other organs. It is spread with great facility by mediate
as well as immediate contagion ; the virus can be carried
by apparently healthy pigs from an infected piggery, by litter,
manure, food, attendants, dogs, cats, vermin, crates, troughs or
anything which has been soiled by the discharges from a diseased
pig. It is generally very rapid in its course, death ensuing in a
very few days, and when the animal survives, recovery is pro-
tracted. After exposure to infection the animal exhibits signs of
illness by dullness, weakness, shiverings, burying itself in the litter,
disinclination to move, staggering gait, great thirst, hot dry snout,
loss of appetite, and increased pulse, respiration and temperature
(105 F.). Red and violet patches appear on the skin; there is a
hacking cough; nausea is followed by vomiting ; diarrhoea ensues;
the hind legs become paralvsed; stupor sets in, and the animal
perishes. Treatment should not be attempted. Notification of
the existence of swine fever is compulsory, and outbreaks are
dealt with by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. To suppress
the disease kill all affected pigs and those which have been in
contact with them; burn or deeply bury the carcasses and litter,
and cover with quicklime. Disinfect everything that may have
been contaminated with the virus.
Diseases of the Dog.
The contagious diseases of the dog are likewise very few, but
the one which attracts most attention is common and generally
serious. This is what is popularly known as distemper.
It is peculiar to the canine species, for there is no evidence
emper. tbat it can be conveyed to other animals, though the
different families of Carnivora appear each to be liable to a similar
disease. Distemper is a specific fever which most frequently
attacks young dogs, its effects being primarily developed in the
respiratory passages, though the brain, spinal chord and abdominal
organs may subsequently be involved. Highly bred and pet dogs
suffer more severely than the commoner and hardier kinds. It is
a most infectious disease, and there is much evidence to prove that
it owes its existence and prevalence solely to its virulence. One
attack confers immunity from another. The symptoms are rigors,
sneezing, dullness, loss of appetite, desire for warmth, and increased
temperature, respiration and pulse. The eyes are red, and the
nose, at first dry and harsh, becomes smeared with the discharge
which soons begins to flow from the nostrils. Suppuration also
begins at the eyes; vision is more or less impaired by the mucus
and pus, and often the cornea becomes ulcerated, and even per-
forated. There is a cough, which in some cases is so violent as to
induce vomiting. Debility rapidly ensues, and emaciation is soon
apparent ; diarrhoea in the majority of cases sets in ; the body
emits an unpleasant odour; ulceration of the mouth is noticed;
the nostrils become obstructed by the discharge from .them; con-
vulsions generally come on; signs of bronchitis, pneumonia,
jaundice or other complications manifest themselves; and in
some instances there is a pustular or vesicular eruption on the skin.
In fatal cases the animal dies in a state of marasmus. Many which
recover are affected with chorea for a long time afterwards. Here,
again, good nursing is all-important. Comfort and cleanliness,
with plenty of fresh air, must be ensured. Debility being the most
serious feature of the disease, the strength should be maintained
or restored until the fever has run its course. Light broth, beef
tea, or bread and milk, or these alternately, may be allowed as
diet. Preparations of quinine, given from the commencement of
the attack in a little wine, such as sherry, have proved very bene-
ficial. Often a mild laxative is required. Complications should be
treated as they arise. The disease being extremely infectious, pre-
cautions should be adopted with regard to other dogs. Protective
vaccines and antidistemper sera have been introduced by Lignieres,
Copeman, Phisalix and others, but their action is uncertain.
The formidable affliction known as hydrophobia (g.f.) or rabies is
treated of under that name.
Principal Parasites of Domestic Animals.
Perhaps the commonest worm infesting the horse is Ascarii
equorum, or common lumbricoid. The males are from 6 to 8 in.
long; females 7 to 17 in. They are found in almost ^ Aorae
every part of the intestine. When present in considerable
numbers they produce slight intermittent colicky pains, an
unthrifty condition of the skin, with staring coat. Although the
horse feeds well, it does not improve in condition, but is " tucked
up " and anaemic. Among the principal remedies is a mixture of
tartar emetic, turpentine and linseed oil. Santonin, ferrous sulphate,
common salt and arsenic are also employed. . Sclerostomum equinum
or palisade worm is a moderate-sized nematode, having a straight
body with a somewhat globular head males } to ij in., females
i in. to 2 in. long. This worm is found in the intestines, especially
the double colon and caecum. The embryos are developed in the
eggs after their expulsion from the host, and are lodged in moist
mud, where, according to Cobbold, they change their first skin in
about three weeks, after which they probably enter the body of
an intermediate bearer, whence they are conveyed in food or water
to the digestive canal of the horse, the ultimate host. They then
penetrate the mucous membrane and enter the blood vessels, where
they are sexually differentiated and give rise to aneurism. After
a time they resume their wanderings and reach the large intestine,
where they form small submucous cysts and rapidly acquire sexual
maturity. > They are most dangerous when migrating from one
organ to another. They are found in the anterior mesenteric artery,
but they also produce aneurism of the coeliac axis and other
abdominal blood vessels, including: the aorta. These parasitic
aneurisms are a frequent cause of fatal colic in young horses.
Sclerostomum tetracanthum, or four-spined sclerostome, is about the
same size as the palisade worm, and like it is found in the colon,
caecum and small intestine. It finds its way to the bowel in water or
green fodder swallowed by the horse. It is a true blood-sucker,
and its development is very similar to that of the S. equinum, except
that it directly encysts itself in the mucous membrane and does not
enter the blood vessels. The symptoms of its presence are emacia-
tion, colicky pains, harsh unthrifty coat, flabby muscles, flatu-
lence, foetid diarrhoea, anaemia, great weakness and, sometimes,
haemorrhagic enteritis. Treatment of equine sclerostomiasis fre-
quently fails, as the remedies cannot reach the encysted parasites.
As vermicides, thymol, areca, ferrous sulphate, tartar emetic,
arsenic, sodium chloride, oil of turpentine, lysol, creolin and carbolic
acid have been found useful.
Oxyuris curoula, or pin worm, is a common parasite of the large
intestine. The anterior part of the body is curved and the tail
sharply pointed. The male is seldom seen. The female measures
i to ij in. in length. It is found in the caecum, colon and rectum,
and it causes pruritus of the anus, from which it may be found pro-
jecting. This parasite is best treated by means of a cathartic, followed
by a course of mineral tonics, and repeated rectal injections of sodium
chloride solution, infusion of quassia or diluted creolin.
The cestodes or taeniae of the horse are insignificant in size and
they produce no special symptoms. Three species Anoplocefhala
perfoltata (26-28 mm. long), A. plicata (i$-8cm.)andA.mamillana
(1-3 cm.) have been described. The first is found in the_small
intestine and caecum, rarely in the colon ; the second occurs in the
small intestine and stomach; the third in the small intestine.
Generally a horse may be proved to be infested with tape-worm by
finding some of the ripe segments or proglottides in the faeces. The
best remedy is male fern extract with turpentine and linseed oil.
Gastrophilus equi, or the common bot-fly, is classed _with the
parasites on account of its larval form living as a parasite. The
bot-fly deposits its eggs on the fore-arm, knee and shank of the horse
at pasture. In twenty-four hours the ova are hatched and the
embryo, crawling on the skin, causes itching, which induces the horse
to nibble or lick the part, and in this way the embryo is carried by the
tongue to the mouth and swallowed. In the stomach the embryo
attaches itself to the mucous membrane, moults three times, in-
creases in size and changes from a blood-red to a yellowish-brown
12
VETERINARY SCIENCE
colour. The bot remains in the stomach till the following spring,
when it detaches itself, passes into the food and is discharged with
the faeces. When very numerous, bots may cause symptoms of
indigestion, though frequently their presence in the stomach is not
indicated by any sign of ill-health. They are difficult to dislodge
or kill. Green food, iodine, naphthalin, hydrochloric acid and
vegetable bitters have been recommended; but the most effective
remedy is a dose of carbon bisulphide given in a gelatin capsule,
repeated in twelve hours, and followed twelve hours later by an
aloetic ball.
Of the parasites which infest cattle and sheep mention will only
be made of Distomum hepaticum, or common fluke, which causes
liver-rot or distomiasis, a very fatal disease of lambs and
sheep under two years old. It occurs most frequently
p ' after a wet season on low-lying, marshy or undrainedland,
but it may be carried to other pastures by sheep which have been
driven through a fluke-infested country, and sheep allowed to graze
along ditches by the roadside may contract the parasite. For a
full description of its anatomy and development see TREMATODES.
Preventive treatment comprises the destruction of flukes and
snails; avoidance of low-lying, wet pastures draining infested land,
and top-dressing with salt, gas-lime, lime water or soot; supplying
sheep with pure drinking water; placing rock-salt in the fields, and
providing extra food and a tonic lick consisting of salt, aniseed,
ferrous sulphate, linseed and peas-meal.
Husk, hoose or verminous bronchitis of calves is caused by
St'ongylus micrurus, or pointed-tailed strongyle, a thread-worm
i to 3 in. long, and 5. pulmonaris, a similar but smaller nematode;
and the corresponding disease of sheep is due to S.^filaria and 5.
rufescens. The male S.filaria is I to 2 in., and the female 2 to 4 in.
long. They are white in colour and of the thickness of ordinary
sewing cotton. The 5. rufescens is thinner and shorter than S.filaria
and its colour is brownish red. The development of these strongyles
is not accurately known. When expelled and deposited in water or
moist earth, the embryos may live for many months. Hoose occurs
in spring and continues until autumn, when it may be most severe.
In sheep the symptoms are coughing, at first strong, with long
intervals, then weak and frequent, leaving the sheep distressed and
wheezing; discharge from the nose, salivation, occasional retching
with expulsion of parasites in frothy mucus, advancing emaciation,
anaemia and weakness. In calves the symptoms are similar but
less acute. Various methods of cure have been tried. Remedies
given by the mouth are seldom satisfactory. Good results have
followed fumigations with chlorine, burning sulphur, tar, &c., and
intra-tracheat injections of chloroform, iodine and ether, oil of
turpentine, carbolic acid, and opium tincture,, or chloroform,
ether, creosote and olive oil. The system should be supported with
as much good nourishing food as possible.
The principal parasites which infest the alimentary canal of cattle
or sheep are strongyles and taeniae. The strongyles of the fourth
stomach are 5. contortus, or twisted wire-worm (male 10 to 20 mm.,
female 20 to 30 mm. long), 5. convolutus (female 10 to 13 mm.),
5. ceroicornis (female 10 to 12 mm.), 5. gracilis (female 3 to 4 mm.),
and an unnamed species (female 9 mm. long) discovered by
McFadyean in 1896. In the contents of the stomach the contortus
may easily be recognized, but the other parasites, owing to their
small size or situation in the mucous membrane, may be overlooked
in an ordinary post-mortem examination. The contortus, which
is best known, may serve as the type. It lives on the blood which
it abstracts from the mucous membrane, and, according to the state
of repletion, its body may be red or white. The ova of this worm
are discharged in the faeces and spread over the pastures by infected
sheep. The oya hatch in a few days, and, according to Ransom,
within a fortnight embryos one-thirtieth of an inch long may be
found encased in a chitinoid investment, which protects them
from the effects of excessive cold, heat or moisture. When the
ground is damp and the temperature not too low, the embryos
creep up the leaves of grasses and other plants, but when the
temperature is below 40 F. they are inactive (Ransom). Sheep
feeding on infected pasture gather the young worms and convey
them to the fourth stomach, where they attain maturity in two or
three weeks. In wet weather the embryos may be washed into
ponds and ditches, and cattle and sheep may swallow them when
drinking. Strongyles cause loss of appetite, irritation and inflam-
mation of the stomach and bowel, diarrhoea, anaemia, progressive
emaciation, and, if not destroyed or expelled, a lingering death from
exhaustion. The success or failure of medicinal treatment depends
on the degree of infestation. A change of pasture is always de-
sirable, and as remedies a few doses of oil of turpentine in linseed
oil, or a solution of lysol or cyllin, and a powder consisting of arsenic,
ferrous sulphate, areca, nux vomica and common salt may be tried.
The ox may be the bearer of three and the sheep of twelve species
of taeniae, and of these the commonest is Moniezia (taenia) expanse,
which is more frequently found in sheep than in cattle. It is the
longest tapeworm, being from 6 to 30 ft. in sheep and from 40 to
loo ft. in cattle. Its maximum breadth is J in.; it is found in the
small intestine, and sometimes in sufficient numbers in lambs to
obstruct the bowel. Infested animals are constantly spreading
the ripe segments over the pastures, from which the ova or embryos
are gathered by sheep. The symptoms are inappetence, dry harsh
wool, weakness, anaemia and diarrhoea with segments of the worms
in the faeces. Various drugs have been prescribed for the expulsion
of tapeworms, but the most useful are male fern extract, turpentine,
kamala, kousso, aloes and linseed oil. Very young animals should
be supported by dry nourishing food and tonics, including salt and
ferrous sulphate.
The principal round-worms of the intestine of ruminants are
Ascaris vitulorum, or calf ascarid, Strongylus filicollis, S. ventricosus,
Sderostomum hypostomum, Anchylostomum cernuum and Tricho-
cephalus qffinis, or common whip-worm, which sometimes causes
severe symptoms in sheep. For a full account of the development
of Cysticercus bovis, or beef measle, the larval form of Taenia saginata
of the human subject, see TAPEWORMS. Another bladder-worm,
found in the peritoneum of sheep and cattle, is Cysticercus tenui-
collis, or slender-necked hydatid, the larval form of Taenia marginata
of the dog. It seldom produces serious lesions. An important
hydatid of ruminants in Coenurus cerebralis, which produces in sheep,
cattle, goats and deer gid or sturdy, a peculiar affection of the
central nervous system characterized by congestion, compression of
the brain, vertigo, inco-ordination, and other symptoms of cerebro-
spinal paralysis. This bladder-worm is the cystic form of Taenia
coenurus of the dog. It is found in the cranial cavity, resting on the
brain, within its substance or at its base, and sometimes in the
spinal canal. The symptoms vary with the position and number of
the vesicles. In an ordinary case the animal feeds intermittently
or not at all, appears unaccountably nervous or very dull, more or
less blind and deaf, with glazed eye, dilated pupil, the head twisted
or inclined always to one side that occupied by the cyst and when
moving the sheep constantly tends to turn in the same direction.
When the vesicle is deep-seated or within the cerebral lobe, the
sheep carries the head low, brings the feet together and turns round
and round like a dog preparing to lie down. When the developing
cyst exerts pressure at the base of the cerebellum, the sheep re-
peatedly falls and rolls over. In other cases the chief symptoms
may be frequent falling, always on the same side, high trotting
action with varying length of step, advancing by rearing and leaping,
complete motor paralysis, and in spinal cases posterior paralysis
with dragging of the hind limbs. Medicinal treatment is of no avail,
but in some cases the hydatid can be removed by trephining the
skull. Gid may be prevented by attending to the treatment of dogs
infested with the tapeworm.
The helminthes of the pig, although not very detrimental to the
animal itself, are nevertheless of great importance as regards the
entozoa of man. Allusion must be made to Trichinella
spiralis, which causes trichinosis. The male is Ath,
the female Jth in. long, and the embryos ^jth to fain in.
The ova measure uVsth '" m their long diameter; they are hatched
within the body of the female worm. When scraps of trichinous
flesh or infested rats have been ingested by the pig, the cysts en-
closing the larval trichinae are dissolved by the gastric juice in
about eighteen hours, and the worms are found free in the intestine.
In twenty-four to forty-eight hours later these larvae, having under-
gone certain transformations, become sexually mature; then they
copulate, and after an interval the embryos leave the body of the
female worm and immediately begin to penetrate the intestinal
wall in order to pass into various voluntary muscles, where they
become encysted. About twelve days elapse from the time they
begin their wandering. Usually each larva is enveloped in a capsule,
but two or even three larvae have been found in one investment.
They have been known to live in their capsules for eighteen months
to two years.
Cysticercus cettulosae is the larval form of Taenia solium of man
(see TAPEWORMS). " Measly pork " is caused by the presence
in the flesh of the pig of this entozoon, which is bladder-like in
form. It has also been discovered in the dog. Other important
parasites of the pig are Stephanurus dentatus, or crown-tailed
strongyle, Echinorhynchus gigas, or thorn-headed worm, Ascaris
suis, or pig ascarid, and Strongyloides suis. For these the most
useful remedies are castor oil seeds, given with the food, and oil of
turpentine in milk, followed by a dose of Epsom salts.
Of all the domesticated animals the dog is by far the most fre-
quently infested with worms. A very common round-worm is
Ascaris marginata (3 to 8 in. long), a variety of the ascarid
(A. mystax) of the cat. It occurs in the intestine or
stomach of young dogs. The symptoms are emaciation,
drooping belly, irritable skin, irregular appetite, vomiting the
worms in mucus, colic and diarrhoea. The treatment comprises
the administration of areca or santonin in milk, followed by a dose
of purgative medicine. A nematode, Filaria immitis, inhabits the
heart of the dog, and its larvae may be found in the blood, causing
endocarditis, obstruction of the vessels, and fits, which often end
in death. Spiroptera sanguinolenta may be found in the dog
encysted in the wall of the stomach. Other nematodes of the dog
are Anchylostomum trigonocephalum, which causes frequent bleeding
from the nose and pernicious anaemia, and Trichocephalus depressius-
culus, or whip-worm, which is found in the caecum. The dog
harbours eight species of taeniae and five species of Bolhriocephalus.
Taenia serrata, about 3 ft. in length, is found in about 10% of
VETERINARY SCIENCE
Derma-
iozoa.
English dogs, most frequently in sporting dogs and those employed
on farms, owing to their eating the viscera of rabbits, &c., in which
the larval form (Cysticercus pisiformis) of this tajeworrn dwells.
T. marginata is the largest cestode of the dog. It varies in length
from 5 to 8 ft., and is found in the small intestine of 30% of dogs in
Great Britain ; its cystic form (C. tenuicollis) occurs in the peritoneum
of sheep. T. co'.nurus causes gid in sheep as previously stated. It
seldom exceeds 3 ft. in length. Dogs contract this parasite by eating
the heads of sheep infested with the bladder-worm (Coenurus
cerebralis). Dipyliaium caninum, T. cucumerina, or melon seed
tapeworm, is a very common parasite of dogs. It varies in length
from 3 to 15 in.; its larval form (Cryptocystis trichodectis et pulicis)
is found in the abdomen of the dog-flea (Pulex serraticeps) , the dog-
louse (Trichodectis latus) and in the flea (P. irriians) of the human
subject. The dog contracts this worm by swallowing fleas or lice
containing the cryptocysts. T. echinococcus may be distinguished
from the other tapeworms by its small size. It seldom exceeds
J in. in length, and consists of four segments including the head.
The fourth or terminal proglottis when ripe is larger than all the
rest. Its cystic form is Echinococcus 'veterinorum, which causes
hydatid disease of the liver, lungs, and other organs of cattle, pigs,
sheep, horses, and even man. This affection may not be discovered
during life. In well-marked cases the liver is much deformed,
greatly enlarged, and increased in weight; in the ox the hydatid
liver may weigh from 50 to 100 Ib or more. Another tapeworm
(T. serialis) sometimes occurs in the small intestine. Its cystic
form is found in rodents. Bolhriocephalus latus, or broad tapeworm,
about 25 ft. long and I in. broad, is found in the intestine of the dog
and sometimes in man. Its occurrence appears to be confined to
certain parts of the European continent. Its larval form is met
with in pike, turbot, tench, perch, and other fishes. The heart-
shaped bothriocephalus (B. cordatus) infests the dog and man in
Greenland. For the expulsion of tapeworm male fern extract has
been found the most effectual agent; areca powder in linseed oil,
and a combination of areca, colocynth and jalap, the dose varying
according to the age, size and condition of the dog, have also proved
beneficial.
The parasites which cause numerous skin affections in the
domesticated animals may be arranged in two groups, viz.
animal parasites or Dermatozoa, and vegetable parasites
or Dermatophytes. The dermatozoa, or those which
produce pruritus, mange, scab, &c., are lice, fleas, ticks,
acari or mange mites, and the larvae of certain flies. The lice of the
horse are Haematopinus macrocephalus , Trichodectes pilosus and
T. pubescens; those of cattle, H. eurysternus, or large ox-louse,
H. vituli, or calf-louse, and T. scalaris, or small ox-louse ; and sheep
may be attacked by T. sphaerocephalus, or sheep-louse, and by the
louse-like ked or fag (Melophagus minus) which belongs to the
pupiparous diptera. Dogs may be infested with two species of
lice, H. piliferus and T. latus, and the pig with one, H. urius.
Ticks belong to the family Ixodidae of the order Acarina. A few
species have been proved responsible for the transmission of diseases
caused by blood parasites, and this knowledge has greatly increased
the importance of ticks in veterinary practice. The best known
ticks are Ixodes ricinus, or castor-bean tick, and /. hexagonus, which
are found all over Europe, and which attack dogs, cattle, sheep,
deer and horses. Rhipicephalus annulatus, or Texan fever-tick of
the United States, Rh. decoloratus, or blue-tick of South Africa, and
Rk. australis, or scrub-tick of Australia, transmit the parasite of
red water or bovine piroplasmosis. Rh. appendiculatus carries the
germs of East Coast fever, Rh. bursa is the bearer of the parasite
of ovine piroplasmosis, and Rh. evertsi distributes the germs of
equine biliary fever. Amblyomma hebraeum conveys the parasite
of " heart-water " of cattle and sheep, and Haemaphysalts leachi
transmits the parasite of canine piroplasmosis. Hyalomma aegyptium,
or Egyptian tick, Rh. simus and Rh. capensis, are common in most
parts of Africa.
The acari of itch, scab or mange are species of Sarcoptts, which
burrow in the skin; Psoroptes, which puncture the skin and live
on the surface sheltered by hairs and scurf; and Chorioptes, which
live in colonies and simply pierce the epidermis. Representatives
of these three genera have been found on the horse, ox and sheep;
varieties of the first genus (Sarcoptes) cause mange in the dog and
pig; and Chorioptes cynotis sometimes invades the ears of the dog
and cat. These parasites live on the exudation produced by the
irritation which they excite. Another acarus (Demodex folliculorum)
invades the dog's skin and sometimes occurs in other animals. It
inhabits the hair follicles and sebaceous glands, and causes a very
intractable acariasis the follicular or demodecic mange of the
dog (see MITE). A useful remedy for mange in the horse is a mixture
of sulphur, oil of tar and whale oil, applied daily for three days,
then washed off and applied again. For the dog, sulphur, olive oil
and potassium carbonate, or oil of tar and fish oil, may be tried.
Various approved patent dips are employed for scab in sheep. A
good remedy for destroying lice may be compounded from Stavesacre
powder, soft soap and hot water, applied warm to the skin. Follic-
ular mange is nearly incurable, but recent cases should be treated
by daily rubbing with an ointment of 5 parts cyllin and 100 parts
of lanoline.
The vegetable parasites, or Dermatophytes, which cause tinea
or ringworm in horses, cattle and dogs, belong to five distinct
genera: Trichophyton, Microsporum, Eidamella, Achorion
and Oospora. Ringworm of the horse is either a Tricho-
phytosis produced by one of four species of fungi (Tricho-
phyton mentagrophytes, T. flavum, T. equinum and T. verrucosum),
or a Microsporosis caused by Microsporum audouini. Ringworm
of cattle is always a Trichophytosis, and due to T. mentagrophytes.
Four different dermatpphytes (T. caninum, M. audouini var.
caninum, Eidamella spinosa and Oospora canina) affect the dog,
producing Trichophytic, Microsporous and Eidamellian ringworm
and favus. Little is known of ringworm in sheep and swine.
The fungi attack the roots of the hairs, which after a time lose
their elasticity and break off, leaving a greyish-yellow, bran-like
crust of epidermic products, dried blood and sometimes pus. In
favus the crusts are yellow, cupped, almost entirely composed of
fungi, and have an odour like that of mouldy cheese. Ringworm
may affect any part of the skin, but occurs principally on the head,
face, neck, back and hind quarters. It is very contagious, and
it may be communicated from one species to another, ana from
animals to man. The affected parts should be carefully scraped
and the crusts destroyed by burning; then the patches should be
dressed with iodine tincture, solution of copper sulphate or carbolic
acid, or with oil of tar.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Modern veterinary literature affords striking
evidence of the progress made by the science: excellent text-books,
manuals and treatises on every subject belonging to it are numerous,
and are published in every European language, while the abundant
periodical press, with marked ability and discrimination, records
and distributes the ever-increasing knowledge. The substantial
advances in veterinary pathology, bacteriology, hygiene, surgery
and preventive medicine point to a still greater rate of progress.
The schools in every way are better equipped, the education and
training general and technical of students of veterinary medicine
are more comprehensive and thorough, and the appliances for
observation and investigation of disease have been greatly improved.
Among the numerous modern works in English on the various
branches of veterinary science, the following may be mentioned:
McFadyean, Anatomy of the Horse: a Dissection Guide (London,
1902) ; Chauveau, Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals
(London, 1891); Cuyer, Artistic Anatomy of Animals (London,
1905); Share-Jones, Surgical Anatomy of the Horse (London,
J57)j Jowett, Blood-Serum Therapy and Preventive Inoculation
(London, 1906); Swithinbank and Newman, The Bacteriology of
Milk (London, 1905); Fleming, Animal Plagues (London, 1882);
Merillat, Animal Dentistry (London, 1905); Liautard, Animal
Castration (gth ed., London, 1902); Moussu and Dollar, Diseases
of Cattle, Sheep, Coats and Swine (London, 1905) ; Reeks, Common
Colics of the Horse (London, 1905); Sessions, Cattle Tuberculosis
(London, 1905); Sewell, Dogs: their Management (London, 1897);
Hobday, Surgical Diseases of the Dog and Cat (London, 1906);
Hill, Management and Diseases of the Dog (London, 1905); Sewell,
The Dog's Medical Dictionary (London, 1907); Goubaux and
Barrier, Exterior of the Horse (London, 1904) ; Reeks, Diseases of
the Foot of the Horse (London, 1906); Roberge, The Foot of the
Horse (London, 1894); Jensen, Milk Hygiene: a Treatise on
Dairy and Milk Inspection, &c. (London, 1907); Smith, Manual
of Veterinary Hygiene (London, 1905); Fleming, Human and
Animal Variolae (London, 1881); Hunting, The Art of Horse-
shoeing (London, 1899); Fleming, Horse-shoeing (London, 1900);
Dollar and Wheatley, Handbook of Horse-shoeing (London, 1898);
Lungwitz, Text-Book of Horse-shoeing (London, 1904); Axe, The
Horse: its Treatment in Health and Disease (9 vols., London, 1905) ;
Hayes, The Points of the Horse (London, 1904); Robertson, Equine
Medicine (London, 1883); Hayes, Horses on Board Ship (London,
1902); FitzWygram, Horses and Stables (London, 1901); Liautard,
Lameness of Horses (London, 1888); Walley, Meat Inspection
(2nd ed., London, 1901); Ostertag, Handbook of Meat Inspection
(London, 1907); Courtenay, Practice' of Veterinary Medicine and
Surgery (London, 1902); Williams, Principles and Practice of
Veterinary Medicine (8th ed., London, 1897); J. Law, Text-book of
Veterinary Medicine (5 vpls., New York, 1905); Cadiot and Dollar,
Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery (London, 1900); Steel,
Diseases of the Ox (London, i88i);'Leblanc, Diseases of the Mam-
mary Gland (London, 1904); De Bruin, Bovine Obstetrics (London,
1901); Fleming, Veterinary Obstetrics (London, 1896); Dalrymple,
Veterinary Obstetrics (London, 1898); Neumann, Parasites and
Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals (London, 1905);
F. Smith, Veterinary Physiology (3rd ed., London, 1907); Meade
Smith, Physiology of the Domestic Animals (London, 1889); Kitt,
Comparative General Pathology (London, 1907) ; Friedberger and
Frohner, Veterinary Pathology (London, 1905); Brown, Atlas of
the Pig (London, 1900); Rush worth, Sheep and their Diseases
(London, 1903); Fleming, Operative Veterinary Surgery (London,
1903); Williams, Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery
(loth ed., London, 1903); Moller and Dollar, Practice of Veterinary
Surgery (London, 1904); Frohner, General Veterinary Surgery
(New York, 1906); Merillat, Principles of Veterinary Surgery and
Surgical Pathology (London, 1907); Cadiot and Almy, Surgical
VETO
Therapeutics of Domestic Animals (London, 1906); Hayes, Stable
Management (London, 1903); Dun, Veterinary Medicines: their
Actions and Uses (llth ed., Edinburgh, 1906); Tuson, A Pharma-
copoeia (London, 1904); Hoare, Veterinary Therapeutics and
Pharmacology (London, 1907); Gresswell, The Veterinary Pharma-
copoeia and Manual of Therapeutics (London, 1903); Winslow,
Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics (New York, 1901) ;
Nunn, Veterinary Toxicology (London, 1907); Laveran and Mesnil,
Trypanosomata and the Trypanosomiases (London, 1907); Journal
of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics (quarterly, Edinburgh) ;
The Veterinary Journal (monthly, London) ; The Veterinary Record
(weekly, London) ; The Veterinary News (weekly, London).
(G. FL.; J.MAC.)
VETO (Lat. for " I forbid "), generally the right of preventing
any act, or its actual prohibition; in public law, the constitu-
tional right of the competent authority, or in republics of the
whole people in their primary assembly, to protest against a
legislative or administrative act, and to prevent wholly, or for
the time being, the validation or execution of the same.
It is generally stated that this right was called into existence
in the Roman republic by the tribunicia potestas, because by
this authority decisions of the senate, and of the consuls and
other magistrates, could be declared inoperative. Such a state-
ment must, however, be qualified by reference to the facts that
inlerdico, inlerdicimus were the expressions used, and, in general,
that in ancient Rome every holder of a magistracy would check a
negotiation set on foot by a colleague, his equal in rank, by his
opposition and intervention. This was a consequence of the
position that each of the colleagues possessed the whole power of
the magistracy, and this right of intervention must have come
into existence with the introduction of colleagued authorities,
i.e. with the commencement of the republic. In the Roman
magistracy a twofold power must be distinguished: the positive
management of the affairs of the state entrusted to each indi-
vidual, and the power of restraining the acts of magistrates of
equal or inferior rank by his protest. As the tribuni plebis
possessed this latter negative competence to a great extent, it
is customary to attribute to them the origin of the veto.
In the former kingdom of Poland the precedent first set in
1652 was established by law as a constant right, that in the
imperial diet a single deputy by his protest " Nie pozwalam,"
i.e. " I do not permit it," could invalidate the decision
sanctioned by the other members. The king of France received
the right of a suspensory veto at the commencement of the
French Revolution, from the National Assembly sitting at Ver-
sailles in 1789, with regard to the decrees of the latter, which
was only to be valid for the time being against the decisions
come to and during the following National Assembly, but during
the period of the third session it was to lose its power if the
Assembly persisted in its resolution. By this means it was
endeavoured to diminish the odium of the measure; but, as is
well known, the monarchy was soon afterwards entirely abol-
ished. Similarly the Spanish Constitution of 1812 prescribed
that the king might twice refuse his sanction to bills laid twice
before him by two sessions 6f the cortes, but if the third session
repeated the same he could no longer exercise the power of
veto. The same was the ca^e in the Norwegian Constitution of
1814.
In the French republic the president has no veto strictly so
called, but he has a power somewhat resembling it. He can,
when a bill has passed both Chambers, by a message to them,
refer it back for further deliberation. The king or queen of
England has the right to withhold sanction from a bill passed
by both houses of parliament. This royal prerogative has not
been exercised since 1692 and may now be considered obsolete.
The governor of an English colony with a representative legis-
lature has the power of veto against a bill passed by the legis-
lative body of a colony. In this case the bill is finally lost, just
as a bill would be which had been rejected by the colonial council,
or as a bill passed by the English houses of parliament would
be if the crown were to exert the prerogative of refusing the
royal assent. The governor may, however, without refusing his
assent, reserve the bill for the consideration of the crown. In
that case the bill does not come into force until it has either
actually or constructively received the royal assent, which is in
effect the assent of the English ministry, and therefore indirectly
of the imperial parliament. Thus the colonial liberty of legisla-
tion is made legally reconcilable with imperial sovereignty, and
conflicts between colonial and imperial laws are prevented. 1
The constitution of the United States of America contains in
art. i., sect. 7, par. 2, the following order:
" Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives
and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the
president of the United States; if he approve, he" shall sign it, if
not, he shall return it with his objections to that house in which
it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on
their journal and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such recon-
sideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it
shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by
which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two-
thirds of that house, it shall become a law. Every order, resolution
or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment)
shall be presented to the president of the United States, and, before
the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being dis-
approved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and
House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations
prescribed in the case of a bill."
In all states of the Union except one the governors, in the
same manner or to a modified extent, possess the right of
vetoing bills passed by the legislature. Here, therefore, we
have again a suspensory veto which is frequently exercised.
According to the constitution of the German empire of 1871,
the imperial legislation is executed by the federal council and
imperial diet; the emperor is not mentioned. In the federal
council the simple majority of votes decides. But in the case
of bills concerning the army, the navy and certain specially
noted taxes, as well as in the case of decisions concerning the
alteration of orders for the administration, and arrangements
for the execution of the laws of customs and taxes, the proposal
of the federal council is only accepted if the Prussian votes are
on the side of the majority in favour of the same (art. vii., sect. 3).
Prussia presides in the federal council. The state of things is
therefore, in fact, as follows: it is not the German emperor, but
the same monarch as king of Prussia, who has the right of veto
against bills and decisions of the federal council, and therefore
can prevent the passing of an imperial law. The superior power
of the presidential vote obtains, it is true, its due influence only
in one legislative body, but in reality it has the same effect as
the veto of the head of the empire.
The Swiss federal constitution grants the president of the
Confederation no superior position at all; neither he nor the
federal council possesses the power of veto against laws or
decisions of the federal assembly. But in some cantons, viz.
St Gall (1831), Basel (1832) and Lucerne (1841), the veto was
introduced as a right of the people. The citizens had the power to
submit to a plebiscite laws which had been debated and accepted
by the cantonal council (the legislative authority), and to reject
the same. If this plebiscite was not demanded within a certain
short specified time, the law came into force. But, if the voting
took place, and if the number of persons voting against the law
exceeded by one vote half the number of persons entitled to vote
in the canton, the law was rejected. The absent voters were
considered as having voted in favour of the law. An attempt
to introduce the veto in Zurich in 1847 failed. Thurgau and
Schaffhausen accepted it later. Meanwhile another arrangement
has quite driven it out of the field. This is the so-called " refer-
endum " properly speaking, direct legislation by the people
which has been introduced into most of the Swiss cantons.
Formerly in all cantons with the exception of the small moun-
tainous districts of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Glarus and
Appenzell it was not a pure democracy, but a representative
constitution that prevailed: the great councillors or cantonal
councillors periodically chosen by the people were the possessors
of the sovereign power, and after deliberating twice passed the
bills definitely. Now they have only to discuss the bills, which
1 A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution,
pp. in seq. (6th ed., London, 1902); Sir H. Jenkyns, British Rule
and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas, pp. 113 seq. (London, 1902).
VETTER VEVEY
are printed and sent to all voters with an explanatory message;
then the people on a certain day vote for the acceptance or re-
jection of the law by writing " yes " or " no " on a printed voting
paper, which is placed in an urn under official control. In
some cantons important financial resolutions involving large
state expenses are also submitted to the decision of the people.
In the revised federal constitution of 1874, under certain sup-
positions which have no further interest for us at present, a
facultative referendum or Initiative (i.e. the possibility of de-
manding a plebiscite under exceptional circumstances) was
introduced for federal laws. Since that period it has often been
employed and has operated like a veto. It is evident that by
the compulsory referendum in the cantons the mere veto is
rendered superfluous.
In examining the question as to what position the veto occupies
in jurisprudence, we must separate quite different conceptions which
are comprised under the same name.
1. The veto may be a mere right of intervention on the part of a
magistrate against the order of another official, or against that of an
authority of equal or inferior rank. This was the case in ancient
Rome. To this class belong also those cases in which, as in the French
republic, the president makes his " no " valid against decisions of
the general councillors, and the prefect does the same against
decisions of the communal councillors. The use of the expres-
sion here is quite justifiable, and this veto is not confined to bills,
but refers particularly to administrative measures. It affords a
guarantee against the abuse of an official position.
2. The veto may be a safety-valve against precipitate decisions,
and so a preventive measure. This task is fulfilled by the suspensory
veto of the president of the United States. Similarly, to this class
belong the above-mentioned prescriptions of the Spanish and
Norwegian constitutions, and also the veto of the governor of an
English colony against decisions of the legislature; for this protest
is only intended to prevent a certain want of harmony between the
general and the colonial legislation, by calling forth a renewed
investigation. This veto is neither an interference with the com-
petence of an authority, nor a division of the legislative power
among different factors, but simply a guarantee against precipitancy
in the case of a purely legislative measure. The wisdom of estab-
lishing this veto power by the constitution is thus manifest.
3. It is wrong to apply the term veto to what is merely the negative
side of the sanctioning of the laws, in other words, an act of sove-
reignty. It would not be in accordance with the nature of a con-
stitutional monarchy to declare the monarch's consent to a law
unnecessary, or make it a compulsory duty; the legislative power
is divided between him and the chambers. The sovereign must
therefore be perfectly at liberty to say " yes " or " no " in each
single case according to his opinion. If he says the latter, we speak
of it as his veto, but this if he possesses an absolute and not merely
a suspensory veto is not an intervention and not a preventive
measure, but the negative side of the exercise of the legislative power,
and therefore an act of sovereignty. That this right belongs fully
and entirely to the holder of sovereign power however he may be
called is self-evident. One chamber can also by protest prevent a
bill of the other from coming into force. The " placet of the temporal
power for church affairs when it occurs also involves in this manner
in itself the veto or non placet." Where in pure democracies the
people in their assembly have the right of veto or referendum, the
exercise of it is also a result of the sovereign rights of legislature.
(For the question of the conflict between the two houses of England,
see REPRESENTATION.)
The peculiar power of veto possessed by the (Prussian) president
of the federal council of Germany lies on the boundary between
(2) and (3). (A. v. O.)
VETTER [Vatter or Welter, often written, with the addition
of the definite article, Vettern], a lake of southern Sweden,
80 m. long, and 18 m. in extreme breadth. It has an area of
733 sq. m., and a drainage area of 2528 sq. m.; its maximum
depth in 390 ft., and its elevation above sea-level 289 ft. It
drains eastward by the Motala river to the Baltic. Its waters
are of remarkable transparency and blueness, its shores pictur-
esque and steep on the east side, where the Omberg (863 ft.)
rises abruptly, with furrowed flanks pierced by caves. The
lake is subject to sudden storms. Its northern part is crossed
from Karlsborg to Motala (W. to E.) by the Gota canal route.
At the southern end is the important manufacturing town of
Jonkoping, and 15 m. N. of it the picturesque island of Vising,
with a ruined palace of the I7th century and a fine church.
Vadstena, 8 m. S. of Motala, with a staple industry in lace,
has a convent (now a hospital) of St Bridget or Birgitta (1383),
a beautiful monastic church (1395-1424) and a castle of King
Gustavus Vasa. At Alvastra, 16 m. S. again, are ruins of a
Cistercian monastery of the nth century. Close to Motala
are some of the largest mechanical workshops in Sweden, building
warships, machinery, bridges, &c.
VETULONIUM, or VETULONIA (Etruscan Velluna), an ancient
town of Etruria, Italy, the site of which is probably occupied
by the modern village of Vetulonia, which up to 1887 bore the
name of Colonna. It lies 1130 ft. above sea-level, about 10 m.
direct N.W. of Grosseto, on the N.E. side of the hills which
project from the flat Maremma and form the promontory of
Castiglione. The place is little mentioned in ancient literature,
though Silius Italicus tells us that it was hence that the Romans
took their magisterial insignia (fasces, curule chair, purple toga
and brazen trumpets), and it was undoubtedly one of the twelve
cities of Etruria. Its site was not identified before 1881, and
the identification has been denied in various works by C. Dotto
dei Dauli, who places it on the Poggio Castiglione near Massa
Marittima, where scanty remains of buildings (possibly of city
walls) have also been found. This site seems to agree better
with the indications of medieval documents. But certainly
an Etruscan city was situated on the hi)l of Colonna, where there
are remains of city walls of massive limestone, in almost hori-
zontal courses. The objects discovered in its extensive necro-
polis, where over 1000 tombs have been excavated, are now
in the museums of Grcsseto and Florence. The most important
were surrounded by tumuli, which still form a prominent
feature in the landscape.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883),
ii. 263; Notizie degli Scavi, passim; I. Falchi, Ricerche di Vetulonia
(Prato, 1881), and other works, especially Vetulonia e la sup,
necropoli antichissima (Florence, 1891); G. Sordini, Vetulonia
(Spoleto, 1894) and references. (T. As.)
VEUILLOT, LOUIS (1813-1883), French journalist and man
of letters, was born ot humble parents at Boynes (Loiret) on
the nth of October 1813. When Louis Veuillot was five
years old his parents removed to Paris. After a very slight
education he entered a lawyer's office, and was sent in 1830 to
serve on a Rouen paper, and afterwards to Perigueux. He
returned to Paris in 1837, and a year later visited Rome during
Holy Week. There he embraced extravagant ultramontane
sentiments, and was from that time an ardent champion of
Catholicism. The results of his conversion appeared in P'tler-
inage en Suisse (1839), Rome el Lorelle (1841) and other works.
In 1843 he entered the staff of the Univers religieux. His
violent methods of journalism had already provoked more than
one duel, and for his polemics against the university of Paris
in the Univers he was imprisoned for a short time. In 1848
he became editor of the paper, which was suppressed in 1860,
but revived in 1867, when Veuillot recommenced his ultra-
montane propaganda, which brought about a second suppression
of his journal in 1874. When his paper was suppressed Veuillot
occupied himself in writing violent pamphlets directed against
the moderate Catholics, the Second Empire and the Italian
government. His services to the papal see were fully recog-
nized by Pius IX., on whom he wrote (1878) a monograph. He
died on the 7th of March 1883.
Some of his scattered papers were collected in Melanges religieux,
historiques et litteraires (12 vols., 1857-75), and his Correspondance
(6 vols., 1883-85) has great political interest. His younger brother,
Eugene Veuillot, published (1901-4) a comprehensive and valuable
life, Louis Veuillot.
VEVEY [German Vims], a small town in the Swiss canton of
Vaud and near the eastern extremity of the Lake of Geneva.
It is by rail 12 m. S.E. of Lausanne or 3! m. N.W. of the Vernex-
Montreux railway station, while it is well served by steamers
plying over the Lake of Geneva. In 1900 it had a population
of 11,781, of whom 8878 were French-speaking, while there
were 8277 Protestants to 3424 Romanists and 56 Jews. It is
the second town in point of population in the canton, coming
next after Lausanne, though inferior to the " agglomeration "
known as Montreux. It stands at the mouth of the Veveyse
and commands fine views of the snowy mountains seen over
the glassy surface of the lake. The whole of the surrounding
i6
VEXILLUM VIANDEN
country is covered with vineyards, which (with the entertain-
ment of foreign visitors) occupy the inhabitants. Every twenty
years or so (last in 1889 and 1905) the Fetedes Vigneronsis held
here by an ancient gild of vinedressers, and attracts much
attention. Besides a railway line that joins the Montreux-
Bernese Oberland line at Chamby (5 m. from Vevey and ij m.
below Les Avants) there is a funicular railway from Vevey up
the Mont Pelerin (3557 ft.) to the north-west.
Vevey was a Roman settlement [Viviscus] and later formed part
of the barony of Vaud, that was held by the counts and dukes of
Savoy till 1536, when it was conquered by Bern. In 1798 it was
freed from Bernese rule and became part of the canton du Leman
(renamed canton de Vaud in 1803) of the Helvetic Republic.
(W. A. B. C.)
VEXILLUM (Lat. dim. of velum, piece of cloth, sail, awning,
or from vehere, vectum, to carry), the name for a small ensign
consisting of a square cloth suspended from a cross-piece fixed
to a spear. The vexillum was strictly the ensign of the maniple,
as signum was of the cohort, but the term came to be used for
all standards or ensigns other than the eagle (aquila) of the
legion (see FLAG). Caesar (B.C. ii. 20) uses the phrase vexillum
proponere of the red flag hoisted over the general's tent as a
signal for the march or battle. The Gtandard-bearer of the
maniple was styled vexillarius, but by the time of the Empire
vexillum and vexillarius had gained a new significance. Tacitus
uses these terms frequently both of a body of soldiers serving
apart from the legion under a separate standard, and also with
the addition of some word implying connexion with a legion
of those soldiers who, after serving sixteen years with the
legion, continued their service, under their own vexillum, with
the legion. The term is also used for the scarf wrapped round
a bishop's pastoral staff (q.v.). Modern science has adopted
the word for the web or vein of a feather of a bird and of the
large upper petal of flowers, such as the pea, whose corolla is
shaped like a butterfly.
VEXIO, or WEXIO, a town and bishop's see of Sweden,
capital of the district (Ian) of Kronoberg, 124 m. N.E. of Malmo
by rail. Pop. (1900) 7365. It is pleasantly situated among
low wooded hills at the north end of Lake Vexio, and near the
south end of Lake Helga. Its appearance is modem, for it
was burnt in 1843. The cathedral of St Siegfrid dates from
about 1300, but has been restored, the last time in 1898. The
Smaland Museum has antiquarian and numismatic collections,
a library and a bust of Linnaeus. There are iron foundries,
a match factory, &c. At Ostrabo, the episcopal residence
without the town, the poet Esaias Tegner died in 1846, and he
is buried in the town cemetery. On the shore of Lake Helga
is the royal estate of Kronoberg, and on an island in the lake
the ruins of a former castle of the same name.
VEZELAY, a village of France, in the department of Yonne,
10 m. W.S.W. of Avallon by road. Its population, which was
over 10,000 in the middle ages, was 524 in 1906. It is situated
on the summit and slopes of a hill on the left bank of the Cure,
and owes its renown to the Madeleine, one of the largest and
most beautiful basilicas in France. The Madeleine dates from
the 1 2th century and was skilfully restored by Viollet-le-Duc.
It consists of a narthex, with nave and aisles; a triple nave,
without triforium, entered from the narthex by three door-
ways; transepts; and a choir with triforium. The oldest
portion of the church is the nave, constructed about 1125.
Its groined vaulting is supported on wide, low, semicircular
arches, and on piers and columns, the capitals of which are
embellished with sculptures full of animation. The narthex
was probably built about 1140. The central entrance, leading
from it to the nave, is one of the most remarkable features of
the church; it consists of two doorways, divided by a central
pier supporting sculptured figures, and is surmounted by a
tympanum carved with a representation of Christ bestowing
the Holy Spirit upon His apostles. The choir and transepts
are later in date than the rest of the church, which they surpass
in height and grace of proportion. They resemble the eastern
portion of the church of St Denis, and were doubtless built in
place of a Romanesque choir damaged in a fire in 1165. A
crypt beneath the choir is perhaps the relic of a previous
Romanesque church which was destroyed by fire in 1120.
The west facade of the Madeleine has three portals; that in the
centre is divided by a pier and surmounted by a tympanum
sculptured with a bas-relief of the Last Judgment. The upper
portion of this front belongs to the i3th century. Only the
lower portion of the northernmost of the two flanking towers
is left, and of the two towers which formerly rose above the
transept that to the north has disappeared. Of the other
buildings of the abbey, there remains a chapter-house (i3th
century) adjoining the south transept. Most of the ramparts of
the town, which have a circuit of over a mile, are still in
existence. In particular the Porte Neuve, consisting of two
massive towers flanking a gateway, is in good preservation.
There are several interesting old nouses, among them one in
which Theodore of Beza was born. Of the old parish church,
built in the i7th century, the clock-tower alone is left. A mile
and a half from Vezelay, in the village of St Pere-sous-Vezelay,
there is a remarkable Burgundian Gothic church, built by the
monks of Vezelay in the i3th century. The west facade,
flanked on the north by a fine tower, is richly decorated; its
lower portion is formed of a projecting porch surmounted by
pinnacles and adorned with elaborate sculpture.
The history of Vezelay is bound up with its Benedictine abbey,
which was founded in the gth century under the influence of
the abbey of Cluny. This dependence was soon shaken off
by the younger monastery, and the acquisition of the relics
of St Magdalen, soon after its foundation, began to attract
crowds of pilgrims, whose presence enriched both the monks
and the town which had grown up round the abbey and ac-
knowledged its supremacy. At the beginning of the I2th
century the exactions of the abbot Artaud, who required
money to defray the expense of the reconstruction of the
church, and the refusal of the monks to grant political independ-
ence to the citizens, resulted in an insurrection in which the
abbey was burnt and the abbot murdered. During the next
fifty years three similar revolts occurred, fanned by the counts
of Nevers, who wished to acquire the suzerainty over Vezelay
for themselves. The monks were, however, aided by the
influence both of the Pope and of Louis VII., and the towns-
men were unsuccessful on each occasion. During the i2th
century V6zelay was the scene of the preaching of the second
crusade in 1146, and of the assumption of the cross in 1190 by
Richard Cceur de Lion and Philip Augustus. The influence
of the abbey began to diminish in 1280 when the Benedictines
of St Maximin in Provence affirmed that the true body of
St Magdalen had been discovered in their church; its decline
was precipitated during the wars of religion of the i6th century,
when Vezelay suffered great hardships.
VIANDEN, an ancient town in the grand duchy of Luxem-
burg, on the banks of the Our, close to the Prussian frontier.
Pop. (1905) 2350. It possesses one of the oldest charters in
Europe, granted early in the i4th century by Philip, count of
Vianden, from whom the family of Nassau-Vianden sprang,
and who was consequently the ancestor of William of Orange
and Queen Wilhelmina of Holland. The semi-mythical
foundress of this family was Bertha, " the White Lady " who
figures in many German legends. The original name of Vianden
was Viennensis or Vienna, and its probable derivation is from
the Celtic Vien (rock). The extensive ruins of the ancient
castle stand on an eminence of the little town, but the chapel
which forms part of it was restored in 1849 by Prince Henry
of the Netherlands. The size and importance of this castle
in its prime may be gauged from the fact that the Knights'
Hall could accommodate five hundred men-at-arms. A re-
markable feature of the chapel is an hexagonal hole in the
centre of the floor, opening upon a bare subterranean dungeon.
This has been regarded as an instance of the " double chapel,"
but it seems to have been constructed by order of the crusader
Count Frederick II. on the model of the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre. In the neighbourhood of Vianden are other ruined
castles, notably those of Stolzemburg and Falkenstein. The
VIANNA DO CASTELLO VICAIRE
little town and its pleasant surroundings have been praised
by many, among others by Victor Hugo, who resided here on
several occasions. During his last visit he wrote his fine work
V Annie terrible. In the time of the Romans the Vianden
valley was covered with vineyards, but at the present day
its chief source of wealth is derived from the rearing of pigs.
VIANNA DO CASTELLO, a seaport and the capital of the
district of Vianna do Castello, Portugal; at the mouth of the
river Lima, which is here crossed by the iron bridge of the Oporto-
Valenca do Minho railway. Pop. (1900) 10,000. Vianna do
Castello has manufactures of lace and dairy produce. Its
fisheries are important. Salmon and lampreys are exported,
both fresh and preserved. The administrative district of Vianna
do Castello coincides with the northern part of the ancient
province of Entre Minho e Douro (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 215,267;
area, 857 sq. m.
VIAREGGIO, a maritime town and sea-bathing resort of Tus-
cany, Italy, in the province of Lucca, on the Mediterranean,
13 m. N.W. of Pisa by rail, 7 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906)
14,863 (town); 21,557 (commune). Being sheltered by dense
pine-woods on the north, and its malaria having been banished
by drainage, it is frequented as a winter resort, and in summer
by some thousands for its sea-bathing. In 1740 the population
was only 300, and in 1841, 6549. The body of Shelley was
burned on the shore near Viareggio after his death by drowning
in 1822. The town possesses a school of navigation and a
technical school, and carries on some shipbuilding.
VIATICUM (a Latin word meaning " provision for a journey ";
Gr. TO. i<f>66ia), is often used by early Christian writers to denote
the sacrament of the Eucharist, and is sometimes also applied
to baptism. Ultimately it came to be employed in a restricted
sense to denote the last communicn given to the dying. The
I3th canon of the council of Nicaea is to the effect that " none,
even of the lapsed, shall be deprived of the last and most neces-
sary viaticum (0o6w)," and that the bishop, on examination,
is to give the oblation to all who desire to partake of the Eucharist
on the point of death. The same principle still rules the canon
law, it being of course understood that penitential discipline,
which in ordinary circumstances would have been due for their
offence, is to be undergone by lapsed persons who have thus
received the viaticum, in the event of recovery. In extreme
cases it is lawful to administer the viaticum to persons not
fasting, and the same person may receive it frequently if his
illness be prolonged. The ritual to be observed in its adminis-
tration does not differ from that laid down in the office for the
communion of the sick, except in the words of the formula,
which is " accipe, carissime f rater (carissima soror), viaticum
corpotis nostri Jesu Christi, quod te custodial ab hoste maligno,
protegat te, et perducat te ad vitam aeternam. Amen." After-
wards the priest rinses his fingers in a little water, which the
communicant drinks. The viaticum is given before extreme
unction, a reversal of the medieval practice due to the impor-
tance of receiving the Eucharist while the mind is still clear. In
the early centuries the sick, like those in health, generally re-
ceived both kinds, though there are instances of the viaticum
being given under one form only, sometimes the bread and
sometimes, where swallowing was difficult, the wine. In times
of persecution laymen occasionally carried the viaticum to the
sick, a practice that persisted into the 9th century, and deacons
continued to do so even after the Council of Ansa (near Lyons)
in 990 restricted the function to priests.
VIBORG, a town of Denmark, capital of the ami (county)
of its name, lying in the bleak midland district of Jutland,
though the immediate situation, on the small Viborg lake, is
picturesque. Pop. (1901) 8623. It has a station on the railway
running east and west between Langaa and Vemb. The most
notable building is the cathedral (1130-1169, restored 1864-
1876). The Black Friars' church is of the i3th century, and
the museum possesses specimens of the Stone, Bronze and Iron
Ages, also medieval antiquities. The Borgevold Park borders
the lake on the site of a former castle. The industries embrace
distilleries, iron foundries and manufactures of cloth. The
country to the south attains to a certain degree of beauty near
Lake Hald, where the ground is slightly elevated.
VIBORG (Finnish Viipuri), capital of a province of the same
name in Finland, is situated at the head of the Bay of Viborg
in the Gulf of Finland, at the mouth of the Saima Canal and
on the railway which connects St Petersburg with Helsingfors.
Population of the town (1904) 34,672, of the province 458,269.
The Saima Canal (37 m. long), a fine engineering work, connects
with the sea Lake Saima the principal lake of Finland, 249 ft.
above sea-level and a series of others, including Puruvesi,
Orivesi, Hoytianen and Kallavesi, all of which are navigated
by steamers, as far north as lisalmi in 63 30' N. lat. Viborg is
thus the seaport of Karelia and eastern Savolaks, with the towns
of Vilmanstrand (2393 inhabitants in 1904), St Michel (3933),
Myslott (2687), Kuopio (13, 5 19) and lisalmi, with their numerous
saw-mills and iron-works. Viborg stands most picturesquely
on the glaciated and dome-shaped granite hills surrounding the
bay, which is protected at its entrance by the naval station of
Bjorko and at its head by several forts. The castle of Viborg,
built in 1293 by Marshal Torkel Knutson, was the first centre
for the spread of Christianity in Karelia, and for establishing
the power of Sweden; it is now used as a prison. Its lofty and
elegant tower has fallen into decay. The court-house (1839),
the town-house, the gymnasium (1641; with an excellent
library), and the museum are among the principal buildings of
the city. There are also a lyceum and two higher schools for
girls, a school of navigation and several primary schools, both
public and private, a literary and an agricultural society, and
several benevolent institutions. There are foundries, machine
works and saw-mills, and a considerable export of timber and
wood products. The coasting trade is also considerable.
The environs are most picturesque and are visited by many
tourists in the summer. The park of Monrepos (Old Viborg), in
a bay dotted with dome-shaped islands, is specially attractive.
The scenery of the Saima Canal and of the Finnish lakes with
the grand ds of Pungaharju; the Imatra rapids, by which the
Vuoksen discharges the water of Lake Saima into Lake Ladoga,
with the castle of Kexholm at its mouth; Serdobol and Valamo
monastery on Lake Ladoga all visited from Viborg attract
many tourists from St Petersburg as well as from other parts of
Finland.
VIBURNUM, in medicine, the dried bark of the black haw
or Viburnum prunifolium, grown in India and North America.
The black haw contains viburnin and valerianic, tannic, gallic,
citric and malic acids. The British Pharmacopoeial prepara-
tion is the Extraclum Viburni Prunifolii liquidum; the United
States preparation is the fluid extract prepared from the
Viburnum opulus. The physiological action of viburnum is
to lower the blood pressure. In overdose it depresses the motor
functions of the spinal cord and so produces loss of reflex
and paralysis. Therapeutically the drug is used as an anti-
spasmodic in dysmenorrhoea and in menorrhagia.
VICAIRE, LOUIS GABRIEL CHARLES (1848-1000), French
poet, was born at Belfort on the 25th of January 1848. He
served in the campaign of 1870, and then settled in Paris to
practise at the bar, which, however, he soon abandoned for
literature. His work was twice " crowned " by the Academy,
and in 1892 he received the cross of the Legion of Honour. Born
in the Vosges, and a Parisian by adoption, Vicaire remained all
his life an enthusiastic lover of the country to which his family
belonged La Bresse spending much of his time at Ambe'rieu.
His freshest and best work is his Emaux bressans (1884), a volume
of poems full of the gaiety and spirit of the old French chansons.
Other volumes followed: Le Livre de la patric, L'Hture en-
chantee (1890), A la bonne franquetle (1892), Au bois joli (1894)
and l*e Clos des f(es (1897). Vicaire wrote in collaboration with
Jules Truffier two short pieces for the stage, Fleurs d'avrU (1800)
and La Farce du mari refondu (1895); also the Miracle de Saint
Nicolas (1888). With his friend Henri Beauclair he produced a
parody of the Decadents entitled Les Deliquescence* and signed
Ador Floupette. His fame rests on his maux bressans and on
his Rabelaisian drinking songs; the religious and fairy poems.
i8
VICAR VICE-CHANCELLOR
charming as they often are, carry simplicity to the verge of
affectation. The poet died in Paris, after a long and painful
illness, on the 23rd of September 1900.
See Henri Corbel, Un Poete, Gabriel Vicaire (1902).
VICAR (Lat. vicarius, substitute), a title, more especially ecclesi-
astical, describing various officials acting in some special way
for a superior. Cicero uses the name vicarius to describe an
under-slave kept by another as part of his private property. The
vicarius was an important official in the reorganized empire of
Diocletian. It remained as a title of secular officials in the
middle ages, being applied to persons appointed by the Roman
emperor to judge cases in distant parts of the empire, or to
wield power in certain districts, or, in the absence of the emperor,
over the whole empire. The prefects of the city at Rome were
called Vicarti Romae. In the early middle ages the term was
applied to representatives of a count administering justice for
him in the country or small towns and dealing with unimportant
cases, levying taxes, &c. Monasteries and religious houses often
employed a vicar to answer to their feudal lords for those of their
lands which did not pass into mortmain.
The title of " vicar of Jesus Christ," borne by the popes, was
introduced as their special designation during the 8th century, in
place of the older style of " vicar of St Peter " (or vicarius prin-
cipis apostolorum) . In the early Church other bishops commonly
described themselves as vicars of Christ (Du Cange gives an
example as late as the 9th century from the capitularies of
Charles the Bald) ; but there is no proof in their case, or indeed
in that of " vicar of St Peter " given to the popes, that it was part
of their formal style. The assumption of the style " vicar of
Christ " by the popes coincided with a tendency on the part of
the Roman chancery to insist on placing the pontiff's name
before that of emperors and kings and to refuse to other bishops
the right to address him as" brother "(MasLatrie, s." Sabinien,"
p. 1047). It was not till the i3th century that the alternative
style " vicar of St Peter " was definitively forbidden, this pro-
hibition thus coinciding with the extreme claims of the pope to
rule the world as the immediate " vicar of God " (see INNOCENT
III.).
All bishops were looked upon as in some sort vicars of the pope,
but the title vicarius sedis apostolicae came especially to be ap-
plied as an alternative to legatus sedis apostolicae to describe papal
legates to whom in certain places the pope delegated a portion
of his authority. Pope Benedict XIV. tells us in his treatise
De synodo dioecesana that the pope often names vicars-apostolic
for the government of a particular diocese because the episcopal
see is vacant or, being filled, the titular bishop cannot fulfil
his functions. The Roman Catholic Church in England was
governed by vicars-apostolic from 1685 until 1850, when Pope
Pius IX. re-established the hierarchy. Vicars-apostolic at the
present day are nearly always titular bishops taking their titles
from places not acknowledging allegiance to the Roman Catholic
Church. The title is generally given by the pope to bishops sent
on Eastern missions.
A neighbouring bishop was sometimes appointed by the pope
vicar of a church which happened to be without a pastor. A
special vicar was appointed by the pope to superintend the
spiritual affairs of Rome and its suburbs, to visit its churches,
monasteries, &c., and to correct abuses. It became early a
custom for the prebendaries and canons of a cathedral to employ
" priest-vicars " or " vicars-choral " as their substitutes when it
was their turn as hebdomedary to sing High Mass and conduct
divine office. In the English Church these priest-vicars remain
in the cathedrals of the old foundations as beneficed clergy on the
foundation; in the cathedrals of the new foundation they are
paid by the chapters. " Lay vicars " also were and are employed
to sing those parts of the office which can be sung by laymen.
In the early Church the assistant bishops (chorepiscopi) were
sometimes described as vicarii episcoporum. The employment
of such vicars was by no means general in the early Church, but
towards the I3th century it became very general for a bishop to
employ a vicar-general, often to curb the growing authority of
the archdeacons. In the middle ages there was not a very clear
distinction drawn between the vicar and the official of the bishop.
When the voluntary and contentious jurisdiction came to be dis-
tinguished, the former fell generally to the vicars, the latter to
the officials. In the style of the Roman chancery, official docu-
ments are addressed to the bishops or their vicars for dioceses
beyond the Alps, but for French dioceses to the bishops or their
officials. The institution of vicars-general to help the bishops is
now general in the Catholic Church, but it is not certain that a
bishop is obliged to have such an official. He may have two.
Such a vicar possesses an ordinary and not a delegated juris-
diction, which he exercises like the bishop. He cannot, however,
exercise functions which concern the episcopal order, or confer
benefices without express and particular commission. In the
Anglican Church a vicar-general is employed by the archbishop
of Canterbury and some other bishops to assist in such matters
as ecclesiastical visitations. In the Roman Catholic Church
bishops sometimes appoint lesser vicars to exercise a more
limited authority over a limited district. They are called
" vicars-forane " or rural deans. They are entrusted especially
with the surveillance of the parish priests and other priests of
their districts, and with matters of ecclesiastical discipline. They
are charged especially with the care of sick priests and in case of
death with the celebration of their funerals and the charge of
their vacant parishes. In canon law priests doing work in
place of the parish priest are called vicars. Thus in France the
cure or head priest in a parish church is assisted by several
vicaires.
Formerly, and especially in England, many churches were
appropriated to monasteries or colleges of canons, whose custom
it was to appoint one of their own body to perform divine service
in such churches, but in the I3th century such corporations were
obliged to appoint permanent paid vicars who were called
perpetual vicars. Hence in England the distinction between
rectors, who draw both the greater and lesser tithes, and vicars,
who are attached to parishes of which the great tithes, formerly
held by monasteries, are now drawn by lay rectors. (See APPRO-
PRIATION.)
See Du Cange, Glossarium mediae et infiniae Latinitatis, ed. L.
Favre (Niort, 1883, &c.); Migne, Encyclopedic theologique, series i.
vol. 10 (Droit Canon) ; Comte de Mas Latrie, Tresor de chronologic
(Paris, 1889); and Sir R. J. Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law of the
Church of England (2nd ed. 1895). (E. O'N.)
VICE, (i) (Through Fr. from Lat. vitium), a fault, blemish,
more specifically a moral fault, hence depravity, sin, or a par-
ticular form of depravity. In the medieval morality plays a
special character who acted as an attendant on the devil was
styled " the Vice," but sometimes took the name of specific
vices such as Envy, Fraud, Iniquity and the like. He was
usually dressed in the garb that is identified with that of the
domestic fool or jester, and was armed with a wooden sword or
dagger. (2) (M.E. vyce, vise or vyse; Fr. vis; Lat. vitis, a
vine, or bryony, i.e. something that twists or winds), a portable
or fixed tool or appliance which holds or grips an object while
it is being worked; a special form of clamp. The tool consists
essentially of movable jaws, either jointed by a hinge or moving
on slides, and the closing motion is applied by a screw, whence
the name, as of something which turns or winds, or by a lever,
ratchet, &c. (see TOOLS). (3) (Lat. vice, in place of, abl. sing,
of a noun not found in the nom.), a word chiefly used as a prefix
in combination with names of office-holders, indicating a position
subordinate or alternative to the chief office-holder, especially
one who takes second rank or acts in default of his superior,
e.g. vice-chairman, vice-admiral, &c.
VICE-CHANCELLOR, the deputy of a chancellor (q.v.). In
the English legal system vice-chancellors in equity were
formerly important officials. The first vice-chancellor was
appointed in 1813 in order to lighten the work of the lord
chancellor and the master of the rolls, who were at that time
the sole judges in equity. Two additional vice-chancellors were
appointed in 1841. The vice-chancellors sat separately from
the lord chancellor and the lords justices, to whom there was
an appeal from their decisions. By the Judicature Act 1873
VICENTE
they became judges of the High Court of Justice, retaining their
titles, but it was enacted that on the death or retirement of any
one his successor was to be styled " judge." Vice-chancellor
Sir J. Bacon (1798-1895) was the last to hold the office, resigning
in 1886.
Vice-chancellor is also the title given to the judge of the duchy
court of Lancaster. For the vice-chancellor of a university,
see CHANCELLOR.
VICENTE, GIL (1470-1540), the father of the Portuguese
drama, was born at Guimaraes, but came to Lisbon in boyhood
and studied jurisprudence at the university without taking a
degree. In 1493 we find him acting as master of rhetoric to the
duke of Beja, afterwards King Manoel, a post which gave him
admission to the court; and the Cancioneiro Geral contains some
early lyrics of his which show that he took part in the famous
seroes do paco. The birth of King John III. furnished the
occasion for his first dramatic essay The Neatherd's Monologue,
which he recited on the night of the 7th-8th June 1502 in the
queen's chamber in the presence of King Manoel and his court.
It was written in Spanish out of compliment to the queen, a
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and because that language
was then the fashionable medium with the higher classes. This
manger-hymn, which was a novelty in Portugal, so pleased the
king's mother, the infanta D. Beatriz, that she desired Gil
Vicente to repeat it the following Christmas, but he composed
instead the CastUian Pastoral Auto, a more developed piece in
which he introduced six characters. The infanta, pleased
again, required a further diversion for Twelfth Day, whereupon
he produced the Auto of the Wise Kings. He had now estab-
lished his reputation as a playwright, and for the next thirty
years he entertained the courts of Kings Manoel and John III.,
accompanying them as they moved frcm place to place, and
providing by his autos a distraction in times of calamity, and
in times of rejoicing giving expression to the feelings of the
people. Though himself both actor and author, Gil Vicente
had no regular company of players, but it is probable that he
easily found students and court servants willing to get up a
part for a small fee, especially as the plays would not ordinarily
run for. more than one night. The Auto of the Sybil Cassandra
(produced at the monastery of Euxobregas at Christmas 1503),
the Auto of St Martin (played in the church at Caldas on the
feast of Corpus Christi 1504), and a mystery play, the Auto of
the Four Seasons, all belong, like their predecessors, to the
religious drama, but in 1505 Gil Vicente wrote a comedy of real
life, Who has Bran to sell? a title given it by the public. It is a
clever farce depicting an amorous poor squire and his ill-paid
servants, and opens a rich portrait-gallery in which the dramatist
includes every type of Portuguese society, depicting the fail-
ings of each with the freedom of a Rabelais. The next three
years saw no new play, but in 1506 Gil Vicente delivered before
the court at Almeirim a sermon in verse on the theme Non volo,
volo, et deficior, in which he protested against the intolerance
shown to the Jews, just as in 1531 he interfered to prevent a
massacre of the " New Christians " at Santarem. The Auto
of the Soul, a Catholic prototype of Goethe's Faust, containing
some beautiful lyrics, appeared in 1508, and in 1509 the Auto
da India, a farce which has the eastern enterprise of his country-
men for background, while the Auto da Fama (1516) and the
Exhortation to War (1513) are inspired by the achievements
that made Portugal a world-power. If the farce of The Old Man
of the Garden (1514) breathes the influence and spirit of the
Celestina, the popular trilogy of the Boats of Hell, Purgatory
and Glory (1517, 1518, 1519) is at once a dance of death, full
of splendid pageantry and caustic irony, and a kind of Portuguese
Divina Commedia. The Auto of the Fairies (1516), the Farce
of the Doctors (1519) and the Comedy of Rubena (1521) ridicule
unchaste clerics and ignorant physicians with considerable
freedom and a medieval coarseness of wit, and the Farce of the
Gipsies is interesting as the first piece of the European theatre
dealing professedly with that race. Ignez Pereira, usually held
to be Gil Vicente's masterpiece, was produced in 1523 before
King John III. at the convent of Christ at Thomar, and owed
its origin to certain men of bom saber, perhaps envious partisan*
of the classical school. They pretended to doubt his author-
ship of the autos, and accordingly gave him as a theme for a
fresh piece the proverb: " I prefer an ass that carries me to a
horse that throws me." Gil Vicente accepted the challenge,
and furnished a triumphant reply to his detractors in this
comedy of ready wit and lively dialogue. The Beira Judge
(1526), the Forge of Love (1525) and The Beira Priest (1526)
satirize the maladministration of justice by ignorant magistrates
and the lax morals of the regular clergy, and the Farce of the
Muleteers (1526) dramatizes the type of poor nobleman described
in Cleynart's Letters. The Comedy of the Arms of Ihs City of
Coimbra (1527) has a considerable antiquarian interest, and the
facetious Ship of Love is full of quaint imagery, while the lengthy
Auto of the Fair (1527), with its twenty-two characters, may
be described as at once an indictment of the society of the time
from the standpoint of a practical Christian and a telling appeal
for the reform of the church. In an oft-quoted passage, Rome
personified comes to the booth of Mercury and Time, and offers
her indulgences, saying, " Sell me the peace of heaven, since I
have power here below "; but Mercury refuses, declaring that
Rome absolves the whole world and never thinks of her own
sins. The play concludes with a dance and hymn to the Blessed
Virgin. The Triumph of Winter (1529) exposes the unskilful
pilots and ignorant seamen who cause the loss of ships and lives
on the route to India, and the Auto da Lusitania (1532) portrays
the household of a poor Jewish tailor, ending with a curious
dialogue between "All the World" and "Nobody." The
Pilgrimage of the Aggrieved (1533) is an attack on discontent and
ambition, lay and clerical. After representing the Auto da
festa for the Conde de Vimioso (1535), and dramatizing the
romances of chivalry in D. Duardos and Amadis de Gaula, Gil
Vicente ended his dramatic career in 1536 with a mirthful
comedy, The Garden of Deceptions. He spent the evening of
life in preparing his works for the press at the instance of King
John III., and died in 1540, his wife Branca Bezerra having
predeceased him. Four children were bom of their union, and
among them Paula Vicente attained distinction as a member
of the group of cultured women who formed a sort of female
academy presided over by the infanta D. Maria.
The forty-four pieces comprising the theatre of Gil Vicente fall
from the point of view of language into three groups: (i) those in
Portuguese only, numbering fourteen; (2) those in Spanish only,
numbering eleven; and (3) the bilingual, being the remainder,
nineteen in all. They are also from their nature divisible as follows :
a. Works of a religious character or of devotion. Most of these
are a development of the mystery or miracle play of the middle
ages; and they may be subdivided into (i) Biblical pieces; (2) pieces
founded on incidents in the life of a saint ; and .(3) religious allegories.
In this department Gil Vicente reaches his highest poetical nights,
and the Auto of the Soul is a triumph of elevation of idea and feeling
allied to beauty of expression, b. Aristocratic works, or tragi-
comedies, the composition of which was the result of his contact
with the court ; these," though often more spectacular than strictly
dramatic, are remarkable for opulence of invention and sweetness
of versification, c. The popular theatre, or comedies and farces.
Gil Vicente's plays contain some evidence of his knowledge and
appreciation of French poetry ; e.e. The Beira Judge wears a general
likeness to the products of the Oercs de la Basocne, and his Testa-
ment of Maria Parda is reminiscent of the better-known work of
Francois Villon. Most of the plays are written in the national
redondilha verse, and are preceded by initial rubrics stating the
date when, the place where, in whose presence, and on what occasion
each was first performed, and these make up the annals of the first
thirty-four years of the Portuguese drama. Most of them were put
on the stage at the different royal pala_ces; some, however, were
played in hospitals, and, it is said, even in churches, though this is
doubtful; those of which the subjects are liturgical at the great
festivals of Christmas, Epiphany and Maundy Thursday, others on
the happening of some event of importance to the royal family or
the nation. Many of the plays contain songs, either written and
set to music by the author, or collected by him from popular sources,
while at the close the characters leave the stage singing and dancing,
as was the custom in the medieval comedjes.
Though so large a proportion of his pieces are' in Spanish, they
are all eminently national in idea, texture and subject. No other
Portuguese writer reflects so faithfully the language, types, customs
and colour of his age as Gil Vicente, and the rudest of his dramas
are full of genuine comic feeling. If they never attain to perfect
20
VICENZA
art, they possess the supreme gift of life. None of them are, strictly
speaking, historical, and he never attempted to write a tragedy.
Himself a man of the people, he would not imitate the products of
the classical theatre as did Sa de Miranda and Ferreira, but though
he remained faithful to the Old or Spanish school in form, yet he
had imbibed the critical spirit and mental ferment of the Renaissance
without its culture or erudition. Endowed by nature with acute
observation and considerable powers of analysis, Gil Vicente possessed
a felicity of phrase and an unmatched knowledge of popular super-
stitions, language and lore. Above all, he was a moralist, with satire
and ridicule as his main weapons; but if his invective is often stinging
it is rarely bitter, while more than one incident in his career shows
that he possessed a kindly heart as well as an impartial judgment,
and a well-balanced outlook on life. If he owed his early inspiration
to Juan de Encina, he repaid the debt by showing a better way
to the dramatists of the neighbouring country, so that he may
truly be called the father of the rich Spanish drama, of Lope de
Vega and Calderon. Much of his fame abroad is due to his position
as an innovator, and, as Dr Garnett truly remarked, " One little
corner of Europe alone possessed in the early i6th century a drama
at once living, indigenous and admirable as literature."
Gil Vicente perhaps lacks psychological depth, but he possesses
a breadth of mental vision and a critical acumen unknown in any
medieval dramatist. In his attitude to religion he acts as the
spokesman of the better men of his age and country. A convinced
but liberal-minded Catholic, he has no sympathy with attacks on
the unity of the Church, but he cries out for a reform of morals,
pillories the corruption and ignorance of the clergy and laity, and
pens the most bitter things of the popes and their court. He
strove to take a middle course at a time when moderation was still
possible, though, had he lived a few years longer, in the reign of
religious fanaticism inaugurated by the Inquisition, his bold stand
for religious toleration would have meant his imprisonment or exile,
if not a worse fate. He is a great dramatist in embryo, who, if
he had been born fifty years later and preserved his liberty of thought
and expression, might with added culture have surpassed Calderon
and taken his place as the Latin and Catholic rival of Shakespeare.
Some of the plays were printed in Gil Vicente's lifetime, but the
first collected edition, whicli included his lyrics, was published after
his death by his son Luiz (Lisbon, 1562), with a dedication to King
Sebastian. A second edition appeared in 1586, with various omissions
and alterations made at the instance of the Inquisition. A critical
edition of the text in 3 vols. came out at Hamburg (1834), with a
glossary and introductory essay on Vicente's life and writings, and
a poor reprint of this edition is dated Lisbon 1852. He has never
found a translator, doubtless because of the difficulty of rendering
his form and explaining his wealth of topical allusions.
AUTHORITIES. Dr Theophilo Braga, Gil Vicente e as origens do
theatre national (Oporto, 1898); J. I. de Brito Rebello, Gil Vicente
(Lisbon, 1902); "The Portuguese Drama in the l6th Century
Gil Vicente," in the Manchester Quarterly (July and October 1897);
introduction by the Conde de Sabugosa to his edition of the Auto
defesla (Lisbon, 1906). (E. PR.)
VICENZA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, capital
of the province of Vicenza, 42 m. W. of Venice by rail, 131 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 32,200 (town); 47,558 (com-
mune). It lies at the northern base of the Monti Berici, on
both sides of the Bacchiglione, at its confluence with the Retrone.
It was surrounded by 13th-century walls, once about 3 m. in
circumference, but these are now in great part demolished.
Though many of the streets are narrow and irregular, the town
has a number of fine buildings, many of them the work of Andrea
Palladio. The best of these is the town hall, otherwise known
as the basilica, one of the finest works of the Renaissance period,
of which Palladio himself said that it might stand comparison
with any similar work of antiquity. It is especially noteworthy
owing to the difficulty of the task the architect had to accom-
plish that of transforming the exterior of the Palazzo della
Ragione, a Gothic building of the latter half of the isth century,
which the colonnades of the basilica entirely enclose. It was
begun in 1549, but not finished till 1614, long after his death.
He also designed many of the fine palaces which give Vicenza
its individuality; only two of them, the Barbarano and Chieri-
cati palaces (the latter containing the picture gallery), have two
orders of architecture, the rest having a heavy rustica basis
with only one order above it. Many palaces, however, have
been wrongly attributed to him which are really the work of
Scamozzi and others of his successors. The famous Teatro
Olrmpico was begun by him, but only finished after his death;
it is a remarkable attempt to construct a theatre in the ancient
style, and the stage, with the representation of streets ascending
at the back, is curious. The cathedral, which is Italian Gothic,
dating mainly from the i3th century, consists of a nave with
eight chapels on each side, and a very high Renaissance domed
choir; it contains examples of the Montagnas and of Lorenzo
da Venezia. The churches of S. Lorenzo (1280-1344) and
S. Corona (1260-1300), both of brick, are better examples of
Gothic than the cathedral; both contain interesting works of
art the latter a very fine " Baptism of Christ," by Giovanni
Bellini. In S. Stefano is an imposing altar-piece by Palma
Vecchio. The church of SS. Felice e Fortunato was restored
in A.D. 975, but has been much altered, and was transformed
in 1613. The portal is of 1154, and the Lombardesque square
brick tower of 1160. Under it a mosaic pavement with the
names of the donors, belonging to the original church of the
Lombard period (?), was discovered in 1895 (see F. Berchet,
///. Relazione dell' Ujficio Regionale per la conservazione del
monumenli del Veneto, Venice, 1895, p. in). None of the
churches of Vicenza is the work of Palladio. Of the Palladian
villas in the neighbourhood, La Rotonda, or Villa Palladiana,
15 m. S.E., deserves special mention. It is a square building
with Ionic colonnades and a central dome, like an ancient
temple, but curiously unlike a Roman villa. Vicenza also
contains some interesting remains of the Gothic period besides
the churches mentioned the lofty tower of the town hall
(1174-1311-1446; the Piazza contains two columns of the
Venetian period, with S. Theodore and the Lion of S. Mark
on them) and several palaces in the Venetian style. Among
these may be especially noted the small Casa Pigafetta dating
from 1481, but still half Gothic, prettily decorated. Some of
these earlier houses had painted facades. The fine picture
of " Christ bearing the Cross " (wrongly ascribed to Giorgione) ,
according to Burckhardt once in the Palazzo Loschi, is now
in the Gardner collection at Boston, U.S.A. The most im-
portant manufacture is that of silk, which employs a large
proportion of the inhabitants. Great numbers of mulberry
trees are grown in the neighbourhood. Woollen and linen
cloth, leather, earthenware, paper, and articles in gold and
silver are also made in Vicenza, and a considerable trade in
these articles, as well as in corn and wine, is carried on.
Vicenza is the ancient Vicetia, an ancient town of Venetia.
It was of less importance than its neighbours Venetia and
Patavium, and we hear little of it in history. It no doubt
acquired Roman citizenship in 49 B.C., and became a muni-
cipii'tn', and is mentioned two years later apropos of a dispute
between the citizens and their slaves. Remains of a theatre
and of a late mosaic pavement with hunting scenes have been
found, three of the bridges across the Bacchiglione and Retrone
are of Roman origin, and arches of the aqueduct exist outside
Porta S. Croce. A road diverged here to Opitergium (mod.
Oderzo) from the main road between Verona and Patavium
(Padua) : see T. Mommsen in Corp. Inscr. Latin, v. (Berlin, 1883),
p. 304. It suffered severely in the invasion of Attila, by whom
it was laid waste, and in subsequent incursions. It was for
some time during the middle ages an independent republic,
but was subdued by the Venetians in 1405. Towards the end
of the 1 5th century it became the seat of a school of painting
strongly influenced by Mantegna, of which the principal repre-
sentatives were, besides Bartolomeo Montagna, its founder,
his son Benedetto Montagna, Giovanni Speranza and Gio-
vanni Buonconsiglio. Good altar-pieces by the former exist
in S. Bartolommeo, S. Corona, and the cathedral, and several
pictures also in the picture gallery; while his son Benedetto
had greater merits as an engraver than a painter. Some works
by both of the last two exist at Vicenza the best is a Pieta
in tempera in the gallery by Buonconsiglio, by whom is also a
good Madonna at S. Rocco. Andrea Palladio (1518-1580) was
a native of Vicenza, as was also a contemporary, Vincenzo
Scamozzi (1552-1616), who was largely dependent on him,
but is better known for his work on architecture (Architctlura
universale, 1615). Palladio inaugurated a school of followers
who continued to erect similar buildings in Vicenza even down
to the French Revolution. (T. As.)
See G. Petting, Vicenza (Bergamo, 1905).
VICEROY VICKSBURG
21
VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in
place of, and roy or ro i, king) , the governor of a kingdom or colony
to whom is delegated by his sovereign the power to exercise
regal authority in his name. The lord-lieutenant of Ireland
and the governor-general of India are frequently referred to as
viceroys, but the title has no official recognition in British
government.
VICH, a city of north-eastern Spain, in the province of
Barcelona, on the river Gurri, a small right-hand tributary
of the Ter, and on the Granollers-Ripoll railway. Pop. (1900)
11,628. Vich is an ancient episcopal city, with narrow, ill-
paved streets and many curious old houses irregularly built on
the slope of a hill, which rises above one of the side valleys of
the Ter basin. The cathedral, founded about 1040 and built
chiefly in the I4th century, was to some extent modernized in
1803. Its Gothic cloisters (1340) are remarkable for the beauti-
ful tracery in their windows, and there is a fine altar of sculp-
tured marble. Some valuable manuscripts are preserved in
the library of the chapter-house, and the museum contains
an interesting archaeological collection, besides statuary, pic-
tures, &c. The city is locally celebrated for the manufacture
of sausages; other industries include tanning and the weaving
of linen and woollen fabrics.
Vich, the Ausa of the ancient geographers, was the chief
town of the Ausetani; in the middle ages it was called Ausona
and Vicus Ausonensis, hence Vic de Osona, and simply Vich.
VICHY, a town of central France in the department of Allier,
on the right bank of the Allier, 33 m. S. by E. of Moulins by
rail. Pop. (1906) 14,520. Vichy owes its importance to its
mineral waters, which were well known in the time of the
Romans. They afterwards lost their celebrity and did not regain
it till the I7th century, in the latter half of which they were
visited and written of by Madame de Sevigne. Within the
town or in its immediate vicinity there are between thirty and
forty springs, twelve of which are state property, four of these
having been tapped by boring. The waters of those which are
outside the town are brought in by means of aqueducts. The
most celebrated and frequented are the Grande Grille, L'Hopital,
the Celestins, and Lardy. The most copious of all, the Puits
Carre, is reserved for the baths. All these, whether cold or hot
(maximum temperature, 113 F.), are largely charged with
bicarbonate of soda; some also are chalybeate and tonic. The
waters, which are limpid, have an alkaline taste and emit a
slight odour of sulphuretted hydrogen. They are recom-
mended in cases of stomachic and liver complaint, also for
diabetes, gravel and gout. Large quantities are bottled and
exported. A luxurious bathing establishment, the property
of the state, was opened in 1903. In addition to this, Vichy
has the hydropathic establishments of Lardy, Larbaud and
L'Hopital, and a large military hospital, founded in 1843. A
fine casino and two public parks add to its attraction. The
promenade commands a splendid view of the mountains of
Auvergne. Cusset, about i m. distant, has similar mineral
waters and a bathing establishment.
VICKSBURG, a city and the county-seat of Warren county,
Mississippi, U.S.A., on the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers, 1 44 m.
by rail W. of Jackson, and 236 m. N. by W. of New Orleans.
Pop. (1800) 13,373; (1000) 14,834, of whom 8147 were
negroes; (1910 census) 20,814, being the second largest city
in Mississippi. It is served by the Alabama & Yicksburg,
the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific, and the Yazoo &
Mississippi Valley railways, and by steamboat lines. It is built
among the Walnut Hills, which rise about 260 ft. above the
river. Among the principal buildings and institutions are
the court-house, standing on one of the highest hills, a fine
Federal building, the city hall, a state charity hospital, an
'The channel of the Mississippi has changed greatly: until 1876
the entire city was on the Mississippi, which made a bend forming
a tongue of land opposite the city; in 1876 the river cut across
this tongue and formed an island, making the northern part of the
city front on the shallow " Lake Centennial." The Federal govern-
ment, by turning the Yazoo through a canal across the upper end
of the old channel, gave the city a river front once more.
infirmary, a sanatorium, a public library, the medical college
of the university of Mississippi, All Saints' Episcopal College
(Protestant Episcopal, 1009) for girls, Saint Francis Xavier's
Academy, and Saint Aloysius College (Roman Catholic). The
Civil War battle-ground has been converted into a beautiful
National Military Park, embracing 1283 acres and containing
numerous markers, memorials and monuments, including one
(1910) to Lieut. -General Stephen Dill Lee, who was super-
intendent of the Military Park from 1899 until his death in 1908.
On the bluffs just beyond the northern limits of the city and ad-
joining the Military Park is the Vicksburg National Cemetery, in
which are the graves of 16,892 Federal soldiers (12,769 unknown).
The principal industry of Vicksburg is the construction and
repair of rolling stock for steam railways. It has also a dry
dock and cotton compresses; and among its manufactures are
cottonseed oil and cake, hardwood lumber, furniture, boxes
and baskets. In 1905 the factory products were valued at
$1,887,924. The city has a large trade in long-staple cotton
grown in the surrounding country. It is a port of entry but
has practically no foreign trade.
The French built Fort St Peter near the site of Vicksburg
early in the i8th century, and on the 2nd of January 1730 its
garrison was murdered by the Yazoo Indians. As early as
1783 the Spanish erected Fort Nogales, and in 1798 this was
taken by some United States troops and renamed Fort McHenry.
The first permanent settlement in the vicinity was made about
1811 by Rev. Newell (or Newit) Vick (d. 1819), a Methodist
preacher. In accordance with his will a town was laid out in
1824; and Vicksburg was incorporated as a town in 1825,
and was chartered as a city in 1836. The campaigns of which
it was the centre in 1862 and 1863 are described below. Vicks-
burg was the home of Seargent Smith Prentiss from 1832 to
1845-
See H. F. Simrall, " Vicksburg: the City on the Walnut Hills,"
in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York,
1900).
Campaign of 1862-63. Vicksburg is historically famous as
being the centre of interest of one of the most important cam-
paigns of the Civil War. The command of the Mississippi,
which would imply the severance of the Confederacy into two
halves, and also the reopening of free commercial navigation
from St Louis to the sea, was one of the principal objects of
the Western Union armies from the time that they began
their southward advance from Illinois, Missouri and Kentucky
in February 1862. A series of victories in the spring and
summer carried them as far as the line Memphis-Corinth,
but in the autumn they came to a standstill and were called
upon to repulse the counter-advance of the Southern armies.
These armies were accompanied by a flotilla of thinly armoured
but powerful gunboats which had been built on the upper
Mississippi in the autumn of 1861, and had co-operated with
the army at Fort Donelson, Shiloh and Island No. 10, besides
winning a victory on the water at Memphis.
At the same time a squadron of sea-going vessels under
Flag-officer Farragut had forced the defences of New Orleans
(q.v.) and, accompanied by a very small military force, had
steamed up the great river. On reaching Vicksburg the heavy
vessels again forced their way past the batteries, but both at
Vicksburg and at Port Hudson they had to deal, no longer
with low-sited fortifications, but with inconspicuous earth-
works on bluffs far above the river-level, and they failed to
make any impression. Farragut then returned to New Orleans.
From Helena to Port Hudson the Confederates maintained
complete control of the Mississippi, the improvised fortresses
of Vicksburg, Port Hudson and Arkansas Post (near the mouth
of Arkansas river) being the framework of the defence. It
was to be the task of Grant's army around Corinth and the
flotilla at Memphis to break up this system of defences, and,
by joining hands with Farragut and clearing the whole course
of the Mississippi, to cut the Confederacy in half.
The long and painful operations by which this was achieved
group themselves into four episodes: (a) the Grenada expedition
22
VICKSBURG
of Grant's force, (6) the river column under McClernand and
Sherman, (c) the operations in the bayoux, and (d) the final
" overland " campaign from Grand Gulf. The country in
which these operations took place divides itself sharply into
two zones, the upland east of the river, upon which it looks
down from high bluffs, and the levels west of it, which are a
maze of bayoux, backwaters and side channels, the intervening
land being kept dry near the river itself by artificial banks
(levees) but elsewhere swampy. At Vicksburg, it is important
to observe, the bluffs trend away from the Mississippi to follow
the course of the Yazoo, rejoining the great river at Memphis.
Thus there are two obvious lines of advance for the Northern
army, on the upland (Memphis and Grand Junction on Grenada-
Jackson), and downstream through the bayou country
(Memphis-Helena- Vicksburg). The main army of the defenders,
who were commanded by Lieut.-General J. C. Pemberton, between
Vicksburg and Jackson and Grenada, could front either north
against an advance by Grenada or west along the bluffs above
and below Vicksburg.
STTE N/N E S SEE
VICKSBURG
Scale.i:3,30o.ooo
Engllsb Miles
? 10 .to
Emt ry Walker sc.
The first advance was made at the end of November 1862
by two columns from Grand Junction and Memphis on Grenada.
The Confederates in the field, greatly outnumbered, fell back
without fighting. But Grant's line of supply was one long
single-line, ill-equipped railway through Grand Junction to
Columbus, and the opposing cavalry under Van Dorn swept
round his flank and, by destroying one of his principal magazines
(at Holly Springs), without further effort compelled the abandon-
ment of the advance. Meantime one of Grant's subordinates,
McClernand, was intriguing to be appointed to command an
expedition by the river-line, and Grant meeting half-way an
evil which he felt himself unable to prevent, had sent Sherman
with the flotilla and some 30,000 men to attack Vicksburg
from the water-side, while he himself should deal with the
Confederate field army on the high ground. But the scheme
broke down completely when Van Dorn cut Grant's line of
supply, and the Confederate army was free to turn on Sherman.
The latter, ignorant of Grant's retreat, attacked the Yazoo
bluffs above Vicksburg (battle of Chickasaw Bayou) on Decem-
ber 2gth; but a large portion of Pemberton's field army had
arrived to help the Vicksburg garrison, and the Federals were
easily repulsed with a loss of 2000 men. McClernand now
appeared and took the command out of Sherman's hands,
informing him at the same time of Grant's retreat. Sherman
thereupon proposed, before attempting fresh operations against
Vicksburg, to clear the country behind them by destroying
the Confederate garrison at Arkansas Post. This expedition
was completely successful: at a cost of about 1000 men the
fort and its 5000 defenders were captured on the nth of
January 1863. McClernand, elated at his victory, would
have continued to ascend the Arkansas, but such an eccentric
operation would have been profitless if not dangerous, and
Grant, authorized by the general-in-chief, Halleck, per-
emptorily ordered McClernand back to the Mississippi.
airipaign against
VICKSBURG
April and May, 1863
Scale, 1:1,400,000
Retreating from the upland, Grant sailed down the river
and joined McClernand and Sherman at Milliken's Bend at
the beginning of February, and, superseding the resentful
McClernand, assumed command of the three corps (XIII.,
McClernand; XV., Sherman; XVII., McPherson) available. He
had already imagined the daring solution of his most difficult
problem which he afterwards put into execution, but for the
present he tried a series of less risky expedients to reach the
high ground beyond Pemberton's flanks, without indeed much
confidence in their success, yet desirous in these unhealthy
flats of keeping up the spirits of his army by active work, and
of avoiding, at a crisis in the fortunes of the war, any appearance
of discouragement. Three such attempts were made in all,
with the co-operation of the flotilla under Captain David D.
Porter. First, Grant endeavoured to cut a canal across the
bend of the Mississippi at Vicksburg, hoping thus to isolate
the fortress, to gain a water connection with the lower river,
and to land an army on the bluffs beyond Pemberton's left
flank. This was unsuccessful. Next he tried to make a
practicable channel from the Mississippi to the upper Yazoo,
and so to turn Pemberton's right, but the Confederates, warned
in time, constructed a fort at the point where Grant's advance
emerged from the bayoux. Lastly, an advance through a
maze of creeks (Steele's Bayou expedition), towards the middle
Yazoo and Haines's Bluff, encountered the enemy, not on the
bluffs, but in the low-lying woods and islands, and these so
harassed and delayed the progress of the expedition that
Grant recalled it. Shortly afterwards Grant determined en
the manoeuvre in rear of Vicksburg which established his repu-
tation. The troops marched overland from Milliken's Bend
to New Carthage, and \m the i6th of April Porter's gunboat
flotilla and the transports ran past the Vicksburg batteries.
All this, which involved careful arrangement and hard work,
was done by the 24th of April. General Banks, with a Union
army from New Orleans, was now advancing up the river to
invest Port Hudson, and by way of diverting attention from
the Mississippi, a cavalry brigade under Benjamin Grierson
rode from La Grange to Baton Rouge (600 m. in 16 days),
destroying railways and magazines and cutting the telegraph
VICO
wires en route. Sherman's XV. corps, too, made vigorous
demonstrations at Haines's Bluff, and in the confusion and
uncertainty Pemberton was at a loss.
On the 30th of April McClernand and the XIII. corps crossed
the Mississippi 6 m. below Grand Gulf, followed by McPherson.
The nearest Confederate brigades, attempting to oppose the
advance at Port Gibson, were driven back. Grant had now
deliberately placed himself in the middle of the enemy, and
although his engineers had opened up a water-line for the
barges carrying his supplies from Milliken's Bend to New
Carthage, his long line of supply curving round the enemy's
flank was very exposed. But his resolute purpose outweighed
all text-book strategy. Having crossed the Mississippi, he
collected wheeled transport for five days' rations, and on
Sherman's arrival cut loose from his base altogether (May 7th).
Free to move, he aimed north from the Big Black river, so as
to interpose between the Confederate forces at Vicksburg and
those at Jackson. A fight took place at Raymond on the I2th
of May, and Jackson was captured just in time to forestall the
arrival of reinforcements for Pemberton under General Joseph
E. Johnston. The latter, being in supreme command of the
Confederates, ordered Pemberton to come out of Vicksburg
and attack Grant. But Pemberton did not do so until it was
too late. On May i6th Grant, with all his forces well in hand,
defeated him in the battle of Champion Hill with a loss of
nearly 4000 men, and sharply pursuing him drove him into
Vicksburg. By the ipth of May Vicksburg and Pemberton's
army in it was invested by land and water. Grant promptly
assaulted his works, but was repulsed with loss (May ipth);
the assault was repeated on the 22nd of May with the same
result, and Grant found himself compelled to resort to a blockade.
Reinforcements were hurried up from all quarters, Johnston's
force (east of Jackson), was held off by a covering corps under
Blair (afterwards under Sherman), and though another un-
successful assault was made on the 25th of June, resistance was
almost at an end. On the 4th of July, the day after, far away in
Pennsylvania, the great battle of Gettysburg had closed with Lee's
defeat, the garrison of Vicksburg, 37,000 strong, surrendered.
VICO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1668-1744), Italian jurist and
philosopher, was born at Naples on the 23rd of June 1668.
At the university he made rapid progress, especially in juris-
prudence, though preferring the study of history, literature,
juridical science and philosophy. Being appointed tutor to
the nephews of the bishop of Ischia, G. B. Rocca, he accom-
panied them to the castle of Vatolla, near Cilento, in the province
of Salerno. There he passed nine studious years, chiefly de-
voted to classical reading, Plato and Tacitus being his favourite
authors, because " the former described the ideal man, and the
latter man as he really is." On his return to Naples he found
himself out of touch with the prevailing Cartesianism, and lived
quietly until in 1697 he gained the professorship of rhetoric at
the university, with a scanty stipend of 100 scudi. On this
he supported a growing family and gave himself to untiring
study. Two authors exercised a weighty influence on his
mind Francis Bacon and Grotius. He was no follower of
their ideas, indeed often opposed to them; but he derived
from Bacon an increasing stimulus towards the investigation
of certain great problems of history and philosophy, while
Grotius proved valuable in his study of philosophic jurispru-
dence. In 1708 he published his De ratione studiorum, in 1710
De antiquissima Italorum sapientia, in 1720 De universi juris
uno principle el fine uno, and in 1721 De constantia jurispru-
dentis. On the strength of these works he offered himself as
a candidate for the university chair of jurisprudence, but
as he had no personal or family influence was not elected.
With calm courage he returned to his poverty and his favourite
studies, and in 1725 published the first edition of the work
that forms the basis of his renown, Principii d' una sciensa
nuova. In 1730 he produced a second edition of the Scienza
nuova, so much altered in style and with so many substantial
additions that it was practically a new work. In 1735 Charles
III. of Naples marked his recognition of Vice's merits by
appointing him historiographer-royal, with a yearly stipend of
100 ducats. Soon after his mind began to give way, but during
frequent intervals of lucidity he made new corrections in his
great work, of which a third edition appeard in 1744, prefaced
by a letter of dedication to Cardinal Trojano Acquaviva. He
died on the 2oth of January of the same year. Fate seemed
bent on persecuting him to the last. A fierce quarrel arose
over his burial between the brotherhood of St Stephen, to
which he had belonged, and the university professors, who
desired to escort his corpse to the grave. Finally the canons
of the cathedral, together with the professors, buried the body
in the church of the Gerolimini.
Vico has been generally described as a solitary soul, out of harmony
with the spirit of his time and often directly opposed to it. Yet a
closer inquiry into_ the social conditions of Vko's time, and of the
studies then flourishing, shows him to have been thoroughly in
touch with them.
Owing to the historical past of Naples, and its social and economic
condition at the end of the I7th century, the only study that really
flourished there was that of law; and this soon penetrated from
the courts to the university, and was raised to the level of a science.
A great school of jurisprudence was thus formed, including many
men of vast learning and great ability, although little known outside
their immediate surroundings. Three men, however, obtained a
wider recognition. By his exposition of the political history of the
kingdom, based on a study of its laws and institutions and of the
legal conflicts between the state and the court of Rome, Pietrp
Giannone was the initiator of what has been since known as civil
history. Gioyan Vincenzo Gravina wrote a history of Roman law,
specially distinguished for its accuracy and elegance. Vico raised
the problem to a higher plane, by tracing the origin of law in the
human mind and explaining the historical changes of the one by
those of the other. Thus he made the original discovery of certain
ideas which constitute the modern psychologico-historic method.
This problem he proceeded to develop in various works, until in his
Scienza nuova he arrived at a more complete solution, which may be
formulated as follows: If the principle of justice and law be one,
eternal and immutable, why should there be so many different
codes of legislation? These differences are not caused by difference
of nationality only, but are to be noted in the history of the same
people, even in that of the Romans. This problem is touched upon
in his Orations or Inaugural Addresses (Orazioni o Prolusioni) and
in his Minor Works (Scritti minori). Finally he applied himself
to its solution in his Universal Law (Dirillo universal*), which is
divided into two books. The first of these, De uno el universi
juris principle et fine uno, was subdivided into two parts; so like-
wise was the second, with the respective titles of De constantia
philologiae and De constantia jurisprudenlis.
The following is the general idea derived from these researches.
Vico held God to be the ruler of the world of nations, but ruling,
not as the providence of the middle ages by means of continued
miracles, but as He rules nature, by means of natural laws. If,
therefore, the physicist seeks to discover the laws of nature by
study of natural phenomena, so the philosopher must seek the laws
of historical change by the investigation of human events and of the
human mind. According to Vico, law emanates from the conscience
of mankind, in whom God has infused a sentiment of justice,
and is therefore in close and continual relation with the human
mind, and participates in its changes. This sentiment of justice
is at first confused, uncertain and almost instinctive-^is, as it were,
a divine and religious inspiration instilled by Heaven into the primi-
tive tribes of the earth. It is an unconscious, universal sentiment,
not the personal, conscious and rational sentiment of the superior
few. Hence the law to which it gives birth is enwrapped in religious
forms which are likewise visible and palpable, inasmuch as primitive
man is incapable of abstract, philosophical ideas. This law is not
the individual work of any philosophical legislator, for no man
was, or could be, a philosopher at that time. It is first displayed
in the shape of natural and necessary usages consecrated by religion.
The names of leading legislators, which we so often find recorded
in the history of primitive peoples, are symbols and myths, merely
serving to mark an historic period or epoch by some definite and
personal denomination. For nations, or rather tribes, were then
distinguished by personal names only. The first obscure and con-
fused conception of law gradually becomes clearer and better defined.
Its visible and religious forms then give way to abstract formulae,
which in their turn are slowly replaced by the rational manifestation
of the philosophic principles of law that gains the victory in the
final stage of development, designated by Vico as that of civil and
human law. This is the penod of individual and philosophic
legislators. Thus Roman law has passed through three great
periods the divine, the heroic and the human which are like-
wise the three chief periods of the history of Rome, with which
it is intimately and intrinsically connected. Nevertheless, on carefu
examination of these three successive stages, it will easily be seen
that, in spite of the apparent difference between them, all have a
common foundation, source and purpose. The human and civil
VICO
philosophic law of the third period is assuredly very different in
form from the primitive law; but in substance it is merely the
abstract, scientific and philosophic manifestation of the same senti-
ment of justice and the same principles which were vaguely felt in
primitive times. Hence one development of law may be easily
translated into another. Thus in the varied manifestations of law
Vico was able to discover a single and enduring principle (De universi
juris uno principio el fine uno). On these grounds it has been sought
to establish a close relation between Vico and Grotius. The latter
clearly distinguished between a positive law differing in different
nations and a natural taw based on a general and unchanging prin-
ciple of human nature, and therefore obligatory upon all. But Vico
was opposed to Grotius, especially as regards his conception of the
origin of society, and therefore of law. Grotius holds that its origin
was not divine, but human, and neither collective, spontaneous
nor unconscious, but personal, rational and conscious. He believed,
moreover, that natural law and positive law moved on almost constant
and immutable parallel lines. But Vico maintained that the one
was continually progressing towards the other, positive law showing
an increasing tendency to draw nearer to natural and rational law.
Hence the conception that law is of necessity a spontaneous birth,
not the creation of any individual legislator; and hence the idea
that it necessarily proceeds by a natural and logical process of evolu-
tion constituting its history. Vico may have derived from Grotius
the idea of natural law; but his discovery of the historic evolution
of law was first suggested to him by his study of Roman law. He
saw that the history of Roman jurisprudence was a continuous
progress of the narrow, rigorous, primitive and almost iron law of
the XII. Tables towards the wider, more general and more humane
jus gentium. Having once derived this conception from Roman
history, he was easily and indeed necessarily carried on to the next
that the positive law of all nations, throughout history, is a continual
advance, keeping pace with the progress of civilization, towards the
philosophic and natural law founded on the principles of human
nature and human reason.
As already stated, the Scienza nuova appeared in three different
editions. The third may be disregarded; but the first and second
editions are almost distinct works. In the former the author sets
forth the analytical process by which the laws he discovered were
deduced from facts. In the second he not only enlarges his matter
and gives multiplied applications of his ideas, but also follows
the synthetic method, first expounding the laws he had dis-
covered and then proving them by the facts to which they are
applied. In this edition the fragmentary and jerky arrangement,
the intricate style, and a peculiar and often purely conventional
terminology seriously checked the diffusion of the work, which
accordingly was little studied in Italy and remained almost un-
known to the rest of Europe. Its fundamental idea consists in
that which Vico, in his peculiar terminology, styles " poetical
wisdom " (sapienza poetica) and " occult wisdom " (sapienza riposta),
and in the historical process by which the one is merged in the
other. He frequently declares that this discovery was the result
of the literary labours of his whole life.
Vico was the first thinker who asked, Why have we a science of
nature, but no science of history? Because our glance can easily
be turned outwards and survey the exterior world ; but it is far
harder to turn the mind's eye inwards and contemplate the world
of the spirit. All our errors in explaining the origin of human
society arise from our obstinacy in believing that primitive man
was entirely similar to ourselves, who are civilized, i.e. developed
by the results of a lengthy process of anterior historic evolution.
We must learn to issue from ourselves, transport ourselves back
to other times, and become children again in order to comprehend
the infancy of the human race. As in children, imagination and
the senses prevailed in those men of the past. They had no abstract
ideas; in their minds all was concrete, visible and tangible. All
the phenomena, forces and laws of nature, together with mental
conceptions, were alike personified. To suppose that all mythical
stories are fables invented by the philosophers is to write history
backwards and confound the instinctive, impersonal, poetic wisdom
of the earliest times with the civilized, rational and abstract occult
wisdom of pur own day. But how can we explain the formation
of this poetic wisdom, which, albeit the work of ignorant men, has
so deep and intrinsic a philosophic value? The only possible
reply is that already given when treating of the origin of law.
Providence has instilled into the heart of man a sentiment of justice
and goodness, of beauty and of truth, that is manifested differently
at different times. The ideal truth within us, constituting the inner
life that is studied by philosophers, becomes transmuted by the
facts of history into assured reality. For Vico psychology and
history were the two poles of the new world he discovered. After
having extolled the work of God and proclaimed Him the source of
all knowledge, he adds that a great truth is continually flashed on us
and proved to us by history, namely, " that this world of nations is
the work of man, and its explanation therefore only to be found in
the mind of man." Thus poetical wisdom, appearing as a spon-
taneous emanation of the human conscience, is almost the product
of divine inspiration. From this, by the aid of civilization, reason
and philosophy, there is gradually developed the civil, occult
wisdom. The continual, slow and laborious progress from the one
to the other is that which really constitutes history, and man be-
comes civilized by rendering himself the conscious and independent
possessor of all that in poetical wisdom remained impersonal,
unconscious, that came, as it were, from without by divine afflatus.
Vico gives many applications of this fundamental idea. The
religion of primitive peoples is no less mythical than their history,
since they could only conceive of it by means of myths. On these
lines he interprets the whole history of primitive Rome. One book
of the second edition of the Scienza nuova is devoted to " The
Discovery of the True Homer." Why all the cities of Greece dispute
the honour of being his birthplace is because the Iliad and the
Odyssey are not the work of one, but of many popular poets, and a
true creation of the Greek people which is in every city of Greece.
And because the primitive peoples are unconscious and self-ignorant
Homer is represented as being blind. In all parts of history in
which he was best versed Vico pursues a stricter and more scientific
method, and arrives at safer conclusions. This is the case in Roman
history, especially in such portions as related to the history of law.
Here he sometimes attains, even in details, to divinations of the
truth afterwards confirmed by new documents and later research.
The aristocratic origin of Rome, the struggle between the patricians
and the plebeians, the laws of the XII. Tables, not, as tradition
would have it, imported from Greece, but the natural and spon-
taneous product of ancient Roman customs, and many other similar
theories were discovered by Vico, and expounded with his usual
originality, though not always without blunders and exaggerations.
Vico may be said to base his considerations on the history of two
nations. The greater part of his ideas on poetical wisdom were
derived from Greece. Nearly all the rest, more especially the transi-
tion from poetical to occult wisdom, was derived from Rome.
Having once formulated his idea, he made it more general in order
to apply it to the history of all nations. From the savage state,
through the terror that gives birth to religions, through the creation
of families by marriage, through burial rites and piety towards
the dead, men approach civilization with the aid of poetic wisdom,
and pass through three periods the divine, heroic and human
in which they have three forms of government, language, litera-
ture, jurisprudence and civilization. The primary government is
aristocratic. Patrician tyranny rouses the populace to revolt,
and then democratic equality is established under a republic.
Democratic excesses cause the rise of an empire, which, becoming
corrupt, declines into barbarism, and, again emerging from it, re-
traces the same course. This is the law of cycles, constituting that
which is designated by Vico as the " eternal ideal history, or rather
course of humanity, invariably followed by all nations." It must
not be held to imply that one nation imitates the course pursued by
another, nor that the points of resemblance between them are
transmitted by tradition from one to the other, but merely that
all are subject to one law, inasmuch as this is based on the human
nature common to all alike. Thus, while on the one hand the
various cycles traced and retraced by all nations are similar and
yet independent, on the other hand, being actually derived from
Roman history, they become converted in the Scienza nuova
into a bed of Procrustes, to which the history of all nations
has to be fitted by force. And wherever Vico's historical know-
ledge failed he was led into increased error by this artificial and
arbitrary effort.
It has been justly observed by many that this continuous cyclical
movement entirely excludes the progress of humanity towards a
better future. It has been replied that these cycles are similar
without being identical, and that, if one might differ from another,
the idea of progress was not necessarily excluded by the law of
cycles. Vico undoubtedly considered the poetic wisdom of the
Middle Ages to be different from that of the Greeks and Romans,
and Christianity to be very superior to the pagan religion. But he
never investigated the question whether, since there is a law of
progressive evolution in the history of different nations, separately
examined, there may not likewise be another law ruling the general
history of these nations, every one of which must have represented
a new period, as it were, in the history of humanity at large. There-
fore, although the Scienza nuova cannot be said absolutely to deny
the law of progress, it must be allowed that Vico not only failed to
solve the problem but even shrank from attacking it.
Vico founded no school, and though during his lifetime and for
a while after his death he had many admirers both in Naples and
the northern cities, his fame and name were soon obscured, especially
as the Kantian system dominated the world of thought. At the
beginning of the igth century, however, some Neapolitan exiles at
Milan called attention to the merits of their great countryman, and
his reinstatement was completed by Michelet, who in 1827 translated
the Scienza nuova and other works with a laudatory introduction.
Vico's writings suffer through their author's not having followed a
regular course of studies, and his style is very involved. He was a
deeply religious man, but his exemption of Jewish origins from the
canons of historical inquiry which he elsewhere applied was probably
due to the conditions of his age, which preceded the dawn of Semitic
investigation and regarded the Old Testament and the Hebrew
religion as sui generis.
VICTOR VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS
For Vice's personal history see his autobiography, written at
the request of the Conte di Porcia, and his letters; also Cantoni,
C. B. Vico, Studii Critici e Comparative (Turin, 1867); R. Flint,
Vico (Edinburgh and London, 1884). For editions of Vice's own
works, see Opere, ed. Giuseppe Ferrari, with introductory essay,
" La Mente de Vico " (6 vols., Milan, 1834-35), and Michelct,
(Euvres Choisies de Vico (2 vols., Paris, 1835). A full list is given
in B. Croce, BMiografia Vichiana (Naples, 1904). See also O.
Klemm, G. B. Vico als Geschichtsphilosoph und Volkerpsycholog
(Leipzig. 1906); M. H. Rafferty in Journal of the Society of Com-
parative Legislation, New Series, xvii., xx.
VICTOR, the name taken by three popes and two antipopes.
VICTOR I. was bishop of Rome from about 190 to 198. He
submitted to the opinion of the episcopate in the various parts
of Christendom the divergence between the Easter usage of
Rome and that of the bishops of Asia. The bishops, particu-
larly St Irenaeus of Lyons, declared themselves in favour
of the usage of Rome, but refused to associate themselves
with the excommunication pronounced by Victor against
their Asiatic colleagues. At Rome Victor excommunicated
Theodotus of Byzantium on account of his doctrine as to the
person of Christ. St Jerome attributes to Victor some opuscula
in Latin, which are believed to be recognized in certain apo-
cryphal treatises of St Cyprian.
VICTOR II., the successor of Leo IX., was consecrated in
St Peter's, Rome, on the i3th of April 1055. His father was
a Swabian baron, Count Hartwig von Calw, and his own
baptismal name was Gebhard. At the instance of Gebhard,
bishop of Regensburg, uncle of the emperor Henry III., he had
been appointed while still a young man to the see of Eichstadt;
in this position his great talents soon enabled him to render
important services to Henry, whose chief adviser he ultimately
became. His nomination to the papacy by Henry, at Mainz,
in September 1054, was made at the instance of a Roman
deputation headed by Hildebrand, whose policy doubtless was
to detach from the imperial interest one of its ablest supporters.
In June 1055 Victor met the emperor at Florence, and held a
council, which anew condemned clerical marriages, simony
and the alienation of the estates of the church. In the follow-
ing year he was summoned to Germany to the side of the
emperor, and was with him when he died at Botfeld in the
Harz on the sth of October 1056. As guardian of Henry's
infant son, and adviser of the empress Agnes, Victor now wielded
enormous power, which he began to use with much tact for
the maintenance of peace throughout the empire and for
strengthening the papacy against the aggressions of the barons.
He died shortly after his return to Italy, at Arezzo, on the
z8th of July 1057. His successor was Stephen IX. (Frederick
of Lorraine). (L. D.*)
VICTOR III. (Dauferius Epifani), pope from the 24th of May
1086 to the i6th of September 1087, was the successor of
Gregory VII. He was a son of Landolfo V., prince of Bene-
vento, and was born in 1027. After studying in various
monasteries he became provost of St Benedict at Capua,
and in 1055 obtained permission from Victor II. to enter the
cloister at Monte Cassino, changing his name to Desiderius.
He succeeded Stephen IX. as abbot in 1057, and his rule
marks the golden age of that celebrated monastery; he
promoted literary activity, and established an important
school of mosaic. Desiderius was created cardinal priest of
Sta Cecilia by Nicholas II. in 1059, and as papal vicar in
south Italy conducted frequent negotiations between the
Normans and the pope. Among the four men suggested by
Gregory VII. on his death-bed as most worthy to succeed
him was Desiderius, who was favoured by the cardinals because
of his great learning, his connexion with the Normans and
his diplomatic ability. The abbot, however, declined the
papal crown, and the year 1085 passed without an election.
The cardinals at length proclaimed him pope against his will
on the 24th of May 1086, but he was driven from Rome by
imperialists before his consecration was complete, and, laying
aside the papal insignia at Terracina, he retired to his beloved
monastery. As vicar of the Holy See he convened a synod
at Capua on the 7th of March 1087, resumed the papal insignia
on the 2ist of March, and received tardy consecration at Rome
on the 9th of May. Owing to the presence of the antipope,
Clement III. (Guibert of Ravenna), who had powerful partisans,
his stay at Rome was brief. He sent an army to Tunis, which
defeated the Saracens and compelled the sultan to pay tribute
to the papal see. In August 1087 he held a synod at Bene-
vento, which renewed the excommunication of Guibert;
banned Archbishop Hugo of Lyons and Abbot Richard of
Marseilles as schismatics; and confirmed the prohibition of
lay investiture. Falling ill at the synod, Vicar returned to
Monte Cassino, where he died on the i6th of September 1087.
He was buried at the monastery and is accounted a saint by
the Benedictine order. His successor was Urban II.
Victor III., while abbot of Monte Cassino contributed personally
to the literary activity of the monastery. He wrote Dialogi de
miraculis S. Benedicti, which, along with his Epistolae, are in J. P.
Migne, Patrol. Lai. vol. 149, and an account of the miracles of Leo IX.
(in Ada Sanctorum, igth of April). The chief sources for his life
are the " Chronica monasterii Casinensis," in the Hon. Germ. hist.
Script, vii., and the Vitae in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lai. vol. 149,
and in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman. Vitae.
See J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII.
bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle
Ages, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-2);
K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte (2nd ed., 1873-90), vol. 5;
Hirsch, " Desiderius von Monte Cassino als Papst Victor III.," in
Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, vol. 7 (Gottingen, 1867);
H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, vol. 3 (repub. London,
1899).
VICTOR IV. was a title taken by two antipopes. (i) Gregorio
Conti, cardinal priest of Santi Dodici Apostoli, was chosen by a
party opposed to Innocent II. in succession to the antipope
Anacletus II., on the isth of March 1138, but through the in-
fluence of Bernard of Clairvaux he was induced to make his
submission on the 29th of May. (2) Octavian, count of Tusculum
and cardinal deacon of St Nicola in carcere Tulliano, the Ghi-
belline antipope, was elected at Rome on the ?th of September
1159, in opposition to Alexander III., and supported by the
emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Consecrated at Farfa on the
4th of October, Victor was the first of the series of antipopes
supported by Frederick against Alexander III. Though the
excommunication of Frederick by Alexander in March 1160
made only a slight impression in Germany, this pope was never-
theless able to gain the support of the rest of western Europe,
because since the days of Hildebrand the power of the pope
over the church in the various countries had increased so greatly
that the kings of France and of England could not view with
indifference a revival of such imperial control of the papacy as
had been exercised by the emperor Henry III. He died at
Lucca on the 2oth of April 1164 and was succeeded by the anti-
pope Paschal III. (1164-1168).
See M. Meyer, Die Wahl Alexanders III. und Victors IV. 1159
(Gottingen, 1871); and A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands,
Band iv. (C. H. HA.)
VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.), Roman writer
on rhetoric, possibly of Gallic origin. His extant manual (in
C. Halm's Rhetores Lalini Minores, 1863) is of some importance
as facilitating the textual criticism of Quintilian, whom he
closely follows in many places.
VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS, prefect of Pannonia about
360 (Amm. Marc. xxi. 10), possibly the same as the consul
(jointly with Valentinian) in 373 and as the prefect of the city
who is mentioned in an inscription of the time of Theodosius.
Four small historical works have been ascribed to him on more or
less doubtful grounds (i) Origo Gentis Romance, (2) De Viribus
Illvstribus Romae, (3) De Caesaribus, (4) De Vila et Moribus
Imperatorum Romanorum excerpta ex Libris Sex. Aw. Victoris.
The four have generally been published together under the name
Historia Romano, but the fourth piece is a rfchau/f of the third.
The second was first printed at Naples about 1472, in 4to, under
the name of Pliny (the younger), and the fourth at Strassburg
in 1 505.
The first edition of all four was that of A. Schottus (8vo, Ant-
werp, 1579). The most recent edition of the De Caesaribus is by
F. Pichlmayr (Munich, 1892).
VICTOR AMEDEUS II. VICTOR EMMANUEL II.
VICTOR AMEDEUS II. (1666-1732), duke of Savoy and first
king of Sardinia, was the son of Duke Charles Emmanuel II.
and Jeanne de Savoie-Nemours. Born at Turin, he lost his
father in 1675, and spent his youth under the regency of his
mother, known as " Madama Reale " (madame royale), an able
but ambitious and overbearing woman. He assumed the reins
of government at the age of sixteen, and married Princess Anne,
daughter of Philip of Orleans and Henrietta of England, and niece
of Louis XIV., king of France. That sovereign was determined
to dominate the young duke of Savoy, who from the first resented
the monarch's insolent bearing. In 1685 Victor was forced by
Louis to persecute his Waldensian subjects, because they had
given shelter to the French Huguenot refugees after the revoca-
tion of the edict of Nantes. With the unwelcome help of a
French army under Marshal Catinat, he invaded the Waldensian
valleys, and after a difficult campaign, characterized by great
cruelty, he subjugated them. Nevertheless, he became more
anxious than ever to emancipate himself from French thraldom,
and his first sign of independence was his visit to Venice in
1687, where he conferred on political affairs with Prince Eugene
of Savoy and other personages, without consulting Louis. About
this time the duke plunged into a whirl of dissipation, and chose
the beautiful but unscrupulous Contessa di Verrua as bis mistress,
neglecting his faithful and devoted wife. Louis having dis-
covered Victor's intrigues with the emperor, tried to precipitate
hostilities by demanding his participation in a second expedi-
tion against the Waldensians. The duke unwillingly complied,
but when the French entered Piedmont and demanded the
cession of the fortresses of Turin and Verrua, he refused, and
while still professing to negotiate with Louis, joined the league
of Austria, Spain and Venice. War was declared in 1690, but at
the battle of Staffarda (i8th of August 1691), Victor, in spite
of his great courage and skill, was defeated by the French under
Catinat. Other reverses followed, but the attack on Cuneo was
heroically repulsed by the citizens. The war dragged on with
varying success, until the severe defeat of the allies at Marsiglia
and their selfish neglect of Victor's interests induced him to
open negotiations with France once more. Louis agreed to
restore most of the fortresses he had captured and to make
other concessions; a treaty was signed in 1696, and Victor
appointed generalissimo of the Franco-Piedmontese forces in
Italy operating against the imperialists. By the treaty of
Ryswick (1697) a general peace was concluded. On the out-
break of the war of the Spanish Succession in 1 700 the duke was
again on the French side, but the insolence of Louis and of
Philip V. of Spain towards him induced him, at the end of the
two years for which he had bound himself to them, to go over
to the imperialists (1704). At first the French were successful
and captured several Piedmontese fortresses, but after besieging
Turin, which was skilfully defended by the duke, for several
months, they were completely defeated by Victor and Prince
Eugene of Savoy (1706), and eventually driven out of the other
towns they had captured. By the peace of Utrecht (1713) the
Powers conferred the kingdom of Sicily on Victor Amedeus, whose
government proved efficient and at first popular. But after a
brief stay in the island he returned to Piedmont and left his
new possessions to a viceroy, which caused much discontent
among the Sicilians; and when the Quadruple Alliance decreed
in 1718 that Sicily should be restored to Spain, Victor was unable
to offer any opposition, and had to content himself with receiving
Sardinia in exchange.
The last years of Victor Amedeus's life were saddened by
domestic troubles. In 1715 his eldest son died, and hi 1728 he
lost his queen. After her death, much against the advice of his
remaining son and heir, Carlino (afterwards Charles Emmanuel
III.), he married the Contessa di San Sebastiano, whom he
created Marchesa di Spigno, abdicated the crown and retired to
Chambery to end his days (1730). But his second wife, an
ambitious intrigante, soon tired of her quiet life, and induced
him to return to Turin and attempt to revoke his abdication.
This led to a quarrel with his son, who with quite unnecessary
harshness, partly due to his minister the Marquis d'Ormea,
arrested his father and confined him at Rivoli and later at Mon-
calieri; there Victor, overwhelmed with sorrow, died on the
3ist of October 1732.
Victor Amedeus, although accused not without reason of bad
faith in his diplomatic dealings and of cruelty, was undoubtedly
a great soldier and a still greater administrator. He not only-
won for his country a high place in the council of nations, but he
doubled its revenues and increased its prosperity and industries,
and he also emphasized its character as an Italian state. His
infidelity to his wife and his harshness towards his son Carlino
are blemishes on a splendid career, but he more than expiated
these faults by his tragic end.
See D. Carutvi, Storia del Regno di Vittorio Amedeo II. (Turin,
1856); and E. Parri, Vittorio Amedio II. ed Eugenia di Savoia
(Milan, I888J. The Marchesa Vitelleschi's work. The Romance of
Savoy (2 vols., London, 1905), is based on original authorities, and
is the most complete monograph on the subject.
VICTOR EMMANUEL II. (1820-1878), king of Sardinia and
first king of Italy, was born at Turin on the i4th of March
1820, and was the son of Charles Albert, prince of Savoy-
Carignano, who became king of Sardinia in 1831. Brought up
in the bigoted and chilling atmosphere of the Piedmontese court,
he received a rigid military and religious training, but little
intellectual education. In 1842 he was married to Adelaide,
daughter of the Austrian Archduke Rainer, as the king desired
at that time to improve his relations with Austria. The young
couple led a somewhat dreary life, hidebound by court etiquette,
which Victor Emmanuel hated. He played no part in politics
during his father's lifetime, but took an active interest in military
matters. When the war with Austria broke out in 1848, he was
delighted at the prospect of distinguishing himself, and was
given the command of a division. At Goito he was slightly
wounded and displayed great bravery, and after Custozza
defended the rearguard to the last (25th of July 1848). In
the campaign of March 1849 he commanded the same division.
After the disastrous defeat at Novara on the 23rd of March,
Charles Albert, having rejected the peace terms offered by the
Austrian field-marshal Radetzky, abdicated in favour of his
son, and withdrew to a monastery in Portugal, where he died
a few months later. Victor Emmanuel repaired to Radetzky's
camp, where he was received with every sign of respect, and
the field-marshal offered not only to waive the claim that
Austria should occupy a part of Piedmont, but to give him
an extension of territory, provided he revoked the constitution
and substituted the old blue Piedmontese flag for the Italian
tricolour, which savoured too much of revolution. But although
the young king had not yet sworn to observe the charter, and
in any case the other Italian princes had all violated their
constitutional promises, he rejected the offer. Consequently
he had to agree to the temporary Austrian occupation of the
territory comprised within the Po, the Sesia and the Ticino,
and of half the citadel of Alessandria, to disband his Lombard,
Polish and Hungarian volunteers, and to withdraw his fleet
from the Adriatic; but he secured an amnesty for all the Lom-
bards compromised in the recent revolution, having even
threatened to go to war again if it were not granted. It was
the maintenance of the constitution in the face of the over-
whelming tide of reaction that established his position as the
champion of Italian freedom and earned him the sobriquet of
Re Galanluomo (the honest king). But the task entrusted to
him was a most difficult one: the army disorganized, the
treasury empty, the people despondent if not actively disloyal,
and he himself reviled, misunderstood, and, like his father,
accused of treachery. Parliament having rejected the peace
treaty, the king dissolved the assembly; in the famous pro-
clamation from Moncalieri he appealed to the people's loyalty,
and the new Chamber ratified the treaty (gth of January 1850).
This same year, Cavour (q.v.) was appointed minister of agri-
culture in D'Azeglio's cabinet, and in 1852, after the fall of the
latter, he became prime minister, a post which with brief in-
terruptions he held until his death.
In having Cavour as his chief adviser Victor Emmanuel was
VICTOR EMMANUEL II.
27
most fortunate, and but for that statesman's astounding
diplomatic genius the liberation of Italy would have been
impossible. The years from 1850 to 1859 were devoted to restor-
ing the shattered finances of Sardinia, reorganizing the army
and modernizing the antiquated institutions of the kingdom.
Among other reforms the abolition of the joro ecclesiastico
(privileged ecclesiastical courts) brought down a storm of
hostility from the Church both on the king and on Cavour,
but both remained firm in sustaining the prerogatives of the
civil power. When the Crimean War broke out, the king strongly
supported Cavour in the proposal that Piedmont should join
France and England against Russia so as to secure a place in
the councils of the great Powers and establish a claim on them
for eventual assistance in Italian affairs (1854). The following
year Victor Emmanuel was stricken with a threefold family
misfortune; for his mother, the Queen Dowager Maria Teresa,
his wife, Queen Adelaide, and his brother Ferdinand, duke of
Genoa, died within a few weeks of each other. The clerical
party were not slow to point to this circumstance as a judgment
on the king for what they deemed his sacrilegious policy. At
the end of 1855, while the allied troops were still in the East,
Victor Emmanuel visited Paris and London, where he was
warmly welcomed by the emperor Napoleon III. and Queen
Victoria, as well as by the peoples of the two countries.
Victor Emmanuel's object now was the expulsion of the
Austrians from Italy and the expansion of Piedmont into a
North Italian kingdom, but he did not regard the idea of Italian
unity as coming within the sphere of practical politics for the
time being, although a movement to that end was already
beginning to gain ground. He was in communication with some
of the conspirators, especially with La Farina, the leader of
the Societ^ Nazionale, an association the object of which was
to unite Italy under the king of Sardinia, and he even com-
municated with Mazzini and the republicans, both in Italy and
abroad, whenever he thought that they could help in the
expulsion of the Austrians from Italy. In 1859 Cavour's
diplomacy succeeded in drawing Napoleon III. into an alliance
against Austria, although the king had to agree to the cession
of Savoy and possibly of Nice and to the marriage of his daughter
Clothilde to Prince Napoleon. These conditions were very
painful to him, for Savoy was the hereditary home of his family,
and he was greatly attached to Princess Clothilde and disliked
the idea of marrying her to a man who gave little promise of
proving a good husband. But he was always ready to sacrifice
his own personal feelings for the good of his country. He had an
interview with Garibaldi and appointed him commander of
the newly raised volunteer corps, the Cacciatori delle Alpi.
Even then Napoleon would not decide on immediate hostilities,
and it required all Cavour's genius to bring him to the point and
lead Austria into a declaration of war (April 1859). Although
the Franco-Sardinian forces were successful in the field, Napoleon,
fearing an attack by Prussia and disliking the idea of a too
powerful Italian kingdom on the frontiers of France, insisted on
making peace with Austria, while Venetia still remained to be
freed. Victor Emmanuel, realizing that he could not continue
the campaign alone, agreed most unwillingly to the armistice of
Villafranca. When Cavour heard the news he hurried to the
king's headquarters at Monzambano, and in violent, almost
disrespectful language implored him to continue the campaign
at all hazards, relying on his own army and the revolutionary
movement in the rest of Italy. But the king on this occasion
showed more political insight than his great minister and saw
that by adopting the heroic course proposed by the latter he
ran the risk of finding Napoleon on the side of the enemy,
whereas by waiting all might be gained. Cavour resigned
office, and by the peace of Zurich (xoth of November 1859)
Austria ceded Lombardy to Piedmont but retained Venetia;
the central Italian princes who had been deposed by the revolu-
tion were to be reinstated, and Italy formed into a confederation
of independent states. But this solution was most unacceptable
to Italian public opinion, and both the king and Cavour deter-
mined -to assist the people in preventing its realization, and
consequently entered into secret relations with the revolutionary
governments of Tuscany, the duchies and of Romagna. As
a result of the events of 1859-60, those provinces were all
annexed to Piedmont, and when Garibaldi decided on the
Sicilian expedition Victor Emmanuel assisted him in various
ways. He had considerable influence with Garibaldi, who,
although in theory a republican, was greatly attached to the
bluff soldier-king, and on several occasions restrained him
from too foolhardy courses. When Garibaldi having conquered
Sicily was determined to invade the mainland possessions of
Francis II. of Naples, Victor Emmanuel foreseeing international
difficulties wrote to the chief of the red shirts asking him not to
cross the Straits; but Garibaldi, although acting throughout
in the name of His Majesty, refused to obey and continued
his victorious march, for he knew that the king's letter was
dictated by diplomatic considerations rather than by his own
personal desire. Then, on Cavour's advice, King Victor decided
to participate himself in the occupation of Neapolitan territory,
lest Garibaldi's entourage should proclaim the republic or
create anarchy. When he accepted the annexation of Romagna
offered by the inhabitants themselves the pope excommunicated
him, but, although a devout Catholic, he continued in his
course undeterred by ecclesiastical thunders, and led his army
in person through the Papal States, occupying the Marches
and Umbria, to Naples. On the 29th of October he met
Garibaldi, who handed over his conquests to the king. The
whole peninsula, except Rome and Venice, was now annexed
to Piedmont, and on the i8th of February 1861 the parliament
proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of united Italy.
The next few years were occupied with preparations for the
liberation of Venice, and the king corresponded with Mazzini,
Klapka, Tiirr and other conspirators against Austria in Venetia
itself, Hungary, Poland and elsewhere, keeping his activity
secret even from his own ministers. The alliance with Prussia
and the war with Austria of 1866, although fortune did not
favour Italian arms, added Venetia to his dominions.
The Roman question yet remained unsolved, for Napoleon,
although he had assisted Piedmont in 1859 and had reluctantly
consented to the annexation of the central and southern
provinces, and of part of the Papal States, would not permit
Rome to be occupied, and maintained a French garrison there
to protect the pope. When war with Prussia appeared imminent
he tried to obtain Italian assistance, and Victor Emmanuel
was very anxious to fly to the assistance of the man who had
helped him to expel the Austrians from Italy, but he could not
do so unless Napoleon gave him a free hand in Rome. This
the emperor would not do until it was too late. Even after
the first French defeats the chivalrous king, in spite of the
advice of his more prudent councillors, wished to go to the
rescue, and asked Thiers, the French representative who was
imploring him for help, if with 100,000 Italian troops France
could be saved, but Thiers could give no such undertaking
and Italy remained neutral. On the 2oth of September 1870,
the French troops having been' withdrawn, the Italian army
entered Rome, and on the 2nd of July 1871 Victor Emmanuel
made his solemn entry into the Eternal City, which then be-
came the capital of Italy.
The pope refused to recognize the new kingdom even before
the occupation of Rome, and the latter event rendered relations
between church and state for many years extremely delicate.
The king himself was anxious to be reconciled with the Vatican,
but the pope, or rather his entourage, rejected all overtures,
and the two sovereigns dwelt side by side in Rome until death
without ever meeting. Victor Emmanuel devoted himself
to his duties as a constitutional king with great conscientious-
ness, but he took more interest in foreign than in domestic
politics and contributed not a little to improving Italy's inter-
national position. In 1873 he visited the emperor Francis
Joseph at Vienna and the emperor William at Berlin. He
received an enthusiastic welcome in both capitals, but the
visit to Vienna was never returned in Rome, for Francis Joseph
as a Catholic sovereign feared to offend the pope, a circumstance
VICTOR EMMANUEL III. VICTORIA, QUEEN
which served to embitter Austro-Italian relations. On the
9th of January 1878, Victor Emmanuel died of fever in Rome,
and was buried in the Pantheon. He was succeeded by his
son Humbert.
Bluff, hearty, good-natured and simple in his habits, yet
he always had a high idea of his own kingly dignity, and his
really statesmanlike qualities often surprised foreign diplomats,
who were deceived by his homely exterior. As a soldier he
was very brave, but he did not show great qualities as a military
leader in the campaign of 1866. He was a keen sportsman
and would spend many days at a time pursuing chamois or
steinbock in the Alpine fastnesses of Piedmont with nothing
but bread and cheese to eat. He always used the dialect of
Piedmont when conversing with natives of that country, and
he had a vast fund of humorous anecdotes and proverbs with
which to illustrate his arguments. He had a great weakness
for female society, and kept several mistresses; one of them,
the beautiful Rosa Vercellone, he created Countess Mirafiori e
Fontanafredda and married morganatically in 1869; she bore
him one son.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Besides the general works on Italy and Savoy
see V. Bersezio, // Regno di Vitlorio Emanuele II. (8 vols., Turin,
1869); G. Massari, La Vila ed il Regno di Vittorio Emanuele II.
(2 vols., Milan, 1878); N. Bianchi, Storia della Diplomazia Europea
in Italia (8 vols., Turin, 1865). (L. V.*)
VICTOR EMMANUEL III. (1860- ), king of Italy, son
of King Humbert I. and Queen Margherita of Savoy, was born
at Naples on the nth of November 1869. Carefully educated
by his mother and under the direction of Colonel Osio, he
outgrew the weakness of his childhood and became expert in
horsemanship and military exercises. Entering the army
at an early age he passed through the various grades and,
soon after attaining his majority, was appointed to the command
of the Florence Army Corps. During frequent journeys to
Germany he enlarged his military experience, and upon his
appointment to the command of the Naples Army Corps in
1896 displayed sound military and administrative capacity.
A keen huntsman, and passionately fond of the sea, he extended
his yachting and hunting excursions as far east as Syria and
as far north as Spitsbergen. As representative of King
Humbert he attended the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II. in
1896, the Victorian Jubilee celebrations of 1897, and the
festivities connected with the coming of age of the German
crown prince in 1900. The prince's intellectual and artistic
leanings were well known; in particular, he has made a magnifi-
cent collection of historic Italian coins, on which subject he
became a recognized authority. At the time of the assassina-
tion of his father, King Humbert (the 29th of July 1900), he was
returning from a yachting cruise in the eastern Mediterranean.
Landing at Reggio di Calabria he hastened to Monza, where he
conducted with firmness and tact the preparations for the
burial of King Humbert and for his own formal accession,
which took place on the gth and nth of August 1900. On the
24th of October 1896 he married Princess Elena of Montenegro,
who, on the ist of June 1901, bore him a daughter named
Yolanda Margherita, on the I9th of November 1902 a second
daughter named Mafalda, and on the isth of September 1904
a son, Prince Humbert.
VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA], Queen of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of
India (1819-1901), only child of Edward, duke of Kent, fourth
son of King George III., and of Princess Victoria Mary Louisa
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (widow of Prince Emich Karl of Lein-
ingen, by whom she already had two children), was born at
Kensington Palace on the 24th of May 1819. The duke and
duchess of Kent had been living at Amorbach, in Franconia,
owing to their straitened circumstances, but they returned to
London on purpose that (heir child should be born in England.
In 1817 the death of Princess Charlotte (only child of the prince
regent, afterwards George IV., and wife of Prince Leopold of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians), had left
the ultimate succession to the throne of England, in the younger
generation, so uncertain that the three unmarried sons of
George III., the dukes of Clarence (afterwards William IV.),
Kent and Cambridge, all married in the following year, the
two elder on the same day. All three had children, but the
duke of Clarence's two baby daughters died in infancy, in 1819
and 1821; and the duke of Cambridge's son George, born on
the 26th of March 1819, was only two months old when the
birth of the duke of Kent's daughter put her before him in the
succession. The question as to what name the child should
bear was not settled without bickerings. The duke of Kent
wished her to be christened Elizabeth, and the prince regent
wanted Georgiana, while the tsar Alexander L, who had
promised to stand sponsor, stipulated for Alexandrina. The
baptism was performed in a drawing-room of Kensington
Palace on the 24th of June by Dr Manners Sutton, archbishop
of Canterbury. The prince regent, who was present, named
the child Alexandrina; then, being requested by the duke of
Kent to give a second name, he said, rather abruptly, " Let
her be called Victoria, after her mother, but this name must
come after the other." 1 Six weeks after her christening the
princess was vaccinated, this being the first occasion on which
a member of the royal family underwent the operation.
In January 1820 the duke of Kent died, five days before his
brother succeeded to the throne as George IV. The widowed
duchess of Kent was now a woman of thirty-four, handsome,
homely, a German at heart, and with little liking for English
ways. But she was a woman of experience, and shrewd; and
fortunately she had a safe and affectionate adviser in her brother,
Prince Leopold of Coburg, afterwards (1831) king of the Belgians,
who as the husband of the late Princess Charlotte had once been
a prospective prince consort of England. His former doctor and
private secretary, Baron Stockmar (q.v.), a man of encyclopaedic
information and remarkable judgment, who had given special
attention to the problems of a sovereign's position in England, was
afterwards to play an important r61e in Queen Victoria's life;
and Leopold himself took a fatherly interest in the young
princess's education, and contributed some thousands of pounds
annually to the duchess of Kent's income. Prince Leopold
still lived at this time at Claremont, where Princess Charlotte
had died, and this became the duchess of Kent's occasional
English home; but she was much addicted to travelling, and
spent several months every year in visits to watering-places.
It was said at court that she liked the demonstrative homage
of crowds; but she had good reason to fear lest her child should
be taken away from her to be educated according to the views
of George IV. Between the king and his sister-in-law there was
little love, and when the death of the duke of Clarence's second
infant daughter Elizabeth in 1821 made it pretty certain that
Princess Victoria would eventually become queen, the duchess
felt that the king might possibly obtain the support of his
ministers if he insisted that the future sovereign should be
brought up under masters and mistresses designated by himself.
The little princess could not have received a better education
than that which was given her under Prince Leopold's direction.
Her uncle considered that she ought to be kept as long as
possible from the knowledge of her position, which might raise
a large growth of pride or vanity in her and make her un-
manageable; so Victoria was twelve years old before she
knew that she was to wear a crown. Until she became queen
she never slept a night away from her mother's room, and she
was not allowed to converse with any grown-up person, friend,
tutor or servant without the duchess of Kent or the Baroness
Lehzen, her private governess, being present. Louise Lehzen,
a native of Coburg, had come to England as governess to the
Princess Fecdore of Leiningen, the duchess of Kent's daughter
1 The question of her name, as that of one who was to be queen,
remained even up to her accession to the throne a much-debated
one. In August 1831, in a discussion in parliament upon a grant
to the duchess of Kent, Sir M. W. Ridley suggested changing it to
Elizabeth as "more accordant to the feelings of the people";
and the idea o_f a change seems to have been powerfully supported.
In 1836 William IV. approved of a proposal to change it to
Charlotte; but, to the princess's own delight, it was given u'p.
VICTORIA, QUEEN
29
by her first husband, and she became teacher to the Princess
Victoria when the latter was five years old. George IV. in 1827
made her a baroness of Hanover, and she continued as lady-in-
attendance after the duchess of Northumberland was appointed
official governess in 1830, but actually performed the functions
first of governess and then of private secretary till 1842, when
she left the court and returned to Germany, where she died in
1870. The Rev. George Davys, afterwards bishop of Peter-
borough, taught the princess Latin; Mr J. B. Sale, music;
Mr Westall, history; and Mr Thomas Steward, the writing
master of Westminster School, instructed her in penmanship.
In 1830 George IV. died, and the duke of York (George III.'s
second son) having died childless in 1827, the duke of Clarence
became king as William IV. Princess Victoria now became the
direct heir to the throne. William IV. cherished affectionate
feelings towards his niece; unfortunately he took offence at
the duchess of Kent for declining to let her child come and live
at his court for several months in each year, and through the
whole of his reign there was strife between the two; and
Prince Leopold was no longer in England to act as peacemaker.
In the early hours of the 2oth of June 1837, William IV. died.
His thoughts had dwelt often on his niece, and he repeatedly
said that he was sure she would be " a good woman and a good
queen. It will touch every sailor's heart to have a girl queen
to fight for. They'll be tattooing her face on their arms, and
I'll be bound they'll all think she was christened after Nelson's
ship." Dr Howley, archbishop of Canterbury, and the marquis
of Conyngham, bearing the news of the king's death, started in
a landau with four horses for Kensington, which they reached
at five o'clock. Their servants rang, knocked and thumped;
and when at last admittance was gained, the primate and the
marquis were shown into a lower room and there left to wait.
Presently a maid appeared and said that the Princess Victoria
was " in a sweet sleep and could not be disturbed." Dr Howley,
who was nothing if not pompous, answered that he had come
on state business, to which everything, even sleep, must give
place. The princess was accordingly roused, and quickly came
downstairs in a dressing-gown, her fair hair flowing loose over
her shoulders. Her own account of this interview, written the
same day in her journal (Letters, i. p. 97), shows her to have
been quite prepared.
The privy council assembled at Kensington in the morning;
and the usual oaths were administered to the queen by Lord
Chancellor Cottenham, after which all present did homage.
There was a touching incident when the queen's uncles, the
dukes of Cumberland and Sussex, two old men, came forward
to perform their obeisance. The queen blushed, and descending
from her throne, kissed them both, without allowing them to
kneel. By the death of William IV., the duke of Cumberland
had become King Ernest of Hanover, and immediately after
the ceremony he made haste to reach his kingdom. Had
Queen Victoria died without issue, this prince, who was arro-
gant, ill-tempered and rash, would have become king of Great
Britain; and, as nothing but mischief could have resulted from
this, the young queen's life became very precious in the sight
of her people. She, of course, retained the late king's ministers
in their offices, and it was under Lord Melbourne's direction
that the privy council drew up their declaration to the kingdom.
This document described the queen as Alexandrina Victoria,
and all the peers who subscribed the roll in the House of Lords
on the 2oth of June swore allegiance to her under those names.
It was not till the following day that the sovereign's style was
altered to Victoria simply, and this necessitated the issuing of a
new declaration and a re-signing of the peers' roll. The public
proclamation of the queen took place on the 2istatSt James's
Palace with great pomp.
The queen opened her first parliament in person, and in a
well-written speech, which she read with much feeling, adverted
to her youth and to the necessity which existed for her being
guided by enlightened advisers. When both houses had voted
loyal addresses, the question of the Civil List was considered,
and a week or two later a message was brought to parliament
requesting an increase of the grant formerly made to the duchess
of Kent. Government recommended an addition of 30,000 a
year, which was voted, and before the close of the year a Civil
List Bill was passed, settling 385,000 a year on the queen.
The duchess of Kent and her brothers, King Leopold and the
duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, had always hoped to arrange that
the queen should marry her cousin, Albert (q.v.) of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, and the prince himself had been made acquainted with
this plan from his earliest years. In 1836 Prince Albert, who
was born in the same year as his future wife, had come on a visit
to England with his father and with his brother, Prince Ernest,
and his handsome face, gentle disposition and playful humour
had produced a favourable impression on the princess. The
duchess of Kent had communicated her projects to Lord Mel-
bourne, and they were known to many other statesmen, and to
persons in society; but the gossip of drawing-rooms during the
years 1837-38 continually represented that the young queen
had fallen in love with Prince This or Lord That, and the more
imaginative babblers hinted at post-chaises waiting outside Ken-
sington Gardens in the night, private marriages and so forth.
The coronation took place on the 28th of June 1838. No more
touching ceremony of the kind had ever been performed in
Westminster Abbey. Anne was a middle-aged married
woman at the time of her coronation; she waddled
and wheezed, and made no majestic appearance upon
her throne. Mary was odious to her Protestant subjects, Eliza-
beth to those of the unreformed religion, and both these queens
succeeded to the crown in times of general sadness; but the
youthful Queen Victoria had no enemies except a few Chartists,
and the land was peaceful and prosperous when she began to
reign over it. The cost of George IV. 's coronation amounted
to 240,000; that of William IV. had amounted to 50,000 only;
and in asking 70,000 the government had judged that things
could be done with suitable luxury, but without waste. The
traditional banquet in Westminster Hall, with the throwing
down of the glove by the king's champion in armour, had been
dispensed with at the coronation of William IV., and it was
resolved not to revive it. But it was arranged that the sove-
reign's procession to the abbey through the streets should be
made a finer show than on previous occasions; and it drew to
London 400,000 country visitors. Three ambassadors for different
reasons became objects of great interest on the occasion. Marshal
Soult, Wellington's old foe, received a hearty popular welcome
as a military hero; Prince Esterhazy, who represented Austria,
dazzled society by his Magyar uniform, which was encrusted
all over, even to the boots, with pearls and diamonds; while
the Turkish ambassador, Sarim Effendi, caused much diversion
by his bewilderment. He was so wonder-struck that he could
not walk to his place, but stood as if he had lost his senses,
and kept muttering, " All this for a woman ! "
Within a year the court was brought into sudden disfavour
with the country by two events of unequal importance, but both
exciting. The first was the case of Lady Flora Hastings, nt
In February 1839 this young lady, a daughter of the " Bed-
marquis of Hastings, and a maid of honour to the
duchess of Kent, was accused by certain ladies of
the bedchamber of immoral conduct. The charge having been
laid before Lord Melbourne, he communicated it to Sir James
Clark, the queen's physician, and the result was that Lady Flora
was subjected to the indignity of a medical examination, which,
while it cleared her character, seriously affected her health.
In fact, she died in the following July, and it was then discovered
that the physical appearances which first provoked suspicion
against her had been due to enlargement of the liver. The
queen's conduct towards Lady Flora was kind and sisterly
from the beginning to the end of this painful business; but the
scandal was made public through some indignant letters which
the marchioness of Hastings addressed to Lord Melbourne pray-
ing for the punishment of her daughter's traducers, and the
general opinion was that Lady Flora had been grossly treated
at the instigation of some private court enemies. While the
agitation about the affair was yet unappeased, the political
chamber
Plot."
VICTORIA, QUEEN
crisis known as the " Bedchamber Plot " occurred. The Whig
ministry had introduced a bill suspending the Constitution of
Jamaica because the Assembly in that colony had refused to
adopt the Prisons Act passed by the Imperial Legislature. Sir
Robert Peel moved an amendment, which, on a division (6th
May), was defeated by a majority of five only in a house of
583, and ministers thereupon resigned. The duke of Wellington
was first sent for, but he advised that the task of forming an
administration should be entrusted to Sir Robert Peel. Sir
Robert was ready to form a cabinet in which the duke of Welling-
ton, Lords Lyndhurst, Aberdeen and Stanley, and Sir James
Graham would have served; but he stipulated that the mistress
of the robes and the ladies of the bedchamber appointed by the
Whig administration should be removed, and to this the queen
would not consent. On the loth of May she wrote curtly that
the course proposed by Sir Robert Peel was contrary to usage
and repugnant to her feelings; the Tory leader then had to
inform the House of Commons that, having failed to obtain the
proof which he desired of her majesty's confidence, it was im-
possible for him to accept office. The ladies of the bedchamber
were so unpopular in consequence of their behaviour to Lady
Flora Hastings that the public took alarm at the notion that the
queen had fallen into the hands of an intriguing coterie; and
Lord Melbourne, who was accused of wishing to rule on the
strength of court favour, resumed office with diminished prestige.
The Tories thus felt aggrieved; and the Chartists were so prompt
to make political capital out of the affair that large numbers
were added to their ranks. On the i4th of June Mr Attwood,
M.P. for Birmingham, presented to the House of Commons a
Chartist petition alleged to have been signed by 1,280,000 people.
It was a cylinder of parchment of about the diameter of a coach-
wheel, and was literally rolled up on the floor of the house. On
the day after this curious document had furnished both amuse-
ment and uneasiness to the Commons, a woman, describing
herself as Sophia Elizabeth Guelph Sims, made application at
the Mansion House for advice and assistance to prove herself
the lawful child of George IV. and Mrs Fitzherbert; and this
incident, trumpery as it was, added fuel to the disloyal flame
then raging. Going in state to Ascot the queen was hissed by
some ladies as her carriage drove on to the course, and two
peeresses, one of them a Tory duchess, were openly accused of
this unseemly act. Meanwhile some monster Chartist demon-
strations were being organized, and they commenced on the 4th
of July with riots at Birmingham. It was an untoward coinci-
dence that Lady Flora Hastings died on the 5th of July, for though
she repeated on her deathbed, and wished it to be published, that
the queen had taken no part whatever in the proceedings which
had shortened her life, it was remarked that the ladies who were
believed to have persecuted her still retained the sovereign's
favour. The riots at Birmingham lasted ten days, and had to
be put down by armed force. They were followed by others at
Newcastle, Manchester, Bolton, Chester and Macclesfield.
These troublous events had the effect of hastening the queen's
marriage. Lord Melbourne ascertained that the queen's dis-
The positions towards her cousin, Prince Albert, were un-
seen's changed, and he advised King Leopold, through M.
marriage, yan d er Weyer, the Belgian minister, that the prince
should come to England and press his suit. The prince
arrived with his brother on a visit to Windsor on the loth of
October 1839. On the I2th the queen wrote to King Leopold:
" Albert's beauty is most striking, and he is so amiable and
unaffected in short, very fascinating." On the isth all was
settled; and the queen wrote to her uncle, " I love him more
than I can say." The queen's public announcement of her
betrothal was enthusiastically received. But the royal lovers
still had some parliamentary mortifications to undergo. The
government proposed that Prince Albert should receive an
annuity of 50,000, but an amendment of Colonel Sibthorp
a politician of no great repute for making the annuity 30,000
was carried against ministers by 262 votes to 158, the Tories and
Radicals going into the same lobby, and many ministerialists
taking no part in the division. Prince Albert had not been
described, in the queen's declaration to the privy council, as a
Protestant prince; and Lord Palmerston was obliged to ask
Baron Stockmar for assurance that Prince Albert did not belong
to any sect of Protestants whose rules might prevent him from
taking the Sacrament according to the ritual of the English
Church. He got an answer couched in somewhat ironical terms
to the effect that Protestantism owed its existence in a measure to
the house of Saxony, from which the prince descended, seeing that
this house and that of the landgrave of Hesse had stood quite
alone against Europe in upholding Luther and his cause. Even
after this certain High Churchmen held that a Lutheran was a
" dissenter," and that the prince should be asked to subscribe
to the Thirty-Nine Articles.
The queen was particularly concerned by the question of
the prince's future status as an Englishman. It was impractic-
able for him to receive the title of king consort; but the queen
naturally desired that her husband should be placed by act of
parliament in a position which would secure to him precedence,
not only in England, but in foreign courts. Lord Melbourne
sought to effect this by a clause introduced in a naturalization
bill; but he found himself obliged to drop the clause, and to
leave the queen to confer what precedence she pleased by
letters-patent. This was a lame way out of the difficulty, for
the queen could only confer precedence within her own realms,
whereas an act of parliament bestowing the title of prince
consort would have made the prince's right to rank above all
royal imperial highnesses quite clear, and would have left no
room for such disputes as afterwards occurred when foreign
princes chose to treat Prince Albert as having mere courtesy
rank in his wife's kingdom. The result of these political diffi-
culties was to make the queen more than ever disgusted with
the Tories. But there was no other flaw in the happiness of
the marriage, which was solemnized on the loth of February
1840 in the Chapel Royal, St James's. It is interesting to note
that the queen was dressed entirely in articles of British manu-
facture. Her dress was of Spitalfields silk; her veil of Hcniton
lace; her ribbons came from Coventry; even her gloves had
been made in London of English kid a novel thing in days
when the French had a monopoly in the finer kinds of gloves.
From the time of the queen's marriage the crown played an
increasingly active part in the affairs of state. Previously,
ministers had tried to spare the queen all disagree-
able and fatiguing details. Lord Melbourne saw her
every day, whether she was in London or at Windsor,
and he used to explain all current business in a benevolent,
chatty manner, which offered a pleasant contrast to the style
of his two principal colleagues, Lord John Russell and Lord
Palmerston. A statesman of firmer mould than Lord Melbourne
would hardly have succeeded so well as he did in making rough
places smooth for Prince Albert. Lord John Russell and Lord
Palmerston were naturally jealous of the prince's interference
and of King Leopold's and Baron Stockmar's in state
affairs; but Lord Melbourne took the common-sense view that
a husband will control his wife whether people wish it cr not.
Ably advised by his private secretary, George Anson, and by
Stockmar, the prince thus soon took the de facto place of the
sovereign's private secretary, though he had no official status
as such; and his system of classifying and annotating the
queen's papers and letters resulted in the preservation of what
the editors of the Letters of Queen Victoria (1907) describe as
" probably the most extraordinary collection of state documents
in the world " those up to 1861 being contained in between
500 and 600 bound volumes at Windsor. To confer on Prince
Albert every honour that the crown could bestow, and to let him
make bis way gradually into public favour by his own tact,
was the advice which Lord Melbourne gave; and the prince
acted upon it so well, avoiding every appearance of intrusion,
and treating men of all parties and degrees with urbanity, that
within five months of his marriage he obtained a signal mark
of the public confidence. In expectation of the queen becoming
a mother, a bill was passed through parliament providing for
the appointment of Prince Albert as sole regent in case the
VICTORIA, QUEEN
queen, after giving birth to a child, died before her son or
daughter came of age.
The Regency Bill had been hurried on in consequence of the
attempt of a crazy pot-boy, Edward Oxford, to take the queen's
. life. On loth June 1840, the queen and Prince Albert
were driving up Constitution Hill in an open carriage,
queea's when Oxford fired two pistols, the bullets from which
Ufe - flew, it is said, close by the prince's head. He was
arrested on the spot, and when his lodgings were searched a
quantity of powder and shot was found, with the rules
of a secret society, called " Young England," whose members
were pledged to meet, " carrying swords and pistols and wearing
crape masks." These discoveries raised the surmise that
Oxford was the tool of a widespread Chartist conspiracy
or, as the Irish pretended, of a conspiracy of Orangemen to
set the duke of Cumberland on the throne; and while these
delusions were fresh, they threw well-disposed persons into a
paroxysm of loyalty. Even the London street dogs, as Sydney
Smith said, joined with O'Connell in barking " God save the
Queen." Oxford seems to have been craving for notoriety;
but it may be doubted whether the jury who tried him did
right to pronounce his acquittal on the ground of insanity.
He feigned madness at his trial, but during the forty years of
his subsequent confinement at Bedlam he talked and acted
like a rational being, and when he was at length released and
sent to Australia he earned his living there as a house painter,
and used to declare that he had never been mad at all. His
acquittal was to be deprecated as establishing a dangerous
precedent in regard to outrages on the sovereign. It was always
Prince Albert's opinion that if Oxford had been flogged the
attempt of Francis on the queen in 1842 and of Bean in
the same year would never have been perpetrated. After
the attempt of Bean who was a hunchback, really insane
parliament passed a bill empowering judges to order whipping
as a punishment for those who molested the queen; but some-
how this salutary act was never enforced. In 1850 a half -pay
officer, named Pate, assaulted the queen by striking her with
a stick, and crushing her bonnet. He was sentenced to seven
years' transportation; but the judge. Baron Alderson, excused
him the flogging. In 1869 an Irish lad, O'Connor, was sentenced
to eighteen months' imprisonment and a whipping for presenting
a pistol at the queen, with a petition, in St James's Park; but
this time it was the queen herself who privately remitted the
corporal punishment, and she even pushed clemency to the
length of sending her aggressor to Australia at her own expense.
The series of attempts on the queen was closed in 1882 by
Maclean, who fired a pistol at her majesty as she was leaving
the Great Western Railway station at Windsor. He, like Bean,
'was a genuine madman, and was relegated to Broadmoor.
The birth of the princess royal, on the 2ist of November
1840, removing the unpopular King Ernest of Hanover from
Birth tne Posit* 011 f heir-presumptive to the British crown,
of the was a subject of loud congratulations to the people.
princess A curious scare was occasioned at Buckingham Palace,
nva7 - when the little princess was a fortnight old, by the
discovery of a boy named Joles concealed under a bed in the
royal nursery. Jones had a mania for palace-breaking. Three
times he effected a clandestine entry into the queen's residence,
and twice he managed to spend several days there. By day he
concealed himself in cupboards or under furniture, and by night
he groped his way into the royal kitchen to eat whatever he could
find. After his third capture, in March 1841, he coolly boasted
that he had lain under a sofa, and listened to a private con-
versation between the queen and Prince Albert. This third
time he was not punished, but sent to sea, and turned out
very well. The incident strengthened Prince Albert's hands in
trying to carry out sundry domestic reforms which were being
stoutly resisted by vested interests. The royal residences and
grounds used to be under the control of four different officials
the lord chamberlain, the lord steward, the master of the horse
and the commissioners of woods and forests. Baron Stockmar
describing the confusion fostered by this state of things, said
' The lord steward finds the fuel and lays the fire; the lord
chamberlain lights it. The lord chamberlain provides the lamps;
:he lord steward must clean, trim and light them. The inside
cleaning of windows belongs to the lord chamberlain's depart-
ment, but the outer parts must be attended to by the office of
woods and forests, so that windows remain dirty unless the two
departments can come to an understanding."
It took Prince Albert four years of firmness and diplomacy
sefore in 1845 he was able to bring the queen's home under
the efficient control of a master of the household.
At the general election of 1841 the Whigs returned in a
minority of seventy-six, and Lord Melbourne was defeated on
the Address and resigned. The queen was affected sir Robert
to tears at parting with him; but the crisis had been Peer*
tully expected and prepared for by confidential com- mlal * tr y-
munications between Mr Anson and Sir Robert Peel, who
now became prime minister (see Letters of Queen Victoria,
I. 341 et seq.). The old difficulty as to the appointments to
the royal household was tactfully removed, and Tory appoint-
ments were made, which were agreeable both to the queen
and to Peel. The only temporary embarrassment was the
queen's continued private correspondence with Lord Melbourne,
which led Stockmar to remonstrate with him; but Melbourne
used his influence sensibly; moreover, he gradually dropped
out of politics, and the queen got used to his not being indis-
pensable. On Prince Albert's position the change had a
marked effect, for in the absence of Melbourne the queen relied
more particularly on his advice, and Peel himself at once dis-
covered and recognized the prince's unusual charm and capacity.
One of the Tory premier's first acts was to propose that a royal
commission should be appointed to consider the best means for
promoting art and science in the kingdom, and he nominated
Prince Albert as president. The International Exhibition
of 1851, the creation of the Museum and Science and Art
Department at South Kensington, the founding of art schools
and picture galleries all over the country, the spread of musical
taste and the fostering of technical education may be attri-
buted, more or less directly, to the commission of distinguished
men which began its labours under Prince Albert's auspices.
The queen's second child, the prince of Wales (see
EDWARD VII.), was born on the gth of November 1841; and
this event " filled the measure of the queen's domestic Birth of
happiness," as she said in her speech from the throne the prince
at the opening of the session of 1842. It is unnecessary 0/ '*'*"
from this point onwards to go seriatim through the domestic
history of the reign, which is given in the article ENGLISH
HISTORY. At this time there was much political unrest at
home, and serious difficulties abroad. As regards internal
politics, it may be remarked that the queen and Prince Albert
were much relieved when Peel, who had come in as the leader
of the Protectionist party, adopted Free Trade and re-
pealed the Corn Laws, for it closed a dangerous agitation which
gave them much anxiety. When the country was in distress,
the queen felt a womanly repugnance for festivities; and yet
it was undesirable that the court should incur the The court
reproach of living meanly to save money. There *atthe
was a conversation between the queen and Sir Robert coun try.
Peel on this subject in the early days of the Tory adminis-
tration, and the queen talked of reducing her establishment
in order that she might give away larger sums in charities.
" I am afraid the people would only say that your majesty
-was returning them change for their pounds in halfpence,"
answered Peel. " Your majesty is not perhaps aware that the
most unpopular person in the parish is the relieving officer, and
if the queen were to constitute herself a relieving officer for all
the parishes in the kingdom she would find her money go a very
little way, and she would provoke more grumbling than thanks."
Peel added that a sovereign must do all things in order, not
seeking praise for doing one particular thing well, but striving
to be an example in all respects, even in dinner-giving.
Meanwhile the year 1842 was ushered in by splendid ffites in
honour of the king of Prussia, who held the prince of Wales at
the font. In the spring there was a fancy-dress ball at Bucking-
ham Palace, which remained memorable owing to the offence
VICTORIA, QUEEN
Tht
queen'*
tint rail-
way
journey.
which it gave in France. Prince Albert was costumed as
Edward III., the queen as Queen Philippa, and all the gentle-
men of the court as knights of Poitiers. The French chose to
view this as an unfriendly demonstration, and there was some
talk of getting up a counter-ball in Paris, the duke of Orleans
to figure as William the Conqueror. In June the queen took
her first railway journey, travelling from Windsor to Paddington
on the Great Western line. The master of the horse,
whose business it was to provide for the queen's
ordinary journeys by road, was much put out by this
innovation. He marched into the station several
hours before the start to inspect the engine, as he would
have examined a steed; but greater merriment was occasioned by
the queen's coachman, who insisted that, as a matter of form,
he ought to make-believe to drive the engine. After some
dispute, he was told that he might climb on to the pilot engine
which was to precede the royal train; but his scarlet livery,
white gloves and wig suffered so much from soot and sparks
that he made no more fuss about his rights in after trips. The
motion of the train was found to be so pleasant that the queen
readily trusted herself to the railway for a longer journey a
few weeks later, when she paid her first visit to Scotland.
A report by Sir James Clark led to the queen's visiting
Balmoral in 1848, and to the purchase of the Balmoral estate in
1852, and the queen's diary of hej journeys in Scotland shows
what constant enjoyment she derived from her Highland home.
Seven years before this the estate of Osborne had been pur-
chased in the Isle of Wight, in order that the queen might have
a home of her own. Windsor she considered too stately, and
the Pavilion at Brighton too uncomfortable. The first stone
of Osborne House was laid in 1845, and the royal family entered
into possession in September 1846.
In August 1843 the queen and Prince Albert paid a visit to
King Louis Philippe at the chateau d'Eu. They sailed from
Relations Southampton for Treport in a yacht, and, as it hap-
pened to be raining hard when they embarked, the
loyal members of the Southampton Corporation remem-
bered Raleigh, and spread their robes on the ground
for the queen to walk over. In 1844 Louis Philippe
returned the visit by coming to Windsor. It was the first
visit ever paid by a king of France to a sovereign of England,
and Louis Philippe was much pleased at receiving the Order
of the Garter. He said that he did not feel that he belonged
to the " Club " of European sovereigns until he received this
decoration. As the father of King Leopold of Belgium's con-
sort, the queen was much interested in his visit, which went
off with great success and goodwill. The tsar Nicholas had
visited Windsor earlier that year, in which also Prince Alfred,
who was to marry the tsar's grand-daughter, was born.
In 1846 the affair of the " Spanish marriages " seriously
troubled the relations between the United Kingdom and
France. Louis Philippe and Guizot had planned the marriage
of the duke of Montpensier with the infanta Louisa of Spain,
younger sister of Queen Isabella, who, it was thought at the
time, was not likely ever to have children. The intrigue was
therefore one for placing a son of the French king on the
Spanish throne. (See SPAIN, History.) As to Queen Victoria's
intervention on this question and on others, these words,
written by W. E. Gladstone in 1875, may be quoted:
" Although the admirable arrangements of the Constitution have
now shielded the sovereign from personal responsibility, they have
left ample scope for the exercise of direct and personal influence
in the whole work of government. . . . The sovereign as compared
with her ministers has, because she is the sovereign, the advantage
of long experience, wide survey, elevated position and entire dis-
connexion from the bias of party. Further, personal and domestic
relations with the ruling families abroad give openings in delicate
cases for saying more, and saying it at once more gently and more
efficaciously, than could be ventured in the formal correspondence
and rude contacts of government. We know with how much
truth, fulness and decision, and with how much tact and delicacy,
the queen, aided by Prince Albert, took a principal part on behalf
of the nation in the painful question of the Spanish marriages."
' The year 1848, which shook so many continental thrones,
with
foreign
*ove-
ntgns.
left that of the United Kingdom unhurt. Revolutions broke
out in Paris, Vienna, Berlin, Madrid, Rome, Naples, Venice,
Munich, Dresden and Budapest. The queen and Prince
Albert were affected in many private ways by the events abroad.
Panic-stricken princes wrote to them for political assistance
or pecuniary aid. Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to Eng-
land almost destitute, being smuggled over the Channel by
the cleverness of the British consul at Havre, and the queen
employed Sir Robert Peel as her intermediary for providing him
with money to meet his immediate wants. Subsequently Clare-
mont was assigned to the exiled royal family of France as a
residence. During a few weeks of 1848 Prince William of Prussia
(afterwards German emperor) found an asylum in England.
In August 1849 the queen and Prince Albert, accompanied
by the little princess royal and the prince of Wales, paid a visit
to Ireland, landing at the Cove of Cork, which from
that day was renamed Queenstown. The recep-
tion was enthusiastic, and so was that at Dublin.
" Such a day of jubilee," wrote The Times, " such a night
of rejoicing, has never been beheld in the ancient capital of
Ireland since first it arose on the banks of the Liffey." The
queen was greatly pleased and touched. The project of estab-
lishing a royal residence in Ireland was often mooted at this
time, but the queen's advisers never urged it with sufficient
warmth. There was no repugnance to the idea on the queen's
part, but Sir Robert Peel thought unfavourably of it as an
" empirical " plan, and the question of expense was always
mooted as a serious consideration. There is no doubt that the
absence of a royal residence in Ireland was felt as a slur upon
the Irish people in certain circles.
During these years the queen's family was rapidly becoming
larger. Princess Alice (afterwards grand duchess of Hesse)
was born on the 25th of April 1843; Prince Alfred (afterwards
duke of Edinburgh and duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha) on the
6th of August 1844; Princess Helena (Princess Christian)
on the 25th of May 1846; Princess Louise (duchess of Argyll)
on the i8th of March 1848; and Prince Arthur (duke of Con-
naught) on the ist of May 1850.
At the end of 1851 an important event took place, which ended
a long-standing grievance on the part of the queen, in Lord
Palmerston's dismissal from the office of foreign secre- The
tary on account of his expressing approval of Louis queen and
Napoleon's coup d'etat in Paris. The circumstances LonlPai-
are of extreme interest for the light they throw on *
the queen's estimate of her constitutional position and authority.
Lord Palmerston had never been persona grata at court. His
Anglo-Irish nature was not sympathetic with the somewhat
formal character and German training of Prince Albert; and
his views of ministerial independence were not at all in accord
with those of the queen and her husband. The queen had
more than once to remind her foreign secretary that his des-
patches must be seen by her before they were sent out, and
though Palmerston assented, the queen's complaint had to be
continually repeated. She also protested to the prime minister
(Lord John Russell) in 1848, 1849 and 1850, against various
instances in which Palmerston had expressed his own personal
opinions in matters of foreign affairs, without his despatches
being properly approved either by herself or by the cabinet.
Lord John Russell, who did not want to offend his popular
and headstrong colleague, did his best to smooth things over;
but the queen remained exceedingly sore, and tried hard to get
Palmerston removed, without success. On the I2th of August
1850 the queen wrote to Lord John Russell the following
important memorandum, which followed in its terms a private
memorandum drawn up for her by Stockmar a few months
earlier (Letters, ii. 282):
" With reference to the conversation about Lord Palmerston
which the queen had with Lord John Russell the other day, and
Lord Palmerston's disavowal that he ever intended any disrespect
to her by the various neglects of which she has had so long and so
often to complain, she thinks it right, in order to avoid any mis-
takes for the future, to explain what it is she expects from the
foreign secretary.
VICTORIA, QUEEN
33
" She requires
" I. That he will distinctly state what he proposes in a given
case, in order that the queen may know as distinctly to what she
has given her royal sanction.
" 2. Having given her sanction to a measure, that it be not
arbitrarily altered or modified by the minister. Such an act she
must regard as failing in sincerity to the crown, and justly to be
visited by the exercise of her constitutional right of dismissing
that minister. She expects to be kept informed of what passes
between him and the foreign ministers, before important decisions
are taken, based upon that intercourse; to receive the foreign
despatches in good time, and to have the drafts for her approval
sent her in sufficient time to make herself acquainted with their
contents before they must be sent off. The queen thinks it best
that Lord John Russell should show this letter to Lord Palmerston."
Lord Palmerston took a copy of this letter, and promised to
attend to its direction. But the queen thoroughly distrusted
him, and in October 1851 his proposed reception of Kossuth
nearly led to a crisis. Then finally she discovered (December 13)
at the time of the coup d' Mai, that he had, of his own initiative,
given assurances of approval to Count Walewski, which were
not in accord with the views of the cabinet and with the
" neutrality which had been enjoined " by the queen. This was too
much even for Lord Jphn Russell, and after a short and decisive
correspondence Lord Palmerston resigned the seals of office.
The death of the duke of Wellington in 1852 deeply affected
the queen. The duke had acquired a position above parties,
Death of and was the trusted adviser of all statesmen and of the
the duke court in emergencies. The queen sadly needed such
''''". a counsellor, for Prince Albert's position was one full
Prfoe of difficulty, and party malignity was continually
Albert's putting wrong constructions upon the advice which he
position, gave, and imputing to him advice which he did not
give. During the Corn Law agitation offence was taken at
his having attended a debate in the House of Commons, the
Tories declaring that he had gone down to overawe the
house in favour of Peel's measures. After Palmerston's en-
forced resignation, there was a new and more absurd hubbub.
A climax was reached when the difficulties with Russia arose
which led to the Crimean War; the prince was accused by the
peace party of wanting war, and by the war party of plotting
surrender; and it came to be publicly rumoured that the queen's
husband had been found conspiring against the state, and had
been committed to the Tower. Some said that the queen had
been arrested too, and the prince wrote to Stockman " Thou-
sands of people surrounded the Tower to see the queen and me
brought to it." This gave infinite pain to the queen, and at
length she wrote to Lord Aberdeen on the subject. Eventually,
on 3ist January 1854, Lord John Russell took occasion to deny
most emphatically that Prince Albert interfered unduly with
foreign affairs, and in both houses the statesmen of the two
parties delivered feeling panegyrics of the prince, asserting at
the same time his entire constitutional right to give private
advice to the sovereign on matters of state. From this time
it may be said that Prince Albert's position was established on
a secure footing. He had declined (1850) to accept the post
of commander-in-chief at the duke of Wellington's suggestion,
and he always refused to let himself be placed in any situation
which would have modified ever so slightly his proper relations
with the queen. The queen was very anxious that he should
receive the title of " King Consort," and that the crown should
be jointly borne as it was by William III. and Mary; but he
himself never spoke a word for this arrangement. It was only to
please the queen that he consented to take the title of Prince Con-
sort (by letters patent of June 25, 1857), and he only did this when
it was manifest that statesmen of all parties approved the change.
For the queen and royal family the Crimean War time was
a very busy and exciting one. Her majesty personally super-
The intended the committees of ladies who organized
Crimean relief for the wounded; she helped Florence Nightin-
**'"' gale in raising bands of trained nurses; she visited
the crippled soldiers in*"the hospitals, and it was through
her resolute complaints of the utter insufficiency of the
hospital accommodation that Netley 1 Hospital was built. The
xxvm. 2
distribution of medals to the soldiers and the institution of
the Victoria Cross (February 1857) as a reward for individual
instances of merit and valour must also be noted among the
incidents which occupied the queen's time and thoughts. In
1855 the emperor and empress of the French visited the queen
at Windsor Castle, and the same year her majesty and the prince
consort paid a visit to Paris.
The queen's family life was most happy. At Balmoral and
Windsor the court lived in virtual privacy, and the queen and
the prince consort saw much of their children. Count- The
less entries in the queen's diaries testify to the anxious queen
affection with which the progress of each little member aj>a btt
of the household was watched. Two more children
had been born to the royal pair, Prince Leopold (duke of Albany)
on the 7th of April 1853, and on the I4th of April 1857 their last
child, the princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg),
bringing the royal family up to nine four sons and five
daughters. Less than a year after Princess Beatrice's birth
the princess royal was married to Prince Frederick William of
Prussia, afterwards the emperor Frederick. The next marriage
after the princess royal's was that of the princess Alice to
Prince Louis (afterwards grand duke) of Hesse-Darmstadt in
1862. In 1863 the prince of Wales married the princess Alex-
andra of Denmark. In 1866 the princess Helena became the
wife of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. In 1871 the
princess Louise was wedded to the marquis of Lome, eldest son
of the duke of Argyll. In 1874 Prince Alfred, duke of Edin-
burgh, married Princess Marie Alexandrovna, only daughter of
the tsar Alexander II. The duke of Connaught married in
1879 the princess Louise of Prussia, daughter of the soldier-
prince Frederick Charles. In 1882 Prince Leopold, duke of
Albany, wedded the princess Helen of Waldeck-Pyrmont.
Finally came the marriage of Princess Beatrice in 1885 with
Prince Henry of Battenberg.
On the occasion of the coming of age of the queen's sons and
the marriages of her daughters parliament made provision.
The prince of Wales, in addition to the revenues of the duchy
of Cornwall, had 40,000 a year, the princess 10,000, and an
addition of 36,000 a year for their children was granted by
parliament in 1889. The princess royal received a dowry of
40,000 and 8000 a year for life, the younger daughters 30,000
and 6000 a year each. The dukes of Edinburgh, Connaught
and Albany were each voted an income of 15,000, and 10,000
on marrying.
The dispute with the United States concerning the " Trent "
affair of 1861 will always be memorable for the part played in
its settlement by the queen and the prince consort. The
In 1861 the accession of Abraham Lincoln to the presi- xmertcaa
dency of the United States of America caused the clvU Wtr '
Southern States of the Union to revolt, and the war began.
During November trie British West India steamer "Trent " was
boarded by a vessel of the Federal Navy, the " San Jacinto," and
Messrs Slidell and Mason, commissioners for the Confederate
States, who were on their way to England, were seized. The
British government were on the point of demanding reparation
for this act in a peremptory manner which could hardly have
meant anything but war, but Prince Albert insisted on revising
Lord Russell's despatch in a way which gave the American
government an opportunity to concede the surrender of the
prisoners without humiliation. The memorandum from the
queen on this point was the prince consort's last political draft.
The year 1861 was the saddest in the queen's life. On i6th
March, her mother, the duchess of Kent, died, and on i4th
December, while the dispute with America about the Death of
" Trent " affair was yet unsettled, the prince consort theprtoce
breathed his last at Windsor. His death left a void 00 rt -
in the queen's life which nothing could ever fill. She built at
Frogmore a magnificent mausoleum where she might be buried
with him.
Never again during her reign did the queen live in London,
and Buckingham Palace was only used for occasional viiits of a
few days.
34
VICTORIA, QUEEN
At the time of the prince consort's death the prince of Wales
was in his twenty-first year. He had spent several terms at
Marriage e ^ cn f tne two universities of Oxford and Cambridge,
of the and he had already travelled much, having visited
prince of most of Europe, Egypt and the United States.
Wales, u^ marriage was solemnized at Windsor on the loth of
March 1863. The queen witnessed the wedding from the private
pew or box of St George's Chapel, Windsor, but she wore the deep
mourning which she was never wholly to put off to the end of
her life, and she took no part in the festivities of the wedding.
In foreign imperial affairs, and in the adjustment of serious
parliamentary difficulties, the queen's dynastic influence abroad
and her position as above party at home, together with the
respect due to her character, good sense and experience, still
remained a powerful element in the British polity, as was shown
Austro- on more than one occasion. In 1866 the Austro-
Prussian Prussian War broke out , and many short-sighted people
War. were tempted to side with France when, in 1867,
Napoleon III. sought to obtain a " moral compensation " by
laying a claim to the duchy of Luxemburg. A conference met
in London, and the difficulty was settled by neutralizing the
duchy and ordering the evacuation of the Prussian troops
who kept garrison there. But this solution, which averted an
imminent war, was only arrived at through Queen Victoria's
personal intercession. In the words of a French writer
" The queen wrote both to the king of Prussia and to the
emperor Napoleon. Her letter to the emperor, pervaded with
the religious and almost mystic sentiments which predominate in
the queen's mind, particularly since the death of Prince Albert,
seems to have made a deep impression on the sovereign who,
amid the struggles of politics, had never completely repudiated the
philanthropic theories of his youth, and who, on the battlefield of
Solferino, covered with the dead and wounded, was seized with an
unspeakable horror of war."
Moreover, Disraeli's two premierships (1868, 1874-80) did
a good deal to give new encouragement to a right idea of the
Disraeli constitutional function of the crown. Disraeli thought
and that the queen ought to be a power in the state. His
notion of duty at once a loyal and chivalrous one
was that he was obliged to give the queen the best
of his advice, but that the final decision in any course lay
with her, and that once she had decided, he was bound, what-
ever might be his own opinion, to stand up for her decision in
public. The queen, not unnaturally, came to trust Disraeli
implicitly, and she frequently showed her friendship for him.
At his death she paid an exceptional tribute to his " dear
and honoured memory " from his " grateful and affectionate
sovereign and friend." To something like this position Lord
Salisbury after 1886 succeeded. A somewhat different con-
ception of the sovereign's functions was that of Disraeli's
great rival, Gladstone, who, though his respect for the person
and office of the sovereign was unbounded, not only expected
all people, the queen included, to agree with him when he
changed his mind, but to become suddenly enthusiastic about
his new ideas. The queen consequently never felt safe with him.
Nor did she like his manner he spoke to her (she is believed to
have said) as if she were a public meeting. The queen was
opposed to the Disestablishment of the Irish Church (1869)
the question which brought Gladstone to be premier and
though she yielded with good grace, Gladstone was fretful
and astonished because she would not pretend to give a
hearty assent to the measure. Through her secretary, General
Grey, the queen pointed out that she had not concealed from
Gladstone " how deeply she deplored " his having felt himself
under the necessity of raising the question, and how appre-
hensive she was of the possible consequences of the measure;
but, when a general election had pronounced on the principle,
when the bill had been carried through the House of Commons
by unvarying majorities, she did not see what good could be
gained by rejecting it in the Lords. Later, when through the
skilful diplomacy of the primate the Lords had passed the second
reading by a small but sufficient majority (179 to 146), and after
amendments had been adopted, the queen herself wrote
" The queen ... is very sensible of the prudence and, at the
same time, the anxiety for the welfare of the Irish Establishment
which the archbishop has manifested during the course of the
debates, and she will be very glad if the amendments which have
been adopted at his suggestion lead to a settlement of the ques-
tion; but to effect this, concessions, the queen believes, will have
to be made on both sides. The queen must say that she cannot
view without alarm possible consequences of another year of agita-
tion on the Irish Church, and she would ask the archbishop seriously
to consider, in case the concessions to which the government may
agree should not go so far as he may himself wish, whether the
postponement of the settlement for another year may not be likely
to result in worse rather than in better terms for the Church. The
queen trusts, therefore, that the archbishop will himself consider,
and, as far as he can, endeavour to induce the others to consider,
any concessions that may be offered by the House of Commons in
the most conciliatory spirit."
The correspondence of which this letter forms a part is one of
the few published witnesses to the queen's careful and active
interest in home politics during the latter half of her reign;
but it is enough to prove how wise, how moderate and how
steeped in the spirit of the Constitution she was. Another
instance is that of the County Franchise and Redistribution
Bills of 1884-85. There, again, a conflict between the two
houses was imminent, and the queen's wish for a settlement had
considerable weight in bringing about the curious but effective
conference of the two parties, of which the first suggestion, it
is believed, was due to Lord Randolph Churchill.
In 1876 a bill was introduced into parliament for conferring on
the queen the title of " Empress of India." It met with much
opposition, and Disraeli was accused of ministering
simply to a whim of the sovereign, whereas, in fact,
the title was intended to impress the idea of British
suzerainty forcibly upon the minds of the native princes, and
upon the population of Hindustan. The prince of Wales's voyage
to India in the winter of 1875-76 had brought the heir to the
throne into personal relationship with the great Indian vassals
of the British crown, and it was felt that a further demonstra-
tion of the queen's interest in her magnificent dependency
would confirm their loyalty.
The queen's private life during the decade 1870-80 was one of
quiet, broken only by one great sorrow when the Princess Alice
died in 1878. In 1867 her majesty had started in author-
ship by publishing The Early Days of the Prince fife''
Consort, compiled by General Grey; in 1869 she gave
to the world her interesting and simply written diary entitled
Leaves from the Journal of our Life in the Highlands, and in
1874 appeared the first volume of The Life and Letters of the
Prince Consort (2nd vol. in 1880), edited by Sir Theodore Martin.
A second instalment of the Highland journal appeared in
1885. These literary occupations solaced the hours of a life
which was mostly spent in privacy. A few trips to the Continent,
in which the queen was always accompanied by her youngest
daughter, the Princess Beatrice, brought a little variety into
the home-life, and aided much in keeping up the good health
which the queen enjoyed almost uninterruptedly. So far as
public ceremonies were concerned, the prince and princess of
Wales were now coming forward more and more to represent
the royal family. People noticed meanwhile that the queen
had taken a great affection for her Scottish man-servant, John
Brown, who had been in her service since 1849; she made him
her constant personal attendant, and looked on him more as
a friend than as servant. When he died in 1883 the queen's
grief was intense.
From 1880 onwards Ireland almost monopolized the field
of domestic politics. The queen was privately opposed to
Gladstone's Home Rule policy; but she observed in public
a constitutional reticence on the subject. In the year, however,
of the Crimes Act 1887, an event took place which was of more
intimate personal concern to the queen, and of more attractive
import to the country and the empire at large. June
2oth was the fiftieth anniversary of her accession to biiee.
the throne, and on the following day, for the second
time in English history, a great Jubilee celebration was held
to commemorate so happy an event. The country threw
VICTORIA, QUEEN
35
itself into the celebration with unchecked enthusiasm; large
sums of, money were everywhere subscribed; in every city,
town and village something was done both in the way of
rejoicing and in the way of establishing some permanent
memorial of the event. In London the day itself was kept by
a solemn service in Westminster Abbey, to which the queen
went in state, surrounded by the most brilliant, royal, and
princely escort that had ever accompanied a British sovereign,
and cheered on her way by the applause of hundreds of thousands
of her subjects. The queen had already paid a memorable visit
to the East End, when she opened the People's Palace on the
I4th of May. On the 2nd of July she reviewed at Buckingham
Palace some 28,000 volunteers of London and the home counties.
On the 4th of July she laid the foundation stone of the Imperial
Institute, the building at Kensington to which, at the instance
of the prince of Wales, it had been determined to devote the
large sum of money collected as a Jubilee offering, and which
was opened by the queen in 1893. On the pth of July the
queen reviewed 60,000 men at Aldershot; and, last and chief
of all, on the 23rd of July, one of the most brilliant days of
a brilliant summer, she reviewed the fleet at Spithead.
The year 1888 witnessed two events which greatly affected
European history, and in a minor, though still marked, degree
The queen the life of the English court. On the gth of March
and the emperor William I. died at Berlin. He was
Bismarck. succee d e d by his son, the emperor Frederick III.,
regarded with special affection in England as the husband
of the princess royal. But at the time he was suffering
from a malignant disease of the throat, and he died on the
1 5th of June, being succeeded by his eldest son, the emperor
William II., the grandson of the queen. Meanwhile Queen
Victoria spent some weeks at Florence at the Villa Palmieri,
and returned home by Darmstadt and Berlin. In spite of the
illness of the emperor Frederick a certain number of court
festivities were held in her honour, and she had long con-
versations with Prince Bismarck, who was deeply impressed
by her majesty's personality. Just before, the prince, who
was still chancellor, had taken a very strong line with regard to
a royal marriage in which the queen was keenly interested
the proposal that Prince Alexander of Battenberg, lately ruler
of Bulgaria, and brother of the queen's son-in-law, Prince Henry,
should marry Princess Victoria, the eldest daughter of the
emperor Frederick. Prince Bismarck, who had been anti-
Battenberg from the beginning, vehemently opposed this mar-
riage, on the ground that for reasons of state policy it would
never do for a daughter of the German emperor to marry
a prince who was personally disliked by the tsar. This affair
causod no little agitation in royal circles, but in the end state
reasons were allowed to prevail and the^chancellor had his
way.
The queen had borne so well the fatigue of the Jubilee that
during the succeeding years she was encouraged to make some-
what more frequent appearances among her subjects.
In May 1888 she attended a performance of Sir Arthur
Sullivan's Golden Legend at the Albert Hall, and in August she
visited Glasgow to open the magnificent new municipal buildings,
remaining for a couple of nights at Blythswood, the seat of
Sir Archibald Campbell. Early in 1889 she received at Windsor
a special embassy, which was the beginning of a memorable
chapter of English history: two Matabele chiefs were sent
by King Lobengula to present his respects to the " great White
Queen," as to whose very existence, it was said, he had up
till that time been sceptical. Soon afterwards her majesty
went to Biarritz, and the occasion was made memorable by a
visit which she paid to the queen-regent of Spain at San Sebas-
tian, the only visit that an English reigning sovereign had ever
paid to the Peninsula.
The relations between the court and the country forme'd
matter in 1889 for a somewhat sharp discussion in parliament
and in the press. A royal message was brought by Mr W. H.
Smith on the 2nd of July, expressing, on the one hand, the
queen's desire to provide for Prince Albert Victor of Wales, and,
on the other, informing the house of the intended marriage of
the prince of Wales's daughter, the Princess Louise, to the
earl (afterwards duke) of Fife. On the proposal of
Mr Smith, seconded by Gladstone, a select committee meatar y
was appointed to consider these messages and to grant to
report to the house as to the existing practice and as the prince
to the principles to be adopted for the future. The '
evidence laid before the committee explained to the
country for the first time the actual state of the royal income,
and on the proposal of Gladstone, amending the proposal of
the government, it was proposed to grant a fixed, addition of
36,000 per annum to the prince of Wales, out of which he
should be expected to provide for his children without further
application to the country. Effect was given to this proposal
in a bill called " The Prince of Wales's Children's Bill," which
was carried in spite of the persistent opposition of a small group
of Radicals.
In the spring of 1890 the queen visited Aix-les-Bains in the
hope that the waters of that health resort might alleviate
the rheumatism from which she was now frequently i/Mn-gi
suffering. She returned as usual by way of Darmstadt,
and shortly after her arrival at Windsor paid a visit to Baron
Ferdinand Rothschild at Waddesdon Manor. In February
she launched the battleship " Royal Sovereign " at Portsmouth;
a week later she visited the Horse Show at Islington. Her
annual spring visit to the South was this year paid to the little
town of Grasse.
At the beginning of 1892 a heavy blow fell upon the queen
in the death of the prince of Wales's eldest son Albert Victor,
duke of Clarence and Avondale. He had never been p^^
of a robust constitution, and after a little more than of the
a week's illness from pneumonia following influenza, *"* of
he died at Sandringham. The pathos of his death Clmn
was increased by the fact that only a short time before it had
been announced that the prince was about to marry his second
cousin, Princess May, daughter of the duke and duchess of
Teck.
The death of the young prince threw a gloom over the
country, and caused the royal family to spend the year in
such retirement as was possible. The queen this year paid a
visit to Costebelle, and stayed there for some quiet weeks.
In 1893 the country, on the expiration of the royal mourning,
began to take a more than usual interest in the affairs of the
royal family. On the igth of February the queen
left home for a visit to Florence, and spent it
in the Villa Palmieri. She was able to display remarkable
energy in visiting the sights of the city, and even went as
far afield as San Gimignano; and her visit had a notable
effect in strengthening the bonds of friendship between the
United Kingdom and the Italian people. On 28th April
she arrived home, and a few days later the prince of Wales's
second son, George, duke of York (see GEORGE V.), who by his
brother's death had been left in the direct line of succession to
the throne, was betrothed to the Princess May, the marriage
being celebrated on 6th July in the Chapel Royal of St James's
Palace.
In 1894 the queen stayed for some weeks at Florence, and
on her return she stopped at Coburg to witness the marriage
between two of her grandchildren, the grand duke
of Hesse and the Princess Victoria Melita of Coburg.
On the next day the emperor William officially announced
the betrothal of the Cesarevitch (afterwards the tsar Nicholas II.)
to the princess Alix of Hesse, a granddaughter whom
the queen had always regarded with special affection. Aftei
a few weeks in London the queen went northwards and stopped
at Manchester, where she opened the Ship Canal. Two days
afterwards she celebrated her seventy-fifth birthday in quiet
at Balmoral. A month later (June 23) took place the birth
of a son to the duke and duchess of York, the child receiving
the thoroughly English name of Edward.
In 1895 the queen lost her faithful and most efficient private
secretary, General Sir Henry Ponsonby, who for many years
VICTORIA, QUEEN
had helped her in the management of her most private affairs
and had acted as an intermediary between her and her ministers
Death of w ' tn Sm 8 u ' ar ability and success. His successor was
Prince Sir Arthur Bigge. The following year, 1896, was
Henry of marked by a loss which touched the queen even more
f* tten ' nearly and more personally. At his own urgent
request Prince Henry of Battenberg, the queen's
son-in-law, was permitted to join the Ashanti expedition, and
early in January the prince was struck down with fever. He
was brought to the coast and put on board her majesty's ship
" Blonde," where, on the aoth, he died.
In September 1896 the queen's reign had reached a point
at which it exceeded in length that of any other English
The sovereign; but by her special request all public
Diamond celebrations of the fact were deferred until the follow-
Jubilee. m g j une> which marked the completion of sixty
years from her accession. As the time drew on it was
obvious that the celebrations of this Diamond Jubilee, as
it was popularly called, would exceed in magnificence those
of the Jubilee of 1887. Mr Chamberlain, the secretary for the
colonies, induced his colleagues to seize the opportunity of
making the jubilee a festival of the British empire. Accordingly,
the prime ministers of all the self-governing colonies, with
their families, were invited to come to London as the guests
of the country to take part in the Jubilee procession; and
drafts of the troops from every British colony and dependency
were brought home for the same purpose. The procession
was, in the strictest sense of the term, unique. Here was a
display, not only of Englishmen, Scotsmen, Irishmen, Welsh-
men, but of Mounted Rifles from Victoria and New South
Wales, from the Cape and from Natal, and from the Dominion
of Canada. Here were Hausas from the Niger and the Gold
Coast, coloured men from the West India regiments, zaptiehs
from Cyprus, Chinamen from Hong Kong, and Dyaks now
civilized into military police from British North Borneo.
Here, most brilliant sight of all, were the Imperial Service troops
sent by the native princes of India; while the detachments
of Sikhs who marched earlier in the procession received their
full meed of admiration and applause. Altogether the queen
was in her carriage for more than four hours, in itself an
extraordinary physical feat for a woman of seventy-eight.
Her own feelings were shown by the simple but significant
message she sent to her people throughout the world: " From
my heart I thank my beloved people. May God bless them."
The illuminations in London and the great provincial towns
were magnificent, and all the hills from Ben Nevis to the South
Downs were crowned with bonfires. The queen herself held
a great review at Aldershot; but a much more significant
display was the review by the prince of Wales of the fleet
at Spithead on Saturday, the 26th"of June. No less than 165
vessels of all classes were drawn up in four lines, extending
altogether to a length of 30 m.
The two years that followed the Diamond Jubilee were, as
regards the queen, comparatively uneventful. Her health
remained good, and her visit to Cimiez in the spring of 1898
was as enjoyable and as beneficial as before. In May 1899,
after another visit to the Riviera, the queen performed what
proved to be her last ceremonial function in London: she
proceeded in " semi-state " to South Kensington, and laid the
foundation stone of the new buildings completing the Museum
henceforth to be called the Victoria and Albert Museum
which had been planned more than forty years before by the
prince consort.
Griefs and anxieties encompassed the queen during the last
year of her life. But if the South African War proved more
Tae serious than had been anticipated, it did more to
queen's weld the empire together than years of peaceful
last year, progress might have accomplished. The queen's
frequent messages of thanks and greeting to her colonies
and to the troops sent by them, and her reception of
the latter at Windsor, gave evidence of the heartfelt joy
with which she saw the sons of the empire giving their lives
for the defence of its integrity; and the satisfaction which
she showed in the Federation of the Australian colonies was
no less keen. The reverses of the first part of the Boer cam-
paign, together with the loss of so many of her officers and
soldiers, caused no small part of that " great strain " of which
the Court Circular spoke in the ominous words which first
told the country that she was seriously ill. But the queen
faced the new situation with her usual courage, devotion and
strength of will. She reviewed the departing regiments; she
entertained the wives and children of the Windsor soldiers who
had gone to the war; she showed by frequent messages her
watchful interest in the course of the campaign and in the
efforts which were being made throughout the whole empire;
and her Christmas gift of a box of chocolate to every soldier in
South Africa was a touching proof of her sympathy and interest.
She relinquished her annual holiday on the Riviera, feeling
that at such a time she ought not to leave her country. Entirely
on her own initiative, and moved by admiration for the fine
achievements of " her brave Irish " during the war, the queen
announced her intention of paying a long visit to Dublin; and
there, accordingly, she went for the month of April 1900,
staying in the Viceregal Lodge, receiving many of the leaders
of Irish society, inspecting some 50,000 school children from
all parts of Ireland, and taking many a drive amid the charming
scenery of the neighbourhood of Dublin. She went even further
than this attempt to conciliate Irish feeling, and to show her
recognition of the gallantry of the Irish soldiers she issued an
order for them to wear the shamrock on St Patrick's Day, and
for a new regiment of Irish Guards to be constituted.
In the previous November the queen had had the pleasure
of receiving, on a private visit, her grandson, the German Em-
peror, who came accompanied by the empress and by two of
their sons. This visit cheered the queen, and the successes of
the army which followed the arrival of Lord Roberts in Africa
occasioned great joy to her, as she testified by many published
messages. But independently of the public anxieties of the
war, and of those aroused by the violent and unexpected out-
break of fanaticism in China, the year brought deep private
griefs to the queen. In 1899 her grandson, the hereditary prince
of Coburg, had succumbed to phthisis, and in 1900 his father,
the duke of Coburg, the queen's second son, previously known
as the duke of Edinburgh, also died (July 30). Then Prince
Christian Victor, the queen's grandson, fell a victim to enteric
fever at Pretoria; and during the autumn it came to be known
that the empress Frederick, the queen's eldest daughter, was
very seriously ill. Moreover, just at the end of the year a loss
which greatly shocked and grieved the queen was experienced
in the sudden death, at Windsor Castle, of the Dowager Lady
Churchill, one of her oldest and most intimate friends. These
losses told upon the queen at her advanced age- Throughout
her life she had enjoyed excellent health, and even in the last
few years the only marks of age were rheumatic stiffness of the
joints, which prevented walking, and a diminished power of
eyesight. In the autumn of 1900, however, her health began
definitely to fail, and though arrangements were made Death
for another holiday in the South, it was plain that her
strength was seriously affected. Still she continued
the ordinary routine of her duties and occupations. Before
Christmas she made her usual journey to Osborne, and there
on the 2nd of January she received Lord Roberts on his return
from South Africa and handed to him the insignia of the Garter.
A fortnight later she commanded a second visit from the field-
marshal; she continued to transact business, and until a week
before her death she still took her daily drive. A sudden loss
of power then supervened, and on Friday evening, the i8th of
January, the Court Circular published an authoritative announce-
ment of her illness. On Tuesday, the 22nd of January 1901,
she died.
Queen Victoria was a ruler of a new type. When she ascended
the throne the popular faith in kings and queens was on the
decline. She revived that faith; she consolidated her throne;
she not only captivated the affections of the multitude, but
VICTORIA, T. L. DA VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
won the respect of thoughtful men; and all this she achieved
by methods which to her predecessors would have seemed im-
practicable methods which it required no less shrewdness to
discover than force of character and honesty of heart to adopt
steadfastly. Whilst all who approached the queen bore witness
to her candour and reasonableness in relation to her ministers,
all likewise proclaimed how anxiously she considered advice
that was submitted to her before letting herself be persuaded
that she must accept it for the good of her people.
Though richly endowed with saving common sense, the
queen was not specially remarkable for high develcpment of
any specialized intellectual force. Her whole life, public and
private, was an abiding lesson in the paramount importance
of character. John Bright said of her that what specially
struck him was her absolute truthfulness. The extent of
her family connexions, and the correspondence she maintained
with foreign sovereigns, together with the confidence inspired
by her personal character, often enabled her to smooth the
rugged places of international relations; and she gradually
became in later years the link between all parts of a demo-
cratic empire, the citizens of which felt a passionate loyalty for
their venerable queen.
By her long reign and unblemished record her name had
become associated inseparably with British institutions and
imperial solidarity. Her own life was by choice, and as far
as her position would admit, one of almost austere simplicity
and homeliness; and her subjects were proud of a royalty
which involved none of the mischiefs of caprice or ostentation,
but set an example alike of motherly sympathy and of queenly
dignity. She was mourned at her death not by her own country
only, nor even by all English-speaking people, but by the
whole world. The funeral in London on the ist and 2nd of
February, including first the passage of the coffin from the Isle
of Wight to Gosport between lines of warships, and secondly a
military procession from London to Windsor, was a memorable
solemnity: the greatest of English sovereigns, whose name
would in history mark an age, had gone to her rest.
There is a good bibliographical note at the end of Mr Sidney Lee's
article in the National Dictionary of Biography. See also the Letters
of Queen Victoria (1907), and the obituary published by The Times,
from which some passages have been borrowed above. (H. CH.)
VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA
(c. 1540-c. 1613), Spanish musical composer, was born at Avila
(unless, as Haberl conjectures, his title of Presbyter Abulensis
refers not to his birthplace but to his parish as priest, so that his
name would indicate that he was born at Vittoria). In 1573 he
was appointed as Maestro di Cappella to the Collegium Germani-
cum at Rome, where he had probably been trained. Victoria
left Rome in 1589, being then appointed vice-master of the Royal
Chapel at Madrid, a post which he held until 1602. In 1603
he composed for the funeral of the empress Maria the greatest
requiem of the Golden Age, which is his last known work,
though in 1613 a contemporary speaks of him as still living.
He was not ostensibly Palestrina's pupil; but Palestrina had
the main influence upon his art, and the personal relations
between the two were as intimate as were the artistic. The
work begun by Morales and perfected by Palestrina left no
stumbling-blocks in Victoria's 'path and he was able from the
outset to express the purity of his ideals of religious music
without having to sift the good from the bad in that Flemish
tradition which had entangled Palestrina's path while it enlarged
his style. From Victoria's first publication in 1572 to his last
requiem (the Officium Defunclorum of 1605) there is practically
no change of style, all being pure church music of unswerving
loftiness and showing no inequality except in concentration
of thought. Like his countryman and predecessor Morales, he
wrote no secular music; 1 yet he differs from Morales, perhaps
more than can be accounted for by his later date, in that his
devotional spirit is impulsive rather than ascetic. His work
1 One French song is mentioned by Hawkins, but no secular
mus_ic appears in the prospectus of the modern complete edition
of his works published by Breitkopf and Hartel.
37
is the crown of Spanish music: music which has been regarded
as not constituting a special school, since it absorbed itself so
thoroughly in the Rome of Palestrina. Yet, as has been aptly
pointed out in the admirable article " Vittoria " in Grove's
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Roman music owes so much
to that Spanish school which produced Guerrero, Morales and
Victoria, that it might fairly be called the Hispano-Roman
school. In spite of the comparative smallness of Victoria's
output as compared with that of many of his contemporaries,
there is no mistaking his claim to rank with Palestrina and
Orlando di Lasso in the triad of supreme 16th-century masters.
In any extensive anthology of liturgical polyphony such as the
Musica Divina of Proske, his work stands out as impressively
as Palestrina's and Lasso's; and the style, in spite of a resem-
blance to Palestrina which amounts to imitation, is as individual
as only a successful imitator of Palestrina can be. That is to
say, Victoria's individuality is strong enough to assert itself
by the very act of following Palestrina's path. When he is
below his best his style does not become crabbed or harsh, but
over-facile and thin, though never failing in euphony. If he
seldom displays an elaborate technique it is not because be
conceals it, or lacks it. His mastery is unfailing, but his
methods are those of direct emotional effect; and the intellectual
qualities that strengthen and deepen this emotion are themselves
innate and not sought out. The emotion is reasonable and
lofty, not because he has trained himself to think correctly,
but because he does not know that any one can think otherwise.
His works fill eight volumes in the complete edition of Messrs
Breitkopf and Hartel. ( D. F. T.)
VICTORIA, a British colonial state, occupying the south-
eastern corner of Australia. Its western boundary is in 140
58' E. ; on the east it runs out to a point at Cape Howe, in 1 50
E. long., being thus rudely triangular in shape; the river Murray
constitutes nearly the whole of the northern boundary, its
most northerly point being in 34 S. lat.; the southern boundary
is the coast-line of the Southern Ocean and of Bass Strait; the
most southerly point is Wilson's Promontory in 39 S. lat,
The greatest length east and west is about 480 m. ; the greatest
width, in the west, is about 250 m. The area is officially
stated to be 87,884 sq. m.
The coast-line may be estimated at about 800 m. It
begins about the 14131 meridian with bold but not lofty sand-
stone cliffs, worn into deep caves and capped by grassy undu-
lations, which extend inland to pleasant park-like lands. Capes
Bridgewater and Nelson form a peninsula of forest lands,
broken by patches of meadow. To the east of Cape Nelson
lies the moderately sheltered inlet of Portland Bay, consisting
of a sweep of sandy beach flanked by bold granite rocks. Then
comes a long unbroken stretch of high cliffs, which, owing to
insetting currents, have been the scene of many calamitous
wrecks. Cape Otway is the termination of a wild mountain
range that here abuts on the coast. Its brown cliffs rise verti-
cally from the water; and the steep slopes above are covered
with dense forests of exceedingly tall timber and tree-ferns.
Eastwards from this cape the line of cliffs gradually diminishes
in height to about 20 to 40 ft. at the entrance to Port
Phillip. Next comes Port Phillip Bay, at the head of which
stands the city of Melbourne. When the tide recedes from this
bay through the narrow entrance it often encounters a strong
current just outside; the broken and somewhat dangerous sea
thus caused is called " the Rip." East of Port Phillip Bay
the shores consist for 15 m. of a line of sandbanks; but
at Cape Schanck they suddenly become high and bold. East
of this comes Western Port, a deep inlet more than half occupied
by French Island and Phillip Island. Its shores are flat and
uninteresting, in some parts swampy. The bay is shallow and
of little use for navigation. The coast continues rocky round
Cape Liptrap. Wilson's Promontory is a great rounded mass
of granite hills, with wild and striking scenery, tree-fern gullies
and gigantic gum-trees, connected with the mainland by a
narrow sandy isthmus. At its extremity lie a multitude of
rocky islets, with steep granite edges. North of this cape, and
VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
S~~0 U T H
SCvW%w>
VICTORIA
*' C Bass Strdit*-r>
opening to the east, lies Corner Inlet, which is dry at low water.
The coast now continues low to the extremity of the colony.
The slight bend northward forms a sort of bight called the
Ninety Mile Beach, but it really exceeds that length. It is an
unbroken line of sandy shore, backed by low sandhills, on
which grows a sparse dwarf vegetation. Behind these hills
comes a succession of lakes, surrounded by excellent land, and
beyond these rise the soft blue outlines of the mountain masses
of the interior. The shores on the extreme east are somewhat
higher, and occasionally rise in bold points. They terminate
in Cape Howe, off which lies Gabo Island, of small extent but
containing an important lighthouse and signalling station.
The western half of Victoria is Jeyel or slightly undulating, and
as a rule tame in its scenery, exhibiting only thinly timbered grassy
lands, with all the appearance of open parks. The north-west
corner of the colony, equally flat, is dry and sometimes sandy,
and frequently bare of vegetation, though in one part some seven
or eight millions of acres are covered with the dense brushwood
known as " malice scrub." This wide western plain is slightly
broken in two places. In the south the wild ranges of Cape
Otway are covered over a considerable area with richly .luxurious
but almost impassable forests. This district has been reserved
as a state forest and its coast forms a favourite holiday resort,
the scenery being very attractive. The middle of the plain is
crossed by a thin line of mountains, known as the Australian
Pyrenees, at the western extremity of which there are several
irregularly placed transverse ranges, the chief being the Grampians,
the Victoria Range and the Sierra Range. Their highest point
is Mount William (3600 feet). The eastern half of the colony is
wholly different. Though there is plenty of level land, it occurs
in small patches, and chiefly in the south, in Gippsland, which
extends from Corner Inlet to Cape Howe. But a great part of this
eastern half is occupied with the complicated mass of ranges known
collectively as the Australian Alps. The whole forms a plateau
averaging from 1000 to 2000 ft. high, with many smaller table-
lands ranging from 3000 to 5000 ft. in height. The highest peak,
Bogong, is 6308 ft. in altitude. The ranges are so densely covered
with vegetation that it is extremely difficult to penetrate them.
About fifteen peaks over 5000 ft. in height have been measured.
Along the ranges grow the giant trees for which Victoria is famous.
The narrow valleys and gullies contain exquisite scenery, the rocky
streams being overshadowed by groves of graceful tree-ferns, from
amid whose waving; fronds rise the tall smooth stems of the white
gums. Over ten millions of acres are thus covered with forest-clad
mountains which in due time will become a very valuable asset of
the state. The Australian Alps are connected with the Pyrenees
by a long ridge called the Dividing Range (1500 to 3000 ft. high).
Victoria is fairly well watered, but its streams are generally too
small to admit of navigation. This, however, is not the case with
Rivers. the Murray river (q.v.). The Murray for a distance of
670 m. (or 1250 m. if its various windings be followed) forms
the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria; it receives
a number of tributaries from the Victorian side. The Mitta Mitta,
which rises in the heart of the Australian Alps, is 150 m. long.
The Ovens, rising among the same mountains, is slightly shorter.
The Goulburn (340 m.) flows almost entirely through well-settled
agricultural country,' and is deep enough to be used in its lower
part for navigation. The valley of this river is. a fertile grain-
producing district. The Campaspe (150 m.) has too little volume
of water to be of use for navigation ; its valley is also agricultural,
and along its banks there lie a close succession of thriving town-
ships. The Loddon (over 200 m.) rises in the Pyrenees. The upper
part flows through a plain, to the right agricultural and to the
left auriferous, containing nearly forty thriving towns, including
Bendigo (formerly named Sandhurst) and Castlemaine. In the
lower part of the valley the soil is also fertile, but the rainfall is
small. To the west of the Loddon is the Avoca river with a length
of 140 m.; it is of slight volume, and though it flows towards the
Murray it loses itself in marshes and salt lagoons before reaching
that river.
The rivers which flow southwards into the ocean are numerous.
The Snowy river rises in New South Wales, and in Victoria flows
entirely through wild and almost wholly unoccupied territory.
VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
The Tambo (120 m. long), which rises in the heart of the Australian
Alps, crosses the Gippsland plains and falls into Lake King, one
of the Gippsland lakes; into the same lake falls the Mitchell river,
rising ajso in the Australian Alps. The Mitchell is navigated for a
short distance. The Latrobe empties itself into Lake Wellington
after a course of 135 m.; it rises at Mount Baw Baw. The Yarra
Yarra rises in the " Black Spur " of the Australian Alps. Emerging
in a deep valley from the ranges, it follows a sinuous course through
the undulating plains called the " Yarra Flats," which are wholly
enclosed by hills, on whose slopes are some of the best vineyards of
Australia; it finds its way out of the Flats between high and pre-
cipitous but well-wooded banks, and finally reaches Port Phillip
Bay below Melbourne. Owing to its numerous windings its course
through that city and its suburbs is at least thirty miles. Nearer
to the sea its waterway, formerly available for vessels drawing 16 ft.,
has now been deepened so as to be available for vessels drawing
20 ft. The Barwon, farther west, is a river of considerable length
but little volume, flowing chiefly through pastoral lands. The
Hopkins and Glenelg (280 m.) both water the splendid pastoral
lands of the west, the lower course of the former passing through
the fertile district of Warrnambool, well known throughout Australia
as a potato-growing region.
In the west there are Lakes Corangamite and Colac, due north
of Cape Otway. The former is intensely salt; the latter is fresh,
having an outlet for its waters. Lakes Tyrrell and Hindmarsh
lie in the plains of the north-west. In summer they are dried up,
and in winter are again formed by the waters of nvers that have
no outlet. In the east are the Gippsland lakes, formed by the waters
of the Latrobe, Mitchell and Tambo, being dammed back by the
sandhills of the Ninety Mile Beach. They are connected with Bass
Strait by a narrow and shifting channel through a shallow bar;
the government of Victoria has done a great deal of late years to
deepen the entrance and make it safer. The upper lake is called
Lake Wellington; a narrow passage leads into Lake Victoria,
which is joined to a wider expanse called Lake King. These are all
fresh- water lakes and are visited by tourists, being readily accessible
from Melbourne. (T. A. C.)
Geology. Victoria includes a more varied and complete geo-
logical sequence than any other area of equal size in Australia. Its
geological foundation consists of a band of Archean and Lower
Palaeozoic rocks, which forms the backbone of the state. The
sedimentary rocks in this foundation have been thrown into folds,
of which the axes trend approximately north and south. The
Lower Palaeozoic and Archean rocks build up the Highlands of
Victoria, which occupy the whole width of the state at its eastern
end, extending from the New South Wales border on the north
to the shore of the Southern Ocean on the south. These Highlands
constitute the whole of the mountainous country of Gippsland
and the north-eastern districts. They become narrower to the
west, and finally, beyond the old plateau of Dundas, disappear
beneath the recent loams of the plains along the South Australian
border. The Lower Palaeozoic and Archean rocks bear upon their
surface some Upper Palaeozoic rocks, which occur in belts running
north and south, and have been preserved by infolding or faulting;
such are the Grampian Sandstones in the west; the Cathedral
Mountain Sandstones to the north-east of Melbourne; the belt
of Devonian and Lower Carboniferous rocks that extends across
eastern Victoria, through Mount Wellington to Mansfield; and
finally, far to the east, is the belt of the Snowy river porphyries,
erupted by a chain of Lower Devonian volcanoes. Further Upper
Palaeozoic rocks and the Upper Carboniferous glacial beds occur
in basins on both northern and southern flanks of the Highlands.
The Mesozoic rocks are confined to southern Victoria; they build
up the hills of southern Gippsland and the Otway Ranges; and
farther west, hidden by later rocks, they occur under the coast of
the western district. Between the southern mountain chain and
the Victorian Highlands occurs the Great Valley of Victoria, occupied
by sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Kainozoic age. The North-
Western Plains, occurring between the northern foot of the Highlands
and the Murray, are occupied by Kainozoic sediments.
Victoria has a fairly complete geological sequence, though it is
poorer than New South Wales in the Upper Carboniferous and Lower
Mesozoic. The Archean rocks form two blocks of gneisses and
schists, which build up the Highlands of Dundas in the west, and
of the north-eastern part of Victoria. They were originally de-
scribed as metamorphosed Silurian rocks, but must be of Archean
age. Another series of Archean rocks is more widely developed,
and forms the old framework upon which the geology of Victoria
has been built up. They are known as the Heathcotian series,
and consist of phyllites, schists and amphibolites; while their most
characteristic feature is the constant association of foliated diabase
and beds of jasperoids. Volcanic agglomerates occur in the series
at the typical locality of Heathcote. The Heathcotian rocks form
the Colbmabbin Range, which runs for 40 m. northward and
southward, east of Bendigo. They are also exposed on the surface
at the eastern foot of the Grampian Ranee, and at Dookie, and on the
southern coast in Waratah Bay ; they have been proved by bores
under Rushworth, and they apparently underlie parts of the Gipps-
land coalfields. The Cambrian rocks have so far only been de-
39
finitely proved near Mansfield. Mr A. M. Howitt has there collected
some fragmentary remains of Olenellus and worm tubes of the
Cambrian genus Salterella. These beds at Mansfield contain phos-
phatic limestones and wavellite.
The. Ordovician system is well developed. It consists of slates
and quartzites; and some schists around the granites of the western
district, and in the Pyrenees, are regarded as metamorphic Ordovician.
The Ordovician has a rich graptolitic fauna, and they have been
classified into the following divisions:
Upper Ordovician . . Darriwill Series
( Castlemaine Series
Lower Ordovician . . j Bendigo Series
( Lanceneld Series
The Ordovician beds are best developed in a band running north-
north-west and south-south-east across Victoria, of which the
eastern boundary passes through Melbourne. This Ordovician
band begins on the south with the block forming the plateau of
Arthur's Seat and Mornington Peninsula, as proved by Ferguson.
This outlier is bounded to the north by the depression of Port Phillip
and the basalt plains west of Melbourne. It reappears north of
them at Lanceneld, whence it extends along the Highlands, past
Ballarat, with southern outliers as far as Steiglitz. It forms the
whole of the Ballarat Plateau, and is continued northward through
the goldfields of Castlemaine, Bendigo and the Pyrenees, till it
dips under the North-Western Plains. Certain evidence as to the
age of the rocks in the Pyrenees has not yet been collected, and they
may be pre-Ordovician. Some Upper Ordovician rocks occur in
the mountains of eastern Gippsland, as near Woods Point, and in
north-eastern Victoria, in Wombat Creek.
The Silurian system consists of two divisions: the lower or Mel-
bourn ian, and the upper or Yeringian. Both consist in the main
of sandstones, quartzites and shales; but the upper series includes
lenticular masses of limestone, at Lillydale, Loyola and along
the Thomson river. The limestones are rich in typical Silurian
corals and bryozoa, and the shales and sandstones contain brachio-
pods and trilobites. The Silurian rocks are well exposed in sections
near Melbourne; they occur in a belt running from the southern coast
at Waratah Bay, west of Wilson's Promontory, north-north-west-
ward across Victoria, and parallel to the Ordovician belt, which
underlies them on the west. The Silurian rocks include the gold-
fields of the Upper Yarra, Woods Point, Walhalla and Rushworth,
while the limestones are worked for lime at Lillydale and Waratah
Bay. The Devonian system includes representatives of the lower,
middle and upper series. The Lower Devonian series includes the
porphyries and their associated igneous rocks, along the valley of
the Snowy river. They represent the remains of an old chain of
volcanoes which once extended north and south across Victoria. The
Middle Devonian is mainly formed of marine sandstones, and lime-
stones in eastern Gippsland. It is best developed in the valleys
of the Mitchell, the Tambo and the Snowy nvers. The Upper
Devonian rocks include sandstones, shales and coarse conglomerates.
At the close of Middle Devonian times there were intense crustal
disturbances, and the granitic massifs, which formed the primitive
mountain axis of Victoria, were then intruded.
The Carboniferous system begins with the Avon river sandstones,
containing Lepidodendron, and the red sandstones, with Lower
Carboniferous fish, collected by Mr Geo. Sweet near Mansfield.
Probably the Grampian Sandstone, the Cathedral Mountain Sand-
stone, and some in the Mount Wellington district belong to the same
period. The Upper Carboniferous includes the famous glacial
deposits and boulder clays, by which the occurrence of a Carboni-
ferous glaciation in the Southern Hemisphere was first demonstrated.
These beds occur at Heathcote, Bendigo, the Loddon Valley,
southern Gippsland and the North-Eastern district. The beds
comprise boulder clay, containing ice-scratched boulders, and
sometimes rest upon ice-scratched, moutonn6 surfaces, and some
lake deposits, similar to those laid down in glacial lakes. The
glacial beds are overlain by sandstones containing Gangamopteris,
and Kitson's work in Northern Tasmania leaves no doubt that they
are on the horizon of the Greta or Lower Coal Measures of New South
Wales.
The Mesozoic group is represented only by Jurassic rocks, which
form the mountains of southern Gippsland and include its coal-
fields. The rocks contain fossil land plants, occasional fish remains
and the claw of a dinosaur, &c. The coal is of excellent quality.
The mudstones, which form the main bulk of this series, are largely
composed of volcanic debris, which decomposes to a fertile soil.
These rocks trend south-westward along the Bass Range, which
reaches Western Port. They skirt the Mornington Peninsula,
underlie part of Port Phillip and the Bellarine Peninsula, and are
exposed in the Barrabool Hills to the south-west of Geelong; thence
they extend into the Otway Ranges, which are wholly built of these
rocks ar.d contain some coal seams. Farther west they disappear
below the recent sediments and volcanic rocks of the \\arrnambool
district. They are exposed again in the Portland Peninsula, and
rise again to form the Wannon Hills, to the south of Dundas.
The Kainozoic beds include three main series: lacustrine, marine
and volcanic. The main lacustrine series is probably of Oligocene
40
age, and is important from its thick beds of brown coal, which are
thickest in the Great Valley of Victoria in southern Gippsland. A
cliff face on the banks of the Latrobe, near Morwell, shows 90 ft. of
it, and a bore near Morwell is recorded as having passed through
850 ft. of brown coal. Its thickness, at least in patches, is very
great. The brown coals occur to the south-east of Melbourne,
under the basalts between it and Geelong. Brown coal is also
abundant under the Murray plains in north-western Victoria. The
Kainozoic marine rocks occur at intervals along the southern coast
and in the valleys opening from it. The most important horizon
is apparently of Miocene age. The rocks occur at intervals in eastern
Victoria, along the coast and up the river valleys, from the Snowy
river westward to Alberton. At the time of the deposition of these
beds Wilson's Promontory probably extended south-eastward and
joined Tasmania; for the mid-Kainozoic marine deposits do not
occur between Alberton and Flinders, to the west of Western Port.
They extend up the old valley of Port Phillip as far as Keilor to the
north of Melbourne, and are widely distributed under the volcanic
rocks of the Western Plains. They are exposed on the floors of the
volcanic cauldrons, and have been found by mining; operations
under the volcanic rocks of the Ballarat plateau near Pitfield. The
Miocene sea extended up the Glenelg valley, round the western
border of the Dundas Highlands, and spread over the Lower Murray
Basin into New South Wales; its farthest south-eastern limit was
in a valley at Stawell. Some later marine deposits occur at the
Lakes Entrance in eastern Gippsland, and in the valley of the
Glenelg.
The volcanic series begins with a line of great dacite domes
including the geburite-dacite of Macedon, which is associated with
solvsbergites and trachy-dolerites. The eruption of these domes
was followed by that of sheets of basalt of several different ages,
and the intrusion of some trachyte dykes. The oldest basalts are
associated with the Oligocene lake deposits; and fragments of the
large lava sheets of this period form some of the table-topped moun-
tains in the Highlands of eastern Victoria. The river gravels below
the lavas have been worked for gold, and land plants discovered in
the workings. At Flinders the basalts are associated with Miocene
limestones. The largest development of the volcanic rocks are a
series of confluent sheets of basalt, forming the Western Plains,
which occupy over 10,000 sq. m. of south-western Victoria.
They are crossed almost continuously by the South- Western
railway for 166 m. from Melbourne to Warrnambool. The volcanic
craters built up by later eruptions are well preserved: such are
Mount Elephant, a simple breached cone; Mount Noprat, with
a large primary crater and four secondary craters on its flanks;
Mount Warrenheip, near Ballarat, a single cone with the crater
breached to the north-west. Mount Franklin, standing on the
Ordovician rocks north of Daylesford, is a weathered cone breached
to the south-east. In addition to the volcanic craters, there are
numerous volcanic cauldrons formed by subsidence, such as Bullen-
merri and Gnotuk near Camperdown, Keilembete near Terang, and
Tower Hill near Port Fairy. Tower Hill consists of a large volcanic
cauldron, and rising from an island in a lake on its floor is a later
volcanic crater.
The Pleistocene, or perhaps Upper Pliocene, deposits of most
interest are those containing the bones of giant marsupials, such as the
Diprotodon and Palorchestes, which have been found near Geelong,
Castlemaine, Lake Kolungulak, &c. ; at the last locality Diprotodon
and various extinct kangaroos have been found in association with
the dingo. There is no trace in these deposits of the existence of
man, and J. W. Gregory has reasserted the striking absence of
evidence of man's residence in Victoria, except for a very limited
period. There is no convincing evidence of Pleistocene glacial
deposits in Victoria. Of the many records, the only one that can
still be regarded as at all probable is that regarding Mount Bogong.
The chief literature on the geology of Victoria is to be found in
the maps arid publications of the Geological Survey a branch of
the Mines Department. A map of the State, on the scale of eight
inches to the mile, was issued in 1902. The Survey has published
numerous quarter-sheet maps, and maps of the gold fields and
parishes. The geology is described in the Reports, Bulletins and
Memoirs of the Survey, and in the Quarterly Reports of the Mining
Registrars. Statistics of the mining industry are stated in the
Annual Report of the Secretary for Mines. See also the general
summary of the geology of Victoria, by R. Murray, issued by the
Mines Department in 1887 and 1895. Numerous papers on the
geology p\ the State are contained in the Trans. R. Soc. Victoria,
and on its mining geology in the Trans, of the Austral. Inst. Min.
Engineers. The physical geography has been described by J. W.
Gregory in the Geography of Victoria (1903). (J. W. G.)
Flora. The native trees belong chiefly to the Myrtaceae, being
largely composed of Eucalypti or gum trees. There are several
hundred species, the most notable being Eucalyptus amygdalina, a
tree with tall white stem, smooth as a marble column, and without
branches for 60 or 70 ft. from the ground. It is singularly beautiful
when seen in groves, for these have all the appearance of lofty
pillared cathedrals. These trees are among the tallest in the world,
averaging in some districts about 300 ft. The longest ever
measured was found prostrate on the Black Spur: it measured
VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
470 ft. in length; it was 81 ft. in girth near the root. Eucalyptus
globulus or blue gum has broad green leaves, which yield the
eucalyptus oil of the pharmacopoeia. Eucalyptus rostrata is ex-
tensively used in the colony as a timber, being popularly known as
red gum or hard wood. It is quite unaffected by weather, and
almost indestructible when used as piles for piers or wharves.
Smaller species of eucalyptus form the common " bush." Mela-
leucas, also of Myrtacea kind, are prominent objects along all the
coasts, where they grow densely on the sand-hills, forming " ti-tree "
scrub. Eucalyptus dumosa is a species which grows only 6 to 12 ft.
high, but with a straight stem; the trees grow so close together
that it is difficult to penetrate the scrub formed by them. Eleven
and a half million acres of the Wimmera district are covered with
this " mallee scrub," as it is called. Recent legislation has made
this land easy of acquisition, and the whole of it has been taken
up on pastoral leases. Five hundred thousand acres have recently
been taken up as an irrigation colony on Californian principles and
laid out in 4O-acre farms and orchards. The Leguminosae are
chiefly tepresented by acacias, of which the wattle is the commonest.
The black wattle is of considerable value, its gum being marketable
and its bark worth from 5 to 10 a ton for tanning purposes. The
golden wattle is a beautiful tree, whose rich yellow blossoms fill the
river-valleys in early spring with delicious scent. The Casuarinae
or she-oaks are gloomy trees, of little use, but of frequent occurrence.
Heaths, grass-trees and magnificent ferns and fern-trees are also
notable features in Victorian forests. But European and subtropical
vegetation has been introduced into the colony to such an extent
as to have largely altered the characters of the flora in many districts.
Fauna. The indigenous animals belong almost wholly to the
Marsupialia. Kangaroos are tolerably abundant on the grassy
plains, but the process of settlement is causing their extermination.
A smaller species of almost identical appearance called the wallaby
is still numerous in the forest lands. Kangaroo rats, opossums,
wombats, native bears, bandicoots and native cats all belong to
the same class. The wombat forms extensive burrows in some
districts. The native bear is a frugivorous little animal, and very
harmless. Bats are numerous, the largest species being the flying
fox, very abundant in some districts. Eagles, hawks, turkeys,
pigeons, ducks, quail, snipe and plover are common; but the
characteristic denizens of the forest are vast flocks of parrots,
parakeets and cockatoos, with sulphur-coloured or crimson crests.
The laughing jackass (giant kingfisher) is heard in all the country
parts, and magpies are numerous everywhere. Snakes are numerous,
but less than one-fourth of the species are venomous, and they are
all very shy. The deaths from snake-bite do not average two per
annum. A great change is rapidly taking place in the fauna of the
country, owing to cultivation and acclimatization. Dingoes have
nearly disappeared, and rabbits, which were introduced only a
few years ago, now abound in such numbers as to be a positive
nuisance. Deer are also rapidly becoming numerous. Sparrows
and swallows are as common as in England. The trout, which
has also been acclimatized, is taking full possession of some of the
streams.
Climate. Victoria enjoys an exceptionally fine climate. Roughly
speaking, about one-half of the days in the year present a bright,
cloudless sky, with a bracing and dry atmosphere, pleasantly warm
but not relaxing. These days are mainly in the autumn and
spring. During forty-eight years, ending with 1905, there have
been on an average 132 days annually on which rain has fallen more
or less (chiefly in winter, but rainy days do not exceed thirty
in the year. The average yearly rainfall was 25-61 in. The
disagreeable feature of the Victorian climate is the occurrence of
north winds, which blow on an average about sixty days in the
year. In winter they are cold and dry, and have a slightly depressing
effect; but in summer they are hot and dry, and generally bring
with them disagreeable clouds of dust. The winds themselves blow
for periods of two or three days at a time, and if the summer has
six or eight such periods it becomes relaxing and produces languor.
These winds cease with extraordinary suddenness, being replaced
in a minute or two by a cool and bracing breeze from the south.
The_ temperature often falls 40 or 50 F. in an hour. The
maximum shade temperature at Melbourne in 1905 was 108-5,
and the minimum 32 , giving a mean of 56-1. The temperature
never falls below freezing-point, except for an hour or two before
sunrise in the coldest month. Snow has been known to fall in
Melbourne for a few minutes two or three times during a long
period of years. It is common enough, however, on the plateau;
Ballarat, which is over 1000 ft. high, always has a few snowstorms,
and the roads to Omeo among the Australian Alps lie under several
feet of snow in the winter. The general healthiness of the climate
is shown by the fact that the average death-rate for the last five
years has been only 12-71 of the population.
Population. As regards population, Victoria maintained the
leading position among the Australasian colonies until the end
of 1891, when New South Wales overtook it. The population
in 1905 was 1,218,571, the proportion of the sexes being nearly
equal. In 1860 the population numbered 537,847; in 1870,
VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
720,599; in 1880, 860,067; and in 1890, 1,133,266. The state
had gained little, if anything, by immigration during these
years, for the excess of immigration over emigration from 1861
to 1870 and from 1881 to 1890 was counterbalanced by the
excess of departures during the period 1871 to 1880 and from
1891 to 1905. The mean population of Melbourne in 1905
was 511,900.
The births in 1905 numbered 30,107 and the deaths 14,676,
representing respectively 24-83 and 12-10 per 1000 of the popula-
tion. The birth-rate has fallen markedly since 1875, as the following
statement of the averages arranged in quinquennial periods shows :
Period.
Births per 1000
of Population.
Period.
Births per 1000
of Population.
1861-65
1866-70
I87I-75
1876-80
43-30
39-27
35-69
31-43
1881-85
1886-90
1891-95
1896-1900
1901-1905
30-76
32-72
31-08
26-20
24-97
The number of illegitimate births during 1905 was 1689, which
gives a proportion of 5-61 to every 100 births registered. The
death-rate has greatly improved.
periods the death-rates were :
Arranged in quinquennial
Period.
Deaths per 1000
of Population.
Period.
Deaths per 1000
of Population.
1861-65
1866-70
1871-75
1876-80
I7-36
16-52
15-64
14-92
1881-85
1886-90
1891-95
1896-1900
1901-1905
14-65
16-07
14-10
13-67
12-71
The marriages in 1905 numbered 8774, which represents a rate of
7-24 per 1000 persons. This was the highest number reached
during a period of fourteen years, and was 564 more than in 1904
and 1 169 more than in 1903. In the five years 1871-75 the marriage-
rate stood at 6-38 per 1000; in 1876-80, 6-02; in 1881-85, 7-37;
in 1886^-90, 8-13; in 1901-5, 6-86.
Outside Melbourne and suburbs, the most important towns are
Ballarat (49,648), Bendigo (43,666), Geelong (26,642), Castlemaine
(8063), Warrnambool (6600), Maryborough (6000) and Stawell
(5200).
Religion. The Church of England, as disclosed at the census of
1901, had 432,704 adherents; the Roman Catholic Church came
next with 263,710; the Presbyterians had 190,725; Wesleyans
and Methodists, 180,272; Congregationalists, 17,141; Baptists,
32,648; Lutherans, 13,935; Jews, 5907; and the Salvation Army,
whose Australian headquarters are in Melbourne, 8830.
Education. There were in 1905 1930 state schools, in which
there were 210,200 children enrolled, the teachers numbering 4689.
There were also 771 private schools with 2289 teachers and a net
enrolment of 43,014 children; the majority of them being connected
with one or other of the principal religious denominations. The
total cost of primary instruction in 1905 was 676,238, being us. 2d.
per head of population and 4, 143. 40!. per head of scholars in average
attendance. Melbourne University maintains its high position as
a teaching body. In 1905 the number of matriculants was 493 and
the graduates 118.
Crime is decreasing. In 1905 the number of persons brought
before the magistrates was 48,345. Drunkenness accounted for
14,458, which represents 11-92 per 1000 of the population: in
1901 the proportion was 14-43. Charges against the person numbered
1932, and against property 4032.
Administration. As one of the six states of the Common-
wealth, Victoria returns six senators and twenty-three repre-
sentatives to the federal parliament. The local legislative
authority is vested in a parliament of two chambers, both elective
the Legislative Council, composed of thirty-five members,
and the Legislative Assembly, composed of sixty-eight members.
One-half of the members of the Council retire every three years.
The members of the Assembly are elected by universal suffrage
for the term of three years, but the chamber can be dissolved
at any time by the Governor in council. Members of the
Assembly are paid 300 a year.
The whole of Victoria in 1905 was under the control of munici-
palities, with the exception of about 600 sq. m. in the mountain-
ous part of Wonnangatta, and 64 sq. m. in French Island. The
number of municipalities in that year was 206; they comprised
ii cities, ii towns, 38 boroughs and 146 shires.
Finance. The public revenue in 1905 showed an increase on
that of the three previous years, being 7,515,142, equal to 6, 45. id.
per head of population; the expenditure amounted to 7,343,742,
which also showed a slight increase and was equal to 6, is. 4d. per
inhabitant. The public revenue in five-yearly periods since 1880
was: 1880, 4,621,282; 1885, 6,290,361; 1890, 8,519,159;
1895. 6.712.512; and 1901, 7,722,307. The chief sources of
revenue in 1905 were: Customs duties (federal refunds), 2,017,378;
other taxation, 979,029; railway receipts, 3,609,120; public
lands, 408,836; other sources, 501,379. The main items of
expenditure were: railways (working expenses), 2,004,601;
public instruction, 661,794; interest and charges on public debt,
1,884,208; other services, 2,793,139. On the 3Oth of June 1005
the public debt of the state stood at 51,513,767, equal to 42, 95. ?d.
per inhabitant. The great bulk of the proceeds of loans was applied
to the construction of revenue-yielding works, only about three
millions sterling being otherwise used.
Up to 1905 the state had alienated 26,346,802 acres of the public
domain, and had 17,994,233 acres underlease; the area neither
alienated nor leased amounted to 11,904,725 acres.
The capital value of properties as returned by the municipalities
in 1905 was 210,920,174, and the annual value 11,743,270. In
1884 the values were 104 millions and 8,099,000, and in 1891,
203 millions and 13,734,000; the year last mentioned marked the
highest point of inflation in land values, and during the following
years there was a vast reduction, both in capital and in annual
values, the lowest point touched being in 1895; since 1895 a gradual
improvement has taken place, and there is every evidence that this
improvement will continue. The revenues of municipalities are
derived chiefly from rates, but the rates are largely supplemented
by fees and licences, and contributions for services rendered. Ex-
cluding government endowments and special grants, which in
1905 amounted to 90,572, the revenues of the municipalities in
the years named were: 1880, 616,132; 1885, 789,429; 1890,
1-273-85.5: 1895- 1,038,720; 1900, 1,036,497; 1905, 1,345,221.
In addition to the municipalities there arc other local bodies
empowered to levy rates; these and their revenues in 1905 were:
Melbourne Harbour Trust, 189,983; Melbourne and Metropolitan
Board of Works, 390,441; Fire Boards, 53,279. The Board of
Works is the authority administering the metropolitan water and
sewerage works. Excluding revenue from services rendered, the
amount of taxation levied in Victoria reached in 1905 4,621,608; of
this the federal government levied 2,488,843, the state government
979,029, the municipalities 986,009, and the Melbourne Harbour
"rust 167,727.
Productions and Industry: Minerals. About 25,400 persons find
employment in the goldfields, and the quantity of gold won in 1905
was 810,050 oz., valued at 3,173,744, a decrease of IO_,9<>7 oz. as
compared with 1904. The dividends paid by gold-mining com-
panies in 1905 amounted to 454,431, which, although about the
average of recent years, showed a decline of 168,966 as compared
with the sum distributed in 1904. Up to the close of 1905 the total
value of gold won from the first discovery in 1851 was 273,236,500.
No other metallic minerals are systematically worked, although
many valuable deposits are known to exist. Brown coal, or lignite,
occurs extensively, and attempts have frequently been made to use
the mineral for ordinary fuel purposes, but without much success.
Black coal is now being raised in increasingly large quantities.
The principal collieries are the Outrim Howitt, the Coal Creek
Proprietary, the Jumbunna and the Korumburra, all in the Gipps-
land district. The production of coal in 1905 was 155,185 tons,
valued at 79,060; 4100 worth of silver and 11,159 worth of
tin were raised; the value of other minerals produced was
!93-392, making a total mineral production (exclusive of gold) of
;i87,7il.
Agriculture. Judged by the area under tillage, Victoria ranks
first among the states of the Australian group. The area under crop
in 1905 was 4,269,877 acres, compared with 2,116,000 acres in 1891
and 1,435,000 acres in 1881. Wheat-growing claims the chief
attention, 2,070,517 acres being under that cereal in 1905. The
areas devoted to other crops were as follows: maize, 11,785 acres;
oats, 312,052 acres; barley,- 40,938 acres; other cereals, 14,212 acres;
hay, 591,771 acres; potatoes, 44,670 acres; vines, 26,402 acres;
green foliage, 34,041 acres; other tillage, 73,574 acres; land in
fallow comprised 1,049,915 acres. Victorian wheat is of exception-
ally fine quality, and usually commands a high price in the London
market. The average yield per acre in 1905 was 11-31 bushels;
except for the year 1903, the total crop and the average per acre in
1905 were the highest ever obtained. The yield of oats was 23-18
bushels per acre, of barley 25-95, a "d of potatoes 2-58 tons. Great
progress has been made in the cultivation of the grape vine, and
Victoria now produces more than one-third of the wine made in
Australia.
Live Stock. The number of sheep in 1905 was 11,455,115. The
quality of the sheep is steadily improving. Systematic attention
to stock has brought about an improvement in the weight of the
fleece, and careful observations show that between 1861 and 1871
the average weight of wool per sheep increased about one-third;
between 1871 and 1881 about one pound was added to the weight
42
per fleece, and there has been a further improvement since the year
named. Tht following were the number of sheep depastured at the
dates named: 1861, 6,240,000; 1871, 10,002,000; 1881, 10,267,000;
1891, 12,928,000; 1901, 10,841,790. The horses number 385,513,
the swine 273,682, and the horned cattle 1,737,690; of these last,
649,100 were dairy cows. Butter- making has greatly increased
since 1890, and a fairly large export trade has arisen. In 1905,
57,606,821 Ib of butter were made, 4,297,350 ft of cheese and
16,433,665 Ib of bacon and hams.
Manufactures. There has been a good deal of fluctuation in the
amount of employment afforded by the factories, as the following
figures show: hands employed, 1885, 49,297; 1890, 56,639; 1893,
39,473; 1895, 46,095; 1900, 64,207; 1905, 80,235. Of the hands
last named, 52,925 were males and 27,310 females. The total
number of establishments was 4264, and the horse-power of machinery
actually used, 43,492. The value of machinery was returned at
6,187,919, and of land and buildings 7,771,238. The majority
of the establishments were small ; those employing from 50 to 100
hands in 1905 were 161, and upwards of 100 hands, 124.
Commerce. Excluding the coastal trade, the tonnage of vessels
entering Victorian ports in 1905 was 3,989,903, or about 3J tons
per inhabitant. The imports in the same year were valued at
22,337,886, and the exports at 22,758,828. These figures repre-
sent 18, 8s. 5d. and 18, 153. 6d. per inhabitant respectively. The
domestic produce exported was valued at 14,276,961 ; in 1891 the
value was 13,026,426; and in 1881, 12,480,567. The compara-
tively small increase over the period named is due mainly to the large
fall in prices of the staple articles of local production. There has,
however, been some loss of trade due to the action of the New South
Wales government in extending its railways into districts formerly
supplied from Melbourne. The principal articles of local production
exported during 1905 with their values were as follows : butter and
cheese, 1,576,189; gold (coined and bullion), 1,078,560; wheat,
1,835,204; frozen mutton, 275,195; frozen and preserved rabbits
and hares, 220,940; skins and hides, 535,086; wool, 2,501,990;
horses, 278,033; cattle, 293,241; sheep, 326,526; oats,
165,585; flour, 590,297; hay and chaff, 97,471; bacon and
ham, 89,943; jams and jellies, 73,233; fruit (dried and fresh),
125,330. The bulk of the trade passes through Melbourne, the
imports in 1905 at that port being 18,112,528.
Defence. The Commonwealth defence forces in Victoria nuipber
about 5700 men, 4360 being partially paid militia and 1000 unpaid
volunteers. There are also 18,400 riflemen belonging to rifle clubs.
Besides these there are 200 naval artillerymen, capable of being
employed either as a light artillery land force, or on board war
vessels. The total expenditure in 1905 for purposes of defence in
the state was 291,577.
Railways. The railways have a total length of 3394 m., and the
cost of their construction and equipment up to the 3Oth of June
1905 was 41,259,387; this sum was obtained by raising loans,
mostly in London, on the security of the general revenues of the
state. In 1905 the gross railway earnings were 3,582,266, and the
working expenses 2,222,279; so that the net earnings were
1,359,987, which sum represents 3-30% on the capital cost.
Posts and Telegraphs. Victoria had a length of 6338 m. of tele-
graph line in operation in 1905; there were 969 stations, and the
business done was represented by 2,256,482 telegrams. The post-
offices, properly so-called, numbered 1673; during that year
119,689,000 letters and postcards and 59,024,000 newspapers and
packets passed through them. The postal service is carried on at
a profit; the revenue in 1905 was 708,369, and the expenditure
627,735. Telephones are widely used; in 1905 the length of
telephone wire in use was 28,638 m., and the number of telephones
14,134; the revenue from this source for the year was 102,396.
Banking. At the end of 1905 the banks of issue in Victoria,
eleven in number, had liabilities to the extent of 36,422,844, and
assets of 40,511,335. The principal items among the liabilities
were: notes in circulation, 835,499; deposits bearing interest,
23,055,743; and deposits not bearing interest, 12,068,153. The
chief assets were: coin and bullion, 8,056,666; debts due,
29,918,226; property, 1,919,230; other assets, 617,213. The
money in deposit in the sayings banks amounted to 10,896,741,
the number of depositors being 447,382. The total sum on deposit
in the state in 1905 was, therefore, 46,020,637, which represents
37, 155. 4d. per head of population.
AUTHORITIES. J. Bonwick, Discovery and Settlement of Port
Phillip (Melbourne, 1856), Early Days of Melbourne (Melbourne,
1857), and Port Phillip Settlement (London, 1883) ; Rev. J. D. Lang,
Historical Account of the Separation of Victoria from New South
Wales (Sydney, 1870); Victorian Year-Booh (annually, 1873-
1905, Melbourne) ; F. P. Labilliere, Early History of the Colony of
Victoria (London, 1878); G. W. Rusden, Discovery, Survey and
Settlement of Port Phillip (Melbourne, 1878); R. B. Smyth, The
Aborigines of Victoria (2 vols., Melbourne, 1878); J. J. Shillinglaw,
Historical Records of Port Phillip (Melbourne, 1879); David Blair,
Cyclopaedia of Australasia (Melbourne, 1881); E. Jenks, The
Government of Victoria (London, 1881); E. M. Curr, The Australian
Race: its Origin, Language, Customs, &c. (Melbourne, 1886-87);
Edmund Finn, Chronicles of Early Melbourne (Melbourne, 1889);
VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
Philip Mennell, The Dictionary of Australasian Biography (Melbourne,
1892); T. A. Coghlan, Australia and New Zealand (1903-4).
(T. A. C.)
History. The first discoverer of Victoria was Captain Cook,
in command of H.M.S. " Endeavour," who sighted Cape Everard,
about half-way between Cape Howe and the mouth of the Snowy
river, on the ipth of April 1770, a few days prior to his arrival at
Botany Bay. The first persons to land in Victoria were the
supercargo and a portion of the crew of the merchant ship
" Sydney Cove," which was wrecked at the Furneaux Islands in
Bass Strait on the 9th of February 1797. In the same year,
Mr Bass, a surgeon in the navy, discovered the strait which
bears his name and separates Victoria from Tasmania. Lieut.
Grant in the" Lady Nelson" surveyed the south coast in 1800,
and in 1801 Port Phillip was for the first time entered by Lieut.
Murray. In 1802 that harbour was surveyed by Captain
Flinders, and in the same year Mr Grimes, the surveyor-general
of New South Wales, explored the country in the neighbour-
hood of the present site of Melbourne. In 1804 Lieut.-Colonel
Collins, who had been sent from England, formed a penal
settlement on the shores of Port Phillip, but after remaining
a little more than three months near Indented Head, he removed
his party to Van Die-men Land. Victoria was visited in 1824
by two sheep farmers named Hume and Hovell, who rode
overland from Lake George, New South Wales, to the shores
of Corio Bay. In 1826 a convict establishment was
attempted by the government of New South Wales at
Settlement Point, near French Island, Western Port
Bay, but it was abandoned shortly afterwards. In 1834
Messrs Edward and Francis Henty, who had taken part in
the original expedition to Swan river, West Australia, and
afterwards migrated to Van Diemen Land, crossed Bass Strait,
established a shore whaling station at Portland Bay, and formed
sheep and cattle stations on the river Wannon and Wando
rivulet, near the site of the present towns of Merino, Casterton
and Coleraine. In 1835 a number of flock owners in Van
Diemen Land purchased through Batman from the aborigines
a tract of 700,000 acres on the shores of Port Phillip. The sale
was repudiated by the British government, which regarded
all unoccupied land in any part of Australia as the property of
the crown, and did not recognize the title of the aborigines.
Batman, however, remained at Port Phillip, and commenced
farming within the boundaries of the present city of Melbourne.
He was followed by John Pascoe Fawkner and other settlers
from Van Diemen Land, who occupied the fertile plains of the new
territory. In 1836 Captain Lonsdale was sent to Melbourne by
the government of New South Wales to act as resident magis-
trate in Port Phillip. The first census taken in 1838 showed that
the population was 3511, of whom 3080 were males and 431
females. In 1839 Mr Latrobe was appointed superintendent of
Port Phillip, and a resident judge was nominated for Melbourne,
with jurisdiction over the territory which now forms the state
of Victoria. The years 1840 and 1841 were periods of depression
owing to the decline in the value of all descriptions of live stock,
for which the first settlers had paid high prices; but there was
a steady immigration from Great Britain of men with means,
attracted by the profits of sheep-farming, and of labourers
and artisans who obtained free passages under the provisions
of the Wakefield system, under which half the proceeds from the
sale and occupation of crown lands were expended upon the
introduction of workers. The whole district was occupied by
sheep and cattle graziers, and in 1841 the population had
increased to 11,738. Melbourne was incorporated as a town in
1842, and was raised to the dignity of a city in 1847. In that
same year the first Anglican was ordained, and in 1848 the first
Roman Catholic bishop. The third census (taken in 1846)
showed a population of 32,870.
The elective element was introduced into the Legislative
Council of New South Wales in 1842, in the proportion of
twenty-four members to twelve nominated by the crown, and
the district of Port Phillip, including Melbourne, returned six
members. But the colonists were not satisfied with government
VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
from and by Sydney; an agitation in favour of separation
commenced, and in 1851 Victoria was formed into a separate
colony with an Executive Council appointed by the crown, and
a Legislative Council, partly elective and partly nominated, on
the same lines as that of New South Wales. The population at
that date was 77,435. Gold was discovered a few weeks after
the colony had entered upon its separate existence, and a large
number of persons were attracted to the mines, first from the
neighbouring colonies some of which, such as South Australia,
Van Diemen's Land and West Australia, were almost denuded of
able-bodied men and women and subsequently from Europe
and America. Notwithstanding the difficulties with which the
local government had to contend, the task of maintaining law
and order was fairly grappled with; the foundations of a liberal
system of primary, secondary and university education were
laid; roads, bridges and telegraphs were constructed, and
Melbourne was provided with an excellent supply of water.
Local self-government was introduced in 1853, and the
Legislature found time to discuss a new Constitution, which not
Local sell- only eliminated the nominee element from the Legis-
govern- lature, but made the executive government responsible
to the people. The administration of the gold-fields
was not popular, and the miners were dissatisfied at the amount
charged for permission to mine for gold, and at there being
no representation for the gold-fields in the local Legislature.
The discontent culminated, at Ballarat in December 1854, in
riots in which there was a considerable loss of life both amongst
the miners and the troops. Eventually, an export duty on gold
was substituted for the licence fee, but every miner had to take
out a right which enabled him to occupy a limited area of land
for mining, and also for residence. The census taken in 1854
showed a population of 236,778. The new Constitution was
proclaimed in 1855, and the old Executive Council was gazetted
as the first responsible ministry. It held office for about
sixteen months, and was succeeded by an administration
formed from the popular party. Several changes were made
in the direction of democratizing the government, and vote by
ballot, manhood suffrage and the abolition of the property
qualification followed each other in rapid succession. To several
of these changes there was strenuous opposition, not so much in
the Assembly which represented the manhood, as in the Council
in which the property of the colony was supreme. The crown
lands were occupied by graziers, termed locally " squatters,"
who held them under a licence renewable annually at a low
rental. These licences were very valuable, and the goodwill
of a grazing farm or " run " commanded a high price. Persons
who desired to acquire freeholds for the purpose of tillage could
only do so by purchasing the land at auction, and the local
squatters, unwilling to be deprived of any portion of a valuable
property, were generally willing to pay a price per acre with which
no person of small means desirous of embarking upon agricultural
pursuits could compete. The result was that although the
population had increased in 1861 to 540,322, the area of land
under crop had not grown proportionately, and Victoria was
dependent upon the neighbouring colonies and even more distant
countries for a considerable portion of its food. A series of Land
Acts was passed, the first in 1860, with the view of encouraging
a class of small freeholders. The principle underlying all these
laws was that residence by landowners on their farms, and their
cultivation, were more important to the state than the sum
realized by the sale of the land. The policy was only partially
successful, and by a number of ingenious evasions a large
proportion of the best land in the colony passed into the posses-
sion of the original squatters. But a sufficient proportion was
purchased by small farmers to convert Victoria into a great
agricultural country, and to enable it to export large quantities
of farm and dairy produce.
The greater portion of the revenue was raised by the taxation
through the customs of a small number of products, such as
spirits, tobacco, wine, tea, coffee, &c. But an agitation arose
in favour of such an adjustment of the import duties as would
protect the manufactures which at that time were being com-
43
menced. A determined opposition to this policy was made by a
large minority in the Assembly, and by a large majority in the
Council, but by degrees the democratic party triumphed. The
victory was not gained without a number of political crises
which shook the whole fabric of society to its foundations.
The Assembly tacked the tariff to the Appropriation Bill, and
the Council threw out both. The result was that there was no
legal means of paying either the civil servants or the contractors,
and the government had recourse to an ingenious though
questionable system by which advances were made by a bank
which was recouped through the crown " confessing " that it
owed the money, whereupon the governor issued his warrant
for its payment without any recourse to parliament. Similar
opposition was made by the Council to payment of members,
and to a grant made to Lady Darling, the wife of Governor Sir
Charles Darling, who had been recalled by the secretary of
state on the charge of having shown partiality to the democratic
party. Indeed on one occasion the dispute between the
government and the Council was so violent that the former
dismissed all the police, magistrates, county court judges and
other high officials, on the ground that no provision had been
made by the Council, which had thrown out the Appropriation
Bill, for the payment of salaries.
Notwithstanding these political struggles, the population of
the colony steadily increased, and the Legislature found time
to pass some measures which affected the social life and the
commercial position of the colonies. State aid to religion
was abolished, and divorce was made comparatively easy. A
system of free, compulsory and secular primary education was
introduced. The import duties were increased and the transfer
of land was simplified. In 1880 a fortnightly mail service via
Suez between England and Melbourne was introduced, and in
1880 the first International Exhibition ever held in Victoria
was opened. In the following year the census showed a popu-
lation of 862,346, of whom 452,083 were males and 410,263
females. During the same year the lengthy dispute between
the two houses of parliament, which had caused so much incon-
venience, so many heartburnings and so many political crises,
was brought to an end by the passage of an act which reduced
the qualifications for members and the election of the Legis-
lative Council, shortened the tenure of their seats, increased
the number of provinces to fourteen and the number of
members to forty-two. In 1883 a coalition government, in
which the Liberal or protectionist and the Conservative or
free-trade party were represented, took office, and with some
changes remained in power for seven years. During this political
truce several important changes were made in the Constitution.
An act for giving greater facilities for divorce was passed, and
with some difficulty obtained the royal assent. The Victorian
railways were handed over to the control of three commissioners,
who to a considerable extent were made independent of the govern-
ment, and the civil service was placed under the supervision of an
independent board. In 1887 the representatives of Victoria met
those of the other British colonies and of the United Kingdom
in London, under the presidency of Lord Knutsford, in order to
discuss the questions of defence, postal and telegraphic com-
munication, and the contribution of Australia to the Imperial
navy. In 1888 a weekly mail service was established via Suez
by the steamers of the P. & O. and the Orient Companies, and
the second Victorian International Exhibition was opened.
In 1890 all the Australian colonies, including New South Wales
and New Zealand, sent representatives to a conference at
Melbourne, at which resolutions were passed in favour of the
establishment of a National Australian Convention empowered
to consider and report upon an adequate scheme for the Federal
Constitution. This Convention met in Sydney in 1891 and
took the first step towards federation (see AUSTRALIA).
In 1891 the coalition government resigned and a Liberal
administration was formed. An act passed in that year
placed the railways again under the control of the government.
Measures of a democratic and collectivist tendency have since
obtained the assent of the Legislature.' The franchise of
44
VICTORIA VICTORIA FALLS
Crisis
Of 1892.
property-holders not resident in an electorate was abolished
and the principle of " one man one vote " was established.
Acts have been passed sanctioning Old Age Pensions; pro-
hibiting shops, except those selling perishable goods, from
keeping open more than eight hours; compelling the pro-
prietors to give their assistants one half-holiday every six
days; preventing persons from working more than forty-eight
hours a week; and appointing for each trade a tribunal com-
posed of an equal number of employers and employed to fix
a minimum wage. (See AUSTRALIA.)
Victoria enjoyed a large measure of prosperity during the
later 'eighties and earlier 'nineties, and its financial prosperity
enabled the government to expend large sums in extending
railway communication to almost every locality and to com-
mence a system of irrigation. The soil of Victoria is on the
whole more fertile than in any other colony on the mainland
of Australia, and in no portion of the continent is there any
locality equal in fertility to the western district and some parts
of Gippsland. The rainfall is more equable than in any portion
of Australia, but the northern and north-western districts,
which are the most remote from the sea and the Dividing Range,
are subject to droughts, which, although not so severe or so
frequent as in the interior of the continent, are sufficiently
disastrous in their effects. The results of the expenditure upon
irrigation have not been so successful as was hoped. Victoria
has no mountains covered with snow, which in Italy and South
America supply with water the rivers at the season of the year
when the land needs irrigation, and it was necessary to construct
large and expensive reservoirs. The cost of water is therefore
greater than the ordinary agriculturist who grows grain or
breeds and fattens stock can afford to pay, although the price
may not be too high for orchardists and vine-growers. In
1892 the prosperity of the colony was checked by a
great strike which for some months affected produc-
tion, but speculation in land continued for some time
longer, especially in Melbourne, which at that time contained
nearly half the population, 500,000 out of a total of 1,140,105.
There does not seem to have been any other reasons for this
increase in land values, for there was no immigration, and the
value of every description of produce had fallen except that
the working classes were prosperous and well paid, and that
the purchase of small allotments in the suburbs was a popular
mode of investment. In 1893 there was a collapse. The
value of land declined enormously, hundreds of persons believed
to be wealthy were ruined, and there was a financial panic which
caused the suspension of all the banks, with the exception of
the Australasia, the Union of Australia, and the New South
Wales. Most of them resumed payment, but three went into
liquidation. It was some years before the normal condition
of prosperity was restored, but the great resources of the colony
and the energy of its people discovered new markets, and new
products for them, and enabled them materially to increase the
export trade. (G. C. L.)
VICTORIA, a city and port of Brazil, capital of the state
of Espirito Santo, on the W. side of an island at the head of
the Bay of Espirito Santo, 270 m. N.E. of Rio de Janeiro, in
lat. 20 18' S., long. 40 20' W. Pop. (1902, estimated) 9000.
The city occupies the beach and talus at the base of a high,
wooded mountain. The principal streets follow the water-line,
rising in terraces from the shore, and are crossed by narrow,
steep, roughly paved streets. The buildings are old and of
the colonial type. The governor's residence is an old convent,
with its church at one side. The entrance to the bay is rather
tortuous and difficult, but is sufficiently deep for the largest
vessels. It is defended by five small forts. The harbour is
not large, but is safe and deep, being completely shut in by
hills. A large quay, pier, warehouses, &c., facilitate the hand-
ling of cargoes, which were previously transported to and from
the anchorage by lighters. Victoria is a port of call for coasting
steamers and a shipping port in the coffee trade. The other
exports are sugar, rice and mandioca (manioc) to home ports.
Victoria was founded in 1535 by Vasco Fernando Coutinho,
on the S. side and nearer the entrance to the bay, and received
the name of Espirito Santo. The old site is still occupied, and
is known as Villa Velha (Old Town). The name of Victoria
was adopted in 1558 in commemoration of a crushing defeat
inflicted by Fernando da Sa on the allied tribes of the Aimores,
Tapininguins and Goitacazes in that year. It was attacked
(1592) by the freebooter Cavendish, who was repelled by one
of the forts at the entrance to the bay.
VICTORIA, the capital of British Columbia and the principal
city of Vancouver Island, in the S.E. corner of which it is
finely situated (48 25' 20" N., 123 22' 24" W.), on a small
arm of the sea, its harbour, however, only admitting vessels
drawing 18 ft. Pop. (1906) about 25,000. It is the oldest
city in the province. It has fine streets, handsome villas and
public buildings, government offices and churches. The high
school is affiliated with McGill University, in Montreal. Victoria
is connected with the mainland by cable, and is a favourite
tourist resort for the whole west coast of North America. Till
1858 Victoria was a post of the Hudson's Bay Company. The
city was incorporated in 1862, and according to the census of
1886 the population was 14,000, including Chinese and Indians,
spread over an area of 4 sq. m. Until the redistribution of the
fleet in 1905, the headquarters of the British Pacific squadron
was at Esquimalt, a fine harbour about 3 m. W. of Victoria.
This harbour, though spacious, is not much used by merchant
vessels. It is provided with a large dry-dock and is defended
by fortifications of a modern type.
VICTORIA FALLS, the greatest waterfall in the world,
forming the most remarkable feature of the river Zambezi,
Central Africa. The falls are about midway in the course of
the Zambezi in 17 51' S., 25 41' E. For a considerable dis-
tance above the falls the river flows over a level sheet of basalt,
its valley bounded by low and distant sandstone hills. Its
VICTORIA FALLS
R i u e r
v-*R~.r2r. i, vsX"i
Bowjy Walkc* K.
clear blue waters are dotted with numerous tree-clad islands.
These islands increase in number as the river, without quicken-
ing its current, approaches the falls, whose nearness is indicated
only by a veil of spray. At the spot where the Zambezi is at
its widest over 1860 yds. it falls abruptly over the edge of
an almost vertical chasm with a roar as of continuous thunder,
VICTORIA NYANZA
45
sending up vast columns of vapour. Hence the native name
Musi-oa-tunya, " Smoke does sound there." The chasm ex-
tends the whole breadth of the river and is more than twice
the depth of Niagara, varying from 256 ft. at the right bank
10343 ft. in the centre. Unlike Niagara the water does not
fall into an open basin but is arrested at a distance of from
80 to 240 ft. by the opposite wall of the chasm. Both walls
are of the same height, so that the falls appear to be formed
by a huge crack in the bed of the river. The only outlet is a
narrow channel cut in the barrier wall at a point about three-
fifths from the western end of the chasm, and through this
gorge, not more than 100 ft. wide, the whole volume of the
river pours for 130 yds. before emerging into an enormous
zigzag trough (the Grand Canon) which conducts the river
past the basalt plateau. The tremendous pressure to which
the water is subjected in the confinement of the chasm causes
the perpetual columns of mist which rise over the precipice.
The fall is broken by islands on the lip of the precipice into
four parts. Close to the right bank is a sloping cataract 36 yds.
wide, called the Leaping Water, then beyond Boaruka Island,
about 300 yds. wide, is the Main Fall, 473 yds. broad, and
divided by Livingstone Island from the Rainbow Fall 535 yds.
wide. At both these falls the rock is sharp cut and the river
maintains its level to the edge of the precipice. At the left
bank of the river is the Eastern Cataract, a millrace resembling
the Leaping Water. From opposite the western end of the
falls to Danger Point, which overlooks the entrance of the
gorge, the escarpment of the chasm is covered with great trees
known as the Rain Forest; looking across the gorge the eastern
part of the wall (the Knife Edge) is less densely wooded.
At the end of the gorge the river has hollowed out a deep
pool, named the Boiling Pot. It is some 500 ft. across; its
surface, smooth at low water, is at flood-time troubled by
slow, enormous swirls and heavy boilings. Thence the channel
turns sharply westward, beginning the great zigzag mentioned.
This grand and gloomy canon is over 40 m. long. Its almost
perpendicular walls are over 400 ft. high, the level of the escarp-
ment being that of the lip of the falls. A little below the
Boiling Pot, and almost at right angles to the falls, the canon
is spanned by a bridge (completed in April 1905) which forms
a link in the Cape to Cairo railway scheme. This bridge,
650 ft. long, with a main arch of 500 ft. span, is slightly below
the top of the gorge. The height from low-water level to the
rails is 420 ft.
The volume of water borne over the falls varies greatly, the
level of the river in the canon sinking as much as 60 ft. between
the full flood of April and the end of the dry season in October.
When the river is high the water rolls over the main falls in
one great unbroken expanse; at low water (when alone it is
possible to look into the grey depths of the great chasm) the
falls are broken by crevices in the rock into numerous cascades.
The falls are in the territory of Rhodesia. They were dis-
covered by David Livingstone on the i;th of November 1855,
and by him named after Queen Victoria of England. Living-
stone approached them from above and gained his first view
of the falls from the island on its lip now named after him.
In 1860 Livingstone, with Dr (afterwards Sir John) Kirk, made
a careful investigation of the falls, but until the opening of the
railway from Bulav/ayo (1905) they were rarely visited. The
land in the vicinity of the falls is preserved by the Rhodesian
government as a public park.
See Livingstone's Missionary Travels and Researches in South
Africa (London, 1857) for the story of the discovery of the falls,
and the Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the
Zambesi and its Tributaries 1858-1864 (London, 1894) 'or a fuller
description of the falls and a theory as to their origin. How I
crossed Africa, by Major Serpa Pinto (English trans., London,
1881), contains a graphic account of the visit paid to the falls by the
Portuguese explorer. In the Geographical Journal for January 1905
is an article by A. J. C. Molyneux on " The Physical History of
the Victoria Falls." The article is illustrated by excellent photo-
graphs and gives a bibliography. Consultalso" The Gorge and Basin
of the Zambesi below the Victoria Falls," by G. W. Lamplugh in
the Geog. Jour. (1908), vol. xxxi. (F. R. C.)
VICTORIA NYANZA, the largest lake in Africa and chief
reservoir of the Nile, lying between o 20' N. to 3 S. and
31 40' to 34 52' E. Among the fresh-water lakes of the world
it is exceeded in size by Lake Superior only and has an area of
over 26,000 sq. m., being nearly the size of Scotland. In shape
it is an irregular quadrilateral, but its shores, save on the west,
are deeply indented. Its greatest length, taking into account
the principal gulfs. N. to S. is 250 m., its greatest breadth 200 m.
Its coast-line exceeds 2000 m. It fills a depression in the
central part of the great plateau which stretches between the
western (Albertine) and eastern rift-valleys (see AFRICA, i),
and has an elevation of about 3720 ft. above the sea. 1 Its
greatest ascertained depth is some 270 ft., which compares with
soundings of 2000 ft. on Tanganyika and 2500 ft. on Nyasa.
Victoria Nyanza is remarkable for the severe and sudden storms
which sweep across it, rendering navigation dangerous. It
contains many groups of islands, the majority being near the
coast-line. The lake is full of reefs, many just below the
surface of the water, which is clear and very fresh. It is
abundantly stocked with fish. Geological research shows
that the land surrounding the lake consists of gneiss, quartz
and schistose rocks, covered, in the higher regions, with marl
and red clay, and in the valleys with a rich black loam.
Shores and Islands. The shores of the lake present varied aspects.
The western coast, which contains no large indentations, is, in its
southern part, backed by precipices of 300 or more ft. high, behind
which rise downs to thrice the height of the cliffs. Going north,
the hills give way to papyrus and ambach swamps, which mark the
delta of the Kagera. Beyond the mouth of that river the hills
reappear, and increase in height, till on reaching the N.W. corner
of the nyanza they rise some 500 ft. above the water. This western
shore is marked by a continuous fault line which runs parallel to the
lake at a short distance inland. The northern coast of the lake is
very deeply indented and is marked throughout its length by rocky
headlands jutting into the waters. This high land is very narrow,
and the streams which rise on its northern face within a mile or two
of the nyanza drain north away from the lake. On a promontory
about 30 m. east of the Katonga (see below) is Entebbe, the port of
Uganda and seat of the British administration. The chief indenta-
tions on the north side are Murchison Bay and Napoleon Gulf,
the entrance to the last named being partly filled by the triangular-
shaped island of Buvuma or Uvuma (area 160 sq. m.). Napoleon
Gulf itself is deeply indented, one bay, that of Jinja, running N.W.
and being the outlet of the Nile, the water here forcing its way
through the rock-bound shore of the lake. The north-east corner
of the lake is flat and bare. A narrow channel, partly masked by
islands, leads into Kavirondo Gulf, which, with an average width
of 6 m., extends 45 m. E. of the normal coast-line a fact taken
advantage of in building the railway from Mombasa to the lake.
A promontory, 174 ft. above lake-level, jutting into the small bay
of Ugowe, at the north-east end of Kavirondo Gulf, is the point
where the railway terminates. The station is known as Port
Florence. On the south side of the gulf tall hills approach, and in
some cases reach, the water's edge, and behind them towers the
rugged range of Kasagunga with its saw-like edge. Proceeding
south the shore trends generally south-west and is marked with
many deep inlets, the coast presenting a succession of bold bluffs,
while inland the whole district is distinctly mountainous. At the
S.E. corner of the lake Speke Gulf projects eastward, and at the
S.W. corner Emin Pasha Gulf pushes southward. Here the coast
is barren and hilly, while long ridges of rock run into the lake.
The largest island in the lake, Ukerewe, on the S.E. coast, imme-
diately north of Speke Gulf, is almost a peninsula, but the strip of
land connecting it with the shore is pierced by two narrow channels
about j of a mile long. Ukerewe is 25 m. long, and 12 broad at
its greatest width. It is uninhabited, wooded and hilly, rising 650 ft.
above the lake. At the N.W. corner of the nyanza is the Sess6
archipelago, consisting of sixty-two islands. The largest island
jn this group, namely, Bugala, is narrow, resembling the letter S
in shape, and is almost cut in two in the middle. Most of these
islands are densely forested, and some of them attain considerable
elevation. Their scenery is of striking beauty. Forty-two were
inhabited. 1 Buvuma Island, at the entrance of Napoleon Gulf,
has already been mentioned. Between it and as far as the mouth
of Kavirondo Gulf are numerous other islands, of which the chief
are Bugaia, Lolui, Rusunga and Mfwanganu. In general char-
acteristics and the beauty of their scenery these islands resemble
those of the Sesse' archipelago. The islands are of ironstone forma-
tion overlying quartzite ana crystalline schists.
Rivers. The Kagera, the largest and most important of the lake
1 For the altitude see Geog. Jour., March 1907 and July 1908.
* To prevent the spread of sleeping sickness the inhabitants were
removed to the mainland (1909).
4 6
VICTORINUS VICTOR-PERRIN
affluents, which has its rise in the hill country east of Lake Kivu,
and enters the west side of the nyanza just north of I S., is described
in the article NILE, of which it is the most remote head-stream.
The other rivers entering Victoria Nyanza from the west are the
Katonga and Ruizi, both north of the Kagera. The Katonga rises in
the plateau east of the Dweru branch of Albert Edward Nyanza, and
after a sluggish course of 155 m. enters Victoria Nyanza in a wide
swamp at its N.W. corner. The Ruizi (180 m.) is a deep, wide and
swift stream with sinuous course flowing in part through great
gorges and in part through large swamps. It rises in the Ankole
district and reaches the nyanza a little north of the Kagera. Be-
tween the Katonga and the Nile outlet, the rivers which rise close
to the lake drain away northward, the watershed being the lake
shore. On the N.E. side of the nyanza, however, several con-
siderable streams reach the lake notably the Sio, Nzoia and
Lukos (or Yala). The Nzoia (150 m.), the largest of the three,
rises in the foothills of the Elgeyo escarpment and flows swiftly
over a rocky bed in a south-westerly direction, emptying into the
lake south of Berkeley Bay. On the east side the Mara Dabagh
enters the lake between 1 and 2 S. It is, next to the Kagera, the
largest of the lake tributaries. All the rivers mentioned are per-
ennial, and most of them bring down a considerable volume of
water, even in the dry season. On the S., S.E. and S.W. shores a
number of short rivers drain into the lake. They traverse a tree-
less and arid region, have but an intermittent flow, and are of
little importance in the hydrography of the district. The only
outlet of the lake is the Nile (q.v.).
Drainage Area, Rainfall and Lake Level. The very important part
played by the Victoria Nyanza in the Nile system has led to careful
study of its drainage basin and rainfall and the perplexing variations
in the level of the lake. The area drained by the lake covers, with
the lake itself, 92,240 sq. m. In part it is densely forested, part
consists of lofty mountains, and a considerable portion is somewhat
arid tableland. According to the calculations of Sir William Garstin
the rainfall over the whole area averages 50 in. a year. Allowing
that as much as 25 % of this amount enters the lake, this is
equivalent to a total of 138,750,000,000 cub. metres in a year.
Measurements at the Ripon Falls show that 18,000,000,000, or some
13% of this amount, is taken off by the Nile, and when allow-
ance has been made for the annual rise and fall of the lake-level it
is apparent that by far the greater part of the water which enters
the nyanza is lost by evaporation; in fact, that the amount drawn
off by the river plays a comparatively small part in the annual
oscillation of the water surface. Rain falls more or less in every
month, but is heaviest during March, April, May and again in
September, October and November. The level of the lake is
chiefly affected by the autumn rains and generally reaches its
maximum in July. The annual rise and fall is on an average from
I to 3 ft., but between November 1900 and June 1901 a difference
of 42 in. was recorded. Considerable speculation was caused by
the fact that whereas in 1878-79 the lake-level was high, from
1880 to 1890 the level was falling, and that after a few
years (1892-95) of higher level there was, from 1896 to 1902, again
a steady fall, amounting in seven years to 30 in. in the
average levels of the lake. In 1903, however, the level rose and
everywhere the land gained from the lake in the previous years
was flooded. These variations are attributed by Sir William
Garstin to deficiency or excess of rainfall. Any secular shrinking
of the lake in common with the lakes of Central Africa generally
must be so gradual as to have no practical importance. It must
also be remembered that in such a vast sheet of water as is the
nyanza the wind exercises an influence on the level, tending to
pile up the water at different parts of the lake. The winds may
also be the cause of the daily variation of level, which on Speke
Gulf has been found to reach 20 in.; but this may also partake
of the character of a " seiche." Currents setting towards the north
or north-west have been observed in various parts of the lake.
Discovery and Exploration. The quest for the Nile sources led
to the discovery of the lake by J. H. Speke in 1858, and it was
by him named Victoria in honour of the queen of England.
In 1862 Speke and his companion, J. A. Grant, partially explored
the N.W. shore, leaving the lake at the Nile outlet. Great
differences of opinion existed as to its size until its circum-
navigation in 1874 by H. M. Stanley, which proved it to be of
vast extent. The invitation sent by King Mtesa of Uganda
through Stanley to the Christian missionaries led to the despatch
from England in 1876 of the Rev. C. T. Wilson, to whom we
owe our first detailed knowledge of the nyanza. Mr Wilson
and Lieut. Shergold Smith, R.N., made, in 1877, the first voyage
across the nyanza. Lieut. Smith and a Mr O'Neill, both
members of the Church Missionary Society, were in the same
year murdered on Ukerewe Island. In 1889 Stanley further
explored the lake, discovering Einin Pasha Gulf, the entrance
to which is masked by several islands. In 1890 the ownership
of the lake was divided by Great Britain and Germany, the first
degree of south latitude being taken as the boundary line.
The southern portion, which fell to Germany, was visited and
described by scientists of that nation, whose objects, however,
were not primarily geographic. At the instance of the British
Foreign Office a survey of the northern shores of the lake was
carried out in 1899-1900 by Commander B. Whitehouse, R.N.
The same officer, in 1903, undertook, in agreement with the
German government, a survey of the southern shores. Com-
mander Whitehouse's work led to considerable modification of
the previously accepted maps. He discovered numerous islands
and bays whose existence had previously been unknown.
Previously to 1896 navigation was confined to Arab dhows,
which trade between the. south end of the lake and Uganda,
and to canoes. In the year named a small steamer (the" Ruwen-
zori ") was launched on the lake by a Zanzibar firm, .while in
1900 a somewhat larger steamer (the " William Mackinnon" ),
built in Glasgow at the instance of Sir W. Mackinnon, and
afterwards taken over by the British government, made her
first trip on the lake. In 1903, the year in which the railway
from Mombasa to the lake was completed, a steamer of 600 tons
burden was launched at Port Florence. Since that date trade
has considerably increased.
See NILE and UGANDA and the British Blue-book Egypt No. 2
(1904), which is a Report by Sir Wm. Garstin upon the Basin of the
Upper Nile. This report, besides giving (pp. 4-24) much original
information upon the Victoria Nyanza, summarizes the informa-
tion of previous travellers, whose works are quoted. In 1908 the
British Admiralty published a chart of the lake (scale 4 in. to the
mile) from the surveys of Commander Whitehouse. Non-official
books which deal with the lake include: C. T. Wilson, Uganda
and the Soudan (London, 1882) ; (Sir) F. D. Lugard, The Rise of our
East African Empire, vol. ii. (London, 1893) ; Franz Stuhlmann,
Mil Emin Pasha, &c. (Berlin, 1894); Paul Kollmann, The Victoria
Nyanza (English translation; London, 1899); E. G. Ravenstein,
" The Lake-level of the Victoria Nyanza," Geographical Journal,
October 1901 ; Sir H. H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate
(London, 1902). In most of these publications the descriptions
of the lake occupy but a small part. (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.)
VICTORINUS, GAIUS MARIUS ( 4 th century A.D.), Roman
grammarian, rhetorician and neo-Platonic philosopher, an
African by birth (whence his surname Afer), lived during the
reign of Constantius II. He taught rhetoric at Rome (one of
his pupils being Jerome), and in his old age became a convert
to Christianity. His conversion is said to have greatly influenced
that of Augustine. When Julian published an edict forbidding
Christians to lecture on polite literature, Victorinus closed
his school. A statue was erected in his honour as a teacher
in the Forum Trajanum.
His translations of platonic writers are lost, but the treatise De
Definilionibus (ed. T. Stangl in Tulliana et Mario-Victoriniana,
Munich, 1888) is probably by him and not by Boetius, to whom it
was formerly attributed. His manual of prosody, in four books,
taken almost literally from the work of Aphthonius, is extant
(H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, vi.). It is doubtful whether he is the
author of certain other extant treatises attributed to him on metrical
and grammatical subjects, which will be found in Keil. His com-
mentary on Cicero's De Inventions (in Halm's Rhetores Latini
Minores, 1863) is very diffuse, and is itself in need of commentary.
His extant theological writings, which will be found in J. P.
Migne, Cursus Patrologiae Latinae, viii., include commentaries
on Galatians, Ephesians and Philippians; De Trinitate contra
Arium; Ad Juslinum Manichaeum de Vera Came Christi; and a
little tract on " The Evening and the Morning were one day " (the
genuineness of the last two is doubtful). Some Christian poems
under the name of Victorinus are probably not his.
See G. Geiger, C. Marius Victorinus Afer, ein neuplalonischer
Philosoph (Metten, 1888); G. Koffmann, De Mario Victorino
philosopho Christiana (Breslau, 1880); R. Schmid, Marius Vic-
torinus Rhetor und seine Beziehungen zu Augustin (Kiel, 1895) ; Gore
in Dictionary of Christian Biography, iv. ; M. Schanz, Geschichte
der romischen Litteratur, iv. I (1904); Teuffel, Hist, of Roman
Literature (Eng. tr., 1900), 408.
VICTOR-PERRIN, CLAUDE, DUKE OF BELLUNO (1764-
1841), marshal of France, was born at La Marche (Vosges) on
the 7th of December 1764. In 1781 he entered the army as a
private soldier, and after ten years' service he received his
discharge and settled at Valence. Soon afterwards he joined
the local volunteers, and distinguishing himself in the war on
the Alpine frontier, in less than a year he had risen to the
VICTUAL VIDAME
47
command of a battalion. For his bravery at the siege of Toulon
in 1793 he was raised to -the rank of general of brigade. He
afterwards served for some time with the army of the Eastern
Pyrenees, and in the Italian campaign of 1796-97 he so
acquitted himself at Mondovi, Roveredo and Mantua that he
was promoted to be general of division. After commanding
for some time the forces in the department of La Vendee, he
was again employed in Italy, where he did good service against
the papal troops, and he took a very important part in the
battle of Marengo. In 1802 he was governor of the colony of
Louisiana for a short time, in 1803 he commanded the Batavian
army, and afterwards he acted for eighteen months (1805-6)
as French plenipotentiary at Copenhagen. On the outbreak
of hostilities with Prussia he joined the V. army corps (Marshal
Lannes) as chief of the general staff. He distinguished himself
at Saalfeld and Jena, and at Friedland he commanded the
I. corps in such a manner that Napoleon gave him the marshal-
ate. After the peace of Tilsit he became governor of Berlin,
and in 1808 he was created duke of Belluno. In the same year
he was sent to Spain, where he took a prominent part in the
Peninsular War (especially at Espinosa, Talavera, Barrosa and
Cadiz), until his appointment in 1812 to a corps command in
the invasion of Russia. Here his most important service was
in protecting the retreating army at the crossing of the
Beresina. He took an active part in the wars of 1813-14, till
in February of the latter year he had the misfortune to arrive
too late at Montereau-sur-Yonne. The result was a scene of
violent recrimination and his supersession by the emperor, who
transferred his command to Gerard. Thus wounded in his
amour-propre, Victor now transferred his allegiance to the
Bourbon dynasty, and in December 1814 received from
Louis XVIII. the command of the second military division.
In 1815 he accompanied the king to Ghent, and on the second
restoration he was made a peer of France. He was also
president of a commission which inquired into the conduct
of the officers during the Hundred Days, and dismissed
Napoleon's sympathizers. In 1821 he was appointed war
minister and held this office for two years. In 1830 he was
major-general of the royal guard, and after the revolution of
that year he retired altogether into private life. His death
took place at Paris on the ist of March 1841.
His papers for the period 1793-1800 have been published (Paris,
1846).
VICTUAL, food, provisions, most commonly in the plural,
"victuals." The word and its pronunciation came into English
from the O. Fr. vitaille. The modern French and English
spelling are due to a pedantic approximation to the Latin
original, victualia, a neuter plural substantive formed from
viclualis, victus, nourishment, provisions (vivere, to live). The
most familiar use of the term is in " licensed victualler," to which
the Licensing Act 1872 ( 27) has applied the wide significance
of any person selling any intoxicating liquor under a licence
from a justice of the
peace. Properly a
" victualling house "
is one where persons
are provided with food
and drink but not
lodgings, and is thus
distinct from an inn,
which also provides
the last.
VICUGflA, one of
the two wild living
South American re-
presentatives of the
camel-tribe, a Came-
lidae (see TYLOPODA).
From its relative the
guanaco the vicugna
(Lama vicunia) differs by its inferior stature, more slender build
and shorter head, as well as by the absence of bare patches or
Head of Vicugna.
callosities on the hind limbs. The general colour of the woolly
coat is orange-red. Vicugnas live in herds on the bleak and
elevated parts of the mountain range bordering the region of
perpetual snow, amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in
various parts of Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as
far south as the middle of Bolivia. The wool is extremely
delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of weaving,
but the quantity which each animal produces is not great.
VIDA, MARCO GIROLAMO (c. 1489-1566), Italian scholar
and Latin poet, was born at Cremona shortly before the year
1490. He received the name of Marcantonio in baptism, but
changed this to Marco Girolamo when he entered the order of
the Canonici Regolari Lateranensi. During his early manhood
he acquired considerable fame by the composition of two
didactic poems in the Latin tongue, on the Came of Chess
(Scacchiae Ludus) and on the Silkworm (Bombyx). This reputa-
tion induced him to seek the papal court in Rome, which was
rapidly becoming the headquarters of polite learning, the place
where students might expect advancement through their
literary talents. Vida reached Rome in the last years of the
pontificate of Julius II. Leo X., on succeeding to the papal
chair (1513), treated him with marked favour, bestowed on him
the priory of St Sylvester at Frascati, and bade him compose
a heroic Latin poem on the life of Christ. Such was the origin
of the Christiad, Vida's most celebrated, if not his best, per-
formance. It did not, however, see the light in Leo's lifetime.
Between the years 1520 and 1527 Vida produced the second of
his masterpieces in Latin hexameters, a didactic poem on the
Art of Poetry (see Baldi's edition, WUrzburg, 1881). Clement
VII. raised him to the rank of apostolic protonotary, and in
1532 conferred on him the bishopric of Alba. It is probable
that he took up his residence in this town soon after the death
of Clement ; and here he spent the greater portion of his remain-
ing years. Vida attended the council of Trent, where he
enjoyed the society of Cardinals Cervini, Pole and Del Monte,
together with his friend the poet Flaminio. A record of their
conversations may be studied in Vida's Latin dialogue De
Republica. Among his other writings should be mentioned
three eloquent orations in defence of Cremona against Pavia,
composed upon the occasion of some dispute as to precedency
between those two cities. Vida died at Alba on the 2 7th of
September 1566.
See the Life by Lancetti (Milan. 1840).
VIDAME (Lat. vice-dominus) , a French feudal title. The
vidame was originally, like the avoue (advocatus), an official
chosen by the bishop of the diocese, with the consent of the
count (see ADVOCATE). Unlike the advocate, however, the
vice-dominus was at the outset an ecclesiastic, who acted as
the bishop's lieutenant (locum tenens) or vicar. But the causes
that changed the character of the advocatus operated also in
the case of the vidame. During the Carolingian epoch, indeed,
advocatus and vice-dominus were interchangeable terms; and
it was only in the nth century 'that they became generally
differentiated: the title of avoue being commonly reserved for
nobles charged with the protection of an abbey, that of vidame
for those guarding an episcopal see. With the crystallization
of the feudal system in the i2th century the office of vidame,
like that of avou6, had become an hereditary fief. As a title,
however, it was much less common and also less dignified than
that of avoufi. The advocali were often great barons who added
their function of protector of an abbey to their own temporal
sovereignty; whereas the vidames were usually petty nobles,
who exercised their office in strict subordination to the bishop.
Their chief functions were: to protect the temporalities of the
see, to represent the bishop at the count's court of justice, to
exercise the bishop's temporal jurisdiction in his name (placitum
or curia vice-dominf) and to lead the episcopal levies to war.
In return they usually had a house near the episcopal palace,
a domain within and without the city, and sometimes the right
to levy certain dues on the city. The vidames usually took
their title from the see they represented, but not infrequently
they styled themselves, not after their official fief, but after
VIDIN VIDYASAGAR
their private seigneuries. Thus the vidame de Picquigny was
the representative of the bishop of Amiens, the vidame de
Gerberoy of the bishop of Beauvais. In many sees there were
no vidames, their function being exercised by viscounts or
chitelains. With the growth of the central power and of that
of the municipalities the vidames gradually lost all importance,
and the title became merely honorary
See A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franc.aises (Paris, 1892);
Du Cange, Glossarium (ed. Niort, 1887), s. " Vice-dpminus " ; A.
Mallet, " Etude hist, sur les avous et les vidames," in Position des
theses de l'cole des chartes (an. 1870-72).
VIDIN (formerly written WIDIN or WIDDIN), a fortified
river-port and the capital of a department in the extreme
N.E. of Bulgaria; on the right bank of the river Danube, near
the Servian frontier and 151 m. W.N.W. of Sofia. Pop. (1906)
16,168, including about 3000 Turks and 1500 Spanish Jews
descendants of the refugees who fled hither from the Inquisition
in the i6th century. Vidin is an episcopal see and the head-
quarters of a brigade; it was formerly a stronghold of some
importance, and was rendered difficult to besiege by the sur-
rounding marshes, formed where the Topolovitza and other
streams join the Danube. A steam ferry connects it with
Calafat, on the Rumanian bank of the Danube, and there is a
branch railway to Mezdra, on the main line Sofia-Plevna. The
city consists of three divisions the modern suburbs extending
beside the Danube, the citadel and the old town, still sur-
rounded by walls, though only four of its nine towers remain
standing. The old town, containing several mosques and
synagogues and a bazaar, preserves its oriental appearance;
the citadel is used as a military magazine. There are a modern
cathedral, a school of viticulture and a high school, besides an
ancient clock- tower and the palace (Konak) formerly occupied
by the Turkish pashas. Vidin exports cereals and fruit, and
is locally celebrated for its gold and silver filigree. It has
important fisheries and manufactures of spirits, beer and
tobacco.
Vidin stands on the site of the Roman town of Bononia in
Moesia Superior, not to be confounded with the Pannonian
Bononia, which stood higher up the Danube to the north of
Sirmium. Its name figures conspicuously in the military annals
of medieval and recent times; and it is specially memorable
for the overthrow of the Turks by the imperial forces in 1689
and for the crushing defeat of the hospodar Michael Sustos
by Pasvan Oglu in 1801. It was again the scene of stirring
events during the Russo-Turkish Wars of 1854-55 and 1877-78,
and successfully resisted the assaults of the Servians in the
Servo-Bulgarian War of 1886-87.
VIDOCQ, FRANCOIS EUGENE (1775-1857), French detective,
was born at Arras in 1775 (or possibly 1773). After an adven-
turous youth he joined the French army, where he rose to be
lieutenant. At Lille he was imprisoned as the result of a quarrel
with a brother officer, and while in gaol became involved,
possibly innocently, in the forgery of an order for the release of
another prisoner. He was sentenced to eight years' hard labour,
and sent to the galleys at Brest, whence he escaped twice but
was recaptured. For the third time he succeeded in getting
free, and lived for some time in the company of thieves and
other criminals in Paris and elsewhere, making a careful study
of their methods. He then offered his services as a spy to the
Paris police (1809). The offer was accepted, on condition that
he should extend his knowledge of the criminal classes by
himself serving a further term in prison in Paris, and subse-
quently Vidocq was made chief of the reorganized detective
department of the Paris police, with a body of ex-convicts under
his immediate command. In this capacity Vidocq was ex-
tremely successful, for he possessed unbounded energy and a
real genius for hunting down criminals. In 1827, having saved
a considerable sum of money, he retired from his post and
started a paper-mill, the work-people in which were drawn
entirely from ex-convicts. The venture, however, was a failure,
and in 1832 Vidocq re-entered the police service and was em-
ployed mainly in political work, though given no special office.
Anxious to get back to his old detective post he himself foolishly
organized a daring theft. The authorities were unable to trace
the thieves, who at the proper moment were " discovered "
by Vidocq. His real part in the matter became known, however,
and he was dismissed from service. He subsequently started
a private inquiry agency, which was indifferently successful,
and was finally suppressed. Vidocq died in great poverty in
1857. Several volumes have been published under his name,
the best known of which is Memoires de Vidocq (1828). It
is, however, extremely doubtful whether he wrote any of them.
See Charles Ledru, La Vie, la mart et les derniers moments de
Vidocq (Paris, 1857).
VIDYASAGAR, ISWAR CHANDRA (1820-1891), writer and
social reformer of Bengal, was born at Birsinha in the Midnapur
district in 1820, of a Kulin Brahman family. He was removed
to Calcutta at the age of nine, was admitted into the Sanskrit
College, and carried on his studies in the midst of privations and
extreme poverty. In 1839 he obtained the title of Vidyasagar
( = " Ocean of learning ") after passing a brilliant examination,
and in 1850 was appointed head pandit of Fort William College.
In 1846 appeared his first work in Bengali prose, The Twenty-
Five Tales of a Rctal. This was succeeded by his Sakuntala in
1855, and by his greatest work, The Exile of Sila, in 1862. These
are marked by a grace and beauty which Bengali prose had never
known before. The literature of Bengal, previous to the igth
century, was entirely in verse. Ram Mohan Roy, the religious
reformer of Bengal, created the literary prose of Bengal early
in the igth century by his numerous translations and religious
tracts; and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and his fellow- worker,
Akhay Kumar Datta, added to its power and beauty about the
middle of that century. These three writers are generally re-
cognized as the fathers of Bengali prose literature. As a social
reformer and educationist, too, Iswar Chandra made his mark.
He associated himself with Drinkwater Bethune in the cause of
female education; and the management of the girls' school,
called after Bethune, was entrusted to him in 1851. And when
Rosomoy Datta resigned the post of secretary to the Sanskrit
College of Calcutta, a new post of principal was created, and
Iswar Chandra was appointed to it. Iswar Chandra's influence
in the education department was now unbounded. He simpli-
fied the method of learning Sanskrit, and thus spread a know-
ledge of that ancient tongue among his countrymen. He was
consulted in all educational matters by Sir Frederick Halliday,
the first lieutenant-governor of Bengal. And when the great
scheme of education under Sir Charles Wood's despatch of 1854
was inaugurated in India, Iswar Chandra established numerous
aided schools under that scheme in the most advanced districts
of Bengal. In 1858 he resigned his appointment under govern-
ment, and shortly afterwards became manager of the Metro-
politan Institution, a private college at Calcutta. But a greater
task than literary work or educational reforms claimed his
attention. He had discovered that the ancient Hindu scriptures
did not enjoin perpetual widowhood, and in 1855 he startled
the Hindu world by his work on the Remarriage of Hindu Widows.
Such a work, from a learned and presumably orthodox Brahman,
caused the greatest excitement, but Iswar Chandra remained
unmoved amidst a storm of indignation. Associating himself
with the most influential men of the day, like Prosonno Kumar
Tagore and Ram Gopal Ghosh, he appealed to the British
government to declare that the sons of remarried Hindu widows
should be considered legitimate heirs. The British govern-
ment responded; the act was passed in 1856, and some years
after Iswar Chandra's own son was married to a widow. In
the last years of his life Iswar Chardra wrote works against
Hindu polygamy. He was as well known for his charity and
wide philanthropy as for his educational and social reforms.
His large income, derived from the sale of school-books, was
devoted almost entirely to the succour of the needy; hundreds
of young men owed their education to him; hundreds of widows
depended on him for their daily bread. The Indian government
made him a Companion of the Indian Empire in 1880. He died
on the 29th of July 1891. (R. C. D.)
VIEIRA
49
VIEIRA, ANTONIO (1608-1697), Portuguese Jesuit and
writer, the " prince of Catholic pulpit-orators of his time," was
born in Lisbon on the 6th of February 1608. Accompanying
his parents to Brazil in 1615 he received his education at the
Jesuit college at Bahia. He entered the Jesuit novitiate in
1625, and two years later pronounced his first vows. At the
age of eighteen he was teaching rhetoric, and a little later
dogmatic theology, at the college of Olinda, besides writing
the " annual letters " of the province. In 1635 he received the
priesthood. He soon began to distinguish himself as an orator,
and the three patriotic sermons he delivered at Bahia (1638-40)
are remarkable for their imaginative power and dignity of
language. The sermon for the success of the arms of Portugal
against Holland was considered by the Abb6 Raynal to be
" perhaps the most extraordinary discourse ever heard from
a Christian pulpit." When the revolution of 1640 placed
John IV. on the throne of Portugal, Brazil gave him its allegi-
ance, and Vieira was chosen to accompany the viceroy's son to
Lisbon to congratulate the new king. His talents and aptitude
for affairs impressed John IV. so favourably that he appointed
him royal preacher, gave him free access to the palace and
constantly consulted him on the business of the state. Pos-
sessed of great political sagacity and knowledge of the lessons of
history, Vieira used the pulpit as a tribune from which he
propounded measures for improving the general and particularly
the economic condition of Portugal. His pen was as busy as
his voice, and in four notable pamphlets he advocated the crea-
tion of companies of commerce, the abolition of the distinction
between Old and New Christians, the reform of the procedure
of the Inquisition and the admission of Jewish and foreign
traders, with guarantees for their security from religious per-
secution. Moreover, he did not spare his own estate, for in his
Sexagesima sermon he boldly attacked the current style of
preaching, its subtleties, affectation, obscurity and abuse of
metaphor, and declared the ideal of a sermon to be one which
sent men away " not contented with the preacher, but discon-
tented with themselves." In 1647 Vieira began his career as a
diplomat, in the course of which he visited England, France,
Holland and Italy. In his Papel Forte he urged the cession of
Pernambuco to the Dutch as the price of peace, while his mission
to Rome in 1650 was undertaken in the hope of arranging a
marriage between the heir to the throne of Portugal and the
only daughter of King Philip IV. of Spain. His success, freedom
of speech and reforming zeal had made him enemies on all
sides, and only the intervention of the king prevented his
expulsion from the Company of Jesus, so that prudence coun-
selled his return to Brazil.
In his youth he had vowed to consecrate his life to the con-
version of the negro slaves and native Indians of his adopted
country, and arriving in Maranhao early in 1653 he recom-
menced his apostolic labours, which had been interrupted
during his stay of fourteen years in the Old World. Starting
from Par<i, he penetrated to the banks of the Tocantins, making
numerous converts to Christianity and civilization among the
most savage tribes; but after two years of unceasing labour,
during which every difficulty was placed in his way by the
colonial authorities, he saw that the Indians must be with-
drawn from the jurisdiction of the governors, to prevent their
exploitation, and placed under the control of the members of a
single religious society. Accordingly in June 1654 he set sail
for Lisbon to plead the cause of the Indians, and in April 1655
he obtained from the king a series of decrees which placed
the missions under the Company of Jesus, with himself as their
superior, and prohibited the enslavement of the natives, except
in certain specified cases. Returning with this charter of
freedom, he organized the missions over a territory having
a coast-line of 400 leagues, and a population of 200,000 souls,
and in the next six years (1655-61) the indefatigable mis-
sionary set the crown on his work. After a time, however,
the colonists, attributing the shortage of slaves and the con-
sequent diminution in their profits to the Jesuits, began actively
to oppose Vieira, and they were joined by members of the
secular clergy and the other Orders who were jealous of the
monopoly enjoyed by the Company in the government of the
Indians. Vieira was accused of want of patriotism and usurpa-
tion of jurisdiction, and in 1661, after a popular revolt, the
authorities sent him with thirty-one other Jesuit missionaries
back to Portugal. He found his friend King John IV. dead and
the court a prey to faction, but, dauntless as ever in the pursuit
of his ambition, he resorted to his favourite arm of preaching,
and on Epiphany Day, 1662, in the royal chapel, he replied
to his persecutors in a famous rhetorical effort, and called for
the execution of the royal decrees in favour of the Indians.
Circumstances were against him, however, and the count of
Castelmelhor, fearing his influence at court, had him exiled
first to Oporto and then to Coimbra; but in both these places
he continued his work of preaching, and the reform of the
Inquisition also occupied his attention. To silence him his
enemies then denounced him to that tribunal, and he was
cited to appear before the Holy Office at Coimbra to answer
points smacking of heresy in his sermons, conversations and
writings. He had believed in the prophecies of a 16th-century
shoemaker poet, Bandarra, dealing with the coming of a ruler
who would inaugurate an epoch of unparalleled prosperity
for the church and for Portugal, and in the Quinto Imperio
or Claws Prophelarum he had endeavoured to prove the truth
of his dreams from passages of Scripture. As he refused to
submit, the Inquisitors kept him in prison from October 1665
to December 1667, and finally imposed a sentence which pro-
hibited him from teaching, writing or preaching. It was a
heavy blow for the Company, and though Vieira recovered his
freedom and much of his prestige shortly afterwards on the
accession of King Pedro II., it was determined that he should
go to Rome to procure the revision of the sentence, which still
hung over him though the penalties had been removed. During
a six years' residence in the Eternal City Vieira won his greatest
triumphs. Pope Clement X. invited him to preach before the
College of Cardinals, and he became confessor to Queen
Christina of Sweden and a member of her literary academy.
At the request of the pope he drew up a report of two hundred
pages on the Inquisition in Portugal, with the result that
after a judicial inquiry Pope Innocent XI. suspended it for
five years (1676-81). Ultimately Vieira returned to Portugal
with a papal bull exempting him from the jurisdiction of the
grand inquisitor, and in January 1681 he embarked for Brazil.
He resided in Bahia and occupied himself in revising his sermons
for publication, and in 1687 he became superior of the province.
A false accusation of complicity in an assassination, and the
intrigues of members of his own Company, clouded his last
months, and on the i8th of July 1697 he passed away.
His works form perhaps the greatest monument of Portuguese
prose. Two hundred discourses exist to prove his fecundity,
while his versatility is shown by the fact that he could treat
the same subject differently on half a dozen occasions. His
letters, simple and conversational in style, have a deep his-
torical and political interest, and form documents of the first
value for the history of the period. As a man, Vieira would
have made a nobler figure if he had not been so great an egotist
and so clever a courtier, and the readiness with which he sus-
tained directly opposite opinions at short intervals with equal
warmth argues a certain lack of sincerity. His name, how-
ever, is identified with great causes, justice to the Jews and
humanity to the Indians, and the fact that he was in advance
of his age led to many of his troubles, while his disinterested-
ness in money matters is deserving of all praise.
Principal works: Sermoes (Sermons) (15 vols., Lisbon, 1679-
1748); there are many subsequent editions, but none com-
plete; translations exist in Spanish, Italian, German and French,
which have gone through several editions. Historic do Futuro
(Lisbon, 1718; and ed., ibid., 1755); this and the Quinto Imperio
and the Clavis Prophetarum seem to be in essence one and the
same book in different redactions. Carlos (Letters) (3 vols., Lisbon,
1735-46). Nolicias reconditas do modo de proceder a Inquisitdo
de Portugal com os seus presos (Lisbon, 1821). The Arie de Furtar
published under Vieira's name in many editions is now known not
VIELE-GRIFFIN VIENNA
to be his. A badly edited edition of the works of Vieira in
27 volumes appeared in Lisbon, 185458. There are unpub-
lished MSS. of his in the British Museum in London, and in the
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. A bibliography of Vieira will
be found in Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la compagnie de Jesus,
viii. 653-85.
AUTHORITIES. Andr6 de Barros, Vida (Lisbon, 1746) a pane-
gyric by a member of the same society; D. Francisco Alexandra
Lobo, bishop of Vizeu, " Historical and Critical Discourse," Obras
(Lisbon, 1849), vol. ii. a valuable study; Joao Francisco Lisboa,
Vida (5th ed., Rio, 1891) he is unjust to Vieira, but may be con-
sulted to check the next writer; Abbe E. Carel, Vieira, sa vie et
ses ceuvres (Paris, 1879); Luiz Cabral, Vieira, biog., caractere, elo-
quence (Paris, 1900); idem, Vieira pregador (2 vols., Oporto, 1901);
Sotero dos Reis, Curso de litteratura Portugueza e Brazileira, iii.
121-244. (E. PR.)
VIELE-GRIFFIN, FRANCIS (1864- ), French poet, was
born at Norfolk, Virginia, U.S.A., on the 26th of May 1864.
He was educated in France, dividing his time between Paris
and Touraine. His volumes include Cueille d'avril (1885);
Les Cygnes (1887; new series, 1892); La Chevauchee d'Yeldis
(1893); Swanhilde, a dramatic poem (1894); Laus Veneris
(1895), a volume of translations from Swinburne; Poemes et
Palsies (1895), a collection containing much of his earlier work;
Phocas le jardinier (1898); and La Legende ailee de Wieland le
Forgeron (1899), a dramatic poem. M. Viele-Griffin is one of
the most successful writers of the iiers libre, the theory of which
he expounded, in conjunction with MM. Paul Adam and
Bernard Lazare, in the pages of a periodical entitled Entretiens
poliliques el lilteraires (1890-92). He is at his best in the
adaptation of the symbolism of old legend to modern uses.
VIELLE, viole, viele, a French term, derived from Lat. fidi-
cula, embracing two distinct types of instruments: (i) from
the 1 2th to the beginning of the isth century bowed instru-
ments having a box-soundchest with ribs, (2) from the middle
or end of the isth century, the hurdy-gurdy (q.v.). The
medieval word vielle or viele has often been incorrectly applied
to the latter instrument by modern writers when dealing with
the i3th and i4th centuries. The instruments included under
the name of vielle, whatever form their outline assumed, always
had the box-soundchest consisting of back and belly joined by
ribs, which experience has pronounced the most perfect con-
struction for bowed instruments. The most common shape
given to the earliest vielles in France was an oval, which with
its modifications remained in favour until the guitar-fiddle,
the Italian lyra, asserted 'itself as the finest type, from which
also the violin was directly evolved. (K. S.)
VIEN, JOSEPH MARIE (1716-1809), French painter, was born
at Montpellier on the i8th of June 1716. Protected by Comte
de Caylus, he entered at an early age the studio of Natoire,
and obtained the grand prix in 1745. He used his time at Rome
in applying to the study of nature and the development of his
own powers all that he gleaned from the masterpieces around
him; but his tendencies were so foreign to the reigning taste
that on his return to Paris he owed his admission to the academy
for his picture " Daedalus and Icarus " (Louvre) solely to the
indignant protests of Boucher. When in 1776, at the height
of his established reputation, he became director of the school
of France at Rome, he took David with him amongst his pupils.
After his return, five years later, his fortunes were wrecked
by the Revolution; but he undauntedly set to work, and at
the age of eighty (1796) carried off the prize in an open govern-
ment competition. Bonaparte acknowledged his merit by
making him a senator. He died at Paris on the 27th of March
1809, leaving behind him several brilliant pupils, amongst whom
were Vincent, Regnault, Suvee, Menageot, Taillasson and
others of high merit ; nor should the name of his wife, Marie
Therese Reboul (1728-1805), herself a member of the academy,
be omitted from this list. Their son, Marie Joseph, born in
1761, also distinguished himself as a painter.
VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona), the capital of the
Austrian empire, the largest city in the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy, and the fourth city in Europe as regards popula-
tion. It is situated on the right bank of the Danube, at the
base of the Wiener Wald, and at the beginning of the great
plain which separates the Alps from the Carpathians. This
plain is continued on the opposite bank of the Danube by the
valley of the March, which constitutes the easiest access to the
north. Thus Vienna forms a junction of natural ways from
south to north, and from west to east. It also lies on the
frontier which separates from one another three races, the
German, the Slavonic and the Hungarian.
Curiously enough, Vienna has for a long time turned its
back, so to speak, on the magnificent waterway of the Danube,
the city being built about ij m. away from the main stream.
Only an arm of the river, the Danube Canal, so called because
it was regulated and widened in 1598, passes through the city,
dividing it into two unequal parts. It is true that the river
forms at this point several arms, and the adjoining districts
were subjected to periodical inundations, while navigation
was by no means easy here. But in 1870 works for the
regulation of the river were started with the object of making
it quite safe for navigation, and of avoiding the dangers of
inundation. By these magnificent works of regulation the
new bed was brought nearer to the town, and the new river
channel has an average width of 915 ft. and a depth of 10 ft.
On its left bank stretches the so-called inundation region,
1525 ft. wide, while on the right bank quays have been con-
structed with numerous wharfs and warehouses. By these
works of regulation over 2400 acres of ground were gained for
building purposes. This new bed of the Danube was com-
pleted in 1876. In conjunction with this work the entire
Danube Canal has been transformed into a harbour by the
construction of a lock at its entrance, while increased accom-
modation for shipping has also been provided at the other end
of the canal known as the winter harbour. Into the Danube
Canal flows the small stream, called Wien, now arched over
almost in its entirety. Vienna extends along the right bank
of the Danube from the historic and legendary Kahlenberg
to the point where the Danube Canal rejoins the main stream,
being surrounded on the other side by a considerable stretch
of land which is rather rural than suburban in character.
Vienna is officially divided into twenty-one districts or
Bezirke. Until 1892 it contained only ten of the present
districts; in that year nine outlying districts were incorporated
with the town; in 1900 Brigittenau was created out of part
of the old district of Leopoldstadt, and in 1905 the Floridsdorf
district was made up by the incorporation of the following
former suburbs: Aspern-an-der-Donau, Donaufeld, Floridsdorf,
Gross Jedlersdorf, Hirschstetten, Jedlesee, Kagran, Leopoldau,
Lobau-Insel and Stadlau. By the incorporation of the suburbs
in 1892, the area of Vienna was more than trebled, namely,
from 213 sq. m. to 69 sq. m.; while a new increase of about
one-fifth of its total area was added by the incorporation of
1902. A feature of the new city is the unusually large propor-
tion of woods and arable land within its bounds. These form
nearly 60% of its total area, private gardens, parks and
open spaces occupying a further 13%. While from the
standpoint of population it takes the fourth place among
European capitals, Vienna covers about three times as much
ground as Berlin, which occupies the third place. But the
bulk of its inhabitants being packed into a comparatively
small portion of this area, the working classes suffer greatly
from overcrowding, and all 'sections of the community from
high rents.
The inner city, or Vienna proper, was formerly separated
from the other districts by a circle of fortifications, consisting
of a rampart, fosse and glacis. These, however, were removed
in 1858-60, and the place of the glacis has been taken by
a magnificent boulevard, the Ring-Strasse, 2 m. in length,
and about 150 ft. in average width. Another series of works,
consisting of a rampart and fosse, were constructed in 1704
to surround the whole city at that time, i.e. the first ten districts
of modern Vienna. This second girdle of fortifications was
known as the Lines (Linien), and a second wide boulevard
(Giirtel-Strasse) follows their course round the city. This
second or outer girdle of fortifications formed the boundary
VIENNA
between the city and the outlying suburbs, but was removed
in 1892, when the incorporation of the suburbs took place.
The inner town, which lies almost exactly in the centre of the
others, is still, unlike the older parts of most European towns,
the most aristocratic quarter, containing the palaces of the
emperor and of many of the nobility, the government offices,
many of the embassies and legations, the opera house and the
principal hotels. Leopoldstadt which together with Brigit-
tenau are the only districts on the left bank of the Danube
Canal, is the chief commercial quarter, and is inhabited to a
great extent by Jews. Mariahilf, Neubau and Margarethen are
the chief seats of manufacturing industry. Landstrasse may
be described as the district of officialism; here too are the
British and German embassies. Alsergrund, with the enormous
general hospital, the military hospital and the municipal
asylum for the insane, is the medical quarter.
Near the centre of the inner city, most of the streets in which
are narrow and irregular, is the cathedral of St Stephen, the
most important medieval building in Vienna, dating in its present
form mainly from the I4th and isth centuries, but incorporating
a few fragments of the original 12th-century edifice. Among its
most striking features are the fine and lofty tower (450 ft.),
rebuilt in 1860-64; the extensive catacombs, in which the
emperors were formerly interred; the sarcophagus (1513) of
Frederick III.; the tombs of Prince Eugene of Savoy; thirty-
eight marble altars; and the fine groined ceiling. A little to the
south-west of the cathedral is the Hofburg, or imperial palace,
a huge complex of buildings of various epochs and in various
styles, enclosing several courtyards. The oldest part of the
present edifice dates from the i3th century, and extensive
additions have been made since 1887. In addition to private
rooms and state apartments, the Hofburg contains a library
of about 800,000 volumes, 7000 incunabula and 24,000 MSS.,
including the celebrated " Papyrus Rainer "; the imperial
treasury, containing the family treasures of the house of
Habsburg-Lorraine, and other important collections.
In the old town are the two largest of the Hofe, extensive
blocks of buildings belonging to the great abbeys of Austria,
which are common throughout Vienna. These are the Schotten-
hof (once belonging to the " Scoti," or Irish Benedictines)
and the Molkerhof, adjoining the open space called the Freiung,
each forming a little town of itself. As in most continental
towns, the custom of living in flats is prevalent in Vienna, where
few except the richer nobles occupy an entire house. Of late
the so-called " Zinspalaste " (" tenement palaces ") have been
built on a magnificent scale, often profusely adorned without
and within with painting and sculpture. Other notable buildings
within the line of the old fortifications are the Gothic Augustine
church, built in the I4th century, and containing a fine monu-
ment of Canova; the Capuchin church, with the burial vault of
the Habsburgs; the church of Maria-Stiegen, an interesting
Gothic building of the I4th century, restored in 1820; the
handsome Greek church, by T. Hansen (1813-1891), finished in
1858; the Minorite church, a Gothic edifice of the i4th century,
containing an admirable mosaic of Leonardo da Vinci's " Last
Supper " by Raffaeli, executed in 1806-14 by order of Napoleon
and placed here in 1846. Other churches worth mentioning are
the Schottenkirche, built in the I3th century, reconstructed
in the i7th and restored by H. von Ferstel (1828-1883), con-
taining the tombs of the count of Starhemberg, the defender
of Vienna against the Turks in 1683, and of Duke Heinrich
Jasomirgott (d. 1177); the church of St Peter, reconstructed
by Fischer von Erlach in 1702-13, and the University church,
erected by the Jesuits in 1625-31, both in the baroque style
with rich frescoes; lastly, the small church of St Ruprecht, the
oldest church in Vienna, first built in 740, and several times
reconstructed; and the old Rathaus. At the corner of the
Graben, one of the busiest thoroughfares, containing the most
fashionable shops in Vienna, is the Stock im Eisen, the stump
of a tree, said to be the last survivor of a holy grove round
which the original settlement of Vindomina sprang up. It is
full of nails driven into it by travelling journeymen.
The Ring-Strasse ranks as orie of the most imposing
achievements of modern street architecture. Opposite the
Hofburg, the main body of which is separated from
the Ring-Strasse by the Hofgarten and Volksgarten, rise
the handsome monument of the empress Maria Theresa
(erected 1888) and the imperial museums of art and natural
history, two extensive Renaissance edifices with domes
(erected 1870-89), matching each other in every particular
and grouping finely with the new part of the palace.
Hans Makart's painted dome in the natural history museum
is the largest pictorial canvas in the world. Adjoining the
museums to the west is the palace of justice (1881), and this is
closely followed by the houses of parliament (1883), in which
the Grecian style has been successfully adapted to modern
requirements. Beyond the houses of parliament stands the
new Rathaus, an immense and lavishly decorated Gothic
building, erected in 1873-83. It was designed by Friedrich
Schmidt (1825-1891), who may be described as the chief
exponent of the modern Gothic tendency as T. Hansen and
G. Semper, the creators respectively of the parliament house and
the museums, are the leaders of the Classical and Renaissance
styles which are so strongly represented in Viennese architecture.
Opposite the Rathaus, on the inner side of the Ring, is the new
court theatre, another specimen of Semper's Renaissance work,
finished in 1889. To the north stands the new building of the
university, a Renaissance structure by H. von Ferstel, erected
in 1873-84 and rivalling the Ralhaus in extent. Near the uni-
versity, and separated from the Ring by a garden, stands the
votive church in Alsergrund, completed in 1879, and erected
to commemorate the emperor's escape from assassination in 1853,
one of the most elaborate and successful of modern Gothic
churches (Ferstel). The other important buildings of the
Ring-Strasse include the magnificent opera house, built
1861-69, by E. Van der Null (1812-1868) and A. von
Siccardsburg (1813-1868), the sumptuous interior of which
vies with that of Paris; the academy of art, built in 1872-
76; the exchange, built in 1872-77, both by Hansen; and
the Austrian museum of art and industry, an Italian Renais-
sance building erected by Ferstel in 1868-71. On the north
side the Ring-Strasse gives place to the spacious Franz Josef's
quay, flanking the Danube Canal. The municipal districts out-
side the Ring also contain numerous handsome modern buildings.
Vienna possesses both in the inner city and the outlying dis-
tricts numerous squares adorned with artistic monuments.
One of the finest squares in the world for the beauty of the
buildings which encircle it is the Rathausplatz, adjoining the
Ring-Strasse.
Vienna is the intellectual as well as the material capital
of Austria emphatically so in regard to the German part
of the empire. Its university, established in 1365, is now
attended by nearly 6000 students, and the medical faculty en-
joys a world-wide reputation. Its scientific institutions are
headed by the academy of science. The academy of art was
founded in 1707.
Museums. In the imperial art-history museum are stored the
extensive art-collections of the Austrian imperial family, which were
formerly in the Hofburg, in the Belvedere, and in other places. It
contains a rich collection of Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Etruscan
antiquities; of coins and medals, and of industrial art. The last
contains valuable specimens of the industrial art of the middle
ages and of the Renaissance period in gold, silver, bronze, glass,
enamel, ivory, iron and wood. The famous salt-cellar (saliera) of
Benvenuto Cellini, executed in 1539-43 for Francis I. of France, is
here. Then comes the collection of weapons and armour, including
the famous Ambras collection, so called after the castle of Ambras
near Innsbruck, where it was for a long time stored. The picture
gallery, which contains the collection formerly preserved in the Bel-
vedere palace, contains masterpieces of almost every school in the
world, but it is unsurpassed for its specimens of Rubens, Diirer and
the Venetian masters. Next come the imperial treasury at the Hof-
burg, already mentioned; the famous collection of drawings and
engravings known as the Albertina in the palace of the archduke
Frederick, which contains over 200,000 engravings and 16,000 draw-
ings; the picture gallery of the academy of art; the collection of
the Austrian museum of art and industry; the historical museum
of the city of Vienna; and the military museum at the arsenal.
VIENNA
Besides, there are in Vienna a number of private picture galleries
of great importance. The largest is that belonging to Prince
Liechtenstein, containing about 800 paintings, and specially rich
in important works by Rubens and Van Dyck; the picture gallery
of Count Harrach, with over 400 paintings, possessing numerous
examples of the later Italian and French schools; that of Count
Czernin, with over 340 paintings; and that of Count Schonborn, with
Iio pictures. The imperial natural history museum contains a
mineralogical, geological and zoological section, as well as a pre-
historic and ethnographical collection. Its botanic collection
contains the famous Vienna herbarium, while to the university is
attached a fine botanical garden. Besides the Hofburg library,
there are important libraries belonging to the university and other
societies, the corporation and the various monastic orders.
Parks, cfc. The Prater, a vast expanse (2000 acres) of wood and
park on the east side of the city, between the Danube and the
Danube Canal, is greatly frequented by all classes. The exhi-
bition of 1873 was held in this park, and several of its buildings,
including the large rotunda, have been left standing. Other parks
are the Hofgarten, the Volksgarten and the Town Park, all adjoin-
ing the Ring-Strasse; the Augarten in the Leopoldstadt, the Belve-
dere Park in the Landstrasse, the Esterhazy Park in Mariahilf, and
the Turkenschanz Park in Dobling. Among the most popular
resorts are the parks and gardens belonging to the imperial
chateaux of Schonbrunn and Laxenburg.
Government and Administration. Vienna is the residence of
the emperor of Austria, the seat of the Austrian ministers, of
the Reichsrat and of the Diet of Lower Austria. It is also
the seat of the common ministries for the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy, of the foreign ambassadors and general consuls and
the meeting-place, alternately with Budapest, of the Austro-
Hungarian delegations. It contains also the highest judicial,
financial, military and administrative official authorities of
Austria, and is the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop. Vienna
enjoys autonomy for communal affairs, but is under the control
of the governor and the Diet of Lower Austria, while the election
of the chief burgomaster requires the sanction of the sovereign,
advised by the prime minister. The municipal council is
composed of 158 members elected for a period of six years.
The long struggle between the municipality and the Austrian
ministry arising out of the refusal to sanction the election
(1895) of Dr Lueger, the anti-Semitic leader and champion,
recalls in some respects the Wilkes incident in London. In this
instance the ultimate success of the corporation greatly strength-
ened the Obscurantist and reactionary element throughout
Austria.
The cost of the transformation of Vienna, which has been in
progress since 1858, cannot be said to have fallen heavily on the
population. Great part of the burden has been borne throughout
by the " City Extension Fund," realized from the utilization of the
ground formerly occupied by the fortifications and glacis. The
subsequent regulation of the former suburbs has to a large extent
covered its own expenses through the acquisition by the town of
the improved area. The municipal finance has on the whole been
sound, and notwithstanding the extra burdens assumed on the
incorporation of the suburbs, the equilibrium of the communal
budget was maintained up to the fall of the Liberal administration.
In spite of shortsighted parsimony in the matter of schools, &c.,
and increased resources through the allocation to the municipality
of a certain percentage of new state and provincial taxation, their
anti-Semitic successors have been unable to avoid a deficit, and have
been obliged to increase the rates. But the direct damage done
in this and other ways would seem to be less than that produced
by the mistrust they inspired for a time among the propertied
classes, and the consequent paralysing of enterprise. Their violent
anti-Magyar attitude has driven away a certain amount of Hungarian
custom, and helped to increase the political difficulties of the
cis-Leithan government.
Vienna is situated at an altitude of 550 ft. above the level of
the sea, and possesses a healthy climate. The mean annual
temperature is 48-6 F., and the range between January and July
is about 40 F. The climate is rather changeable, and rapid
falls of temperature are not uncommon. Violent storms occur
in spring and autumn, and the rainfall, including snow, amounts
to 25 in. a year. Vienna has one of the best supplies of
drinking water of any European capital. The water is brought
by an aqueduct direct from the Alps, viz. from the Schnee-
berg, a distance of nearly 60 m. to the south-west. These
magnificent waterworks were opened in 1873, an d their sanitary
influence was soon felt, in the almost complete disappearance
of typhoid fever, which had numerous victims before.
Great enlargements, by tapping new sources of supply, were
made in 1891-93, while since 1902 works have been in progress
for bringing a new supply of pure water from the region of the
Salza, a distance of nearly 150 m. Another sanitary work of great
importance was the improvement carried out in the drainage
system, and the regulation of the river Wien. This river, which,
at ordinary times, was little more than an ill-smelling brook at one
side of an immense bed, was occasionally converted into a formid-
able and destructive torrent. Now half the bed of the river has
been walled over for the metropolitan railway, while the other half
has been deepened, and the portion of it within the town has been
arched over. A beginning was thus made for a new and magnificent
avenue in the neighbourhood of the Ring-Strasse.
Population. In 1800 the population of the old districts was
231,050; in 1840, 356,870; in 1857, 476,222(01 with suburbs,
587, 2 3S); in l86 9, 607,514 (with suburbs, 842,951); in 1880,
704,756 (with suburbs, 1,090,119); in 1890, town and suburbs,
1,364,548; and in 1900, 1,662,269, including the garrison of
26,629 men. Owing to the peculiarities of its situation, the
population of Vienna is of a very cosmopolitan and hetero-
geneous character. Its permanent population (some 45-5%
are born in the city) is recruited from all parts of Austria,
and indeed of the entire monarchy. The German element
is, of course, the most numerous, but there are also a great
number of Hungarians, Czechs and other Slavs.
Previous to the loss of the Italian provinces, a considerable pro-
portion came from Italy (30,000 in 1859), including artists, members
of the learned professions and artisans who left their mark on
Viennese art and taste. The Italian colony now numbers about
2500 (chiefly navvies and masons), in addition to some 1400 Austrian
subjects of that nationality. At present the largest and most
regular contributions to the population of Vienna come from the
Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia, next in importance being
those from Lower Austria and Styrja. This steady and increasing
influx of Czechs is gradually infusing a large proportion of Slav
blood in what Bismarck (in 1864) described as the German capital
of a Slav empire. Formerly the Czech labourers, artisans and
domestic servants who came to Vienna were somewhat ashamed
of their mother-tongue, and anxious to conceal that evidence ot
their origin as speedily as possible. The revival of the nationality
agitation has produced a marked change in this respect. The
Czech immigrants, attracted to Vienna as to other German towns by
the growth of industry, are now too numerous for easy absorption,
which is further retarded by their national organization, and the
provision of separate institutions, churches, schools (thus far private)
and places of resort. The consequence is that they take a pride in
accentuating their national characteristics, a circumstance which
threatens to develop into a new source of discord. In 1900 the
population included 1,386,115 persons of German nationality,
102,974 Czechs and Slovaks, 4346 Poles, 805 Ruthenians, 1329
Slovenes, 271 Serbo-Croatians, and 1368 Italians, all Austrian
subjects. To these should be added 133,144 Hungarians, 21,733
natives of Germany (3782 less than in 1890), 2506 natives of Italy,
1703 Russians, 1176 French, 1643 Swiss, &c. Of this heterogeneous
population 1,461,891 were Roman Catholics, the Jews coming next
in order with 146,926. Protestants of the Augsburg and Helvetic
Confessions numbered 54,364; members of the Church of England,
490; Old Catholics, 975; members of the Greek Orthodox Church,
3674; Greek Catholics, 2521 ; and Mahommedans, 889.
As a general rule, the Viennese are gay, pleasure-loving and
genial. The Viennese women are justly celebrated for their
beauty and elegance; and dressing as a fine art is cultivated
here with almost as great success as in Paris. As a rule, the
Viennese are passionately fond of dancing; and the city of
Strauss, J. F.K. Lanner (1801-1843) an( i J- Gungl (1810-1889)
gives name to a " school " of waltz and other dance music.
Opera, especially in its lighter form, flourishes, and the actors
of Vienna maintain with success a traditional reputation
of no mean order. Its chief place in the history of art
Vienna owes to its musicians, among whom are counted
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert. The Viennese
school of painting is of modern origin; but some of its members,
for instance, Hans Makart (1840-1884) , have acquired a European
reputation.
Trade. Vienna is the most important commercial and industrial
centre of Austria. For a long time the Austrian government, by
failing to keep the Danube in a proper state for navigation, let
slip the opportunity of making the city the great Danubian
VIENNA, CONGRESS OF
53
metropolis which its geographical position entitles it to be. But
during the last quarter 01 the 19th century active steps were taken
to foster the economic interests of the city. The regulation
of the Danube, mentioned above, the conversion of the entire
Danube Canal into a harbour, the construction of the navigable
canal Danube-March-Oder all gave a new impetus to the trade of
.ua. The fast-growing activity of the port of Trieste and the
new and shorter railway line constructed between it and Vienna
also contribute to the same effect. Vienna carries on an extensive
trade in corn, flour, cattle, wine, sugar and a large variety of manu-
factured articles. Besides the Danube it is served by an extensive
net of railways, which radiate from here to every part of the empire.
The staple productions are machinery, railway engines and car-
riages, steel, tin and bronze wares, pottery, bent ana carved wood
furniture, textiles and chemicals. In the number and variety of
it-, leather and other fancy goods Vienna rivals Paris, and is also
renowned for its manufacture of jewelry and articles of precious
metals, objets d'art, musical instruments, physical chemicals and
optical instruments, and artistic products generally. Its articles
of clothing, silk goods and millinery also enjoy a great reputation
for the taste with which they are manufactured. Books, artistic
publications, paper and beer are amongst the other principal
products. The building trade and its allied trades are also active.
History. For several centuries Vienna filled an important
r61e as the most advanced bulwark of Western civilization and
Christianity against the Turks, for during the whole of the
middle ages Hungary practically retained its Asiatic character.
The story of Vienna begins in the earliest years of the Christian
era, with the seizure of the Celtic settlement of Vindomina by
the Romans, who changed its name to Vindobona, and estab-
lished a fortified camp here to command the Danube and protect
the northern frontier of the empire. The fortress grew in
importance, and was afterwards made a municipium; and here
Marcus Aurelius died in 180. On the decline of the Roman
empire Vindobona became ^the prey of successive barbarian
invaders. Attila and his Huns were among the temporary
occupants of the place (sth century), and in the following century
it came into the possession of the Avars, after which its name
disappears from history until towards the close of the Sth century,
when Charlemagne expelled the Avars and made the district
between the Enns and the Wiener Wald the boundary of his
empire. In the time of Otho II. (976) this " East Mark "
(Ostmark, Oesterreich, Austria) was granted in fief to the Baben-
bergers, and in the reign of Frederick Barbarossa (1156) it was
advanced to the rank of a duchy. There is no certain record
that the site of Vindobona was occupied at the time of the
formation of the Ostmark, though many considerations make
it probable. It is not likely that the Avars, living in their
"ring" encampments, destroyed the Roman municipium;
and Bees, the Hungarian name for Vienna to this day, is sus-
ceptible of a Slavonic interpretation only, and would seem to
indicate that the site had been occupied in Slavonic times. The
frequent mention of " Wiene " in the oldest extant version of
the Nibelungenlied points in the same direction. Passing over
a doubtful mention of " Vwienni " in the annals of 1030, we
find the " civitas " of Vienna mentioned in a document of
1130, and in 1156 it became the capital and residence of Duke
Heinrich Jasomirgott. In 1237 Vienna received a charter of
freedom from Frederick II., confirmed in 1247. In the time
of the crusades Vienna increased so rapidly, in consequence of
the traffic that flowed through it, that in the days of Ottacar II.
of Bohemia (1251-76), the successor of the Babenbergers, it had
attained the dimensions of the present inner town. A new era
of power and splendour begins in 1276, when it became the
capital of the Habsburg dynasty, after the defeat of Ottacar
by Rudolph of Habsburg. From this time on it has shared the
fortunes of the house of Austria. In 1477 Vienna was besieged
unsuccessfully by the Hungarians, and in 1485 it was taken jby
Matthew Corvinus. Of more importance were the two sieges
by the Turks (1529 and 1683), when the city was saved on the
first occasion by the gallant defence of Count Niclas von Salm
(1450-1530), and on the second by Rudiger von Starhemberg
(1638-1701), who held out until the arrival of the Poles and
Germans under John Sobieski of Poland. The suburbs, however,
were destroyed on both occasions. In 1805, and again in 1809,
Vienna was for a short time occupied by the French. In 1814-15
it was the meeting-place of the congress which settled the political
affairs of Europe after the overthrow of Napoleon. In 1848 the
city was for a time in the hands of the revolutionary party; but it
was bombarded by the imperial forces and compelled to surrender
on 30th October of the same year. Vienna was not occupied by
the Prussians in the war of 1866, but the invaders marched to
within sight of its towers. In 1873 a great international exhibi-
tion took place here.
While Berlin and Budapest have made the most rapid progress
of all European cities, having multiplied their population by
nine in the period 1800-90, Vienna even including the extensive
annexations of 1892 only increased sevenfold. Many causes
conspired to this end, but most of them date from the years 1859,
1866 and 1867. The combined effect of these successive blows,
aggravated by the long period of decentralizing policy from
Taaffe to Badeni, is still felt in the Kaiserstadt. The gaiety
of Vienna had for centuries depended on the brilliancy of its
court, recruited from all parts of Europe, including the nobility
of the whole empire, and on its musical, light-hearted and con-
tented population. Even before it fell from its high estate as the
social centre of the German-speaking world, it had suffered
severely by the crushing defeats of 1859 and the consequent exodus
of the Austrian nobles. These were held responsible for the
misfortunes of the army, and to escape the atmosphere of
popular odium retired to their country seats and the provincial
capitals. They have never since made Vienna their home to
the same extent as before. The change thus begun was con-
firmed by the exclusion of Austria from the German Confedera-
tion and the restoration of her Constitution'to Hungary, events
which gave an immense impetus to the two rival capitals.
Thus within eight years the range of territory from which
Vienna drew its former throngs of wealthy pleasure-seeking
visitors and more or less permanent inhabitants Italian,
German and Hungarian was enormously restricted. Since then
Vienna has benefited largely by the enlightened efforts of its
citizens and the exceptional opportunities afforded by the
removal of the fortifications. But a decline of its importance,
similar to that within the larger sphere which it influenced
prior to 1859, has continued uninterruptedly within the Habs-
burg dominions up to the present day. Its commercial classes
constantly complain of the increasing competition of the
provinces, and of the progressive industrial emancipation of
Hungary. The efforts of the Hungarians to complete their
social and economic, no less than their political, emancipation
from Austria and Vienna have been unremittingly pursued.
The formal recognition of Budapest as a royal residence and
capital in 1892, and the appointment of independent Hungarian
court functionaries in November 1893, mark new stages in its
progress. It would no longer be correct to speak of Vienna
as the capital of the dual monarchy. It merely shares that
distinction with Budapest.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. K. yon Lutzow and L. Tischler, Wiener
Neubauten (6 vols., Wien, i88o/-97); M. Hermann, Alt- und
Neuwien (2nd ed., Wien, 1903), edited by Schimmer; E. Guglia,
Geschichte der Stadt Wien (Wien, 1892) ; H. Zimmermann, Geschuhte
der Stadt Wien (2 vols., Wien, 1897-1900); Hickmann, Wien im
10 Jahrhundert (Wien, 1903); Wien, 1848-88, published by the
Vienna corporation ; Statisttsches Jahrbuch der Stadt Wien, annually
since 1883; Geschichte der Stadt Wien, published by the Vienna
Alterthumsverein since 1897.
VIENNA, CONGRESS OP (1814-1815). The fall of Napoleon
was only achieved by the creation of a special alliance between
Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia. By the Treaty of
Chaumont of March 10, 1814, these four powers bound them-
selves together in a bond which was not to be dissolved when
peace was concluded. When Napoleon had been beaten,
France conceded to these allies by a secret article of the first
Treaty of Paris of May 30, 1814, the disposition of all countries
which Napoleon's fall had freed from French suzerainty. This
stupendous task was reserved for a general congress, and it
was agreed to meet at Vienna. The visit of the allied sovereigns
to England and the pressing engagements of the emperor
Alexander and Lord Castlereagh delayed the congress until the
54
autumn, when all Europe sent its representatives to accept the
hospitality of the impoverished but magnificent Austrian court.
Metternich, though he had not yet completely established
hfs position, acted as chief Austrian representative, and he was
naturally in his capacity as host the president of the congress.
Friedrich v. Gentz acted as secretary both to him and the congress
and did much of the routine work. Alexander of Russia
directed his own diplomacy, and round him he had gathered a
brilliant body of men who could express but not control their
master's desires. Of these the chief were foreigners, according
to the traditions of Russian diplomacy. Capo d'Istria, Nessel-
rode, Stein, Pozzo di Borgo were perhaps the best men in
Europe to manage the Russian policy, while Czartoriski repre-
sented at the imperial court the hope of Polish nationality.
Frederick William III. of Prussia was a weaker character and,
as will be seen, his policy was largely determined by his ally.
Prince von Hardenberg, who by no means shared all the views
of his master but was incapacitated by his growing infirmities,
was first Prussian plenipotentiary, and assisting him was Baron
von Humboldt. Great Britain was represented by Lord Castle-
reagh, and under him were the British diplomats who had been
attached to the foreign armies since 1813, Clancarty, Stewart
and Cathcart. Castlereagh brought with him decided views,
which however were not altogether those of his cabinet, and
his position was weakened by the fact that Great Britain was
still at war with the United States, and that public opinion at
home cared for little but the abolition of the slave trade. When
parliamentary duties called Castlereagh home in February 1815,
the duke of Wellington filled his place with adequate dignity
and statesmanship until the war broke out.
France sent Prince Talleyrand to conduct her difficult affairs.
No other man was so well fitted for the task of maintaining
the interests of a defeated country. His rare diplomatic skill
and supreme intellectual endowments were to enable him to
play a deciding part in the coming congress. All the minor
powers of Europe were represented, for all felt that their in-
terests were at stake in the coming settlement. Gathered there
also were a host of publicists, secretaries and courtiers, and
never before had Europe witnessed such a collection of rank
and talent. From the first the social side of the congress im-
pressed observers with its wealth and variety, nor did the
statesmen disdain to use the dining-table or the ballroom as
the instruments of their diplomacy.
All Europe awaited with eager expectation the results of so
great an assembly. The fate of Poland and Saxony hung in
the balance; Germany awaited an entirely new reorganization;
Italy was again ready for dismemberment; rumours went that
even the pope and the sultan might be largely affected. Some
there were who hoped that so great an opportunity would not
be lost, but that the statesmen would initiate such measures
of international disarmament as would perpetuate the blessings
of that peace wMch Europe was again enjoying after twenty
years of warfare.
It was not long, however, before the allies displayed their
intention of keeping the management of affairs entirely in their
own hands. At an informal meeting on the 22nd of September
the four great powers agreed that all subjects of general interest
were to be settled by a committee consisting of Austria, Russia,
Prussia and Great Britain together with France and Spain.
At the same time, however, it was decided by a secret protocol
that the four powers should first settle among themselves the
distribution of the conquered territories, and that France and
Spain should only be consulted when their final decision was
announced.
This was the situation which Talleyrand had to face when
he arrived on the 24th of September. His first step when he
was admitted to the European committee, which was in the
plans of the allies to act so colourless a part, was to ignore the
position of the Four and to assert that only the congress as a
whole could give the committee full powers. This would have
meant an almost indefinite delay, for how was it possible
to decide the exact rights of all the different states to a
VIENNA, CONGRESS OF
voice in affairs ? After some heated discussion a compromise
was arrived at. The opening of the congress was postponed,
and Sweden and Portugal were added to the European com-
mittee, but the Four still persisted in the informal meetings which
were to decide the important questions. Meanwhile separate
committees were formed for the discussion of special problems.
Thus a special committee was appointed consisting of the five
German powers to discuss the constitution which was to replace
the Holy Roman Empire, another to settle that of Switzerland,
and others for other minor questions. Talleyrand had, how-
ever, already shaken the position of the allies. He had posed
as the defender of the public rights of Europe and won to his
side the smaller powers and much of the public opinion of Europe,
while the allies were beginning to be regarded more in the light
of rapacious conquerors than as disinterested defenders of the
liberties of Europe.
Had the Four remained united in their views they would
still have been irresistible. But they were gradually dividing
into two unreconcilable parties upon the Saxon-Polish question.
Alexander, exaggerating the part he had played in the final
struggle, and with some vague idea of nationality in his brain,
demanded that the whole of Poland should be added to the
Russian dominions. Austria was to be compensated in Italy,
while Prussia was to receive the whole of Saxony, whose unfor-
tunate monarch had been the most faithful of Napoleon's vassals.
It was Castlereagh that led the opposition to these almost
peremptory demands of Alexander. A true disciple of Pitt,
he came to the congress with an overwhelming distrust of the
growing power of Russia, which was only second to his hatred
of revolutionary France. He considered that the equilibrium
of Europe would be irretrievably upset were the Russian
boundaries to be pushed into the heart of Germany. Thus
while willing, even anxious that Prussia should receive Saxony,
in order that she might be strong to meet the danger from the
East, he was prepared to go to any lengths to resist the claims
of Russia. For Austria Saxony was really of more vital interest
than Poland, but Castlereagh, despite a vigorous resistance
from a section of the Austrian court, was able to win Metternich
over to his views. He hoped to gain Prussia also to his side,
and by uniting the German powers to force Alexander to retire
from the position he had so uncompromisingly laid down.
With the Prussian statesmen he had some success, but he could
make no impression on Frederick William. Alexander used to
the utmost that influence over the mind of the Prussian monarch
which he had been preparing since the beginning of 1813.
Against Castlereagh he entered the lists personally, and memor-
andum after memorandum was exchanged. Despite the warning
letters of the British cabinet which, dismayed at the long con-
tinuance of the American War, counselled caution on a question
in which England had no immediate interest, Castlereagh
yielded no inch of his ground. But Metternich wavered on the
question of Saxony, and December saw the allies hopelessly
at difference. It seemed by no means unlikely that the armies
which had conquered Napoleon would soon be engaged in
conflict with one another.
It was Talleyrand's opportunity. As Castlereagh and Metter-
nich began to regard the position as hopeless they began to
look upon him as a possible ally. Talleyrand had constantly
defended the rights of France's old ally Saxony in the name
of the principle which his master Louis XVIII. represented.
His passionate appeal on behalf of " legitimacy " was par-
ticularly adapted to the necessities of the situation. Alex-
ander was driven into transports of rage by this championship
of the ancien r&gime by one who had been a servant of its
bitterest foe. But Castlereagh saw that war could only be
avoided if one party was made stronger than the other. The
reluctant consent of the British cabinet was obtained and
Talleyrand was approached as an equal. He came boldly to
the front in the middle of December as the champion of Saxony;
and, as Russia and Prussia were still obstinate, Metternich
and Castlereagh demanded the admission of France to the
secret council. This was refused, and on the 3rd of January
VIENNE
55
1815 a secret treaty of defensive alliance was signed between
France, Austria and Great Britain. For some time affairs
hung in the balance, but Alexander could not mistake the tone
of his opponents. Gradually a compromise was arranged, and
by the end of the month all danger was past. Eventually
Austria and Prussia retained most of their Polish dominions,
and the latter power only received about two-fifths of Saxony.
The rest of Poland was incorporated as a separate kingdom in
the Russian dominions with a promise of a constitution of its
own. Talleyrand had rescued France from its humiliating
position, and set it as an equal by the side of the allies. Hence-
forward he made no effort for the rights of the whole congress.
Meanwhile other affairs had been progressing more har-
moniously under the direction of special committees, which
included representatives of the powers specially interested.
Switzerland was given a constitution which led it in the direc-
tion of its later federalism. In Italy Austria retained her hold
on Lombardy and Venetia, Genoa was assigned to the kingdom
of Sardinia, while Parma went to Marie Louise, the legitimate
heir, Carlo Ludivico, having to be content with the reversion
after her death, the congress meanwhile assigning Lucca to
him as a duchy; the claims of the young Napoleon to succeed
his mother in Parma were only destroyed by the efforts of
France and England. The other petty monarchs were restored,
and Murat's rash attempt, after Napoleon's return from Elba,
to make himself king of united Italy, gave back Naples to the
Bourbons, an event which would have been brought about
in any case in the course of the next few years (see MURAT,
JOACHIM). Holland was- confirmed in the possession of
Belgium and Luxemburg, Limburg and Liege were added to her
dominions. Sweden, who had sacrificed Finland to Russia,
obtained Norway.
German affairs, however, proved too complicated for complete
solution. It was difficult enough to decide the claims of the
states in the scramble for territory. Eventually, however, by
methods of compromise, this was adjusted fairly satisfactorily.
The greater states gained largely, especially Prussia, who was
given large accessions of territory on the Rhine, partly as a
compensation for her disappointment in the matter of Saxony,
partly that she might act as a bulwark against France. Some
disputes between Baden and Bavaria remained unsettled, and
many questions arising out of the new federal constitution of
Germany, which had been hurriedly patched together under
the influence of the news of Napoleon's return, had to be post-
poned for further discussion, and were not settled until the
Final Act agreed upon by the conference of German statesmen
at Vienna in 1821.
Other more general objects, such as the free navigation of
international rivers and the regulation of the rights of precedence
among diplomatists (see DIPLOMACY), were managed with much
address. Castlereagh's great efforts were rewarded by a de-
claration that the slave trade was to be abolished, though each
power was left free to fix such a date as was most convenient
to itself. The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties,
was signed on the 9th of June 1815, a few days before the battle
of Waterloo.
Before the work of the congress was completed Napoleon
was again at Paris, and the closing stages were hurried and ill-
considered. One negotiation of supreme importance was cut
short for this reason. Castlereagh had left Vienna with the
hope that the powers would solemnly guarantee their territorial
settlement and promise to make collective war on whoever
dared to disturb it. This guarantee was to include the Otto-
man dominions, in whose interests, indeed, it had been brought
forward. Alexander made no objection provided that the
Porte would submit all outstanding claims to arbitration. The
distance of Constantinople from Vienna and the obstinacy of
the sultan would probably have prevented a settlement, but the
return of Napoleon rendered all such proposals almost absurd,
and the scheme was dropped.
Thus the congress of Vienna failed to institute any new
system for securing the stability of the European polity, nor did
it recognize those new forces of liberty and nationality which
had really caused Napoleon's downfall. Following the tradi-
tion of all preceding congresses, it was mainly a scramble for
territory and power. Territories were distributed among the
powers with no consideration for the feelings of their in-
habitants, and in general the right of the strongest prevailed.
For this reason it has often met with a condemnation that has
perhaps been unmerited. It is true that the map of Europe
shows to-day but little trace of its influence; but much of its
work was determined by conditions over which statesmen had
little control. Europe was not ready for the recognition of
nationality and liberalism. What it wanted most of all was
peace, and by establishing something like a territorial equili-
brium the congress did much to win that breathing space which
was the cardinal need of all.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The treaties and acts of the congress may be
consulted in J. L. Kliiber, Aden des Wiener Congresses (9 vols.);
Comte d'Angeberg, Le Congres de Vienne (4 vols.). British and
Foreign State Papers, vol. ii., gives some of the documents in English,
and the Final Act is found in many collections. For the diplomacy,
Wellington's Supplementary Despatches, vols. ix. and x., Castle-
reagh's Letters and Despatches, vol. x., Talleyrand's Memoirs, vols.
ii. and Hi., the works of Gentz (see GENTZ, F. VON) and the Memoirs
of Hardenberg and Czartoryski are very useful. Other records
left by contemporaries are those of Munster, D. D. de Pradt, J. de
Maistre and Gagern. The comte A. de La Garde-Chambonas,
Souvenirs du congres de Vienne (ed. with introduction and note by
Comte Floury, Paris, 1901), gives an interesting picture of the
congress from its personal and social side. Ol later works a great
many historians both of the Napoleonic era and of the I9th century
include chapters on the congress; Sorel, L' Europe et la Revolu-
tion fran$aise, vol. viii., and the various volumes of the Staaten-
Geschichte der Neuesten Zeit give much information. In English the
best account is that by Dr A. W. Ward in chs. xix. and xxi.
of vol. ix. of 'the Cambridge Modern History (1906), which gives
also a fairly complete bibliography, pp. 867-875. There is also a
list of authorities in Lavisse and Rambaud's Histoire Generale,
vol. x. (C. K. W.)
VIENNE, a river of central France, a left-hand tributary
of the Loire, watering the departments of Correze, Haute-
Vienne, Charente, Vienne and Indre-et-Loire. Length, 219 m.;
area of basin, 8286 sq. m. Rising on the plateau of Millevaches
14 m. N.W. of Ussel (department of Correze) at a height of
2789 ft., the Vienne flows westward, between the highlands
of Limousin on the south and the plateau of Gentioux and the
Blond mountains on the north. The first large town on its
banks is Limoges (Haute- Vienne), below its confluence with
the Taurion: in this part of its course the river supplies motive
power to paper-mills and other factories. The river next
reaches St Junien, below which it turns abruptly northwards
to Confolens (Charente). Flowing through a picturesque and
now wider valley, and passing in its course the churches and
chateaux of Chauvigny, the river proceeds to the confluence
of the Clain just above Chatellerault. Below that town it
receives the Creuse (rising on the plateau of Millevaches and
reaching the Vienne after a course of 159 m.), and turns north-
west, uniting with the Loire below the historic town of Chinon.
There is little river-traffic on the Vienne, and that only below
its confluence with the Creuse (30 m.).
VIENNE, a department of west-central France, formed in
1790 out of Poitou (four-fifths of its present area), Touraine
(one-seventh) and Berry, and bounded by Deux-Sevres on the
W., Charente on the S., Haute-Vienne on the S.E., Indre on
the E., Indre-et-Loire on the N.E. and N., and Maine-et-Loire
on the N.W. Pop. (1006) 333,621. Area, 2719 sq. m. The
river Vienne, which gives its name to the department, with
its tributaries the Creuse (subtributary the Gartempe) on the
east and the Clain on the west, flows from south to north. The
general slope of the department is in the same direction, the
highest point (764 ft.) being in the south-east and the lowest
(115 ft.) at the junction of the Vienne and the Creuse. In
the south the Charente, on the north-west the Dive, and in
the west some streams belonging to the basin of the Sevre-
Niortaise drain small portions of the department. The average
temperature is 54 F. The prevailing winds are from the
south-west and west. The annual rainfall is 24 in.
VIENNE VIENNE, COUNCIL OF
Wheat, oats and barley are the principal cereals cultivated,
Other important crops being lucerne, sainfoin, clover, mangel-
wurzels and potatoes. Colza and hemp are grown to a limited
extent. The district of Poitiers grows good red wine, and the white
wine of Trois-Moutiers near Loudun is well known. The breeding
of live stock in all its branches is fairly active. Poitou is famous for
its mules, and the geese and turkeys of the department are highly
esteemed. Oak, ash, alder and birch are the principal forest trees,
and among the fruit trees are the chestnut, walnut and almond.
Freestone is quarried. The most important industrial establish-
ments are the national arms manufactory at Chatellerault and the
cutlery works near that town. In other parts of the department are
wool-spinning mills, hemp-spinning mills, manufactories of serges
and coarse cloth, vinegar, candles, goose and goat skins, leather,
tiles and pottery, paper-works, breweries, distilleries, lime-kilns
and numerous flour-mills. Corn, wine, brandy, vegetables, fruit,
chestnuts, fodder, cattle, stone, cutlery, arms and dressed hides are
exported; butcher's beasts, colonial produce and coals are im-
ported. The department is served by the Ouest-Etat and Orleans
railways. Vienne forms part of the diocese of Poitiers, has its
court of appeal and educational centre at Poitiers, and belongs
to the region of the IX. army corps. The capital is Poitiers, and
the department is divided for purposes of administration into
5 arrondissements (Poitiers, Chatellerault, Civray, Loudun, Mont-
morillon), 31 cantons and 300 communes. The more noteworthy
towns are Poitiers, Chatellerault, Loudun, Montmorillon and Chau-
vigny, these .being separately treated. Other places of interest
are St Maurice, Civray and St Savin, which have Romanesque
churches, the abbey church of St Savin being remarkable for its
mural paintings; Ligug6, with an abbey church of the I5th and i6th
centuries ; Charroux, which has a Romanesque octagonal tower and
other remains of a famous abbey ; and Sanxay, near which there are
ruins of a theatre and other Gallo-Roman remains. Vienne is rich
in megalithic monuments.
VIENNE, the chief town of an arrondissement of the depart-
ment of the Isere, France. Historically the first, it is by
population (24,619 in 1901) the second city of the department
of the Isere, after Grenoble; and the third, after Valence, of
the Dauphine. It is situated on the left bank of the Rhone
just below the junction of the Gere with the Rhone, and about
20 m. by rail S. of Lyons. On the N., E. and S. the town
is sheltered by low hills, the Rhone flowing along its western
side. Its site is an immense mass of ancient debris, which is
constantly yielding interesting antiquities. On the bank of
the Gere are traces of the ramparts of the old Roman city,
and on the Mont Pipet (E. of the town) are the remains of an
amphitheatre, while the ruined castle there was built in the
i3th century on Roman substructures. Several of the ancient
aqueducts (one only is now actually in use) are still to be seen,
while in the neighbourhood of the city some bits of the old
Roman roads may still be found.
The streets of the town are narrow and tortuous, but it possesses
two Roman monuments of the first class. One is the temple of
Augusta and Livia, a rectangular building of the Corinthian order,
erected by the emperor Claudius, and inferior only to the Maison
Carree at Nimes. From the 5th century to 1793 it was a church
(Notre Dame de Vie), and the " festival of reason " was celebrated
in it at the time of the Revolution. The other, in the more modern
part of the town, is the Plan de I' Aiguille, a truncated quadrangular
pyramid about 52 ft. in height and resting on a portico with four
arches. Many theories have been advanced as to what this singular
structure really was (some imagine that it was the tomb of Pontius
Pilatus, who, according to the|legend, died at Vienne), but it is now
generally believed to have been part of the spina of a large circus,
the outlines of which have been traced. The church of St Peter
belonged to an ancient Benedictine abbey and was rebuilt in the
9th century. _ It is in the earliest Romanesque style, and forms
a basilica, with tall square piers, reminding one of Lucca, while
the two ranges of windows in the aisles, with their coupled marble
columns, recall Ravenna from within and the Basse CEuvre of
Beauvais from without. The porch is in the earliest Romanesque
style. This church has of late years been completely restored, and
since 1895 shelters the magnificent Musee Lapidaire (formerly housed
in the temple of Augusta and Livia). The former cathedral church
(pnmatial as well as metropolitan) of St Maurice contains some of
the best forms of the true N. Gothic, and was constructed at various
periods between 1052 and 1533. It is a basilica, with three aisles,
but no apse or transepts. It is 315 ft. in length, 1 18 ft. wide and 89
in height. The most striking portion is the W. front (1533), which
rises majestically from a terrace overhanging the Rhone. But the
statuary was much injured by the Protestants in 1562. The church
ot bt Andre le Bas was the church of a second Benedictine monas-
tery, and later the chapel of the earlier kings of Provence. It
was rebuilt in 1152, in the later Romanesque style. The town
library and art museum are now in the corn hall, which has been
reconstructed for that purpose. A suspension bridge leads from the
city to the right bank of the Rhone, where the industrial quarter
of Ste Colombe now occupies part of the ancient city. Here is a
tower, built in 1349 by Philip of Valois to defend the French bank
of the Rhone, as distinguished from the left bank, which, as part of
the kingdom of Provence, was dependent on the Holy Roman
Empire. This state of things is also recalled by the name of the
village, St Remain en Gal, to the N.W. of Ste Colombe.
The Gere supplies the motive power to numerous factories.
The most important are those which produce cloth (about 30
factories, turning out daily about 15,000 yds. of cloth). There are
numerous other industrial establishments (paper mills, iron foundries,
brick works, refining furnaces, &c.).
Vienne was originally the capital of the Allobroges, and
became a Roman colony about 47 B.C. under Caesar, who
embellished and fortified it. A little later these colonists were
expelled by the Allobroges; the exiles then founded the colony
of Lyons (Lugdunum). It was not till the days of Augustus
and Tiberius that Vienne regained all its former privileges as a
Roman colony. Later it became the capital of the Provincia
Viennensis. In 257 Postumus was proclaimed emperor here,
and for a few years from that day onwards Vienne was the
capital of a short-lived provincial empire. It is said to have
been converted to Christianity by Crescens, the disciple of
St Paul. Certainly there were Christians here in 177, as in the
Greek letter (preserved to us by Eusebius) addressed at that
date by the churches of Vienne and Lyons to those of Asia
and Phrygia mention is made of " the " deacon of Vienne.
The first bishop certainly known is Verus, who was present at
the Council of Aries in 314. About 450 Vienne became an
archbishopric and continued one till 1790, when the see was
suppressed. The archbishops disputed with those of Lyons
the title of " Primate of All the Gauls." Vienne was con-
quered by the Burgundians in 438, and in 534 was taken by the
Franks. Sacked in 558 by the Lombards and in 737 by the
Saracens, the government of the district was given by Charles
the Bald in 869 to a certain Count Boso, who in 879 was pro-
claimed king of Provence, and was buried on his death in 887
in the cathedral church of St Maurice. Vienne then continued
to form part of the kingdom of Provence or Aries till in 1032 it
reverted to the Holy Roman Empire. The sovereigns of that
kingdom, as well as the emperors in the I2th century (in
particular Frederick Barbarossa in 1153), recognized the rights
of the archbishops as the rulers (in the name of the emperor)
of Vienne. But the growing power of the counts of Albon,
later Dauphins of the neighbouring county of the Viennois,
was the cause of many disputes between them and the arch-
bishops. In 1349 the reigning. Dauphin sold his Dauphine
to France, but the town of Vienne was not included in this
sale, and the archbishops did not give up their rights over it to
France till 1449, when it first became French. In 1311-12
the fifteenth General Council was held at Vienne. when Clement
V. abolished the order of the Knights Templar. Vienne was
sacked in 1562 by the Protestants under the baron des Adrets,
and was held for the Ligue 1590-95, when it was taken in the
name of Henri IV. by Montmorency. The fortifications were
demolished between 1589 and 1636. In 1790 the archbishopric
was abolished, the title " Primate of All the Gauls " being
attributed to the archbishops of Lyons. Among famous natives
of Vienne may be mentioned St Julian (3rd century) and
Nicholas Chorier (1612-1692), the historian of the Dauphinfe,
while Gui de Bourgogne, who was archbishop 1090-1119, became
pope in 1119 as Calixtus II. (d. 1124).
See A. Allmer et A. de Terrebasse, Inscriptions antiques et du
moyen Age de Vienne en Dauphine (6 vpls., Vienne, 1875-76); Cl.
Charvet, Pastes de la ville de Vienne (Vienne, 1869); U. Chevalier,
Collection des Cartulaires Dauphinois, in vol. i. (Vienne, 1869),
is that of St Andr6 le Bas, and in vol. ii. (1891) a description of that
of St Maurice; N. Chorier, Recherches sur les antiquites de la ville
de Vienne (Vienne, 1658) ; E. A. Freeman, Article in the Saturday
Review for Feb. 6, 1875; F. Raymond, Le Guide Viennois (Troyes,
1897). (W. A. B. C.)
VIENNE, COUNCIL OF, an ecclesiastical council, which in
the Roman Catholic Church ranks as the fifteenth ecumenical
synod. It met from October 16, 1311,10 May 6, 1312, under
VIERGE VIETA
57
the presidency of Pope Clement V. The transference of the
Curia from Rome to Avignon (1309) had brought the papacy
under the influence of the French crown; and this position
Philip the Fair of France now endeavoured to utilize by de-
manding from the pope the dissolution of the powerful and
wealthy order of the Temple, together with the introduction
of a trial for heresy against the late Pope Boniface VIII. To
evade the second claim, Clement gave way on the first. Legal
trials and acts of violence against the Templars had begun as
early as the year 1307 (see TEMPLARS); and the principal
object of the council was to secure a definite decision on the
question of their continuance or abolition. In the committee
appointed for preliminary consultation, one section was for the
immediate condemnation of the order, and declined to allow
it any opportunity of defence, on the ground that it was now
superfluous and simply a source of strife. The majority of
the members, however, regarded the case as non-proven, and
demanded that the order should be heard on its own behalf;
while at the same time they held that its dissolution was unjustifi-
able. Under pressure from the king, who was himself present
in V'ienne, the pope determined that, as the order gave occasion
for scandal but could not be condemned as heretical by a judicial
sentence (dejure), it should be abolished per modum provision is
seu ordinalionis aposlolicae; in other words, by an administra-
tive ruling based on considerations of the general welfare.
To this procedure the council agreed, and on the 22nd of March
the order of the Temple was suppressed by the bull Vox
clamantis; while further decisions as to the treatment of the
order and its possessions followed later.
In addition to this the discussions announced in the opening
speech, regarding measures for the reformation of the Church
and the protection of her liberties, took place; and a part of
the Constitutions found in the Clementinum, published in 1317
by John XXII., were probably enacted by the council. Still
it is impossible to say with certainty what decrees were actually
passed at Vienne. Additional decisions were necessitated by
the violent disputes which raged within the Franciscan order
as to the observance of the rules of St Francis of Assisi, and
by the multitude of subordinate questions arising from this.
Resolutions were also adopted on the Beguines and their mode
of life (see BEGUINES), the control of the hospitals, the institu-
tion of instructors in Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldaic at the
universities, and on numerous details of ecclesiastical discipline
and law.
See MansS, Collectio Conciliorum, vol. xxv. ; Hefele, Concilien-
geschichte, vol. vi. pp. 532-54-
VIERGE, DANIEL (1851-1904), Spanish painter and
draughtsman, was born in Madrid in 1851. He went to Paris
in 1867 to seek his fortune, fired by the vivid energy of his
national temperament. He became attached to the Monde
illustri in 1870, just before the Franco-Prussian War broke out,
and, like other artists in the paper, came under the powerful
influence of Edmond Morin, the first newspaper draughtsman
in France who sought to impart to drawings for journals the
character of a work of art. Vierge's earlier drawings, therefore,
partake greatly of Morin 's style; such are, " The Shooting in
the Rue de la Paix," "The Place d'Armes at Versailles,"
"The Loan," "The Great School-Fte of Lyons," "Anni-
versary of the Fight of Aydes " and " Souvenir of Coulmiers."
Vierge lost no time in proving the extraordinary vigour and
picturesqueness of his art. Apart from the contribution of his
own original work, he was required by his paper to redraw upon
the wood, for the engraver, the sketches sent in by artist -corre-
spondents, such as Luc Ollivier Merson in Rome and Samuel
Urrabieta (Vierge's brother) in Spain. From 1871 to 1878
his individuality became more and more pronounced, and he
produced, among his best-known drawings, " Christmas in
Spain," " The Republican Meeting in Trafalgar Square,"
" Attack on a Train in Andalusia," " Feast of St Rosalia in
Palermo," " In the Jardin d'Acclimatation," " The Burning of
the Library of the Escurial, 1872," " Grasshoppers in Algiers,"
" Brigandage in Sicily," " Night F6te in Constantinople,"
" Episode of the Civil War in Spain," " Marriage of the
King of Spain" and "The Bull Fight." About this time
he illustrated with remarkable dash and skill Victor Hugo's
Annie terrible (Michel Levy, 1874, and Hugues, 1879), " 1813 "
(Hugues, 1877) and Les Miserable! (1882). His masterpiece
of illustration is Michelet's History of France -{1876), consist-
ing of 26 volumes containing 1000 drawings. In 1879 he was
drawing for La Vie moderne, and then proceeded to illustrate
Pablo de Segovia. While engaged upon this work he was
attacked by paralysis in the right arm, but with characteristic
energy and courage he set himself to acquire the necessary skill
in drawing with the left, and calmly proceeded with the illus-
trations to the book. In 1891 he illustrated L'Espagnole,
by Bergerat, and in 1895 Le Cabaret des trois vertus. In 1898
he held, at the Pelletan Gallery in Paris, an exhibition of his
drawings for Chateaubriand's Le Dernier Abencerage (" The
Last of the Abencerrages "), and in the following year a com-
prehensive exhibition of his work (including the illustrations
to Don Quixote) at the Art Nouveau Gallery, also in Paris. In
1898 Vierge contributed to L' Image, a magazine devoted to the
encouragement of engraving upon wood; and two years later,
at the International Exhibition at Paris, he was awarded a
grand prix. In 1902 he exhibited at the New Salon a scene
from the Franco-Prussian War. He died at Boulogne-sur-
Seine in May 1904.
See Roger Marx, L'Image (1898); B6raldi, La Cravure au iy
siecle.
VIERSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine pro-
vince, ii m. by rail S.W. from Crefeld, and at the junction of
lines to Miinchen-Gladbach, Venlo, &c. Pop. (1905) 27,577. It
has an evangelical and four Roman Catholic churches, among
the latter the handsome parish church dating from the isth
century, and various educational establishments. Viersen is
one of the chief seats in the lower Rhine country for the manu-
facture of velvets, silks (especially umbrella covers) and plush.
VIERZON, a town of central France, in the department of
Cher, 20 m. N.W. of Bourges by rail. The Cher and the Yevre
unite at the foot of the hill on which lie Vierzon-Ville (pop.
(1906) town, 11,812) and Vierzon-Village (pop. town, 2026;
commune, 9710); Vierzon-Bourgneuf (pop. town, 1482) is on
the left bank of the Cher. The town has a port on the canal of
Berry and is an important junction on the Orleans railway;
there are several large manufactories for the production of
agricultural machines, also foundries, porcelain, brick and tile
works and glass works. A technical school of mechanics and a
branch of the Bank of France are among the institutions of the
town.
VIETA (or VIETE), FRANCOIS, SEIGNEUR DE LA BIGOTIERE
(1540-1603), more generally known as FRANCISCUS VIETA,
French mathematician, was bom in 1540 at Fontenay-le-Comte,
in Poitou. According to F. Ritter, 1 Vieta was brought up as
a Catholic, and died in the same creed; but there can be no
doubt that he belonged to the Huguenots for several years.
On the completion of his studies in Ia.w at Poitiers Vieta began
his career as an advocate in his native town. This he left
about 1567, and somewhat later we find him at Rennes as a
councillor of the parlemenc of Brittany. The religious troubles
drove him thence, and Rohan, the well-known chief of the
Huguenots, took him under his special protection. He recom-
mended him in 1580 as a " maStre des requetes " (master of
requests); and Henry of Navarre, at the instance of Rohan,
addressed two letters to Henry III. of France on the 3rd of
March and the 26th of April 1585, to obtain Vieta's restoration
to his former office, but without result. After the accession of
Henry of Navarre to the throne of France, Vieta filled in 1589
the position of councillor of the parlement at Tours. He
afterwards became a royal privy councillor, and remained so
till his death, which took place suddenly at Paris in February
1603, but in what manner we do not know; Anderson, the
editor of his scientific writings, speaks only of a " praeceps et
immaturum autoris fatum."
1 Bollelino Boncompagni (Rome, 1868), vol. i. p. 227, n. I.
VIEUXTEMPS VIGEE-LEBRUN
We know of one important service rendered by Vieta as
a royal officer. While at Tours he discovered the key to a
Spanish cipher, consisting of more than 500 characters, and
thenceforward all the despatches in that language which fell
into the hands of the French could be easily read. His fame
now rests, however, entirely upon his achievements in mathe-
matics. Being a man of wealth, he printed at his own expense
the numerous papers which he wrote on various branches of
this science, and communicated them to scholars in almost every
country of Europe. An evidence of the good use he made of
his means, as well as of the kindliness of his character, is fur-
nished by the fact that he entertained as a guest for a whole
month a scientific adversary, Adriaan van Roomen, and then
paid the expenses of his journey home. Vieta's writings thus
became very quickly known; but, when Franciscus van
Schooten issued a general edition of his works in 1646, he failed
to make a complete collection, although probably nothing of
very great value has perished.
The form of Vieta's writings is their weak side. He indulged
freely in nourishes; and in devising technical terms derived from
the Greek he seems to have aimed at making them as unintelligible
as possible. None of them, in point of fact, has held its ground,
and even his proposal to denote unknown quantities by the vowels
A, E, I, o, u, Y the consonants B, c, &c., being reserved for general
known quantities has not been taken up. In this denotation
he followed, perhaps, some older contemporaries, as Ramus, who
designated the points in geometrical figures by vowels, making use
of consonants, R, s, x, &c., only when these were exhausted. Vieta
is wont to be called the father of modern algebra. This does not
mean, what is often alleged, that nobody before him had ever
thought of choosing symbols different from numerals, such as the
letters of the alphabet, to denote the quantities of arithmetic,
but that he made a general custom of what until his time had been
only an exceptional attempt. All that is wanting in his writings,
especially in his Isagoge in artem analyticam (1591), in order to
make them look like a modern school algebra, is merely the sign
of equality a want which is the more striking because Robert
Recorde had made use of our present symbol for this purpose since
'557. and Xylander had employed vertical parallel lines since 1575.
On the other hand, Vieta was well skilled in most modern artifices,
aiming at a simplification of equations by the substitution of new
quantities having a certain connexion with the primitive unknown
quantities. Another of his works, Recensio canonica effectionum
geometricarum, bears a stamp not less modern, being what we now
call an algebraic geometry in other words, a collection of precepts
how to construct algebraic expressions with the use of rule and
compass only. While these writings were generally intelligible,
and therefore of the greatest didactic importance, the principle
of homogeneity, first enunciated by Vieta, was so far in advance of
his times that most readers seem to have passed it over without
adverting to its value. That principle had been made use of by
the Greek authors of the classic age; but of later mathematicians
only Hero, Diophantus, &c., ventured to regard lines and surfaces
as mere numbers that could be joined to give a new number, their
sum. It may be that the study of such sums, which he found
in the works of Diophantus, prompted him to lay it down as a prin-
ciple that quantities occurring in an equation ought to be homo-
geneous, all of them lines, or surfaces, or solids, or supersolids
an equation between mere numbers being inadmissible. During
the three centuries that have elapsed between Vieta's day and our
own several changes of opinion have taken place on this subject,
till the principle has at last proved so far victorious that modern
mathematicians like to make homogeneous such equations as are
not so from the beginning, in order to get values of a symmetrical
shape. Vieta himself, of course, did not see so far as that; never-
theless the merit cannot be denied him of having indirectly suggested
the thought. Nor are his writings lacking in actual inventions.
He conceived methods for the general resolution of equations of the
second, third and fourth degrees different from those of Ferro and
Ferrari, with which, however, it is difficult to believe him to have
been unacquainted. He devised an approximate numerical solution
of equations of the second and third degrees, wherein Leonardo of
Pisa must have preceded him, but by a method every vestige of
which is completely lost. He knew the connexion existing between
the positive roots of an equation (which, by the way, were alone
thought of as roots) and the coefficients of the different powers of
the unknown quantity. He found out the formula for deriving
the sine of a multiple angle, knowing that of the simple angle with
due regard to the periodicity of sines. This formula must have
been known to Vieta in 1593. In that year Adriaan van Roomen
gave out as a problem _to all mathematicians an equation of the
45th degree, which, being recognized by Vieta as depending on
the equation between sin <t> and sin 0/45, was resolved by him at
once, all the twenty-three positive roots of which the said equation
was capable being given at the same time (see TRIGONOMETRY).
Such was the first encounter of the two scholars. A second took
place when Vieta pointed to Apollonius's problem of taction as not
yet being mastered, and Adriaan van Roomen gave a solution by
the hyperbola. Vieta, however, did not accept it, as there existed
a solution by means of the rule and the compass only, which he
published himself in his Apollonius Callus (1600). In this paper
Vieta made use of the centre of similitude of two circles. Lastly he
gave an infinite product for the number v (see CIRCLE, SQUARING OF).
Vieta's collected works were issued under the title of Opera
Mathematica by F. van Schooten at Leiden in 1646. (M CA )
VIEUXTEMPS, HENRI (1820-1881), Belgian violinist and
composer, was born at Venders, on the 2oth of February 1820.
Until his seventh year he was a pupil of Lecloux, but when De
Beriot heard him he adopted him as his pupil, taking him to
appear in Paris in 1828. From 1833 onwards he spent the
greater part of his life in concert tours, visiting all parts of the
world with uniform success. He first appeared in London at
a Philharmonic concert on the 2nd of June 1834, and in the
following year studied composition with Reicha in Paris, and
began to produce a long series of works, full of formidably
difficult passages, though also of pleasing themes and fine
musical ideas, which are consequently highly appreciated by
violinists. From 1846 to 1852 he was solo violinist to the tsar,
and professor in the conservatorium in St Petersburg. From
1871 to 1873 he was teacher of the violin class in the Brussels
Conservatoire, but was disabled by an attack of paralysis in the
latter year, and from that time could only superintend the
studies of favourite pupils. He died at Mustapha, in Algiers,
on the 6th of June 1881. He had a perfect command of
technique, faultless intonation and a marvellous command of
the bow. His staccato was famous all over the world, and his
tone was exceptionally rich and full.
VIGAN, a town and the capital of the province of Ilocos Sur,
Luzon, Philippine Islands, at the mouth of the Abra river,
about 200 m. N. by W. of Manila. Pop. of the municipality
(1903) 14,945; after the census of 1903 was taken there were
united to Vigan the municipalities of Bantay (pop. 7020),
San Vicente (pop. 5060), Santa Catalina (pop. 5625) and Coayan
(pop. 6201), making the total population of the municipality
38,851. Vigan is the residence of the bishop of Nueva Segovia
and has a fine cathedral, a substantial court-house, other
durable public buildings and a monument to Juan de Salcedo,
its founder. It is engaged in farming, fishing, the manufacture
of brick, tile, cotton fabrics and furniture, and the building
of boats. The language is Ilocano.
VIGlJE-LEBRUN, MARIE-ANNE ELISABETH (1755-1842),
French painter, was born in Paris, the daughter of a painter,
from whom she received her first instruction, though she bene-
fited more by the advice of Doyen, Greuze, Joseph Vernet and
other masters of the period. When only about twenty years
of age she had already risen to fame with her portraits of Count
Orloff and the duchess of Orleans, her personal charm making
her at the same time a favourite in society. In 1776 she
married the painter and art-critic J. B. P. Lebrun, and in
1783 her picture of " Peace bringing back Abundance" (now
at the Louvre) gained her the membership of the Academy.
When the Revolution broke out in 1789 she escaped first to
Italy, , where she worked at Rome and Naples. At Rome she
painted the portraits of Princesses Adelaide and Victoria, and
at Naples the " Lady Hamilton as a Bacchante " now in the
collection of Mr Tankerville Chamberlayne; and then jour-
neyed to Vienna, Berlin and St Petersburg. She returned to
Paris in 1781, but went in the following year to London, where
she painted the portraits of Lord Byron and the prince of
Wales, and in 1808 to Switzerland. Her numerous journeys,
and the vogue she enjoyed wherever she went, account for the
numerous portraits from her brush that are to be found in
the great collections of many countries. Having returned to
France from Switzerland, she lived first at her country house
near Marly and then in Paris, where she died at the age of
eighty-seven, in 1842, having been widowed for twenty-nine
years. She published her own memoirs under the title of
Souvenirs (Paris, 1835-37). Among her many sitters was
VIGEVANO VIGILANCE COMMITTEE
59
Marie Antoinette, of whom she painted over twenty portraits
between 1779 and 1789. A portrait of the artist is in the hall
of the painters at the Uffizi, and another at the National Gallery.
The Louvre owns two portraits of Mme Lebrun and her
daughter, besides five other portraits and an allegorical com-
position.
A full account of her eventful life is given in the artist's Souvenirs,
and in C. Fillet's Mme Vigee-Le Brun (Paris, 1890). The artist's
autobiography has been translated by Lionel Strachey, Memoirs
of Mme Vigee-Lebrun (New York, 1903), fully illustrated.
VIGEVANO, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy,
in the province of Pavia, on the right bank of the Ticino, 24 m.
by rail S.W. from Milan on the line to Mortara, 381 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901) 18,043 (town); 23,560 (commune).
It is a medieval walled town, with an arcaded market-place,
a cathedral, the Gothic church of S. Francesco, and a castle
of the Sforza family, dating from the I4th century and adorned
with a loggia by Bramante and a tower imitating that of
Filarete in the Castello Sforzesco at Milan. It is a place of
some importance in the silk trade and also produces excellent
macaroni. There is a steam tramway to Novara.
VfGFtiSSON. GtiDBRANDR (1828-1889), the foremost
Scandinavian scholar of the igth century, was born of a good
and old Icelandic family in BreiSaf jord in 1828. He was brought
up, till he went to a tutor's, by his kinswoman, Kristm Vigfuss-
dottir, to whom, he records, he " owed not only that he became
a man of letters, but almost everything." He was sent to the
old and famous school at Bessastad and (when it removed thither)
at Reykjavik; and in 1849, already a fair scholar, he came to
Copenhagen University as a bursarius in the Regense College.
He was, after his student course, appointed stipendiarius by
the Arna-Magnaean trustees, and worked for fourteen years in
the Arna-Magnaean Library till, as he said, he knew every
scrap of old vellum and of Icelandic written paper in that whole
collection. During his Danish life he twice revisited Iceland
(last in 1858), and made short tours in Norway and South
Germany with friends. In 1866, after some months in London,
he settled down in Oxford, which he made his home for the
rest of his life, only quitting it for visits to the great Scandi-
navian libraries or to London (to work during two or three long
vacations with his fellow-labourer, F. Y. Powell), or for short
trips to places such as the Isle of Man, the Orkneys and Shetlands,
the old mootstead of the West Saxons at Downton, the Roman
station at Pevensey, the burial-place of Bishop Brynjulf's
ill-fated son at Yarmouth, and the like. He held the office
of Reader in Scandinavian at the university of Oxford (a post
created for him) from 1884 till his death. He was a Jubilee
Doctor of Upsala, 1877, and received the Danish order of the
Dannebrog in 1885. Vigfusson died of cancer on the 3ist of
January 1889, and was buried in St Sepulchre's Cemetery,
Oxford, on the 3rd of February. He was an excellent judge
of literature, reading most European languages well and being
acquainted with their classics. His memory was remarkable,
and if the whole of the Eddie poems had been lost, he could
have written them down from memory. He spoke English
well and idiomatically, but with a strong Icelandic accent. He
wrote a beautiful, distinctive and clear hand, in spite of the
thousands of lines of MS. copying he had done in his early life.
By his Tunatdl (written between October 1854 and April 1855)
he laid the foundations for the chronology of Icelandic history, in a
series of conclusions that have not been displaced (save by his own
additions and corrections), and that justly earned the praise of
Jacob Grimm. His editions of Icelandic classics (1858-68), Biskopa
Sogur, Bardar Saga, Forn Sogur (with Mobius), Eyrbyggia Saga
and Flateyar-bok (with Unger) opened a new era of Icelandic scholar-
ship, and can only fitly be compared to the Rolls Series editions of
chronicles by Dr Stubbs for the interest and value of their prefaces
and texts. Seven years of constant and severe toil (1866-73) were
given to the Oxford Icelandic-English Dictionary, incomparably
the best guide to classic Icelandic, and a monumental example of
single-handed work. His later series of editions (1874-85) included
Orkneymga and Hdconar Saga, the great and complex mass of
Icelandic historical sagas, known as Sturlunga, and the Corpus
Poeticum Boreale, in which he edited the whole body of classic
Scandinavian poetry. As an introduction to the Sturlunga, he
wrote a complete though concise history of the classic Northern
literature and its sources. In the introduction to the Corpus, he
laid the foundations of a critical history of the Eddie poetry and
Court poetry of the North in a series of brilliant, original and well-
supported theories that are gradually being accepted even by those
who were at first inclined to reject them. His little Icelandic
Prose Reader (with F. York Powell) (1879) furnishes the English
student with a pleasant and trustworthy path to a sound knowledge
of Icelandic. The Grimm Centenary Papers (1886) give good
examples of the range of his historic work, while his Appendix
on Icelandic currency to Sir G. W. Dasent's Burnt Njal is a model
of methodical investigation into an intricate and somewhat import-
ant subject. As a writer in his own tongue he at once gained a high
position by his excellent and delightful Relations of Travel in Norway
and South Germany. In English, as his " Visit to Grimm " and his
powerful letters to The Times show, he had attained no mean skill.
His life is mainly a record of well-directed and efficient labour in
Denmark and Oxford. (F. Y. P.)
VIGIL (Lat. vigtiia, "watch"), in the Christian Church,
the eve of a festival. The use of the word is, however, late, the
vigiliae (pernoctationes, ira.vwx(Jt>K) having originally been the
services, consisting of prayers, hymns, processions and some-
times the eucharist, celebrated on the preceding night in pre-
paration for the feast. The oldest of the vigils is that of Easter
Eve, those of Pentecost and Christmas being instituted somewhat
later. With the Easter vigil the eucharist was specially asso-
ciated, and baptism with that of Pentecost (see WHITSUNDAY).
The abuses connected with nocturnal vigils 1 led to their being
attacked, especially by Vigilentius of Barcelona (c. 400), against
whom Jerome fulminated in this as in other matters. The
custom, however, increased, vigils being instituted for the
other festivals, including those of saints.
In the middle ages the nocturnal vigtiia were, except in the
monasteries, gradually discontinued, matins and vespers on
the preceding day, with fasting, taking their place. In the
Roman Catholic Church the vigil is now usually celebrated
on the morning of the day preceding the festival, except at
Christmas, when a midnight mass is celebrated, and on Easter
Eve. These vigils are further distinguished as privileged and
unprivileged. The former (except that of the Epiphany) have
special offices; in the latter the vigil is merely commemorated.
The Church of England has reverted to early custom in so
fa.r as only " Easter Even " is distinguished by a special collect,
gospel and epistle. The other vigils are recognized in the
calendar (including those of the saints) and the rubric directs
that " the collect appointed for any Holy-day that hath a
Vigil or Eve, shall be said at the Evening Service next before."
VIGILANCE COMMITTEE, in the United States, a self-
constituted judicial body, occasionally organized in the western
frontier districts for the protection of life and property. The
first committee of prominence bearing the name was organized
in San Francisco in June 1851, when the crimes of desperadoes
who had immigrated to the gold-fields were rapidly increasing
in numbers and it was said that there were venal judges, packed
juries and false witnesses. At first this committee was com-
posed of about 200 members; afterwards it was much larger.
The general committee was governed by an executive committee
and the city was policed by sub-committees. Within about
thirty days four desperadoes were arrested, tried by the execu-
tive committee and hanged, and about thirty others were
banished. Satisfied with the results, the committee then
quietly adjourned, but it was revived five years later. Similar
committees were common in other parts of California and in
the mining districts of Idaho and Montana. That in Montana
exterminated in 1863-64 a band of outlaws organized under
Henry Plummer, the sheriff of Montana City, twenty-four of
the outlaws were hanged within a few months. Committees
or societies of somewhat the same nature were formed in the
Southern states during the Reconstruction period (1865-72)
to protect white families from negroes and " carpet-baggers,"
and besides these there were the Ku-Klux-Klan (q.v.) and its
branches; the Knights of the White Camelia, the Pale Faces, and
the Invisible Empire of the South, the principal object of which
was to control the negroes by striking them with terror.
1 The 35th canon of the council of Elvira (305) forbids women to
attend them.
6o
VIGILANTIUS VIGLIUS
See H. H. Bancroft, Popular Tribunals (2 vols., San Francisco,
1887); and T. J. Dimsdale, The Vigilantes of Montana (Virginia
City, 1866).
VIGiLANTIUS (fl. c. 400), the presbyter, celebrated as the
author of a work, no longer extant, against superstitious prac-
tices, which called forth one of the most violent and scurrilous
of Jerome's polemical treatises, was born about 370 at Cala-
gurris in Aquitania (the modern Cazeres or perhaps Saint
Bertrand de Comminges in the department of Haute-Garonne) ,
where his father kept a " static " or inn on the great Roman
road from Aquitania to Spain. While still a youth his talent
became known to Sulpicius Severus, who had estates in that
neighbourhood, and in 395 Sulpicius, who probably baptized
him, sent him with letters to Paulinus of Nola, where he met
with a friendly reception. On his return to Severus in Gaul
he was ordained; and, having soon afterwards inherited means
through the death of his father, he set out for Palestine, where
he was received with great respect by Jerome at Bethlehem.
The stay of Vigilantius lasted for some time; but, as was almost
inevitable, he was dragged into the dispute then raging about
Origen, in which he did not see fit wholly to adopt Jerome's
attitude. On his return to the West he was the bearer of a
letter from Jerome to Paulinus, and at various places where
he stopped on the way he appears to have expressed himself
about Jerome in a manner that when reported gave great
offence to that father, and provoked him to write a reply
(Ep. 61). Vigilantius -now settled for some time in Gaul, and
is said by one authority (Gennadius) to have afterwards held
a charge in the diocese of Barcelona. About 403, some years
after his return from the East, Vigilantius wrote his celebrated
work against superstitious practices, in which he argued against
relic worship, as also against the vigils in the basilicas of the
martyrs, then so common, the sending of alms to Jerusalem,
the rejection of earthly goods and the attribution of special
virtue to the unmarried state, especially in the case of the clergy.
He thus covers a wider range than Jovinian, whom he surpasses
also in intensity. He was especially indignant at the way in
which spiritual worship was being ousted by the adoration
of saints and their relics. All that is known of his work is
through Jerome's treatise Contra Vigilantiwn, or, as that contro-
versialist would seem to prefer saying, " Contra Dormitantium."
Notwithstanding Jerome's exceedingly unfavourable opinion,
there is no reason to believe that the tract of Vigilantius was
exceptionally illiterate, or that the views it advocated were
exceedingly "heretical." Soon, however, the great influence
of Jerome in the Western Church caused its leaders to espouse
all his quarrels, and Vigilantius gradually came to be ranked
hi popular opinion among heretics, though his influence long
remained potent both in France and Spain, as is proved by the
polemical tract of Faustus of Rhegium (d. c. 490).
VIGILIUS, pope from 537 to 555, succeeded Silverius and
was followed by Pelagius I. He was ordained by order of
Belisarius while Silverius was still alive; his elevation was
due to Theodora, who, by an appeal at once to his ambition
and, it is said, to his covetousness, had induced him to promise
to disallow the council of Chalcedon, in connexion with the
" three chapters " controversy. When, however, the time
came for the fulfilment of his bargain, Vigilius declined to
give his assent to the condemnation of that council involved
in the imperial edict against the three chapters, and for this
act of disobedience he was peremptorily summoned to Con-
stantinople, which he reached in 547. Shortly after his arrival
there he issued a document known to history as his Judicalum
(548), in which he condemned indeed the three chapters, but
expressly disavowed any intentions thereby to disparage the
council of Chalcedon. After a good deal of trimming (for he
desired to stand well with his own clergy, who were strongly
orthodox, as well as with the court), he prepared another docu-
ment, the Constitutum ad Imperatorem, which was laid before
the so-called fifth " oecumenical " council in 553, and led to.
his condemnation by the majority of that body, some say
even to his banishment. Ultimately, however, he was induced
to assent to and confirm the decrees of the council, and was
allowed after an enforced absence of seven years to set out for
Rome. He died, however, at Syracuse, before he reached
his destination, on the 7th of June 553.
VIGINTISEXVIRI, in Roman history, the collective name
given in republican times to " twenty-six " magistrates of in-
ferior rank. They were divided into six boards, two of which
were abolished by Augustus. Their number was thereby
reduced to twenty and their name altered to VIGINTIVIRI
(" the twenty "). They were originally nominated by the
higher magistrates, but subsequently elected in a body at a
single sitting of the comitia tributa; under the empire they were
chosen by the senate. The following are the names of the
six boards: (i) Tresviri capitales (see TRESVIRI); (2) Tresviri
monetales; (3) Quatuorviri viis in urbe purgandis, who had the
care of the streets and roads inside the city; (4) Duoi'iri viis
extra urbem purgandis (see DUOVIRI), abolished by Augustus;
(5) Decemviri stlitibus judicandis (see DECEMVIRI); (6) Quatuor
praefecti Capuam Cumas, abolished by Augustus. The members
of the last-named board were appointed by the praetor urbanus
of Rome to administer justice in ten Campanian towns (list
in Mommsen), and received their name from the two most
important of these. They were subsequently elected by the
people under the title of quatuorviri jure dicundo, but the date
is not known.
See Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, ii. (1887), p. 592.
VIGLIUS, the name taken by WIGLE VAN AYTTA VAN ZTHCHEM
(1507-1577), Dutch statesman and jurist, a Frisian by birth,
who was born on the igth of October 1507. He studied at
various universities Louvain, Dole and Bourges among others
devoting himself mainly to the study of jurisprudence, and after-
wards visited many of the principal seats of learning in Europe.
His great abilities attracted the notice of Erasmus and other
celebrated men, and his renown was soon wide and general.
Having lectured on law at the universities of Bourges and
Padua, he accepted a judicial position under the bishop of
Miinster which he resigned in 1535 to become assessor of the
imperial court of justice (ReichskammergerichC). He would
not, however, undertake the post of tutor to Philip, son of the
emperor Charles V.; nor would he accept any of the many
lucrative and honourable positions offered him by various
European princes, preferring instead to remain at the uni-
versity of Ingolstadt, where for five years he occupied a pro-
fessorial chair. In 1542 the official connexion of Viglius with
the Netherlands began. At the emperor's invitation he became
a member of the council of Mechlin, and some years later
president of that body. Other responsible positions were
entrusted to him, and he was soon one of the most trusted of the
ministers of Charles V., whom he accompanied during the war
of the league of Schmalkalden in 1546. His rapid rise in the
emperor's favour was probably due to his immense store of
learning, which was useful in asserting the imperial rights where
disputes arose between the empire and the estates. He was
generally regarded as the author of the edict against toleration
issued in 1550; a charge which he denied, maintaining, on
the contrary, that he had vainly tried to induce Charles to
modify its rigour. When the emperor abdicated in 1555
Viglius was anxious to retire also, but at the instance of King
Philip II. he remained at his post and was rewarded by being
made coadjutor abbot of St Bavon, and hi other ways. In
1559, when Margaret, duchess of Parma, became regent of the
Netherlands, Viglius was an important member of the small
circle who assisted her in the work of government. He was
president of the privy council, member, and subsequently
president, of the state council, and a member of the committee
of the state council called the consulta. But his desire to resign
soon returned. In 1565 he was allowed to give up the presi-
dency of the state council, but was persuaded to retain his
other posts. However, he had lost favour with Margaret, who
accused him to Philip of dishonesty and simony, while his ortho-
doxy was suspected. When the duke of Alva arrived in the
Netherlands Viglius at first assisted him; but he subsequently
VIGNE VIGNY
61
opposed the duke's scheme of extortion, and sought to induce
Philip himself to visit the Low Countries. His health was
now impaired and his work was nearly over. Having suffered
a short imprisonment with the other members of the state
council in 1576, he died at Brussels on the sth of May 1577,
and was buried in the abbey of St Bavon.
Viglius was an advocate of peace and moderation, and as
such could not expect support or sympathy from men engaged
in a life-and-death struggle for liberty, or from their relentless
enemies. He was undoubtedly avaricious, and accumulated
great wealth, part of which he left to found a hospital at
his native place, Zwichem, and a college at the university of
Louvain. He married a rich lady, (Jacqueline Damant, but
had no children.
He wrote a Tagebuch des Schmalkaldischen Donaukriegs, edited
by A. von Druffel (Munich, 1877), and some of his lectures were
published under the title Commentarii in decent Institulionum
tilulos (Lyons, 1564). His Vita et opera historica are given in the
AnalectaBelgicaolC. P. Hoynck van Papendrecht (the Hague, 1743).
See L. P. Gachard, Carres pondance de Philippe II. sur les affaires
des Pays-Bas (Brussels, 1848-79) ; and Correspondance de Marguerite
d'Autriche, duchesse de Parme, avec Philippe II. (Brussels, 1867-81) ;
and E. Poullet, Correspondance de cardinal de GranveUe (Brussels,
1877-81).
VIGNE, PAUL DE (1843-1901), Belgian sculptor, was born
at Ghent. He was trained by his father, a statuary, and
began by exhibiting his " Fra Angelico da Fiesole " at the
Ghent Salon in 1868. In 1872 he exhibited at the Brussels
Salon a marble statue, " Heliotrope " (Ghent Gallery), and in
1875, at Brussels, " Beatrix " and " Domenica." He was
employed by the government to execute caryatides for the
conservatoire at Brussels. In 1876 at the Antwerp Salon he
had busts of E. Hiel and W. Wilson, which were afterwards
placed in the communal museum at Brussels. Until 1882 he
lived in Paris, where he produced the marble statue " Immor-
tality " (Brussels Gallery), and " The Crowning of Art," a
bronze group on the facade of the Palais des Beaux-Arts at
Brussels. His monument to the popular heroes, Jean Breydel
and Pierre de Coninck, was unveiled at Bruges in 1887. At his
death he left unfinished his principal work, the Anspach monu-
ment, which was erected at Brussels under the direction of the
architect Janlet with the co-operation of various sculptors.
Among other notable works by De Vigne may be mentioned
" Volumnia " (1875); " Poverella " (1878); a bronze bust of
" Psyche " (Brussels Gallery), of which there is an ivory replica;
the marble statue of Marnix de Ste Aldegonde in the Square du
Sablon, Brussels; the Metdepenningen monument in the cemetery
at Ghent; and the monument to Canon de Haerne at Courtrai.
See E. L. Detage, Les Artistes Beiges contemporains (Brussels),
and O. G. Destree, The Renaissance of Sculpture in Belgium (London,
1895).
VIGNETTE (Fr. for " little vine "), in architecture, a running
ornament, representing, as its name imports, a little vine,
with branches, leaves and grapes. It is common in the Tudor
period, and runs or roves in a large hollow or casement. It is
also called trayle. From the transference of the term to book-
illustration resulted the sense of a small picture, 'vanishing
gradually at the edge.
VIGNY, ALFRED DE (1797-1863), French poet, was born at
Loches (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of March 1797. Sainte-
Beuve, in the rather ill-natured essay which he devoted to
Vigny after his death, expresses a doubt whether the title of
count which the poet bore was well authenticated, and hints
that no very ancient proofs of the nobility of the family were
forthcoming; but it is certain that in the i8th century persons
of the name occupied positions which were not open to any
but men of noble birth. For generations the ancestors of
Alfred de Vigny had been soldiers, and he himself joined the
army, with a commission in the Household Troops, at the
age of sixteen. But the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars
were over, and after twelve years of life in barracks he retired,
preserving, however, a very high estimate of the duties and
career of the soldier. While still serving he had made his
mark, if as yet unrecognized, by the publication in 1822 of a
volume of poems, and in 1826 by another, together with the
famous prose romance of Cinq-Mars. Sainte-Beuve asserts
that the poet antedated some of his most remarkable work.
This may or may not be the case; he certainly could not ante-
date the publication. And it so happens that some of his most
celebrated pieces Eloa, Dolorida, Mdise appeared (1822-23)
before the work of younger members of the Romantic school
whose productions strongly resemble these poems. Nor is this
originality limited to the point which he himself claimed in
the Preface to his collected Poems in 1837 that they were
" the first of their kind in France, in which philosophic thought
is clothed in epic or dramatic form." Indeed this claim is
disputable in itself, and has misled not a few of Vigny's recent
critics. It is in poetic, not philosophic quality, that his idiosyn-
crasy and precursorship are most remarkable. It is quite
certain that the other Alfred Alfred de Mussel felt the
influence of his elder namesake, and an impartial critic might
discern no insignificant marks of the same effect in the work
of Hugo himself. Even Lamartme, considerably Vigny's elder
and his predecessor in poetry, seems rather to have been
guided by Vigny than Vigny by him. No one can read Dolo-
rida or Le Cor without seeing that the author had little to
learn from any of his French contemporaries and much
to teach them. At the same time Vigny, from whatever cause,
hardly made any further public appearance in poetry- proper
during the more than thirty years of his life, and his entire
poems, including posthumous fragments, form but one very
small pocket volume. Cinq-Mars, which at least equalled the
poems in popularity, will hardly stand the judgment of posterity
so well. It had in its favour the support of the Royalist party,
the immense vogue of the novels t>f Walter Scott, on which
it was evidently modelled, the advantages of an exquisite style,
and the taste of the day for the romance as opposed to the novel
of analysis. It therefore gained a great name both in France
and abroad. But any one who has read it critically must
acknowledge it to be disappointing. The action is said to be
dramatic; if it be so, it can only be said that this proves very
conclusively that the action of drama and the action of the
novel are two quite different things. To the reader who knows
Scott or Dumas the story is singularly uninteresting (far less
interesting than as told in history); the characters want life;
and the book generally stagnates.
Its author, though always as a kind of outsider (the phrase
constantly applied to him in French literary essays and histories
being that he shut himself up in a tour d'ivoire), attached
himself more or less to the Romantic movement of 1830 and
the years immediately preceding and following it, and was
stimulated by this movement both to drama and to novel-
writing. In the year before the revolution of July he pro-
duced at the Thdatre Francais a translation, or rather
paraphrase, of Othello, and an original piece, La Martchale
d'Ancre. In 1832 he published the curious book Stfllo, contain-
ing studies of unlucky youthful poets Gilbert, Chatterton,
Chenier and in 1835 he brought out his drama of Chatterton,
which, by the hero's suicide, shocked French taste even after
five years of Romantic education, but had a considerable success.
The same year saw the publication of Servitude et grandeur
militaires, a singular collection of sketches rather than a con-
nected work in which Vigny's military experience, his idea of
the soldier's duties, and his rather poetical views of history
were all worked in. The subjects of Chatlerton and Othello
naturally suggest a certain familiarity with English, and in
fact Alfred de Vigny knew English well, lived in England for
some time and married in 1828 an Englishwoman, Lydia
Bunbury. His father-in-law was, according to French gossip,
so conspicuous an example of insular eccentricity that he never
could remember his son-in-law's name or anything about him,
except that he was a poet. By this fact, and the kindness
of casual Frenchmen who went through the list of the chief
living poets of their country, he was sometimes able to dis-
cover his daughter's husband's designation. In 1845 Alfred de
VIGO VIKING
Vigny was elected to the Academy, but made no compromise
in his " discourse of reception," which was unflinchingly
Romantic. Still, he produced nothing save a few scraps;
and, beyond the work already enumerated, little has to be
added except his Journal d'un poete and the poems called Les
Destinies, edited, with a few fragments, by Louis Ratisbonne
after his death. Among his dramatic work, however, should
be mentioned Qutite pour la peur and an adaptation of the
Merchant of Venice called Shylock. Les Deslinees excited no
great admiration in France, but they contain some exceedingly
beautiful poetry of an austere kind, such as the magnificent
speech of Nature in " La Maison du berger " and the remarkable
poem entitled " La Colere de Samson." Vigny died at Paris
on the 1 7th of September 1863.
His later life was almost wholly uneventful, and for the most part,
as has been said, spent in retirement. His reputation, however, is
perfectly secure. It may, and probably will, rest only on his small
volume of poems, though it will not be lessened, as far as qualified
literary criticism is concerned, should the reader proceed to the rest
of the work. The whole of his non-dramatic verse does not amount
to 5000 lines; it may be a good deal less. But the range of subject
is comparatively wide, and extraordinary felicity of execution, not
merely in language, but in thought, is evident throughout. Vigny,
as may be seen in the speech of Nature referred to above, had the
secret very uncommon with French poets of attaining solemnity
without grandiosity, by means of an almost classical precision and
gravity of form. The defect of volubility, of never leaving off, which
mars to some extent his great contemporary Hugo, is never present
in him, and he is equally free from the looseness and disorders of
form which are sometimes blemishes in Musset, and from the
effeminacy of Lamartine, while once more his nobility of thought and
plentifulness of matter save him from the reproach which has been
thought to rest on the technically perfect work of Theophile Gautier.
The dramatic work is, perhaps, less likely to interest English than
French readers, the local colour of Chatterton being entirely false,
the sentiment conventional in the extreme, and the real pathos of
the story exchanged for a commonplace devotion on the poet's part
to his host's wife. In the same way, the finest passages of Othello
simply disappear in Vigny's version. In his remaining works the
defect of skill in managing the plot and characters of prose fiction,
which has been noticed in Cinq-Mars, reappears, together (in the
case of the Journal d'un poete and elsewhere) with signs of the
fastidious and slightly affected temper which was Vigny's chief fault
as a man. In his poems proper none of these faults appears, and
he is seen wholly at his best. It should be said that of his posthu-
mous work not a little had previously appeared piecemeal in the
Revue des deux mondes, to which he was an occasional contributor.
The prettiest of the complete editions of his works (of which there are
several)is to be found in what is called thePetite bibliothequeCharpentier.
For many years the critical attention paid to him was not great.
Recently there has been a revival of interest as shown by mono-
graphs: M. Paleologue's " Alfred de Vigny " in the Grands ecrivains
francflis (180,1); L. Dorison's Alfred de Vigny, poete-philosophe
(1892) and Un symbole social (1894); G. Asse's Alfred de Vigny et
les editions originates de sa poesie (1895); E. Dupuy's La Jeunesse
des Romantiques (1905); and E. Lauvriere's Alfred de Vigny (Paris,
1910). But in most of these rather excessive attention has been
paid to the " philosophy " of a pessimistic kind which succeeded
Vigny's early Christian Romanticism. This, though not unnote-
worthy, is separable from his real poetical quality, and concentra-
tion on it rather obscures the latter, which is of the rarest kind.
It should be added that an interesting sidelight has been thrown on
Vigny by the publication (1905) of his Fragments inedits sur P. et T.
Corneille. (G. SA.)
VIGO, a seaport and naval station of north-western Spain, in
the province of Pontevedra; on Vigo Bay (Ria de Vigo) and
on a branch of the railway from Tuy to Corunna. Pop. (1900)
23,259. Vigo Bay, one of the finest of the Galician fjords,
extends inland for 19 m., and is sheltered by low mountains and
by the islands (Islas de Cies, ancient Insulae Siccae) at its
mouth. The town is built on the south-eastern shore, and
occupies a hilly site dominated by two obsolete forts. The
older streets are steep, narrow and tortuous, but there is also
a large modern quarter. Vigo owes its importance to its
deep and spacious harbour, and to its fisheries. It is a port
of call for many lines trading between Western Europe and
South America. Shipbuilding is carried on, and large quanti-
ties of sardines are canned for export. In 1909, 2041 ships
of 2,710,691 tons (1,153,564 being British) entered at Vigo;
the imports in that year, including tin and tinplate, coal,
machinery, cement, sulphate of copper and foodstuffs, were
valued at 481,752; the exports, including sardines, mineral
waters and eggs, were valued at 554,824. The town contains
flour, paper and sawmills, sugar and petroleum refineries,
tanneries, distilleries and soap works; it has also a large agri-
cultural trade and is visited in summer for sea-bathing.
Vigo was attacked by Sir Francis Drake in 1585 and 1589.
In 1702 a combined British and Dutch fleet under Sir George
Rooke and the duke of Ormonde destroyed a Franco-Spanish
fleet in the bay, and captured treasure to the value of about
1,000,000; numerous attempts have been made to recover
the larger quantity of treasure which was supposed, on doubtful
evidence, to have been sunk during the battle. In 1719 Vigo
was captured by the British under Viscount Cobham.
VIJAYANAGAR, or BIJANAGAR ("the city of victory"),
an ancient Hindu kingdom and ruined city of southern India.
The kingdom lasted from about 1336 to 1565, forming during
all that period a bulwark against Mahommedan invasion from
the north. Its foundation, and even great part of its history,
is obscure; but its power and wealth are attested by more
than one European traveller, and also by the character of
the existing ruins. At the beginning of the I4th century
Mahommedan raiders had effectually destroyed every Hindu
principality throughout southern India, but did not attempt
to occupy the country permanently. In this state of desolation
Hindu nationality rose again under two brothers, named
Harihara and Bukka, of whom little more can be said than
that they were Kanarese by race. Hence their kingdom was
afterwards known as the Carnatic. At its widest extent, it
stretched across the peninsula from sea to sea, from Masulipatam
to Goa; and every Hindu prince in the south acknowledged
its supremacy. The site of the capital was chosen, with
strategic skill, on the right bank of the river Tungabhadra,
which here runs through a rocky gorge. Within thirty years
the Hindu Rayas of Vijayanagar were able to hold their own
against the Bahmani sultans, who had now established their
independence of Delhi in the Deccan proper. Warfare with
the Mahommedans across the border in the Raichur doab was
carried on almost unceasingly, and with varying result. Two,
or possibly three, different dynasties are believed to have
occupied the throne of Vijayanagar as time went on; and
its final downfall may be ascribed to the domestic dissensions
thus produced. This occurred in 1565, when the confederate
sultans of Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golconda, who had
divided amongst themselves the Bahmani dominions, over-
whelmed the Vijayanagar army in the plain of Talikota, and
sacked the defenceless city. The Raya fled south to Penukonda,
and later to Chandragiri, where one of his descendants granted
to the English the site of Fort St George or Madras. The city
has ever since remained a wilderness of immense ruins, which
are now conserved by the British government.
See R. Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (1900) ; and B. S. Row, History
of Vijayanagar (Madras, 1906).
VIKING. The word " Viking," in the sense in which it is
used to-day, is derived from the Icelandic (Old Norse) Vikingr
(m.), signifying simply a sea-rover or pirate. There is also in
Icelandic the allied word viking (f.), a predatory voyage. As a
loan-word viking occurs in A.S. poetry (vicing or wiring), e.g.
in Widsilh, Byrnoth, Exodus. During the Saga Age (900-1050),
in the beginning of Norse literature, vikingr is not as a rule
used to designate any class of men. Almost every young
Icelander of sufficient means and position, and a very large
number of young Norsemen, made one or more viking expedi-
tions. We read of such a one that he went "a-viking" (fara i
viking, vera i viking, or very often fara, &c., vestan i viking).
The procedure was almost a recognized part of education, and
was analogous to the grand tour made by our great-grandfathers
in the i8th century. But the use of vtkingr in a more generic
sense is still to be found in the Saga Age. If the designation
of this or that personage as mikill vtkingr or rauda vikingr (red
viking) be not reckoned an instance of such use, we have it at
all events in the name of a small quasi-nationality, the Jomsvi-
kingar, settled at Jomsborg on the Baltic (in modern Pomerania),
VIKING
to whom a saga is dedicated: who possessed rather peculiar
institutions evidently the relic of what is now called the Viking
Age, that preceded the Saga Age by a century. Another
instance of such more generic use occurs in the following
typical passage from the Landnamabik (Sturlab6k), where
it is recorded how Harald Fairhair harried the vikings of the
Scottish isles that famous harrying which led to most of the
settlement of Iceland and the birth of Icelandic literature:
" Haraldr en harfari herjaSi vestr am haf . . . Hann lagfli
" undir sig allar Sudreyjar. ... En er hann f6r vestann slogust
" i eyjernar vikingar ok Skotar ok Irar ok herjuftu ok raentu
" (Landn., ed. Jonsson, 1906, p. 135).
It is in this more generic sense that the word " viking " is
now generally employed. Historians of the north have dis-
tinguished as the " Viking Age " ( Vikingertiden) the time when
he Scandinavian folk first by their widespread piracies brought
hemselves forcibly into the notice of all the Christian peoples
oi western Europe. We cannot to-day determine the exact
3mcs or provenance of these freebooters, who were a terror
Jike to the Prankish empire, to England and to Ireland and
vest Scotland, who only came into view when their ships
nchored in some Christian harbour, and who were called now
Normanni, now Dacii, now Danes, now Lochlannoch; which
last, the Irish name for them, though etymologically " men
of the lakes or bays," might as well be translated " Norsemen,"
seeing that Lochlann was the Irish for Norway. The exact
etymology of vlkingr itself is not certain: for we do not know
vhether vik is used in a general sense (bay, harbour) in this
onnexion, or in a particular sense as the Vik, the Skagerrack
and Christiania Fjord. The reason for using " viking " in a
more generic sense than is warranted by the actual employ-
ment of the word in Old Norse literature rests on the fact that
we have no other word by which to designate the early Scandi-
navian pirates of the pth and the beginning of the loth century.
We cannot tell for the most part whether they came from
Denmark or Norway, so that we cannot give them a national
ame. " Normanner " is used by some Scandinavian writers
(as by Steenstrup in his classical work Normannerne). But
" Normans " has for us quite different associations. And
even those who have preferred not generally to use the word
" vikings " to designate the pirates and invaders, have adhered
to the term " Viking Age " for the period in which they were
most active (cf. Munch, Del Norske Folks Historic, Deel I.
Bd. i. p. 356; Steenstrup and others, Danmarks Riges Historic,
bk. ii. &c.). At the same time, the significance which the
word " viking " has had in our language is due in part to a false
etymology, connecting the word with "king"; the effect of
which still remains in the customary pronunciation vi-king
instead of vik-ing, now so much embedded in the language
that it is a pedantry to try and change it.
We may fairly reckon the " Viking Age " to lie between the
date of the first recorded appearance of a northern pirate
fleet (A.D. 789) and the settlement of the Normans in Normandy
by the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte, A.D. 911 or 91 2. l For a
few years previous to that date our chief authority for the
history of the piracies and raids in the Prankish empire fails
us: 2 we know that the Norsemen had a few years before that
date been driven in great numbers out of Ireland ; and England
had been in a sense pacified through the concession of a great
part of the island to the invaders by the peace of Wedmore,
A.D. 878. Although, outside the information we get from
Christian chroniclers, this age is for the people of the north
one of complete obscurity, it is evident that the Viking Age
corresponds with some universal disturbance or unrest among
the Scandinavian nations, strictly analogous to the unrest
among more southern Teutonic nations which many centuries
before had heralded the break-up of the Roman empire, an
epoch known as that of the Folk-wanderings (Volkenvander-
ungen). We judge this because we can dimly see that the
1 W. Vogel gives the former date; 912 is that more commonly
accepted.
1 The Annales Vedastini.
impulse which was driving part of the Norse and Danish peoples
to piracies in the west was also driving the Swedes and perhaps
a portion of the Danes to eastward invasion, which resulted
in the establishment of a Scandinavian kingdom (GarSariki)
in what is now Russia, with its capital first at Novgorod, after-
wards at Kiev. 8 This was, in fact, the germ of the Russian
empire. If we could know the Viking Age from the other,
the Scandinavian side, it would doubtless present far more
interest than in the form in which the Christian chroniclers
present it. But from knowledge of this sort we are almost
wholly cut off. We have to content ourselves with what is
for the greater part of this age a mere catalogue of embarka-
tions and plunderings along all the coasts of western Europe
without distinctive characteristics.
The Viking Raids. The detail of these raids is quite beyond
the compass of the present article, and a summary or synopsis
must suffice. For all record which we have, the Viking Age
was inaugurated in A.D. 789 by the appearance in England
on our Dorset coast of three pirate ships " from Haerethaland "
(Hardeland or Hardyssel in Denmark or Hordeland in Norway),
which are said in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to be " the first
ships of the Danish men " who sought the land of England.
They killed the port-reeve, took some booty and sailed away.
Other pirates appeared in 793 on a different coast, Northumbria,
attacked a monastery on Lindisfarne (Holy Island), slaying
and capturing the monks; the following year they attacked
and burnt Jarrow; after that they were caught in a storm,
and all perished by shipwreck or at the hands of the country-
men. In 795 a fleet appeared off Glamorganshire. They
attacked Man in 798 and lona in 802. But after this date for
the lifetime of a generation the chief scene of viking exploits
was Ireland, and probably the western coasts and islands of
Scotland.
The usual course of procedure among the northern adven-
turers remains the same to whatever land they may direct
their attacks, or during whatever years of the 9th century these
attacks may fall. They begin by more or less desultory raids,
in the course of which they seize upon some island, which they
generally use as an arsenal or point d'appui for attacks on the
mainland. At first the raids are made in the summer: the
first wintering in any new scene of plunder forms an epoch so
far as that country or region is concerned. Almost always
for a period all power of resistance on the part of the inhabitants
seems after a while and for a limited time to break down, and
the plunderers to have free course wherever they go. Then
they show an ambition to settle in the country, and some sort
of division of territory takes place. After that the northerners
assimilate themselves more or less to the other inhabitants of
the country, and their history merges to a less or greater extent
in that of the country at large. This course is followed in the
history of the viking attacks on Ireland, the earliest of their
continuous series of attacks. Thus they begin by seizing the
island of Rechru (now Lambay) in Dublin Bay (A.D. 795); in
the course of about twenty years we have notice of them on
the northern, western and southern coasts; by A.D. 825 they
have already ventured raids to a considerable distance inland.
And in A.D. 832 comes a large fleet (" a great royal fleet." say
the Irish annals) of which the admiral's name is given, Turgesius
(Thorgeis or Thorgisl?). The new invader, though with a
somewhat chequered course, extended his conquests till in
A.D. 842 one-half of Ireland (called Lethcuinn, or Con's Half)
seems to have submitted to him; and we have the curious
picture of Turgesius establishing his wife Ota as a sort of volva,
or priestess, in what had been one of Ireland's most famous
and most literary monasteries, Clonmacnoise. Turgesius was,
however, killed very soon after this (in 845); and though in
A.D. 853 Olaf the White was over-king of Ireland, the vikings'
power on the whole diminished. In the end, territory was
if by no formal treaty ceded to their influence; and the
(Irish) kingdoms of Dublin and Waterford were established on
the island.
1 The word garVr (fort) is preserved in the " gorod " of Novgorod.
6 4
VIKING
This brief sketch may be taken as the prototype of viking
invasion of any region of western Christendom which was the
object of their continuous attacks. Of such regions we may
distinguish five. Almost simultaneously with the attacks on
Ireland came others, probably also from Norway, on the western
regions (coasts and islands) of Scotland. Plunderings of lona
are mentioned in A.D. 802, 806. In the course of a genera-
tion almost all the monastic communities in western Scotland
had been destroyed. But details of these viking plunderings
are wanting. On the continent there were three distinct
regions of attack. First the mouth of the Scheldt. There
the Danes very early settled on the island of Walcheren, which
bad in fact been given by the emperor Louis the Pious in fief
to a Danish fugitive king, Harald by name, who sought the
help of Louis, and adopted Christianity. After the partition
of the territory of Charlemagne's empire among the sons of
Louis the Pious, Walcheren and the Scheldt-mouth fell within
the possessions of the emperor Lothair, and in the region sub-
sequently distinguished as Lotharingia. From this centre,
the Scheldt, the viking raids extended on either side; some-
times eastward as far as the Rhine, and so into Germany
proper, the territory assigned to Louis the German; at other
times westward to the Somme, and thus into the territory
of Charles the Bald, the future kingdom of France. In the event,
toward the end of the Qth century all Frisia between Walcheren
and the German Ocean seems to have become the permanent
possession of the invaders. In like fashion was it with the
next district, that of the Seine, only that here no important
island served the pirates for their first arsenal and winter
quarters. The serious attacks of the pirates in any part of the
empire distant from their own lands begin about the time of
the battle of Fontenoy between Louis' sons (A.D. 841). The
first wintering of the vikings in the Seine territory (A.D. 850)
was in " Givoldi fossa," the tomb of one Givoldus, not far from
the mouth of the river, but no longer exactly determinable.
Their first attack on Paris was in A.D. 845: a much more
important but unsuccessful one took place in A.D. 885-87, un-
successful that is so far as the city itself was concerned; but
the invaders received an indemnity for raising the siege and
leave to pass beyond Paris into Burgundy. The settlement of
Danes under Rollo or Rolf on the lower Seine, i.e. in Normandy,
dates from the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte, A.D. 912 (or 911).
The third region is the mouth of the Loire. Here the island
point d'appui was Noirmoutier, an island with an abbey at the
Loire mouth. The northmen wintered there in A.D. 843. No
region was more often ravaged than that of the lower Loire,
so rich in abbeys St Martin of Tours, Marmoutiers, St Bene-
dict, &c. But the country ceded to the vikings under Hasting
at the Loire mouth was insignificant and not in permanent
occupation.
Near the end of the gth century, however, the plundering
expeditions which emanated from these three sources became
so incessant and so widespread that we can signalize no part
of west France as free from them, at the same time that the
vikings wrought immense mischief in the Rhine country and
in Burgundy. The defences of west France seem quite to
have broken down, as did the Irish when Turgesius took " Con's
half," or when in A.D. 853 Olaf the White became over-king of
Ireland. Unfortunately at this point our best authority
ceases; and we cannot well explain the changes which brought
about the Christianization of the Normans and their settlement
in Normandy as vassals, though recalcitrant ones, of the West
Frankish kings.
For the viking attacks in the sth (or 6th) territory, our own
country, the course of events is much clearer. As a part of
English history it is, however, sufficiently known, and the
briefest summary thereof must suffice. That will show how
in its general features it follows the normal course. The first
appearance of the vikings in England we saw was in A.D. 789.
The first serious attacks do not begin till 838. The island of
Sheppey, however, was attacked in 835, and in the following year
the vikings entrenched themselves there. The first wintering
of the pirates in England was on the contiguous island of
Thanet in A.D. 850. The breakdown of the English defences
in all parts of the country save Wessex dates from 868: in
Wessex that occurs in 877-88. But the position is suddenly
recovered by Alfred in 878, by the battle of Aethandune, as
suddenly though not so unaccountably as it was later in West
Francia. As Rollo was to do in 912, the Danish leader Guthorm
received baptism, taking the name of Aethelstan, and settled
in his assigned territory, East Anglia, according to the terms
of the peace of Wedmore. But the forces which Alfred de-
feated at Aethandune represented but half of the viking army
in England at the time. The other half under Halfdan (Ragnar
Lodbrog's son?) had never troubled itself about Wessex, but
had taken firm possession in Northumbria.
The six territories which we have signalized Ireland, Western
Scotland, England, the three in West Francia which merge into
each other by the end of the 9th century do not comprise the
whole field of viking raids or attempted invasion. For farther
still to the east they twice sailed up the Elbe (A.D. 851, 880)
and burnt Hamburg. Southwards they plundered far up the
Garonne, and in the north of Spain; and one fleet of them
sailed all round Spain, plundering, but attempting in vain
to establish themselves in this Arab caliphate. They plundered
on the opposite African coast, and at last got as far as the
mouth of the Rhone, and thence to Luna in Italy.
What we found in the case of the Irish raids, that at first
they are quite anonymous, but that presently the names of the
captains of the expeditions emerge, is likewise the case in all
other lands. In Ireland, besides the important and successful
Turgesius, we read of a Saxulf who early met his death, as well
as of Ivar (Ingvar) , famous also in England and called the son
of Ragnar Lodbrog, and of Oisla, Ivar's comrade; finally (the
vikings in Ireland being mostly of Norse descent) of the well-
known Olaf the White, who became king of all the Scandinavian
settlements in Ireland. In France, Oscar is one of the earliest
and most successful of the invaders. Later the name of Ragnar
(probably Ragnar Lodbrog) appears, along with Weland, Hast-
ing and one of the sons of Ragnar, Bjorn. Farther to the east
we meet the names of Rurik, Godfred and Siegfried. In the
eastern region the viking leaders seem to have been closely
connected with one of the Danish royal families, the kings of
Jutland. The practical though short-lived conquest of England
begins under Ivar, Ubbe and Halfdan, reputed sons of Ragnar,
and is completed by the last of the three in conjunction with
the Guthorm above mentioned. This is, of course, what we
should expect, that larger acquaintance gives to the Christian
chroniclers more knowledge of their enemy. Precisely the same
process in a converse sense develops the casual raids of early
times into a scheme of conquest. For at the outset the Christian
world was wholly strange to these northmen. We have, it has
been said, hardly any means of viewing these raids from the
other side. But one small point of light is so suggestive that
it may be cited here. The mythical saga of Ragnar Lodbrog is
undoubtedly concerned with the Viking Age, though it is im-
possible now to identify most of the expeditions attributed
to this northern hero, stories of conquest in Sweden, in Finland,
in Russia and in England, which belong to quite a different
age from this one. In the Christian chronicles the name of
Ragnar is associated with an attack on Paris in A.D. 845, when
the adventurers were (through the interposition of St Germain,
say the Christians) suddenly enveloped in darkness in a thick
fog ? and fell before the arms of the defenders. In Saxo
Grammaticus's account of Ragnar Lodbrog, this event seems to
be reflected in the story of an expedition of Ragnar's to Bjarma-
land or Perm in Russia. For Bjarmaland, though it gained
a local habitation, is also in Norse tradition a wholly mythical
and mythological place, more or less identical with the under-
world (Niflhel, mist-hell). So it appears in the history given by
Saxo Grammaticus of the voyage to Bjarmaland of one " Gorm
the old." It " looks like a vaporous cloud " and is full of
tricks and illusions of sense. We see then that in virtue
of some quite historical misfortune to the viking invaders,
VIKING
connected with a mist and with a great sickness which invaded
the army, the place they have come to (in reality Paris) is in
Scandinavian tradition identified with the mythic Bjarmaland;
and later, in the history of Saxo Grammaticus, it is identified
with the geographical Bjarmaland or Perm. (Saxo Grammat.,
11 ht. Dan. p. 452, Gylfaginning (Edda Snorra); Acta SS. i8th
May and nth Oct.; Steenstrup, Normannerne, i. p. 97 seq.;
Kfary, The Vikings in Western Christendom, pp. 162, 260.)
No example could better than this bring home to us the
strangeness of the Christian world to the first adventurers
from the north, nor better explain the process of familiarity
which gradually extended the sphere of their ambition. The
expedition which we have made mention of took place almost in
the middle of the 9th century, and exactly fifty years after the
effective opening of the Viking Age. But after this date events
developed rapidly. It was fourteen years later (in A.D. 859) that
Ragnar's son Bjorn Ironside and Hasting made their great
expedition round Spain to the Mediterranean. In 865 or 866
came to England what we know as the Army, or the Great
Army, whose first attacks were in the north of England. Five
kings are mentioned in connexion with this veritable invasion
of England, and many earls. Their course was not unchequered ;
but it was only in Wessex that they met with any effective
resistance, and the victory of Ashdown (871) put no end to their
advance; for, as we know, Alfred himself had at last to wander
a fugitive in the fastnesses of Selwood Forest. Much was
retrieved by the victory of Aethandune; yet even after the
peace of Wedmore as large a part of the land lay under the
power of the Danes as of the English.
It is from this time that we discern two distinct tendencies
in the viking people. While one section is ready to settle
down and receive territory at the hands of the Christian rulers,
with or without homage, another section still adheres to a life
of mere adventure and of plunder. A large portion of the Great
Army refused to be bound by the peace of Wedmore, made some
further attempts on England which were frustrated by Alfred's
powerful new-built fleet, and then sailed to the continent
and spread devastation far and wide. We see them under
command of two Danish " kings," Godfred and Siegfried, first
in the country of the Rhine-mouth or the Lower Scheldt; after-
wards dividing their forces and, while some devastate far into
Germany, others extend their ravages on every side in northern
France down to the Loire. The whole of these vast countries,
Northern Francia, with part of Burgundy, and the Rhineland,
seem to lie as much at their mercy as England had done before
Aethandune, or Ireland before the death of Turgesius. But in
every country alike the wave of viking conquest now begins to
recede. The settlement of Normandy was the only permanent
outcome of the Viking Age in France. In England under
Edward the Elder and Aethelflaed, Mercia recovered a great
portion of what had been ceded to the Danes. In Ireland a
great expulsion of the invaders took place in the beginning of
the roth century. Eventually the Norsemen in Ireland con-
tented themselves with a small number of colonies, strictly
confined in territory around certain seaports which they them-
selves had created: Dublin, Waterford and Wexford; though
as the whole of Ireland was divided into petty kingdoms, it
might easily happen that the Norse king in Ireland rose to the
position not much more than nominal of over-king (Ard-RS)
for the whole land.
Character of the Vikings. Severe, therefore, as were the
viking raids in Europe, and great as was the suffering they
inflicted on account of which a special prayer, A furore
Normannorum libera nos, was inserted in some of the litanies
of the West if they had been pirates and nothing more their
place in history would be an insignificant one. If they had
been no more than what the Illyrian pirates had been in the
early history of Rome, or than the Arabic corsairs were at this
time in southern Europe, the disappearance of the evil would
have been quickly followed by its oblivion. But even at the out-
set the vikings were more than isolated bands of freebooters.
As we have seen, the viking outbreak was probably part of a
xxvm. 3
national movement. We know that at the same time that
some Scandinavian folk were harrying all the western lands,
others were founding Garflarfki (Russia) in the east; others were
pressing still farther south till they came in contact with the
eastern empire in Constantinople, which the northern folk knew
as MikillgarSr (Mikklegard) ; so that when Hasting and Bjorn
had sailed to Luna in the gulf of Genoa the northern folk
had almost put a girdle round the Christian world. There is
every evidence that the vikings were not a mere lawless folk
that is, in their internal relations but that a system of laws
existed among them which was generally respected. The nearest
approach to it now preserved is probably the code of laws
attributed to the mythic king Fro5i (the Wise) and preserved in
the pages of Saxo Grammaticus. It contains provisions for the
partition of booty, punishments for theft, desertion and treachery.
But some of the clauses securing a comparative liberty for
women appear less characteristic of the Viking Age (cf . Alexa nder
Bugge, Vikingerne, vol. i. p. 49). Women, indeed, did not
take part in their first expeditions. In the constitution of
the Jomborg state and again in that of the eastern Vaerings
(a Scandinavian body in the service of the East Roman Empire)
we see a constitution which looks like the foretaste of that of
the Templars or the Teutonic Knights. Steenstrup thinks the
code cited by Saxo may be identical with the laws which Rollo
promulgated for his Norman subjects. In any case, they fall
more near the viking period than any other northern table of
laws. A certain republicanism was professed by these ad-
venturers. " We have no king," one body answered to some
Prankish delegates. We do read frequently of kings in the
accounts of their hosts; but their power may not have extended
beyond the leadership of the expedition; they may have been
kings ad hoc. On the other hand, the whole character of northern
tradition (Teutonic and Scandinavian tradition alike) forbids
us to suppose that any would be elected to that office who was
not of noble or princely blood. They were not entirely un-
lettered; for the use of runes dates back considerably earlier
than the Viking Age. But these were used almost exclusively
for lapidary inscriptions. What we can alone describe as a
literature, first the early Eddie verse, next the habit of narrat-
ing sagas: these things the Norsemen learned probably from
their Celtic subjects, partly in Ireland, partly in the western
islands of Scotland; and they first developed the new literature
on the soil of Iceland. Nevertheless, some of the Eddie songs
do seem to give the very form and pressure of the viking period. 1
In certain material posse'ssions those, in fact, belonging to
their trade, which was war and naval adventure these viking
folk were ahead of the Christian nations: in shipbuilding,
for example. There is certainly a historical connexion between
the ships which the tribes on the Baltic possessed in the days
of Tacitus and the viking ships (Keary, The Vikings in Western
Europe, pp. 108-9): a fact which would lead us to believe that
the art of shipbuilding had been better preserved there than
elsewhere in northern Europe. Merchant vessels must of course
have plied between England and France or Frisia. But it is
certain that even Charlemagne possessed no adequate navy,
though a late chronicler tells us how he thought of building one.
His descendants never carried out his designs. Nor was any
English king before Alfred stirred up to undertake the same
task. And yet the Romans, when threatened by the Carthaginian
power, built in one year a fleet capable of holding its own against
the, till then, greatest maritime nation in the world. The
viking ships had a character apart. They may have owed their
origin to the Roman galleys: they did without doubt owe
their sails to them. 1 Equally certain it is that this special
type of shipbuilding was developed in the Baltic, if not before
1 More especially the beautiful series contained in book iii. of
the Corpus Poeticum Boreale, and ascribed by the editors of that
collection to one poet " the Helgi Poet." Here vikings are
mentioned by name e.g. :
" Vai* 4ra ymr, ok iarna glymr;
Brast r6nd viS rond; rero vlkingar."
1 " Sail " in every Teutonic language is practically* the same
word, and derived from the Latin sagulum.
66
VIKRAMADITYA VILAS
the time of Tacitus, l9ng before the dawn of the Viking Age.
Their structure is adapted to short voyages in a sea well studded
with harbours, not exposed to the most violent storms or most
dangerous tides. To the last, judging by the specimens of
Scandinavian boats which have come down to us, they must
have been not very seaworthy; they were shallow, narrow in
the beam, pointed at both ends, and so eminently suitable
for manoeuvring (with oars) in creeks and bays. The viking
ship had but one large and heavy square sail. When a naval
battle was in progress, it would depend for its manceuvring on
the rowers. The accounts of naval battles in the sagas show
us, too, that this was the case. The rowers in each vessel,
though among the northern folk these were free men and
warriors, not slaves as in the Roman and Carthaginian galleys,
would yet need to be supplemented by a contingent of fighting
men, marines, in addition to their crew. Naturally the ship-
building developed: so that vessels in the viking time would
be much smaller than in the Saga Age. In saga literature
we read of craft (of " long ships ") with 20 to 30 benches
of rowers, which would mean 40 to 60 oars. There exist at
the museum in Christiania the remains of two boats which
were found in the neighbourhood: one, the Gokstad ship, is in
very tolerable preservation. It belongs probably to the nth
century. On this boat there are places for 16 oars a side.
It is not probable that the largest viking ships had more than
10 oars a side. As these ships must often, against a contrary
wind, have had to row both day and night, it seems reasonable
to -imagine the crew divided into three shifts (as they call them
in mining districts), which would give double the number of
men available to fight on any occasion as to row. 1 Thus a
zo-oared vessel would carry 60 men. But some 40 men
per ship seems, for this period, nearer the average. In 896,
toward the end of our age, it is incidentally mentioned in one
place that five vessels carried 200 vikings, an average of 40 per
ship. Elsewhere about the same time we read of 12,000 men
carried in 250 ships, an average of 48.
The round and painted shields of the warriors hung outside
along the bulwarks: the vessel was steered by an oar at the
right side (as whaling boats are to-day), the steerboard or star-
board side. Prow and stern rose high; and the former was carved
most often into the likeness of a snake's or dragon's head: so
generally that " dragon " or " worm " (snake) became synony-
mous with a war-ship. The warriors were well armed. The
byrnie or mail-shirt is often mentioned in Eddie songs: so are
the axe, the spear, the javelin, the bow and arrows and the
sword. The Danes were specially renowned for their axes;
but about the sword the most of northern poetry and mythology
clings. An immense joy in battle breathes through the earliest
Norse literature, which has scarce its like in any other literature;
and we know that the language recognized a peculiar battle
fury, a veritable madness by which certain were seized and
which went by the name of " berserk's way " (berserksgangr).*
The courage of the vikings was proof against anything, even as
a rule against superstitious terrors. " We cannot easily realize
how all-embracing that courage was. A trained soldier is
often afraid at sea, a trained sailor lost if he has not the pro-
tecting sense of his own ship beneath him. The viking ventured
upon unknown waters in ships very ill-fitted for their work.
He had all the spirit of adventure of a Drake or a Hawkins, all
the trained valour of reliance upon his comrades that mark a
soldiery fighting a militia " (The Vikings in Western Christendom,
p. 143). He was unfortunately hardly less marked for cruelty
and faithlessness. Livy's words, " inhumana crudelitas, per-
fidia plus quam Punica," might, it is to be feared, have been
applied as justly to the vikings as to any people of western
1 Steenstrup (Normannerne, i. p. 352), to get the number of men
on (say) a 3O-oared vessel, adds but some 20 more. This seems
an unlikely limitation, throwing an impossible amount of work
upon the crew, and leaving each ship terribly weak supposing a
naval battle had to be undertaken as with some rival viking
fleet, even* before any Christian nation possessed a fleet.
J Cf. Grett. S. en. 42, Njila, ch. 104, &c., and many other
sources.
Europe. It is also true, however, that they showed a great
capacity for government, and in times of peace for peaceful
organization. Normandy was the best -governed part of France
in the nth century; and the Danes in East Anglia and the
Five Burgs were in many regards a model to their Saxon neigh-
bours (Steenstrup, op. cit. iv. ch. 2). Of all European lands
England is without doubt that on which the Viking Age has
left most impression: in the number of original settlers after
878; in the way which these prepared for Canute's conquest;
and finally in that which she absorbed from the conquering
Normans. England's gain was France's loss: had the Normans
turned their attention in the other direction, they might likely
enough have gained the kingdom in France and saved that
country from the intermittent anarchy from which it suffered
from the nth till the middle of the I5th century.
Sources of Viking History. These are, as has been said, almost
exclusively the chronicles of the lands visited by the vikings. For
Ireland we have, as on the whole our best authority, the Annales
Ultonienses (C. O'Conor, Scr. Rev. Hib. iv.), supplemented by the
Annals of the Four Masters (ed. O'Donovan) and the Chronicon
Scottorum (ed. Henessy). Finally, The War of the Gaidhill with the
Gaill (ed. Todd); Three Fragments of Irish History (O'Donovan);
cf. W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, for England the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, Annales Lindisfarnenses (in Pertz, Monumenta, vol. xix.) ;
Simeon of Durham, Historia Dunelmi Ecclesiae. For the Prankish
empire the chief sources of our information are The Annales Regnl
Francorum, Annales Bertiani (Pertz, vol. i.) in three parts (the first
anonymous, the second by Prudentius, the third by Hincmar,
A.D. 830-82). The Annales Xantenses (A.D. 876, 873; Pertz, vol. ii.)
are the authorities for the northern and eastern regions, and the
Annales Fuldenses (which begin with Pipin of Herestel and go down
to A.D. 900; Pertz, vol. i.) for Germany. Toward the end of the
9th century the Annales Vedastini (Pertz, yols. i. and ii.) are almost
the exclusive authority for the western raids. In the historians of
Normandy, especially in Dudo of St Quentin, much incidental matter
may be found.
References to the Viking Age in a general way are to be found
in a vast number of books, especially histories of the Scandinavian
countries, of which Munch's Del Norske Folks Historie (1852, &c.)
is the most distinguished; J. J. A. Worsaae has written Minder om
de Danske og Nord-Mcendene i England, Skotland oglrland (1851),
an antiquarian rather than an historical study; G. B. Depping,
L'Histoire des expeditions maritimes des Normands (1843), a not very
critical work, and E. Mabille, " Les Invasions Normandes dans
la Loire " (Ecole des chartes bibl. t. 30, 1869). A completer work
than either of these is W. Vogel's Die Normannen und das Fran-
kische Reich (1906). It does not, however, break any fresh ground.
J. C. H. Steenstrup's Normannerne (1876-82), in four volumes, is not
a continuous history, but a series of studies of great learning and
value; C. F. Keary, The Vikings in Western Europe (1891) is a
history of the viking raids on all the western lands, but ends A.D. 888.
A. Bugge's Vikingerne (1904-6) is a study of the moral and social
side of the vikings, or, one should rather say, of the earliest Scandi-
navian folk. (C. F. K.)
VIKRAMADITYA, a legendary Hindu king of Uzjain, who
is supposed to have given his name to the Vikram Samvat,
the era which is used all over northern India, except in Bengal,
and at whose court the " nine gems " of Sanskrit literature are
also supposed to have flourished. The Vikram era is reckoned
from the vernal equinox of the year 57 B.C., but there is no
evidence that that date corresponds with any event in the life
of an actual king. As a matter of fact, all dates in this era
down to the loth century never use the word Vikram, but that
of Malava instead, that being the tribe that gives its name to
Malwa, The name Vikramaditya simply means " sun of power,"
and was adopted by several Hindu kings, of whom Chand-
ragupta II. (Chandragupta Vikramaditya), who ascended the
throne of the Guptas about A.D. 375, approaches most nearly
to the legend.
See Alexander Cunningham, Book of Indian Eras (1883); and
Vincent Smith, Early History of India (.1904).
VILAS, WILLIAM FREEMAN (1840-1908), American political
leader and lawyer, was born in Chelsea, Vermont, on the 9th of
July 1840. His father, Levi B. Vilas, a lawyer and Democratic
politician, emigrated in 1851 to Madison, Wisconsin. William
graduated at the university of Wisconsin in 1858, and at the
Albany (New York) Law School in 1860, and began to practise
law in Madison with his father. In 1862 he recruited and be-
came captain of Company A of the Twenty-Third Wisconsin
VILL VILLACH
Volunteers, of which he was made lieutenant-colonel in 1863,
and which he commanded in the siege of Vicksburg. In
August 1863 he resigned his commission and resumed his law
practice. He was professor of law in the university of Wisconsin
in 1868-85, and again in 1889-92, and in 1875-78 was a
member of the commission which revised the statutes of
Wisconsin. From 1876 to 1886 he was a member of the
National Democratic Committee, and virtually the leader of
his party in his state; he was a delegate to the National
Democratic Conventions of 1876, 1880 and 1884, and was
permanent chairman of the last. In 1885 he was a member
of the state Assembly. He was postmaster-general in President
Grover Cleveland's cabinet from March 1885 until January 1888,
and was then secretary of the interior until March 1889. From
1891 until 1897 he was a member of the United States Senate,
in which, during President Cleveland's second term, he was
recognized as the chief defender of the Administration, and
he was especially active in securing the repeal of the silver-
purchase clause of the Sherman Act. He was a delegate to the
Democratic National Convention of 1896, but withdrew after
the adoption of the free-silver plank. He then became one of
the chief organizers of the National (or Gold) Democratic
party, attended the convention at Indianapolis, and was
chairman of its committee on resolutions. In 1881-85 and
in 1898-1905 he was a regent of the university of Wisconsin;
and he was a member (1897-1903) of the commission which
had charge of the erection of the State Historical Library at
Madison, and in 1906-8 of the commission for the con-
struction of the new state capitol. He died at Madison on
the 27th of August 1908.
With E. E. Bryant he edited vols. i. to xx., except vol. v., of the
Reports of the Wisconsin Supieme Court.
VILL, the Anglicized form of the word villa, used in Latin
documents to translate the Anglo-Saxon tun, township, " the
unit of the constitutional machinery, the simplest form of
social organization " (Stubbs, Const. Hist. 39). The word
did not always and at all times have this meaning in Latin-
English documents, but " vill " and " township " were
ultimately, in English law, treated as convertible terms for
describing a village community, and they remained in use in
legal nomenclature until the ecclesiastical parishes were con-
verted into areas for civil administration under the Poor
Law Acts. This technical sense is derived from the late Latin
use of villa for vicus, a village. Thus Fleta (vi. c. 51), writing
in the time of Edward I., distinguishes the villa, as a collection
of habitations and their appurtenances, from the mansio, a
single house, nulli vicina, and the manor, which may embrace
one or more vittae. In classical Latin villa had meant " country-
house," " farm," " villa " (see VILLA); but the word was pro-
bably an abbreviation of vicula, diminutive of vicus, and in
the sense of vicus it is used by Apuleius in the 2nd century.
Later it even displaced civitas, for city; thus Rutilius Numa-
tianus in his Itinerarium speaks of vittae ingentes, oppida
parva; whence the French ville (see Du Cange, Glossarium lot.
s.v. Villa). In the Prankish empire villa was also used of the
royal and imperial palaces or seats with their appurtenances.
In the sense of a small collection of habitations the word came
into general use in England in the French form "village."
From villa, too, are derived villein and villenage (q.v.) (see also
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES).
VILLA, the Latin word (diminutive of vicus, a village) for
a country-house. This term, which in England is usually
given to a small country-house detached or semi-detached
in the vicinity of a large town, is being gradually superseded
by such expressions as " country " or " suburban house,"
" bungalow," &c., but in Italy it is still retained as in Roman
times and means a summer residence, sometimes being of great
extent. References to the villa are constantly made by Roman
writers. Cicero is said to have possessed no less than seven
villas, the oldest of which was near Arpinum, which he inherited.
Pliny the younger had three or four, of which the example
near Laurentium is the best known from his descriptions.
There is too wide a divergence in the various conjectural
restorations to make them of much value, but the remains
of the villa of Hadrian at Tivoli, which covered an area over
seven miles long and in which reproductions were made of all
the most celebrated buildings he had seen during his travels,
those in Greece seeming to have had the most attraction for
him, and the villas of the i6th century on similar sites, such
as the Villa d'Este near Tivoli, enable one to form some idea
of the exceptional beauty of the positions selected and of the
splendour of the structures which enriched them. According
to Pliny, there were two kinds of villas, the villa urbana, which
was a country seat, and the villa rustica, the farm-house,
occupied by the servants who had charge generally of the
estate. The Villa Boscoreale near Pompeii, which was excavated
in 1893-94, was an example of the villa rustica, in which the
principal room was the kitchen, with the bakery and stables
beyond and room for the wine presses, oil presses, hand mill,
&c. The villas near Rome were all built on hilly sites, so that
the laying out of the ground in terraces formed a very important
element in their design, and this forms the chief attraction of
the Italian villas of the i6th century, among which the following
are the best known: the Villa Madama, the design of which,
attributed to Raphael, was carried out by Giulio Romano in
1520; the Villa Medici (1540); the Villa Albani, near the
Porta Salaria; the Borghese; the Doria Pamphili (1650);
the Villa di Papa Giulio (1550), designed by Vignola; the
Aldobrandini (1592); the Falconieri and the Montdragon
Villas at Frascati, and the Villa d'Este near Tivoli, in which
the terraces and staircases are of great importance. In the
proximity of other towns in Italy there are numerous villas,
of which the example best known is that of the Villa Rotunda
or Capra near Vicenza, which was copied by Lord Burlington
in his house at Chiswick.
The Italian villas of the i6th and i?th century, like those of
Roman times, included not only the country residence, but the
whole of the other buildings on the estate, such as bridges,
casinos, pavilions, small temples, rectangular or circular, which
were utilized as summer-houses, and these seem to have had
a certain influence in England, which may account for the
numerous examples in the large parks in England of similar
erections, as also the laying out of terraces, grottos and formal
gardens. In France the same influence was felt, and at
Fontainebleau, Versailles, Meudon and other royal palaces, the
celebrated Le N6tre transformed the parks surrounding them
and introduced the cascades, which in Italy are so important
a feature, as at St Cloud near Paris. (R. P. S.)
VILLACH, a town in Carinthia, Austria, 24 m. W. of Klagen-
furt by rail. Pop. (1900) 9690. It is situated on the Drave,
near its confluence with the Gail, in a broad fertile basin at the
foot of the Dobratsch or Villacher Alp (7107 ft.). The parish
church is an interesting Gothic edifice of the isth century. The
principal industry of Villach consists in the fabrication of various
lead wares, and is mostly dependent on the lead mines of
Bleiberg, which is situated about 9 m. to the west. This village
(pop. 3435) is one of the richest lead-mining centres in Europe.
The ores found here comprise silver-free galena, sulphate of zinc
and calamine. The mines were already worked during the
middle ages. Warmbad Villach, a watering-place with hot
sulphur baths, and Mittewald, a favourite summer resort, whence
the ascent of the Dobratsch can be made, are in the neighbour-
hood of Villach. Some of the prettiest Carinthian lakes are
to be found near Villach, as the Ossiacher-see, on whose southern
shore stands the ruined castle of Landskron, dating from the
middle of the i6th century, the Worther-see and the small but
lovely Faaker-see.
Villach is an old town, which was given by Heinrich II. to
the bishopric of Bamberg in 1007. During the middle ages it
was an important centre of commerce between Germany and
Italy. With the advent of new trade routes at the beginning
of modern times the town lost its importance, and in 1745
the citizens nearly decided to emigrate en masse. Its trade
revived during the French occupation of 1800-13, and it
68
VILLA DEL PILAR VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
continued to improve during the igth century. The Turks were
defeated here in 1492 by Maximilian I., and an engagement
between the Austrians and the French took place here on the
2ist of August 1813.
VILLA DEL PILAR, a city of Paraguay, 104 m. S. by E. of
Asuncion, on the left bank of the navigable river Paraguay,
which receives the Bermejo from the right immediately opposite.
Pop. (1910) about 10,000. Villa del Pilar is a thriving modern
city, containing barracks, law courts, a national college, several
schools and a branch of the Agricultural Bank. It has a fine
harbour, and is one of the principal centres in the republic for
the exportation of oranges.
VILLAFRANCA DI VERONA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in
the province of Verona, n m. S.S.W. of Verona, on the railway
to Mantua, 174 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 5037 (town);
9635 (commune). It has considerable silk industries. Here
preliminaries of peace were signed between Napoleon III. and
the Austrians in 1859 after the battle of Solferino. Five miles
to the N. is Custozza, where the Italians were defeated by the
Austrians in 1848 and 1866. Villafranca is a common place
name in Italy.
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES. The study of village communities
has become one of the fundamental methods of discussing the
ancient history of institutions. It would be out of the question
here to range over the whole field of human society in search for
communal arrangements of rural life. It will be sufficient to
confine the present inquiry to the varieties presented by nations
of Aryan race, not because greater importance is to be attached
to these nations than to other branches of humankind, although
this view might also be reasonably urged, but principally because
the Aryan race in its history has gone through all sorts of
experiences, and the data gathered from its historical life can
be tolerably well ascertained. Should the road be sufficiently
cleared in this particular direction, it will not be difficult. to
connect the results with similar researches in other racial
surroundings.
The best way seems to be to select some typical examples,
chiefly from the domain of Celtic, Slavonic and Germanic
social history, and to try to interpret them in regard to the
general conditions in which communal institutions originate,
grow and decay. As the principal problem will consist in
ascertaining how far land was held in common instead of being
held, as is usual at present, by individuals, it is advisable to
look out for instances in which this element of holding in common
is very clearly expressed. We ought to get, as it were, acclima-
tized to the mental atmosphere of such social arrangements in
order to counteract a very natural but most pernicious bent
prompting one to apply to the conditions of the past the key
of our modern views and habitual notions. A certain acquaint-
ance with the structure of Celtic society, more especially the
society of ancient Wales, is likely to make it clear from the out-
set to what extent the husbandry and law of an Aryan race
may depend on institutions in which the individual factor is
greatly reduced, while the union first of kinsmen and then of
neighbours plays a most decisive part.
F. Seebohm has called our attention to the interesting surveys
of Welsh tracts of country made in the I4th century, soon after
these regions passed into the hands of English lords. The frag-
ments of these surveys published by him and his commentary
on them are very illuminating, but further study of the docu-
ments themselves discloses many important details and helps
to correct some theories propounded on the subject. Let us
take up a concrete and simple case, e.g. the description of
Astret Canon, a trev or township (villata) of the honour of
Denbigh, surveyed in 1334. In the time of the native Welsh
princes it was occupied entirely by a kindred (progenies) of free
tribesmen descended from a certain Canon, the son of Lawaurgh.
The kindred was subdivided into four gavells or bodies of joint-
tenants. On the half-gavell of Monryk ap Canon, e.g. there are
no less than sixteen coparceners, of whom eight possess houses.
The peculiarity of this system of land tenure consists in the
fact that all the tenants of these gavells derive their position
on the land from the occupation of the township by their
kindred, and have to trace their rights to shares in the original
unit. Although the village of Astret Canon was occupied under
the Survey by something like fifty-four male tenants, the majority
of whom were settled in houses of their own, it continued
to form a unit as well in regard to the payment of tungpound,
that is, of the direct land tax and other services and pay-
ments, but also in respect of the possession and usage of the soil.
On the other hand, movable property is owned in severally.
Services have to be apportioned among the members of the
kindreds according to the number of heads of cattle owned by
them. From the description of another township Pireyon
we may gather another important feature of this tribal tenure.
The population of this village also clustered in gavells, and we
hear that these gavells ought to be considered as equal shares
in respect of the arable, the wood and the waste of the town-
ship. If the shares were reduced into acres there would have
fallen to each of the eight gavells of Pireyon ninety-one acres,
one rood and a half and six perches of arable and woodland,
and fifty-three and one-third of an acre and half a rood of waste
land. But as a matter of fact the land was not divided in such
a way, and the rights of the tenants of the gavell were realized
not through the appropriation of definite acres, but as propor-
tionate opportunities in regard to tillage and as to usages hi
pasture, wood and waste. Pastoral habits must have greatly
contributed to give the system of landholding its peculiar
character. It was not necessary, it would have been even
harmful, to subdivide sharply the area on which the herds of
cows and the flocks of sheep and goats were grazing. Still
Welsh rural life in the i4th century had already a definite
though subordinate agricultural aspect, and it is important to
notice that individual appropriation had as yet made very
slight progress in it.
We do not notice any systematic equalization between
members of the tribal communities of the trevs. In fact,
both differences in the ownership of cattle and differences of
tribal standing, established by complex reckonings of pedigree
and of social rank, led to marked inequalities. But there
was also the notion of birthright, and we find in the laws that
every free tribesman considered himself entitled to claim from
his kindred grazing facilities and five erws for tillage. Such
a claim could be made unconditionally only at a time when
there was a superabundance of land to dispose of. In the
i4th century, to which our typical descriptions refer, this state
of things had ceased to be universal. Although great tracts of
Welsh land were undoubtedly still in a state of wilderness, the
soil in more conveniently situated regions was beginning to be
scarce, and considerable pressure of population was already
felt, with a consequent transition from pastoral pursuits to
agriculture. The tract appropriated to the township of Astret
Canon, for instance, contained only 574 acres of land of all
kinds. In this case there was hardly room for the customary
five erws per head of grown-up males besides commons. And
yet although the population lived on a small pittance, the system
of tribal tenure was not abandoned.
Although there are no rearrangements or redivision within
the tribe as a whole, inside every gavell, representing more
narrow circles of kinsmen, usually the descendants of one great-
grandfather, i.e. second cousins, the shares are shifted and
readjusted according to one of two systems. In one case,
that of the trevcyvriv or joint-account village, every man
receives " as much as another yet not of equal value " which
means, of course, that the members of such communities were
provided with equal allotments, but left to make the best of
them, each according to chance and ability. This practice of
reallotment was, however, restricted in the I4th century to
taeog trevs, to villages occupied by half-free settlers. The
free tribesmen, the priodarii of Wales, held by daddenhud,
and reallotted shares within the trev on the coming of each
new generation or, conversely, on the going out, the dying out,
of each older generation. In other words: at the demise of
the last of the grandfathers in a gavell, all the fathers took
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
69
equal rank and claimed equal shares, although formerly some
of the portions had been distributed equally only between the
grandfathers or their offspring (stirps). The right to claim
redivision held good only within the circle of second cousins.
Members of the kindred who stood further than that from
each other, that is, third cousins, were not entitled to reallot-
ment on the strength of daddenhud.
Another fact which is brought out with complete evidence
by the Welsh Surveys is that the tenure is ascribed to com-
munities of kinsmen and not to chiefs or headmen. The latter
certainly existed and had exerted a powerful influence on the
disposal of common land as well as on government and justice.
But in the view of 14th-century surveys each township is
owned not by this or the other elder, but by numerous bodies
of coparceners. The gavell of Owen Gogh, for instance,
contained twenty-six coparceners. In this way there is a
clear attribution of rights of communal ownership, if we like
to use the term, and not merely of rights of maintenance. Nor
is there any warrant for a construction of these arrangements
on a supposed patriarchal system.
Let us now compare this description of Celtic tribal tenure
with Slavonic institutions. The most striking modern ex-
amples of tribal communities settled on a territorial basis are
presented by the history of the Southern Slavs in the Balkan
Peninsula and in Austria, of Slovenes, Croats, Serbs and Bul-
garians,, but it is easy to trace customs of the same kind in the
memories of Western Slavs conquered by Germans, of the
Poles and of the different subdivisions of the Russians. A good
clue to the subject is provided by a Serb proverb which says
that a man by himself is bound to be a martyr. One might
almost suggest that these popular customs illustrate the Aristo-
telian conception of the single man seeking the " autarkeia,"
a complete and self-sufficient existence in the society of his
fellow-men, and arriving at the stage of the tribal village, the
7eyos, which is also a KUHIJ, as described in the famous intro-
ductory chapter of the Greek philosopher's Politics. The
Slavs of the mountainous regions of the Balkans and of the
Alps in their stubborn struggle with nature and with human
enemies have clustered and still cluster to some extent (e.g. in
Montenegro) in closely united and widely spreading brother-
hoods (bratstva) and tribes (plemena). Some of these brother-
hoods derive their names from a real or supposed common
ancestor, and are composed of relatives as well as of affiliated
strangers. They number sometimes hundreds of members, 1 of
guns, as the fighting males are characteristically called. Such
are the Vukotici, Kovacevici, as one might say in Old English
the Vukotings or Kovachevings, of Montenegro. The dwell-
ings, fields, and pasturages of these brotherhoods or kindreds
are scattered over the country, and it is not always possible to
trace them in compact divisions on the map. But there was
the closest union in war, revenge, funeral rites, marriage ar-
rangements, provision for the poor and for those who stand
in need of special help, as, for instance, in case of fires, inunda-
tions and the like. And corresponding to this union there
existed a strong feeling of unity in regard to property, especially
property in land. Although ownership was divided among
the different families, a kind of superior or eminent domain
stretched over the whole of the bratstvo, and was expressed in
the participation in common in pasture and wood, in the right
to control alienations of land and to exercise pre-emption. If
any of the members of the brotherhood wanted to get rid of his
share he had to apply first to his next of kin within the family
and then to the further kinsmen of the bratstvo.
As the Welsh kindred (progenies) were subdivided into
gavells formed of extended family communities, even so the
Bosnian, Montenegrin, Servian, Slovene tribes fell into house
communities, Kucas, Zadrugas, which were built up on the
principle of keeping blood-relatives and their property to-
gether as long as possible. They consisted generally of some
13 to 20 grown-up persons, some 6 or 7 first and second cousins
with their wives and children, living in a hamlet around the
1 They range from 80 or 90 to 700.
central house of the domatin, the house leader. In some in-
stances the number of coparceners increased to 50 or even to
70. The members of the united house community, which in
fact is a small village or hamlet, joined in meals and work.
Their rights in the undivided household of the hamlet were
apportioned according to the pedigree, i.e. this apportion-
ment took account first of the stirpes or extant descendants of
former scions of the family, so that, say, the offspring of each
of two grandfathers who had been brothers were considered
as equal sharers although the stirps, the stock, of one was
represented only by one person, while the stirps of the other
had grown to consist of two uncles and of three nephews all
alive. There was no resettlement of shares, as in the case of
Wales, but the life of the house community while it existed
unbroken led to work in common, the contributions to which
are regulated by common consent and supervised by the leader.
Grounds, houses, implements of agriculture (ploughs, oxen,
carts) and of viniculture casks, cauldrons for the making
of brandy, &c., are considered to be common capital and ought
not to be sold unless by common consent. Divisions were not
prohibited. Naturally a family had to divide sooner or later,
and the shares have to be made real, to be converted into fields
and vineyards. But this was an event which marks, as it were,
the close of the regular existence of one union and the birth of
similar unions derived from it. As a rule, the kuta kept together
as long as it could, because co-operation was needed and isola-
tion dangerous for economic considerations as well as for the
sake of defence.
Attention, however, should be called more particularly to
the parallel phenomena hi the social history of the Russians,
wnere the conditions seem to stand out in specially strong
contrast with those prevailing among the mountain Slavs of
the Balkans and of the Alps. In the enormous extent of
Russia we have to reckon with widely different geographical
and racial areas, among other, with the Steppe settlements of
the so-called Little Russians in the Ukraina and the forest
settlements of the Great Russians in the north. In spite of
great divergencies the economic history of all these branches of
Slavonic stock gravitates towards one main type, viz. towards
rural unions of kinsmen, on the basis of .enlarged households.
In the south the typical village settlement is the dvoriife, the
big court or hamlet consisting of some four to eight related
families holding together; in the north it is the petiste, the big
oven, a hamlet of somewhat smaller size in which three to five
families are closely united for purposes of common husbandry.
It is interesting to notice that even the break-up of the joint
household does not lead to an entire severance of the ties
between its members. They mostly continue in another form,
viz. in the shape of an open-field system with intermixture
of strips, compulsory rotation of crops, commons of pasture,
of wood, sometimes shifting allotments as regards meadows.
There is, e.g. an act of division between six brothers from the
north of Russia "of the year 1640. They agree to divide bread
and salt, house and liberties, money, cloth and stores of all
kinds and to settle apart. As to arable, Shumila is to take
the upper strip in the field by the settlement, and next to him
Tretjak, then Maxim, then Zaviala, then Shestoy, then Luke.
In the big harvest furlong likewise, and in the small likewise,
and by the meadow likewise and so on through all the furlongs.
So that in this case and in innumerable other cases of the same
kind the open-field system with its inconvenient intermixture
of plots and limited power of every husbandman to manage
his land appears as a direct continuation of the joint tribal
households.
Another fact to be noticed is the tendency to form artificial
associations on the pattern of the prevailing unions of kinsmen.
People who have no blood-relations to appeal to for clearing
the waste, for providing the necessary capital in the way of
cattle and plough implements, for raising and fitting out
buildings, join in order to carry on these economic under-
takings, and also to help each other against enemies and
aggressors. The members of these voluntary associations,
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
which at once call to mind German, Norse and English gilds, are
called " siabri," " skladniki," and the gilds themselves " spolkie,"
in south Russia. In a district of the Ukraina called the
" Ratensky Sharostvo " there were no fewer than 278 such
gilds interchanging with natural kindreds. The organization
of all these unions could in no way be called patriarchal.
Even in cases when there is a definite elder or headman (bol-
shoy), he was only the first among equals and exercised only a
limited authority over his fellows: all the important decisions
had to be taken by the council of the community.
In Great Russia, in the districts gathered under the sway
of the Moscow tsars, the basis of the household community and
of the rural settlements which sprang from it was modified
in another direction. The entire agricultural population was
subjected to strict supervision and coercive measures for
purposes of military organization and taxation. Society was
drilled into uniformity and service on the principle that every
man has to serve the tsar, the upper class in war and civil
administration, the lower class by agricultural labour. A
consequence of the heavy burden laid on the land and of the
growth of a landed aristocracy somewhat resembling the gentry
and the noblesse of the West was a change in the management
of land allotments. They became as much a badge of service
and a basis for fiscal requirements as a means of livelihood.
The result was the practice of reallotments according to the
strength and the needs of different families. The shifting of
arable (peredel) was not in this case a reapportionment of
rights, but a consequence of the correspondence between rights
and obligations. But although this admeasurement of claims
appears as a comparatively recent growth of the system, the
fundamental solidarity between kinsmen or neighbourly asso-
ciates grouped into villages was In no way an invention of
the tsars or of their officials: it was rooted in traditional
customs and naturally suggested by the practices of joint
households. When these households become crowded in cer-
tain areas, open-field systems arise; when they are burdened
with public and private service their close co-operation pro-
duces occasional or periodical redivisions of the soil between
the shareholders.
Let us now pass to village communities in Teutonic countries,
including England. A convenient starting-point is afforded
by the social and economic conditions of the southern part of
Jutland.
Now the Saxon or Ditmarschen portion of this region gives
us an opportunity of observing the effects of an extended
and highly systematized tribal organization on Germanic soil.
The independence of this northern peasant republic, which
reminds one of the Swiss cantons, lasted until the time of the
Reformation. We find the Ditmarschen organized in the isth,
as they had been in the loth century, in a number of large
kindreds, partly composed of relatives by blood and partly of
" cousins " who had joined them. The membership of these
kindreds is based on agnatic ties that is, on relationship
through males or on affiliation as a substitute for such agnatic
kinship. The families or households are grouped into brother-
hoods, and these again into clans or " Schlachten " (Geschlechter),
corresponding to Roman gentes. Some of them could put
as many as 500 warriors in the field. They took their names
from ancestors and chief tains: the Wollersmannen, Henne-
mannen, Jerremannen, &c. that is, the men of Woll, the men
of Henne, the men of Jerre. In spite of these personal names
the organization of the clans was by no means a monarchical
one: it was based on the participation of the full-grown fight-
ing men in the government of each clan and on a council of
co-opted elders at the head of the entire federation. We need
not repeat here what has already been stated about the mutual
support which such clans afforded to their members in war
and in peace, in judicial and in economic matters.
Let us notice the influence of this tribal organization on
husbandry and property. The regular economic arrangement
was an open-field one based on a three-field and similar systems.
The furlongs were divided into intermixed strips with com-
pulsory rotation on the usual pattern. And it is interesting
to notice that in these economic surroundings indivisible
holdings corresponding to the organic unities required for
efficient agriculture arose of themselves. In spite of the equal
right of all coheirs to an estate, this estate does not get divided
according to their numbers, but either remains undivided or
else falls into such fractions, halves or fourths, which will enable
the farming to be carried on successfully, without mischievous
interruption and disruption. Gradually the people settled
down into the custom of united succession for agrarian units.
The Hufe or Hof, the virgate, as might have been said in
England, goes mostly to the eldest son, but also sometimes
to the youngest, while the brothers of the heir either remain
in the same household with him, generally unmarried, or leave
the house after having settled with the heir, who takes charge
of the holding, as to an indemnity for their relinquished claims.
This indemnity i; not equivalent to the market price, but is
fixed, in case of dispute or doubt, by an award of impartial
and expert neighbours, who have to consider not only the
claims of interested persons but also the economic quality and
strength of the holding. In other words, the heir has to pay
so much as the estate can conveniently provide without being
wrecked by the outlay.
This evidence is of decisive importance in regard to the
formation of unified holdings; we are on entirely free soil, with
no vestige whatever of manorial organization or of coercion
of tenants by the lord, and yet the Hufe, the normal holding,
comes to the fore as a result of the economic situation, on the
strength of considerations drawn from the efficiency of the
farming. This " Anerben " system is widely spread all through
Germany. The question whether the eldest or the youngest
succeeds is a subordinate one. Anyhow, manorial authority
is not necessary to produce the limitation of the rights of succes-
sion to land and the creation of the system of holdings, although
this has been often asserted, and one of the arguments for a
servile origin of village communities turns on a supposed incom-
patibility between unified succession and the equal "rights of
free coheirs.
We need not speak at any length about other parts of Germany,
as space does not permit of a description of the innumerable
combinations of communal and individual elements in German
law, the various shapes of manorial and political institutions
with which the influence of blood relationship, gild and neigh-
bourly union had to struggle.
But we must point out some facts from the range of Scandi-
navian customs. In the mountainous districts of Norway we
notice the same tendency towards the unification of holdings
as in the plains and hills of Schleswig and Holstein. The
bonder of Gudbrandsdalen and Telemarken, the free peasantry
tilling the soil and pasturing herds on the slopes of the hills
since the days of Harold Harfagr to our own times, sit in Odal-
gaards, or freehold estates, from which supernumerary heirs
are removed on receiving some indemnity, and which are pro-
tected from alienation into strange hands by the privilege of
pre-emption exercised by relatives of the seller. Equally
suggestive are some facts on the Danish side of the Straits,
viz. the arrangements of the bids which correspond to the
hides and virgates of England and to the Hufen of Germany.
Here again we have to do with normal holdings independent
of the number of coheirs, but dependent on the requirements
of agriculture on the plough and oxen, on certain constant
relations between the arable of an estate and its outlying com-
mons, meadows and woods. The bol does not stand by itself
like the Norwegian gaard, but is fitted into a very close union
with neighbouring bols of the same kind. Practices of coaration,
of open-field intermixture, of compulsory rotation of lot-meadows,
of stinting the commons, arise of themselves in the villages of
Denmark and Sweden. Laws compiled in the I3th century
but based on even more ancient customs give us most inter-
esting and definite information as to Scandinavian practices of
allotment.
We catch a glimpse, to begin with, of a method of dividing
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
fields which was considered archaic even in those early times.
The Swedish laws use the expression " forniskift," which
means ancient mode of allotment, and another term corre-
sponding to it is " hamarskift," which may possibly be con-
nected with throwing the hammer in order to mark the boundary
of land occupied by a man's strength. The two principal features
of forni or hamar skift are the irregularity of the resulting
shapes of plots and the temporary character of their occupation.
The first observation may be substantiated by a description
like that of Laasby in Jutland: " These lands are to that
extent scattered and intermixed by the joint owners that it
cannot be said for certain what (or how much) they are."
Swedish documents, on the other hand, speak expressly of
practices of shifting arable and meadows periodically, some-
times year by year.
Now the uncertainty of these practices based on occupa-
tion became in process of time a most inconvenient feature
of the situation and evidently led to constant wrangling as
to rights and boundaries. The description of Laasby which
I have just quoted ends with the significant remark: " They
should be compelled to make allotment by the cord." This
making of allotments by the cord is the process of rebning,
from reb, the surveyor's cord, and the juridical procedure
necessary for it was called " solskift " because it was a division
following the course of the sun.
The two fundamental positions from which this form of
allotment proceeds are: (i) that the whole area of the village
is common land (faelksjord), which has to be lotted out to the
single householders; (2) that the partition should result in the
creation of equal holdings of normal size (b61s). In some
cases we can actually recognize the effect of these allotments
by ancient solskift in the i8th century, at a time when the
Danish enclosure acts produced a second general revolution in
land tenure.
The oldest twelve inhabitants, elected as sworn arbitrators
for effecting the allotment, begin their work by throwing to-
gether into one mass all the grounds owned by the members
of the community, including dwellings and farm-buildings,
with the exception of some privileged plots. There is a close
correspondence between the sites of houses and the shares in
the field. The first operation of the surveyors consists in
marking out a village green for the night-rest and pasture of
the cattle employed in the tillage (fortd), and to assign sites
to the houses of the coparceners with orchards appendant to
them (tofts); every householder getting exactly as much
as his neighbour. From the tofts they proceed to the fields
on the customary notion that the toft is the mother of the
field. The fields are disposed into furlongs and shots, as they
were called in England, and divided among the members of
the village with the strictest possible equality. This is effected
by assigning to every householder a strip in every one of the
furlongs constituting the arable of the village. Meadows
were often treated as lot-meadows in the same way as in Eng-
land. According to the account of a solrebning executed in
1513 (Oester Hoejsted), every otting, the eighth part of a b61
(corresponding to the English oxgang or bovate), got a toft
of 40 roods in length and 6 in breadth. One of the coparceners
received, however, 8 roods because his land was worse than that
of his neighbours. Of the arable there were allotted to each
otting two roods' breadth for the plough in each furlong and
appendant commons " in damp and in dry " in meadow and
pasture. After such a "solskift" the peasants held their
tenements in undisturbed ownership, but the eminent demesne
of the village was recognized and a revision of the allotment
was possible. Many such revisions did actually take place,
and in such cases all rights and claims were apportioned, accord-
ing to the standard of the original shares. Needless to say
that these shares were subjected to all the usual limitations of
champion farming.
After having said so much about different types of village
communities which occur in Europe it will be easier to analyse
the incidents of English land tenure which disclose the work-
ing of similar conceptions and arrangements. Features which
have been very prominent in the case of the Welsh, Slavs,
Germans or Scandinavians recur in the English instances some-
times with equal force and at other times in a mitigated shape.
There are some vestiges of the purely tribal form of com-
munity on English soil. Many of the place-names of early
Saxon and Anglican settlements are derived from personal
names with the suffix ing, as designations like Oakington, the
town of the Hockings.
True, it is just possible to explain some of these place-names
as pointing to settlements belonging to some great man and
therefore taking their designation from him with the adjunct
of an ing indicating possession. But the group of words in
question falls in exactly with the common patronymics of
Saxon and German families and kindreds, and therefore it is
most probable, as Kemble supposed, that we have to do in
most of these instances with tribal and family settlements,
although the mere fact of belonging to a great landowner or
a monastery may have been at the root of some cases.
A very noticeable consequence of tribal habits in regard
to landownership is presented by the difficulties which stood
in the way of alienation of land by the occupiers of it. The
Old English legal system did not originally admit of any aliena-
tion of folkland, land held by folkright, or, in other words, of
the estates owned under the ordinary customary law of the
people. Such land could not be bequeathed out of the kindred
and could not be sold without the consent of the kinsmen.
Such complete disabilities could not be upheld indefinitely,
however, in a growing and progressive community, and we
find the ancient folkright assailed from different points of view.
The Church insists on the right of individual possessors to give
away land for the sake of their souls; the kings grant exemption
from folkright and constitute privileged estates held by book
and following in the main the rules of individualized Roman
law; the wish of private persons to make provision for daughters
and to deal with land as with other commodities produces con-
stant collisions with the customary tribal views. Already,
by the end of the Saxon period transfer and alienation of land
make their way everywhere, and the Norman conquest brings
these features to a head by substituting the notion of tenure
that is, of an estate burdened with service to a superior for
the ancient notion of tribal folkland.
But although the tribal basis of communal arrangements
was shaken and removed in England in comparatively early
times, it had influenced the practices of rural husbandry and
landholding, and in the modified form of the village com-
munity it survived right through the feudal period, leaving
characteristic and material traces of its existence down to the
present day.
To begin with, the open-field system with intermixture of
strips and common rights in pasture and wood has been the
prevailing system in England for more than a thousand years.
Under the name of champion farming it existed everywhere in
the country until the Inclosure Acts of the i8th and igth centuries
put an end to it; it may be found in operation even now in
some of its features in backward districts. It would have
been absurd to build up these practices cf compulsory rotation
of crops, of a temporary relapse of plots into common pasture
between harvest and ploughing time, of the interdependence
of thrifty and negligent husbandmen in respect of weeds and
times of cultivation, &c., from the point of view of individual
appropriation. On the other hand, it was the natural system
for the apportionment of claims to the shareholders of an
organic and perpetual joint-stock company.
Practices of shifting arable are seldom reported in English
evidence. There are some traces of periodical redivisions of
arable land in Northumberland: under the name of runrig
system such practices seem to have been not uncommon in the
outer fields, the non-manured portions of townships in Scotland,
both among the Saxon inhabitants of the lowlands and the
Celtic population of the highlands. The joining of small tenants
for the purpose of coaration, for the formation of the big,
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
heavy ploughs, drawn by eight oxen, also produced sometimes
the shifting in the possession of strips between the coparceners
of the undertaking. But, as a rule, the arable was held in
severally by the different members of the township.
On the other hand, meadows were constantly owned by entire
townships and distributed between the tenements entitled to
shares from year to year either by lot or according to a definite
order. These practices are in full vigour in some places even
at the present day. Any person living in Oxford may witness
the distribution by lot on Lammas day (ist of August) of the
Lammas meadows, that is, the meadows inclosed for the sake
of raising hay-grass in the village of Yarnton, some three miles
to the north of Oxford.
Let us, however, return for a moment to the arable. Although
held in severally by different owners it was subjected to all
sorts of interference on the part of the village union as repre-
sented in later ages by the manorial court framing by-laws
and settling the course of cultivation. It might also happen
that in consequence of encroachments, disputes and general
uncertainty as to possession and boundaries, the whole distri-
bution of the strips of arable in the various fields had to be gone
over and regulated anew. In an interesting case reported from
a Cartulary of Dunstable in Bedfordshire, all the possessions
of the villagers in a place called Segenhoe were thrown together
in the i2th century and redivided according to an award of
experts chosen by a meeting of the villagers from among the
oldest and wisest inhabitants.
Exactly as in the Danish examples quoted before, the strips
were apportioned, not to the single owners, but to the normal
holdings, the hides, and the actual owners had to take them
in proportion to their several rights in the hides. This point
is very important. It gives the English village community its
peculiar stamp. It is a community not between single members
or casual households, but between determined holdings con-
structed on a proportional scale. Although there was no
provision for the admeasurement and equalization of the claims
of Smith and of Brown, each hide or ploughland of a township
took as much as every other hide, each virgate or yardland as
every other yardland, each bovate or oxgang as every other
oxgang. Now the proportions themselves, although vaiying
in respect of the number of acres included in each of these
units in different places, were constant in their relation to each
other. The yardland was almost everywhere one-fourth of the
hide or ploughland, and corresponded to the share of two
oxen in an eight-oxen plough; the oxgang was reckoned at
one-half of the yardland, and corresponded to the share of one
ox in the same unit of work. The constant repetition of these
fractions and units proves that we have to do in this case with
phenomena arising not from artificial devices but from the very
nature of the case. Nor can there be a doubt that both the
unit and the fractions were produced by the application to land
of the chief factor of working strength in agrarian husbandry,
the power of the ploughteam for tillage.
The natural composition of the holdings has its counterpart,
as in Schleswig-Holstein and as in the rest of Germany, in the
customs of united succession. The English peasantry worked
out customary rules of primogeniture or of so-called Borough
English or claim of the youngest to the land held by his father.
The German examples adduced in the beginning of this article
teach us that the device is not suggested primarily by the inte-
rest of the landlord. Unified succession takes the place of the
equal rights of sons, because it is the better method for preserving
the economic efficiency of the household and of the tenement
corresponding to it. There are exceptions, the most notorious
being that of Kentish gavelkind, but in agricultural districts the
holding remains undivided as long as possible, and if it gets
divided, the division follows the lines not of the casual number
of coheirs, but of the organic elements of the ploughlands.
Fourths and eighths arise in connexion with natural fractions of
the ploughteam of eight oxen.
One more feature of the situation remains to be noticed,
and it is the one which is still before our eyes in all parts of
the country, that is, the commons which have survived the
wholesale process of inclosure. They were an integral part
of the ancient village community from the first, not only because
the whole ground of a township could not be taken up by arable
and meadows, at a time when population was scanty, but
because there existed the most intimate connexion between
the agricultural and pastoral part of husbandry in the time of
the open-field system. Pasture was not treated as a commodity
by itself but was mostly considered as an adjunct, as appendant
to the arable, and so was the use of woods and of turf. This
fact was duly emphasized, e.g. in an Elizabethan case reported
by Coke Tyrringham's case. The problem of admeasurement
of pasture was regulated in the same way as that of the appor-
tionment of arable strips, by a reference to the proportional
holdings, the hides, yardiands and oxgangs of the township,
and the only question to be decided was how many heads of
cattle and how many sheep each hide and yardland had the
right to send to the common pasturage grounds.
When in course of time the open-field system and the tenure
of arable according to holdings were given up, the right of free-
holders and copyholders of the old manors in which the ancient
townships were, as it were, encased, still held good, but it became
much more difficult to estimate and to apportion such rights.
In connexion with the individualistic policy of inclosure
the old writ of admeasurement of commons was abolished
in 1837 (3 & 4 Will. IV.). The ordinary expedient is to make
out how much commonable cattle could be kept by the tene-
ments claiming commons through the winter. It is very
characteristic and important that in the leading modern case
on sufficiency of commons in Robertson v. Hartopp it was
admitted by the Court of Appeal that the sufficiency has to
be construed as a right of turning out a certain number of
beasts on the common, quite apart from the number which
had been actually turned out at any given time. Now a vested
right has to be construed from the point of view of the time
when it came into existence. The standards used to estimate
such rights ought not to be drawn from modern practice, which
might help to dispense altogether with commons of pasture by
stable feeding, substitutes for grass, &c., but ought to correspond
to the ordinary usages established at a time when the open-field
system was in full vigour. The legal view stands thus at
present, but we cannot conceal from ourselves that after all the
inroads achieved by individual appropriation it is by no means
certain that the reference to the rights and rules of a previous
period will continue to be recognized. However this may be,
in the present commons we have certainly a system which
draws its roots from customs, as to the origin of which legal
memory does not ran.
We may, in conclusion, summarize very briefly the principal
results of our inquiry as to the history of European village
communities. It seems that they may be stated under the
following heads: (i) Primitive stages of civilization disclose
in human society a strong tendency towards mutual support
in economic matters as well as for the sake of defence. (2) The
most natural form assumed by such unions for defence and
co-operation is that of kinship. (3) In epochs of pastoral
husbandry and of the beginnings of agriculture land is mainly
owned by tribes, kindreds and enlarged households, while
individuals enjoy only rights of usage and possession. (4) In
course of time unions of neighbours are substituted for unions
of kinsmen. (5) In Germanic societies the community of the
township rests on the foundation of efficient holdings bols,
hides, hufen kept together as far as possible by rules of united
or single succession. (6) The open-field system, which prevailed
in the whole of Northern Europe for nearly a thousand years,
was closely dependent on the customs of tribal and neighbourly
unions. (7) Even now the treatment of commons represents
the last manifestations of ancient communal arrangements, and
it can only be reasonably and justly interpreted by reference
to the law and practice of former times.
AUTHORITIES. Sir H. S. Maine, Village Communities in the
East and West (1872) ; E. de Laveleye, Das Ureigenthum, ubers. von
VILLALBA VILLANELLE
73
K. Biicher (Leipzig, 1879) ; A. Mcitzen, Siedelung und Agrarwesen der
Westgermanen und Ostgermanen, der Kelten, Romer, Finnen undSlaven.
Wanderungen, Anbau und Agrarrecht der Volker Europas nordlich der
Alpen (4 vols., Berlin, 1895); F. de Coulanges, Les Origines de la
propriele (Paris, 1893) ; M. Kovalewsky, Die okonomische Enturicklung
Europas bis zum Beginn der kapital^schen Wirtsclutftsform (Berlin,
1901); B. H. Baden-Powell, The Indian Village Community (London,
1896); The Land Systems of British India (Oxford, 1892); J.
Jolly, Tagore Lectures on the Law of Inheritance and Succession tn
India; Tn. Mommsen, Romische Forschungen (Berlin, 1864); P.
( .uiraud, La Propriele fonciere en Grecejusqu' a la conquete Romaine
(Paris, 1893); R. Pohlmann, Geschichte des antiken Kommunismus
und Socialismus (Miinchen, 1893); F. de Coulanges, La Cite antique
(Paris, l872);F. Seebohm, The Tribal System in Wales (London, 1904) ;
H. S. Maine, Lectures on the Early History of Institutions (London,
1875) ; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, La Famille celtique (Paris, 1905) ;
Cours de litterature celtique (Paris, 1902) ; R. Anderson, History of
Scotland (Edinburgh, 1874) ; C. Innes, Lectures on Scotch Legal Anti-
quities (Edinburgh, 1872); W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh,
1880); A. Dopsch, Die dltere Sozial- und Wirtschaftsverfassung der
Alpenslaven (Weimar, 1909); J. Peisxer, Die alteren Beziehungen der
Slawen zu Turkotataren und Germanen und ihre sozialgeschichtliche
Bedeutung (Stuttgart, 1905) ; G. Cohn, Gemeindenschaft und
Hausgenossenschaft (Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Rechtswissen-
schaft, XII!., 1899) ; Bogisic, Zborniken (Servian Collection of modern
legal customs of the Southern Slavs (Agram, 1874) ; De la forme dite
Inokosna de lafamille rurale chez les Serbes et IKS Creates (Paris, 1884) ;
T. T. Smirnoff, Sketch of Culture History of the Southern Slavs (Kazan,
1900) (Russian) ; F. Krauss, Sitte und Brauch der Sudslaven (Wien,
1885); A. Tschuproff, Die Feldgemeinschaft (Strassburg, 1902);
A. Efimenko, Southern Russia (Russian), vol. i. (1901); Peasant
Land-tenure in the Extreme North, I. (Russian) (1884) ; B. Ciderin,
Essays on the History of Russian Law (Russian) ; V. Sergievic,
Antiquities of Russian Law, III. (Russian) (St Petersburg, 1903);
Kocarovsky, The Russian Village Community (Russian) (1906) ;
A. Kaufmann, The Russian Village Community, I. (Russian) (Moscow,
1908) ; G. L. von Maurer, Einleitung zur Geschichle der Mark-, Hof-,
Dorf- und Stadtverfassung und der offentlichen Gewall (Munchen,
1854) ; Geschichle der Markenverfassung in Deutschland (Erlangen,
1856); Geschichte der Fronhofe, der Bauernhcfe und der Hofycr-
fassung in Deutschland (4 vols., Erlangen, 1862); Geschichte
der D&rfverfassung in Deutschland (2 vols,, Erlangen, 1865);
F. de Coulanges, Histcire des institutions poliiiques de I'ancienne
France (Paris, 1875-91); J. Flach, Les Origines de I'ancienne
France (Paris, 1893); E. Glasson, Les Communaux et le domaine
rurale a I'epoque franque: reponse d M. Fustel de Coulanges (Paris,
1890); K. Lamprecht, Deutsches Wirtschaftsleben im Mittelalier
(4 vols., Leipzig, 1885); F. Knapp, Grundherrschaft und Riltergut
(Leipzig, 1897); W. Wittich, Die Grundherrschaft in Nordwest
Deutschland (Leipzig, 1896) ; Rhamm, Die Grosshafen der Nordger-
manen (1905); G. Haussen, Agrarhistorische Abhandlungen (2 yols.,
Leipzig, 1880); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig,
1887); R. Schroder, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., 1894);
Fr. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (London, 1902);
M. Sering, Erbrecht und Agrarverfassung in Schleswig-Holstein
(Berlin, 1908) ; F. W. Maitland and Sir F. Pollock, The History
of English Law before the Time of Edward I. (Cambridge, 1895) ; F. W.
Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond: Three Essa.ys in the Early
History of England (Cambridge, 1897); Township and Borough (Cam-
bridge, 1898) ; Fr. Seebohm, The English Village Community (London,
1884); P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892); The
Growth of the Manor (London, 1905) ; English Society in the nth
Century (Oxford, 1907); G. L. Gomme, The Village Community
(London, 1890) ; C. I. Elton, A Treatise on Commons and Waste Lands
(London, 1868); Th. E. Scrutton, Commons and Commonfields
(Cambridge, 1887); J. Williams, Rights of Commons (London);
T. Stecnstrup, Studier over Kong Valdemars Jordebog (Copenhagen);
Lauridsen, Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed, II Raekke, vol. ii.
(Copenhagen, 1896) ; Steman, Dansk Retshistorie (Copenhagen, 1871) ;
A. Taranger, Norsk Retshistorie (Christiania, 1899). (P. Vi.)
VILLALBA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province
of Lugo; on the left bank of the river Ladra, one of the head-
streams of the Mino, and at the junction of the main roads
from Ferrol and Mondonedo to the city of Lugo. Pop. (1900)
13.572- Villalba is the chief town of the' district watered by
the Ladra, Tamboga and other small streams a fertile
plateau 1500 ft. above sea-level. Cloth and pottery are
manufactured, and there is some trade in grain and live stock.
The nearest railway station is Otero, 15 m. S. by E., on the
Lugo-Corunna line.
VILLAMEDIANA. COUNT DE (1582-1622), Spanish poet,
was born at Lisbon towards the end of 1582. His father, a
distinguished diplomatist, upon whom the dignity of count
was conferred in 1603, entrusted the education of the brilliant
boy (Juan de Tassis y Peralta) to Luis Tribaldos de Toledo,
the future editor of Mendoza's Guerras de Granada, and to
Bartolome Jimenez Pat6n, who subsequently dedicated
Mercurius Trismegistus to his pupil. On leaving Salamanca the
j'outh married in 1601, and succeeded to the title on the death
of his father in 1607; he was prominent in the dissipated life
of the capital, acquired a bad reputation as a gambler, was
forbidden to attend court, and resided in Italy from 1611 to
1617. On his return to Spain, he soon proved himself a fearless,
pungent satirist. Such public men as Lerma, Rodrigo
Calderon and Jorge de Tobar writhed beneath his murderous
invective; the foibles of humbler private persons were exposed
to public ridicule in verses furtively passed from hand to hand.
So great was the resentment caused by these envenomed
attacks that Villamediana was once more ordered to withdraw
from court in 1618. He returned on the death of Philip III.
and was appointed gentleman in waiting to Philip IV.'s young
wife, Isabel de Bourbon, daughter of Henri IV. Secure in
his position, he scattered his scathing epigrams in profusion;
but his ostentatious attentions to the queen supplied his
countless foes with a weapon which was destined to destroy
him. A fire broke out while his masque, La Gloria de Niguea,
was being acted before the court on the isth of May 1622, and
Villamediana carried the queen to a place of safety. Suspicion
deepened; Villamediana neglected a significant warning that
his life was in peril, and on the 2ist of August 1622 he was
murdered as he stepped out of his coach. The responsibility
for his death was divided between Philip IV. and Olivares; the
actual assassin was either Alonso Mateo or Ignacio Mendez;
and naturally the crime remained unpunished.
Villamediana 's works, first published at Saragossa in 1629,
contain not only the nervous, blighting verses which made
him widely feared and hated, but a number of more serious
poems embodying the most exaggerated conceits of gongorism.
But, even when adopting the perverse conventions of the hour,
he remains a poet of high distinction, and his satirical verses,
more perfect in form, are instinct with a cold, concentrated
scorn which has never been surpassed. (J. F.-K.)
VILLANELLE, a form of verse, originally loose in construc-
tion, but since the i6th century bound in exact limits of an arbi-
trary kind. The word is ultimately derived from the Latin villa,
a country house or farm, through the Italian vittano, a peasant
or farm hand, and a villanelle was primarily a round song
taken up by men on a farm. The Spaniards called such a song
a villancejo or villancete or a villancico, and a man who impro-
vised villanelles was a villanciquero. The villanelle was a
pastoral poem made to accompany a rustic dance, and from the
first 'it was necessary that it should contain a regular system
of repeated lines. The old French villanelles, however, were
irregular in form. One of the most celebrated, the " Rosette,
pour un peu d'absence " of Philippe Desportes (1545-1606), is
a sort of ballade, and those contained in the Astree of d'Urf6,
1610, are scarcely less unlike the villanelles of modern times. It
appears, indeed, to have been by an accident that the special
and rigorously defined form of the villanelle was invented. In
the posthumous poems of Jean Passerat (1534-1602), which
were printed in 1606, several villanelles were discovered, in
different forms. One of these became, and has remained, so
deservedly popular, that it has given its exact character to
the subsequent history of the villanelle. This famous poem
runs as follows:
" J'ai perdu ma tourterelle :
Est-ce point celle que j'oi?
Je veux aller apres elle.
Tu regrettes ta femelle?
Helas! aussi fais-je moi :
J'ai perdu ma tourterelle.
Si ton amour est fidele,
Aussi est ferme ma foi :
Je veux aller apres elle.
Ta plainte se renouvelle?
Toujours plaindre je me dois:
J'ai perdu ma tourterelle.
74
VILLANI
En ne voyant plus la belle
Plus rien de beau je ne vois:
Je veux aller apres elle.
Mort, que tant de fois j'appelle,
Prends ce qui se donne a toi:
J'ai perdu ma tourterelle,
e veux aller apres elle."
This exquisite lyric has continued to be the type of its class
and the villanelie, therefore, for the last three hundred years
has been a poem, written in tercets, on two rhymes, the first
and the third line being repeated alternatively in each tercet
It is usual to confine the villanelie to five tercets, but that is
not essential; it must, however, close with a quatrain, the
last two lines of which are the first and third line of the original
tercet. The villanelie was extremely admired by the French
poets of the Parnasse, and one of them, Theodore de Banville,
compared it to a ribband of silver and gold traversed by a
thread of rose-colour. Boulmier, who was the first to point
out that Passerat was the inventor of the definite villanelie,
published collections of these poems in 1878 and 1879, and
was preparing another when he died in 1881. When, in 1877,
so many of the early French forms of verse were introduced, or
reintroduced, into English literature, the villanelie attracted
a great deal of attention; it was simultaneously cultivated by
W. E. Henley, Austin Dobson, Lang and Gosse. Henley wrote
a large number, and he described the form itself in a specimen
beginning:
" A dainty thing's the Villanelie,
Sly, musical, a jewel in rhyme,
It serves its purpose passing well."
It has since then been very frequently used by English and
American poets. There are several excellent examples in
English of humorous villanelles, especially those by Austin
Dobson and by Henley.
See Joseph Boulmier, Les Villanelles (Paris, 1878; 2nd enlarged
edition, 1879). (E. G.)
VILLANI, GIOVANNI (c. 1275-1348), Italian chronicler, was
the son of Villano di Stoldo, and was born at Florence in the
second half of the i$th century; the precise year is unknown.
He was of good burgher extraction, and, following the traditions
of his family, applied himself to commerce. During the early
years of the i4th century he travelled in Italy, France and
the Netherlands, seeing men and things with the sagacity
alike of the man of business and of the historian. Before
leaving Florence, or rather in the interval between one journey
and another, he had at least taken some part in that troubled
period of civil contentions which Dino Compagni has described
and which swept Dante Alighieri into banishment. In 1301
Villani saw Charles, count of Valois, ruining his country under
the false name of peacemaker, and was witness of all the misery
which immediately followed. Somewhat later he left Italy,
and in September 1304 he visited Flanders. It is not well
ascertained when he returned to his native city. He was
certainly living there shortly after the emperor Henry VII.
visited Italy in 1312, and probably he had been there for some
time before. While still continuing to occupy himself with
commerce, he now began to take a prominent part in public
affairs. In 1316 and 1317 he was one of the priors, and shared
in the crafty tactics whereby Pisa and Lucca were induced to
conclude a peace with Florence, to which they were previously
averse. In 1317 he also had charge of the mint, and during
his administration of this office he collected its earlier records
and had a register made of all the coins struck in Florence.
In 1321 he was again chosen prior; and, the Florentines having
just then undertaken the rebuilding of the city walls, he and
some other citizens were deputed to look after the work. They
were afterwards accused of having diverted the public money
to private ends, but Villani clearly established his innocence.
He was next sent with the army against Castruccio Castracani,
lord of Lucca, and was present at its defeat at Altopascio. In
1328 a terrible famine visited many provinces of Italy, including
Tuscany, and Villani was appointed to guard Florence from
the worst effects of that distressing period. He has left a record
of what was done in a chapter of his Chronicle, which shows
the economic wisdom in which the medieval Florentines were
often so greatly in advance of their age. In 1339, some time
after the death of Castruccio, some rich Florentine merchants,
and among them Villani, treated for the acquisition of Lucca
by Florence for 80,000 florins, offering to supply the larger
part of that sum out of their own private means; but the
negotiations fell through, owing to the discords and jealousies
then existing in the government (Chron. x. 143). The following
year Villani superintended the making of Andrea Pisano's
bronze doors for the baptistery. In the same year he watched
over the raising of the campanile of the Badia, erected by
Cardinal Giovanni Orsini (Chron. x. 177). In 1341 the acquisi-
tion of Lucca was again under treaty, this time with Martino
della Scala, for 250,000 florins. Villani was sent with others
as a hostage to Ferrara, where he remained for some months.
He was present in Florence during the unhappy period that
elapsed between the entry of Walter of Brienne, duke of Athens,
and his expulsion by the Florentines (1342-43). Involved
through no fault of his own in the failure of the commercial
company of the Bonaccorsi, which in its turn had been drawn
into the failure of the company of the Bardi, Villani, towards
the end of his life, suffered much privation and for some time
was kept in prison. In 1348 he fell a victim to the plague
described by Boccaccio.
The idea of writing the Chronicle was suggested to Villani under
the following circumstances: " In the year of Christ 1300 Pope
Boniface VIII. made in honour of Christ's nativity a special and
great indulgence. And I, finding myself in that blessed pilgrim-
age in the holy city of Rome, seeing her great and ancient remains,
and reading the histories and great deeds of the Romans as written
by Virgil, Sallust, Lucan, Livy, Valerius, Paulus Orosius and other
masters of history who wrote the exploits and deeds, both great and
small, of the Romans and also of strangers, in the whole world . . .
considering that our city of Florence, the daughter and offspring
of Rome, is on the increase and destined to do great things, as
Rome is in her decline, it appeared to me fitting to set down in
this volume and new chronicle all the facts and beginnings of the
city of Florence, in as far as it has been possible to me to collect
and discover them, and to follow the doings of the Florentines at
length . . . and so in the year 1300, on my return from Rome,
I began to compile this book, in honour of God and of the blessed
John, and in praise of our city of Florence." Villani's work, written
in Italian, makes its appearance, so to speak, unexpectedly in the
historical literature of Italy, just as the history of Florence, the
moment it emerges from the humble and uncertain origin assigned
:o it by legend, rises suddenly into a rich and powerful life of
thought and action. Nothing but scanty and partly legendary
records had preceded Villani's work, which rests in part on them.
The Gesta Florentinorum of Sanzanome, starting from these vague
origins, begins to be more definite about 1125, at the time of the
union of Fiesole with Florence. The Chronica de Origine Civitatis
seems to be a compilation, made by various hands and at various
:imes, in which the different legends regarding the city's origin
lave been gradually collected. The Annales Florentini Primi
[1110-1173) and the Annales Florentini Secundi (1107-1247), to-
gether with a list of the consuls and podestas from 1197 to 1267,
and another chronicle, formerly attributed, but apparently with-
mt good reason, to Brunetto Latini, complete the series of ancient
"lorentine records. To these must, however, be added a certain
luantity of facts which were to be found in various manuscripts,
>eing used and quoted by the older Florentine and Tuscan writers
mder the general name of Gesta Florentinorum. Another work,
ormerly reckoned among the sources of Villani, is the Chronicle
)/ the Malespini; but grave doubts are now entertained as to its
luthenticity, and many hold that at best it is merely a remodel-
ing, posterior to Villani's time, of old records from which several
chroniclers may have drawn, either without citing them at all or
only doing so in a vague manner.
The Historic Florentine, or Cronica universale, of Villani begins
with Biblical times and comes down to 1348. The universality of
:he narrative, especially in the times near Villani's own, while it
>ears witness to the author's extensive travels and to the compre-
lensiveness of his mind, makes one also feel that the book was
nspired within the walls of the universal city. Whereas Dino
Compagni's Chronicle is confined within definite limits of time and
)lace, this of Villani is a general chronicle extending over the
vhole of Europe. Dino Compagni feels and lives in the facts of
lis history; Villani looks at them and relates them calmly and
airly, with a serenity which makes him seem an outsider, even
vhen he is mixed up in them. While very important for Italian
istory in the I4th century, this work is the cornerstone of the
VILLANOVA VILLARD
75
early medieval history of Florence. Of contemporary events
Villani has a very exact knowledge. Having been a sharer in the
public affairs and in the intellectual and economic life of his native
city, at a time when in both it had no rival in Europe, he depicts
what he saw with the vividness natural to a clear mind accustomed
to business and to the observation of mankind. He was Guelph,
but without passion; and his book is much more taken up with an
inquiry into what is useful and true than with party considerations.
He is really a chronicler, not an historian, and has but little method
in his narrative, often reporting the things which occurred long
ago just as he heard them and without criticism. Every now and
then he falls into some inaccuracy; but such defects as he has are
largely compensated for by his valuable qualities. He was for half
a century eyewitness of his history, and he provides abundant
information on the constitution of Florence, its customs, industries,
commerce and arts; and among the chronicleis throughout Europe
he is perhaps unequalled for the value of the statistical data he has
preserved. As a writer Villani is clear and acute; and, though
his prose has not the force and colouring of Compagni's, it has the
advantage of greater simplicity, so that, taking his work as a whole,
he may be regarded as the greatest chronicler who has written in
Italian. The many difficulties connected with the publication of
this important text have hitherto prevented the preparation of a
perfect edition. However, the Chronicle has been printed by L. A.
Muratori in tome xiii. of the Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (Milan,
1728), and has been edited by I. Moutier and F. G. Dragomanni
(Florence, 1844). Among other editions is one published at Trieste
in 1857 and another at Turin in 1879. Selections have been trans-
lated into English by R. E. Selfe (1896).
Villani's Chronicle was continued by two other members of his
family, (i) MATTEO VILLANI, his brother, of whom nothing is
known save that he was twice married and that he died of the
plague in 1363, continued it down to the year of his death. Matteo's
work, though inferior to Giovanni's, is nevertheless very valuable.
A more prolix writer than his brother and a less acute observer,
Matteo is well informed in his facts, and for the years of which he
writes is one of the most important sources of Italian history.
(2) FILIPPO VILLANI, the son of Matteo, flourished in the end of the
I4th and the beginning of the 15th century. In his continuation
which goes down to 1364, though showing greater literary ability,
he is very inferior as an historian to his predecessors. His most
valuable work was a collection of lives of illustrious Florentines.
Twice, in 1401 and 1404, he was chosen to explain in public the
Divina Commedia. The year of his death is unknown.
See P. Scheffer-Boichorst, Florentiner Studien (Leipzig, 1874);
G. Gervinus, " Geschichte der Florentinen Historiographie " in his
Historische Schriften (1833); U. Balzani, Le cronache Italiane
nel media evo (Milan, 1884) ; A. Gaspary, Geschichte der italienischen
Lileratur (Berlin, 1885) ; O. Knoll, Beitrdge zur italienischen Historio-
graphie im 14. Jahrhundert (Gottingen 1876), and O. Hartwig, " G.
Villani und die Leggenda di Messer Gianni di Procida " in Band
xxv. of H. von Sybers Historische Zeitschrift. (U. B.)
VILLANOVA, the name given to an ancient cemetery in
the neighbourhood of Bologna, Italy, and generally applied by
archaeologists to all the remains of that period, and to the
period itself, owing to the discovery therein of a large
number of the characteristic remains of the earliest Iron Age of
Italy. The antiquities of this culture are widely spread over
upper Italy and differ essentially from those of the previous
epoch known as Terramara, and they have been described
by some as following at a considerable interval, for they show
a great advance in metal work. The chief cemeteries of the
Villanova period are at Bologna, Este, Villanova, Golasecca,
Trezzo, Rivoli and Oppiano. As there can be no doubt that
the Terramara culture was that of the aboriginal Ligurians
(see, however, TERRAMARA), so the Villanova is that of the
Umbrians, who, according to the historians, were masters of
all northern Italy, as far as the Alps at the time of the
Etruscan conquest (c. 1000 B.C.). They contain cist-graves,
the bottoms, sides and tops being formed of flat unhewn
stones, though sometimes there are only bottom and top
slabs: the dead were burnt, and the remains are usually
in urns, each grave containing as a rule but one ossuary;
sometimes the vessel is covered with a flat stone or a dish
inverted, sometimes the urns are deposited in the ground
without any protection. The vases arc often hand-made
and adorned with incised linear ornament, though in later
times the bones were often placed in bronze urns or buckets.
Though iron is steadily making its way into use, flat, flanged,
and socketed and looped celts of bronze are found in con-
siderable numbers. Brooches of many kinds, ranging from
the most primitive safety-pin fashioned out of a common
bronze pin (such as those found in the Bronze Age settlement
at Peschiera on Lake Maggiore), through many varieties, are
in universal use. Representations of the human figure are
practically unknown, but models of animals of a rude and
primitive kind are very common, probably being votive
offerings. These are closely parallel to the bronze figures
found at Olympia, where human figures were likewise rare.
All these objects are decorated in repoussf with geometric
designs. The culture of the Villanova period is part of the
Hallstatt civilization, though the contents of the Hallstatt
(q.v.) graves differ in several marked features from the anti-
quities of the ordinary Villanova period, there is no breach
of continuity between Hallstatt and Villanova, for the types
of Vadena, Este, Golasecca and Villanova are found in the
Hallstatt culture. The connexion between the north and the
south of the Alps is never interrupted. The chief difference
lies in the fact that the Celts of the Danubian region made
greater advances in the development of weapons and defensive
armour than their kindred in northern Italy. The Po and
Danube regions alike are characterized by bronze buckets,
cists, girdles and the like, wrought in repoussi with animal and
geometric designs; but the introduction of iron into Italy is
considerably posterior to its development in the Hallstatt
area.
See Montelius, La Civilisation primitive en Italic; Ridgeway,
Early Age of Greece, vol. i. ; Brizio, in C. R. Acad. Inscr. (1906),
315 sqq.; Grenier, in Melanges de I icole franchise (1907), 325 sqq.;
Pigorim and Vaglieri have contributed articles to the Rendiconli
del Lincei and the Notizie degli scavi from 1907 onwards. (W. Ri.)
VILLANUEVA DE LA SERENA, a town of western Spain,
in the province of Badajoz, near the left bank of the river
Guadiana, and on the Madrid-Badajoz railway. Pop. (1900)
13,489. Villanueva is a clean and thriving place, with good
modern public buildings town hall, churches, convents and
schools. It is the chief town of an undulating plain, La Serena,
locally celebrated for red wine and melons. Grain and hemp
are also cultivated, and live stock extensively reared in the
neighbourhood.
VILLANUEVA Y GELTRU, a seaport of north-eastern Spain,
in the province of Barcelona; on the Barcelona-Tarragona
section of the coast railway. Pop. (1900) 11,850. Villanueva
is a busy modern town, with manufactures of cotton, woollen
and linen goods, and of paper. It has also iron foundries and
an important agricultural trade. The harbour affords safe
and deep anchorage; it is a lifeboat station and the head-
quarters of a large fishing fleet. The coasting trade is also
considerable. Villanueva has a museum, founded by the
Catalan poet, historian and diplomat, Vittorio Balaguer (1824-
1901), which contains collections of Roman, Egyptian and
prehistoric antiquities, besides paintings, engravings, sculptures,
coins and a large library, including many valuable MSS.
VILLARD, HENRY (1835-1900), American journalist and
financier, was born in Speyer, Rhenish Bavaria, on the loth of
April 1835. His baptismal name was Ferdinand Heinrich
Gustav Hilgard. His parents removed to Zweibriicken in
1839, and in 1856 his father, Gustav Leonhard Hilgard (d.i867),
became a justice of the Supreme Court of Bavaria, at Munich.
Henry was educated ar-the gymnasium of Zweibriicken, at
the French semi-military academy in Phalsbourg in 1849-50,
at the gymnasium of Speyer in 1850-52, and at the universities
of Munich and Wurzburg in 1852-53; and in 1853, having had
a disagreement with his father, emigrated without his parents'
knowledge to the United States. It was at this time that
he adopted the name Villard. Making his way westward in
1854, he lived in turn at Cincinnati, Belleville (Illinois), Peoria
(Illinois) and Chicago, engaged in various employments, and
in 1856 formed a project, which came to nothing, for establish-
ing a colony of " free soil " Germans in Kansas. In 1856-57
he was editor, and for part of the time was proprietor, of the
Racine (Wis.) Volksblatt, in which he advocated the election
of John C. Fr6mont (Republican). Thereafter he was associ-
ated (in 1857) with the Staats-Zrilung, Frank Leslie's and the
Tribune, of New York, and with the Cincinnati Commercial
7 6
VILLA REAL VILLA RS
in 1859-60; was correspondent of the New York Herald in
1861 and of the New York Tribune (with the Army of the
Potomac) in 1862-63, and in 1864 was at the front as the
representative of a news agency established by him in that
year at Washington. In 1865 he became Washington corre-
spondent of the Chicago Tribune, and in 1866 was the corre-
spondent of that paper in the Prusso-Austrian War. He began
to take an interest in railway financiering in 1871, was elected
president of the Oregon & California railroad and of the Oregon
Steamship Company in 1876, was receiver of the Kansas Pacific
railway in 1876-78, organized the Oregon Railway & Naviga-
tion Company in 1879, the Oregon Improvement Company in
1880, and the Oregon & Transcontinental Company in 1881,
becoming in that year president of the Northern Pacific rail-
way, which was completed under his management, and of
which he remained president until 1883. In 1887 he again
became connected with the Northern Pacific, and in 1889 was
chosen chairman of its finance committee. He was actively
identified with the financing of other Western railway projects
until 1893. In 1 88 1 he acquired the New York Evening Post
and the Nation. In 1883 he paid the debt of the state uni-
versity of Oregon, and gave to the institution $50.000, and
he also gave to the town of Zweibrucken, the home of his
boyhood, an orphan asylum (1891). He died on the I2th of
November 1900.
See Memoirs of Henry Villard, Journalist and Financier, 1835-
1900 (2 vols., Boston, 1904).
VILLA REAL, the capital of the district of [Villa Real,
Portugal; 10 m. N. of the river Douro and 47 m. by road
'E.N.E. of Oporto. Pop. (1900) 6716. The town has a large
transit trade in wine, mineral waters and live stock, especially
pigs. The administrative district of Villa Real corresponds
with the western part of the ancient province of Traz os Montes
(q.v.). Pop. (1900) 242,196; area, 1650 sq. m. There are
alkaline waters and baths at Vidago (near Chaves) and at
Pedras Salgadas (near Villa Pouca d'Aguiar). The district
adjacent to the Douro is known as the Paiz do vinho, or " wine
country"; here are the vineyards from which " port " wine is
manufactured.
VILLARET DE JOYEUSE, LOUIS THOMAS (1750-1812),
French admiral, was born at Auch, of a noble family of Lan-
guedoc. He was originally destined for the church, but served
for some time in the royal guard, which he had to leave at
the age of sixteen after killing one of his comrades in a duel.
He then entered the navy, and in 1773 was lieutenant on the
" Atalante " in Indian waters. In 1778 he distinguished him-
self at the siege of Pondicherry^ and was promoted captain. He
afterwards served under Suffren, took part in the battle of
Cuddalore, and in 1781 was taken prisoner after a fierce
encounter with an English vessel. He was released in 1783,
and, unlike the majority of naval officers, did not emigrate
during the Revolution. In 1791 he was in command of the
" Prudente " in the waters of San Domingo, and in 1794 was
appointed rear-admiral and assisted the Conventional, St
Andre, in the reorganization of the fleet. Villaret was in com-
mand of the French fleet at the battle of the First of June. He
was appointed a member of the Council of the Ancients in 1796,
and was sentenced to deportation in the following year on ac-
count of his royalist sympathies. He escaped arrest, however,
and until the Consulate lived in obscurity at Oleron. In 1801
he commanded the squadron which transported the French
army to San Domingo, and the following year was made captain-
general of Martinique, which he surrendered to the English in
1809 after a brave defence. In 1811, after some hesitation on
the part of Napoleon, Villaret was rewarded for his services with
the command of a military division and the post of governor-
general of Venice. He died at Venice.
VILLARI, PASQUALE (1827- ), Italian historian and
statesman, was born at Naples on the 3rd of October 1827.
He studied together with Luigi la Vista under Francesco de
Sanctis. He was implicated in the riots of the isth of May 1848
at Naples, against the Bourbon government, and had to take
refuge in Florence. There he devoted himself to teaching
and historical research in the public libraries, and in 1859 he
published the first volume of his Storia di Girolamo Savona-
rola e de' suoi tempi, in consequence of which he was appointed
professor of history at Pisa. A second volume appeared in
1861, and the work, which soon came to be recognized as an
Italian classic, was translated into various foreign languages.
It was followed by a work of even greater critical value,
Niccold Machiavelli e i suoi tempi (1877-82). In the mean-
while Villari had left Pisa and was transferred to the chair
of philosophy of history at the Institute of Studii Superiori in
Florence, and he was also appointed a member of the council
of education (1862). He served as a juror at the international
exhibition of that year in London, and contributed an important
monograph on education in England and Scotland. In 1869
he was appointed under-secretary of state for education, and
shortly afterwards was elected member of parliament, a position
which he held for several years. In 1884 he was nominated
senator, and in 1891-92 he was minister of education in the
Marchese di Rudini's first cabinet. In 1893-94 he collected a
number of essays on Florentine history, originally published in
the Nuova. Antologia, under the title of I primi due secoli della
storia di Firenze, and in 1901 he produced Le Invasioni bar-
bariche in Italia, a popular account in one volume of the events
following the dissolution of the Roman empire. All these
works have been translated into English by the historian's
wife, Linda White Villari. Another side of Villari's activity
was his interest in the political and social problems of the
day; and although never identified with any political party,
his speeches and writings have always commanded considerable
public attention.
Among his other literary works may be mentioned: Saggi
Critici (1868); Arte, Storia, e Filosofia (Florence, 1884); Scritti
varii (Bologna, 1894); another volume of Saggi Critici (Bologna,
1896); and a volume of Discussioni critiche e discorsi (Bologna,
1905), containing his speeches as president of the Dante Alighieri
Society. His most important political and social essays are col-
lected in his Lettere Meridional! ed altri scritti sulla questione sociale
in Italia (Turin, 1885), and Scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia
(FIorence,'i9O2). The Lettere Meridionali (originally published in the
newspaper L'Opinione in 1875) produced a deep impression, as they
were the first exposure of the real conditions of southern Italy. A
selection of Villari's essays, translated by his wife, has been published
in England (1907).
See also Francesco Baldasseroni, Pasquale Villari (Florence, 1907).
VILLA RICA, the largest city in the interior of Paraguay,
on the railway from Asuncion (70 m. N.W.) to Encarnacion.
Pop. (1910) about 25,000. Situated in a rich agricultural
region watered by the upper Tepicuary, with finely timbered
mountains extending to the E. and W., Villa Rica has an im-
portant trade in tobacco and yerba mate. It is to a great
extent modern, and contains some fine buildings, including a
national college, a church, many schools, and a branch of the
Agricultural Bank.
VILLARREAL, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of
Castell6n de la Plana; 4 m. from the Mediterranean Sea, near
the right bank of the river Mijares, and on the Barcelona-
Valencia railway. Pop. (1900) 16,068. Villarreal has a
station on the light railway between Onda and the seaports
of Castellon de la Plana and Burriana. Under Moorish rule,
and up to the expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1609, it was the
headquarters of a flourishing trade, and in modern times its
industries have revived. Palm-groves, churches with blue-
tiled cupolas, and houses with flat roofs and view-turrets
(miradores) to some extent preserve the Moorish character
of the town. There are extensive orange-groves, watered
by the irrigation canal of Castell6n, which is a good example
of Moorish engineering skill. The local industries include
manufactures of paper, woollen goods and spirits.
VILLARS, CLAUDE LOUIS HECTOR DE, PRINCE DE MAR-
TIGNES, MARQUIS AND Due DE VILLARS AND VICOMTE DE MELUN
(1653-1734), marshal of France, one of the greatest generals
of French history, was bom at Moulins on the 8th of May 1653,
and entered the army through the corps of pages in 1671. He
VILLAVICIOSA VILLEGAS
77
served in the light cavalry in the Dutch wars, and distinguished
himself by his daring and resourcefulness. But in spite of a
long record of excellent service under Turenne, Cond6 and
Luxembourg, and of his aristocratic birth, his promotion was
but slow, for he had incurred the enmity of the powerful Louvois,
and although he had been proprietary colonel (mestre de camp)
of a cavalry regiment since 1674, thirteen years elapsed
before he was made a martchal de camp. In the interval be-
tween the Dutch wars and the formation of the League of Augs-
burg, Villars, who combined with his military gifts the tact
and subtlety of the diplomatist, was employed in an unofficial
mission to the court of Bavaria, and there became the constant
companion of the elector, with whom he took the field against
the Turks and fought at Mohacs. He returned to France in
1690 and was given a command in the cavalry of the army in
Flanders, but towards the end of the Grand Alliance War he
went to Vienna as ambassador. His part in the next war
(see SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR), beginning with Friedlingen
(1702) and Hochstett (1703) and ending with Denain (1712),
has made him immortal. For Friedlingen he received the
marshalate, and for the pacification of the insurgent Cevennes
the Saint-Esprit order and the title of duke. Friedlingen and
Hochstett were barren victories, and the campaigns of which
they formed part records of lost opportunities. Villars's glory
thus begins with the year 1709 when France, apparently help-
less, was roused to a great effort of self-defence by the exorbi-
tant demands of the Coalition. In that year he was called to
command the main army opposing Eugene and Marlborough
on the northern frontier. During the famine of the winter he
shared the soldiers' miserable rations. When the campaign
opened the old Marshal Boufflers volunteered to serve under
him, and after the terrible battle of Malplaquet (q.v.), in which
he was gravely wounded, he was able to tell the king: " If
it please God to give your majesty's enemies another such
victory, they are ruined. " Two more campaigns passed without a
battle and with scarcely any advance on the part of the invaders,
but at last Marlborough manoeuvred Villars out of the famous
Ne plus ultra lints, and the power of the defence seemed to be
broken. But Louis made a last effort, the English contingent
and its great leader were withdrawn from the enemy's camp,
and Villars, though still suffering from his Malplaquet wounds,
outmanoeuvred and decisively defeated Eugene in the battle
of Denain. This victory saved France, though the war dragged
on for another year on the Rhine, where ViLlars took Landau,
led the stormers at Freiburg and negotiated the peace of Rastatt
with Prince Eugene.
He played a conspicuous part in the politics of the Regency
period as the principal opponent of Cardinal Dubois, and only
the memories of Montmorency's rebellion prevented his being
made constable of France. He took the field for the last time
in the War of the Polish Succession (1734), with the title
" marshal-general of the king's armies," that Turenne alone
had held before him. But he was now over eighty years of
age, and the war was more diplomatic than earnest, and after
opening the campaign with all the fire and restless energy of
his youth he died at Turin on the I7th of June 1734.
Villars's memoirs show us a " fanfaron plein d honneur,"
as Voltaire calls him. He was indeed boastful, with the gas-
conading habit of his native province, and also covetous of
honours and wealth. But he was an honourable man of high
courage, moral and physical, and a soldier who stands above
all his contemporaries and successors in the i8th century, on
the same height as Marlborough and Frederick.
The memoirs, part of which was published in 1734 and afterwards
several times republished in untrustworthy versions, were for the
first time completely edited by the Marquis de Vogue in 1884-92.
VILLAVICIOSA, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province
of Oviedo; on the Ria de Villa viciosa, an estuary formed by the
small river Villaviciosa which here enters the Bay of Biscay.
Pop. (1000) 20,995. The town is the headquarters of a large
fishery, and has some coasting trade. Its exports are 'chiefly
agricultural produce. Villaviciosa suffers from the competition
of the neighbouring ports of Gij6n and Aviles, and from the lack
of railway communication. It is connected by good roads with
Siero (13 m.) and Infiesto (9 m.) on the Oviedo-Infiesto railway.
VILLEFRANCHE-DE-ROUERGUE, a town of France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Aveyron, 36 m. W.
of Rodez by road. Pop. (1906) town, 6297; commune, 3352.
Villefranche, which has a station on the Orleans railway, lies
amongst the hills on the right bank of the Aveyron at its junction
with the Alzou. One of the three bridges that cross the river
belongs to the i3th century, and the straight, narrow streets are
full of gabled houses of the I3th and I4th centuries. One of the
principal thoroughfares passes beneath the porch of Notre-Dame.
the principal church of Villefranche. Notre-Dame was built
from 1260 to 1581, the massive tower which surmounts its
porch being of late Gothic architecture. The remarkable wood-
work in the choir dates from the isth century. A Carthusian
monastery overlooking the town from the left bank of the
Aveyron derives much interest from the completeness and
fine preservation of its buildings, which date from the ijth
century. They include a fine refectory and two cloisters, the
smaller of which is a masterpiece of the late Gothic style. The
manufacture of leather, animal-traps, hosiery, bell-founding,
hemp-spinning, &c., are carried on. Quarries of phosphates
and mines of argentiferous lead are worked near Villefranche.
Villefranche, founded about 1252, owes its name to the
numerous immunities granted by its founder Alphonse, count
of Toulouse (d. 1271), and in 1348 it was so flourishing that
sumptuary laws were passed. Soon afterwards the town fell
into the hands of Edward, the Black Prince, but was the first
place in Guienne to rise against the English. New privileges
were granted to the town by King Charles V., but these were
taken away by Louis XI. In 1588 the inhabitants repulsed the
forces of the League, and afterwards murdered a governor sent by
Henry IV. The town was ravaged by plague in 1463, 1558 and
1628, and in 1643 a revolt, excited by the exactions of the
intendants, was cruelly repressed.
VILLEFRANCHE-SUR-SAONE, a manufacturing town of east-
central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department
of Rh6ne, on the Morgon near its junction with the Sa&ne, 21 m.
N. by W. of Lyons by rail. Pop (1006) 14,794. Among its
industries the chief are the manufacture of working clothes, the
manufacture, dyeing and finishing of cotton fabrics, the spinning
of cotton thread, copper founding and the manufacture of
machinery and agricultural implements. The wines of Beau-
jolais, hemp, cloth, linen, cottons, drapery goods and cattle
are the principal articles of trade. An old Renaissance house is
used as the town hall. The church of Notre-Dame des Marais,
begun at the end of the i4th and finished in the i6th century,
has a tower and spire (rebuilt in 1862), standing to the right of
the facade (isth century), in which are carved wooden doors.
Villefranche is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a com-
munal college among its public institutions.
Founded in 1212 by Guichard IV. count of Beaujeu, Ville-
franche became in the I4th century capital of the Beaujolais.
As a punishment for an act of violence towards the mayor's
daughter, Edward II. was forced to surrender the Beaujolais to
the duke of Bourbon.
VILLEGAS, ESTEBAN MANUEL DE (1580-1669), Spanish
poet, was born at Matute (Logrofio) on the 5th of February 1589,
matriculated at Salamanca on the 2oth of November 1610, and
challenged attention by the mingled arrogance and accomplish-
ment of Las Eriiicas (1617), a collection of clever translations
from Horace and Anacreon, and of original poems, the charm of
which is marred by the writer's petulant vanity. Marrying
in 1626 or earlier, Villegas practised law at Najera till 1659, when
he was charged with expressing unorthodox views on the
subject of free will; he was exiled for four years to Santa Maria
de Ribaredonda, but was allowed to return for three months
to Najera in March 1660. It seems probable that the rest of the
sentence was remitted, for the report of the local inquisition lays
stress on Villegas's simple piety, on the extravagance of his attire,
VILLEHARDOUIN
ridiculous in a man of his age, and on the eccentricity of his
general conduct and conversation, so marked as to suggest " a
kind of mania or lesion of the imagination." In his version of
Boetius (1665), Villegas showed that he had profited by his
experience, for he made no attempt to translate the last book
(in which the problem of free will is discussed), and reprinted
the Latin text without comment. He died at Najera on the 3rd
of September 1669. His tragedy El Hipdlito, imitated from
Euripides, and a series of critical dissertations entitled Variae
PhUologiae, finished in 1650, are unpublished; and " a book of
satires," found among his papers by the inquisitors, was con-
fiscated.
VILLEHARDOUIN, GEOFFROY DE (c. n6o-c. 1213), the
first vernacular historian of France, and perhaps of modern
Europe, who possesses literary merit, is rather supposed than
known to have been born at the chateau from which he took
his name, near Troyes, in Champagne, about the year 1160.
Not merely his literary and historical importance, but almost all
that is known about him, comes from his chronicle of the fourth
crusade, or Conqutle de Constantinople. Nothing is positively
known of his ancestry, for the supposition (originating with Du
Cange) that a certain William, marshal of Champagne between
1163 and 1179, was his father appears to be erroneous. Ville-
hardouin himself, however, undoubtedly held this dignity, and
certain minute and perhaps not very trustworthy indications,
chiefly of an heraldic character, have led his most recent bio-
graphers to lay it down that he was not born earlier than 1150
or later than 1164. He introduces himself to us with a certain
abruptness, merely specifying his own name as one of a list of
knights of Champagne who with their count, Thibault, took
the cross at a tournament held at Escry-sur-Aisne in Advent
1199, the crusade in contemplation having been started by the
preaching of Fulk de Neuilly, who was commissioned thereto by
Pope Innocent III. The next year six deputies, two appointed
by each of the three allied counts of Flanders, Champagne and
Blois, were despatched to Venice to negotiate for ships. Of
these deputies Villehardouin was one and Quesnes de Bethune,
the poet, another. They concluded a bargain with the seigniory
for transport and provisions at a fixed price. Villehardouin
had hardly returned when Thibault fell sick and died; but this
did not prevent, though it somewhat delayed, the enterprise of
the crusaders. The management of that enterprise, however,
was a difficult one, and cost Villehardouin another embassy into
Italy to prevent if possible some of his fellow-pilgrims from
breaking the treaty with the Venetians by embarking at other
ports and employing other convoy. He was only in part suc-
cessful, and there was great difficulty in raising the charter-
money among those who had actually assembled (in 1202) at
Venice, the sum collected falling far short of the stipulated
amount. It is necessary to remember this when the somewhat
erratic and irregular character of the operations which followed
is judged. The defence that the crusaders were bound to pay
their passage-money to the Holy Land, in one form or other, to
the Venetians, is perhaps a weak one in any case for the attack
on two Christian cities, Zara and Constantinople; it becomes
weaker still when it is found that the expedition never went or
attempted to go to the Holy Land at all. But the desire to
discharge obligations incurred is no doubt respectable in itself,
and Villehardouin, as one of the actual negotiators of the
bargain, must have felt it with peculiar strength.
The crusaders set sail at last, and Zara, which the Venetians
coveted, was taken without much trouble. The question then
arose whither the host should go next. Villehardouin does not
tell us of any direct part taken by himself in the debates on the
question of interfering or not in the disputed succession to the
empire of the East debates in which the chief ecclesiastics
present strongly protested against the diversion of the enterprise
from its proper goal. It is quite clear, however, that the mar-
shal of Champagne, who was one of the leaders and inner
counsellors of the expedition throughout, sympathized with the
majority, and it is fair to point out that the temptation of
chivalrous adventure was probably as great as that of gain.
He narrates spiritedly enough the dissensions and discussions
in the winter camp of Zara and at Corfu, but is evidently much
more at ease when the voyage was again resumed, and, after a
fair passage round Greece, the crusaders at last saw before
them the great city of Constantinople which they had it in
mind to attack. When the assault was decided upon, Ville-
hardouin himself was in the fifth " battle," the leader of which
was Mathieu de Montmorency. But, though his account of the
siege is full of personal touches, and contains one reference to
the number of witnesses whose testimony he took for a certain
wonderful fact, he does not tell us anything of his own prowess.
After the flight of the usurper Alexius, and when the blind
Isaac, whose claims the crusaders were defending, had been
taken by the Greeks from prison and placed on the throne,
Villehardouin, with Montmorency and two Venetians, formed
the embassy sent to arrange terms. He was again similarly
distinguished when it became necessary to remonstrate with
Alexius, the blind man's son and virtual successor, on the non-
keeping of the terms. Indeed Villehardouin 's talents as a
diplomatist seem to have been held in very high esteem, for
later, when the Latin empire had become a fact, he was charged
with the delicate business of mediating between the emperor
Baldwin and Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, in which task
he had at least partial success. He was also appointed marshal
of " Romanic " a term very vaguely used, but apparently
signifying the mainland of the Balkan Peninsula, while his
nephew and namesake, afterwards prince cf Achaia, took a
great part in the Latin conquest of Peloponnesus. Villehardouin
himself before long received an important command against
the Bulgarians. He was left to maintain the siege of Adrianople
when Baldwin advanced to attack the relieving force, and
with Dandolo had much to do in saving the defeated crusaders
from utter destruction, and conducting the retreat, in which
he commanded the rearguard, and brought his troops in safety
to the sea of Rodosto, and thence to the capital. As he occupied
the post of honour in this disaster, so he had that (the command
of the vanguard) in the expedition which the regent Henry
made shortly afterwards to revenge his brother Baldwin's
defeat and capture. And, when Henry had succeeded to the
crown on the announcement of Baldwin's death, it was Ville-
hardouin who fetched home his bride Agnes of Montferrat,
and shortly afterwards commanded under him in a naval
battle with the ships of Theodore Lascaris at the fortress of
Cibotus. In the settlement of the Latin empire after the truce
with Lascaris, Villehardouin received the fief of Messinople
(supposed to be Mosynopolis, a little inland from the modern
Gulf of Lagos, and not far from the ancient Abdera) from
Boniface of Montferrat, with the record of whose death the
chronicle abruptly closes.
_ In the foregoing account only those particulars which bear
directly on Villehardouin himself have been detailed; but the
chronicle is as far as possible from being an autobiography, and
the displays of the writer's personality, numerous as they are, are
quite involuntary, and consist merely in his way of handling the
subject, not in the references (as brief as his functions as chronicler
will admit) to his own proceedings. The chronicle of Villehardouin
is justly held to be the very best presentation we possess of the
spirit of chivalry not the designedly exalted and poetized chivalry
of the romances, not the self-conscious and deliberate chivalry of
the I4th century, but the unsophisticated mode of thinking and
acting which brought about the crusades, stimulated the vast
literary development of the I2th and I3th centuries, and sent
knights-errant, principally though not wholly of French blood, to
establish principalities and kingdoms throughout Europe and the
nearer East. On the whole, no doubt, it is the more masculine
and practical side of this enthusiastic state of mind which Ville-
hardouin shows. No woman makes any but the briefest appear-
ance in his pages, though in reference to this it must of course be
remembered that he was certainly a man past middle life when the
events occurred, and perhaps a man approaching eld age when he
set them down. Despite the strong and graphic touches here and
there, exhibiting the impression which the beauty of sea and land,
the splendour of Constantinople, the magnitude of the effete but
still imposing Greek power, made on him, there is not only an entire
absence of dilation on such subjects as a modern would have
dilated on (that was to be expected), but an absence likewise of the
elaborate and painful description of detail in which contemporary
VILLELE
79
trouveres would have indulged. It is curious, for instance, to
compare the scanty references to the material marvels of Constan-
tinople which Villehardouin saw in their glory, which perished by
sack and fire under his very eyes, and which live chiefly in the
melancholy pages of his Greek contemporary Nicetas, with the
elaborate descriptions of the scarcely greater wonders of fabulous
courts at Constantinople itself, at Babylon, and elsewhere, to be
found in his other contemporaries, the later chanson de geste writers
and the earlier embroiderers of the Arthurian romances and remans
d'aventurcs. And this later contrast is all the more striking that
Villehardouin agrees with, and not impossibly borrows from, these
very writers in many points of style and phraseology. The brief
chapters of his work have been justly compared to the laisses or
tirades of a chanson in what may be called the vignetting of the
subject of each, in the absence of any attempt to run on the narra-
tive, in the stock forms, and in the poetical rather than prosaic
word-order of the sentences. Undoubtedly this half-poetic style
(animated as it is and redeemed from any charge of bastardy by the
freshness and vigour which pervade it) adds not a little to the
charm of the book. Its succession of word pictures, conventional
and yet vigorous as the illuminations of a medieval manuscript,
and in their very conventionality free from all thought of literary
presentation, must charm all readers. The sober lists of names
with which it opens; the account of the embassy, so business-like
in its estimates of costs and terms, and suddenly breaking into
a fervent description of how the six deputies, " prostrating them-
selves on the earth and weeping warm tears, begged the doge and
people of Venice to have pity on Jerusalem " ; the story immediately
following, how the young count Thibault of Champagne, raising
himself from a sickbed in his joy at the successful return of his
ambassadors, " leva sus et chevaucha, et laz! com grant domages,
car onques puis ne chevaucha que cele foiz," compose a most striking
overture. Then the history relapses into, the business vein and tells
of the debates which took place as to the best means of carrying
out the vow after the count's decease, the rendezvous, too ill kept
at Venice, the plausible suggestion of the Venetians that the balance
due to them should be made up by a joint attack on their enemy,
the king of Hungary. Villehardouin does not in the least conceal
the fact that the pope (" 1'apostoilles de Rome," as he calls him,
in the very phrase of the chansons) was very angry with this;
for his own part he seems to think of little or nothing but the
reparation due to the republic, which had loyally kept its bargain
and been defrauded of the price, of the infamy of breaking company
on the part of members of a joint association, and perhaps of the
unknightliness of not taking up an adventure whenever it presents
itself. For here again the restoration of the disinherited prince of
Constantinople supplied an excuse quite as plausible as the liquida-
tion of the debt to Venice. A famous passage, and one short enough
to quote, is that describing the old blind doge Dandolo, who had
" Grant ochoison de remanoir (reason for staying at home), car viels
horn ere, et si avoit les yaulx en la teste biaus et n'en veoit gote
(goutte)," and yet was the foremost in fight.
It would be out of place to attempt any further analysis of the
Conquete here. But it is not impertinent, and is at the same time
an excuse for what has been already said, to repeat that Villehar-
douin's book, brief as it is, is in reality one of the capital books of
literature, not merely for its merit, but because it is the most
authentic and the most striking embodiment in contemporary
literature of the sentiments which determined the action of a great
and important period of history. There are but very few books
which hold this position, and Villehardouin's is one of them. If
every other contemporary record of the crusades perished, we should
still be able by aid of this to understand and realize what the
mental attitude of crusaders, of Teutonic knights, and the rest was,
and without this we should lack the earliest, the most undoubtedly
genuine, and the most characteristic of all such records. The very
inconsistency with which Villehardouin is chargeable, the absence
of compunction with which he relates the changing of a sacred
religious pilgrimage into something by no means unlike a mere
filibustering raid on the great scale, addi a charm to the book. For,
religious as it is, it is entirely free from the very slightest touch of
hypocrisy or indeed of self-consciousness of any kind. The famous
description of the crusades, gesta Dei per Francos, was evidently to
Villehardouin a plain matter-of-fact description, and it no more
occurred to him to doubt the divine favour being extended to the
expeditions against Alexius or Theodore than to doubt that it was
shown to expeditions against Saracens and Turks.
The person of Villehardouin reappears for us once, but once
only, in the chronicle of his continuator, Henri de Valenciennes.
There is a. great gap in style, though none in subject, between
the really poetical prose of the first historian of the fifth crusade
and the Latin empire and the awkward mannerism (so awkward
that it has been taken to represent a " disrhymed " verse
chronicle) of his follower. But the much greater length at
which Villehardouin appears on this one occasion shows us the
restraint which he must have exercised in the passages which
deal with himself in his own work. He again led the vanguard
in the emperor Henry's exoedition against Burilas the Bulgarian,
and he is represented by the Valenciennes scribe as encouraging
his sovereign to the attack in a long speech. Then he disappears
altogether, with the exception of some brief and chiefly diplo-
matic mentions. Du Cange discovered and quoted a deed of
donation by him dated 1207, by which certain properties were
devised to the churches of Notre Dame de Foissy and Notre
Dame de Troyes, with the reservation of life interests to his
daughters Alix and Damerones, and his sisters Emmeline and
Haye, all of whom appear to have embraced a monastic life.
A letter addressed from the East to Blanche of Champagne is
cited, and a papal record of 1212 styles him still " marshal of
Romania. " The next year this title passed to his son Erard;
and 1213 is accordingly given as the date of his death, which,
as there is no record or hint of his having returned to France,
may be supposed to have happened at Messinople, where also
he must have written the Conquete.
The book appears to have been known in the ages immediately
succeeding his own; and, though there is no contemporary manu-
script in existence, there are some half-dozen which appear to date
from the end of the I3th or the course of the I4th century, while
one at least appears to be a copy made from his own work in that
spirit of unintelligent faithfulness which is much more valuable
to posterity than more pragmatical editing. The first printed
edition of the book, by a certain Blaise de Vigenere, dates from
1585, is dedicated to the seigniory of Venice (Villenardouin, it should
be said, has been accused of a rather unfair predilection for the
Venetians), and speaks of either a part or the whole of the memoirs
as having been printed twelve years earlier. Of this earlier copy
nothing seems to be known. A better edition, founded on a Nether-
landish MS., appeared at Lyons in 1601. But both these were
completely antiquated by the great edition of Du Cange in 1657,
wherein that learned writer employed all his knowledge, never
since equalled, of the subject, but added a translation, or rather
paraphrase, into modern French which is scarcely worthy either of
himself or his author. Dom Brial gave a new edition from different
MS. sources in 1823, and the book figures with different degrees of
dependence on Du Cange and Brial in the collections of Petitot,
Buchon, and Michaud and Poujoulat. All these, however, have
been superseded for the modern student by the editions of Natalis de
Wailly (1872 and 1874), in which the text is critically edited from
all the available MSS. and a new translation added, while there is a
still later and rather handier one by E. Bouchet (2 vols., Paris, 1891),
which, however, rests mainly on N. de Wailly for text. The charm
of Villehardouin can escape no reader; but few readers will fail to
derive some additional pleasure from the two essays which Sainte-
Beuve devoted to him, reprinted in the ninth volume of the Causeries
dulundi. See also A. Debidour, Les Cnroniqueurs (1888). There are
English translations by T. Smith (1829), and (more literally) Sir
F. T. Marzials (Everyman's Library, 1908). (G. SA.)
VILLELE, JEAN BAPTISTS GUILLAUME MARIE ANNE
S&RAPHIN, COMTE DE (1773-1854), French statesman, was
born at Toulouse on the i4th of April 1773 and educated for
the navy. He joined the " Bayonnaise " at Brest in July
1788 and served in the West and East Indies. Arrested in
the Isle of Bourbon under the Terror, he was set free by
the revolution of Thermidor (July 1794)- He acquired some
property in the island, and married in 1799 the daughter
of a great proprietor, M. Desbassyns de Richemont, whose
estates he had managed. His apprenticeship to politics was
served in the Colonial Assembly of Bourbon, where he fought
successfully to preserve the colony from the consequences of
perpetual interference from the authorities in Paris, and on
the other hand to prevent local discontent from appealing to
the English for protection. The arrival of General Decaen,
sent out by Bonaparte in 1802, restored security to the island,
and five years later Villele, who had now realized a large fortune,
returned to France. He was mayor of his commune, and a
member of the council of the Haute-Garonne under the Empire.
At the restoration of 1814 he at once declared for royalist
principles. He was mayor of Toulouse in 1814-15 and deputy
for the Haute-Garonne in the " Chambre Introuvable " of 1815.
Villele, who before the promulgation of the charter had written
some Observations sur le projet de constitution opposing it, as
too democratic in character, naturally took his place on the
extreme right with the ultra-royalists. In the new Chamber
of 1816 Villele found his party in a minority, but his personal
authority nevertheless increased. He was looked on by the
8o
VILLEMAIN VILLENA, E. DE
ministerialists as the least unreasonable of his party, and by
the " ultras " as the safest of their leaders. Under the
electoral law of 1817 the Abbe Gregoire, who was popularly
supposed to have voted for the death of Louis XVI. in the
Convention, was admitted to the Chamber of Deputies. The
Conservative party gained strength from the alarm raised by
this incident and still more from the shock caused by the
assassination of the due de Berri. The due de Richelieu was
compelled to admit to the cabinet two of the chiefs of the Left,
Villele and Corbiere. Villele resigned within a year, but on
the fall of Richelieu at the end of 1821 he became the real chief
of the new cabinet, in which he was minister of finance.
Although not himself a courtier, he was backed at court by
Sosthenes de la Rochefoucauld and Madame du Cayla, and in
1822 Louis XVIII. gave him the title of count and made him
formally prime minister. He immediately proceeded to muzzle
opposition by stringent press laws, and the discovery of minor
liberal conspiracies afforded an excuse for further repression.
Forced against his will into interference in Spain by Mathieu
de Montmorency and Chateaubriand, he contrived to reap
some credit for the monarchy from the successful campaign
of 1823. Meanwhile he had consolidated the royal power by
persuading Louis XVIII. to swamp the liberal majority in
the upper house by the nomination of twenty-seven new peers;
he availed himself of the temporary popularity of the monarchy
after the Spanish campaign to summon a new Chamber of
Deputies. This new and obedient legislature, to which only
nineteen liberals were returned, made itself into a septennial
parliament, thus providing time, it was thought, to restore
some part of the ancien regime. Villele's plans were assisted
by the death of Louis XVIII. and the accession of his bigoted
brother. Prudent financial administration since 1815 had made
possible the conversion of the state bonds from 5 to 4%. It
was proposed to utilize the money set free by this operation
to indemnify by a milliard francs the emigres for the loss of their
lands at the Revolution; it was also proposed to restore their
former privileges to the religious congregations. Both these
propositions were, with some restrictions, secured. Sacrilege
was made a crime punishable by death, and the ministry were
preparing a law to alter the law of equal inheritance, and thus
create anew the great estates. These measures roused violent
opposition in the country, which a new and stringent press
law, nicknamed the " law of justice and love," failed to put
down. The peers rejected the law of inheritance and the press
law; it was found necessary to disband the National Guard;
and in November 1827 seventy-six new peers were created, and
recourse was had to a general election. The new Chamber proved
hostile to Villele, who resigned to make way for the short-lived
moderate ministry of Martignac.
The new ministry made Villele's removal to the upper house
a condition of taking office, and he took no. further part in
public affairs. At the time of his death, on the i3th of March
1854, he had advanced as far as 1816 with his memoirs, which
were completed from his correspondence by his family as
Memoires et correspondance du comle de Villele (Paris, 5 vols.,
1887-90).
See also C. de Mazade, L'Opposition royaliste (Paris, 1894) ; J. G.
Hyde de Neuville. Notice sur le comle de Villele (Paris, 1899); and
M. Chotard, " L'CEuvre financiere de M. de Villele," in Annales des
sciences politiques (vol. v., 1890).
VILLEMAIN, ABEL FRANCOIS (1790-1867), French politician
and man of letters, was born in Paris on the 9th of June 1 790.
He was educated at the lycee Louis-le-Grand, and became
assistant master at the lycee Charlemagne, and subsequently
at the ficole Normale. In 1812 he gained a prize from the
Academy with an eloge on Montaigne. Under the restoration
he was appointed, first, assistant professor of modern history,
and then professor of French eloquence at the Sorbonne. Here
he delivered a series of literary lectures which had an extra-
ordinary effect on his younger contemporaries. Villemain had
the great advantage of coming just before the Romantic move-
ment, of having a wide and catholic love of literature without
being an extremist. All, or almost all, the clever young men
of the brilliant generation of 1830 passed under his influence;
and, while he pleased the Romanticists by his frank apprecia-
tion of the beauties of English, German, Italian and Spanish
poetry, he had not the least inclination to decry the classics
either the classics proper of Greece and Rome or the so-called
classics of France. In 1819 he published a book on Cromwell,
and two years later he was elected to the Academy. Ville-
main was appointed by the restoration government " chef de
1'imprimerie et de la librairie," a post involving a kind of
irregular censorship of the press, and afterwards to the office
of master of requests. Before the revolution of July he had
been deprived of his office for his liberal tendencies, and had
been elected deputy for fivreux. Under Louis Philippe he re-
ceived a peerage in 1832. He was a member of the council of
public instruction, and was twice minister of that department,
and he also became secretary of the Academy. During the
whole of the July monarchy he was thus one of the chief dis-
pensers of literary patronage in France, but in his later years
his reputation declined. He died in Paris on the 8th of May
1867.
Villemain's chief work is his Cours de la litterature fran^aise (5 vols.,
1828-29). Among his other works are : Tableau de la litterature du
moyen Age (2 vols., 1846); Tableau de la litterature au XVIII'
sikcle (4 vols., 1864); Souvenirs contemporains (2 vols., 1856);
Histoire de Gregoire VII. (2 vols., 1873; Eng. trans., 1874).
Among notices on Villemain may be cited that o? Louis de Lomenie
(1841), E. Mirecourt (1858), J. L. Dubut (1875). See also Sainte-
Beuve, Portraits (1841, vol. iii.), and Causeries du lundi (vol. xi.
" Notes et pensees ").
VILLENA, ENRIQUE DE (1384-1434), Spanish author, was
born in 1384. Through his grandfather, Alphonso de Aragon,
count de Denia y Ribagorza, he traced his descent from Jaime II.
of Aragon and Blanche of Naples. He is commonly known
as the marquess de Villena; but, although a marquessate was
at one time in the family, the title was revoked and annulled
by Henry III. Villena's father, Don Pedro de Villena, was
killed at Aljubarrota; the boy was educated by his grand-
father, showed great capacity for learning and was reputed
to be a wizard. About 1402 he married Maria de Albornoz,
senora del Infantado, who speedily became the recognized
mistress of Henry III.; the complaisant husband was rewarded
by being appointed master of the military order of Calatrava
in 1404, but on the death of Henry at the end of 1406 the knights
of the order refused to accept the nomination, which, after a
long contest, was rescinded in 1415. He was present at the
coronation of Ferdinand of Aragon at Saragossa in 1414, retired
to Valencia till 1417, when he moved to Castile to claim com-
pensation for the loss of his mastership. He obtained in return
the lordship (senorio) of Miesta, and, conscious of his unsuita-
bility for warfare or political life, dedicated himself to literature.
He died of fever at Madrid on the isth of December 1434.
He is represented by a fragment of his Arte de trobar (1414),
an indigestible treatise composed for the Barcelona Consistory
of Gay Science; by Los Trabajos de Hercules (1417), a pedantic
and unreadable allegory; by his Tratado de la Consolacidn
and his handbook to the pleasures and fashions of the table,
the Arte cisoria, both written in 1423; by a commentary on
Psalm viii. ver. 4, which dates from 1424; by the Libra de
Aojamienlo (1425), a ponderous dissertation on the evil eye and
its effects; and by a translation of the Aeneid, the first ever
made, which was finished on the loth of October 1428. His
treatise on leprosy exists but has not been published. Villena's
writings do not justify his extraordinary fame; his subjects
are devoid of charm, and his style is so uncouth as to be almost
unintelligible. Yet he has an assured place in the history of
Spanish literature; he was a generous patron of letters, his
translation of Virgil marks him out as a pioneer of the Re-
naissance, and he set a splendid example of intellectual curiosity.
Moreover, there is an abiding dramatic interest in the baffling
personality of the solitary high-born student whom Lope de
Vega introduces in Porfiar hasta morir, whom Ruiz de Alarc6n
presents in La Cueva de Salamanca, and who reappears in the
VILLENA VILLENAGE
81
igth century in Larra's Macias and in Hartzenbusch's play
La Redoma encantada. (J. F.-K.)
VILLENA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante;
on the right bank of the river Vinalapo, and at the junction
of railways from Valencia, Alicante, Albacete and Yecla. Pop.
(1900) 14,099. Villena is a labyrinth of winding alleys, which
contain some interesting examples of Moorish domestic archi-
tecture. It is dominated by a large and picturesque Moorish
castle. The surrounding hills are covered with vines, and to
the east there is an extensive salt lagoon. Silk, linen, flour,
wine, brandy, oil, salt and soap are the chief industrial products.
VILLENAGE (VILLAINAGE, VILLANAGE, VILLEINAGE), a
medieval term (from villa, villanus), pointing to serfdom, a
condition of men intermediate between freedom and slavery.
It occurs in France as well as in England, and was certainly im-
ported into English speech through the medium of Norman
French. The earliest instances of its use are to be found in the
Latin and French versions of English documents in the nth
and 1 2th centuries (cf. Domesday Book; Liebermann, Glossary
to the Gesetze der Angelsachsen, s.v. villanus, vilain). The
history of the word and of the condition is especially instructive
in English usage.
The materials for the formation of the villein class were
already in existence in the Anglo-Saxon period. On the one
hand, the Saxon ceorls (twihyndemen) , although considered as
including the typical freemen in the earlier laws (/Ethelberht,
Hlothhere and Edric, Ine), gradually became differentiated
through the action of political and economic causes, and many
of them had to recognize the patronage of magnates or to seek
livelihood as tenants on the estates of the latter. These ceorls,
sitting on gafol-land, were, though personally free, considered
as a lower order of men, and lapsed gradually into more or less
oppressive subjection in respect of the great landowners. It is
characteristic in this connexion that the West Saxon laws do
not make any distinction between ceorls and laets or half-
freemen as the Kentish laws had done: "this means that the
half-free people were, if not Welshmen, reckoned as members
of the ceorl class. Another remarkable indication of the decay
of the ceorl's estate is afforded by the fact that in the treaties
with the Danes the twihynde ceorls are equated with the Danish
leysings or freedmen. It does not mean, of course, that their
condition was practically the same, but in any case the fact
testifies to the gulf which had come to separate the two principal
subdivisions of the free class the ceorl and the thane. The
Latin version of the Rcctitudines Singularum Personarum, a
document compiled probably in the nth century, not long
before the Conquest, renders geneat (a peasant tenant of a
superior kind performing lighter services than the gebur, as he
was burdened with heavy week-work) by villanus; but the gebur
came to be also considered as a villanus according to Anglo-
Norman terminology. The group designated as geburs in-
Anglo-Saxon charters, though distinguished from mere slaves
(theow baerde-burbaerde, Kemble, Cod. Dipl. 1079), undoubtedly
included many freedmen who in point of services and economic
subjection were not very much above the slaves. Both ceoris
and geburs disappear as separate classes, and it is clear that the
greater part of them must have passed into the rank of villeins.
In the terminology of the Domesday Inquest we find the
villeins as the most numerous element of the English popula-
tion. Out of about 240,000 households enumerated in Domes-
day 100,000 are marked as belonging to villeins. They are
rustics performing, as a rule, work services for their lords. But
not all the inhabitants of the villages were designated by that
name. Villeins are opposed to socmen and freemen on one
hand, to bordarii, cottagers and slaves on the other. The
distinction in regard to the first two of these groups was evi-
dently derived from their greater freedom, although the differ-
ence is only one in degree and not in kind. In fact, the villein
is assumed to be a person free by birth, but holding land of
which he cannot dispose freely. The distinction as against
bordarii and cottagers is based on the size of the holding: the
villeins are holders of regular shares in the village that is, of the
virgates, bovates or half-hides which constitute the principal
subdivisions in the fields and contribute to form the plough-
teams whereas the bordarii hold smaller plots of some 5 acres,
more or less, and coUarii are connected with mere cottages and
crofts. Thus the terminology of Domesday takes note of two
kinds of differences in the status of rustics: a legal one in con-
nexion with the right to dispose of property in land, and an
economic one reflecting the opposition between the holders of
shares in the fields and the holders of auxiliary tenements. The
feature of personal serfdom is also noticeable, but it provides a
basis only for the comparatively small group of seroi, of whom
only about 25,000 are enumerated in Domesday Book. The
contrast between this exceptionally situated class and the rest
of the population shows that personal slavery was rapidly dis-
appearing in England about the time of the Conquest. It is also
to be noticed that the Domesday Survey constantly mentions
the terra villanorum as opposed to the demesne in the estates or
manors of the time, and that the land of the rustics is taxed
separately for the geld, so that the distinction between the
property of the lord and that of the peasant dependent on him is
clearly marked and by no means devoid of practical importance.
The Domesday Survey puts before us the state of things in
England as it was at the very beginning of the Norman and
at the close of the Saxon period. The development of feudal
society, of centralizing kingship and ultimately of a system of
common law, brought about great changes which all hinge on
the fundamental fact that the kings, while increasing the power
of the state in other respects, surrendered it completely as
regards the relations between the peasants and their lords.
The protection of the assizes was tendered in civil matters to
free tenants and refused to villeins. The royal courts refused
to entertain suits of villeins against their lords, although there
was a good deal of vacillation before this position was definitely
taken up. Bracton still speaks in his treatise of the possibility
for the courts to interfere against intolerable cruelty on the part
of the lord involving the destruction of the villein's waynage,
that is, of his ploughteam, and in the Notebook of Bracton there
are a couple of cases which prove that 13th-century judges
occasionally allowed themselves to entertain actions by persons
holding in villenage against their lords. Gradually, however,
the exception of villenage became firmly settled. As the
historical and practical position was developing on these lines
the lawyers who fashioned English common law in the I2th and
I3th centuries did not hesitate to apply to it the teaching cf
Roman law on slavery. Bracton fits his definition of villenage
into the Romanesque scheme of Azo's Summa of the Institutes,
and the judges of the royal courts made sweeping inferences
from this general position. To begin with, the relation between
the villein and his lord was regarded as a personal and not a
praedial one. Everyone born of villein stock belonged to his
master and was bound to undertake any service which might be
imposed on him by the master's or the steward's command.
The distinction between villeins in gross and villeins regardant,
of which much is made by modern writers, was suggested by
modes of pleading and does not make its appearance in the
Year-Books before the isth century. Secondly, all independent
proprietary rights were denied to the villein as against his lord,
and the legal rule " quicquid servo acquiritur domino acquiri-
tur " was extended to villeins. The fact that a great number,
of these serfs had been enjoying' protection as free ceorls in
former ages made itself felt, however, in three directions, (i) In
criminal matters the villein was treated by the King's Court
irrespectively of any consideration as to his debased condition.
More especially the police association, organized for the keeping
of the peace and the presentation of criminals the frankpledge
groups were formed of all " worthy of were and wite," villeins
as well as freemen. (2) Politically the villeins were not elimin-
ated from the body of citizens: they had to pay taxes, to serve
in great emergencies in the militia, to serve on inquests, &c.,
and although there was a tendency to place them on a lower
footing in all these respects yet the fact of their being lesser
members of the commonwealth did not remove the fundamental
VILLENAGE
qualification of citizenship. (3) Even in civil matters villeins
were deemed free as regards third persons. They could sue
and be sued in their own name, and although they were able
to call in their lords as defendants when proceeded against,
there was nothing in law to prevent them from appearing in
their own right. The state even afforded them protection
against extreme cruelty on the part of their masters in respect
of life and limb, but in laying down this rule English lawyers
were able to follow the precedents set by late Roman juris-
prudence, especially by measures of Hadrian, Antonine and
Constantine the Great.
There was one exception to this harsh treatment of villeins,
namely, the rustic tenantry in manors of ancient demesne,
that is, in estates which had belonged to the crown before the
Conquest, had a standing-ground even against their lords as
regards the tenure of their plots and the fixity of their services.
Technically this right was limited to the inhabitants of manors
entered in the Domesday Survey as terra regis of Edward the
Confessor. On the other hand the doctrine became effective
if the manors in question had been granted by later kings to
subjects, because if they remained in the hand of the king the
only remedy against ejectment and exaction lay in petitioning
for redress without any definite right to the latter. If, however,
the two conditions mentioned were forthcoming, villeins, or, as
they were technically called, villein socmen of ancient demesne
manors, could resist any attempt of their lords to encroach
on their rights by depriving them of their holdings or increasing
the amount of their customary services. Their remedy was to
apply for a little writ of right in the first case and for a writ
of monsiraverunt in the second. These writs entitled them
to appear as plaintiffs against the lord in his own manorial
court and, eventually, to have the question at issue examined
by way of appeal, on a writ of error, or by reservation on some
legal points in the upper courts of the king. A number of cases
arising from these privileges of the men of ancient demesne
are published in the Notebook of Bracton and in the Abbreviatio
placitorum. This exceptional procedure does not simply go
back to the rule that persons who had been tenants of the king
ought not to have their condition altered for the worse in con-
sequence of a royal grant. If this were the only doctrine
applicable in the case there would be no reason why similar
protection should be denied to all those who held under grantees
of manors escheated after the Conquest. A material point
for the application of the privilege consists in the fact that
ancient demesne has to be proved from the time before the
Conquest, and this shows clearly that the theory was partly
derived from the recognition of tenant right in villeins of the
Anglo-Saxon period who, as we have said above, were mostly
ceorls, that is, freeborn men.
In view of the great difference in the legal position of the free
man and of the villein in feudal common law, it became very
important to define the exact nature of the conditions on which
the status of a villein depended. The legal theory as to these
conditions was somewhat complex, because it had to take
account of certain practical considerations and of a rather
abrupt transition from a previous state of things based on
different premises. Of course, persons born from villein
parents in lawful wedlock were villeins, but as to the condition
of illegitimate children there was a good deal of hesitation.
There was a tendency to apply the rule that a bastard follows
the mother, especially in the case of a servile mother. In
the case of mixed marriages, the condition of the child is
determined by the free or villein condition of the tenement in
which it was born. This notion of the influence of the tene-
ment is well adapted to feudal notions and makes itself felt
again in the case of the pursuit, of a fugitive villein. He can
be seized without further formalities if he is caught in his
" nest," that is, in his native place. If not, the lord can follow
him in fresh pursuit for four days; once these days past, the
fugitive is maintained provisionally in possession of his liberty,
and the lord has to bring an action de native habendo and has to
assume the burden of proof.
So much as to the proof of villenage by birth or previous
condition. But there were numbers of cases when the dis-
cussion as to servile status turned not on these formal points
but on an examination of the services performed by the person
claimed as a villein or challenged as holding in villenage. In
both cases the courts had often recourse to proof derived not
from direct testimony but from indirect indications as to the
kind of services that had been performed by the supposed
villein. Certain services, especially the payment of merchet
the fine for marrying a daughter were considered to be the
badge of serfdom. Another service, the performance of which
established a presumption as to villenage, was compulsory
service as a reeve. The courts also tried to draw a distinction
from the amount and regularity of agricultural services to
which a tenant was subjected. Bracton speaks of the contrast
between the irregular services of a serf, " who could not know
in the evening what he would have to do in the morning,"
and services agreed upon and definite in their amount. The
customary arrangements of the work of villeins, however,
render this contrast rather fictitious. The obligations of down-
right villeins became to that degree settled and regular that
one of the ordinary designations of the class was custumatii.
Therefore in most cases there were no arbitrary exactions
to go by, except perhaps one or the other tallage imposed at
the will of the lord. The original distinction seems to have
been made not between arbitrary and agreed but between
occasional services and regular agricultural week-work. While
the occasional services, even when agricultural, in no way
established a presumption of villenage, and many socmen,
freemen and holders by serjeanty submitted to them, 'agri-
cultural week-work was primarily considered as a trait of
villenage and must have played an important part in the
process of classification of early Norman society. The villein
was in this sense emphatically the man holding " by the fork
and the flail."
This point brings us to consider the matter-of-fact conditions
of the villeins during the feudal period, especially in the i2th,
i3th and i4th centuries. As is shown by the Hundred Rolls,
the Domesday of St Paul, the Surveys of St Peter, Glouc.,
Glastonbury Abbey, Ramsey Abbey and countless other records
of the same kind, the customary conditions of villenage did not
tally by any means with the identification between villenage
and slavery suggested by the jurists. It is true that in nomen-
clature the word " senti " is not infrequently used (e.g. in the
Hundred Rolls) where villani might have been mentioned, and
the feminine nief (nativa) appears as the regular parallel of
villanus, but in the descriptions of usages and services we find
that the power of the lord loses its discretionary character and
is in every respect moderated by custom. As personal depend-
ents of the lord native villeins were liable to be sold, and we find
actual sales recorded: Glastonbury Abbey e.g. sells a certain
Philipp Hardyng for 20 shillings. But such transfers of human
chattels occur seldom, and there is nothing during the English
feudal period corresponding to the brisk trade in men character-
istic of the ancient world. Merchet was regarded, as has been
stated already, as a badge of serfdom in so far as it was said
to imply a " buying of one's own blood " (servus de sanguine
suo emando). The explanation is even more characteristic
than the custom itself, because fines on marriage may be
levied and were actually levied from people of different con-
dition, from the free as well as from the serf. Still the tendency
to treat merchtl as a distinctive feature of serfdom has to be
noted, and we find that the custom spread for this very reason
in consequence of the encroachments of powerful lords: in
the Hundred Rolls it is applied indiscriminately to the whole
rustic population of certain hundreds in a way which can
hardly be explained unless by artificial extension. Heriot,
the surrender of the best horse or ox, is also considered as the
common incident of villein tenure, although, of course, its very
name proves its intimate connexion with the outfit of soldiers
(here-gealu) .
Economically the institution of villenage was bound up
VILLENAGE
with the manorial organization that is, with the fact that the
country was divided into a number of districts in which central
home farms were cultivated by the help of work supplied by
villein households.
The most important of villein services is the week-work per-
formed by the peasantry. Every virgater or holder of a bovate
has to send a labourer to do work on the lord's farm for some days
in the week. Three days is indeed the most common standard
for service of this kind, though four or even five occur sometimes,
as well as two. It must be borne in mind in the case of heavy
charges, such as four or five days' week-work, that only one
labourer from the whole holding is meant, while generally there
were several men living on every holding otherwise the service
of five days would be impossible to perform. In the course of
these three days, or whatever the number was, many require-
ments of the demesne had to be met. The principal of these
was ploughing the fields belonging to the lord, and for such
ploughing the peasant had not only to appear personally as a
labourer, but to bring his oxen and plough, or rather to join with
his oxen and plough in the work imposed on the village: the
heavy, costly plough with a team of eight oxen had to be made up
by several peasants contributing their beasts and implements
towards its composition. In the same way the villagers had to
go through the work of harrowing with their harrows, and of
removing the harvest in their vans and carts. Carriage duties
in carts and on horseback were also apportioned according to
the time they took as a part of the week-work. Then came
innumerable varieties of manual work for the erection and
keeping up of hedges, the preservation of dykes, canals and
ditches, the threshing and garnering of corn, the tending and
shearing of sheep and so forth. All this hand-work was reckoned
according to customary standards as day-work and week-work.
But besides all these services into which the regular week- work
of the peasantry was differentiated, stood some additional duties.
The ploughing for the lord, for instance, was not only imposed
in the shape of a certain number of days in the week, but took
sometimes the shape of a certain number of acres which the
village had to plough and to sow for the lord irrespectively
of the time employed on it. This was sometimes termed
gafolearth. Exceedingly burdensome services were required
in the seasons when farming processes are, as it were, at their
height in the seasons of mowing and reaping, when every day
is of special value and the working power of the farm hands is
strained to the utmost. At that time it was the custom to call
up the whole able-bodied population of the manor, with the
exception of the housewives for two, three or more days of
mowing and reaping on the lord's fields; to these boon-works
the peasantry was asked or invited by special summons, and
their value was so far appreciated that the villagers were
usually treated to meals in cases where they were again and
again called off from their own fields to the demesne. The
liberality of the lord actually went so far, in exceptionally hard
straits, that some ale was served to the labourers to keep them in
good humour.
In the I4th century this social arrangement, based primarily
on natural economy and on the feudal disruption of society, began
to give way. The gradual spread of intercourse rendered un-
necessary the natural husbandry of former times which sought
to produce a complete set of goods in every separate locality.
Instead of acting as a little world by itself for the raising of corn,
the breeding of cattle, the gathering of wool, the weaving of
linen and common cloths, the fabrication of necessary imple-
ments of all kinds, the local group began to buy some of these
goods and to sell some others, renouncing isolation and making
its destiny dependent on commercial intercourse. Instead of
requiring from its population all kinds of work and reducing
its ordinary occupations to a hard-and-fast routine meeting
in a slow and unskilled manner all possible contingencies, the
local group began to move, to call in workmen from abroad for
tasks of a special nature, and to send its own workmen to
look out for profitable employment in other places. Instead
of managing the land by the constant repetition of the same
processes, by a customary immobility of tenure and service, by
communalistic restrictions on private enterprise and will, local
society began to try improvements, to escape from the bounds
of champion farming. Instead of producing and collecting
goods for immediate consumption, local society came more and
more into the habit of exchanging corn, cattle, cloth, for money,
and of laying money by as a means of getting all sorts of
exchangeable goods, when required. In a word, the time of
commercial, contractual, cash intercourse was coming fast. What
was exceptional and subsidiary in feudal times came to obtain
general recognition in the course of the I4th and i sth centuries,
and, for this very reason, assumed a very different aspect.
A similar transformation took place in regard to government.
The local monarchy of the manorial lords was fast giving way to
a central power which maintained its laws, the circuits of its
judges, the fiscal claims of its exchequer, the police interference
of its civil officers all through the country, and, by prevailing
over the franchises of manorial lords, gave shape to a vast
.dominion of legal equality and legal protection, in which the
forces of commercial exchange, of contract, of social intercourse,
found a ready and welcome sphere of action. In truth both
processes, the economic and the political one, worked so much
together that it is hardly possible to say which influenced
the other more, which was the cause and which the effect.
Government grew strong because it could draw on a society
which was going ahead in enterprise and well-being; social
intercourse progressed because it could depend on a strong
government to safeguard it.
If we now turn to the actual stages by which this momentous
passage from the manorial to the commercial arrangement was
achieved, we have to notice first of all a rapid development of
contractual relations. We know that in feudal law there ran a
standing contrast between tenure by custom villein tenure and
tenure by contract free tenure. While the manorial system was
in full force this contrast led to a classification of holdings and
affected the whole position of people on the land. Still, even at
that time it might happen that a freeholder owned some land
in villenage by the side of his free tenement, and that a villein
held some land freely by agreement with his lord or with a
third person. But these cases, though by no means infrequent,
were still exceptional. As a rule people used land as holdings,
and those were rigidly classified as villein or free tenements. The
interesting point to be noticed is that, without any formal break,
leasing land for life and for term of years is seen to be rapidly
spreading from the end of the I3th century, and numberless small
tenancies are created in the I4th century which break up the
disposition of the holdings. From the close of the I3th century
downwards countless transactions on the basis of leases for terms
of years occur between the peasants themselves, any suit-
ably kept set of 14th-century court rolls containing entries in
which such and such a villein is said to appear in the halimote
and to surrender for the use of another person named a piece of
land belonging to the holding. The number of years and the
conditions of payment are specified. Thus, behind the screen of
the normal shares a number of small tenancies arise which run
their economic concerns independently from the cumbersome
arrangements of tenure and service, and, needless to add, all these
tenancies are burdened with money rents.
Another series of momentous changes took place in the
arrangement of services. Even the manorial system admitted
the buying off for money of particular dues in kind and of
specific performance of work. A villein might be allowed
to bring a penny instead of bringing a chicken or to pay a rent
instead of appearing with his oxen three times a week on the
lord's fields. Such rents were called mat or mail in contrast
with the gafol, ancient rents which had been imposed inde-
pendently, apart from any buying off of customary services.
There were even whole bodies of peasants called Molmen, because
they had bought off work from the lord by settling with him
on the basis of money rents. As time went on these practices
of commutation became more and more frequent. There were,
for both sides, many advantages in arranging their mutual
8 4
VILLENEUVE
relations on this basis. The lord, instead of clumsy work, goi
clear money, a much-coveted means of satisfying needs anc
wishes of any kind instead of cumbrous performances which
did not come always at the proper moment, were carried out
in a half-hearted manner, yielded no immediate results, anc
did not admit of convenient rearrangement. The peasant got
rid of a hateful drudgery which not only took up his time and
means in an unprofitable manner, but placed him under the
rough control and the arbitrary discipline of stewards or reeve:
and gave occasion to all sorts of fines and extortions.
With the growth of intercourse and security money became
more frequent and the number of such transactions increased
in proportion. But it must be kept in mind that the con-
version of services into rents went on very gradually, as a
series of private agreements, and that it would be very wrong
to suppose, as some scholars have done, that it had led to a
general commutation by the middle or even the end of the
1 4th century. The I4th century was marked by violent fluctua
tions in the demand and supply of labour, and particularly
the tremendous loss in population occasioned in the middle of
this century by the Black Death called forth a most serious
crisis. No wonder that many lords clung very tenaciously
to customary services, and ecclesiastical institutions seem to
have been especially backward in going over to the system of
money rents. There is evidence to show, for instance, that
the manors of the abbey of Ramsey were managed on the
system of enforced labour right down to the middle of the
1 5th century, and, of course, survivals of these customs in the
shape of scattered services lived on much longer. A second
drawback from the point of view of the landloids was called
forth by the fact that commutation for fixed rents gradually
lessened the value of the exactions to which they were entitled.
Money not only became less scarce but it became cheaper,
so that the couple of pence for which a day of manual work
was bought off in the beginning of the I3th century did not
fetch more than half of their former value at its end. As quit
rents were customary and not rack rents, the successors of
those who had redeemed their services were gaining the whole
surplus in the value of goods and labour as against money,
while the successors of those who had commuted their right
to claim services for certain sums in money lost all the
corresponding difference. These inevitable consequences came
to be perceived in course of time and occasioned a backward
tendency .towards services in kind which could not prevail
against the general movement from natural economy to money
dealings, but was strong enough to produce social friction and
grave disturbances.
The economic crisis of the I4th century has its complement
in the legal crisis of the isth. At that time the courts of
law begin to do away with the denial of protection to villeins
which, as we have seen, constituted the legal basis of villenage.
This is effected by the recognition of copyhold tenure (see
COPYHOLD).
It is a fact of first-rate magnitude that in the I5th century
customary relations on one hand, the power of government
on the other, ripened, as it were, to that extent that the judges
of the king began to take cognizance of the relations of the
peasants to their lords. The first cases which occur in this
sense are still treated not as a matter of common law, but as a
manifestation of equity. As doubtful questions of trust, of
wardship, of testamentary succession, they were taken up not
in the strict course of justice, but as matters in which redress
was sorely needed and had to be brought by the exceptional
power of the court of chancery. But this interference of
15th-century chancellors paved the way towards one of the
greatest revolutions in the law; without formally enfranchising
villeins and villein tenure they created a legal basis for it in
the law of the realm: in the formula of copyhold tenement
held at the will of the lord and by the custom of the manor the
first pan lost its significance and the second prevailed, in down-
right contrast with former times when, on the contrary, the
second part had no legal value and the first expressed the view
of the courts. One may almost be tempted to say that these
obscure decisions rendered unnecessary in England the work
achieved with such a flourish of trumpets in France by the
emancipating decree of the 4th of August 1789.
The personal condition of villenage did not, however, dis-
appear at once with the rise of copyhold. It lingered through
the i6th century and appears exceptionally even in the lyth.
Deeds of emancipation and payments for personal enfranchise-
ment are often noticed at that very time. But these are
only survivals of an arrangement which has been destroyed in
its essence by a complete change of economic and political
conditions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford,
1892) ; Pollock and Maitiand, History of English Law (1895), 'book ii.'
c. i. 5, 12, 13; F. W. Maitiand, Domesday and Beyond (1897),
Essay I. 2, 3, 4; F. Seebohm, The English Village Community
(1883); W. S. Holdsworth, History of English Law, iii. (1909);
P. Vinogradoff, Growth of the Manor (1905); P. Vinogradoff, English
Society in the Xlth Century (1908) ; A. Savine in the English Historical
Review, xvii. (1902); A. Savine in the Economic Quarterly Review
(1904) ; A. Savine, " Bondmen under the Tudors," in the Trans-
actions of the Royal Historical Society, xvii. (1903). (P. Vi.)
VILLENEUVE, PIERRE CHARLES JEAN BAPTISTE SIL-
VESTRE (1763-1806), French admiral, was born at Valensoles in
Provence on the 3ist of December 1763. He entered the French
royal navy as a " garde du Pavilion." Although he belonged to
the corps of " noble " officers, who were the object of peculiar
animosity to the Jacobins, he escaped the fate of the majority
of his comrades, which was to be massacred, or driven into exile.
He sympathized sincerely with the general aims of the Revolu-
tion, arid had a full share of the Provencal fluency which enabled
him to make a timely and impressive display of " civic "
sentiments. In the dearth of trained officers he rose with what
for the French navy was exceptional rapidity, though it would
have caused no surprise in England in the case of an officer who
had good interest. He was named post-captain in 1793, and
rear-admiral in 1796. At the close of the year he was appointed
to take part in the unsuccessful expedition to Ireland which
reached Bantry Bay, but the ships which were to have come to
Brest from Toulon with him arrived too late, and were forced
to take refuge at L'Orient. He accompanied the expedition to
Egypt, with his flag in the " Guillaume Tell " (86). She was
the third ship from the rear of the French line at the battle of
the Nile, and escaped from the general destruction in company
with the " Genereux " (78). Villeneuve reached Malta on the
23rd of August. His conduct was severely blamed, and he
defended himself by a specious letter to his colleague Blanquet-
Duchayla on the I2th of November 1800, when he had returned
to Paris. At the time, Napoleon approved of his action. In a
letter written to him on the 2ist of August 1798, three weeks
after the battle, Napoleon says that the only reproach Villeneuve
had to make against himself was that he had not retreated
sooner, since the position taken by the French commander-in-
chief had been forced and surrounded. When, however, the
emperor after his fall dictated his account of the expedition to
Egypt to General Bertrand at St Helena, he attributed the
defeat at the Nile largely to the " bad conduct of Admiral
Villeneuve." In the interval Villeneuve had failed in the exe-
cution of the complicated scheme for the invasion of England
n 1805. Napoleon must still have believed in the admiral's
capacity and good fortune, a qualification for which he had a
;reat regard, when he selected him to succeed Latouche Treville
upon his death at Toulon in August 1804. The duty of the
Toulon squadron was to draw Nelson to the West Indies, return
rapidly, and in combination with other French and Spanish
ships, to enter the Channel with an overwhelming force. It is
quite obvious that Villeneuve had from the first no confidence
n the success of an operation requiring for its execution an
amazing combination of good luck and efficiency on the part of
the squadrons concerned. He knew that the French were net
efficient, and that their Spanish allies were in a far worse state
han themselves. It required a very tart order from Napoleon
to drive him out of Paris in October 1804. He took the
VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON VILLEROI
command in November. On the i7th of January 1805 he left
Toulon for the first time, but was driven back by a squall which
dismasted some of his awkwardly handled ships. On the 3rd of
March he was out again, and this time he headed Nelson by
some weeks on a cruise to the West Indies. But Villeneuve's
success so far had not removed his fears. Though on taking
up his command he had issued .an order of the day in which he
spoke boldly enough of the purpose of his cruise, and his de-
termination to adhere to it, he was racked by fears of what
might happen to the force entrusted to his care. For the
details of the campaign see TRAFALGAR. In so far as the
biography of Villeneuve is concerned, his behaviour during
these trying months cannot escape condemnation. He had
undertaken to carry out a plan of which he did not approve.
Since he had not declined the task altogether, it was clearly his
duty to execute his orders at all hazards. If he was defeated,
as he almost certainly would have been, he could have left the
responsibility for the disaster to rest on the shoulders of Napoleon
who assigned him the task. But Villeneuve could not free him-
self from the conviction that it was his business to save his fleet
even if he ruined the emperor's plan of invasion. Thus after
he returned to Europe and fought his confused action with
Sir R. Calder off Ferrol on the 22nd of July 1805, he first hesi-
tated, and then, in spite of vehement orders to come on, turned
south to Cadiz. Napoleon's habit of suggesting alternative
courses to his lieutenants gave him a vague appearance of excuse
for making for that port. But it was one which only a very
weak man would have availed himself of, for all his instructions
ought to have been read subject to the standing injunction to
come on to the Channel and in turning south to Cadiz, he was
going in the opposite direction. His decision to leave Cadiz
and give battle in October 1805, which led directly to the battle
of Trafalgar, cannot be justified even on his own principles. He
foresaw defeat to be inevitable, and yet he went out solely
because he learnt from the Minister of Marine that another
officer had been sent to supersede him. In fact he ran to meet
the very destruction he had tried to avoid. No worse fate
would have befallen him in the Channel than came upon him at
Trafalgar, but it might have been incurred in a manly attempt
to obey his orders. It was provoked in a spasm of wounded
vanity. At Trafalgar he showed personal courage, but the
helpless incapacity of the allies to manoeuvre gave him no
opportunity to influence the course of the battle. He was taken
as a prisoner to England, but was soon released. Shortly after
landing in France he committed suicide in an inn at Rennes, on
the 22nd of April 1806. Among the other improbable crimes
attributed to Napoleon by the fear and hatred of Europe, was
the murder of Villeneuve, but there is not the faintest reason to
doubt that the admiral died by his own hand.
The correspondence of Napoleon contains many references to
Villeneuve. Accounts of the naval operations in which he was
concerned will be found in James's Naval History. Troude, in his
Batailles navales de la France, vol. iii., publishes several of his letters
and orders of the day. (D. H.)
VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON, a town of south-eastern
France, in the department of Card on the right bank of the
Rhone opposite Avignon, with which it is connected by a
suspension bridge. Pop. (1906) 2582. Villeneuve preserves
many remains of its medieval importance. The church of
Notre Dame, dating from the I4th century, contains a rich marble
altar and remarkable pictures. The hospice, once a Franciscan
convent, part of which is occupied by a museum of pictures and
antiquities, has a chapel in which is the fine tomb of Innocent
VI. (d. 1362). The church and other remains of the Carthusian
monastery of Val-de-B6nediction, founded in 1356 by Innocent
VI., are now used for habitation and other secular purposes. A
gateway and a rotunda, built as shelter for a fountain, both
dating from about 1670, are of architectural note. On the Mont
Andaon, a hill to the north-east of the town, stands the Fort of
St Andre 1 (i4th century), which is entered by an imposing
fortified gateway and contains a Romanesque chapel and
remains of the abbey of St Andr6. The other buildings of
interest include several old mansions once belonging to cardinals
and nobles, and a tower, the Tour de Philippe le Bel, built in the
I4th century, which guarded the western extremity of the Pont
St Be'ne'zet (see AVIGNON).
In the 6th century the Benedictine abbey of St Andre was
founded on Mount Andaon, and the village which grew up round
it took its name. In the i3th century the monks, acting in
concert with the crown, established a bastide, or " new town,"
which came to be called Villeneuve. The town was the resort
of the French cardinals during the sojourn of the popes at
Avignon, and its importance, due largely to its numerous re-
ligious establishments, did not decline till the Revolution.
VILLENEUVE-SUR-LOT, a town of south-western France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Lot-et-Garonne,
22 m. N. by E. of Agen on a branch line of the Orleans railway.
Pop. (1906) town, 6978; commune, 13,540. Villeneuve is
divided into two unequal portions by the river Lot, which here
runs between high banks. The chief quarter stands on the
right bank and is united to the quarter on the left bank by a
bridge of the i3th century, the principal arch of which, con-
structed in the reign of Louis XIII. in place of two older arches,
has a span of 118 ft. and a height of 59 ft. On the left bank
portions of the I3th century ramparts, altered and surmounted
by machicolations in the isth century, remain, and high
square towers rise above the gates to the north-cast and south-
west, known respectively as the Porte de Paris and Porte de
Pujols. On the right bank boulevards have for the most part
taken the place of the ramparts. Arcades of the i3th century
surround the Place La Fayette, and old houses of the ijth,
i4th and isth centuries are to be seen in various parts of the
town. The church of St Etienne is in late Gothic style. On
the left bank of the Lot, 2 m. S.S.W. of Villeneuve, are the
13th-century walls of Pujols. The buildings of the ancient
abbey of Eysses, about a mile to the N.E., which are mainly of
the 1 7th century, serve as a departmental prison and peni-
tentiary settlement. The principal hospital, the hospice St
Cyr, is a handsome building standing in beautiful gardens.
Villeneuve has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and
of commerce and communal colleges for both sexes. It is an
important agricultural centre and has a very large trade in
plums (prunes d'enle) and in the produce of the market gardens
which surround it, as well as in cattle, horses and wine. The
preparation of preserved plums and the tinning of peas and
beans occupy many hands; there are also manufactures of
boots and shoes and tin boxes. The important mill of Gajac
stands on the bank of the Lot a little above the town.
Villeneuve was founded in 1254 by Alphonse, count of
Poitiers, brother of Louis IX., on the site of the town of
Gajac, which had been deserted during the Albigensian crusade.
VILLEROI, FRANCOIS DE NEUFVILLE, DUCDE (1644-1730),
French soldier, came of a noble family which had risen into
prominence in the reign of Charles IX. His father Nicolas
de Neufville, Marquis de Villeroi, marshal of France (1598-1685),
created a duke by Louis XIV., was the young king's governor,
and the boy was thus brought up in close relations with Louis.
An intimate of the king, a finished courtier and leader of society
and a man of great personal gallantry, Villeroi was marked
out for advancement in the army, which he loved, but which
had always a juster appreciation of his incapacity than Louis.
In 1693, without having exercised any really important and
responsible command, he was made a marshal. In 1695, when
Luxembourg died, he obtained the command of the army in
Flanders, and William III. found him a far more complaisant
opponent than the " little hunchback." In 1701 he was sent
to Italy to supersede Catinat and was soon beaten by the inferior
army of Eugene at Chiari (see SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR). In
the winter of 1701 he was made prisoner at the surprise of
Cremona, and the wits of the army made at his expense the
famous rhyme:
" Par la faveur de Bellone, et par un bonheur sans e'gal,
Nous avons conserve 1 Cre'mone et perdu notre g6ne'ral."
In the following years he was pitted against Marlborough in
86
VILLERS LA VILLE VILLOISON
the Low Countries. Marlborough's own difficulties with the
Dutch and other allied commissioners, rather than Villeroi's
own skill, put off the inevitable disaster for some years, but
in 1706 the duke attacked him and thoroughly defeated him
at Ramillies (q.v.). Louis consoled his old friend with the
remark, " At our age, one is no longer lucky," but superseded
him in the command, and henceforward Villeroi lived the life
of a courtier, much busied with intrigues but retaining to the
end the friendship of his master. He died on the i8th of
July 1730 at Paris.
VILLERS LA VILLE, a town of Belgium in the province of
Brabant, 2 m. E. of Quatre Bras, with a station on the direct
line from Louvain to Charleroi. Pop. (1904) 1166. It is
chiefly interesting on account of the fine ruins of the Cistercian
abbey of Villers founded in 1147 and destroyed by the French
republicans in 1795. In the ruined church attached to the
abbey are still to be seen the tombstones of several dukes of
Brabant of the i3th and I4th centuries.
VILLETTE, CHARLES, MARQUIS DE (1736-1793), French
writer and politician, was born in Paris on the 4th of December
1736, the son of a financier who left him a large fortune and
the title of marquis. After taking part in the Seven Years'
War, young Villette returned in 1763 to Paris, where he made
many enemies by his insufferable manners. But he succeeded
in gaining the intimacy of Voltaire, who had known his mother
and who wished to make a poet of him. The old philosopher
even went so far as to call his protege the French Tibullus. In
1777, on Voltaire's advice, Villette married Mademoiselle de
Varicourt, but the marriage was unhappy, and his wife was
subsequently adopted by Voltaire's niece, Madame Denis.
During the Revolution Villette publicly burned his letters of
nobility, wrote revolutionary articles in the Chronique de
Paris, and was elected deputy to the Convention by the
department of Seine-et-Oise. He had the courage to censure
the September massacres and to vote for the imprisonment
only, and not for the death, of Louis XVI. He died in Paris
on the 7th of July 1793.
In 1784 he published his (Euvres, which are of little value, and in
1792 his articles in the Chronique de Paris appeared in book form
tinder the title Lettres choisies sur les principaux evenements de la
Revolution.
VILLIERS, CHARLES PELHAM (1802-1898), English states-
man, son of George Villiers, grandson of the ist earl of Clarendon
of the second (Villiers) creation, and brother of the 4th earl
(q.v.), was born in London on the 3rd of January 1802, and
educated at St John's College, Cambridge. He read for the
bar at Lincoln's Inn, and became an associate of the Bentha-
mites and " philosophical radicals " of the day. He was an
assistant commissioner to the Poor Law Commission (1832),
and in 1833 was made by the master of the Rolls, whose secretary
he had been, a chancery examiner of witnesses, holding this
office till 1852. In 1835 he was elected M.P. for Wolverhampton,
and retained his seat till his death. He was the pioneer of the
free-trade movement, and became prominent with Cobden and
Bright as one of its chief supporters, being indefatigable in
pressing the need for free trade on the House of Commons, by
resolution and by petition. After free trade triumphed in 1846
his importance in politics became rather historical than actual,
especially as he advanced to a venerable old age; but he was
president of the Poor Law Board, with a seat in the Cabinet,
from 1859 to 1866, and he did other useful work in the Liberal
reforms of the time. Like Bright, he parted from Mr Gladstone
on Home Rule for Ireland. He attended parliament for the
last time in 1895, and died on the i6th of January 1898.
VILLIERS DE L'ISLE-ADAM, PHILIPPE AUGUSTE
MATHIAS, COMTE DE (1838-1889), French poet, was born
at St Brieuc in Brittany and baptized on the 28th of November
1838. He may be said to have inaugurated the Symbolist
movement in French literature, and Axel, the play on which
he was engaged during so much of his life, though it was only
published after his death, is -the typical Symbolist drama. He
began with a volume of Premieres Poesies (1856-58). This was
followed by a wild romance of the supernatural, I sis (1862),
and by two plays in prose, Elen (1866) and Morgane (1866).
La Revolte, a play in which Ibsen's Doll's House seems to be
anticipated, was represented at the Vaudeville in 1870; Conies
cruets, his finest volume of short stories, in 1883, and a new
series in 1889; Le Nouveau Monde, a drama in five acts, in 1880;
L'Eve future, an amazing piece of buffoonery satirizing the
pretensions of science, in 1886; Tribulat Bonhomet in 1887;
Le Secret de I'echafaud in 1888; Axel in 1890. He died in Paris,
under the care of the Freres Saint-Jean-de-Dieu, on the I9th
of August 1889. Villiers has left behind him a legend probably
not more fantastic than the truth. Sharing many of the
opinions of Don Quixote, he shared also Don Quixote's life.
He was the descendant of a Grand Master of the Knights of
Malta, famous in history, and his pride as an aristocrat and
as an idealist were equal. He hated mediocrity, science, prog-
ress, the present age, money and " serious " people. In one
division of his work he attacked all the things which he hated
with a savage irony; in another division of his work be dis-
covered at least some glimpses of the ideal world. He remains
a remarkable poet and a remarkable satirist, imperfect as both.
He improvised out of an abundant genius, but the greater part
of his work was no more than improvisation. He was ac-
customed to talk his stories before he wrote them. Sometimes
he talked them instead of writing them. But he has left, at
all events, the Contes cruels, in which may be found every
classic quality of the French conle, together with many of the
qualities of Edgar Allan Poe and Ernst Hoffman; and the
drama of Axel, in which the stage takes a new splendour and a
new subtlety of meaning. Villiers's influence on the younger
French writers was considerable. It was always an exaltation.
No one in his time followed a literary ideal more romantically.
(A. SY.)
See also R. du Pontavice de Heussey, Villiers del' Isle- Adam (1893),
a biography, English trans. (1904) by Lady Mary Loyd; S.
Mallarme', Les Miens. Villiers de I Isle-Adam (1892); R. Martineau,
Un yivant et deux marts (1901), bibliography. A selection from his
stories, Histoires souveraines, was made by his friends (Brussels,
1899).
VILLINGEN, a town of Germany in the grand duchy of
Baden, pleasantly situated amid well-wooded hills, 52 m. by
rail N. of Schaffhausen. Pop. (1905) 9582. It is in part still
surrounded by walls, with ancient gate towers. It is the chief
seat of the watch-making industry of the Black Forest. It
also produces musical-boxes, glass and silk, and has a Gothic
church of the i3th century and another of the nth, a 15th-
century town hall, with a museum of antiquities, and music,
technical and agricultural schools.
VILLOISON, JEAN BAPTISTE GASPARD D'ANSSE (or
DANNSE) DE (1750-1805), French classical scholar, was born
at Corbeil-sur-Seine on the sth of March 1750 (or 1753; authori-
ties differ). He belonged to a noble family (De Ansso) of Spanish
origin, and took his surname from a village in the neighbour-
hood. In 1773 he published the Homeric Lexicon of Apollonius
from a MS. in the abbey of Saint Germain des Pres. In 1778
appeared his edition of Longus's Daphnis and Chloe. In 1781 he
went to Venice, where he spent three years in examining the
library, his expenses being paid by the French government.
His chief discovery was a loth-century MS. of the Iliad, with
ancient scholia and marginal notes, indicating supposititious,
corrupt or transposed verses. After leaving Venice, he accepted
the invitation of the duke of Saxe- Weimar to his court. Some
of the fruits of his researches in the library of the palace were
collected into a volume (Epistolae Vinarienses, 1783), dedicated
to his royal hosts. Hoping to find a treasure similar to the
Venetian Homer in Greece, he returned to Paris to prepare
for a journey to the East. He visited Constantinople, Smyrna,
the Greek islands, and Mount Athos, but the results did not
come up to his expectation. In 1786 he returned, and in 1788
brought out the Codex Venetus of Homer, which created a
sensation in the learned world. When the revolution broke
out, being banished from Paris, he lived in retirement at Orleans,
occupying himself chiefly with the transcription of the notes
VILLON
in the library of the brothers Valois (Valesius). On the restora-
tion of order, having returned to Paris, he accepted the pro-
fessorship of modern Greek established by the government,
and held it until it was transferred to the College de France
as the professorship of the ancient and modern Greek languages.
He died soon after his appointment, on the 25th of April 1805.
Another work of some importance, Anecdota Graeca (1781),
from the Paris and Venice libraries, contains the Ionia, (violet
garden) of the empress Eudocia, and several fragments of
liunblichus, Porphyry, Procopius of Gaza, Choricius and the
Greek grammarians. Materials for an exhaustive work con-
templated by him on ancient and modern Greece are preserved
in the royal library of Paris.
See J. Dacier, Notice kistorique :ur la vie et les ouvrages de
ison (1806); Chardon de la Rochette, Melanges de critique et'
de philologie, iii. (1812) ; and especially the article by his friend and
pupil E. Quatremere in Nouvelle biographie generale, xiii., based upon
private information.
VILLON, FRANCOIS (1431-*;. 1463), French poet (whose real
surname is a matter of much dispute, so that he is also called
De Montcorbier and Des Loges and by other names, though
in literature Villon is the sole term used), was born in 1431, and,
as it seems, certainly at Paris. The singular poems called
Testaments, which form his chief if not his only certain work,
are largely autobiographical, though of course not fully trust-
worthy. But his frequent collisions with the law have left
more certain records, which have of late been ransacked with
extraordinary care by students, especially by M. Longnon.
It appears that he was born of poor folk, that his father died
in his youth, but that his mother, for whom he wrote one of
his most famous ballades, was alive when her son was thirty
years old. The very name Villon was stated, and that by no
mean authority, the president Claude Fauchet, to be merely
a common and not a proper noun, signifying " cheat " or
" rascal "; but this seems to be a mistake. It is, however,
certain that Villon was a person of loose life, and that he
continued, long after there was any excuse for it in his years,
the reckless way of living common among the wilder youth
of the university of Paris. He appears to have derived his
surname from a friend and benefactor named Guillaume de
Villon, chaplain in the collegiate church of Saint-Benoit-le-
Bestourne, and a professor of canon law, who took Villon into
his house. The poet became a student in arts, no doubt
early, perhaps at about twelve years of age, and took the
degree of bachelor in 1449 and that of master in 1452. Between
this year and 1455 nothing positive is known of him, except
that nothing was known against him. Attempts have been
made, in the usual fashion of conjectural biography, to fill up
the gap with what a young graduate of Bohemian tendencies
would, could, or might have done; but they are mainly futile.
On the sth of June 1455 the first important incident of
his Hie that is known occurred. Being in the company of a
priest named Giles and a girl named Isabeau, he met, in the
rue Saint-Jacques, a certain Breton, Jean le Hardi, a master
of arts, who was with a priest, Philippe Chermoye or Sermoise
or Sermaise. A scuffle ensued; daggers were drawn; and
Sermaise, who is accused of having threatened and attacked
Villon and drawn the first blood, not only received a dagger-
thrust in return, but a blow from a stone which struck him
down. Sermaise died of his wounds. Villon fled, and was
sentenced to banishment a sentence which was remitted in
January 1456, the formal pardon being extant, strangely
enough, in two different documents, in one of which the culprit
is described as " Francois des Loges, autrement dit Villon,"
in the other as " Francois de Montcorbier." That he is also
said to have described himself to the barber-surgeon who
dressed his wounds as Michel Mouton is less surprising, and
hardly needs an addition to the list of his aliases. It should,
however, be said that the documents relative to this affair
confirm the date of his birth, by representing him as twenty-
six years old or thereabouts. By the end of 1456 he was again
in trouble. In his first broil " la femme Isabeau " is only
generally named, and it is impossible to say whether she had
anything to do with the quarrel. In the second, Catherine
de Vaucelles, of whom we hear not a little in the poems, is the
declared cause of a scuffle in which Villon was so severely
beaten that, to escape ridicule, he fled to Angers, where he
had an uncle who was a monk. It was before leaving Paris
that he composed what is now known as the Petit testament,
of which we shall speak presently with the rest of his poems,
and which, it should be said, shows little or no such mark of
profound bitterness and regret for wasted life as does its in
every sense greater successor the Grand testament. Indeed,
Villon's serious troubles were only beginning, for hitherto he
had been rather injured than guilty. About Christmas-time
the chapel of the college of Navarre was broken open, and
five hundred gold crowns stolen. The robbery was not dis-
covered till March 1457, and it was not till May that the police
came on the track of a gang of student-robbers owing to the
indiscretion of one of them, Guy Tabarie. A year more passed,
when Tabarie, being arrested, turned king's evidence and
accused Villon, who was then absent, of being the ring-leader,
and of having gone to Angers, partly at least, to arrange for
similar burglaries there. Villon, for this or some other crime,
was sentenced to banishment: and he did not attempt to return
to Paris. In fact for four years he was a wanderer; and he
may have been, as each of his friends Regnier de Montigny
and Colin des Cayeux certainly was, a member of a wandering
thieves' gang. It is certain that at one time (in 1457), and
probable that at more times than one, he was in correspondence
with Charles d'Orleans, and it is likely that he resided, at any
rate for some period, at that prince's court at Blois. He had
also something to do with another prince of the blood, Jean
of Bourbon, and traces are found of him in Poitou, in Dauphin6,
&c. But at his next certain appearance he is again in trouble.
He tells us that he had spent the summer of 1461 in the bishop's
prison (bishops were fatal to Villon) of Meung. His crime is
not known, but is supposed to have been church-robbing;
and his enemy, or at least judge, was Thibault d'Aussigny,
who held the see of Orleans. Villon owed his release to a
general gaol-delivery at the accession of Louis XI., and became
a free man again on the 2nd of October.
It was now that he wrote the Grand testament, the work
which has immortalized him. Although he was only thirty
at the date (1461) of this composition (which is unmistakable,
because given in the book itself), there seems to be no kind
of aspiration towards a new life, nor even any hankering after
the old. Nothing appears to be left him but regret; his very
spirit has been worn out by excesses or sufferings or both.
Even his good intentions must have been feeble, for in the
autumn of 1462 we find him once more living in the cloisters
of Saint-Benoit, and in November he was in the Chatelet for
theft. In default of evidence the old charge of the college
of Navarre was revived, and even a royal pardon did not bar
the demand for restitution. Bail was, however, accepted,
but Villon fell promptly into a street quarrel, was arrested,
tortured and condemned to be hanged, but the sentence was
commuted to banishment by the parlement on the 5th of January
1463. The actual event is unknown: but from this time he
disappears from history. Rabelais indeed tells two stories
about him which have almost necessarily been dated later.
One is a countryside anecdote of a trick supposed to have
been played by the poet in his old age at Saint Maixent in
Poitou, whither he had retired. The other, a coarse but
pointed jest at the expense of England, is told as having been
addressed by Villon to King Edward V. during an exile in that
country. Now, even if King Edward V. were not evidently out
of the question, a passage of the story refers to the well-known
scholar and man of science, Thomas Linacre, as court physician
to the king, and makes Villon mention him, whereas Linacre
was only a young scholar, not merely at the time of Edward V.'s
supposed murder, but at the extreme date (1489) which can be
assigned to Villon's life. For in this year the first edition of
the poet's work appeared, obviously not published by himself,
88
VILNA
and with no sign in it of his having lived later than the date
(1461) of the Grand testament. It would be easy to dismiss
these Rabelaisian mentions of Villon as mere humorous inven-
tions, if it were not that the author of Pantagruel was born
almost soon enough to have actually seen Villon if he had
lived to anything that could be called old age, that he almost
certainly must have known men who had known Villon, and
that the poet undoubtedly spent much time in Rabelais's own
country on the banks of the lower Loire.
The obscurity, the unhappiness and the evil repute of Villon's
life would not be in themselves a reason for the minute investiga-
tion to which the events of that life have been subjected, and the
result of which has been summed up here. But his poetical work,
scanty as the certainly genuine part of it is, is of such extraordinary
quality, and marks such an epoch in the history of European litera-
ture, that he has been at all times an interesting figure, and, like all
very interesting figures, has been often praised for qualities quite
other than those which he really possessed. Boileau's famous verses,
in which Villon is extolled for having first known how to smooth
out the confused art of the old romancers, are indeed a prodigy of
blundering or ignorance or both. As far as art or the technical
part of poetry goes, Villon made not the slightest advance on his
predecessors, nor stood in any way in front of such contemporaries
as his patron Charles d'Orleans. His two Testaments (so called by
the application to them of a regular class-name of medieval poetry
and consisting of burlesque legacies to his acquaintances) are mads
up of eight-line stanzas of eight-syllabled verses, varied in the case
of the Grand testament by the insertion of ballades and rondeaux
of very great beauty and interest, but not formally different in
any way from poems of the same kind for more than a century
past. What really distinguishes Villon is the intenser quality of
his poetical feeling and expression, and what is perhaps arrogantly
called the modern character of his subjects and thought. Medieval
poetry, with rare exceptions, and, with exceptions not quite so
rare, classical poetry, are distinguished by their lack of what is
now called the personal note. In Villon this note sounds, struck
with singular force and skill. Again, the simple joy of living which
distinguishes both periods the medieval, despite a common opinion,
scarcely less than the ancient has disappeared. Even the riot
and rollicking of his earlier days are mentioned with far less relish
of remembrance than sense of their vanity. This sense of vanity,
indeed, not of the merely religious, but of the purely mundane and
even half-pagan kind, is Villon's most prominent characteristic. It
tinges his narrative, despite its burlesque bequests, all through;
it is the very keynote of his most famous and beautiful piece, the
Ballade des dames du temps jadis, with its refrain, " Mais ou sont les
neiges d'antan ? " as well as of his most daring piece of realism,
the other ballade of La Crosse Margot, with its burden of hopeless
entanglement in shameless vice. It is nowhere more clearly
sounded than in the piece which ranks with these two at the head
of his work, the Regrets de la Bdle Heaulmiere, in which a woman,
once young and beautiful, now old and withered, laments her
lost charms. So it is almost throughout his poems, including the
grim Ballade des pendus, and hardly excluding the very beautiful
Ballade pour sa mere, with its description of sincere and humble
piety. It is in the profound melancholy which the dominance of
this note has thrown over Villon's work, and in the suitableness
of that melancholy to the temper of all generations since, that his
charm and power have consisted, though it is difficult to conceive
any time at which his poetical merit could be ignored.
His certainly genuine poems consist of the two Testaments with
their codicil (the latter containing the Ballade des pendus, or more
properly pitaphe en forme de ballade, and some other pieces of a
similarly grim humour), a few miscellaneous poems, chiefly ballades,
and an extraordinary collection (called Le Jargon ou jobelin) of
poems in argot, the greater part of which is now totally unintelligible,
if, which may perhaps be doubted, it ever was otherwise. Besides
these, several poems of no inconsiderable interest are usually
printed with Villon's works, though they are certainly, or almost
certainly, not his. The chief are Les Repues Franches, a curious
series of verse stories of cheating tavern-keepers, &c., having some
resemblance to those told of George Peele, but of a broader and
coarser humour. These, though in many cases "common form '
of the broader tale-kind, are not much later than his time, and evi-
dence to reputation if not to fact. Another of these spurious pieces
is the extremely amusing monologue of the Franc Archier de Bag-
nolet, in which one of the newly constituted archers or regularly
trained and paid soldiery, who were extremely unpopular in France,
is made to expose his own poltroonery. The third most important
piece of this kind is the Dialogue de Mallepaye et de Baillevent,
a dramatic conversation between two penniless spendthrifts, which
is not without merit. These poems, however, were never attributed
to Villon or printed with his works till far into the i6th century.
It has been said that the first dated edition of Villon is of 1489,
though some have held one or more than one undated copy to be
'still earlier. Between the first, whenever it was, and 1542 there
were very numerous editions, the most famous being that (i533)
of Clement Marot, one of whose most honourable distinctions is
the care he took of his poetical predecessors. The Pleiade movement
and the classicizing of the grand siecle put Villon rather out of
favour, and he was not again reprinted till early in the l8th century,
when he attracted the attention of students of old French like Le
Duchat, Bernard de la Monnoye and Prosper Marchand. The
first critical edition in the modern sense that is to say, an edition
founded on MSS. (of which there are in Villon's case several, chiefly
at Paris and Stockholm) was that of the Abbe J. H. R. Promp-
sault in 1832. The next was that of the " Bibliophile Jacob '
(P. Lacroix) in the Bibliotheque Elzevirienne (Paris, 1854). The
standard edition is CEuvres completes de Fro.nc.ois Villon, by M.
Auguste Longnon (1892). This contains copies of the documents
on which the story of Villon's life is based, and a bibliography.
The late M. Marcel Schwob discovered new documents relating to
the poet, but died before he could complete his work, which was
posthumously published in 1905. See also A. Campaux, F. Villon,
sa vie et ses ceuvres (1859); A. Longnon, Etude biographique (1877);
and especially G. Paris, Frangois Villon (1901), a book of the first
merit. A complete translation of Villon was written by Mr John
Payne (1878) for the Villon Society. There are also translations
of individual poems in Mr Andrew Lang's Ballads and Lyrics
of Old France (1872) and in the works of D. G. Rossetti and Mr
Swinburne. Among critical studies of Villon may be menlioned
those by Sainte-Beuve in the Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv., by Theo-
phile Gautierin Grotesques, and by R. L. Stevenson in his Familiar
Studies of Men and Books (1882). An unedited ballad by Villon,
with another by an unknown poet of the same date, was published
by W. G. C. Bijvanck (1891) as Un poele inconnu. M. Pierre
d'Alheim published (1892) an edition of Le Jargon with a translation
into ordinary French. (G. SA.)
VILNA, or WILNO, a Lithuanian government of West Russia,
having the Polish government of Suwalki on the W., Kovno and
Vitebsk on the N., and Minsk and Grodno on the E. and S.
Area, 16,176 sq. m.; pop. (1906 estimate) 1,806,300. Vilna
lies on the broad marshy swelling, dotted with lakes, which
separates Poland from the province of East Prussia and stretches
E.N.E. towards the Valdai Plateau.
Its highest parts are a little more than 1000 ft. above sea-level.
On its western and eastern boundaries it is deeply trenched by
the valleys of the Niemen and the S. Dvina. It is chiefly built up
of Lower Tertiary deposits, but in the north Devonian sandstones
appear on the surface. The Tertiary deposits consist of Eocene
clay, slates, sandstones, limestones and chalk, with gypsum, and
are partly of marine and partly of terrene origin. The whole is
overlain with thick layers of Glacial boulder clay and post-Glacial
deposits, containing remains of the mammoth and other ex-
tinct mammals. Interesting discoveries of Neolithic implements,
especially of polished stone, and of implements belonging to the
Bronze Age and the early years of the Christian epoch, have been
made. Numerous lakes and marshes, partly covered with forests,
and scarcely passable except when frozen, as well as wet meadow-
land, occupy a large area in the centre of the government. The
Niemen, which flows along the southern and western borders for
more than 200 m., is the chief artery of trade, and its importance
in this respect is enhanced by its tributary the Viliya, which flows
west for more than 200 m. through the central parts of Vilna,
receiving many affluents on its course. Among the tributaries
of the Niemen is the Berezina, which acquired renown during
Napoleon's retreat in 1812; it flows in a marshy valley in the
south-east. The S. Dvina for SO m. of its course separates Vilna
from Vitebsk. The climate of the government is only slightly
tempered by its proximity to the Baltic Sea (January, 2i-8;
July, 64-5) ; the average temperature at the town of Vilna is only
43-5. But in winter the thermometer descends very low, a minimum
of -30 F. having been observed. The flora and fauna are inter-
mediate between those of Poland and middle Russia.
The government is divided into seven districts, the chief towns
of which are Vilna, Vileiki, Disna, Lida, Oshmyany, Zventsyany
and Troki.
VILNA, or WILNO, a town of Russia, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, 436 m. S.S.W. of St Petersburg, at the
intersection of the railways from St Petersburg to Warsaw and
from Libau to the mouth of the Don. Pop. (1883) 93,760;
(1900) 162,633. With its suburbs Antokol, Lukishki, Pogul-
yanka and Sarechye, it stands on and around a knot of hills
(2450 ft.) at the confluence of the Vileika with the Viliya. Its
streets are in part narrow and not very clean; but Vilna is an
old town, rich in historical associations. Its imperial palace,
and the cathedral of St Stanislaus (1387, restored 1801), con-
taining the silver sarcophagus of St Casimir and the tomb of
Prince Vitoft, are fine buildings. There is a second cathedral, that
of St Nicholas, built in 1596-1604; also several churches dating
VILVORDE VINCENT, ST
89
from the I4th to the i6th centuries. The Ostra Brama chapel
contains an image of the Virgin greatly venerated by Orthodox
ks and Roman Catholics alike. The museum of antiquities
valuable historical collections. The ancient castle of the
Jagcllones is now a mass of ruins. The old university, founded
in 1578, was restored (1803) by Alexander I., but has been closed
since 1832 for political reasons; the only departments which
remain in activity are the astronomical observatory and a
nu'dical academy. Vilna is an archiepiscopal see of the Ortho-
dox Greek Church and an episcopal see of the Roman Catholic
Church, and the headquarters of the governor-general of the
Lithuanian provinces and of the III. army corps. The city
sses a botanical garden and a public library, and is adorned
with statues to Catherine II. (1903), the poet Pushkin and
C'ount M. Muraviev (1898). It is an important centre for trade
in timber and grain, which are exported; and has theological
seminaries, both Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic, a
military school, a normal school for teachers and professional
schools. It is the seat of many scientific societies (geographical,
medical and archaeological), and has a good antiquarian
museum and a public library.
History. The territory of Vilna has been occupied by the
Lithuanians since the loth century, and probably much earlier;
their chief fortified town, Vilna, is first mentioned in 1128. A
temple to the god Perkunas stood on one of its hills till 1387,
when it was destroyed by Prince Jagiello, after his baptism.
After 1323, when Gedymin, prince of Lithuania, abandoned
Troki, Vilna became the capital of Lithuania. The formerly
independent principalities of Minsk and Lidy, as well as the
territory of Disna, which belonged to the Polotsk principality,
were annexed by the Lithuanian princes, and from that time
Vilna, which was fortified by a stone wall, became the chief city
of the Lithuanian state. It was united with Poland when its
prince, Casimir IV., was elected (1447) to the Polish throne.
The plague of 1588, a fire in 1610 and still more the wars between
Russia and Poland, which began in the I7th century, checked
its further growth. The Russians took Vilna in 1655, and in
the following year it was ceded to Russia. The Swedes captured
it in 1702 and in 1706. The Russians again took possession of
it in 1788; and it was finally annexed to Russia in 1795, after
the partition of Poland. Its Polish inhabitants took an active
part in the risings of 1831 and 1863, for which they were
severely punished by the Russian government.
VILVORDE, a town of Belgium in the province of Brabant,
9 m. N. of Brussels and on the Senne. Pop. (1904) 14,418. The
old castle of Vilvorde, which often gave shelter to the dukes of
Brabant in their days of trouble, is now used as a prison. The
younger Teniers lived and died at a farm outside Vilvorde, and
is buried in the parish church of Dry Toren.
VINCENNES, a town of northern France, in the department
of Seine, on a wooded plateau ij m. E. of the fortifications of
Paris, with which it is connected by rail and tram. Pop. (1906)
town, 29,791; commune, 34,185. Its celebrated castle, situated
to the south of the town and on the northern border of the Bois
de Vincennes, was formerly a royal residence, begun by Louis
VII. in 1164, and more than once rebuilt. It was frequently
visited by Louis IX., who held informal tribunals in the neigh-
bouring wood, a pyramid marking the spot where the oak under
which he administered justice is said to have stood. The chapel,
an imitation of the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, was begun by
Charles V. in 1379, continued by Charles VI. and Francis I.,
consecrated in 1552 and restored in modem times. In the
sacristy is the monument erected in 1816 to the memory of the
duke of Enghien, who was shot in the castle moat in 1804.
Louis XI. made the castle a state prison in which Henry of
Navarre, the great Cond6, Mirabeau and other distinguished
persons were afterwards confined. Under Napoleon I. the
castle became a magazine of war-material. Louis XVIII.
added an armoury, and under Louis Philippe numerous case-
mates and a new fort to the east of the donjon were constructed.
The place now serves as a fort, arsenal and barracks. It forms
a rectangle 417 yds. long by 245 yds. wide. The enclosing wall
was originally flanked by nine towers, which were cut down to
its level between 1808 and 1811, and now serve as bastions.
The donjon is a square tower, 170 ft. high, with turrets at the
corners. The Bois de Vincennes, which covers about 2300
acres and stretches to the right bank of the Marne, contains
a race-course, a military training-ground, a school of military
explosives (pyrotechnic), several artificial lakes, an artillery
polygon and other military establishments, an experimental
farm, the redoubts of Gravelle and La Faisanderie and the
normal school of military gymnastics. The wood, which now
belongs to Paris, was laid out during the second empire on the
same lines as the Bois de Boulogne. On its south border is the
asylum of Vincennes, founded in 1855 for the benefit of con-
valescents from the hospitals. In the town there is a statue of
General Daumesnil, celebrated for his defense of the castle
against the allies in 1814 and 1815. Vincennes has a school of
military administration and carries on horticulture and the
manufacture of ironware of various kinds, rubber goods,
chemicals, perfumery, mineral waters, &c.
VINCENNES, a city and the county-seat of Knox county,
Indiana, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, on the E. bank of
the Wabash river, about 117 m. S.W. of Indianapolis. Pop.
(1890) 8853; (1900) 10,249, of whom 736 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 14,895. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio
South- Western, the Cleveland, Cincinnati , Chicago & St Louis,
the Evansville & Terre Haute, and the Vandalia railways.
Extensive levees, 15 m. in length, prevent the overflow of the
Wabash river, which for nine months in the year is navigable
from this point to the Ohio. The city is level and well drained,
and has a good water-supply system. In Vincennes are a Roman
Catholic cathedral, erected in 1835, one of the oldest in the West,
occupying the site of a church built early in the i8th century;
Vincennes University (1806), the oldest educational institution
in the state, which in 1910 had 14 instructors and 236 students;
St Rose Female Academy, and a public library. Coal, natural
gas and oil are found near Vincennes. The city is a manufactur-
ing and railway centre, and ships grain, pork and neat cattle.
The total value of the factory products in 1905 was $3,172,279.
Vincennes was the first permanent settlement ia Indiana. On
its site Francois Margane, Sieur de Vincennes, established a
French military post about 1731, and a permanent settlement
was made about the fort in 1735. After the fall of Quebec the
place remained under French sovereignty until 1777, when it was
occupied by a British garrison. In 1778 an agent of George
Rogers Clark took possession of the fort on Behalf of Virginia,
but it was soon afterwards again occupied by the British, who
called it Fort Sackville and held it until February 1779, when it
was besieged and was captured (on the 25th of February) by
George Rogers Clark, and passed finally under American juris-
diction. The site of the fort is marked by a granite shaft erected
in 1905 by the Daughters of the Revolution. Vincennes was the
capital of Indiana Territory from 1800 to 1813, and was the
meeting-place in 1805 of the first General Assembly of Indiana
Territory. In 1839 it was incorporated as a borough, and it
became a city in 1856.
See J. Law, The Colonial History of Vincennes (Vincennes, 1858);
W. H. Smith, " Vincennes, the Key to the North-VVest," in L. P.
Powell's Historic Towns of the Western States (New York, 1901) ; " The
Capture of Vincennes by George Rogers Clark," Old South Leaflets,
No. 43 (Boston, n.d.) ; also chap. ii. of J. P. Dunn's Indiana (Boston,
1892).
VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST, deacon and martyr, whose
festival is celebrated on the 22nd of January. In several
of his discourses St Augustine pronounces the eulogy of this
martyr, and refers to Acts which were read in the church. It is
doubtful whether the Acts that have come down to us (Ada
Sanctorum, January, ii. 394~397) are those referred to by St
Augustine, since it is not certain that they are a contemporary
document. According to this account, Vincent was bom of
noble parents in Spain, and was educated by Valerius, bishop
of Saragossa, who ordained him to the diaconate. Under the
persecution of Diocletian, Vincent was arrested and taken to
Valencia. Having stood firm in his profession before Dacianus,
9 o
VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS
the governor, he was subjected to excruciating tortures and
thrown into prison, where angels visited him, lighting his
dungeon with celestial light and relieving his sufferings. His
warders, having seen these wonders through the chinks of the
wall, forthwith became Christians. He was afterwards brought
out and laid upon a soft mattress in order that he might regain
sufficient strength for new torments; but, while Dacianus was
meditating punishment, the saint gently breathed his last.
The tyrant exposed his body to wild beasts, but a raven
miraculously descended and protected it. It was then thrown
into the sea, but was cast up on the shore, recovered by a pious
woman and buried outside Valencia. Prudentius devoted one
of his hymns (Peristeph. v.) to St Vincent, and St Augustine
attests that in his lifetime the festival of the saint was celebrated
throughout the Christian world (Serm. 276, n. 4).
See T. Ruinart, Acta martyrum sincera (Amsterdam, 1713), pp.
364-66; Le Nain de Tillemont, Memoires pour servir & I'histoire
ecclesiastique (Paris, 1701, seq.), v. 215-225, 673-675. (H. DE.)
VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS, or VINCENTIUS BELLOVACENSIS
(c. iigo-c. 1264), the encyclopaedist of the middle ages, was
probably a native of Beauvais. 1 The exact dates of his birth
and death are unknown. A tolerably old tradition, preserved
by Louis a Valleoleti (c. 1413), gives the latter as 1264;* but
Tholomaeus de Luca, Vincent's younger contemporary (d. 1321),
seems to reckon him as living during the pontificate of Gregory X.
(1271-76). If we assume 1264 as the year of his death, the
immense volume of his works forbids us to think he could have
been born much later than 1190. Very little is known of his
career. A plausible conjecture makes him enter the house of the
Dominicans at Paris between 1215 and 1220, from which place a
second conjecture carries him to the Dominican monastery
founded at Beauvais in 1228-29. There is no evidence to show
that the Vincent who was sub-prior of this foundation in 1246
is the encyclopaedist; nor indeed is it likely that a man of such
abnormally studious habits could have found time to attend to
the daily business routine of a monastic establishment. It is
certain, however, that he at one time held the post of " reader "
at the monastery of Royaumont (Mons Regalis), not far from
Paris, on the Oise, founded by St Louis between 1228 and 1235.
St Louis read the books that he compiled, and supph'ed the funds
for procuring copies of such authors as he required for his com-
pilations. Queen Margaret, her son Philip and her son-in-law,
Theobald V. of Champagne and Navarre, are also named among
those who urged him to the composition of his " little works,"
especially the De Institutione Principum. Though Vincent may
well have been summoned to Royaumont even before 1 240, there
is no actual proof that he lived there before the return of Louis IX.
and his wife from the Holy Land, early in the summer of 1254.
But it is evident that he must have written his work De
Eruditione FUiorum Regalium (where he styles himself as
" Vincentius Belvacensis, de ordine praedicatorum, qualiscumque
lector in monasterio de Regali Monte ") after this date and yet
before January 1260, the approximate date of his Traclatus
Consolatorius. When he wrote the latter work he must have
left Royaumont, as he speaks of returning from the funeral of
Prince Louis (isth January 1260) "ad nostram domum," a
phrase which can hardly be explained otherwise than as referring
to his own Dominican house, whether at Beauvais or elsewhere.
The Speculum Majus, the great compendium of all the knowledge
of the middle ages, as it left the pen of Vincent, seems to have con-
sisted of three parts only, viz. the Speculum Naturale, Doctrinale
and Historiale. Such, at least, is Echard's conclusion, derived from
an examination of the earliest extant MSS. All the printed editions,
however, consist of four parts, the additional one being entitled
Speculum Morale. This has been clearly shown to be the production
of a later hand, and is ascribed by Echard to the period between
1310 and 1325. In arrangement and style it is quite different from
'He is sometimes styled Vincentius Burgundus; but, according
to M. Daunou, this appellation cannot be traced back further than
the first half of the isth century.
1 Apparently confirmed by the few enigmatical lines preserved by
Echara from his epitaph
" Pertulit iste necem post annos mille ducentos,
Sexaginta decem sex habe, sex mihi retentos."
the other three parts, and indeed it is mainly a compilation from
Thomas Aquinas, Stephen de Bourbon, and two or three other
contemporary writers.
The Speculum Naturale fills a bulky folio volume of 848 closely
printed double-columned pages. It is divided into thirty-two
books and 3718 chapters. It is a vast summary of all the natural
history known to western Europe towards the middle of the I3th
century. It is, as it were, the great temple of medieval science,
whose floor and walls are inlaid with an enormous mosaic of skilfully
arranged passages from Latin, Greek, Arabic, and even Hebrew
authors. To each quotation, as he borrows it, Vincent prefixes
the name of the book and author from whom it is taken, distinguish-
ing, however, his own remarks by the word " actor." The Speculum
Naturale is so constructed that the various subjects are dealt with
according to the order of their creation; it is in fact a gigantic
commentary on Genesis i. Thus book i. opens with an account
of the Trinity and its relation to creation; then follows a similar
series of chapters about angels, their attributes, powers, orders, &c.,
down to such minute points as their methods of communicating
thought, on which matter the author decides, in his own person,
that they have a kind of intelligible speech, and that with angels to
think and to speak are not the same process. The whole book, in
fact, deals with such things as were with God " in the beginning."
Book ii. treats of our own world, of light, colour, the four elements,
Lucifer and his fallen angels, thus corresponding in the main with
the sensible world and the work of the first day. Books iii. and iv.
deal with the phenomena of the heavens and of time, which is
measured by the motions of the heavenly bodies, with the sky and
all its wonders, fire, rain, thunder, dew, winds, &c. Books v.-xiv.
treat of the sea and the dry land: they discourse of the seas, the
ocean and the great rivers, agricultural operations, metals, precious
stones, plants, herbs, with their seeds, grains and juices, trees wild
and cultivated, their fruits and their saps. Under each species,
where possible, Vincent gives a chapter on its use in medicine, and he
adopts for the most part an alphabetical arrangement. In book vi.
c. 7 he incidentally discusses what would become of a stone if it
were dropped down a hole, pierced right through the earth, and,
curiously enough, decides that it would stay in the centre. Book xv.
deals with astronomy the moon, stars, and the zodiac, the sun,
the planets, the seasons and the calendar. Books xvi. and xvii.
treat of fowls and fishes, mainly in alphabetical order and with
reference to their medical qualities. Books xviii.-xxii. deal in a
similar way with domesticated and wild animals, including the dog,
serpents, bees and insects; they also include a general treatise on
animal physiology spread over books xxi.-xxii. Books xxiii.-xxviii.
discuss the psychology, physiology and anatomy of man, the five
senses and their organs, sleep, dreams, ecstasy, memory, reason, &c.
The remaining four books seem more or less supplementary ; the last
(xxxii.) is a summary of geography and history down to the year
1250, when the book seems to have been given to the worjd, perhaps
along with the Speculum Historiale and possibly an earlier form of
the Speculum Doctrinale,
The Speculum Doctrinale, in seventeen books and 2374 chapters,
is a summary of all the scholastic knowledge of the age and does not
confine itself to natural history. It is intended to be a practical
manual for the student and the official alike ; and, to fulfil this object,
it treats of the mechanic arts of life as well as the subtleties of the
scholar, the duties of the prince and the tactics of the general.
The first book, after defining philosophy, &c., gives a long Latin
vocabulary of some 6000 or 7000 words. Grammar, logic, rhetoric
and poetry are discussed in books ii. and iii., the latter including
several well-known fables, such as the lion and the mouse. Book iv.
treats of the virtues, each of which has two chapters of quotations
allotted to it, one in prose and the other in verse. Book v.
is of a somewhat similar nature. With book vi. we enter on the
practical part of the work; it deals with the ars oeconomica, and
gives directions for building, gardening, sowing, reaping, rearing
cattle and tending vineyards; it includes also a kind of agricul-
tural almanac for each month in the year. Books vii.-ix. have
reference to the ars politico: they contain rules for the education
of a prince and a summary of the forms, terms and statutes of
canonical, civil and criminal "law. Book xi. is devoted to the artes
mechanicae, viz. those of weavers, smiths, armourers, merchants;
hunters, and even the general and the sailor. Books xii. xiv. deal
with medicine both in practice and in theory : they contain practical
rules for the preservation of health according to the four seasons of
the year, and treat of various diseases from fever to gout. Book xv.
deals with physics and may be" regarded as a summary of the
Speculum Naturale. Book xvi. is given up to mathematics, under
which head are included music, geometry, astronomy, astrology,
weights and measures, and metaphysics. It is noteworthy that in
this book Vincent shows a knowledge of the Arabic numerals, though
be does not call them by this name. With him the unit is termed
"digitus"; when multiplied by ten it becomes the "articulus";
while the combination of the articulus and the digitus is the
" numerus compositus." In this chapter (xvi. 9), which is super-
scribed " actor," he clearly explains how the value of a number
increases tenfold with every place it is moved to the left. He is
even acquainted with the later invention of the " cifra " or cipher.
VINCENT, G. VINCENT DE PAUL, ST
The last book (xvii.) treats of theology or (as we should now say)
mythology, and winds up with an account of the Holy Scriptures
and of the Fathers, from Ignatius and Dionysius the Areopagite to
Jerome and Gregory the Great, and even of later writers from Isidore
and Uede, through Alcuin, Lanfranc and Anselm, down to Bernard
of Clairvaux and the brethren of St Victor.
As the fifteenth book of the Speculum Doctrinale is a summary of
the Speculum Naturale, so the Speculum Historiale may be regarded
as the expansion of the last book of the same work. It consists of
thirty-one books divided into 3793 chapters. The first book opens
with the mysteries ol God and the angels, and then passes on to the
works of the six days and the creation of man. It includes disserta-
tions on the various vices and virtues, the different arts and sciences,
and carries down the history of the world to the sojourn in Egypt.
The next eleven books (ii.-xii.) conduct us through sacred and secular
history down to the triumph of Christianity under Constantine.
The story of Barlaam and Josaphat occupies a great part of book
xv. ; and book xvi. gives an account of Daniel s nine kingdoms,
in which account Vincent differs from his professed authority,
Sigebert of Gembloux, by reckoning England as the fourth instead
of the fifth. In the chapters devoted to the orieines of Britain
he relies on the Brutus legend, but cannot carry his catalogue of
British or English kings further than 735, where he honestly con-
fesses that his authorities fail him. Seven more books bring us to the
rise of Mahomet (xxiii.) and the days of Charlemagne (xxiv.).
Vincent's Charlemagne is a curious medley of the great emperor of
history and the champion of romance. He is at once the gigantic
eater of Turpin, the huge warrior eight feet high, who could lift the
armed knight standing on his open hand to a level with his head, the
crusading conqueror of Jerusalem in days before the crusades, and
yet with all this the temperate drinker and admirer of St Augustine,
as his character had filtered down through various channels from the
historical pages of Einhard. Book xxv. includes the first crusade,
and in the course of book xxix., which contains an account of the
Tatars, the author enters on what is almost contemporary history,
winding up in book xxxi. with a short narrative of the crusade of
St Louis in 1250. One remarkable feature of the Speculum Historiale
is Vincent's constant habit of devoting several chapters to selections
from the writings of each great author, whether secular or profane,
as he mentions him in the course of ,his work. The extracts from
Cicero and Ovid, Origen and St John, Chrysostom, Augustine and
Jerome are but specimens of a useful custom which reaches its
culminating point in book xxviii., which is devoted entirely to the
writings of St Bernard. One main fault of the Speculum Historiale
is the unduly large space devoted to miracles. Four of the medieval
historians from whom he quotes most frequently are Sigebert of
Gembloux, Hugh of Fleury, Helinand of Froidmont, and William
of Malmesbury, whom he uses for Continental as well as for English
history.
Vincent has thus hardly any claim to be reckoned as an original
writer. But it is difficult to speak too highly of his immense in-
dustry in collecting, classifying and arranging these three huge
volumes of 80 books and 9885 chapters. The undertaking to com-
bine all human knowledge into a single whole was in itself a colossal
one and could only have been born in a mind of no mean order.
Indeed more than six centuries passed before the idea was again
resuscitated ; and even then it required a group of brilliant French-
men to do what the old Dominican had carried out unaided. The
number of writers quoted by Vincent is almost incredible: in the
Speculum Naturale alone no less .than 350 distinct works are cited,
and to these must be added at least 100 more for the other
two Specula. His reading ranges from Arabian philosophers and
naturalists to Aristotle, Eusebius, Cicero, Seneca, Julius Caesar (whom
he calls Julius Celsus), and even the Jew, Peter Alphonso. But
Hebrew, Arabic and Greek he seems to have known solely through
one or other of the popular Latin versions. He admits that his
quotations are not always exact, but asserts that this was the fault
of careless copyists.
A list of Vincent's works, both MS. and printed, will be found in
the Histoire Htteraire de France, vol. xviii., and in Jacques Echard's
Scriptores ordinis praedicatorum (1719-21). The Tractatusconsolatorius
pro morte amid and the Liber de eruditione filiorum regalium (dedi-
cated to Queen Margaret) were printed at Basel in December
1480. The Liber de Institution^ Pnncipum, a treatise on the duties
of kings and their functionaries, has never yet been printed, and
the only MS. copy the writer of this article has been able to consult
does not contain in its prologue all the information which Echard
seems to imply is to be found there. The so-called first edition of
the Speculum Majus, including the Speculum Morale, ascribed to
Johann Mentelin and long celebrated as the earliest work printed
at Strassburg, has lately been challenged as being only an earlier
edition of Vincent's three genuine Specula (c. 1468-70), with which
has been bound up the Speculum Morale first printed by Mentelin
(c. 1473-76). The edition most frequently quoted is that by the
Jesuits (4 vols., Douai, 1624).
See J. B. Bourgeat, fjudes sur Vincent de Beauvais, thfologien,
philosophe, encychpediste (Paris, 1856); E. Boutaric, Examen des
sources du Speculum historiale de Vincent de Beauvais (Paris, 1863),
and in tome xvii. of the Revue des questions historiques (Paris, 1875);
9 1
W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Ceschichtsquellen, vol. ii. (1894;
B. Haureau, Notices . . . de M 55. latins de fa Bibliotheque Nationale,
tome v. (1892) ; and E. Male, L'artrelieieuxdu XIII' sticle en France,
(T.A.A.)
VINCENT. GEORGE (1796-1831?), English landscape and
marine painter, was born at Norwich in June 1796. He studied
art under " Old " Crome, and at the age of fifteen began to
contribute to the Norwich exhibition. From 1814 till 1823 he
exhibited occasionally at the Royal Academy, and also in the
Water-Colour Exhibition and the British Institution. In 1819
he removed from Norwich to London, and he was a contributor
to the Suffolk Street gallery from its foundation in 1824 till 1830.
He possessed great artistic abilities; but he fell into dissipation,
and his works became slight and hastily executed. Finally he
dropped out of sight, and he is believed to have died about 1831.
His most important work, a " View of Greenwich Hospital,"
was shown in the International Exhibition of 1862. His " London
from the Surrey Side of Waterloo Bridge " is also a fine work.
VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887), American actress, was
born in Portsmouth, England, on the i8th of September 1818,
the daughter of an Irishman named Farlin. Left an orphan at an
early age, she turned to the stage, making her first appearance in
1834 as Lucy in The Review, at Cowes, Isle of Wight. The next
year she married J. R. Vincent (d. 1850), an actor, with whom
she toured England and Ireland for several, years. In 1846
Mrs J. R. Vincent went to America to join the stock company of
the old National theatre hi Boston. Here she became a great
favourite. No actress in America, except Mrs Gilbert, has ever
been such " a dear old lady " to so wide a circle of constant
admirers. She died in Boston on the 4th of September 1887.
Her memory is honoured by the Vincent Memorial Hospital,
founded in that city in 1890 by popular subscription, and
formally opened on the 6th of April 1891, by Bishop Phillips
Brooks, as a hospital for wage-earning women and girls.
VINCENT DE PAUL, ST (1576-1660), French divine, founder
of the " Congregation of Priests of the Mission," usually known
as Lazarites (?..), was born on the 24th of April 1576 at Pouy,
near Dax, in Gascogne, and was educated by the Franciscans
at Dax and at Toulouse. He was ordained priest in 1600.
Voyaging from Toulouse to Narbonne, he was captured by
Barbary pirates, who took him to Tunis and sold him as a slave.
He converted his third master, a renegade Italian, and escaped
with him to Aigues-Mortes near Marseilles in June 1607. After
short stays at Avignon and Rome, Vincent found his way to
Paris, where he became favourably known to Monsieur (after-
wards Cardinal) de Berulle, who was then founding the con-
gregation of the French Oratory. At Beiulle's instance he
became curate of Clichy near Paris (1611); but this charge he
soon exchanged for the post of tutor to the count of Joigny
at Folleville, in the diocese of Amiens, where his success in
dealing with the spiritual needs of the peasants led to the
" missions " with which his name is associated. In 1617 he
accepted the curacy of Chatillon-les-Dombes (or sur-Chala-
ronne), and here he received from the countess of Joigny the
means by which he was enabled to found bis first " confreiie
de charit6," an association of women who ministered to the
poor and the sick. In 1619 Louis XIII. made him royal
almoner of the galleys. Among the works of benevolence
with which his name is associated are the establishment of a
hospital for galley slaves at Marseilles, the institution of two
establishments for foundlings at Paris, and the organization
of the " Filles de la Charite," to supplement the work of the
confrSries, whose members were mainly married women with
domestic duties. He died at Paris on the 27th of September
1660, and was buried in the church of St Lazare. He was
beatified by Benedict XIII. in 1729, and canonized by Clement
XII. in 1737, his festival (duplex) being observed on the i9th
of July. The Society of St Vincent de Paul was founded by
Frederic Ozanam and others in 1833, "* re ply to a charge
brought by some free-thinking contemporaries that the church
no longer had the strength to inaugurate a practical enterprise.
In a variety of ways it does a great deal of social service similar
VINCENT OF LERINS, ST- -VINE
to that of gilds of help. Its administration has always been in
the hands of laymen, and it works through local " conferences "
or branches, the general council having been suspended because
it declined to accept a cardinal as its official head.
Lives by Maynard (4 vols., Paris, 1860); Bougaud (2 vols., Paris,
1891); E. de Broglie (sth edition, Paris, 1899); Letters (2 vols.,
Paris, 1882); A. Loth (Paris, 1880); H. Simard (Lyons, 1894).
VINCENT OF LERINS, ST, or VINCENTIS LERINENSIS (d. c.
A.D. 450), an ecclesiastical writer of the Western Church of
whose personal history hardly anything is known, except that
he was a native of Gaul, possibly brother of St Loup, bishop
of Troyes, that he became a monk and priest at Lerinum, and
that he died in or about 450. Lerinum (Lerins, off Cannes)
had been made by Honoratus, afterwards bishop of Aries, the
seat of a monastic community which produced a number of
eminent churchmen, among them Hilary of Aries. The school
did not produce an extensive literature, but it played an
important part in resisting an exaggerated Augustinianism
by reasserting the freedom of the will and the continued exist-
ence of the divine image in human nature after the fall. As
regards Vincent he himself tells us that only after long and sad
experience of worldly turmoil did he betake himself to the
haven of a religious life. In 434, three years after the council
of Ephesus, he wrote the Commonitorium adversus profanas
omnium haereticorum novitates, in which he ultimately aims
at Augustine's doctrine of grace and predestination. In it he
discusses the " notes " which distinguish Catholic truth from
heresy, and (cap. 2) lays down and applies the famous threefold
test of orthodoxy quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus
creditum est. It is very striking that in his appeal to tradition
Vincent assigns no part to the bishops as such apart from
the council; he appeals to the ancient " teachers," not to
any apostolic succession. His " semi-Pelagian " opposition to
Augustine is dealt with by Prosper of Aquitania in his Pro
Augustini doctrina responsiones ad capitula objectionum Vin-
centiarnarium. It explains why the Commonitorium has reached
us only in a mutilated form.
The Commonitorium has been edited by Baluze (Paris, 1663, 1669
and 1684) and by Klupfel (Vienna, 1809). It also occurs in vol. 1.
of Migne's Patrol. Ser. Lai. (18^6). A full summary is given in
A. Harnack's History of Dogma, iii. 230 ff. See also F. H. Stanton,
Place of Authority in Religion, pp. 167 ff.; A. Cooper-Marsdin, The
School of Lerins (Rochester, 1905).
VINCENT FERRER, ST (1355-1419), Spanish Dominican
preacher, was born of respectable parentage at Valencia on the
23rd of January 1355. In February 1374 he took the Domini-
can habit, and after spending some years in teaching, and in
completing his theological studies, he was licensed to preach.
He graduated as doctor of theology at Lerida in 1374, and his
sermons in the cathedral of Valencia from 1385 onwards soon
became famous. Cardinal Peter de Luna took him with him
to Paris in 1391; and on his own election to the pontificate as
antipope Benedict XIII. made Ferrer his confessor and master
of the sacred palace. Finding, however, the ecclesiastical
atmosphere of Avignon an uncongenial one, he in 1397 resumed
his work as a preacher, and Spain, France, Italy, Germany
and Great Britain and Ireland were successively visited by him;
and in every case numerous conversions were the result of his
eloquence, which is described as having been singularly power-
ful and moving. In 1412 he was delegated by his native city
to take part in the election of a successor to the vacant crown
of Aragon; and in 1416 he received a special invitation to
attend the council of Constance, where he supported the cause
of the Flagellants (q.v.). He died at Vannes on the 5th of April
1419, and was canonized by Calixtus III. in 1455, his festival
(duplex) being observed on the 5th of April.
See A. Sorbelli, // trattato di S. Vincenzo Ferrer intorno al Grande
Scisma d' Occidente (Bologna, 1906).
VINCI, LEONARDO (1690-1730), Italian musical composer,
was bom at Strongoli in Calabria in 1690 and educated at
Naples under Gaetano Greco in the Conservatorio dei Poveri di
Gesu Cristo. He became known first by his comic operas in
Neapolitan dialect in 1719; he also composed many serious
operas. He was received into the Congregation of the Rosary
at Formiello in 1728 and died by poisoning in 1730, not 1732,
as is generally stated. His comic operas, of which Le Zite 'n
Galera (1722) is the best, are full of life and spirit; in his serious
operas, of which Didone Abbandonata (Rome, 1728) and Arlaserse
(Rome, 1730) are the most notable, have an incisive vigour
and directness of dramatic expression deservedly praised by
Burney. The well-known air " Vo solcando," from Artaserse,
is a good example of his style.
VINDELICIA, in ancient geography, a country bounded on
the S. by Raetia, on the N. by the Danube and the Vallum
Hadriani, on the E. by the Oenus (Inn), on the W. by the
territory of the Helvetii. It thus corresponded to the N.E.
portion of Switzerland, the S.E. of Baden, and the S. of Wurt-
temberg and Bavaria. Together with the neighbouring tribes
it was subjugated by Tiberius in 15 B.C., and towards the end
of the ist century A.D. was made part of Raetia (q.v.). Its
chief town was Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg). Its in-
habitants were probably of Celtic origin (cf. the recurrence of
Vind- in other Celtic names Vindobona, Vindonissa); some
authorities, however, regard them as German. According to
Dio Cassius (liv. 22) they were an agricultural people, and later
writers (e.g. Isidorus, Origines, i. 4), describe the country as very
fertile.
VINDHYA, a range of mountains in Central India. It forms
a well-marked, though not quite continuous, chain across
India, separating the Ganges basin from the Deccan. Starting
on the west in Gujarat, the Vindhyas cross Malwa and the
central portions of India, until their easternmost spurs abut
on the valley of the Ganges at Rajmahal. They thus roughly
form the northern side of the triangle, of which the other two
sides are the Eastern and Western Ghats. They have an
elevation of 1500 to 4500 ft., nowhere exceeding 5000 ft. Geo-
logically they give their name to the " Vindhyan formation,"
one of the recognized rock systems of India. In legendary
tradition they formed the demarcating line between the Madya-
desha or middle land of the Sanskrit invaders and the non-
Aryan Deccan, and they are still largely inhabited by aboriginal
races such as the Bhils.
VINE. The grape-vine, botanically Vitis, is a genus of
about thirty species, widespread in the north temperate zone,
but richest in species in North America. The best known
and longest cultivated species is the old-world grape-vine, Vitis
vinifera; a variety of this, silvestris, occurs wild in the Medi-
terranean region, spreading eastwards towards the Caucasus
and northwards into southern Germany, and may be regarded
as the parent of the cultivated vine. It is of interest to note
that grape-stones have been found with mummies in Egyptian
tombs of not later age than 3000 years. The seeds have the
characteristics of those of V. vinifera, but show some very
slight variations from the type of seed now prevalent. Among
the Greeks in the time of Homer wine was in general use. The
cultivation of the vine must also have been introduced into
Italy at a very early period. In Virgil's time the varieties
in cultivation seem to have been exceedingly numerous; and
the varied methods of training and culture now in use in Italy
are in many cases identical with those described by Columella
and other Roman writers. Grape-stones have been found
among the remains of Swiss and Italian lake dwellings of the
Bronze period, and others in tufaceous volcanic deposits near
Montpellier, not long before the historic era.
The old-world species is also extensively cultivated in
California, but the grape industry of the eastern United States
has been developed from native species, chiefly V. Labrusca
and V. aestivalis and their hybrids with V. vinifera. Some
of the American varieties have been introduced into France
and other countries infested with Phylloxera, to serve as stocks
on which to graft the better kinds of European vines, because
their roots, though perhaps equally subject to the attacks of
the insects, do not suffer so much injury from them as the
European species.
VINE
93
The vine requires a high summer temperature and a pro-
longed period in which to ripen its fruit. Where these are
forthcoming, it can be profitably cultivated, even though the
winter temperature be very low. Tchihatchef mentions that
at Erivan in Russian Armenia the mean winter temperature
is 7-i C. and falls in January to -30 C., and at Bokhara the
mean temperature of January is 4 C. and the minimum -22 C.,
and yet at both places the vine is grown with success. In the
Alps it is profitably cultivated up to an altitude of 1870 ft.,
and in the north of Piedmont as high as 3180 ft. At the present
time the limit of profitable cultivation in Europe passes
from Brittany, lat. 47 30', to beyond the Rhine by Liege and
through Thuringia to Silesia in lat. 51 55'. In former
centuries vines were cultivated to the north of this region, as,
for instance, in Holland, in Belgium largely, and in England,
where they might still be grown. Indeed, experiments have
been made in this direction near Cardiff in South Wales. The
yield is satisfactory, and the wine made, the variety known as
Camay noir, is described as being like still champagne. In
the middle ages, owing to various causes, the better wines
of France and Germany could not be obtained in England
except at prohibitive prices; but when this state of things
ceased, and foreign wine could be imported, the English con-
sumers would no longer tolerate the inferior productions of
their own vineyards. It is also probable that the English
mixed sugar or honey with the wine and thus supplied artificially
that sweetness which the English sun denied. It is a curious
fact that at the present day much or even most of the wine
of finest quality is made at or near to the northern limits of
possible cultivation with profit. This circumstance is probably
explained by the greater care and attention bestowed both
on the cultivation of the vine and on the manufacture of the
wine in northern countries than in those where the climate
is more propitious. The relative inferiority of the wines made
at the Cape of Good Hope and in Australia is partly due to
variations of climate, the vine not yet having adapted itself
to the new conditions, and partly to the deficient skill of the
manufacturers. That such inferiority may be expected to
disappear is suggested by the success of vine-culture in Madeira
and the Canary Islands.
The development of other species of Vitis, such as the curious
succulent species of the Soudan and other parts of equatorial
Africa, or the numerous kinds in India and Cochin China, is
of course possible under suitable conditions; but it is obvious
that an extremely long period must elapse before they can
successfully compete with the product of many centuries.
[See also generally the article WINE. For currants and
raisins, both produced by varieties of the grape-vine, see the
respective articles.]
Apart from their economic value, vines are often cultivated
for purely ornamental purposes, owing to the elegance of their
foliage, the rich coloration they assume, the shade they afford,
and their hardihood.
Vines have woody climbing stems, with ahernate, entire or
palmately lobed leaves, provided at the base with small stipules.
Opposite some of these leaves springs a tendril, by aid of which the
plant climbs. There are numerous transitional states between the
ordinary form of tendril and the inflorescence. The flowers are
small, green and fragrant, and are arranged in dense clusters. Each
has a small calyx in the form of a shallow rim, sometimes five-lobed
or toothed; five petals, which cohere by their tips and form a cap
or hood, which is pushed off when the stamens are ripe; and
five free stamens, placed opposite the petals and springing from
a fleshy ring or disk surrounding the ovary; each bears a two-
celled anther. The anomalous position of the stamens in front
of the petals is explained by the abortion or non-development
of an outer row of stamens, indications of which are sometimes
seen on the hyppgynous disk encircling the ovary. The ovary
bears a sessile stigma and is more or less completely two-celled,
with two erect ovules in each cell. This ripens into the
berry and seed. The cultivated vine has usually hermaphrodite
flowers; but as it occurs in a wild state, or as an escape from
cultivation, the flowers manifest a tendency towards unisexuality :
that is, one plant bears flowers with stamens only, or only the
rudiments of the pistil, while on another plant the flowers are
bisexual. Exclusively female flowers without stamens do not appear
to have been observed. Seedling plants from the cultivated vines
often produce unisexual flowers, thus reverting to the feral type.
Perhaps the explanation of the fact that some of the cultivated
varieties are, as gardeners say, " bad setters," i.e. do not ripen their
fruit owing to imperfect fertilization, is to be sought in this natural
tendency to dioecism.
FIG. i. Vine.
1. Foliage, tendril and inflorescence, reduced.
2. Flower after fall of petals, magnified.
3. Fruit, reduced.
The conformation of the vine stem has elicited a vast amount of
explanatory comment. The most generally accepted explanation
is the " sympodial " one. According to this, the shoot of the vine is
a " sympodium," consisting of a number of " podia " placed one over
the other in longitudinal series. Each podium consists of a portion
of the stem bearing one or more leaves, each with an axillary bud or
buds, and terminating in a tendril or an inflorescence. In V. Lab-
rusca there is a tendril opposite to each leaf, so that the podium
bears only a single leaf. In other species there is a definite arrange-
ment of the leaves, some with and others without tendrils opposite
to them, the numerical order remaining constant or nearly so.
These arrangements have doubtless some reference to climatic
phenomena, continuity of growth being arrested by cold and pro-
moted by warmth. In any case, it is obvious that these facts might
be turned to practical ends in cultivation. A vine, for instance,
that produces bunches of grapes at each joint is preferable to one in
which there are several barren joints, as a larger quantity can be
grown within a smaller area. The practice of pruning or " stopping "
is, consciously or unconsciously, regulated by the mode of growth.
The tendril or inflorescence, according to the views above explained,
though in reality terminal, is bent to one side; hence it appears to
be lateral and opposite to the leaf. While the tendril is thus
diverted from its original direct course, the axillary bud of the leaf
opposite the tendril begins a new podium, by lengthening into a
shoot which assumes the direction the tendril had prior to its
deflexion. This new podium, now in a direct line with its predecessor,
produces leaves and ends in its turn in a tendril or inflorescence.
A third podium succeeds the second, and so on. Other authorities
explain the formation of the tendril and its anomalous position
opposite to a leaf by supposing that the end of the stem bifurcates
during growth, one division forming the shoot, the other the tendril
or inflorescence. It is not possible within the limits at our command
to specify the facts and arguments by which these theories are
respectively supported. Practically the tendrils assist the plant
in its native state to scramble over rocks or trees. As in the
case of similar formations generally, they are endowed with a
sensitiveness to touch which enables them to grasp and coil
themselves round any suitable object which comes in their way,
and thus to support the plant. The seeds or grape-stones are
somewhat club-shaped, with a narrow neck-like portion beneath,
which expands into a rounded and_ thickened portion above. On
the inner or central side of the seed is a ridge bounded on either side
by a shallow groove. This ridge indicates the point of union of the
" raphe " or seed-stalk with the seed; it serves to distinguish the
varieties of V. vinifera from those of other species. In endeavouring
to trace the filiation and affinities cf the vine, the characters afforded
by the seed are specially valuable, because they have not been
wittingly interfered with by human agency. Characters derived
from the size, colour or flavour of the berry are of less value for
94
VINE
historical or genealogical purposes than those which are the outcome
of purely natural conditions.
The vine is hardy in Britain so far as regards its vegetation, but
not hardy enough to bring its fruit to satisfactory maturity, so
that for all practical purposes the vine must be regarded as a tender
fruit. Planted against a wall or a building having a south aspect,
or trained over a sunny roof, such sorts as the Black Cluster, Black
Prince, Pitmaston White Cluster, Royal Muscadine, Sweetwater, &c.,
will ripen in the warmest English summers so as to be very pleasant
eating; but in cold summers the fruit is not eatable in the raw
state, and can only be converted into wine or vinegar. For outdoor
culture the long-rod system is generally preferred.
When the plant is grown under glass, the vine border should
occupy the interior of the house and also extend outwards in the
front, but it is best made by instalments of 5 or 6 ft. as fast as the
previous portions become well rilled with roots, which may readily
be done by packing up a turf wall at the extremity of the portion
to be newly made; an exterior width of 15 ft. will be sufficient.
If the soil beyond this is very unfavourable, the roots should be
prevented from entering it by building a wall at the extreme edge
of the border. Inside borders require frequent and thorough
waterings. In well-drained localities the border may be partially
below the ground level, but in damp situations it should be made on
the surface; in either case the firm solid bottom should slope
outwards towards an efficient drain. A good bottom may be
formed by chalk rammed down close. On this should be laid at
least a foot thick of coarse, hard, rubbly material, a layer of rough
turf, grass side downwards, being spread over it to prevent the
compost from working down. The soil itself, which should be 2\ or
3 ft. deep, never less than 2 ft., should consist of five parts rich turfy
loam, one part old lime rubbish or broken bricks, including a little
wood ashes or burnt earth (ballast), one part broken charcoal, and
about one part of half -inch bones, the whole being thoroughly mixed,
and kept dryish till used. It is well after the borders are completed
to remove the top soil, in which no roots are to be found, every two
or three years, and to replace it with a mixture of good loam, rotten
manure, lime rubbish and bone meal, to the depth of 6 or 7 in.
A mulch of half-decayed stable litter is useful to prevent loss of
moisture in summer.
Young vines raised from eyes, i.e. buds having about } in. wood
above and I in. below, are generally preferred for planting. The
eyes being selected from well-ripened shoots of the previous year
are planted about the end ef January, singly, in small pots of light
loamy compost, and after standing in a warm place for a few davs
should be plunged in a propagating bed, having a bottom heat of 75,
which should be increased to 85 when they have produced several
leaves, the atmosphere being kept at about the same temperature or
higher by sun heat during the day, and at about 75 at night. As
soon as roots are freely formed the plants must be shifted into 6-inch
pots, and later on into 1 2-inch ones. The shoots are trained up
near the glass, and, with plenty of heat (top and bottom) and of
water, with air and light, and manure water occasionally, will form
firm, strong, well-ripened canes in the course of the season. To pre-
pare the vine for planting, it should be cut back to within 2 ft. of
the pot early in the season, and only three or four of the eyes
at the base should be allowed to grow on. The best time for
planting is in spring, when the young shoots have just started.
The vines should be planted inside the house, from I to 2 ft.
from the front wall, and from 6 ft. to 8 ft. apart, the roots being
placed an inch deeper in the soil than before, carefully disentangled
and spread outwards from the stem, and covered carefully and
firmly with friable loam, without manure. When the shoots are
fairly developed, the two strongest are to be selected and trained
in. When forcing is commenced, the vinery is shut up for two or
three weeks without fire heat, the mean temperature ranging about
50. Fire heat must be at first applied very gently, and may range
about 55 at night, and from 65 to 70 by day, but a few degrees
more may be given them as the buds break and the new snoots
appear. When they are in flower, and onwards during the swelling
of the berries, 85 may be taken as a maximum, running up to 00
with sun heat and the temperature may be lowered somewhat
when the fruit is ripe. The temperature must, however, be regu-
lated according to the variety, Muscats requiring a higher tempera-
ture from the time their bunches show than Hamburghs. As much
ventilation as the state of the weather will permit should be given.
A moist growing atmosphere is necessary both for the swelling
fruit and for maintaining the health of the foliage. A due amount
of moisture may be kept up by the use of evaporating troughs and
by syringing the walls and pathways two or three times a day, but
the leaves should not be syringed. When the vines are in flower,
and when the fruit is colouring, the evaporating troughs should
be kept dry, but the aridity must not be excessive, lest the red
spider and other pests should attack the leaves. In the course
of the season the borders (inside) will require several thorough
soakings of warm water the first when the house is shut up,
this being repeated when the vines have made young shoots a few
inches long, again when the vines are in flower, and still again when
the berries are taking the second swelling after stoning. Outside
borders require watering in very dry summer weather only.
There are three principal systems of pruning vines, termed the
long-rod, the short-rod and the spur systems, and good crops have
been obtained by each of them. It is admitted that larger bunches
are generally obtained by the long-rod than by the spur system.
The principle of this mode of pruning is to train in at considerable
length, according to their strength, shoots of the last year's, growth
for producing shoots to bear fruit in the present; these rods are
afterwards cut away and replaced by young shoots trained up
during the preceding summer; and these are in their turn cut out in
the following autumn after bearing, and replaced by shoots of
that summer's growth. By the short-rod system, short instead of
long rods are retained; they are dealt with in a similar manner.
The spur system has, however, become the most general. In this
case the vines are usually planted so that one can be trained up
under each rafter, or up the middle of the sash, the latter method
being preferable. The shoots are cut back to buds close to the
stem, which should be encouraged to form alternately at equal
distances right and left, by removing those buds from the original
shoot which are not conveniently placed. The young shoots from
these buds are to be gently brought tc a horizontal position, by
bending them a little at a time, and tied in, and usually opposite
about the fourth leaf the rudiments of a bunch will be developed.
The leaf directly opposite the bunch must in all cases be preserved,
and the young shoot is to be topped at one or two joints beyond
the incipient fruit, the latter distance being preferable if there is
plenty of room for the foliage to expand ; the lateral shoots, which
will push out after the topping, mu?t be pgain topped above their
first or second joints. If the bunches are too numerous they must
be thinned before the flowers expand, and the berries also must be
properly thinned out and regulated as soon as they are well set,
care being taken, in avoiding overcrowding, that the bunches be
not made too thin and loose.
The cultivation of vines in pots is very commonly practised with
good results, and pot-vines are very useful to force for the earliest
crop. The plants should be raised from eyes, and grown as strong
as possible in the way already noted, in rich turfy loam mixed with
about one-third of horse dung and a little bone dust. The tempera-
ture should be gradually increased from 60 to 80, or 90 by sun
heat, and a bottom heat a few degrees higher must be maintained
during their growth. As the roots require more room, the plants
should be shifted from 3-inch pots into those of 6, 12 or 15 in.
in diameter, in any of which larger sizes they may be fruited in the
following season, but, to be successful in this, the young rod pro-
duced must be thoroughly matured after it has reached its limit
of growth. The periodical thorough cleansing of the vine stems
and every part of the houses is of the utmost importance.
The number of varieties of grapes possessing some merit is con-
siderable, but a very few of them will be found sufficient to supply
all the wants of the cultivator. For general purposes nothing
approaches the Black Hamburgh (including Frankenthal) in merit.
Fungoid Diseases. The most destructive form of fungoid disease
FIG. 2.
1. Vine leaf attacked by mildew, Uncinula necator (Erysiphe Tuck-
eri), which forms white patches on the upper face, reduced.
2. Grapes similarly attacked.
3. Portion of the mycelium of the fungus bearing spores (conidia).
s, on erect branches, X25O.
4. Perithecium or " fruit " of the fungus with its curled append-
ages, Xioo.
5. Ascus from perithecium containing six spores, X3OO.
which attacks the vine is caused by a mildew, Uncinula necator (Ery-
siphe Tuckeri) (fig. 2). The disease was first noticed in England in
VINE
95
1845; in 1848 it appeared at Versailles; by 1851 it had spread
through all the wine-producing countries of Europe, being specially
virulent in the lands bordering on the Mediterranean; and in the
following year it made its appearance in Madeira. Like the Phyllo-
xera (q.v. ; also WINE), the mildew is in its origin probably American.
The disease is characterized by the appearance of a mycelium forming
white or greyish- white patches on the young leaves; this spreads
quickly and attacks the older leaves and branches, and ultimately
reaches the grapes. At first these are marked only by small brown
spots; but the spots spread and fuse together, the skin of the grape
is destroyed, and the flesh decays, the seed only remaining apparently
untouched. The disease spreads by the mycelium growing over
the epidermis of the plant. The hyphae composing the mycelium
are rovided with haustoria which project into the cells of the
affected part (fig. 3). Some of
the hyphae which project from
the leaf bear spores (conidia),
which are constricted off one
at a time, and by their means
the fungus is distributed
(fig. 2, 3). The perithecia are
only produced exceptionally
in Europe, but this stage of
the life-history is common in
the United States and causes
a widely spread disease among
the American vines. The
mildew is in its turn attacked
by a fungus of the same tribe,
Cicinnobolus Cesatii, which
lives parasitically within the
hyphae of its host, and at
times even succeeds in de-
stroying it. The means which
have proved most efficacious,
both as a remedy and a pre-
ventive of this disease, is to
scatter flowers of sulphur over
the vines, before the morning
clew has evaporated. An-
other method is to boil one
necator (Erysiphe Pf rt f , lime
thr
th " pid " m "
America, is Plasmopara viticola, which has also been introduced from
America to Europe. The mycelium spreads through the green parts of
the plant, attacking the leaves, twigs and unripe grapes. On the upper
side of the leaf, where it is first visible, it forms pale green irregular
spots, which become darker in colour. On the under side of the leaf
these patches are white and are composed of the spore-bearing hyphae.
The leaf ultimately becomes dried up and brittle. The grapes
which are attacked cease to grow, turn brown or white, and ulti-
mately dry up and fall off. This disease has been successfully
treated with a spray of copper sulphate and lime, or sulphate of
iron ; solutions of these salts prevent the conidia from germinating.
Anthracnose is the name usually given to a disease which was
formerly known as " charbon," " pech " or " brenner." This
disease is caused by the parasitism of Sphateloma ampelinum,
one of the Pyrenomycetous fungi (fig. 4). The fungus assails all
the green parts of the vine, and injures the leaves and young
shoots as much as it does the grape itself. The first sign of its
presence is the appearance of a minute spot, which is greyish in the
centre, with a brown border. This spot increases in size; in the
stalks it assumes an oval shape, with its long axis parallel to
the stalk, whilst in the leaves and grapes it is more or less circular
in outline. The centre of the spots on the grapes becomes darker
as the disease advances, and a red line appears dividing the dark
brown border into an outer and an inner rim and giving a very
characteristic appearance to the diseased plant. The surrounding
tissue enlarges, so that the spots, appear as if sunk in depressions,
and bear a considerable resemblance to hailstone wounds. Later the
spots on the leaves often drop out. The berries do not shrivel up as
those do that are affected by the black rot. The mycelium of Sphace-
loma grows just beneath the cuticle of the vine, through which it soon
bursts, giving rise to a number of minute hyphae, which bear conidia.
These are minute, oval, colourless spores, which serve to spread
the disease over the vineyard and from place to place. The com-
plete life-history of this form is at present unknown ; _ and informa-
tion as to where the fungus passes the winter, and in what form,
would probably afford some useful indications as to the method that
should be adopted to combat the disease. Anthracnose has been
known in Europe for many years, but has only been observed in
America since 1 88 1, whither it was probably imported from the old
world. As a preventive to its attacks the copper sulphate sprays
and a solution (50%) of iron sulphate have been found very useful,
as well as care in planting on well-drained soil that does not lie
too low, the disease seldom appearing in dry, well-exposed vine-
yards. A great deal of confusion still exists with regard to this
disease. A similar disease which of late has frequently been found
in England, and which is ascribed to the fungus Gloeosporium
ampelophagum, is very similar to it. In their mode of attack,
in the symptoms they produce, and in the result upon the grapes
and the vine the two fungi are so much alike that for practical
purposes they may be regarded as identical. Massee recom-
mends that the shoots should be dredged with flowers of
sulphur at intervals of ten days, while the disease continues to
spread, a small quantity of quicklime in a finely powdered con-
FIG. 4. Charbon or
Anthracnose of Vine,
caused by Sphace-
loma ampelinum.
1 . Portion of twig with
discoloured patches,
caused by the fun-
gus.
2. Fruit attacked by
the fungus(reduced).
FIG. 5. Black Rot of Grapes,
Cuignardia Bidwellii.
1. Grapes attacked by the fun-
gus; the fruit becomes black,
hard and shrivelled.
2. Fructification of the fungus,
entire and in section ; the latter
shows the asci containing as-
cospores, much enlarged.
3. Single ascus, more enlarged,
showing the eight contained
spores.
dition being added and the quantity of lime being increased at
every application, not so as to exceed the sulphur, however. The
iron sulphate solution should be
used while the vines are in a dormant
condition, and diseased parts should
be cleared away and burned.
The black rot, like the Uncinula
and Plasmopara, is also American in
its origin. It has been known and ob-
served there since 1848, but appeared
for the first time in France in 1885.
The disease is caused by a fungus,
Cuignardia Bidwellii (fig. 5) (Phoma
uvicola), one of the Pyrenomycetes,
and by some authorities it has been
considered to be a further stage in the
life-history of Sphaceloma ampelinum.
The fungus is most conspicuous on
the grapes, but the leaves and stems
B
From Hartig's Lekrbuch der Pjiamenkrinkkriltn, by permission of Julius Springer.
FIG. 6. Rosellinia (Dematophora) necatrix.
A. Mycelium of the fungus attacking root of vine (reduced).
B. Portion of vine root, showing masses of fructification (perithecia) of
the fungus (reduced).
are also affected. The grapes are not assailed until nearly
full-grown, when a brownish spot appears, which spreads over the
9 6
VINEGAR VINELAND
whole grape. The latter for a time retains its plumpness, but on the
appearance of little black pustules, which first occur on the part
primarily affected, the grape begins to shrivel. This continues until
the grape is reduced to a black hard mass, with the folds of skin
pressed closely against the seed. The disease spreads from grape
to grape, so that as a rule many of the grapes in a bunch are
destroyed. The hyphae of the mycelium of this fungus are
septate,, with numerous short branches. The pustules on the sur-
face are due to fructifications, pycnidia and spermagonia. The
fungus passes the winter in the withered grapes which fall to the
ground, and on these the mature form of the fungus (fig. 5, 2 and 3)
is produced ; hence every care should be taken to collect these and
burn them. The use of the copper solutions mentioned above may
also be recommended as a preventive.
Among the other fungi which infest the vine may be mentioned
PhyUosticta viticola and Ph. Labruscae, which, when the attack is severe,
cause the destruction of the leaves, the only part they assail. These,
like the foregoing, are members of the Pyrenomycetes, while many
other allied fungi have been described as causing spots on the leaves.
Cercospora Vitis (Cladosporium viticolum), which has club-shaped
spores of a green-brown colour, also attacks the leaves; but, unless
the season is extremely unfavourable, it does little harm.
A very disastrous root-disease of the vine is due to the rav-
ages of another pyrenomycetous fungus, Rosellinia (Dematophora)
necatrix (fig. 6), which forms subterranean strings of mycelium
so-called rhizomorphs. The diseased roots have been confounded
with those attacked by Phylloxera. The only mode of combating
the malady seems to be to uproot the plants and burn them. Isola-
tion of the diseased areas by means of trenches has also been prac-
tised.
VINEGAR, a dilute solution of impure acetic acid, prepared
by the acetous fermentation of alcohol or of substances which
yield alcohol when suitably decomposed (ordinary vinegar), or
obtained from the products resulting on the dry distillation
of wood (wood vinegar). Ordinary or table vinegars, which
contain, in addition to acetic acid, small quantities of alcohol,
higher acids such as tartaric and succinic, various esters, albu-
minous substances, &c., are produced solely by acetous fer-
mentation, wood vinegar being only employed in certain arts.
Ordinary vinegar has been known from the earliest times, and
its power of combining with or dissolving mineral substances
caused the alchemists to investigate its preparation and pro-
perties. They failed, however, to obtain pure acetic acid,
although by distillation they prepared more concentrated solu-
tions (spiritus Veneris). In 1697 Stahl showed that vinegar
could be concentrated by freezing out part of the water, and,
better, in 1702, by neutralizing the acid with an alkali and dis-
tilling the salt with oil of vitriol. A notable improvement was
made in 1 789 by Lowitz, who showed that the dilute acid could
be concentrated by repeatedly passing it over charcoal powder,
and by cooling he obtained a crystalline substance named in
1777 by Durande, "glacial acetic acid." The presence of an
acid substance in the products of the dry distillation of wood
was mentioned by Glauber in 1648 and received the name of
pyroligneous acid. Its identity with acetic acid was demon-
strated by Vauquelin in 1800.
The mechanism of acetous fermentation is described under
FERMENTATION; here we only treat of the actual processes.
There are two methods in use: the " quick " process, proposed
in 1720 by Boerhaave and introduced by Schutzenbach in 1823
(analogous processes were proposed at about the same time by
Wagmann in Germany and by Ham in England), and the older or
" slow " process.
In the " quick " process advantage is taken of the fact that the
fermentation proceeds more quickly when a large surface of the
liquid is exposed to air. Any alcoholic liquid can be treated. The
apparatus consists essentially of a vat divided into three portions :
the lowest, which is separated from the one above by a grid or false
bottom, serves for the collection of the vinegar; the central portion,
which is by far the largest, is the chamber wherein the fermentation
is effected ; and it is separated from the topmost section by a disk
perforated with holes about the size of quills through which thin
strings lead into the upper part of the central section. The purpose
of this disk is to subdivide the liquid placed upon it into drops so as
to increase the surface of the liquid. The sides of the vat enclosing
the lowest portion are provided with a ring of holes to admit air to
the tub ; and the vat is enclosed with a tightly fitting lid perforated
by a hole through which the liquor to be fermented is admitted and
the air drawn upwards from the base escapes. The central chamber
is filled with some material of large surface. The commonest are
beech-wood shavings, which, before use, must be carefully freed
from all extractives by washing and steaming, then dried, and
finally soured by immersion in hot vinegar for twenty-four hours.
The fermented wort, prepared in various ways and of varying com-
position, or wine, is warmed to about 38 C. and then fed into the
upper chamber. Falling on to the shavings, the surface is largely in-
creased, and the fermentation which ensues maintains the tempera-
ture at about 37, and draws a current of air upwards through the
shavings, which after a time become covered with the so-called
mother of vinegar. If the liquid contains only 4% of alcohol, it
is completely converted into acetic acid, but stronger liquors require '
to be passed through the vat three or four times. Some of the
alcohol (and consequently some acetic acid) is carried away by the
air which escapes to the top of the vat; this is avoided in some
factories by leading the air over or into water, whereby the alcohol
and aldehyde are recovered. The same is effected in Singer's
generators, which are coupled together in tiers.
For making wine-vinegar by the slow process, full-bodied wines
about one year old and containing 10% of alcohol (this amount
being obtained, when necessary, by blending) are preferred; and
they are clarified by standing with beech shavings upon which the
lees deposit. The fermentation is carried out in casks holding from
50 to 100 gallons ; these casks are repeatedly extracted with water in
order to prevent any impurity finding its way into the vinegar;
also it is found that the casks foul after about six years' use, when
it is necessary to remove the deposits of argol, yeast sediments, &c.,
and re-extract with water, after which they are again fit for use.
In conducting the fermentation the cask is one-third filled with
boiling strong vinegar and allowed to stand for eight days. Nine
pints of the wine are now added every day until the cask is two-
thirds full, and the mixture is allowed to stand for fourteen days.
After this interval from 10 gallons to half the contents of the cask
are drawn off, and more wine added. The working temperature is
about 25. The progress of the operation is shown by the white
froth which appears on a spatula after immersion in the liquid;
if it be reddish, more wine must be added. In certain parts of
France, Holland and of the Rhine district a different procedure is
adopted. Two casks, fitted with false bottoms on which are placed
vine cuttings, are taken ; one cask is completely filled with the wine,
whilst the other is only half filled. The acetification proceeds
more rapidly in the second cask, and after twenty-four hours half
the contents of the first cask are transferred to it, and the process
repeated. The product is settled in casks containing birch wood,
and after fourteen days it is put upon the market.
In preparing malt vinegar, an infusion of malt is prepared by
extracting it with water at 72, then at a higher temperature and
finally at the boiling-point. After cooling the extracts are fer-
mented with yeast, and the product kept for some months before
acetification. This step can be effected by the quick process as
described above, or by the slow process. In the latter the liquid at
25 is transferred to barrels lying on their sides and the fermentation
allowed to proceed. When the process is complete the product is
filtered through rapes in a fining tun. This is a cask fitted with a
false bottom in which are placed spent tanner's wood, shavings,
or, better, the pressed stalks and skins of grapes and raisins from
wine manufacture. Household vinegar is made in upright casks;
after twenty-four hours it is transferred to a similar cask, and the
process repeated in a third and fourth cask. Malt vinegar is sold in
four strengths designated 18, 20, 22, 24, the last being " proof "
vinegar, containing 6% of acetic acid and having a specific gravity
of 1-019. These numbers represent the grains of dry pure sodium
carbonate, which are neutralized by one fluid ounce of the vinegar.
Several other vinegars are made. Crystal vinegar is ordinary
vinegar decolorized by treatment with animal charcoal. Ale
vinegar is prepared from strong sour pale ale; it has a tendency
to putrefy. Glucose or sugar vinegar is made by first fermenting
amylaceous substances to alcohol, and then acetifying the alcohol.
Compound table vinegars are made by digesting ordinary vinegar
with condiments such as pepper, garlic, capers, &c. ; whilst
aromatic vinegars popularly used in vinaigrettes on account of their
refreshing, stimulating pungency are obtained by distilling ordinary
vinegar with plants, perfumes and aromatic substances. Medicinal
vinegars are prepared either by digestion or distillation of vinegar
with various drugs. Vinegar, however, is not now much used in
medicine, although occasionally taken, under a false impression, in
order to reduce obesity.
Wood vinegar is not used in cooking, as it lacks those substances
which render ordinary vinegar palatable. It is largely manu-
factured for conversion into pure acetic acid and acetom ; and also
for use as an antiseptic and wood preservative. (See ACETIC ACID.)
VINELAND, a borough of Cumberland county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., in the southern part of the state, about 34 m. S. of
Philadelphia and about 115 m. S.W. of New York. Pop.
(1890) 3822; (1900) 4370, including 590 foreign-born; (1905 state
census) 4593; (1910)5282. Area, i sq. m. It is served by the
Central of New Jersey and the West Jersey & Seashore railways,
and by electric railway to Millville and Bridgeton. Vineland
is situated at an altitude of 90-118 ft. above the sea, on a
VINER VINGT-ET-UN
97
generally level or slightly undulating plain, and has unusually
broad, straight and well-shaded streets. The borough main-
tains a public library, a public park of 40 acres, artesian water-
works, a sewerage system and an electric lighting plant. It
is the seat of the New Jersey Training School for Feeble-
Minded Girls and Boys (1888), the State Home for the Care
and Training of Feeble-Minded Women (1888), and the State
Home for Disabled Soldiers, Sailors, Marines and their Wives.
The Vineland Historical and Antiquarian Society (organized
in 1864) has a library (8000 volumes in 1509) housed in the
Society's building, and it maintains a free lecture course.
Saloons for the sale of intoxicating liquors have never been
allowed in Vineland. The surrounding country is largely de-
voted to the growing of small fruits, grapes, peaches, pears
and apples, and the raising of sweet potatoes; and within
the borough are manufactured unfermented grape juice wine,
boots and shoes, clothing, carpets, rugs, chenille curtains, pearl
buttons, flint-glass tubes and bottles, and iron castings.
Vineland was founded in 1861 by Charles K. Landis (1835-
1900), who conceived the idea of creating a settlement in the
almost uninhabited " Pines " of Southern New Jersey; and
after purchasing a large tract he laid out a village with small
farms adjoining. The settlers, largely from New England
and the Middle States, received the land at moderate prices
on agreeing to make certain stipulated improvements. The
township of Landis (pop. in 1910, 6435), named in honour
of the founder of the settlement, was incorporated in 1864,
having formerly been a part of Millville; from it Vineland was
separated and was incorporated as a borough in 1880.
See The Founder's Own Story of the Founding of Vineland
(Vineland, 1903), a pamphlet published by the Vineland Historical
and Antiquarian Society.
VINER, SIR ROBERT (1631-1688), lord mayor of London,
was born in Warwick, but migrated in early life to London,
where he was apprenticed to his uncle, Sir Thomas Viner (1558-
1665), a goldsmith, who was lord mayor of London in 1653-54,
and who was created a baronet in 1661. Soon Robert became
a partner in his kinsman's business, and in 1666 an alderman
of the city of London; in 1665 he was made a knight, and in
the following year a baronet. He was sheriff during the year
of the great fire in London, and was chosen lord mayor in 1674.
Combining like his uncle the business of a banker with that
of a goldsmith, Viner was brought much into contact with
Charles II. and with the court. The king attended his mayoral
banquet, and the lord mayor erected an equestrian statue in his
honour on a spot now covered by the Mansion House. Having
been appointed the king's goldsmith in 1661, Sir Robert was
one of those who lent large sums of money for the expenses
of the state and the extravagances of the court; over 400,0500
was owing to him when the national exchequer suspended
payment in 1672, and he was reduced to the necessity of com-
pounding with his creditors. He obtained from the state an
annuity of 25,000. Viner died at Windsor on the 2nd of
September 1688.
See Viner: a Family History, published anonymously (1885).
VINET, ALEXANDRE RODOLPHE (1797-1847), French
critic and theologian, of Swiss birth, was born near Lausanne
on the i7th of June 1797. He was educated for the Protestant
ministry, being ordained in 1819, when already teacher of the
French language and literature in the gymnasium at Basel;
and during the whole of his life he was as much a critic as a
theologian. His literary criticism brought him into contact
with Sainte-Beuve, for whom he procured an invitation to
lecture at Lausanne, which led to his famous work on Port-
Royal. Vinet's Chrestomathic franqaise (1829), his Etudes sur
la litter ature franfaise au XIX*" siecle (1849-51), and his
Hiitoire de la littirature franfaise au X VIII 1 " siecle, together
with his Etudes sur Pascal, Etudes sur les moralistes aux X VI"*
et XVII"" siecles, Histoire de la predication parmi les Reformts
de France and other kindred works, gave evidence of a wide
knowledge of literature, a sober and acute literary judgment
and a distinguished faculty of appreciation. He adjusted his
xxvni. 4
theories to the work under review, and condemned nothing so
long as it was good work according to the writer's own standard.
His criticism had the singular advantage of being in some
sort foreign, without the disadvantage which attaches in French
eyes to all criticism of things French written in a foreign language.
As theologian he gave a fresh impulse to Protestant theology,
especially in French-speaking lands, but also in England and
elsewhere. Lord Acton classed him with Rothe. He built
all on conscience, as that wherein man stands in direct per-
sonal relation with God as moral sovereign, and the seat of
a moral individuality which nothing can rightly infringe.
Hence he advocated complete freedom of religious belief, and
to this end the formal separation ->f church and state (Memoire
en faveur de la libertt des cultes (1826), Essai sur la conscience
(1829), Essai sur la manifestation des convictions religieuses (1842).
Accordingly, when in 1845 the civil power in the canton of
Vaud interfered with the church's autonomy, he led a secession
which took the name of L'Eglise libre. But already from
1831, when he published his Discours sur quelques sujels religieux
(Nouveaux discours, 1841), he had begun to exert a liberalizing
and deepening influence on religious thought far beyond his
own canton, by bringing traditional doctrine to the test of a
living personal experience (see also FROMMEL, GASTON). In
this he resembled F. W. Robertson, as also in the change which
he introduced into pulpit style and in the permanence of his
influence. Vinet died on the 4th of May 1847 at Clarens
(Vaud). A considerable part of his works was not printed till
after his death.
His life was written in 1875 by Eugene Rambert, who re-edited
the Chrestomathie in 1876. See also L. M. Lane, Life and Writings
of A. Vinet (1800); L. Molines, Etude sur Alexandre Vinet (Paris,
1890) ; V. Rossel, Hist, de la litt. franfaise hers de France (Lausanne,
1895); V. Rivet, Etudes sur les orieines de la pensee religieuse de
Vinet (Paris, 1896) ; A. Schumann, Alex. Vinet (1907). A uniform
edition of his works was begun in 1908, see Revue de theologie et
philosophic (Lausanne, 1908, 234 sqq.). (J. V. B.)
VINGT-ET-UN (colloquially, " Van John "), a round game
of cards, at which any number of persons may play, though
five or six are enough. The right to deal having been decided,
the dealer gives one card face downwards to each person, in-
cluding himself. The others thereupon look at their cards
and declare their stakes one, two, three or more counters or
chips according to the value of their cards. When all have
staked, the dealer looks at his own card and can double all
stakes if he chooses. The amount of the original stake should
be set by each player opposite his card. Another card is ther
dealt, face downwards, all round; each player looking at bis
own. The object of the game is to make 21, by the pips or.
the cards, an ace counting as i or u, and the court cards as
10 each. Hence a player who receives an ace and a ten-card
scores 21 at once. This is called a "natural"; the holder
receives twice sometimes thrice the stake or the doubled
stake. If the dealer has a natural too, the usual rule is
that the other natural pays nothing, in spite of the rule of
" ties pay the dealer." The deal passes to the player who
turns up the natural, unless it occurs in the first round of a
deal or the dealer has a natural too. If the dealer has not a
natural, he asks each player in turn, beginning with the player
on his left, if he wishes for another card or cards, the object
still being to get to 21, or as near up to it as possible. The
additional cards are given him one by one, face upwards, though
the original cards are not exposed. If he requires no additional
card, or when he has drawn sufficient, he says, " Content,"
or " I stand." If a player overdraws, i.e. if his cards count
more than 21, he pays the dealer at once. When all
are either overdrawn or content, the dealer may "stand"
on his own hand, or draw cards, till he is overdrawn or stands.
All the hands are then shown, the dealer paying those players
whose cards are nearer to 21 than his own, and receiving from
all the others, as " ties pay the dealer." If the dealer's cards,
with the additions, make exactly 21, he receives double the
stake, or doubled stake; if a player holds 2 1 , he receives double
likewise, but ties still pay the dealer. If a player receives two
9 8
VINITA VINLAND
similar cards he may put his stake on each and draw on them
separately, receiving or paying according as he stands success-
fully or overdraws, but the two cards must be similar, i.e. he
cannot draw on both a knave and a queen, or a king and a
ten, though their values are equal for the purpose of counting.
A natural drawn in this way, however, only counts as 21, and
does not turn out the dealer. Similarly a player may draw on
three cards, or even four, should they be dealt him. A player
who overdraws on one of such cards must declare and pay
immediately, even though he stands on another. After a hand
is played, the " pone " (Latin for " behind ") the player on
the dealer's right collects and shuffles the cards played, the
dealer dealing from the remainder of the pack, till it is exhausted,
when he takes the cards the pone holds, after the pone has cut
them. It is a great advantage to deal, as the dealer receives
from all who have already withdrawn, even if he overdraws
himself.
French Vingt-et-un, or vingt-et-un with variations, is played by
any number of persons. The first deal is played as in the ordinary
game. In the second (" Imaginary Tens ) each player is supposed
to hold a ten-card and receives one card from the dealer, face down-
wards; he is then considered to hold a ten-card plus the one dealt,
and stands or draws, receives or pays, as in the ordinary game. If
he receives an ace he holds a natural. In the third deal (" Blind
Vingt-et-un ") each player receives two cards, and draws or stands
without looking at either. The fourth deal is " Sympathy and
Antipathy," each player staking, and declaring which of the two
he backs : two cards are then dealt to him : if they are of the same
colour, it is "sympathy"; if of different colours, "antipathy."
At the fourth deal (Rouge-et-noir), each player, having received three
cards, bets that the majority will be either black or red, as he chooses.
In " Self and Company " every one stakes but the dealer, who then
sets out two cards, face upwards, one for himself and one for the
players. If the two cards are pairs, the dealer wins; if not, he deals
till one of the cards exposed is paired, paying or receiving according
as that card belongs to himself or the " company." The seventh
deal is " Paying the difference." Each player receives two cards,
face upwards. The dealer pays or receives a stake for the difference
in number between the pips on his own cards and those of each
player. The ace counts as one. The eighth deal is " Clock." The
stakes are pooled. The dealer deals the cards out, face upwards,
calling " one " for the first, " two " for the second, and so on, the
knave being n, queen 12, and king 13. If any of the cards dealt
correspond to the number called, the dealer takes the pool ; if none
correspond, he forfeits that amount. At the end of this (the eighth)
deal, the next player deals.
VINITA, a city and the county-seat of Craig county, Okla-
homa, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, about 135 m. E.N.E.
of Guthrie. Pop. (1900) 2339; (1907) 3157, including 624
Indians and 479 negroes; (1910) 4082. Vinita is served by the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas and the St Louis & San Francisco
railways. In the city are the Sacred Heart Institute (Roman
Catholic), and a hospital for masons. Vinita is situated in an
agricultural and stock-raising region, and lead, zinc, oil and
natural gas are found in the vicinity; the city's water supply is
obtained from artesian wells. Bricks are manufactured. The
first settlement was made here in 1870 and Vinita was chartered
as a city in 1898.
VINLAND (Old Norse, V inland, i.e. Vineland or Wineland),
some region on the eastern coast of North America, visited and
named by the Norsemen in the beginning of the nth century.
The word first appeared in print in Adam of Bremen's De-
scriptio Insularum Aquilonis, an appendix to his Gesta Hamma-
burgcnsis Ecclesiae Pontificum, published by Lindenbrog in
1595. In pursuit of historical study, Adam visited the Danish
court during the reign of the well-informed monarch Svend
Estridsson (1047-1076), and writes that the king " spoke of an
island (or country) in that ocean discovered by many, which is
called Vinland, because of the wild grapes [vites] that grow
there, out of which a very good wine can be made. Moreover,
that grain unsown grows there abundantly [fruges ibi non
seminatas abundare] is not a fabulous fancy, but is based on
trustworthy accounts of the Danes." This passage offers im-
portant corroboration of the Icelandic accounts of the Vinland
voyages, and is, furthermore, interesting " as the only un-
doubted reference to Vinland in a medieval book written be-
yond the limits of the Scandinavian world " (Fiske). Adam's
information concerning Vinland did not, however, impress his
medieval readers, as he placed the new land somewhere in the
Arctic regions: " All those regions which are beyond are filled
with insupportable ice and boundless gloom." These words
show the futility of ascribing to Adam's account Columbus's
knowledge of lands in the West, as many overzealous advocates
of the Norse discoveries have done. The importance of the
information, meagre as it is, lies in the fact that Adam received
from the lips of kinsmen of the explorers (as the Danes in a
sense were) certain characteristic facts (the finding of grapes
and unsown grain) that support the general reliability of the
Icelandic sagas which tell of the Vinland voyages (in which
these same facts are prominent), but which were not put into
writing by the Norsemen until later just how much later it is
not possible to determine. The fact that the Icelandic sagas
concerning Vinland are not contemporaneous written records
has caused them to be viewed by many with suspicion; hence
such a significant allusion as that by Adam of Bremen is not
to be overlooked. To the student of the Norse sources, Adam's
reference is not so important, as the internal evidence of the
sagas is such as to give easy credence to them as records of
exploration in regions previously unknown to civilization. The
contact with savages would alone prove that.
During the middle ages the Scandinavians were the first to
revive geographical science and to practise pelagic navigation.
For six centuries previous to about 800, European interest in
practical geographical expansion was at a standstill. During
the 6th and 7th centuries, Irish anchorites, in their " passion
for solitude," found their way to the Hebrides, Orkneys, Shet-
lands, Faroes and Iceland, but they were not interested in
colonization or geographical knowledge. The discovery of new
lands in the West by the Norsemen came in the course of the
great Scandinavian exodus of the 9th, loth and nth centuries
the Viking Age when Norsemen, Swedes and Danes swarmed
over all Europe, conquering kingdoms and founding colonies.
The main stream of Norsemen took a westerly course, striking
Great Britain, Ireland and the Western Isles, and ultimately
reached Iceland (in 874), Greenland (in 985) and Vinland (in
loco). This western migration was due mainly to political
dissatisfaction in Norway, doubtless augmented by a restless
spirit of adventure. The chiefs and their followers that settled
Iceland were " picked men," the flower of the land, and sought
a new home from other motives than want or gain. They sought
political freedom. In Iceland they lived active, not to say
tumultuous, lives, and left fine literary records of their doings
and achievements. The Icelandic colony was an interesting
forerunner of the American republic, having a prosperous
population living under a republican government, and main-
taining an independent national spirit for nearly four centuries.
Geographically Iceland belongs to America, and its coloniza-
tion meant, sooner or later, the rinding of other lands to the
West. A century later Greenland was peopled from Iceland,
and a colony existed for over four hundred years, when it was
snuffed out, doubtless by hostile Eskimos. Icelandic records,
among them the Vinland sagas, also a Norwegian work of the
1 3th century, called Speculum regale (The King's Mirror), and
some papal letters, give interesting glimpses of the life of this
colony. It was from the young Greenland colony that an
attempt was made to establish a new outpost in Vinland, but
plans for permanent settlement were given up on account of
the hostility of the natives, with whom the settlers felt powerless
to grapple. Gunpowder had not yet been invented.
Icelandic literature consists mainly of the so-called " sagas,"
or prose narratives, and is rich in historical lore. In the case
of the Vinland sagas, however, there are two independent narra-
tives of the same events, which clash in the record of details.
Modern investigators have been interested in establishing the
superiority of one over the other of the two narratives. One of
them is the " Saga of Eric the Red " as found in the collection
known as Hauk's Book, so called because the manuscript was
made by Hauk Erlendsson, an Icelander who spent much of his
life in Norway. It was copied, in part by Hauk himself, between
VINLAND
99
the years 1305 and 1334, the date of his death, and probably
during the period 1310-20. It is No. 544 of the Ame-
Magnaean collection in Copenhagen. Another manuscript
that tells the same story, with only verbal variations, is found
in No. 557 of the same collection. This manuscript was made
later than Hauk's, probably in the early part of the isth century,
but it is not a copy of Hauk's. Both were made independently
from earlier manuscripts. The story as found in these two
manuscripts has been pronounced by competent critics, especi-
ally Professor Gustav Storm of the university of Christiania,
as the best and the most trustworthy record.
The other saga, which by chance came to be looked upon as
the chief repository of facts concerning the Vinland voyages, is
found in a large Icelandic work known as the Flatey Book, as
it was once owned by a man who lived on Flat Island (Flatey),
on the north-western coast of Iceland. This collection of sagas,
completed in about 1380, is " the most extensive and most
perfect of Icelandic manuscripts," and was sent to Denmark in
1662 as a gift to the king. It was evidently the general ex-
cellence of this collection that gave the version of the Vinland
story that it contained precedence, in the works of early investi-
gators, over the Vinland story of Hauk's Book. (Reeves's
Finding of Wineland contains fine photographs of all the vellum
pages that give the various Vinland narratives.)
According to Flatey Book saga, Biarni Heriulfsson, on a
voyage from Iceland to Greenland in the early days of the
Greenland colony, was driven out of his course and sighted new
lands to the south-west. He did not go ashore (which seems
strange), but sailed northward to Greenland. Fifteen years
later-, according to this account, Leif Ericsson set out from
Greenland in search of the lands that Biarni had seen, found
them and named them Helluland (Flat-stone-land), Markland
(Forestland) and Vinland. After his return to Greenland,
several successive expeditions visited the new lands, none of
which (strangely enough) experienced any difficulty in finding
Leif's hut in the distant Vinland.
According to the Vinland saga in Hauk's Book, Leif Ericsson,
whose father, Eric the Red, had discovered and colonized Green-
land, set out on a voyage, in 999, to visit Norway, the native land
of his father. He visited the famous King Olaf Tryggvason, who
reigned from 995 to 1000, and was bending his energies toward
Christianizing Norway and Iceland. He immediately saw in Leif
a likely aid in the conversion of the Greenlanders. Leif was
converted and consented to become the king's emissary to
Greenland, and the next year (1000) started on his return voyage.
The saga says that he was " tossed about " on this long voyage,
and came upon an unknown country, where he found " self-
sown wheatfields, and vines," and also some trees called " mosur,"
of which he took specimens. Upon his arrival in Greenland,
Leif presented the message of King Olaf, and seems to have
attempted no further expeditions. But his visits to the new
lands aroused much interest, and his brother Thorstein made an
unsuccessful attempt to find them. Later, in 1003, an Icelander,
Thorfinn Karlsefni, who was visiting the Greenland colony, and
who had married Gudrid, the widow of Leif's brother Thorstein,
set out with four vessels and 160 followers to found a colony in
the new lands. Here they remained three years, during which
time a son, Snorri, was born to Thorfinn and Gudrid. This
expedition, too, found " grapes and self-sown wheat," though
seemingly not in any great abundance. Concerning the southern-
most region of Vinland, the saga says: "They found self-sown
wheatfields in the lowlands, but vines everywhere on higher
places. . . . There were great numbers of wild animals in the
woods." Then the saga relates that one morning a large
number of men in skin canoes came paddling toward them and
landed, staring curiously at them: " They were swarthy men
and ill-looking, and the hair of their heads was ugly; they had
large eyes and broad cheeks." Later the saga says: "No snow
came there, and all of their live stock lived by grazing, and
thrived." The natives appeared again the next spring, and a
clash occurred. Fearing continued trouble with them, Karlsefni
resolved to return to Greenland. This he did a year later, and
spent the winter of 1006-7 there, whereupon he settled in
Iceland. From him and Gudrid a number of prominent
ecclesiastics claimed descent, and also Hauk Erlendsson. The
Vinland story was doubtless a cherished family possession,
and was put into writing, when writing sagas, instead of telling
them, came into fashion. And here it is important to remember
that before the age of writing in Iceland there was a saga-telling
age, a most remarkable period of intellectual activity, by the aid
of which the deeds and events of the seething life of the heroic
age was carried over into the age of writing. " Among the
medieval literatures of Europe, that of Iceland is unrivalled in
the profusion of detail with which the facts of ordinary life are
recorded, and the clearness with which the individual characters
of numberless real persons stand out from the historic back-
ground " (Origines Islandicae). Icelandic literary history says
that An the Learned (bom in 1067) was " the first man in this
land who wrote in the Norse tongue history relating to times
ancient and modern." Among his works is the Book of
Settlements, " a work of thorough and painstaking research
unequalled in medieval literature " (Fiske). His work The
Book of Icelanders is unfortunately lost, but an abridgment
of it, Libellus Islandorum, made by An himself, contains a
significant reference to Vinland. It tells that the colonists in
Greenland found " both broken cayaks (canoes) and stone
implements, whereby it may be seen that the same kind of
folk had been there as they which inhabited Vinland, and
whom the men of Greenland (i.e. the explorers) called the
' skraelings ' (i.e. inferior people)." From this allusion one
cannot but think that so keen and alert a writer as An had given
some attention to Vinland in the lost work. But of this there
is no other proof. We are left to affirm, on account of definite
references in various sagas and annals to Leif Ericsson and the
discovery of Vinland, that the saga as preserved in Hauk's Book
(and also in No. 557) rested on a strong viva voce tradition that
was early put into writing by a competent hand. Dr Finnur
Jonsson of Copenhagen says: "The classic form of the saga and
its vivid and excellent tradition surely carry it back to about
1200." This conservative opinion does not preclude the possi-
bility, or even probability, that written accounts of the Vinland
voyages existed before this date. Vigfusson, in speaking of the
sagas in general, says: " We believe that when once the first saga
was written down, the others were in quick succession committed
to parchment, some still keeping their form through a succession
of copies, other changed. . . . That which was not written down
quickly, in due time, was lost and forgotten for ever."
The fact that there are discrepancies between the two ver-
sions as they appear in the Hauk's Book and in the Flatey Book
does not justify the overthrow of both as historical evidence.
The general truth of the tradition is strengthened by the fact
that it has come down from two independent sources. One of
them must be the better, however, and this it is the province of
competent scholars to determine. The best modern scholarship
gives the precedence to the Hauk's Book narrative, as it harmonizes
better with well-established facts of Scandinavian history, and
is besides a more plausible account. In accordance with this
decision, Biarni Heriulfson's adventure should be eliminated,
the priority of discovery given to Leif Ericsson, and the honour
of being the first European colonists on the American continent
awarded to Thorfinn Karlsefni and his followers. This was
evidently the only real attempt at colonization, despite the
numerous contentions to the contrary. Under date of 1121 the
Icelandic annals say: " Bishop Eric of Greenland went in search
of Vinland." Nothing further is recorded. The fact that his
successor as bishop was appointed in 1123 would seem to indicate
that the Greenlanders had information that Eric had perished.
The only important phase of the Vinland voyages that has not
been definitely settled is the identifications of the regions visited
by Leif and Thorfinn. The Danish antiquarian Rafn, in his
monumental Antiqutiates Americanae, published in 1837, and
much discussed in America at that time, held for Rhode Island
as Leif's landfall and the locality of Thorfinn's colony. Pro-
fessor E. N. Horsford, in a number of monographs (unfortunately
IOO
VINOGRADOFF VINT
of no historical or scientific value), fixed upon the vicinity of
Boston, where now stand a Leif Ericsson statue and Hereford's
Norumbega Tower as testimonials to the Norse explorers. But
in 1887 Professor Storm announced his conviction that the
lands visited by the Norsemen in the early part of the nth
century were Labrador, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. And
a careful reading of the Hank's Book narrative seems to show
that the numerous details of the saga fit Nova Scotia remarkably
well, and much better than any other part of the continent.
This view has in recent years been quite generally accepted by
American scholars. But in 1910 Professor M. L. Fernald, a
botanist of Harvard University, published a paper in Rliodora,
vol. 12, No. 134, in which he contends that it is most probable
that the " vinber " of the sagas were not " grapes," but " wine-
berries," also known as the mountain or rock cranberries. The
" self-sown wheat " of the sagas he identifies as strand wheat,
instead of Indian corn, or wild rice, and the mosur trees as the
canoe birch. He thinks the natives were Eskimos, instead of
American Indians, as stoutly maintained by John Fiske. Pro-
fessor Fernald concludes his paper by saying that: " The mass
of evidence which the writer has in hand, and which will soon be
ready for publication, makes it clear that, if we read the sagas
in the light of what we know of the abundant occurrence north of
the St Lawrence of the ' vinber ' ( Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea or
possibly Ribes triste, R. prostratum, or R. lacustre), ' hveiti '
{Elymus arenarius), and ' mosur ' (Betula alba, i.e. B. papyrifera
of many botanists), the discrepancies in geography, ethnology
and zoology, which have been so troublesome in the past, will
disappear; other features, usually considered obscure, will
become luminous; and the older and less distorted sagas, at
least in their main incidents, will become vivid records of actuaL
geographic exploration."
It is possible that Professor Fernald may show conclusively
that Leif's landfall was north of the St Lawrence. That the
" vinber " were mountain cranberries would explain the fact,
mentioned in the Flatey Book saga, that Leif filled his after-
boat with " vinber " in the spring, which is possible with the
cranberries, as they are most palatable after having lain under
the snow for the winter. But Thorfinn Karlsefni found no
abundance of " vinber," in fact one of his followers composed
some verses to express his disappointment on this score.
" Vines " were found only in the southernmost regions visited
by Karlsefni. It is to -be noted that the word "vines" is
more prominent in the Hauk's Book narrative than the word
" vinber." At present it does not seem likely that Professor
Fernald's argument will seriously affect Professor Storm's
contention that Thorfinn's colony was in Nova Scotia. At
any rate, the incontrovertible facts of the Vinland voyages
are that Leif and Thorfinn were historical characters, that
they visited, in the early part of the nth century, some part
of the American continent south-west of Greenland, that they
found natives whose hostility prevented the founding of a
permanent settlement, and that the sagas telling of these
things are, on the whole, trustworthy descriptions of actual
experience.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The bibliography of this subject is large, but
adequate documents, accounts and discussions may be found in
the following modern works: Gustav Storm, Studies on the Vine-
land Voyages (Copenhagen, 1889); Arthur M. Reeves, The Finding
of Wineland, the Good (London, 1890 and 1895); John Fiske, The
Discovery of America, vol. i. (Boston, 1892); Juul Dieserud, " Norse
Discoveries in America," in Bulletin of the American Geographical
Society, vol. xxxiii. (New York, 1901); Gudbrandr Vfgfusson and
F. Yorke Powell, Origines Islandicae (Oxford, 1905); and Julius
E. Olson and others, The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot, 985-1503
(New York, 1906), the first volume of Original Narratives of Early
American History. (J. E. O.)
VINOGRADOFF, PAUL (1854- ), Anglo-Russian jurist,
was born at Kostroma in Russia. He became professor of
history in the university of Moscow, but his zeal for the spread
of education brought him into conflict with the authorities,
and consequently he was obliged to leave Russia. Having
settled in England, Vinogradoff brought a powerful and original
mind to bear upon the social and economic conditions of early
England, a subject which he had already begun to study in
Moscow. His Villainage in England (1892) is perhaps the
most important book written on the peasantry of the feudal
age and the village community in England; it can only be
compared for value with F. W. Maitland's Domesday Book and
Beyond. In masterly fashion Vinogradoff here shows that
the villein of Norman times was the direct descendant of the
Anglo-Saxon freeman, and that the typical Anglo-Saxon
settlement was a free community, not a manor, the position
of the freeman having steadily deteriorated in the centuries
just around the Norman Conquest. The status of the villein
and the conditions of the manor in the I2th and I3th centuries
are set forth with a legal precision and a wealth of detail which
shows its author, not only as a very capable historian, but
also as a brilliant and learned jurist. Almost equally valuable
was Vinogradofi's essay on " Folklan'd " in vol. viii. of the
English Historical Review (1893), which proved for the first time'
the real nature of this kind of land. Vinogradoff followed up
his Villainage in England with The Growth of the Manor (1905)
and English Society in the nth Century (1908), works on the lines
of his earlier book. In 1903 he was appointed Corpus professor
of jurisprudence in the university of Oxford, and subsequently
became a fellow of the British Academy. He received honorary
decrees from the principal universities, was made a member
of several foreign academies and was appointed honoraiy
professor of history at Moscow.
VINOY, JOSEPH (1803-1880), French soldier, was originally
intended for the Church, but, after some years at a seminary,
he decided upon a military career, and entered the army in
1823. When he was a sergeant in the i4th line infantry, he took
part in the Algerian expedition of 1830. He won his com-
mission at the capture of Algiers, and during the subsequent
campaigns he rose by good service to the rank cf colonel. He
returned to France in 1850, and in the Crimean War served
under Canrobert as general of brigade. For his brilliant con-
duct at the Malakoff he was promoted general of division, and
he led a division of Niel's corps in the campaign of Solferino.
Retired on account of age in 1865, he was recalled to active
service on the outbreak of the war of 1870, and after the early
reverses was put at the head of the XIII. army corps, which,
fortunately for France, did not arrive at the front in time to
be involved in the catastrophe of Sedan. By a skilful retreat
he brought his corps intact to Paris on September 7th. Vinoy
during the siege commanded the III. army operating on the
south side of the capital and took part in all the actions in
that quarter. On Trochu's resignation he was appointed to
the supreme command, in which capacity he had to negotiate
the surrender. During the commune he held important
commands in the army of Versailles, and occupied the burning
Tuileries and the Louvre on May 23rd. He was in the same
year made grand chancellor of the Legion of Honour.
Vinoy wrote several memoirs on the war of 1870^-71; Operations
de I'armee pendant le siege de Paris (1872), L' Armistice et la com-
mune (1872), L' A rmee franchise (1873).
VINT, a Russian card-game. It is generally considered as
the immediate ancestor of Bridge (q.v.). Vint means in
Russian " screw," and is given to the game because the four
players, each in turn, propose, bid and overbid each other
until one, having bid higher than the others care to follow,
makes the trump, his vis-a-vis becoming his partner. It has
many points of resemblance to Bridge. The cards have the
same rank; the score of tricks is entered under the line, and
points for slum, penalties and honours above the line; while
the value of the different suits is the same as in Bridge: spades,
clubs, diamonds, hearts and " no trumps." In a " no trump "
declaration aces only count as honours; in a suit declaration
both the aces and the five next highest cards. During the
progress of the bidd : ng and declaring, opportunity is taken by
the players to indicate by their calls their strength in the
various suits and the high cards they hold, so that, when the
playing begins, the position of the best cards and the strength
of the different hands can often be fairly accurately estimated.
VINTON VIOLET
101
The leads are subject to much the same rules as those in
Bridge.
See The Laws and Principles of Vint, edited by Frank W. Haddan
(London, 1900).
VINTON, FREDERIC PORTER (1846- ), American
portrait painter, was born at Bangor, Maine, on the zgth of
January 1846. He was a pupil of Duveneck, of William M.
Hunt in Boston, of Leon Bonnat and Jean Paul Laurens in
Paris, and of the Royal Academy of Munich. In 1891 he was
elected a full member of the National Academy of Design,
New York.
VIOL, a generic term for the bowed precursors of the violin
(q.v.), but in England more specially applied to those immediate
predecessors of the violin which are distinguished in Italy and
Germany as the Gamba family. The chief characteristics of
the viols were a flat back, sloping shoulders, "c "-shaped
sound-holes, and a short finger-board with frets. All these
features were changed or modified in the violin, the back
becoming delicately arched, the shoulders reverting to the
rounded outline of the guitar or troubadour fiddle, the shape
of the sound-holes changing from " c " to " f," and the finger-
board being carried considerably nearer the bridge. The viols,
of which the origin may be traced to the I3th and I4th cen-
tury German Minnesinger fiddle, characterized also by sloping
shoulders, can hardly be said to have evolved into the violin.
The latter was derived from the guitar-fiddle through the
Italian lyre or viol-lyra family, distinguished as da braccio and
da gamba, and having early in the I7th century the outline
and " f " sound-holes of the violin. The viol family consisted
of treble, alto, tenor and bass instruments, being further
differentiated as da braccio or da gamba according to the position
in which they were held against the arm or between the knees.
The favourite viol da gamba, or division viol, frequently had
a man or a woman's head instead of the scroll finish to the peg-
box, and sometimes a few fine wire sympathetic strings tuned
an octave higher than the strings in the bridge.
Michael Praetorius mentions no less than five sizes of the
viol da gamba, the largest corresponding to the double bass,
and in a table he notes the various accordances in use for each.
He carefully distinguishes these instruments as violen and the
viole da braccio (our violin family) as geigen. Of the latter he
gives six sizes, the highest being the pochette with vaulted back,
a rebec in fact, and the lowest corresponding to the violoncello,
which he calls bass viol or geige da braccio.
The viols were very popular in England in the l6th and I7th
centuries, holding their own for a long time after the introduction
of the louder-toned violin ; they are fully described and figured in
the musical works of the period, and more especially in Christopher
Simpson's Division Viol (1667), Thomas Mace's Mustek's Monu-
ment (1676) and John Playford's Introduction to the Skill of Music.
(K. S.)
VIOLA [Fr. viole, Ger. Bratsche, Ital. viola, a/to], the tenor
member of the violin family. The construction of the viola is
the same, but on a larger scale, as that of the violin (q.v.).
The instrument is pitched a perfect fifth below the violin.
VIOLET. The violets comprise a large botanical genus
(Viola) in which more than 200 species have been described
found principally in temperate or mountain regions of the
northern hemisphere; they also occur in mountainous districts
of South America and South and Tropical Africa, while a few
are found in Australasia. The species are mostly low-growing
herbs with alternate leaves provided with large leafy stipules
(fig. i). The flowers, which are solitary, or rarely in pairs, at
the end of slender axillary flower-stalks, are very irregular in
form, with five sepals prolonged at the base, and five petals,
the lowest one larger than the others and with a spur, in which
collects the honey secreted by the spurs of the two adjoining
stamens. The five anthers are remarkable for the coloured
processes which extend beyond the anther cells and form a sort
of cone around the style (fig. 2). The ovary is superior and
one-celled, with three parietal placentas and numerous ovules;
it bears a single style, which ends in a dilated or hood-like
stigma (fig. 3). The fruit is a capsule bursting loculicidally,
i.e. through the centre of each of the three valves. By the
contraction of the valves the small smooth seeds, which form
FIG. i. Leaf of Viola tricolor
(Pansy) showing the large
leafy stipules (s).
e
FIG. 2. Two Stamens
of Viola tricolor
(Pansy), with their
twoantherlobesand
the processp extend-
ing beyond them.
One of the stamens
has been deprived of
its spur; the other
shows its spur, c.
a row down the centre, are shot out to some little distance from
the parent plant. The irregular construction of the flower is
connected with fertilization by insect agency. To reach the
honey in the spur of the flower, the insect must thrust its
proboscis into the flower close under the globular head of the
stigma. This lies in the anterior part of a groove fringed with
hairs on the inferior petal. The anthers shed their pollen into
this groove, either of themselves or when the pistil is shaken
by the insertion of the bee's proboscis. The proboscis, passing
down this groove to the spur, becomes dusted with pollen;
as it is drawn back, it presses up the lip-like valve of the
stigma so that no pollen can enter the stigma tic chamber;
but as it enters the next flower it leaves some pollen on the
upper surface of the valve, and thus cross-fertilization is effected.
In the sweet violet, V. odorata and other species, inconspicuous
permanently closed or " cleistogamic " flowers (fig. 4) occur of a
FIG. 3. Pistil of Viola tricolor
(Pansy), i. Vertical section to
show the ovules o, attached to
the parietes. Two rows of ovules
are seen, one in front and the
other in profile, p, a thickened
line on the walls forming the
placenta; c, calyx; d, ovary;
s, hooded stigma terminating the
short style. 2. Horizontal section
of the same, p, placenta; o,
ovules; s, suture, or median line
of carpel.
FIG. 4. CleistogamicFIower
of Viola sylvatica.
I. FlowerX4. 2. Flower
'more highly magnified
and cut open, a, anther;
i, pistil; st, style; v, stig-
matic surface.
greenish colour, so that they offer no attractions to insect visitors
and their form is correspondingly regular. The anthers are so
situated that the pollen on escaping comes into contact with
the stigma; in such flowers self-fertilization is compulsory and
very effectual, as seeds in profusion are produced.
Several species of Viola are native to Great Britain. Viola
canina (fig. 5) is the dog violet, many forms or subspecies of which
are recognized; V. odorata, sweet violet, is highly prized for its
fragrance, and in cultivation numerous varieties have originated.
The Neapolitan or Parma violet (var. paUida plena) is a form with
very sweet-scented, double, pale lavender flowers; var. sulphurca
has shining deep green leaves and lemon-yellow flowers, deeper
yellow in the centre, and with a pale-violet spur. Sweet violets like
a nch, fairly heavy soil, with a north or north-west aspect if possible;
IO2
VIOLIN
they are readily increased by dividing the crowns after flowering.
Other species known in gardens are: V. altaica, flowers yellow or
FIG. 5. Dog Violet (Viola canina), half nat. size.
1. Floral diagram of Viola, showing arrangement of parts in hori-
zontal plan, b, pair of bracteoles below the flower; s, sepals;
p, petals; st, stamens; o, ovary.
2. Fruit, split open.
violet with yellow eye ; V. biflora, a pretty little species 3-4 in. high
with small yellow flowers, the large petal being streaked with black;
V. calcarata, flowers light blue or white, or yellow in var. flava;
V. cornuta, flowers pale blue there are a few good varieties of
this, including one with white flowers; V. cucullata, a free-flowering
American species with violet-blue or purple flowers; V. Munbyana,
a native of Algeria, with large violet or yellow flowers; V. pedata,
the bird's-foot violet, with pedately divided leaves and usually
bright blue flowers; V. rothomagensis, a native of western Europe,
with flowers bright blue striped with black, and sometimes called
the Rouen violet ; and V. suavis, a native of Asia Minor, the Russian
violet, with pale-blue sweet-scented flowers. The garden pansies
or heartseases are derivatives from V. tricolor, a cornfield weed,
or V. altaica, a native of the Altai mountains. (See PANSY.)
" Bedding violas," which differ from pansies in some slight technical
details, have been raised from V. cornuta and V. lutea by crossing
with the show pansies. The application of an infusion of violet
leaves was at one time believed to have the power of reducing
the size of cancerous growths, but its use is now discredited.
VIOLIN, a musical instrument consisting essentially of a
resonant box of peculiar form, over which four strings of
different thicknesses are stretched across a bridge standing
on the box, in such a way that the tension of the strings can
be adjusted by means of revolving pegs to which they are
severally attached at one end. The strings are tuned, by
means of the pegs, in fifths, from the second or A string, which
is tuned to a fundamental note of about 435 vibrations per
second at the modern normal pitch: thus giving
-=?
as the four open notes. To produce other notes of the scale
the length of the strings is varied by stopping them with the
fingers on a finger-board, attached to a " neck " at the end of
which is the " head " in Which the pegs are inserted. The
strings are set in vibration by drawing across them a bow
strung with horse-hair, which is rosined to increase adhesion.
The characteristic features which, in combination, distinguish
the violin (including in that family name its larger brethren
the viola and the violoncello) from other stringed instruments
are: the restriction of the strings to four, and their tuning
in fifths; the peculiar form of the body, or resonating
chamber, especially the fully moulded back as well as front,
or belly; the shallow sides or " ribs " bent into characteristic
curves; the acute angles of the corners where the 'curves of
the ends and middle " bouts " or waist ribs meet; and the
position and shape of the sound-holes, cut in the belly. By
a gradual process of development in all these particulars the
modern violin was evolved from earlier bowed instruments,
and attained its highest perfection at the hands of the great
Italian makers in the i6th, iyth and early i8th centuries, since
which time, although many experiments have been made, no
material improvement has been effected upon the form and
mode of construction then adopted.
The body, or sounding-box, of the violin is built up of two arched
plates of thin wood, the belly and the back, united by side pieces
or ribs to form a shallow box. The belly is cut from soft elastic
wood, pine being universally used for this purpose, while the back is
made of a close-grained wood, generally sycamore or maple. Both
back and belly are carved to their model from the solid, but for
utilitarian reasons are generally, though not always, built up of two
longitudinal sections; while the sides or ribs, of very thin sycamore
or maple, usually in six sections, are bent on a mould, by the aid of
heat, to the required form. Into the corners are glued corner-blocks
of soft wood, which help to retain the ribs in their sharply recurved
form, and materially strengthen the whole structure. Into the
angle of the joints between the sides and the back and belly are glued
thin lining strips, bent to the mould, giving a bearing surface for
the glued joint along the whole outline of the instrument; while,
in addition, end blocks are inserted at the head and bottom of the
body, the former to receive the base of the neck, and the latter the
" tail pin " to which is attached the tail-piece, carrying the lower
(fixed) ends of the strings. The belly is pierced with two sound-
holes in the form of TT near, and approximately parallel to, the
" bouts." The size, shape and position of these holes have an
important influence on the character of the tone of the instrument,
and present distinctive variations in the instruments of the different
great makers.
The neck, made of maple, is glued and now always mortised into
the block at the upper end of the body, 1 bearing against a small
semicircular projection of the back, and is inclined at such an angle
that the finger-board, when glued on to its upper surface, may lie
clear of the belly, over which it projects, but in such relation to the
height of the bridge as to allow the strings to be stretched nearly
parallel to, and at a convenient distance above, its own surface.
The bridge, cut out of maple, in the peculiar form devised by
Stradivari in the 1 7th century, and not since materially departed
from, is in the violin about ij in. high by if in. wide, and tapers in
thickness from 'about | in. at the base to ^ at the crown; but the
dimensions of this very important member vary for different instru-
ments according to the arch of the belly, the strength of the wood
and other considerations. It is placed on the belly exactly midway
between the sound-holes and in such a position as to stand on a
transverse line dividing the surface into two approximately equal
areas, that is, about if in. below the middle, the lower end of the
body being wider than the upper part or shoulders; whereby a
greater length is rendered available for the vibrating portion of the
strings..
A short distance behind the right foot of the bridge, the sound-
post, a rod of soft pine about j in. thick, is fixed inside the body in
contact with the belly and the back, and serves directly, not only to
sustain the belly against the pressure of the bridge under the tension
of the strings, but to convey vibrations to the back. It also exer-
cises a very important influence on the nodal arrangement of these
vibrating plates. The pressure of the other foot of the bridge,
where the tension of the fourth string is far less than that of the
first string, is partly sustained by the bass-bar a strip of wood
tapering from the middle to both ends, which is j*lued underneath
the belly and extends to within rather less than 2 in. of the ends of
the instrument. This fitting not only serves to strengthen the belly
mechanically, but exerts a profound effect upon the vibrations of
that plate.
The fixed structure is completed by the head, which surmounts
the neck and consists primarily of a narrow box into the sides of
which are inserted the pegs round which the free ends of the strings
are wound. The head is finished by an ornamentation which in the
hands of the Italian makers followed the traditional pattern of a
scroll, or volute, offering the skilled craftsmen infinite scope for
boldness and freedom in its execution ; but sometimes, especially
in the Tirolean instruments, it was carved in the form of an animal's
head, usually a lion's.
The strings, fastened at one end to an ebony tail-piece or tongue,
which is itself attached by a gut "loop to the pin at the base of the
instrument, pass over the bridge, along the finger board and over the
nut (a dwarf bridge forming the termination of the finger-board) to
the pegs. The effective vibrating portion of the strings is accord-
ingly the length between the nut and the bridge, and measures now
1 Up to about the year 1800 the old Italian makers, including
Stradivari (in his earlier instruments), usually strengthened the
attachment of the neck by driving nails, frequently three and some-
times four, through the top block into the base of the neck, which
was not mortised into the block.
VIOLIN
103
in an ordinary full-sized violin about 13 in. The portion of the
strings to which the bow is applied lies over the space, measuring
about 2}in., between the bridge and the free end of the finger-
board. The strings are manufactured from so-called catgut, made
from the intestines of lambs, and range in thickness from the first
to the third or D string from -026 to -046 in. more or less. The
-sary weight is given to the string of lowest pitch, G, without
unduly sacrificing its elasticity, by winding a thin gut string with
fine silver wire to about the same thickness as the A string.
An ornamental feature characteristic of nearly all viofins is the
purfling, a very thin slip of wood with margins of ebony or (rarely)
whalebone, inlaid in thin strips close to the edge of both piates,
and following the entire outline of the instrument. In some in-
struments, especially of the Brescian school, a double line of purfling
xv. is inserted.
The total number of pieces of wood of which the violin is composed
amounts to about 70, varying, as the plates are made in one piece
or built together, and with the number of sections in which the
ribs are put together. Of this number 57 pieces are built into
the permanent structure, while 13 may be described as fittings.
The whole of the permanent structure is cemented together with
glue alone, and it is a striking testimony to the mechanical condi-
tions satisfied by the design, that the instrument built of such
slender material withstands without deformation the considerable
stresses applied to it. It is worthy of remark that after the lapse
of so many years, since it attained perfect musical efficiency, no
unessential adjunct has entered into the construction of this in-
strument. No play of fancy has grafted anything beyond quite
minor ornamentation on a work of art distinguished by its simplicity
of pure outline and proportion.
The following are the exact principal dimensions of a very fine
specimen of Stradivari's work, which has been preserved in perfect
condition since the latter end of the I7th century:
Length of body = 14 in. full.
Width across top =6}J in. bare.
Width across bottom = 8J in.
Height of sides (top) = i-ft
Height of sides (bottom) . . . . = i/j ,,
The back is in one piece, supplemented a little in width at the lower
part, after a common practice of the great makers, and is cut from
very handsome wood ; the ribs are of the same wood, while the belly
is formed of two pieces of soft pine of rather fine and beautifully
even grain. The sound-holes, cut with perfect precision, exhibit
much grace and freedom of design. The scroll, which is very char-
acteristic of the maker's style and beautifully modelled, harmonizes
admirably with the general modelling of the instrument. The
mode! is flatter than in violins of the earlier period, and the design
bold, while displaying all Stradivari's microscopic perfection of
workmanship. The whole is coated with a very fine orange-red-
brown varnish, untouched since it left the maker's hand in 1690,
and the only respects in which the instrument has been altered since
that date are in the fitting of the longer neck and stronger bass-bar
necessitated by the increased compass and raised pitch of modern
violin music.
The measurements given above are the same as those of a well-
known Stradivari of later date (1714).
The acoustics of the violin are extremely complex, and not-
withstanding many investigations by men of science, and the
Acoustics enunc i at ion f some plausible hypotheses with regard
to details of its operation as a musical instrument,
remain as a whole obscure. So far as the elementary principles
which govern its action are concerned, the violin follows
familiar laws (see SOUND). The different notes of the scale
are produced by vibrating strings differing in weight and
tension, and varying in length under the hand of the player.
-^The vibrations of the strings are conveyed through the bridge
to the body of the instrument, which fulfils the common function
of a resonator in reinforcing the notes initiated by the strings.
So far first principles carry us at once. But when we endeavour
to elucidate in detail the causes of the peculiar character of
tone of the violin family, the great range and variety in that
character obtained in different instruments, the extent to
which those qualities can be controlled by the bow of the
player, and the mode in which they are influenced by minute
variations in almost every component part of the instrument,
we find ourselves faced by a series of problems which have so
far defie*d any but very partial solution.
The distinctive quality of the musical tones of the violin is
generally admitted to be due largely to its richness in the upper
harmonic or partial tones superimposed on the fundamental notes
produced by the simple vibrations of the strings.
The characteristic tone and its control by the player are un-
doubtedly conditioned in the first place by the peculiar path of the
vibrating string under the action of the rosined bow. This takes
the form not of a symmetrical oscillation but of a succession of
alternating bound and free movements, as the string adheres to the
bow according to the pressure applied and, releasing itself by its
elasticity, rebounds.
The lightness of the material of which the strings are made
conduces to the production of very high upper partial tones which
give brilliancy ol sound, while the low elasticity of the gut causes
these high constituents to be quickly damped, thus softening the
ultimate quality of the note.
In order that the resonating body of the instrument may fulfil
its highest purpose in reinforcing the complex vibrations set up by
the strings vibrating in the manner above described, not only as a
whole, but in the number of related segments whose oscillations
determine the upper partial tones, it is essential that the plates,
and consequently the body of air contained between them, should
respond sensitively to the selective impulses communicated to them.
It is the attainment of this perfect selective responsiveness which
marks the construction cf the best instruments. Many factors
contribute to this result. The thickness of the plates in different
parts of their areas, the size and form of the interior of the body,
the size and shape of the sound-holes through which the vibrations
of the contained air are communicated to the external air, and
which also influence the nodal points in the belly, according to the
number of fibres of the wood cut across, varying with the angle at
which the sound-holes cross the grain of the wood. Their position
in this respect also affects the width of the central vibrating portion
of the belly under the bridge.
All these important factors are influenced by the quality and
elasticity of the wood employed.
Much has been written and many speculations have been ad-
vanced with regard to the superiority in tone of the old Italian
instruments over those of modern construction. This superiority
has sometimes been disputed, and, judging from the many examples
of second-rate instruments which have survived from the I7th
and i8th centuries, it is certain that antiquity alone does not confer
upon violins the merits which have frequently been claimed for it.
When, however, we compare the comparatively few really fine
specimens of the Italian school which have survived in good condition,
with the best examples of modern construction in which the propor-
tions of the older masterpieces have been faithfully followed, and
in which the most careful workmanship of skilled hands has been
embodied, it cannot be denied that the former possess a superiority
in the quality of their' tone which the musical ear immediately
recognizes. After taking into account the practical identity in
dimensions and construction between the classical and many of the
best modern models, the conclusion suggests itself that the difference
must be attributed to the nature of the materials used, or to the
method of their employment, as influenced by local conditions
and practice. The argument, not infrequently advanced, that the
great makers of Italy Tiad special local sources of supply, jealously
guarded, for wood with exceptional acoustical properties, can hardly
be sustained. Undoubtedly they exercised great care" in the selec-
tion of sound and handsome wood; but there is evidence that some
of the finest wood they used was imported from across the Adriatic
in the ordinary course of trade; and the matter was for them, in
all probability, largely one of expense. There is good reason to
suppose that a far larger choice of equally good material is accessible
to modern makers.
There remains the varnish with which the completed instrument
is coated. This was an item in the manufacture which received most
careful attention at the hands of the great makers, and much im-
portance has been attached to the superiority of their varnish over
that used in more recent times so much so that its composition
has been attributed to secret processes known only to themselves.
The probability is that they were able to exercise more personal
selection of the materials used than has been generally practised
by makers dependent upon commercial products under modern
conditions, and the general result has been analogous to that seen
in the pigments employed by modern painters as compared with
those made up for themselves by the old masters who could ensure
perfect purity in their ingredients. But that the Italian makers
individually or collectively attempted, or were able, to preserve
as a secret the composition of the varnish they used is unlikely.
Instruments exhibiting similar excellence in this respect were too
widespread in their range, both of period and locality, to justify
the assumption that the general composition of the finest varnish
of the early makers was not a matter of common knowledge in an
industry so flourishing as that of violin-making in the I7th and early
i8th centuries. The excellence of an instrument in respect of its
varnish depended on the quality of the constituent materials, on
the proportions in which they were combined, and, perhaps mainly,
on the method of its application. The most enduring and perfect
varnish used for violins is an oil varnish, and the best results there-
with can only be obtained under the most advantageous conditions
for the drying process. In this respect there can be no doubt that
the southern climate placed the makers whose work lies in higher
latitudes at a disadvantage. In a letter to Galileo in 1638 concern-
ing a violin he had ordered from Cremona, the writer states that
104
VIOLIN
" it cannot be brought to perfection without the strong heat of the
sun"; and all recorded experience indicates the great importance
of slow drying of the varnish under suitable conditions. Stradivari
himself wrote to account for delay in the delivery of an instrument
because of the time required for the drying of the varnish.
That a perfect varnish conduces to the preservation of a fine tone
in the instrument is generally admitted; and its operation in this
respect is due, not merely to the external protection of the wood
from deterioration, but especially to its action, when supplied under
favourable conditions to wood at a ripe stage of seasoning (when
that process has proceeded far enough, but not so far as to allow the
fibres to become brittle), in soaking into the pores of the wood and
preserving its elasticity. This being so, successful varnishing will
be seen to be an operation of great delicacy, and one in which the old
masters found full scope for their skill and large experience. The
effects, upon the vibrational qualities of the wood, of thickness of
coat, texture and gradual absorption into the pores of the wood under
favourable conditions of drying, are great and far-reaching, as is
proved in the survival through two centuries of the great qualities
of the specimens most fittingly treated in this respect.
After the early part of the i8th century the use of the fine oil
varnish employed by the great makers was gradually abandoned, con-
currently with the decline of the instrument maker's art in Italy.
Except in the hands of the fast-diminishing band of craftsmen trained
in the old traditions, its place was taken by the newer spirit varnishes
which, with their quick-drying qualities and ease of application,
satisfied the requirements of the more cheaply manufactured
instruments of the period following the death of Stradivari; and
before the end of the century these inferior varnishes had quite
supplanted the old recipes.
Having regard to all these considerations it is not unreasonable
to conclude that the varnish of the old instruments contributed
probably the most important single element of thair superiority
in tone to their more modern copies. It must, however, be borne
in mind that the instrument makers of the i6th and I7th centuries
carried on a great and flourishing and a highly Developed craft; and
that their best creations owe their distinction largely to causes
similar to those which produced the great art works of the same
period. The violin makers had a lifelong training in their craft.
The productions of the famous among them were eagerly sought
after. Throughout western Europe the highest in the land were
true amateurs of music, and vied with one another to secure the
masterpieces of Brescia and Cremona. In such circumstances
the trained judgment and wide experience of the craftsman were
naturally concentrated upon securing the preliminary conditions of
high excellence in his work: the choice of sound and handsome wood ;
perfection of design and workmanship; the composition of his
varnish, and the utmost care and skill in applying it under the best
conditions; and, not least important, time for deliberate and
thoughtful production. The masterpieces of that period were not
constructed upon any exact or scientific system, but were the pro-
ducts of devejopment of a traditional craft working on empirical
lines. Such theories of their construction as have been propounded
are based on analysis of an already perfected organism ; and careful
historical research has revealed no record or trace of laws or rules
by which the great makers worked.
Elaborate attempts have been made, notably by Savart early in
the igth century, to educe from experiments on the elasticities and
vibration periods of various specimens of wood used in some of the
older instrument's an exact system for the adjustment of these
factors to the production of the best results; but data obtained
by experiments with test specimens of regular shape do not carry
us very far when applied to so complex and irregular a structure
as the violin. The vibrating plates of the violin are neither sym-
metrical nor uniform in dimensions. They are not free plates, but
are fixed round the whole edge of a very irregular outline; and these
conditions, taken together with their unsymmetrically arched form,
held under pressure by the tension of the strings, establish a state of
complex stresses under vibration which have so far escaped analysis.
Their vibratory movements are moreover influenced by so many
accessory features of the instrument, such as the bass-bar, already
described, the reaction of the sound-post, and the different pres-
sures by the two feet of the bridge, that it is impossible to figure
closely the vibrations of any given area of the instrument. It is
certainly very remarkable that so precise a pattern of irregular form
should nave been arrived at empirically, and should have survived
as the standard, apparently for all time. Not only is the arch of the
plates unsymmetrical in its longitudinal section, but, as is less
commonly noticed, the upper bouts, especially in violins of the
Cremona school, are slightly shallower than the lower; so that
the edges of the belly are not strictly oarallel to those of the
back, but the two plates converge in the direction of the head.
Probably the most successful attempts at analysing the vibrations
of the violin have been those made by Sir William Huggins, by means
of direct tactile observation with the finger holding a small rod of
soft wood upon various spots on the surface of the vibrating plates.
By this method he made a number of observations partially con-
firming, and in part correcting the determinations of previous
investigators. He found that the position of maximum vibration of
the belly is close to the foot of the bridge, under the fourth string,
while that of least vibration is exactly over the top of the sound-post.
The back, which is strongly agitated, also has its point of least
vibration where the sound-post rests upon it. With the sound-post
removed the belly vibrated almost equally on both sides of its area,
while the vibration of the back was very feeble, and the tone became
very poor; supporting the view that in the complete instrument
the vibrations of the back are derived from the belly mainly through
the sound-post. Pressure on that point in the belly noniially in
contact with the top of the sound-pest partially restored the proper
character though not the power of the tone; indicating the im-
portant function of the sound-post in establishing a nodal point which
largely determines the normal vibration of the belly. Modifications
of the material of which the sound-post was made produced a pro-
found effect upon the quality, but comparatively small effect upon
the power of the tone. Of the part played by the sides in trans-
mitting vibrations from belly to back, the most important share
is borne by the middle bouts, or incurved sides at the waist of the
instrument.
Experiments made latejy afford some interesting evidence as
to the nature of the vibrations set up in a sounding-box in response
to those of a string at various pitches and under various conditions
of bowing. These observations were made on a monochord and
restricted to one portion of a sounding-board of regular shape.
Experiments on similar lines made with an actual violin body might
throw further light upon the behaviour of that instrument as a
resonator; but such researches entail prolonged investigation.
Two phenomena, familiar to violin players, are suggestive of
further lines of research that may help to elucidate the problems of
the localization of the principal responses in the body of the
violin, and of the action of the wood under vibration. Many
violins, especially old and inferior ones, fail to resonate clearly
and fully to particular notes, the sounds produced being commonly
known as " Wolf " notes; and these notes are, certainly sometimes
and'possibly always, associated with particular spots in the body of
the instrument; for, if pressure be applied at these spots, the
resonance of the respective " Wolf " notes is improved. This
observation suggests that the region concerned has been cut, or
has become disproportionately thin in relation to the normal thick-
ness of the plate; and, when stimulated by the appropriate note,
sets up a local system of vibrations, which interfere with, instead of
sharing, the proper vibrations of the plate as a whole; this inter-
fering vibration being damped by local pressure. These defects
are said to develop with age and constant use, and to be minimized
by the use of thin strings but aggravated by thick ones; a circum-
stance which tends to support the hypothesis of thin regions in the
plate, which might be expected to respond more truly to the vibra-
tions of lighter, than to those of heavier strings. Detailed investi-
gation of these phenomena on the lines of the experiments already
referred to may have valuable results. Another well-known char-
acteristic of the violin is that a new instrument, or one that has
been long in disuse, is found to be " sleepy," that is, it fails to speak
readily in response to the bow, a defect which gradually disappears
with use. Experiments made to test the effect of prolonged trans-
verse vibrations upon strips of suitable wood have shown that such
treatment increases the flexibility of the wood, which returns to its
normal degree of rigidity after a period of rest. No conclusive
interpretation of these experiments has yet been offered ; but they
indicate the probability of modifications of the internal viscosity
of the wood, by molecular changes under the influence of continued
vibratory movement.
The function of the bridge, as above mentioned, is to communicate
the vibrations of the strings to the resonating body of the violin.
This communication is made mainly, though not entirely, through
the left foot of the bridge, which under the comparatively low
tension of the G string rests with light pressure upon the belly,
which at that point has accordingly greater freedom of movement
than under the other foot, in proximity to which the sound-post,
extending from back to belly, maintains that region of the plates
in a state of relative rigidity, under the high tension of the E string.
The view, however, maintained by some writers that the right foot
of the bridge communicates no vibrations directly to the belly is
inaccurate. The main object of placing the sound-post some dis-
tance behind, instead of immediately under, the bridge foot is
to allow the belly under that foot to vibrate with some freedom.
This has been proved by the destructive effect produced upon
the tone by fixing the sound-post immediately under the foot of
the bridge.
The form into which the bridge is fretted after the pattern devised
by Stradivari has given rise to some speculation ; but the justifica-
tion of this form is probably to be found in the explanation pro-
pounded by Sir William Huggins, namely, that the strings, when
agitated by the bow, vibrate in a plane oblique to the vertical
axis of the bridge; the vibrations may be accordingly resolved into
two components, one horizontal along the length of the bridge, the
other vertical that is, in a direction favourable for setting the
belly into vibration across its lines of support.
It is advantageous to maintain simplicity in direction of the
vibrations communicated to the body, and therefore to eliminate
VIOLIN
105
the transverse vibrations before they reach the belly. This is
accomplished by a certain lateral elasticity of the bridge itself,
attained by under-cutting the sides so as to allow the upper half of
the bridge to oscillate or rock from side to side upon its central
trunk; the work done in setting up this oscillation absorbing the
transverse vibrations above mentioned.
The function of the sound-post is on the one hand mechanical,
and on the other acoustical. It serves the purpose of sustaining
the greater share of the pressure of the strings, not so much to
save the belly from yielding under that pressure, as to enable it to
vibrate more freely in its several parts than it could do, if unsup-
ported, under the stresses which would be set up in its substance by
that pressure. The chosen position of the post, allowing some
freedom of vibration under the bridge, ensures the belly's proper
vibrations being directly set up before the impulses are transmitted
to the back through the sound-post: this transmission being, as
already shown, its principal function. The post also by its contact
with both vibrating plates is, as already shown, a governing factor
in determining the nodal division of their surfaces, and its position
therefore influences fundamentally the related states of vibration
of the two plates of the instrument, and the compound oscillations
set up in the contained body of air. This is an important element in
determining the tone character of the instrument.
The immediate ancestors of the violins were the viols, which
were the principal bowed instruments in use from the end of the
I5th to the end of the iyth century, during the latter
uy ' part of which period they were gradually supplanted
by the violins; but the bass viol did not go out of use finally
until towards the later part of the i8th century, when the general
adoption of the larger pattern of violoncello drove the viol
from the field it had occupied so long. The sole survivor of the
viol type of instrument, although not itself an original member
of the family, is the double bass of the modern orchestra, which
retains many of the characteristic features of the viol, notably
the flat back, with an oblique slope at the shoulders, the high
bridge and deep ribs. Excepting the marine trumpet or bowed
monochord, we find in Europe no trace of any large bowed in-
struments before the appearance of the viols; the bowed
instruments of the middle ages being all small enough to be
rested on or against the shoulder during performance. The
viols probably owe their origin directly to the minnesinger
fiddles, which possessed several of the typical features of the
violin, as distinct from the guitar family, and were sounded by
a bow. These in their turn may be traced to the " guitar
fiddle " (q.v.), a bowed instrument of the i3th century, with five
strings, the lowest of which was longer than the rest, and was
attached to a peg outside the head so as to clear the nut and
finger-board, thus providing a fixed bass, or bourdon. This
instrument had incurved sides, forming a waist to facilitate the
use of the bow, and was larger than its descendants the fiddles
and violins. None of these earlier instruments can have had a
deeper compass than a boy's voice. The use of the fidel in the
hands of the troubadours, to accompany the adult male voice,
may explain the attempts which we trace in the ijth century to
lengthen the oval form of the instrument. The parentage of the
fiddle family may safely be ascribed to the rebec, a bowed
instrument of the early middle ages, with two or three strings
stretched over a low bridge, and a pear-shaped body pierced
with sound-holes, having no separate neck, but narrowed at the
upper end to provide a finger-board, and (judging by pictorial
representations, for no actual example is known) surmounted
by a carved head holding the pegs, in a manner similar to
that of the violin. The bow, which was short and clumsy, had
a considerable curvature. So far it is justifiable to trace back
the descent of the violin in a direct line; but the earlier ancestry
of this family is largely a matter of speculation. The best
authorities are agreed that stringed instruments in general
are mainly of Asiatic origin, and there is evidence of the mention
of bowed instruments in Sanskrit documents of great antiquity.
Too much genealogical importance has been attached by some
writers to similarities in form and construction between the
bowed and plucked instruments of ancient times. They prob-
ably developed to a great extent independently; and the bow
is of too great and undoubted antiquity to be regarded as a
development of the plectrum or other devices for agitating the
plucked string. The two classes of instrument no doubt were
Discant
viol.
under mutual obligations from time to time in their develop-
ment. Thus the stringing of the viols was partly adapted from
that of the lute; and the form of the modern Spanish guitar
was probably derived from that of the fidel.
The Italian and Spanish forms (ribeba, rabe) of the French
name rebec suggest etymologically a relationship, which seems
to find confirmation in the striking similarity of general appear-
ance between that instrument and the Persian rebab, mentioned
in the i2th century, and used by the Arabs in a primitive form
to this day. The British crwth, which has been claimed by some
writers as a progenitor of the violin, was primarily a plucked
instrument, and cannot be accepted as in the direct line of
ancestry of the viols.
The viol was made in three main kinds discant, tenor and
bass answering to the cantus, medius and bassus of vocal
music. Each of these three kinds admitted of some variation
in dimensions, especially the bass, of which three distinct sizes
ultimately came to be made (i) the largest, called the concert
bass viol; (2) the division or solo bass viol, usually known by
its Italian name of viola da gamba; and (3) the lyra or tabla-
ture bass viol. The normal tuning of the viols, as laid down in
the earliest books, was adapted from the lute to the bass viol,
and repeated in higher in- Distant Viol,
tervals in the rest. The
fundamental idea, as in the
lute, was that the outermost
strings should be two octaves
apart hence the intervals
of fourths with a third in the
middle. The highest, or discant viol, is not a treble but an alto
instrument, the three viols answering to the three male
voices. As a treble instrument, not only for street
and dance music, but in orchestras, the rebec or geige
did duty until the invention of the violin, and long after-
wards. The discant viol first became a real treble instrument
in the hands of the French makers, who converted it into the
quinton.
The earliest use of the viols was to double the parts of vocal
concerted music; they were next employed in special composi-
tions for the viol trio written hi the same compass. Develop-
Many such works in the form of " fantasies " or meat of
" fancies," and preludes with suites in dance form, by ***''&>/s.
the masters of the end of the i6th and iyth centuries,
exist in manuscript; a set by Orlando Gibbons, which are
good specimens, has been published by the English Musical
Antiquarian Society. Later, the viols, especially the bass, were
employed as solo instruments, the methods of composition and
execution being based on those of the lute. Most lute music is
in fact equally adapted for the bass viol, and vice versa. In the
1 7th century, when the violin was coming into general use, con-
structive innovations began which resulted in the abandonment
of the trio of pure six-stringed viols. Instruments which show
these innovations are the quinton and the viola d'amore. The
first-mentioned is of a type intermediate between the viol and
the violin. In the case of the discant and tenor viol the lowest
string, which was probably found to be of little use, was aban-
doned, and the pressure on the bass side of the belly thus con-
siderably lightened. The five strings were then spread out, as
it were, to the compass of the six, so as to retain the fundamental
principle of the outer strings being two octaves apart. This was
effected by tuning the lower half of the instrument in fifths, as
in the violin, and the upper half in
fourths. This innovation altered the T
tuning of the treble and tenor viols,
thus One half of the instrument
was therefore tuned like a viol, the
other half as in a violin, the middle
string forming
Tenoc Quinton.
a
the
division. The
tenor viol thus improved was called in France the quinte, and the
treble corresponding to it the quinton. From the numerous
specimens which survive it must have been a popular instru-
ment, as it is undoubtedly a substantially excellent one. The
io6
VIOLIN
relief in the bass, and the additional pressure caused by the
higher tuning in the treble, gave it greater brilliancy, without
destroying the pure, ready and sympathetic tone which charac-
terizes the viol. While the tendency in the case of the discant
and tenor was to lighten and brighten them, the reverse process
took place in that of the bass. The richer and more sonorous
tones of the viola da gamba were extended downwards by
the addition of a string tuned to double bass A. Marais, a
French virtuoso, is usually credited with this improvement;
and this extended compass is recognized in the classical viola
da gamba writings of Sebastian Bach and De Caix d'Hervelois.
The result, however, was not universally satisfactory, for Abel
used the six-stringed instrument; and the seven strings never
came into general use in England, where the viola da gamba was
more generally employed and survived longer than elsewhere.
The chief defect of the viols was their weakness of tone;
this the makers thought to remedy in two ways: first by
additional strings in unisons, fifths and octaves; and secondly
by sympathetic strings of fine steel wire, laid under the finger-
board as close as possible to the belly, and sounding in sympathy
with the notes produced on the bowed strings. The sympathetic
strings were attached to ivory pegs driven into the bottom
block, and, passing through the lower part of the bridge, or over
a very low bridge of their own, were stretched to pitch either by
means of additional pegs or by wrest pins driven into the sides
of the head, and tuned with a key. Originally six, seven or
eight wire strings were used, tuned to the diatonic scale of the
piece to be performed. Later on a chromatic set of twelve was
employed, and occasionally viols were made with twenty-four
wire strings, two for each semitone in the scale. This system
of reinforcement was applied to all the various sizes of viols in
use during that period.
The improvements which resulted in the production of the
violin proceeded on different lines. They consisted in increas-
ing the resonance of the body of the instrument, by making
it lighter and more symmetrical, and by stringing it more
lightly. These changes transformed the body of the viol into
that of the violin, and the transformation was completed by
rejecting the lute tuning with its many strings, and tuning the
instrument by fifths, as the fiddle had been tuned. The tenor
viol appears to have been the first instrument in which the
change was made, and thus the viola or tencr may probably be
claimed as the father of the modern violin family. Violas
were used in church music before the modern violin period, and
violins as we know them were at first called " Piccoli Violini "
to distinguish them from the earlier and larger instruments.
A tenor viol of date 1500 is still extant, bearing in general out-
line the typical features of the violin, as distinct from the
viol family. This instrument was exhibited in 1872 in the
Loan Exhibition of Musical Instruments at South Kensington
with the label " Pietro Zanure, Brescia, 1509." From existing
specimens we know that a bass violin, precursor of the violon-
cello, with a tuning an octave below the tenor, appeared
shortly after that instrument. A double bass violin, tuned
B .. a fourth below the violon-
Tenot Violin. Violoncello. ^^ cello and usua U y known as
-gy the " basso da camera," com-
gr pleted the set of instruments
=* in violin shape; but from
. the difficulty attending its
manipulation it never came
into general use. The celebrated double bass player, Dragonetti,
occasionally used the* basso da camera, and an English player
named Hancock, who dispensed with the highest or E string, is
still remembered for his performances on this unusual instrument.
The tenor and violoncello are made on the same general
model and principles as the violin, but with modifications.
Tenor Both are, relatively to their pitch, made in smaller pro-
vioiiaand portions than the violin, because, if they were con-
vioioa- structed to dimensions having the same relation to
pitch and tension of strings as the violin, they would
not only have an overpowering tone but would be unmanageable
from their size. These relatively diminished dimensions, both in
the size of the instrument and in the thickness of the wood and
strings, give to the tenor and violoncello a graver and more
sympathetic tone. To some extent the reduced size is com-
pensated by giving them a greater proportional height in the
ribs and bridge; an increase hardly perceptible in the tenor,
but very noticeable in the violoncello. To lighten the tension
and thus allow greater freedom of vibration to the belly on the
bass side, as with the lowest string of the violin, the two lowest
of the tenor and violoncello are made of thin gut, covered
with fine metal wire; thus providing the necessary weight
without inconvenient thickness. If the tension of the lowest
string, or the two lowest strings, be increased, not only
will they be elevated in pitch, but the violin will
produce a more powerful tone; if the bass string be
lowered, the contrary will take place. By adapting the music
to this altered tuning (scordatura) some novel effects are pro-
duced. The following are the principal scordature which have
been occasionally employed by various players:
Scorda-
tun.
Tartini,
Castrucci.
(Scotch Reels.)
Biber.
Biber.
Nardini.
Barbella.
Campagnoli.
Lolli.
De Be'riot,
Prume,
Mazas, &c.
De Benot.
Paganini.
Baillot.
The violoncello is less amenable to the scordatura than
the violin; the only classical instance is the
tuning employed by Bach in his fifth sonata,
which consists in lowering the first string by a
tone. Bach.
The early Italian school is chiefly represented by the Brescian
makers, Caspar da Salo, Giovanni Paolo Maggini, Giovita
Rodiani and Zanetto Peregrino. It is, however, Early
somewhat misleading to denominate it the Brescian Italian
school, for its characteristics are shared by the earliest makers.
makers of Cremona and Venice. To eyes familiar with the
geometrical curves of the later Cremona school, most of the
violins of these makers have a rude and uncouth appearance.
The height of the model varies; the pattern is attenuated;
the /-holes share the general rudeness of design, and are set
high in the pattern. Andreas Amati of Cremona, the eldest
maker of that name, effected some improvements on this
primitive model; but the violin owes most to his sons, Antonio
and Geronimo, who were partners. They introduced the
substantial improvements which developed the Brescian violin
into the modern instrument. These improvements were in
their inception probably of an artistic rather than a scientific
nature. Painting and inlaying had long been employed in the
decoration of stringed instruments; but the brothers Amati
were the first who applied to the violin the fundamental law
of decorative art, that the decorative and constructive elements
should be blended in their conception: in other words, the
construction should be itself decorative and the decoration
itself constructive. Nicholas Amati (1596-1684), son of Gero-
nimo, made some slight improvements in the model, and his
pupil Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737) finally settled the typical
Cremona pattern, which has been generally followed; for the
majority of violins since made, whether by good or bad makers,
are copies of Stradivari. Besides the last-named, the following
makers worked generally on the Amati model Cappa, Gobetti,
the Grancino family, Andreas Guarnieri and his son Giuseppe,
the Ruggieri family and Serafin of Venice. The Bergonzi
family, Alessandro Gagliano, the earlier members of the Gua-
dagnini family, and Panormo were either pupils or followers
of Stradivari. But excepting Carlo Bergonzi and Stradivari's
two sons, Omobono and Francesco, there is no evidence of
VIOLLET VIOLLET-LE-DUC
107
any having actually worked with or for him. Landolfi,
Storioni, and Carlo Giuseppe Testore, a pupil of Giovanni
Grancino, leaned to the model of Giuseppe Guarnieri del Gesii.
Some resemblances, especially in the matter of the varnish,
are traceable between the works of makers who lived con-
temporaneously in the same town, e.g. in Naples, Milan and
Venice.
A high model was adopted by Jacob Stainer of Absam, near
Hall in Tirol, whose well-known pattern was chiefly followed by
German tne ma ' ters f England, Tirol and Germany, down to
English ' the middle of the i8th century. It thenceforward fell
ad into disuse, owing to the superior musical qualities of the
Cremona violin. Theschoolof Stainer is represented by
Albani, Hornsteiner, the Klotz family (who made large
numbers of instruments excellent in their kind), Schorn of Salz-
burg and Withalm of Nuremberg, and others. The English
makers may be divided into three successive groups: (i) an
antique English school, having a character of its own
(Rayman, Urquhart, Pamphilon, Barak Norman, Duke, of
Oxford, &c.); (2) imitators of Stainer, at the head of whom
stands Peter Wamsley (Smith, Barrett, Cross, Hill, Aireton,
Norris, &c.); (3) a later school who leaned to the Cremona
model (Banks, Duke, of Holborn, Belts, the Forsters, Gilkes,
Carter, Fendt, Parker, Harris, Matthew Hardie of Edinburgh,
&c.). The early French makers have little merit or interest
(Bocquay, Gavinies, Pierray, Guersan, &c.), but the later
copyists of the Cremona models (Lupot, Aldric, Chanot the
elder, Nicholas, Pique, Silvestre, Vuillaume, &c.) produced ad-
mirable instruments, some of which rank next in merit to
the first-rate makers of Cremona.
The general form of the violin, as finally developed under the
hands of the leading makers, resolved itself into two main types,
the high and the flat models, of which the latter, on the lines
ultimately adopted by Stradivari, has survived as the most efficient
pattern lor all modern instruments. The distinction is one of
degree only, the maximum difference of actual measurement in
extreme cases amounting to little more than a quarter of an inch
in the convexity of the belly above the top line of the ribs; but
the difference in character of tone of the two types is, in the main,
well marked. Speaking generally, the tone of the high-built instru-
ment is less powerful and sweeter, and it speaks more readily, but
responds less completely to gradations of tone under the action
of the bow than the flatter type, which yields a tone of greater
carrying power and flexibility, susceptible to more subtle variation
by the player, and with a peculiar penetrating quality lacking in the
highly arched model. These differences in tone probably depend
less upon any direct effect of variations in depth of the sounding-
box than on the incidental effects of cutting the wood to the higher
or .lower arch ; for it would seem that the best results in tone have
been attained in instruments with a fairly constant volume of
contained air, the depth of the sides being roughly in inverse pro-
portion to the height of arch in the best examples of the different
models. In the high-cut arch the fibres of the wood on the upper
surface are necessarily cut shorter, with the result that the plate
as a whole does not vibrate so perfectly as in the flatter model,
and this has a weakening effect on the tone. Again, the higher
arch, with steeper curves towards the sides, necessitates the inclina-
tion of the sound-holes at a considerable angle to the main horizontal
plane of the instrument ; and it is conceivable that, under such con-
ditions, the vibrations of the upper layer of air within the body are
dissipated too readily, before the composite vibrations of the whole
mass of air inside the instrument have attained their full harmonic
value. Apart from these acoustical considerations, the question
is probably one of material, the flatter construction demanding
the use of a very strong and elastic wood in relation to the most
suitable thickness, in order to withstand the pressure of the bridge,
a resistance which the higher arch renders possible with a stiffer and
more brittle material; and the effect of these qualities upon tone
must be taken into account in estimating the tone characters of the
two types of instrument.
Broadly speaking, the higher-arched type found favour with the
earlier makers up to the end of the Amati period. Stainer in Tirol
inclined particularly in the direction of this model, which he appears
to have developed on independent lines, the tradition that he
learnt his craft from the Amati being no longer tenable. The
flatter model was gradually evolved by Stradivari as he outgrew
the immediate influence of the Amati and developed on his own
incomparable lines a somewhat larger and more powerful instru-
ment, adapted to the requirements of the increasing class of solo
players.
The violins as a distinctive family of instruments cannot
be fully discussed without reference to the bow (q.v.) as an
essential adjunct, on account of the very important rfte ^^
part taken by the bow in determining, as already
mentioned, the peculiar form of the vibrations of the string,
and in controlling, in the hand of a skilled player, the subtle
gradations of tone produced from the instrument. The evolu-
tion of the modern bow has taken place almost entirely since
the violin attained its final form, and has followed, more
completely perhaps than the instrument itself, the develop-
ment of violin music and the requirements of the player. It
reached its highest perfection at the hands of the celebrated
Francois Tourte of Paris, about 1780, whose bows have served
as a model for all succeeding makers, even more exclusively
than the violins of Stradivari controlled the pattern of later
instruments; and at the present time Tourte bows are valued
beyond any others.
For more than 250 years the violin and its larger brethren
have held the leading position among musical instruments.
For them have been written some of the most inspired works
of the great musicians. Famous composers, such as Tartini,
Corelli, Spohr and Viotti have been great violinists, and by
their compositions, as much as by their talents as virtuosi,
have largely developed the capacity of the violin as a vehicle
of profound musical expression. To the listener the violin
speaks with an intensity, a sympathy, and evokes a thrill of
the senses such as no other instrument can produce. For
the player it seems to respond to every pulse of his emotions.
REFERENCES. A. Vidal, La Lutherie el les lulhiers (Paris, 1889);
. Hart, The Violin (London, 1875); Hill, Antonio Stradivari
(London, 1902) ; Sir W. Huggins, " On the Function of the Sound-
G. Hart, The Violin (London, 1875); Hill, Antonio Stradivari
(London, 1902) ; Sir W. Huggins, " On the Function of the Sound-
Post, &c., of the Violin," Proc. Royal Society, vol. xxxv. p. 241 ;
H. Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone, Sfc. (trans, by A. J. Ellis);
E. H. Barton and C. A. B. Garrett, "Vibration Curves obtained
from a Monochord Sound Box and String," Philosophical Mag.
(July 1905); Carl Engel, Musical Instruments (London, 1875);
A. J. Hipkins. Musical Instruments, Historic, Rare and Unique
(Edinburgh, 1887). (R. W. F. H.)
VIOLLET, PAUL MARIE (1840- ), French historian, was
born at Tours on the 24th of October 1840. After serving
his native city as secretary and archivist, he became archivist
to the national archives in Paris in 1866, and later librarian
to the faculty of law. In 1800 he was appointed professor of
civil and canon law at the 6cole des chartes. His work mainly
concerns the history of law and institutions, and on this subject
he published two valuable and scholarly books Drpit public:
Histoire des institutions politiques et administratites de la France
(1890-98), and Precis de I'histoire du droit franc.ais (1886).
VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EUGENE EMMANUEL (1814-1879),
French architect and writer on archaeology, was born in Paris
on the 2ist of January 1814. He was a pupil of Achille Leclere,
and in 1836-37 spent a year studying Greek and Roman
architecture in Sicily and Rome. His chief interest was,
however, in the art of the Gothic period, and, like Sir Gilbert
Scott in England, he was employed to " restore " some of the
chief medieval buildings of France, his earliest works being the
abbey church of Vezelay, various churches at Poissy, St Michel
at Carcassonne, the church of Semur in Cdte-Ki'Or, and the
fine Gothic town halls of Saint-Antonin and Narbonne, all
carried out between 1840 and 1850. From 1845 to 1856 he
was occupied on the restoration of Notre Dame in Paris in
conjunction with Lassus, 1 and also with that of the abbey of
St Denis. In 1849 he began the restoration of the fortifications
of Carcassonne and of Amiens cathedral; and in later years
he restored Laon cathedral, the chateau of Pierrefonds, and
many other important buildings. He was an intimate friend of
Napoleon III., and during the siege of Paris (1871) gave valuable
help as an engineer to the beleaguered army. He held many
important offices, both artistic and political, and was for many
years inspector-general of the ancient buildings throughout a
large part of France. His last work was the general scheme
1 He published in 1867-69 a fine work showing his not very
successful coloured decoration applied to the chapels of Notre
Dame.
io8
VIOLONCELLO VIPER
for the Paris exhibition buildings in 1878. He died on the
17th of September 1879 at Lausanne.
As a designer Viollet-le-Duc occupied only a secondary
place; but as a writer on medieval architecture and the kindred
arts he takes the highest rank. His two great dictionaries are
the standard works in their class, and are most beautifully
illustrated with very skilful drawings by his own hand. Viollet-
le-Duc was a man of the most varied and brilliant abilities,
endowed with a power of work which has seldom been equalled.
He was at once an artist, a man of science, a learned archaeologist
and a scholar. The map in his Le Massif du Mont Blanc, showing
the rock contours and the glaciers of Mont Blanc, is a model of
its kind, which combines great artistic beauty with the accuracy
of the most skilful engineer. His strong poetical fancy enabled
him to reconstruct the life and buildings of the middle ages in
the most vivid way.
His principal literary works were the Dictionnaire de V architecture
franfaise du XI. au XVI. sikcle (18541-68) ; Dictionnaire du mobilier
frangais (1858-75); L' Architecture militaire au moyen age (1854);
Enlretiens sur V architecture (1863-72); Cites et mines americaines
(1863); Memoire sur la defense de Paris (1871); Habitations
modernes (1874-77); Histoire d'une maison (1873); Histoire
d'une forteresse (1874) ; Histoire de I'habitation humaine (1875) ;
Le Massif du Mont Blanc (1876) ; L'Art russe (1877) > Histoire d'un
Mtel-de-ville et d'une cathedrale (1878) ; La Decoration appliquee
aux edifices (1879) ; as well as many minor works dealing with
separate buildings.
VIOLONCELLO (Fr. violoncelle, Ger. Violoncell, Ital. violon-
cello), the bass member of the violin family. Although the
word violoncello is a diminutive, signifying " small violone,"
or double bass, the instrument is really a bass violin, formed
on a different model from the violone, which has the sloping
shoulders and flat back of the viol family, whereas those of
the violoncello are rounded as in the violin. The construction
of the violoncello is therefore the same as that of the violin
(q.ii.) but on a much larger scale. It is either held, on account
of its size, between the performer's knees, or rests on the floor
supported on a foot or spike.
VIONVILLE, a village of Lorraine, between Metz and the
French frontier, celebrated as the scene of the battle of Vion-
ville (Rezonville or Mars-la-Tour) , fought on the i6th of August
1870 between the French and the Germans (see METZ and
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR).
VIOTTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1753-1824), Italian violinist
and musical composer, was born at Fontanetto in the province
of Turin on the 23rd of May 1753. He learned the rudiments
of music from his father, a blacksmith who played- the horn;
and in 1764 Giovannini taught him the violin for a year.
Two years later he was placed at the cost of the prince de la
Cisterne under the violinist G. Pugnani at Turin, where he
became vio'inist in the court chapel. In 1780 Viotti, having
already made himself a name, travelled through Germany and
Poland to Russia, where the empress Catherine honoured him
with marks of extraordinary favour. He next appeared in
London, in company with Pugnani, and at once achieved
a brilliant and lasting reputation. In 1782 he was equally
successful in Paris. Two years later he was appointed leader
of the prince de Soubise's private orchestra; and in 1788 he
undertook the direction of the opera, raising the perfor-
mances, with Cherubini's assistance, to a very high level. He
had also started an Italian opera in co-operation with the
barber Leonard, which was opened in 1789 in the Tuileries,
being subsequently amalgamated with the Theatre de la Foire
St Germain in 1790 and finally merged in the new Theatre
Feydeau in 1791. In 1791 the Revolution compelled Viotti
to fly to London, where he took part in the Hanover Square
concerts; but being suspected to be an agent of the Revolu-
tionary Committee in Paris he was compelled to retire for a
time to the neighbourhood of Hamburg, which he subsequently
quitted, although the date of his departure, often given as 1795,
does not seem probable. It is possible that he was already
in 1794 in London, where he took shares in a wine business,
and he resided almost uninterruptedly there until 1819, when
he once more settled in Paris, resumed the direction of the
opera, and retired in 1822 with a pension. He died in London
on the loth (or 3rd) of March 1824.
Viotti's playing was distinguished by an extreme purity of style,
a magnificent tone, and an inexhaustible variety of poetical and
imaginative expression. Among his works are 29 violin concertos,
a series of symphonies concertantes for two violins, 45 duos, 1 8
trios and 21 quartets, and a great number of sonatas, notturnos
and other instrumental works. His school was worthily perpetu-
ated by his pupil Rode.
VIPER. The vipers constitute a family of Old-World
poisonous snakes, with a pair of poisonous fangs in the
maxillary bones, which are short and movable. The main
anatomical features are described in the article SNAKES. In
the present article only the Viperinae, namely those without
an external pit between the eye and the nose, are described.
Pit vipers, or Crotalinae, are treated under SNAKES, and those
which are possessed of a rattle under RATTLESNAKE. The
true vipers comprise about nine genera with some forty species,
which can be distinguished as follows:
Causus in Africa, and Azemiophis feae in Burma, are the only
vipers which have the head covered with large symmetrical shields,
while in the other genera the head shields are broken up into small
shields, or into still more numerous scales. C. rhombeatus, common
from the Gambia to the Cape.
Atractaspis, small burrowing snakes in Africa, without post-
frontal bones.
Echis and Athens have only one row of subcaudal shields. E.
carinata, scarcely exceeding 20 in. in length, is very poisonous
and easily overlooked on account of its light brown coloration,
with pale spots and delicate markings on the keels of the scales of
the back. It is a desert type, having the lateral scales strongly
keeled and directed downwards, by means of which it shuffles
itself into the sand; by folding itself and rubbing the scales together
,*?**
FIG. i. Echis carinata. The " Krait " of India,
it produces a rustling sound. It ranges from India, where it is known
as the " Krait," called " Kuppur " in Sind, through North Africa.
This desert type is replaced farther south in Africa, where vegeta-
tion flourishes, by the closely allied genus, Athens, which, however,
possesses a prehensile tail and vivid coloration and has assumed
truly arboreal habits.
Cerastes is another desert form, but is restricted to Africa; the
arrangement of the scales of the sides of the body is similar to that of
VIRBIUS
109
Echis, but it lias two rows of subcaudals. C. cornutus, the " horned
viper " of North Africa, trorn Algeria to Palestine, has a large horny
spike above each eye. This, the " Efa " of the Arabs, buries itself
in the sand, with only the eyes, nostrils and the horns appearing
above the surface. It attains a length of 2 J ft. C. vipera is hornless.
Bills s. Echidna s. Clotho has two rows of shields on the underside
of the very short tail; the thick head is much depressed, like the
body. The nasal shields are separated from the rostral by small
^, otherwise much resembling the genus Vipera. B. arietans,
the " puff-adder " of nearly the whole of Africa, an ugly, very
dangerous brute growing to a length of 4 or 5 ft. B. naticornis,
the West African nose-horned viper, has a pair of erectile scales
on the nose. Scarcely smaller and less bulky than the puff-adder
and just as poisonous, it is yet very handsomely marked with a
. of large pale, dark-edged spots and oblique crosses on a purplish
or reddish brown ground. Especially handsome are the young,
which at birth are as much as I ft. in length. On one occasion
one of these snakes, after giving birth to twenty-one young (which
bit and killed mice within five minutes of being born), became very
ill-tempered, and when two adult males were placed in her cage
she bit one with such violence as to break off one of her fangs,
which she left, about three-quarters of an inch in length, sticking
FIG. 2. Atheris burtoni. (Length, 12 in.)
jn his back. He, however, appeared not to suffer the slightest
inconvenience, and was never the worse lor it (see Proc. ZooT. Soc
1871, p. 638).
Vipera. The head is covered with small scales and a few larger
shields. The eye is separated from the labials by small scales;
the nasals are in contact with the rostral shield or separated by one
naso-rostral. The scales of the body are strongly keeled; two" rows
of subcaudals on the short tail. This genus of about ten species
with numerous local varieties ranges over Europe, Asia and the
greater part of Africa.
. berus, the common European viper, ranging from Wales to
Saghalien Island and from Caithness to the north of Spain, from
the northern boundary of Persia to beyond the Arctic circle in
Scandinavia. It inhabits all sorts of situations, but prefers heaths,
moors and mixed woods with sunny slopes. It ascends the Alps
up to 6000 or 7000 ft. The coloration is very variable, grey, brown,
reddish or entirely black specimens occurring in the same country-.
ich-spoken-of black zigzag line along the back is so often
indistinct, that it cannot be relied upon as a safe character. The
full-grown males are smaller than the females, and have usually
darker markings and a lighter ground colour. A specimen which is
2 It. long is rare, and is invariably a female. The chief food is mice
which are hunted after sunset. They cannot climb and they avoid
going into water. The pairing takes place from March to May
FIG. 3. Bitis nasicornis.
and the young are born about four months later. During the
pairing, and ^ for hibernation, they often collect in considerable
numbers. Whilst most snakes readily take proper food in cap-
tivity, these vipers prefer starving themselves to death, a feat which
they accomplish within six to nine months according to conditions.
As a rule their bite is not fatal to man, but the consequences are
often serious and protracted. For treatment see SNAKES.
V. aspis is the more southern and western continental European
viper; it is slightly snub-nosed, and this feature is still more pro-
nounced in V. latastei of Spain and Portugal. In V. ammoaytes
of south-eastern Europe the raised portion is produced into a soft,
scaly appendage.
V. russelli, the " Daboia," is one of the most poisonous snakes of
India, Ceylon, Java, Burma and Siam. It is pale brown with three
longitudinal series of black, light-edged rings which sometimes
encircle reddish spots. It grows to a length of about 5 ft.
(H. F. G.)
VIRBIUS, an old Italian divinity, associated with the worship
of Diana at Aricia (see DIANA). Under Greek influence, he was
identified with Hippolytus (g.f.), who after he had been trampled
to death by the horses of Poseidon was restored to life by
Asclepius and removed by Artemis to the grove at Aricia, which
horses were not allowed to enter. Virbius was the oldest priest
of Diana, the first " king of the grove " (Rex Nemorensis). He
is said to have established the rule that any candidate for the
office should meet and slay in single combat its holder at the
time, who always went about armed with a drawn sword in
anticipation of the struggle. Candidates had further to be
fugitives (probably slaves) , and as a preliminary had to break off
a bough from a specified tree. By the eponymous nymph
Aricia, Virbius had a son of the same name, who fought on the
side of the Rutulian Turnus against Aeneas. J. G. Frazer
formerly held Virbius to be a wood and tree spirit, to whom
horses, in which form tree spirits were often represented, were
offered in sacrifice. His identification with Hippolytus and the
manner of the latter's death would explain the exclusion of horses
from his grove. This spirit might easily be confounded with the
sun, whose potfer was supposed to be stored up in the warmth-
giving tree. Sauer (in Roscher's Lexikon) also identifies
no
VIRCHOW
Hippolytus with the " health-giving sun," and Virbius with a
healing god akin to Asclepius. Frazer's latest view is that he is
the old cult associate of Diana of Aricia (to whom he is related
as Attis to Cybele or Adonis to Venus), the mythical predecessor
or archetype of the kings of the grove. This grove was probably
an oak grove, and the oak being sacred to Jupiter, the king of the
grove (and consequently Virbius) was a local form of Jupiter.
A. B. Cook suggests that he may be the god of the stream of
Nemi.
See Virgil, Aen. vii. 761 and Servius, ad loc.; Ovid, Fasti, iii.
265, vi. 737, Metam. xv. 497; Suetonius, Caligula, 35; Strabo,
v. p. 239; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer (1902),
according to whom Virbius was a divinity who assisted at childbirth
(cp. the nixi di); J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough (1900), ii. p. 313, iii.
p. 456, and Early History of the Kingship (1905), pp. 24, 281 ; A. B.
Cook in Classical Review, xvi. p. 372.
VIRCHOW, RUDOLF (1821-1902), German pathologist and
politician, was born on the I3th of October 1821 at Scbivelbein,
in Pomerania, where his father was a small farmer and shopkeeper.
As a boy he attended the Volksschule of his native village, and
at the age of seventeen, having passed through the gymnasium
of Koslin, went to Berlin to study medicine. He took his
doctor's degree in 1843, and almost immediately received an
appointment as assistant-surgeon at the Charite Hospital,
becoming pro-rector three years later. In 1847 he began to act
as Privatdozent in the university, and founded with Reinhardt
the Archiv fur pathologische Anatomic und Physiologic, which,
after his collaborator's death in 1852, he carried on alone, and in
1848 he went as a member of a government commission to
investigate an outbreak of typhus in upper Silesia. About the
same time, having shown too open sympathy with the revolu-
tionary or reforming tendencies of 1848, he was for political
reasons obliged to leave Berlin and retire to the seclusion of
Wiirzburg, the medical school of which profited enormously by
his labours as professor of pathological anatomy, and secured a
wide extension of its reputation. In 1856 he was recalled to
Berlin as ordinary professor of pathological anatomy in the
university, and as director of the Pathological Institute formed
a centre for research whence has flowed a constant stream of
original work on the nature and processes of disease. On the
1 4th of October 1901 his eightieth birthday was celebrated in
Berlin amid a brilliant gathering of men of science, part of the
ceremonies taking place in the new Pathological Museum, near
the Charite, which owes its existence mainly to his energy and
powers of organization. On that occasion all Europe united to
do him honour, many learned societies sent delegates to express
their congratulations, the king of Italy gave him his own portrait
on a gold medallion, and among the numerous addresses he
received was one from Kaiser Wilhelm II., who took the oppor-
tunity of presenting him with the Grand Gold Medal for Science.
In the early part of 1902 he slipped from a tramcar in Berlin
and fractured his thigh; from this injury he never really
recovered, and his death occurred in Berlin on the 5th of
September 1902.
Wide as were Virchow's studies, and successful as he was in all,
yet the foremost place must be given to his achievements in
pathological investigation. He may, in fact, be called the
father of modern pathology, for his view, that every animal is
constituted by a sum of vital units, each of which manifests
the characteristics of life, has almost uniformly dominated the
theory of disease-since the middle of the igth century, when it was
enunciated. The beginnings of his doctrine of cellular pathology
date from the earliest period in his career. When, towards the
end of his student-days in Berlin, he was acting as clinical
assistant in the eye department of the Berlin Hospital, he
noticed that in keratitis and corneal wounds healing took place
without the appearance of plastic exudation. This observation
led him to further work, and he succeeded in showing that in
vascular organs the presence of cells in inflammatory exudates is
not the result of exudation but of multiplication of pre-existing
cells. Eventually he was able to prove that the biological
doctrine of omnis cellula e cellula applies to pathological processes
as well as to those of normal growth, and in his famous book on
Cellular-pathologic, published at Berlin in 1858, he established
what Lord Lister described as the " true and fertile doctrine that
every morbid structure consists of cells which have been derived
from pre-existing cells as a progeny." But in addition to bringing
forward a fundamental and philosophical view of morbid pro-
cesses, which probably contributed more than any other single
cause to vindicate for pathology the place which he claimed for
it among the biological sciences, Virchow made many important
contributions to histology and morbid anatomy and to the study
of particular diseases. The classification into epithelial organs,
connective tissues, and the more specialized muscle and nerve,
was largely due to him; and he proved the presence of neuroglia
in the brain and spinal cord, discovered crystalline haematoidine,
and made out the structure of the umbilical cord. Medical
science further owes to him the classification of new growths on a
natural histological basis, the elucidation of leucaemia, glioma
and lardaceous tumours, and detailed investigations into many
diseases tuberculosis, pyaemia, diphtheria, leprosy, typhus, &c.
Among the books he published on pathological and medical
subjects may be mentioned Vorlesungen uber Pathologic, the
first volume of which was the Cellular-pathologic (1858), and the
remaining three Die Krankhaflen Geschiviilsle (1863-67); Hand-
buck der speziellen Pathologic und Therapie (3 vols., 1854-62), in
collaboration with other German surgeons; Gesammelte Abhand-
lungen zur wissenschaftlichen Medizin (1856); Vier Reden uber
Leben und Kranksein (1862); Untersuchungen uber die Entivick-
lung des Schddelgrundes (1857); Lehre von den Trichinen (1865);
Ueber den Hunger-typhus (1868); and Gesammelte Abhandlungcn
aus dem Gebiete der offentlichen Medizin und der Seuchenlehre
(1879). In England his pathological work won general recogni-
tion. The Royal Society awarded him the Copley medal in
1892, and selected him as Croonian lecturer in the following year,
his subject being the position of pathology among the biological
sciences; and in 1898 he delivered the second Huxley memorial
lecture at Charing Cross Hospital.
Another science which Virchow cultivated with conspicuous
success was anthropology, which he did much to put on a sound
critical basis. At the meeting of the Naturforscherversammlung
at Innsbruck in 1869, he was one of the founders of the German
Anthropological Society, of which he became president in the
following year; and from 1869 onwards he presided over the
Berlin Anthropological Society, also acting as editor of its pro-
ceedings in the Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic. In ethnology he
published a volume of essays on the physical anthropology of the
Germans, with special reference to the Frisians; and at his
instance a census, which yielded remarkable results, was carried
out among school children throughout Germany, to determine
the relative distribution of blondes and brunettes. His archaeo-
logical work included the investigation of lake dwellings and
other prehistoric structures; he went with Schliemann to Troy
in 1879, fruits of the expedition being two books, ZurLandeskunde
der Troas (1880) and Alt-trojanische Graber und Schadel (1882);
in 1 88 1 he visited the Caucasus, and on his return published Das
Graberfeld von Koban im Lande der Osseten; and in 1888 he
accompanied Schliemann to Egypt, Nubia and the Peloponnese.
As a politician Virchow had an active career. In 1862 he
was elected a member of the Prussian Lower House. Professing
advanced Liberal and democratic views, he was a founder and
leader of the Fortschrittspartei, and the expression Kultur-
kampf had, it is believed, its origin in one of his electoral
manifestoes. For many years he was chairman of the finance
committee, and in that capacity may be looked upon as a chief
founder of the constitutional Prussian Budget system. In
1880 he entered the Reichstag as representative of a Berlin
constituency, but was ousted in 1893 by a Social Democrat. In
the Reichstag he became the leader of the Opposition, and a
vigorous antagonist to Bismarck. In the local and municipal
politics of Berlin again he took a leading part, and as a member
of the municipal council was largely responsible for the trans-
formation which came over the city in the last thirty years of
the 1 9th century. That it has become one of the healthiest
cities in the world from being one of the unhealthiest is
VIRE VIRGIL
in
attributable in great measure to his insistence on the necessity
of sanitary reform, and it was his unceasing efforts that
secured for its inhabitants the drainage system, the sewage farms
and the good water-supply, the benefits of which are reflected
in the decreased death-rate they now enjoy. In respect of
hospitals and the treatment of the sick his energy and know-
ledge were of enormous advantage to his country, both in times
of peace and of war, and the unrivalled accommodation for
medical treatment possessed by Berlin is a standing tribute to
his name, which will be perpetuated in one of the largest
hospitals of the city.
Of his writings on social and political questions may be mentioned
Die Erziehung des Weibes (1865); Ueber die nationale Entivicklung
und Bedeutung der Natururissenschaften (1865); Die Aufgaben der
Naturwissenschaften in dem neiten nationalen Leben Deutschlands
(1871); Die Freiheit der Wissenschaft im modernen Stoat (1877),
in which he opposed the idea of Haeckel that the principles of
evolution should be taught in elementary schools on the ground
that they were not as yet proved, and that it was mischievous to
teach a hypothesis which still remained in the speculative stage.
See Lives by Becher (Berlin, 1894) and Page) (Leipzig, 1906);
Rudolf Virchow als Patholog by Marchand (Munich, 1902): Rudolf
1830-1864, _ . . .
works was published at Berlin in 1901.
VIRE, a town of north-western France, capital of an ar-
rondissement in the department of Calvados, 47 m. S.W. of
Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) 6228. Vire stands on an eminence
surrounded on three sides by the Vire and crowned by the
remains of a 12th-century chateau. The church of Notre
Dame (lath to isth century), and the picturesque Tour de
1'Horloge (i3th century), beneath which runs the chief street,
are the principal buildings. A library and a small museum
with good collections of porcelain, pictures and curiosities, are
installed in the town hall (i?th and i8th centuries). In the
public garden there is a statue of Marshal Jacques Goyon,
comte de Matignon (1525-1597); and the native poets C. J. L.
Chenedolle and P. L. R. Castel are represented, the former by
a marble bust, the latter by a bronze statue. Vire grew up
around a castle built in the I2th century by Henry I. of England,
and in the middle ages was one of the important strongholds
of Normandy. South-west of the town is the gorge called
Vaux-de-Vire, in which was situated the mill of Olivier Basselin
(iSth century), the fuller and reputed author of the satiric
songs, hence known as "vaudevilles" (see BASSELIN,
OLIVIER).
VI RELAY, the title applied to more than one fixed form of
verse, from the French virer, to turn or veer. The history and
exact character of the vi relay are more obscure than those of
any other of the old French forms. It is possible that it is
connected with the Provengal ley. Historians of poetry have
agreed in stating that it is a modification of the medieval lai,
but it is curious that no example of the lai is forthcoming, except
the following, which was first printed by the Pere Mourgues
in his Traiti de la Potsie :
" Sur I'appui du Monde
Que faut-il qu'on fonde
D'espoir?
Cette mer profonde
Et debris feconde
Fait voir
Calme au matin 1'onde
Et 1'orage y gronde
Le Soir."
But this appears to be, not a complete poem, but a fragment
of a virelay, which proceeds by shifting or " veering " the two
rhymes to an extent limited only by the poet's ingenuity. This
is the Old Virelay (virelai anrien), of which examples have been
rare in recent literature. There is, however, a New Virelay
(virelai noweeau), the newness of which is merely relative, since
it was used by Alain Chartier in the isth century. In French
the old and popular verses beginning
" Adieu vous dy triste Lyre,
C'est trop apprfiter a rire,"
form a perfect example of the New Virelay, and in English we
have at least one admirable specimen in Mr Austin Dohson's
"July"
" Good-bye to the Town! good-bye!
Hurrah! for the sea and the sky! "
The New Virelay is entirely written on two rhymes, and begins
with two lines which are destined to form recurrent refrains
throughout the whole course of the poem, and, reversed in
order, to close.it with a couplet. The virelay is a vaguer and
less vertebrate form of verse than the sonnet, the ballad or
the villanelle, and is of less importance than these in the history
of prosody. (E. G.)
VIRGIL (PUBLICS VERGILIUS MARo),the great Roman poet,
was born on the isth of October in the year 70 B.C., on
a farm on the banks of the Mincio, in the district of Andes, not
far from the town of Mantua. In the region north of the Po
a race of more imaginative susceptibility than the people of
Latium formed part of the Latin-speaking population. It
was favourable to his development as a national poet that he
was born and educated during the interval of comparative
calm between the first and second civil wars, and that he
belonged to a generation which, as the result of the social war,
first enjoyed the sense of an Italian nationality. Yet it was
only after Virgil had grown to manhood that the province to
which he belonged obtained the full rights of Roman citizen-
ship. It is remarkable that the two poets whose imagination
seems to have been most powerfully possessed by the spell
of Rome Ennius and Virgil were born outside the pale of
Roman citizenship.
The scenery familiar to his childhood, which he recalls with
affection both in the Eclogues and the Georgia, was that of the
green banks and slow windings of the Mincio and the rich
pastures in its neighbourhood. Like his friend and contem-
porary Horace, he sprung from the class of yeomen, whose state
he pronounces the happiest allotted to man and most conducive
to virtue and piety. Virgil, as well as Horace, was fortunate
in having a father who, though probably uneducated himself,
discerned his genius and spared no pains in giving it the best
culture then obtainable in the world. At the age of twelve he
was taken for his education to Cremona, and from an expression
in one of the minor poems attributed to him, about the authen-
ticity of which there cannot be any reasonable doubt, it may
be inferred that his father accompanied him. Afterwards he
removed to Milan, where he continued engaged in study till
he went to Rome two years later. The time of his removal
to Rome must have nearly coincided with the publica-
tion of the poem of Lucretius and of the collected poems of
Catullus.
After studying rhetoric he began the study of philosophy
under Siron the Epicurean. One of the minor poems written
about this time in the scazon metre tells of his delight at
the immediate prospect of entering on the study of philo-
sophy, and of the first stirring of that enthusiasm for philo-
sophical investigation which haunted him through the
whole of his life. At the end of the poem, the real master-
passion of his life, the charm of the Muses, reasserts itself
(Catalepton v.).
Our next knowledge of him is derived from allusions in the
Eclogues, and belongs to a period nine or ten years later. Of
what happened to him in the interval, during which the first
civil war took place and Julius Caesar was assassinated, we
have no indication from ancient testimony or from his own
writings. In 42 B.C., the year of the battle of Philippi, we find
him " cultivating his woodland Muse " under the protection
of Asinius Pollio, governor of the district north of the Po.
In the following year the famous confiscations of land for the
benefit of the soldiers of the triumvirs took place. Of the
impression produced on Virgil by these confiscations, and of
their effect on his fortunes, we have a vivid record in the first
and ninth eclogues. Mantua, in consequence of its vicinity
to Cremona, which had been faithful to the cause of the re-
public, was involved in this calamity; and Virgil's father was
112
VIRGIL
driven from his farm. By the influence of his powerful friends,
and by personal application to the young Octavian, Virgil
obtained the restitution of his land. In the meantime he had
taken his father and family with him to the small country house
of his old teacher Siron (Cataleplon x.).
Soon afterwards we hear of him living in Rome, enjoying,
in addition to the patronage of Pollio, the favour of Maecenas,
intimate with Varius, who was at first regarded as the rising
poet of the new era, and later on with Horace. His friendship
with Callus, for whom he indicates a warmer affection and more
enthusiastic admiration than for any one else, was formed
before his second residence in Rome, in the Cisalpine province,
with which Callus also was connected both by birth and office.
The pastoral poems, or " eclogues," commenced in his native
district, were finished and published in Rome, probably in
37 B.C. Soon afterwards he withdrew from habitual residence
in Rome, and lived chiefly in Campania, either at Naples or hi
the neighbourhood of Nola. He was one of the companions of
Horace in the famous journey to Brundisium; and it seems
not unlikely that, some time before 23 B.C., he made the voyage
to Athens which forms the subject of the third ode of the first
book of the Odes of Horace.
The seven years from 37 to 30 B.C. were devoted to the com-
position of the Georgics. In the following year he read the
poem to Augustus, on his return from Asia. The remaining
years of his life were spent on the composition of the Asneid. In
19 B.C., after the Aeneid was finished but not finally corrected,
he set out for Athens, intending to pass three years hi Greece
and Asia and to devote that time to perfecting the poem. At
Athens he met Augustus, and was persuaded by him to return
with him to Italy. While visiting Megara under a burning sun,
he was seized with illness, and, as he continued his voyage
without interruption, he grew rapidly worse, and died on the
zist of September, in his fifty-first year, a few days after landing
at Brundisium. In his last illness he called for the cases con-
taining his manuscripts, with the intention of burning the
Aeneid. He had previously left directions in his will that his
literary executors, Varius and Tucca, should publish nothing of
his which had not already been given to the world by himself.
This pathetic desire that the work to which he had given so
much care, and of which such great expectations were formed,
should not survive him has been used as an argument to prove
his own dissatisfaction with the poem. A passage from a letter
of his to Augustus is also quoted, hi which he speaks as if he felt
that the undertaking of the work had been a mistake. This
dissatisfaction with his work may be ascribed to his passion for
perfection of workmanship, which death prevented him from
attaining. The command of Augustus overrode the poet's wish
and rescued the poem.
Virgil was buried at Naples, where his tomb was long regarded
with religious veneration. Horace is our most direct witness of
the affection which he inspired among his contemporaries. The
qualities by which he gained their love were, according to his
testimony, candor sincerity of nature and goodness of heart
and pittas the union of deep affection for kindred, friends
and country with a spirit of reverence. The statement of his
biographer, that he was known in Naples by the name " Par-
thenias," is a testimony to the exceptional purity of his life in
an age of licence. The seclusion of his life and his devotion to
his art touched the imagination of his countrymen as the finer
qualities of his nature touched the heart of his friends. It had
been, from the time of Cicero, 1 the ambition of the men of finest
culture and most original genius in Rome to produce a national
literature which might rival that of Greece; and the feeling
that at last a poem was about to appear which would equal
1 Cf. Tusc. Disp. ii. 2: " Quamobrem hortor omnes quj facere id
possunt, ut hujus quoque generis laudem jam languenti Graeciae
eripiant," &c. These words apply specially to philosophical litera-
ture, but other passages in the same and in other works imply that
Cicero thought that the Romans had equal aptitudes for other de-
partments of literature; and the practice of the Augustan poets
in each appropriating to himself a special province of Greek literary
art seems to indicate the same ambition.
or surpass the greatest among all the works of Greek genius
found a voice in the lines of Propertius
" Cedite Romani scriptoies, cedite Graii;
Nescio quid majus nascitur Iliade."
The feeling of his countrymen and contemporaries seems
justified by the personal impression which he produces on
modern readers an impression of sanctity, as of one who
habitually lived in a higher and serener sphere than that of this-
world. The veneration in which his name was held during the
long interval between the overthrow of Western civilization
and the revival of letters affords testimony of the depth of the
impression which he made on the heart and imagination of
the ancient world. The traditional belief in his pre-eminence
has been on the whole sustained, though not with absolute una-
nimity, hi modern times. By the scholars and men of letters
of the i6th, I7th and i8th centuries it was never seriously
questioned. During the first half of the igth century his right
to be ranked among the great poets of the world was disputed
by some German and English critic?.
The effect of this was a juster estimate of Virgil's relative
position among the poets of the world. It may still be a matter
of individual opinion whether Lucretius himself was not a more
powerful and original poetical force, whether he does not speak
more directly to the heart and imagination of our own time.
But it can hardly be questioned, on a survey of Roman litera-
ture, as a continuous expression of the national mind, from the
age of Naevius to the age of Claudian, that the position of Virgil
is central and commanding, while that of Lucretius is in a great
measure isolated. If we could imagine the place of Virgil in
Roman literature vacant, it would be much the same as if
we imagined the place of Dante vacant hi modern Italian, and
that of Goethe in German literature. The serious efforts of the
early Roman literature the efforts of the older epic and tragic
poetry found their fulfilment in him. The revelation of the
power and life of Nature, first made to Lucretius, was able to
charm the Roman mind, only after it had passed into the mind
of Virgil.
Virgil is the only complete representative of the deepest senti-
ment and highest mood of his countrymen and of his time. In
his pastoral and didactic poems he gives a living voice to the
whole charm of Italy, in the Aeneid to the whole glory of Rome.
He was in the maturity of his powers at the most critical epoch
of the national life, one of the most critical epochs in the history
of the world. Keeping aloof from the trivial daily life of his con-
temporaries, he was moved more profoundly than any of them
by the deeper currents of emotion in the sphere of government,
religion, morals and human feeling which were then changing the
world; and in uttering the enthusiasm of the hour, and all the
new sensibilities that were stirring in his own heart and imagina-
tion, he had, hi the words of Sainte-Beuve, " divined at a decisive
hour of the world what the future would love." He was also by
universal acknowledgment the greatest literary artist whom
Rome produced. Virgil had a more catholic sympathy with
the whole range of Greek poetry, from Homer and Hesiod to
Theocritus and the Alexandrians, than any one else at any
period of Roman literature. The effort of the preceding genera-
tion to attain to beauty of form and finish of artistic execution
found in him, at the most susceptible period of his life, a ready
recipient of its influence. The rude dialect of Latium had been
moulded into a powerful and harmonious organ of literary
expression by a long series of orators; the Latin hexameter,
first shaped by Ennius to meet the wants of his own spirit and
of his high argument, had been smoothed and polished by
Lucretius, and still more perfected by the finer ear and more
careful industry of Catullus and his circle; but neither had
yet attained their final development. It was left for Virgil to
bring both diction and rhythm to as high a pitch of artistic
perfection as has been attained in any literature. This great
work was accomplished by the steady devotion of his genius to
his appointed task. For the first half of his life he prepared
himself to be the poet of his time and country with a high
ambition and unresting industry. The second half of his career
VIRGIL
was a religious consecration of all his powers of heart, mind
and spirit to his high office.
Virgil's fame as a poet rests on the three acknowledged works of
his early and mature manhood the pastoral poems or Eclogues, the
Georgia and the Aeneid all written in that hexameter verse which
Tennyson has called
" The stateliest measure ever moulded by the lips of man."
The pastoral poems or Eclogues a word denoting short selected
pieces were composed between the years 42 .and 37 B.C., when
Eclogue*. Virgil was between the age of twenty-eight and thirty-
three. By his invocation to the " Sicelides Musae " and
" Arethusa," and by many other indications, he avows the purpose
of eliciting from the strong Latin language the melody which the
" Sicilian shepherd " drew out of the " Done reed," and of expressing
that tender feeling for the beauty of Italian scenes which Theocritus
had expressed for the beauty of Sicily.
The earliest poems in the series were the second, third and fifth ;
and these, along with the seventh, are the most purely Theocritean
in character. The first and ninth, which probably were next in
order, are much more Italian in sentiment, are much more an
expression of the poet's own feelings, and have a much more direct
reference both to his own circumstances and the circumstances of
the time. The first is a true poetical reflex of the distress and
confusion which arose out of the new distribution of lands, and
blends the poet's own deep love of his home, and of the sights
and sounds familiar to him from childhood, with his Italian suscepti-
bility to the beauty of nature. The ninth is immediately connected
in subject with the first. It contains the lines which seem accurately
to describe the site of Virgil's farm, at the point where the range of
hills which accompany the river for some distance from the foot of
the Lago di Garda sinks into the plain about 14 or 15 m. above
Mantua. The sixth is addressed to Varus, who succeeded Pollio as
governor of the Cisalpine district. Its theme is the creation of the
world (according to the Epicurean cosmogony), and the oldest tales
of mythology. 1 The fourth and eighth are both closely associated
with the name of Virgil's earliest protector, Pollio. The fourth
celebrates the consulship of his patron in 40 B.C., and also the
prospective birth of a child, though it was disputed in antiquity,
and still is disputed, who was meant by this child whose birth was
to be coincident with the advent of the new era, and who, after
filling the other great offices of state, was to " rule with his father's
virtues the world at peace."* The main purpose of the poem,
however, is to express the longing of the world for a new era bf peace
and happiness, of which the treaty of Brundisium seemed to hold out
some definite hopes. There is no trace in this poem of Theocritean
influence. The ideas are derived partly from Greek representations
of the Golden Age, and partly, it is supposed, from the later
Sibylline prophecies, circulated after the burning in the time of Sulla
of the old Sibylline books, and possibly tinged with Jewish ideas.
Some of the phraseology of the poem led to a belief in the early
Christian church that Virgil had been an unconscious instrument of
inspired prophecy. The date of the eighth is fixed by a reference to
the campaign of Pollio against the Dalmatians in 39 B.C. It is
founded on the QapfiaKfurpia. of Theocritus, but brings before us,
with Italian associations, two love tales of homely Italian life. The
tenth reproduces the Daphnis of Theocritus, and is a dirge over
the unhappy love of Callus and Lycoris. As in the other poems, the
second and eighth, of which love is the burden, it is to the romantic
and fantastic melancholy which the passion assumes in certain
natures that Virgil gives a voice.
There is no important work in Latin literature, with the exception
of the comedy of Terence, so imitative as the Eclogues. But they
are not, like the comedies of Terence, purely exotic as well as
imitative. They are rather composite, partly Greek and partly
Italian, and, as a vehicle for the expression of feeling, hold an
undefined place between the objectivity of'the Greek idyll and the
subjectivity of the Latin elegy. For the most part, they express
the sentiment inspired by the beauty of the world, and the kindred
sentiment inspired by the charm of human relationships. Virgil's
susceptibility to the beauty of nature appears in the truth with which
his work suggests the charm of Italy the fresh life of an Italian
spring, the delicate hues of the wild flowers and the quiet beauty of
the pastures and orchards of his native district. The representative
character of the poems is enhanced by the fidelity and grace with
which he has expressed the Italian peasant's love of his home and of
all things associated with it. The supreme charm of -the diction and
rhythm is universally recognized. The power of varied harmony is
as conspicuous in Virgil's earliest poems as in the maturer and more
elaborate workmanship of the Georgics and Aeneid. The Italian
language, without sacrifice of the fulness, strength and majesty of
its tones, acquired a more tender grace and more liquid flow from
the gift jhe " molle atque facetum " which the Muses of country
life bestowed on Virgil.
1 In the Georgics also Virgil attempts to combine science with the
poetic fancies which filled its place in older times.
* See Virgil's Messianic Eclogue: Its Meaning, Occasion and
Sources, three studies by J. B. Mayor, W. Warde Fowler and
R. S. Conway (1907).
But these Muses had a more serious and dignified function to
fulfil than that of glorifying the picturesque pastime, the " otia dia,"
of rural life. The Italian imagination formed an ideal of aeonk*.
the happiness of a country life nobler than that of passive
susceptibility to the sights and sounds of the outward world. It is
stated that Maecenas, acting on the principle of employing the poets
of the time in favour of the conservative and restorative policy of
the new government, directed the genius of Virgil to the subject of
the Georgics. No object could be of more consequence in the eyes
of a statesman whose master inherited the policy of the popular
leaders than the revival of the great national industry, associated
with happier memories of Rome, which had fallen into abeyance
owing to the long unsettlement of the revolutionary era as well as
to other causes. Virgil's previous life and associations made it
natural for him to identify himself with this object, while his genius
fitted him to enlist the imagination of his countrymen in its favour.
It would be a most inadequate view of his purpose to suppose that,
like the Alexandrian poets or the didactic poets of modern times,
he desired merely to make useful information more attractive by the
aid of verse. His aim was rather to describe with realistic fidelity,
and to surround with an atmosphere of poetry, the annual round of
labour in which the Italian yeoman's life was passed; to bring out
the intimate relation with nature into which man was brought in the
course of that life, and to suggest the delight to heart and imagination
which he drew from it; to contrast the simplicity, security and
sanctity of such a life with the luxury and lawless passions of the
great world; and to associate the ideal of a life of rustic labour
with the beauties of Italy and the glories of Rome. This larger
conception of the dignity of his subject separates the didactic poem
of Virgil from all other didactic, as distinct from philosophic, poems.
He has produced in the Georgics a new type of didactic, as in the
Aeneid he has produced a new type of epic, poetry.
The subject is treated in four books, varying in length from 514 to
566 lines. The first treats of the tillage of the fields, of the constella-
tions, the rise and setting of which form the farmer's calendar, and
of the signs of the weather, on which the success of his labours
largely depends. The second treats of trees, and especially of the
vine and olive, two great staples of the national wealth and industry
of Italy ; the third of the rearing of herds and flocks and the breeding
of horses; the fourth of bees.
As he had found in Theocritus a model for the form in which
his idler fancies were expressed, he turned to an older page in
Greek literature for the outline of the form in which his graver
interest in rural affairs was to find its outlet. The Works and
Days of Hesiod could not supply an adequate mould for the
systematic treatment of all the processes of rural industry, and still
less for the treatment of the larger ideas to which this was sub-
sidiary, yet that Virgil considered him as his prototype is shown by
the line which concludes one of the cardinal episodes of the poem
" Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen."
Virgil accepts also the guidance of the Alexandrian poets who
treated the science of their day astronomy, natural history
and geography in the metre and diction of epic poetry. But, in
availing himself of the work of the Alexandrians, Virgil is like a
great master making use of mechanical assistants. A more power-
ful influence on the form, ideas, sentiment and diction of the
Georgics was exercised by the great philosophical poem of Lucretius,
of which Virgil had probably been a diligent student since the
time of its first appearance, and with which nis mind was saturated
when he was engaged in the composition of the Georgics. Virgil is
at once attracted and repelled by the genius and attitude of the
philosophic poet. He is possessed by his imaginative conception
of nature, as a living, all-pervading power; he shares his Italian love
of the beauty of the world, and his sympathy with animal as well
as human life. He recognizes with enthusiasm his contemplative
elevation above the petty interests and passions of life. But he
is repelled by his apparent separation from the ordinary beliefs,
hopes and fears of his fellow-men. Virgil is in thorough sympathy
with the best restorative tendencies religious, social and national
of his time; Lucretius was driven into isolation by the anarchic
and dissolving forces of his.
So far as any speculative idea underlying the details of the
Georgics can be detected, it is one of which the source can be traced
to Lucretius the idea of the struggle of human force with the
forces of nature. In Virgil this idea is modified by Italian piety
and by the Italian delight in the results of labour. In the general
plan of the poem Virgil follows the guidance of Lucretius rather than
that of any Greek model. The distinction between a poem addressed
to national and one addressed to philosophical sympathies is marked
by the prominence assigned in the one poem to Caesar as the
supreme personality of the age, in the other to Epicurus as the
supreme master in the realms of mind. The invocation to the
" Di agrestes," to the old gods of mythology and art, to the living
Caesar as the latest power added to the pagan Pantheon, is both
a parallel and a contrast to the invocation to the all-pervading
principle of life, personified as '' Alma Venus." In the systematic
treatment of his materials, and the interspersion of episodes dealing
uman interest of the subject. Virgil
with the deeper poetical and human
adheres to the practice of the older poet.
He uses his connecting
VIRGIL
links and formulas, such as " principle," " nunc age," &c., but
uses them more sparingly, so as to make the logical mechanism
of the poem less rigid, while he still keeps up the liveliness of
a personal address. All his topics admit of being vitalized by
attributing to natural processes the vivacity of human relationships
and sensibility, and by association with the joy which the ideal
farmer feels in the results of his energy. Much of the argument of
Lucretius, on the other hand, is as remote from the genial presence
of nature as from human associations. Virgil makes a much larger
use than Lucretius of ornament borrowed from older poetry, art,
science and mythology. There is uniformity of chastened excellence
in the diction and versification of the Georgia, contrasting with the
imaginative force of isolated expressions and the majesty of isolated
lines and passages in Lucretius. The " vivida vis ' of imagination
is more apparent in the older poet ; the artistic perfection of Virgil
is even more conspicuous in the Georgia than in the Eclogues or the
Aeneid.
The principal episodes of the poem, in which the true dignity
and human interest of the subject are brought out, occur in the
first and second books. Other shorter episodes add variety to the
different books. These episodes are not detached or isolated
ornaments, but give a higher unity to the poem, and are the main
ground of its permanent hold upon the world. There is indeed one
marked exception to this rule. The long episode with which the
whole poem ends the tale of the shepherd Aristaeus, with which
is connected the more poetical fable of Orpheus and Eurydice-p
has only the slightest connexion with the general ideas and senti-
ment of the poem. It is altogether at variance with the truthful
realism and the Italian feeling which pervade it. But we are
distinctly told that the original conclusion had contained the
praises of Gallus, the friend of Virgil's youth, who, about the time
when Virgil was finishing the poem, had gained distinction in the
war against Cleopatra, and had in consequence been made the
first governor of the new province of Egypt. Such a conclusion
might well have been in keeping with the mam purpose of the poem.
After the fall of Gallus, owing to his ambitious failure in his
Egyptian administration, and his death in 26 B.C., the poet, accord-
ing to the story, in obedience to the command of the emperor,
substituted for this encomium the beautiful but irrelevant fable of
Orpheus and Eurydice, in which he first "displayed the narrative
skill, the pathos and the magical power of making the mystery of
the unseen world present to the imagination which characterize the
Aeneid.
The cardinal episodes of the poem, as it now stands, are the
passages in bk. i. from line 464 to the end, and in bk. ii. from 136
to 176 and from 475 to 542. The first, introduced in connexion
with the signs of the weather, recounts the omens which accom-
panied the death of Julius Caesar, and shows how the misery of
Italy and the neglected state of the fields are the punishment for
the great sin of the previous generation. In the second of these
passages the true keynote of the poem is struck in the invocation
to Italy
" Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus,
Magna virum."
The thought of the beauties of the land, of the abundance and
variety of its products,' of its ancient cities and mighty works of
man, its brave and hardy races, the great men who had fought
for her in old times, and of him, the greatest among her sons, who
was then defending Rome against her enemies in the farthest East,
inspires the poet, and gives dignity to the trivial details of farm
life. But a still higher and more catholic interest is given to the
subject in the greatest of the episodes the most perfect passage in
all Latin poetry that from line 458, " O fortunatos nimium," to
the end. The subject is there glorified by its connexion not only
with the national well-being but with the highest life and purest
happiness of man. The old delight in the labours of the field
blends with the new delight in the beauty of nature, and is associated
with that purity and happiness of family life which was an Italian
ideal, and with the poetry of those religious beliefs and observances
which imparted a sense of security, a constantly recurring charm,
and a bond of social sympathy to the old rustic life.
The Georgia is not only the most perfect, but the most native
of all the works of the ancient Italian genius. Even where he borrows
from Greek originals, Virgil makes the Greek mind tributary to his
national design. The Georgia, the poem of the land, is as essen-
tially Italian as the Odyssey, the poem of the sea, is essentially Greek.
Nature is presented to us as she is revealed in the soft luxuriance
of Italian landscape, not in the clearly defined forms of Greek
scenery. The poem shows the Italian susceptibility to the beauty
of the outward world, the dignity and sobriety of the Italian
imagination, the firm and enduring structure of ajl Roman work-
manship, while it is essentially Italian in its religious and ethical
feeling.
The work which yet remained for Virgil to accomplish was the
addition of a great Roman epic to literature. This had been the
Aeaeld earliest effort of the national imagination, when it first
departed from the mere imitative reproduction of Greek
originals. The work which had given the truest expression to
the genius of Rome before the time of Virgil had been the Annales
of Ennius. This had been supplemented by various historical
poems but had never been superseded. It satisfied the national
imagination as an expression of the national life in its vigorous
prime, but it could not satisfy the newly developed sense of art ; and
the expansion of the national life since the days of Ennius, and the
changed conditions into which it passed after the battle of Actium,
demanded a newer and ampler expression. It had been Virgil's
earliest ambition to write an heroic poem on the traditions of
Alba Longa; and he had been repeatedly urged by Augustus to
celebrate his exploits. The problem before him was to compose a
work of art on a large scale, which should represent a great action
of the heroic age, and should at the same time embody the most
vital ideas and sentiment of the hour which in substance should
glorify Rome and the present ruler of Rome, while in form it should
follow closely the great models of epic poetry and reproduce all
their sources of interest. It was his ambition to be the Homer, as
he had been the Theocritus and Hesiod, of his country.
Various objects had thus to be combined in a work of art on the
model of the Greek epic: the revival of interest in the heroic fore-
time; the satisfaction of national sentiment; the expression of the
deeper currents of emotion of the age; the personal celebration
of Augustus. A new type of epic poetry had to be created. It
was desirable to select a single heroic action which should belong
to the cycle of legendary events celebrated in the Homeric poems,
and which could be associated with Rome. The only subject which
in any way satisfied these conditions was that of the wanderings
of Aeneas and of his final settlement in Latium. The story, though
not of Roman origin but of a composite growth, had long been
familiar to the Romans, and had been recognized by official acts of
senate and people. The subject enabled Virgil to tell again of the
fall of Troy, and to weave a tale of sea-adventure similar to that
of the wanderings of Odysseus. It was also recommended by the
claim which the Julii, a patrician family of Alban origin, made to
descent from lulus, the supposed son of Aeneas and founder of
Alba Longa.
The Aeneid is thus at once the epic of the national life under its
new conditions and an epic of human character. The true keynote
of the poem is struck in the line with which the proem closes
" Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem."
The idea which underlies the whole action of the poem is that of
the great part played by Rome in the history of the world, that
part being from of old determined by divine decree, and carried out
through the virtue of her sons. The idea of universal empire is
thus the dominant idea of the poem. With this idea that of the
unbroken continuity of the national life is intimately associated.
The reverence for old customs and for the traditions of the past
was a large element in the national sentiment, and has a prominent
place in the Aeneid. So too has the feeling of local attachment
and of the power of local association over the imagination. The
poem is also characteristically Roman in the religious belief and
observances which it embodies. Behind all the conventional
machinery of the old Olympic gods there is the Roman apprehension
of a great inscrutable power, manifesting itself by arbitrary signs,
exacting jealously certain observances, working out its own secret
purposes through the agency of Roman arms and Roman counsels.
The poem is thus a religious as well as a national epic, and this
explains the large part played in the development of the action
by special revelation, omens, prophecies, ceremonial usages and
prayer. But, while the predominant religious idea of the poem
is that of a divine purpose carried out regardlessly of human feeling,
in other parts of the poem, and especially in that passage of the
sixth book in which Virgil tries to formulate his deepest convictions
on individual destiny, the agency of fate seems to yield to that of a
spiritual dispensation, awarding to men their portions according to
their actions.
The idealization of Augustus is no expression of servile adulation.
It is through the prominence assigned to him that the poem is truly
representative of the critical epoch in human affairs at which it was
written. The cardinal fact of that epoch was the substitution of
personal rule for the rule of the old commonwealth over the Roman
world. Virgil shows the imaginative significance of that fact by
revealing the emperor as chosen from of old in the counsels of the
supreme ruler of the world to fulfil the national destiny, as the
descendant of gods and of heroes of old poetic renown; as one,
moreover, who, in the actual work done by him, as victor in a great
decisive battle between the forces of the Western and the Eastern
world, as the organizer of empire and restorer of peace, order and
religion, had rendered better service to mankind than any one of
the heroes who in an older time had been raised for their great
deeds to the company of the gods.
Virgil's true and yet idealizing interpretation of the imperial
idea of Rome is the basis of the greatness of the Aeneid as a repre-
sentative poem. It is on this representative character and on the
excellence of its artistic execution that the claim of the Aeneid to
rank as one of the great poems of the world mainly rests. The
inferiority of the poem to the Iliad and the Odyssey as a direct
representation of human life is so unquestionable that we are in
danger of underrating the real though secondary interest which the
poem possesses as an imitative epic of human action, manners
VIRGIL
and character. In the first place it should be remarked that the
action is chosen not only as suited to embody the idea of Rome
but as having a peculiar nobleness and dignity of its own. Ii
brings before us the spectacle of the destruction of the city of greatesi
name in poetry or legend, of the foundation of the imperial city of
the western seas, in which Rome had encountered her most powerful
antagonist in her long struggle for supremacy, and that of the first
rude settlement on the hills of Rome itself. The scenes through
which the action is carried are familiar, yet full of great memories
and associations Troy and its neighbourhood, the seas and islands
of Greece, the coasts of Epirus, familiar to all travellers between
Italy and the East, Sicily, the site of Carthage, Campania, Latium,
the Tiber, and all the country within sight of Rome. The personages
of the action are prominent in poetry" a d legend, or by their
ethnical names stir the sentiment of national enthusiasm Aeneas
and Anchises, Dido, Acestes, Evander, Turnus. The spheres ol
activity in which they are engaged are war and sea-adventure. The
passion of love is a powerful addition to the older sources of interest.
The Aeneid revives, by a conventional compromise between the
present and the remote past, some image of the eld romance ol
('.recce; it creates the romance of " that Italy for which Camilla
the virgin, Euryalus, and Turnus and Nisus died of wounds."
It might be said of the manner of life represented in the Aeneid,
that it is no more true to any actual condition of human society
than that represented in the Eclogues. But may not the same be
said of all idealizing restoration of a remote past in an age of advanced
civilization? The life represented in the Oedipus Tyrannus or in
King Lear is not the life of the Periclean nor of the Elizabethan
age, nor is it conceivable as the real life of a prehistoric age. The
truth of such a representation is to be judged, not by its relation
to any actual state of things ever realized in the world, but by its
relation to an ideal of the imagination the ideal conception of
how man, endowed with the gifts and graces of a civilized time,
but yet not without the buoyancy of a more primitive age, might
play his part under circumstances which would afford scope for
the passions and activities of a vigorous personality, and for the
refined emotions and subtle reflection of an era of high intellectual
and moral cultivation. The verdict of most readers of the Aeneid
will be that Virgil does not satisfy this condition as it is satisfied
by Sophocles and Shakespeare. Yet there is a courtesy, dignity
and consideration for the feelings of others in the manners of his
chief personages, such as might be exhibited by the noblest in an age
of chivalry and in an age of culture. The charm of primitive
simplicity is present in some passages of the Aeneid, the spell of
luxurious pomp in others. The delight of voyaging past beautiful
islands is enhanced by the suggestion of the adventurous spirit which
sent the first explorers abroad. Where Virgil is least real, and most
purely imitative, is in the battle-scenes of the later books. They
afford scope, however, to his patriotic desire to do justice to the
martial energy of the Italian races; and some of them have a
peculiar beauty from the pathos with which the deaths of some
of the heroes are described.
But the adverse criticisms of the Aeneid are chiefly based on
Virgil's supposed failure in the crucial test of the creation of char-
acter. And his chief failure is pronounced to be the " pious
Aeneas." Is Aeneas a worthy and interesting hero of a great poem
of action? Not, certainly, according to the ideals realized in Achilles
and Odysseus, nor according to the modern ideal of heroism. Virgil
wishes to hold up in Aeneas an ideal of pious obedience and per-
sistent purpose a religious ideal belonging to the ages of faith
combined with the humane and self-sacrificing qualities belonging
to an era of moral enlightenment. His own sympathy is with his
religious ideal rather than with that of chivalrous romance. Yet
that there was in his own imagination a chord responsive to the
chivalrous emotion of a later time is seen in the love and pathos
which he has thrown into his delineations of Pallas, Lausus and
Camilla. But he felt that the deepest need of his time was not
military glory, but peace, reconciliation, the restoration of law,
order and piety.
In Dido Roman poetry has added to thegreat gallery of men and
women, created by the imaginative art of different times and peoples,
the ideal of a true queen and a true woman. On the episode of
which she is the heroine the most passionate human interest is
concentrated. It has been objected that Virgil does not really
sympathize with his own creation, that he rives his approval to
the cold desertion of her by Aeneas. But if he does not condemn
his hero, he sees in the desertion and death of Dido a great tragic
issue in which a noble and generous nature is sacrificed to the larger
purpose of the gods. But that Virgil really sympathized with the
creation of his imagination appears, not only in the sympathy which
she still inspires, but in the part which he assigns to her in that
shadowy realm
" Conjunx ubi pristinus illi
Respondet curis, aequatque Sychaeus amorem."
Even those who have been insensible to the representative and
to the human interest of the Aeneid have generally recognized the
artistic excellence of the poem. This is conspicuous both in the
conception of the action and the arrangement of its successive
stages and in the workmanship of details. Each of the first eight
books has a large and distinct sphere of interest, and they each
contribute to the impression of the work as a whole.. In the first
book we have the storm, the prophecy of Jove and the building of
Carthage; in the second the destruction of Troy; in the third the
voyage among the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean; in the
fourth the tragedy of Dido; in the fifth the rest in tha Sicilian bay,
at the foot of Mount Eryx; in the sixth the revelation of the spiritual
world of Virgil's imagination, and of the souls of those who built
up the greatness of Rome in their pre-existent state; in the seventh
the arrival of the Trojans at the mouth of the Tiber and the gathering
of the Italian clans; in the eighth the first sight of the hillf of Rome,
and the prophetic representation of the great crises in Roman history,
leading up to the greatest of them all, the crowning victory of
Actium. Among these books we may infer that Virgil assigned
the palm to the second, the fourth and the sixth, as he selected
them to read to Augustus and the imperial family. The interest
is generally thought to flag in the last four books; nor is it possible
to feel that culminating sympathy with the final combat between
Turnus and Aeneas that we feel with the combat between Hector
and Achilles. Yet a personal interest is awakened in the ad-
ventures and fate of Pallas, Lausus and Camilla. Virgil may himself
have become weary of the succession of battle-scenes " eadem
hprrida bella " which the requirements of epic poetry called upon
him to portray. There is not only a less varied interest, there is
greater inequality of workmanship in the later bocks, owing to
the fact that they had not received their author's final revisal.
Yet in them there are many lines and passages of great power,
pathos and beauty. Virgil brought the two great instrument*
of varied and continuous harmony and of a rich, chastened and
noble style to the highest perfection of which the Latin tongue was
capable. The rhythm and style of the Aeneid is more unequal
than the rhythm and style of the Georgics, but is a larger and more
varied instrument. The note of his supremacy among all the poetic
artists of his country is that subtle fusion of the music and the
meaning of language which touches the deepest and most secret
springs of emotion. He touches especially the emotions of reverence
and of yearning for a higher spiritual life, and the sense of noble-
ness in human affairs, in great institutions, and great natures; the
sense of the sanctity of human affections, of the imaginative spell
exercised by the past, o'f the mystery of the unseen world. This is
the secret of the power which his words have had over some of the
deepest and greatest natures in all ages. (W. Y. S. ; T. R. G.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix Vergiliana. Under this collective name there are
current several poems of some little length and some groups of
shorter pieces, all attributed to Virgil in antiquity. Virgfl wrote a
Culex, but not the Culex now extant, though it passed for his half
a century after his death. The Aetna, the Ciris and the Copa are
clearly not Virgil's. The Moretum is said to have been translated
by him from a Greek poem by his teacher Parthenius; it is an
exquisite piece of work, familiar perhaps to English readers in
Cowper's translation. The case of the Catalepton (ard WrAi>)
is peculiar. Two of these little poems (lie hinc indnes and Villula
quae Sironis) are generally accepted as Virgil's; opinion varies as
to the rest, with very little to go upon, but generally rejecting them.
The whole are printed in the larger editions of Virgil. For English
readers the most obvious edition is that of Robinson Ellis (1907),
who has also edited the Aetna separately.
Manuscripts. Gellius (Noctes Atticae, ix. 14, 7) tells us of people
who had inspected idiographum librum Vereilii, but this has of course
in all probability long since perished. There are, however, seven
very ancient MSS. of Virgil, (i) The Mediceus at Florence, with a
note purporting to be by a man, who was consul in 494, to say he
had read it. (2) The Palatinus Vaticanus of the 4th or 5th century.
(3) The Vaticanus of the same period. (4) The " Schedae Vaticanae."
(5) The " Schedae Berolinenses," perhaps of the 4th century. (6) The
" Schedae Sangallenses." (7) The " Schedae rescriptae Veronenses "
the last three of insignificant extent. For a full account of the
MSS., see Henry, Aenetdea, i., and Ribbeck, Prolegomena ad Verg.
Ancient Commentators. Commentaries on Virgil began to be
written at a very early date. Suetonius, V. Verg. 44, mentions an
Aeneidomastix of Carvilius Pictor and other works on Virgil's
" thefts " and " faults," besides eight " volumina " of Q. Octavius
Avitus, setting out in parallel passages the " likenesses " (6/ioi4ri7rct
was the name of the work) between Virgil and more ancient authors.
M. Valerius Probus (latter part of 1st century A.D.) wrote a com-
mentary, but it is doubtful for how much of what passes under his
name he is responsible, if for any of it. At the end of the 4th
:entury come the commentaries of Tiberius Claudius Donatus and of
Servius, the former writing as a teacher of rhetoric, the latter of style
and grammar. The work of Servius was afterwards expanded by
another scholar, whose additions greatly added to its worth, as they
ire drawn from older commentators and give us very valuable
nformation on the old Roman religion and constitution, Greek
md Latin legends, old Latin and linguistic usages. In this enlarged
orm the commentary of Servius and the Saturnalia of Macrobius
'also of the end of the 4th century) are both of great interest to
he student of Virgil. There are, further, sets of Scholia in MSS.
at Verona and Bern, which draw their material from ancient
u6
VIRGIL, POLYDORE
commentaries. See H. Nettleship, Essays in Latin Literature, xi.,
and Comparetti, Vergil in the Middle Ages, ch. 5.
Editions. The editions of Virgil are innumerable; Heyne
(1767-1800), Forbiger (1872-75) and Ribbeck (1859-66) in Germany,
Benoist (1876) in France, and Conington (completed by Nettleship,
and edited by Haverfield) in England, are perhaps the most im-
portant. Good school editions in English have been produced by
Page, Sidgwick and Papillon. Conington's work, however, is with-
out question the best in English.
Translations. Famous English translations have been made by
Dryden and by a host of others since his day. Since the middle of
the i gth century the most important are Conington (Aeneid in verse,
whole works in prose) ; J. W. Mackail (Aeneid and Georgics in prose) ;
William Morris (Aeneid in verse); Lord Justice Bowen (Eclogues
and Aeneid, i. vi. in verse); Canon Thornhill (verse); C. J. Billson
(verse, 1906); J. Rhoades (verse, new ed., 1907). For essays on
translating Virgil, see Conington, Miscellaneous Works, vol. i. ;
R. V. Tyrrell, Latin Poetry (appendix).
AUTHORITIES. For full bibliographies of Virgil consult Schanz,
Gesch. der Romischen Litteratur (1899) (in Iwan von Muller's series,
Handbuch der Klassischen Altertums-Wissenschaft), and Teuffel,
History of Roman Literature, edited by L. Schwabe and tr. by G.
C. W. Warr (1900). On the life of Virgil: Nettleship's Ancient
Lives of Vergil (1879) discusses the authorities, printing one of the
lives, which he shows to be by Suetonius. On the Eclogues: Glaser,
V. als Naturdichter u. Theist (1880) ; Cattault, Etude sur les Bucoliques
de V. (1897). On the Georgics: Morsch, De Graecis in Georgicis a V.
expresses (1878); Norden, " V.-studien " (in Hermes, vol. 28, 1893)
(Norden has little patience with " aesthetic criticism "). On the
Aeneid: Schwegler, Rom. Gesch. vol. i. (1853); Cauer, De fabulis
Graecis ad Romam conditam pertinentibus ; Hild, La Legende d'Enee
avant V. (1883); Forstemann, Zur Gesch. des Aeneasmythus; H. de
la Ville de Mirmont, Apollonios de Rhodes et Virgile (1894) (rather
too long) ; Pluss, V. u. die cpische Kunst (1884) ; Georgii, Die politische
Tendenz der Aen. (1880); Boissier, Nouvelles promenades archeo-
logiques (1886) (trans, under title The Country of Horace and Virgil,
by D. Havelock Fisher, 1895); Gibbon, Critical Observations on the
Sixth Book of the Aeneid (1770); Boissier, La Religion romaine
d'Auguste aux Antonins (1884) (with section on sixth Aeneid);
Ettig, Acheruntica (Leipziger Studien, 1891); Norden, " V.-studien "
(in Hermes, vol. 28, 1893), on sixth Aeneid, and papers in Neue
Jahrbiicher fur hi. Altertutn (1901); Dieterich, Nekyia (1893) (on
Apocalypse of Peter and ancient teaching on the other life a
valuable book) ; Henry, Aeneidea (1873-79) ( a book of very great
learning, wit, sense and literary judgment; the author, an Irish
physician, gave twenty years to it, examining MSS., exploring
Virgil's country, and reading every author whom Virgil could have
used and nearly every ancient writer who used Virgil).
Virgil-literature: Sainte-Beuve. Etude sur Virgile (one of the
great books on Virgil); Comparetti, Virgilio nel media Evo (1872)^
Eng.tr., Vergilin the Middle Ages, by E. F. M. Benecke (1895) (a book
of very great and varied interest) ; Heinze, Virgil's epische Technik
(1902); W. Y. Sellar, Roman Poets of the Augustan Age: Virgil
(2nd ed. 1883); Glover, Studies in Virgil (1904). Essays in the
following: F. W. H. Myers, Essays [Classical] (1883), the most famous
English essay on Virgil; J. R. Green, Stray Studies (1876) (an
excellent study of Aeneas); W. Warde Fowler, A Year with the
Birds (on Virgil's bird-lore) ; Nettleship, Essays in Latin Literature
(1884); Tyrrell, Latin Poetry (1898); Patin, Essais sur la poesie
Latine (4th ed. 1900) (one of the finest critics of Latin literature) ;
Goumy, Les Latins (1892) (a volume of very bright essays); J. W.
Mackail, Latin Literature (3rd ed. 1899). (T. R. G.)
The Virgil Legend.
Virgil's great popularity in the middle ages is to be partly
explained by the fact that he was to a certain extent
recognized by the Church. He was supposed to have
prophesied the coming of Christ in the fourth Eclogue, and
by some divines the Aeneid was held to be an allegory of
sacred things. This position was sufficiently emphasized by
Dante when be chose him from among all the sages of antiquity
to be his guide in the Divina Commedia. Ancient poets and
philosophers were commonly transformed by medieval writers
into necromancers; and Virgil and Aristotle became popularly
famous, not for poetry and science, but for their supposed
knowledge of the black art. Naples appears to have been
the home of the popular legend of Virgil, which represented
him as the special protector of the city, but was probably
never quite independent of learned tradition.
One of the earliest references to the magical skill of Virgil 1 occurs
in a letter of the imperial chancellor Conrad of Querfurt (1194),
1 The Irish apostle to Carinthia, St Virgilius, bishop of Salzburg
(d. 784), who held original views on the subject of antipodes, may
have been the real eponym of the legend.
reproduced by Arnold of Liibeck in the continuation of the Chronica
Slavorum of Helmold. John of Salisbury alludes to the brazen fly
fabricated by Virgil; Helinand (d. 1227) speaks of similar marvels
in a work from which Vincent of Beauvais has borrowed; and
Gervase of Tilbury, in his Otia Imperialia (1212), and Alexander of
Neckam (d. 1217), in De Naturis Rerutn, have reproduced these
traditions, with additions. German and French poets did not
overlook this accessory to their repertory. The Roman de Cleo-
mades of Adenes li rois (i2th century) and the Image du Monde
of Gauthier de Metz (1245) contain numerous references to the
prodigies of the enchanter. Reynard the Fox informs King Lion
that he had from the wise Virgil a quantity of valuable receipts. He
also plays a considerable part in the popular folk-tale The Seven
Wise Masters, and appears in the Gesta Romanorum and that curious
guidebook for pilgrims, the Mirabilia Romae. He is to be found
in John Gower's Confessio Amantis and in John Lydgate's
Bochas. A Spanish romance, Vergilios, is included by E. de
Ochoa in his Tesoro (Paris, 1838), and Juan Ruiz, archpriest of
Hita (d. c. 1360), also wrote a poem on the subject. Many of the
tales of magic throughout Europe were referred to Virgil, and
gradually developed into a completely new life, strangely different
from that of the real hero. They were collected in French under
the title of Les Faitz Meryeilleux de Virgille (c. 1499), a quarto
chapbook of ten pages, which became extremely popular, and was
printed, with more or less additional matter, in other languages. The
English version, beginning "This is resqnable to wryght the
mervelus dedes done by Virgilius," was printed about 1520. We
are told how Virgil beguiled the devil at a very early age, in the
same fashion as the fisherman persuaded the jinnee in the Arabian
Nights to re-enter Solomon's casket. Another reproduction of a
widely spread tale was that of the lady who kept Virgil suspended in
a basket. To revenge the affront the magician extinguished all the
fires in the city, and no one could rekindle them without subject-
ing the lady to an ordeal highly offensive to her modesty. Virgil
made for the emperor a castle in which he could see and hear every-
thing done or said in Rome, an ever-blooming orchard, statues of the
tributary princes which gave warning of treason or rebellion, and a
lamp to supply light to the city. He abducted the soldan's daughter,
and built for her the city of Naples upon a secure foundation of
eggs. At last, having performed many extraordinary things, he
knew that his time was come. In order to escape the common lot
he placed all his treasures in a castle defended by images unceasingly
wielding iron flails, and directed his confidential servant to hew him
in pieces, which he was to salt and place in a barrel in the cellar,
Under which a lamp was to be kept burning. The servant was
assured that after seven days his master would re'.'ive, a young man.
The directions were carried out; but the emperor, missing his
medicine-man, forced the servant to divulge the secret and to quiet
the whirling flails. The emperor and his retinue entered the castle
and at last found the mangled corpse. In his wrath he slew the
servant, whereupon a little naked child ran thrice round the barrel,
crying, " Cursed be the hour that ye ever came here," and vanished.
For the legends connected with Virgil see especially D. Com-
paretti, Virguio nel media evo (2nd ed., Florence, 1896; English
trans., E. F. M. Benecke, 1895). The chief original source for the
Neapolitan legends is the 14th-century Cronica di Partenope. See
further W. J. Thorns, Early Eng. Prose Romances (1858) ; G. Brunei,
Les Faitz merveilleux de Virgile (Geneva, 1867) ; E. Dumeril,
"Virgile enchanteur " (Melanges archeologiques, 1850); Gervase
of Tilbury, Otia Imper. (ed. Liebrecht, 1856); P. Schwubbe,
Virgilius per mediam aetatem (Paderborn, 1852); Siebenhaar,
De fabulis quae media aetate de Virgilio circumf. (Berlin, 1837);
J. G. T. Graesse, Beilrage zur Lilt. u. Sage des Mittelalters (1850);
Bartsch, " Gedicht auf. d. Zaub. Virgil " (Pfeiffer's Germania,
iv. 1859); F. Liebrecht, " Der Zauberer Virgilius" (ibid. x. 1865);
K. L. Roth, " Ober d. Zaub. Virgilius" (ibid. iv. 1859); W.
Victor, " Der Ursprung der Virgilsage " (Zeit. f. rpm. Phil. i. 1877) ;
A. Graf, Roma nella memoria e nelle imaeinazioni del media evo
(Turin, 1882) ; F. W. Genthe, Leben und Fortleben des Publius
Virg ilius Maro als Dichter und Zauberer (2nd ed., Magdeburg, 1857).
(M. BR.)
VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555), English historian, of
Italian extraction, otherwise known as P. V. CASTELLENSIS,
was a kinsman of Cardinal Hadrian Castellensis, a native of
Castro in Etruria. His father's name is said to have been
George Virgil; his great-grandfather, Anthony Virgil, " a man
well skilled in medicine and astrology," had professed philo-
sophy at Paris, as did Polydore's own brother and prot6g6
John Matthew Virgil, at Pavia, in 1517. A third brother was
a London merchant in 1511. Polydore was born at Urbino,
is said to have been educated at Bologna, and was probably in
the service of Guido Ubaldo, duke of Urbino, before 1458, as
in the dedication of his first work, Liber Proverbiorum (April
1498), he styles himself this prince's client. Polydore's second
book, De Inventoribus Rerum, is dedicated to Guido's tutor,
VIRGINAL VIRGINIA
117
Ludovicus Odaxius, from Urbino, in August 1499. After
being chamberlain to Alexander VI. he came to England in
1501 as deputy collector of Peter's pence for the cardinal. As
rian's proxy, he was enthroned bishop of Bath and Wells
in October 1504. It was at Henry VII. 's instance that he com-
menced his Historic Anglica a work which, though seemingly
begun as early as 1505, was not completed till August 1533,
the date of its dedication to Henry VIII., nor published till
1534. In May 1514 he and his patron the cardinal are found
supporting Wolsey's claims to the cardinalship, but he had
lost the great minister's favour before the year was out. A
rash letter, reflecting 'severely on Henry VIII. and Wolsey,
intercepted early in 1515, after which Polydore was cast
into prison and supplanted in his collectorship (March and
April). He was not without some powerful supporters, as
both Catherine de' Medici and Leo X. wrote to the king on his
behalf. From his prison he sent an abject and almost blas-
phemous letter to the offended minister, begging that the fast
approaching Christmas a time which witnessed the restitution
of a world might see his pardon also. He was set at liberty
before Christmas 1515, though he never regained his collector-
ship. In 1525 he published the first edition of Gildas, dedicating
the work to Tunstall, bishop of London. Next year appeared
his Liber de Prodigiis, dedicated from London (July) to Francesco
Maria, duke of Urbino. Somewhere about 1538 he left England,
and remained in Italy for some time. Ill-health, he tells us,
forbade him on his return to continue his custom of making
daily notes on contemporary events. About the end of 1551
he went home to Urbino, where he appears to have died in
1555. He had been naturalized an Englishman in October
1510, and had held several clerical appointments in England.
In 1508 he was appointed archdeacon of Wells, and in 1513
prebendary of Oxgate in St Paul's cathedral, both of which
offices he held after his return to Urbino.
The first edition of the Historia Anglica (twenty-six books) was
printed at Basel in 1534; the twenty-seventh book, dealing with
the reign of Henry VI If. down to the birth of Edward VI. (October
1536), was added to the third edition of 1555. Polydore claims to
have been very careful in collecting materials for this work, and
takes credit for using foreign historians as well as English; for
which reason, he remarks, the English, Scotch and French will find
several things reported in his pages far differently from the way in
which they are told in current national story. In his search after
information he applied to James IV. of Scotland for a list of the
Scottish kings and their annals; but not even his friendship for
Gayin Douglas could induce him to give credit to the historical
notions of this accomplished bishop, who traced the pedigree of the
Scots down from the banished son of an Athenian king and Scotta
the daughter of the Egyptian tyrant of the Israelites. A similar
scepticism made him doubt the veracity of Geoffrey of Monmouth,
and thus called forth Leland's Defensio Gallofndi and Assertio
Incomparabilis Arturii. This doubting instinct led to his being
accused of many offences against learning, such as that of burning
cartloads of MSS. lest his errors should be discovered, of purloining
books from libraries and shipping them off by the vesselful to Rome.
As a matter of fact, it is of course mainly from the time of Henry
VI., where our contemporary records begin to fail so sadly, that
Polydore's work is useful. He must have been personally acquainted
with many men whose memories could carry them back to the
beginning of the Wars of the Roses. Dr Brewer speaks somewhat
harshly of him as an authority for the reign of Henry VIII., and
indeed his spite against Wolsey is evident; but it is impossible to
read his social and geographical accounts of England and Scotland
without gratitude for a writer who has preserved so many interest-
ing detafls. Polydore's Adagio, (Venice, April 1498) was the first
collection of Latin proverbs ever printed; it preceded Erasmus's
by two years, and the slight misunderstanding that arose for the
moment out of rival claims gave place to a sincere friendship. A
second series of Biblical proverbs (553 in number) was dedicated to
Wolsey's follower, Richard Pace, and is preceded by an interesting
letter (June 1519), which gives the names of many of Polydore's
English friends, from More and Archbishop Warham to Linacre
and Tunstall. The De Inventoribus, treating of the origin of all
things whether ecclesiastical or lay (Paris, 1499), originally consisted
of only seven books, but was increased to eight in 1521. It was
exceedingly popular, and was early translated into French (1521),
German (1537), English (1546) and Spanish (1551). All editions,
however, except those following the text sanctioned by Gregory
II. in 1576, are on the Index Expurgatorius. The De Pwdighs
also achieved a great popularity, and was soon translated into
Italian (1543), English (1546) and Spanish (1550). This treatise
takes the form of a Latin dialogue between Polydore and his
Cambridge friend Robert Ridley. It takes place in the open air,
at Polydore s country house near London. Polydore's duty is to
state ^the problems and supply the historical illustrations; his
friend's to explain, rationalize and depreciate as best he can
Here, as in the Historic. Anglica, it is plain that the writer plumes
himself specially on the excellence of his Latin, which in Sir Henry
Ellis's opinion is purer than that of any of his contemporaries.
VIRGINAL, or PAIR or VIRGINALS, a name applied in
England, and also recognized on the continent of Europe,
to the spinet, and more especially to the small pentagonal
and to the rectangular models. The word virginal, bestowed
because it was pre-eminently the instrument for girls, denotes
before all a keyboard instrument, having for each note one
string only, plucked by means of a quill attached to a jack. 1
The fine instrument in the Victoria and Albert Museum, known
as Queen Elizabeth's virginal, is an Italian pentagonal spinet,
elaborately emblazoned with the coat of arms of the queen,
and having a compass of just over four octaves. King Henry
VIII. and his daughters, Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth,
were all accomplished performers on the virginal. (K. S.)
VIRGINIA, or VERGINIA, in Roman legendary history,
daughter of L. Virginius, a plebeian centurion. Her beauty
attracted the notice of the decemvir Appius Claudius, who
instructed Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, to claim her
as his slave. Marcus accordingly brought her before Appius,
and asserted that she was the daughter of one of his female
slaves, who had been stolen and passed off by the wife of
Virginius as her own child. Virginius presented him-
self with his daughter before the tribunal of Appius, who,
refusing to listen to any argument, declared Virginia to be
a slave and the property of Marcus. Virginius thereupon
stabbed her to the heart in the presence of Appius and the
people. A storm of popular indignation arose and the decem-
virs were forced to resign. The people for the second time
" seceded " to the Sacred Mount, and refused to return to
Rome until the old form of government was re-established.
See Livy iii. 44-58; Dion. Halic. xi. 28-45, whose account
differs in some respects from Livy's; Cicero, De finibus, ii. 20;
Val. Max. vi. I, 2; for a critical examination of the story and its
connexion with the downfall of the decemvirs, see Sir G. Cornewall
Lewis, Credibility of Early Roman History, ii. ; Schwegler, Romische
GeschichU, bk. xxx. 4, 5; also E. Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman
History (Eng. trans. 1906), p. 185, according to whom the Wends of
Virginia and Lucretia (two different versions of one and the same
story, connecting the history of Roman liberty with the martyrdom
of a woman) are nothing but late elaborations of legends connected
with the cults of Ardea.
VIRGINIA, one of the more N. of the S.E. Atlantic states
of the United States of America, lying between latitudes 36 30'
and 39 30' N., and longitude 75 15' and 83 40' W. It is
bounded on the N.W. by Kentucky and West Virginia, the
irregular boundary line following mountain ridges for a part
of its course; on the N.E. by Maryland, from which it is
separated by the Potomac river; on the S. by North Carolina
and Tennessee, the boundary line being nominally a parallel
of latitude, but actually a more irregular line. Virginia has
an area of 42,627 sq. m., of which 2365 sq. m. are water surface,
including land-locked bays and harbours, rivers and Lake
Drummond. The state has a length of about 440 m. E. and
W., measured along its S. boundary; and an extreme breadth
N. and S. of about 200 m.
Physical Features. Virginia is crossed from N. to S. or N.E. to
S.W. by four distinct physiographic provinces. The easternmost
is the Coastal Plain Province, and forms a part of the great Coastal
Plain bordering the S.E. United States from New .York Harbour
to the Rio Grande. This province occupies about 11,000 sq. m.
of the state, and is known as " Tidewater Virginia." After the
plain had been raised above sea-level to a higher elevation than it
now occupies, it was mnch dissected by streams and then depressed,
allowing the sea to invade the stream valleys. Such is the origin
of the branching bays or " drowned river valleys," among which
may be noted the lower Potomac, Rappahannock, York and James
rivers. Chesapeake Bay itself is the drowned lower course of the
Susquehanna river, to which the other streams mentioned were
1 The mechanism is described under PIANOFORTE and SPISET.
n8
VIRGINIA
tributary previous to the depression which transformed them into
bays. The land between the drowned valleys is relatively flat,
and varies in height from sea-level on the E. to 150-300 ft. on the
W. border. Passing westward across the " fall-line," the next
province is the Piedmont, a part of the extensive Piedmont Belt
reaching from Pennsylvania to Alabama. This is the most ex-
tensive of the subdivisions of Virginia, comprising 18,000 sq. m.
of its area, and varying in elevation from 150-300 ft. on the E. to
700-1200 ft. along the foot of the Blue Ridge at the W. The slop-
ing surface is gently rolling, and has resulted from the uplift and
dissection of a nearly level plain of erosion developed on folded,
crystalline rocks. Occasional hard rock ridges rise to a moderate
elevation above the general level, while areas of unusually weak
Triassic sandstones have been worn down to form lowlands. W. of
the Piedmont, and like it consisting of crystalline rocks, is the
Blue Ridge, a mountain belt from 3 to 20 m. in breadth, narrowing
toward the N., where it passes into Maryland, and broadening
southward toward its great expansion in W. North Carolina and
E. Tennessee, where it is transformed into massive mountain groups.
In elevation the Blue Ridge of Virginia varies from 1460 ft. at
Harper's Ferry, where the Potomac river breaks through it in a
splendid water-gap, to 5719 ft. in Mt. Rogers, Grayson county.
About 2500 sq. m. of the state are comprised in this province.
W. of the Blue Ridge is the Newer Appalachian or Great Valley
Province, characterized by parallel ridges and valleys developed
by erosion on folded beds of sandstone, limestone and shales, and
comprising an area of about 10,400 sq. m. in Virginia. The belts
of non-resistant rock have been worn away, leaving longitudinal
valleys separated by hard rock ridges. A portion of this province
in which weak rocks predominate gives an unusually broad valley
region, known as the Valley of Virginia, drained by the Shenandoah
river, and the headwaters of the James, Roanpke, New, and Holston
rivers, which dissect the broad valley floor into gently rolling low
hills. At the N., near the mouth of the Shenandoah, the valley is
about 250 ft. above sea-level, but rises south-westward to an eleva-
tion of more than 1600 ft. at the S. boundary of the state.
The rivers of the state flow in general from N.W. to S.E., across
the Blue Ridge, the Piedmont and the Coastal Plain, following
courses which were established before erosion had produced much
of the present topography. But in the Newer Appalachians the
streams more often follow the trend of the structure until they
empty into one of the larger, transverse streams. Thus the Shen-
andoah flows N.E. to the Potomac, the Holston S.W. toward the
Tennessee. A part of this same province, in the S.W. part of
the state, is drained by the New river, which flows N.W. across the
ridges to the Kanawha and Ohio rivers in the Appalachian Plateau.
In the limestone regions caverns and natural bridges occur, among
which Luray Cavern and the Natural Bridge are well known. The
drowned lower courses of the S.E. flowing streams are navigable,
and afford many excellent harbours. Chesapeake Bay covers much
land that might otherwise be agriculturally valuable, but repays
this loss, in part at least, by its excellent fisheries, including those
for oysters. In the S.E., where the low, flat Coastal Plain is poorly
drained, is the Great Dismal Swamp, a fresh-water marsh covering
700 sq. m., in the midst of which is Lake Drummond, 2 m. or
more in diameter. Along the shores of Chesapeake Bay and the
Atlantic Ocean are low, sandy beaches, often enclosing lagoons or
salt marshes.
Fauna. Till about the middle of the l8th century the bison
and the elk roamed the W. part of the state. The Virginia deer
is common in the bottomlands; a few beaver still frequent the
remoter streams; in the higher portions are still a few black bears
and pumas, besides the lynx, the Virginia varying hare, the wood-
chuck, the red and the fox squirrel and flying squirrels. The grey
squirrel is plentiful in wooded districts. On the Coastal Plain
are the musk-rat, the eastern cotton-tail, chipmunk, grey fox,
common mole and Virginia opossum. In colonial times the
Atlantic right-whale was killed in some numbers off the coast.
Many species of water and shore birds migrate along the coast,
where also others breed, as the royal, common and least terns
and black skimmer; practically all the ducks are migrant species,
though the wood-duck breeds. Swan, geese and brant winter on the
coast. The yellow-crowned night-heron and the little blue heron
nest rarely. The turkey-buzzard and the barn-owl are resident.
Red-headed and red-bellied woodpeckers, orchard orioles, yellow-
winged sparrows, the cardinal, the blue grosbeak, the Carolina
wren and the mocking-bird are characteristic of the lower elevations.
The ruffed grouse ana wild turkey are found in the wooded moun-
tainous districts, while the quail (here called " partridge ") is a game
bird of the open stubble fields.
Of reptiles, the rattlesnake and copperhead are the only poisonous
species, but numerous harmless varieties are common. In the
salt marshes of the coast occurs the diamond-backed terrapin.
Trout abound in the mountain streams, and black bass in the rivers
of the interior. The cat-fish grows to a large size in the sluggish
rivers. On the coast, the striped bass, sea-bass, drum, sheepshead,
weakfish. bluefish and Spanish mackerel are important as food
fishes. There are valuable oyster fisheries in Chesapeake Bay.
Flora. The Coastal Plain of Virginia is covered with pine forests
which merge westward with the hard woods of the Piedmont Belt,
where oaks formerly prevailed, but where a second growth of pine
now constitutes part of the forest. Even on the Coastal Plain
the Jersey and oldfield pines of to-day replace more valuable species
of the original growth. The Blue Ridge and Newer Appalachian
regions are covered with pine, hemlock, white oak, cherry and
yellow poplar; while that portion of these provinces lying in the
S.W. part of the state still contains valuable forests of hickory and
walnut, besides oak and cherry. On the Coastal Plain the cypress
grows in the Dismal Swamp, river birch along the streams, and
sweet gum and black gum in swampy woods. Other characteristic
plants of the Coastal Plain are the cranberry, wild rice, wild yam,
wax myrtle, wistaria, trumpet flower, passion flower, holly and white
alder. Many of these species spread into the Piedmont Belt.
Rhododendron, mountain laurel and azaleas are common in the
mountains. The blackberry, black raspberry, huckleberry, blue-
berry, wild ginger and ginseng are widely distributed.
Ctimate. The climate of Virginia is generally free from extremes
of heat and cold. In the Coastal Plain region the temperature is
quite stable from day to day, as a result of the equalizing effect of
the numerous bays which indent this province. The mean winter
temperature is 39-8, the mean summer temperature 77-2 J , with a
mean annual of 58-6. Killing frosts do not occur before the
middle of October, nor later than the last part of April, in the
Piedmont Province temperature conditions are naturally less stable,
owing to the distance from the sea and to the greater inequality
of surface topography. In autumn and winter sudden temperature
changes are experienced, though not frequently. The mean winter
temperature of this province is 35-8; mean summer temperature,
75; mean annual, 55-9. Killing frosts may occur as early as
the first of October and as late as the last of May. The greatest
variability in temperature conditions in the state occurs in the Blue
Ridge, Newer Appalachian Provinces, where the most rugged and
variable topography is likewise found. The mean winter temperature
for this section is 33-8; mean summer temperature, 71-3 ; mean
annual, 53-2.
Soil. Marshy soils are found along the lowest portions of the
Coastal Plain, and are exceedingly productive wherever reclaimed
by draining, as in portions of the Dismal Swamp. Other portions
of the Coastal Plain afford more valuable soils, sandy loams over-
lying sandy clays. On the higher elevations the soil is light and
sandy, and such areas remain relatively unproductive. The
crystalline rocks of the Piedmont area are covered with residuat
soils of variable composition and moderate fertility. Passing the
high and rugged Blue Ridge, which is infertile except in the inter-
vening valleys of its S.W. expansion, we reach the Newer Appal-
achians, where fertile limestone soils cover the valley floors. The
Valley of Virginia is the most productive part of the state.
Forests. The woodland area of Virginia was estimated in 1900
at 23,400 sq. m., or 58 % of the area of the state. The timber area
originally comprised three divisions: the mountain regions growing
pine and hard woods and hemlock; the Piedmont region producing
chiefly oaks with some pine; and the lands below the " Fall Line,
which were forested with yellow pine. Most of the pine of the
mountain region has been cut, and the yellow pine and hard woods
have also largely disappeared. The production of timber has,
however, steadily increased. In 1900 the value of the product was
$12,137,177, representing chiefly yellow pine.
Fisheries. Oysters are by far the most valuable of the fisheries
products, but, of the 400,000 acres of waters within the state
suitable for oyster culture, in 1909 only about one-third was used
for that purpose. Next in importance were the catches of men-
haden, shad, clams, squeteague and alewives; while minor catches
were made of crabs, croaker, bluefish, butterfish, catfish, perch and
spotted and striped bass.
Agriculture. Tobacco was an important crop in the earlier
history of the colony, and Virginia continued to be the leading
tobacco-producing state of the Union (reporting in 1850 28-4% of
the total crop) until after the Civil War, which, with the division
of the state, caused it to fall into second place, Kentucky taking
the lead; and in 1900 the crop of North Carolina also was larger.
The state's production of tobacco in 1909 was 120,125,000 ft,
valued at $10,210,625.
The production of Indian corn in 1909 was 47,328.000 bus.,
valued at $35,023,000; of wheat, 8,848,000 bus., valued at
$10,175,000; of oats, 3,800,000 bus., valued at $2,052,000; of
rye, 184,000 bus., valued at $155,000; of buckwheat, 378,000 bus.,
valued at $287,000; the hay crop was valued at $8,060,000
(606,000 tons). The amount of the cotton crop in 1909 was
10,000 soo-lb bales.
The value of horses in 1910 was $34,561,000 (323,000 head);
of mules, $7,020,000 (54,000 head); of neat cattle, $20,034,000
(875,000 head); of swine, $5,031,000 (774,000 head); of sheep,
$2,036,000 (522,000 head).
Minerals. The value of all mineral products in 1908 was
$13,127,395. By far the most valuable single product was bitu-
minous coal ($3.868,524; 4,259,042 tons). The existence of this
mineral in the vicinity of Richmond was known as early as 1770,
and the mining of it there began in 1775, but it was practically
VIRGINIA
119
discontinued about the middle of the igth century. The most
important coalfields of the state lie in the Appalachian regions in,
the S.W. part of the state, though there are also rich deposits in the
counties of Henrico, Chesterfield and Goochland, and in parts of
Powhatan and Amelia counties. In the S.E. portion of the Kanawha
basin, including Tazewell, Russell, Scott, Buchanan, Wise and Lee
counties, occur rich deposits of coal, which are of great value because
of their proximity to vast deposits of iron ores. In Tazewell county
is the famous Pocahontas bed, which produces one of the most
valuable grades of coking and steam coal to be found in the United
States. There are remarkably rich deposits of iron ore in the
Alleghanies, and the W. foothills of the Blue Ridge, from which most
of the iron ore of the state is procured, are lined with brown hematite.
Iron-mining perhaps the first in the New Woild was begun in
Virginia in 1608, when the Virginia Company shipped a quantity of
ore to England; and in 1619 the Company established on Falling
Creek, a tributary of the James river, a. colony of about 150 iron-
workers from Warwickshire, Staffordshire and Sussex, who had
established there several ore-reducing plants under the general
management of John Berkeley of Gloucester, England, when on the
22nd of March 1622 the entire colony, excepting a girl and a boy,
were massacred by the Indians. The first blast-furnace in the
colony seems to have been owned by Governor Spotswood, and was
built and operated at the head of the Rappahannock river about
17'5 by a colony of German Protestants. Immediately after the
War of Independence Virginia became an important iron-producing
state. The industry waned rapidly toward the middle of the igth
century, but was renewed upon the discovery of the high-grade ores
in the S.W. part of the state and the development of railway
facilities. The product of iron ore in 1908 was 692,223 long tons,
valued at $1,465,691. The product of pig-iron in 1908 was 320,458
long tons, valued at $4,578,000.
Manganese ore-mining began in Virginia in 1857 in the Shenandoah
Valley, and the product increased from about 100 tons in that year
to about 5000 tons (mined near Warminster, Nelson county) in
1868 and 1869. Thereafter Virginia and Georgia supplied most of
this mineral produced in the United States, and the greater part of
it has been shipped to England. Between 1885 and 1891 the average
annual production was about 15,000 tons, the greatest output
20,567 tons being mined in 1886. After 1891 the product declined
rapidly, amounting in 1907 to 800 tons valued at $4800.
In the production of pyrite, which is found in Louisa county and
is used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid employed in the treat-
ment of wood pulp for paper-making and in the manufacture of
superphosphates from phosphate rock, Virginia took first rank in
1902 with an output valued at $501,642, or 64-7 % of the total yield
of this mineral in the United States; and this rank was maintained
in 1908, when the product was 1 16,340 long tons, valued at $435,522.
Limestone is found in the region west of the Blue Ridge, and has
been quarried extensively, the product, used chiefly for flux, being
valued in 1908 at $645,385.
Virginia was by far the most important state in 1908 in the pro-
duction of soapstone, nearly the whole product being taken from
a long narrow belt running north-east from Nelson county into
Albemarle county; more than 90% of the output was sawed into
slabs for laundry and laboratory appliances. The product of talc
and soapstone in 1908 was 19,616 short tons, valued at $458,252.
The value of mineral waters produced in 1908 was $207,115. The
state has many mineral springs occurring in connexion with faults
in the Appalachian chain of mountains; in 1908, 46 were reported,
making the state third among the states of the United States in
number of springs, and of these several have been in high medical
repute. At 18 of these resorts are situated, some of which have at
times had considerable social vogue. White Sulphur Springs, in
Greenbrier county, impregnated with sulphur, with therapeutic
application in jaundice, dyspepsia, &c. ; Alleghany Springs, in
Montgomery county, calcareous and earthy, purgative and
diuretic; Rawley Springs in Rockingham county, Sweet Chalybeate
Springs in Alleghany county, and Rockbridge Alum Springs in
Rockbridge county, classed as iron springs and reputed of value as
tonics, and the thermal springs, Healing Springs (88 F.) and Hot
Springs (no F.), both in Bath county are noted medicinal springs.
The value of metals produced in 1908 was as follows: gold
(which is found in a belt that extends from the Potomac river to
Halifax county and varies from 15 to 25 in. in width), $3600 (174
fine oz. troy); copper, $3312 (25,087 lb); and lead, $1092 (13 short
tons). Minerals produced in small quantities include gypsum,
millstones, salt and sandstone, and among those found out not
produced (in 1902) in commercial quantities may be mentioned
allanite, alum, arsenic, bismuth, carbonite, felspar, kaolin, marble,
plumbago, quartz, serpentine and tin. Asbestos was formerly
mined in the western and south-western parts of the state. Barytes
is mined near Lynchburg; the value of the output in 1907 was
$3 2 i833, since which date the output has decreased.
Manufactures. Virginia's manufacturing establishments increased
very rapidly in number and in the value of their products during
the last two decades of the igth century. The number of all
establishments increased from 5710 in 1880 to 8248 in 1900; the
capital invested from $26,968,990 to $103,670,988, the average
number of wage-earners from 40,184 to 72,702, the total wages from
$7,425,261 to $22,445,720, and the value of products from $51 ,770, 992
to $132,172,910. The number of factories' increased from 3186 in
1900 to 3187 in 1905, the capital invested from $92,299,589 to
$147,989,182, the average number of wage-earners from 66,223 to
80,285, the total wages from $20,269,026 to $27,943,053, ana the
value of products from $108,644,150 to $148,856,525. The manu-
facture of all forms of tobacco is the most important industry ; the
value of its products in 1905 was $16,768,204. Since 1880 there
has been a rapid development in textile manufacture, for which the
water power of the Piedmont region is used. A peculiar industry
is the grading, roasting, cleaning and shelling of peanuts.
Transportation and Commerce. Four large railway systems prac-
tically originate in the state and radiate to the S. and W.: the
Southern railway, with its main line traversing the state in the
direction of its greatest length leaving Washington to run south-west
through Alexandria, Charlottesville, Lynchburg and Danville to
the North Carolina line, with connexions to Richmond and a line
to Norfolk on the east ; the Atlantic Coast line with its main lines
running S. from Richmond and Norfolk; the Seaboard Air line,
having its main lines also running to the S. from Richmond and
Norfolk; the Norfolk & Western crossing the state from east
to west in the southern part with Norfolk its eastern terminus,
passing through Lynchburg and leaving the state at the south-western
corner at Bristol, and the Chesapeake & Ohio crossing the state
from east to west farther north than the Norfolk & Western
from Newport News on the coast through Richmond to the West
Virginia line. Of more recent construction is the Virginian railway,
a project of H. H. Rogers, opened for traffic in 1909, which connects
the coal region of West Virginia with Norfolk, crossing the southern
part of the state from E. to W., and is designed chiefly for heavy
freight traffic. The N. W. part of the state is entered by the Baltimore
& Ohio, which has a line down the Shenandoah Valley to Lexington.
Connexion between Richmond and Washington is by a union line
(Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac and Washington Southern
railways) operated jointly by the Southern, Atlantic Coast line,
Seaboard Air line, Chesapeake & Ohio, Pennsylvania, and
Baltimore & Ohio railways. In 1850 there were 384 m. of
railway in Virginia; in 1880, 1839 m., and in 1890 it had nearly
doubled, having increased to 3,359-54 m., a gain coincident with
the newly awakened industrial activity of the Southern States and
an era of railway building throughout this section. The railway
mileage in 1900 was 3,789-58, and in January 1909 it was 4,348-53.
Hampton Roads at the mouth of the James river, which forms
the harbour for the leading ports of the state, Norfolk and Newport
News, affords one of the best anchorages of the Atlantic coast. It
gives shelter not only to vessels plying to its adjoining ports but
serves as a harbour of refuge for snipping bound up or down the
Atlantic coast, and is frequently used for the assembling of naval
fleets. There is a large foreign trade and a regular steamship service
to Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia and Savannah from
Norfolk, and there is a considerable traffic on Chesapeake Bay, the
Rappahannock, York, James and Elizabeth rivers. Fredericksburg
at the head of navigation on the Rappahannock and West Point
on the York have traffic of commercial importance in lumber and
timber, oysters and farm produce, cotton and tobacco especially
being shipped in coastwise vessels from West Point. Petersburg
and Richmond on the James are connected with regular steamship
lines with Norfolk, Richmond's water trade being chiefly in coal,
oil, logs and fertilizer. Steamboats plying on Chesapeake Bay-
connect Alexandria with Norfolk. From the Elizabeth river on
which Norfolk is situated lead the Albemarle & Chesapeake Canal
and the Dismal Swamp Canal, which connect with the waters of
Albemarle Sound. Traffic through these canals consists chiefly
of forest products, logs, lumber and shingles.
Population. The population of Virginia in 1890 was
1 .6ss,98o; in 1900, 1,854,184; and in 1910, 2,061,612.* Of the
total population in 1900, 1,173,787 were native whites, 19,461
were foreign-born, 660,722 (or 35-7% of the total population)
were negroes, 354 were Indians, 243 were Chinese and 10 were
Japanese. The state was fifth among the states and Territories
in the number of negro inhabitants, but showed a marked
decrease in the ratio of negroes to the total population in the
decade from 1890 to 1900, the percentage of the total popula-
tion in 1890 having been 38-4.
Of the inhabitants born in the United States 53,235 were natives
of North Carolina, 12,504 were natives of Maryland, and 10,273
were natives of Pennsylvania. Of the foreign-born 4504 were
1 Statistics for 1890 represent the value of all manufactures; those
for 1900 (from this point) and 1905 show values under the factory
system, excluding neighbourhood industries and hand trades.
According to previous censuses the population was as follows:
(1790), 747,610; (1800), 880,200; (1810), 974,600; (1820),
1,065,366; (1830), 1,211.405; (1840), 1,239,797; (1850), 1.421,661;
(i860), 1,596,318; (1870). 1,225,163; (1880), 1,512,565.
I2O
VIRGINIA
Germans, 3534 were natives of Ireland and 3425 of England. Of
the total population 52,264 were of foreign parentage (i.e. either
one or both parents were foreign-born) and 9769 were of German,
8235 of Irish and 4792 of English parentage, both on the father's
and on the mother's side. Out of the total of 793,546 members of
religious denominations in 1906, more than half, 415,987, were
Baptists; the Methodists numbered 200,771; and there were
39,628 Presbyterians, 28,700 Roman Catholics, 28,487 Protestant
Episcopalians, 26,248 Disciples of Christ, and 15,010 Lutherans.
Virginia in 1900 had 46-2 inhabitants to the square mile. The prin-
cipal cities of the state are: Richmond (the capital), Norfolk,
Petersburg, Roanoke, Newport News, Lynchburg, Portsmouth and
Danville.
Government. Virginia has had six state constitutions:
the first was adopted in 1776, the second in 1830, the third
in 1851, the fourth in 1864, the fifth in 1869, and the sixth,
the present, in 1902. Amendments to the present constitu-
tion may be proposed in either house of the General Assembly,
and if they pass both houses of that and the succeeding General
Assembly by a majority of the members elected to each house
and are subsequently approved by a majority of the people
who vote on the question at the next general election they
become a part of the constitution. A majority of the members
in each house of the General Assembly may at any time propose
a convention to revise the constitution and, if at the next
succeeding election a majority of the people voting on the
question approve, the General Assembly must provide for the
election of delegates. To be entitled to vote one must be a
male citizen of the United States and twenty-one years of age;
have been a resident of the state for two years, of the county,
city, or town for one year, and of the election precinct for
thirty days next preceding the election; have paid, at least
six months before the election, all state poll taxes assessed
against him for three years next preceding the election, unless
he is a veteran of the Civil War; and have registered after
the adoption of the constitution (1902). For registration prior
to 1904 one of four additional qualifications was required:
service in the army or navy of the United States, of the Con-
federate States, or of some state of the United States or of the
Confederate States; direct descent from one who so served;
ownership of property upon which state taxes amounting to
at least one dollar were paid in the preceding year; or ability
to read the constitution or at least to show an understanding
of it. And to qualify for registration after 1904 one
must have paid all state poll taxes assessed against him for
the three years immediately preceding his application, unless
he is a veteran of the Civil War; and unless physically unable
he must " make application in his own handwriting, without
aid, suggestion or memorandum, in the presence of the regis-
tration officers, stating therein his name, age, date and place
of birth, residence and occupation at the time and for two
years next preceding, whether he has previously voted, and,
if so, the state, county and precinct in which he voted last ";
and must answer questions relating to his qualifications.
Executive. The governor, lieutenant-governor, attorney-general,
secretary of the commonwealth, treasurer, superintendent of public
instruction and commissioner of agriculture are elected for a term
of four years, every fourth year from 1905; and each new administra-
tion begins on the 1st of February. The governor must be at least
thirty years of age, a resident of the state for five years next pre-
ceding his election; and, if of foreign birth, a citizen of the United
States for ten years. He appoints numerous officers with the con-
currence of the Senate, has the usual power of vetoing legislative
bills, and has authority to inspect the records of officers, or to
employ accountants to do so, and to suspend, during a recess of the
General Assembly, any executive officer at the seat of government
except the lieutenant-governor; he must, however, report to the
General Assembly at its next session the cause of any suspension
and that body determines whether the suspended officer shall be
restored or removed.
Legislature. The General Assembly consists of a Senate and a
House of Delegates. The Constitution provides that the number of
senators shall not be more than forty nor less than thirty-three,
and that the number of delegates shall not be more than one hundred
nor less than ninety. Senators and delegates are elected by single
districts (into which the state is apportioned once every ten years,
according to population), the senators for a term of four years,
the delegates for a term of two years. The only qualifications for
senators and delegates are those required of an elector and residence
in their districts; there are, however, a few disqualifications, such
as holding certain offices in the state or a salaried Federal office.
The General Assembly meets regularly at Richmond on the second
Wednesday in January of each even-numbered year, and the governor
must call an extra session on the application of two-thirds of the
members of both houses, and may call one whenever he thinks
the interests of the state require it. The length of a regular session
is limited to sixty days unless three-fifths of the members of each
house concur in extending it, and no extension may exceed thirty
days. Senators and delegates are paid $500 each for each regular
session and $250 for each extra session. Any bill may originate
in either house, but a bill of special, private or local interest must
be referred to a standing committee of five members appointed
by the Senate and seven members appointed by the House of Dele-
gates, before it is referred to the committee of the house in which
it originated, "'he governor's veto power extends to items in appro-
priation bills, and to overcome his veto, whether of a whole bill or an
item of an appropriation bill, a two-thirds vote in each house of the
members present is required, and such two-thirds must include in
each house a majority of the members elected to that house. When-
ever the governor approves of the general purpose of a bill, but
disapproves of some portion or portions, he may return the bill
with his recommendations for amendment, and when it comes back
to him, he may, whether his recommendations have been adopted
or not, treat it as if it were before him for the first time.
Judiciary. The administration of justice is vested principally
in a supreme court of appeals, circuit courts, city courts and courts
of a justice of the peace. The supreme court of appeals consists
of five judges, but any three of them may hold a court. They are
chosen for a term of twelve years by a joint vote of the Senate and
the House of Delegates. The court sits at Richmond, Staunton
and Wytheville. The concurrence of at least three j udges is necessary
to the decision of a case involving the constitutionality of a law.
Whenever the docket of this court is crowded, or there is a case upon
it in which it is improper for a majority of the j udges to sit, the General
Assembly may provide for a special court of appeals, to be composed
of not more than five nor less than three judges of the circuit courts
and city courts, in cities having a population of 10,000 or more. The
state is divided into thirty judicial circuits and in each of these a
circuit judge is chosen for a term of eight years by a joint vote of
the Senate and the House of Delegates. The jurisdiction of the
circuit courts was extended by the present Constitution to include
that which, under the preceding Constitution, was vested in county
courts, and the principal restriction is that they shall not have
original jurisdiction in civil cases for the recovery of personal
property amounting to less than $20. Similar to the circuit court
is the corporation court in each city having a population of 10,000
or more; the judge of each of these corporation courts is chosen for
a term of eight years by a joint vote of the Senate and the House of
Delegates, and he may hold a circuit as well as a corporation court.
Circuit courts and corporation courts appoint the commissioners in
chancery. Three justices of the peace are elected in each magis-
terial district for a term of four years. There are also justices of
the peace (elected) and police justices (appointed) in cities, and in
various minor cases a justice's court has original jurisdiction, either
exclusive or concurrent with the circuit and corporation courts.
In each city having a population of 70,000 or more a special justice
of the peace, known as a civil justice, is elected by a joint vote of
the Senate and the House of Delegates few a term of four years.
Local Government. Each county is divided into magisterial
districts, varying in number from three to eleven. Each district elects
a supervisor for a term of four years, and the district supervisors
constitute a county board of supervisors, which represents the
county as a corporation, manages the county property and county
business, levies the county taxes, audits the accounts of the county,
and recommends for appointment by the circuit court a county sur-
veyor and a county superintendent of the poor. Each county also
elects a treasurer, a sheriff, an attorney and one or more com-
missioners of the revenue, each for a term of four years, and a clerk,
who is clerk of the circuit court, for a term of eight years. The
coroner is appointed by the circuit court for a term of two years.
Each magisterial district elects, besides a supervisor and justices
of the peace, a constable and an overseer of the poor, each for a term
of four years. The Constitution provides that all " communities "
with a population less than 5000, incorporated after its adoption,
shall be known as towns, and that those with a population of 5000
or more shall be known as cities. In each city incorporated after
its adoption, the Constitution requires the election in each of a mayor,
a treasurer and a sergeant, each for a term of four years, and the
election or appointment of a commissioner of the revenue for an
equal term; that in cities having a population of 10,000 or more
the council shall be composed of two branches; that the mayor
shall have a veto on all acts of the council and on items of appro-
priation, ordinances or resolutions, which can be overridden only by
an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members elected to each
branch; and that no city shall incur a bonded indebtedness ex-
ceeding 18% of the assessed value of its real estate.
Miscellaneous Laws. A married woman may manage her separate
VIRGINIA
121
property as if she were single, except that she cannot by her sole
act deprive her husband of his courtesy in her real estate. A widow
is entitled to a dower in one-third of the real estate of which her
husband was seized at any time during coverture. If the husband
dies intestate, leaving no descendants and no paternal or maternal
kindred, the whole of his estate goes to his widow absolutely. If
the husband dies intestate, leaving a widow and issue, either by her
or by a former marriage, the widow is entitled to at least one-third
of his personal estate: if he leaves no issue by her, she is entitled
to so much of his personal estate as was acquired by him by virtue
of his marriage with her prior to the 4th of April 1877; if he leaves
no issue whatever, she is entitled to one-half of his persona) estate.
A widower is entitled by courtesy to a life interest in all his wife's
real estate; if she dies intestate, he is entitled to all her personal
estate; if she dies intestate, leaving no descendants and no paternal
or maternal kindred, he is entitled to her whole estate absolutely.
The causes for an absolute divorce are adultery; impotency;
desertion for three years; a sentence to confinement in the peni-
tentiary; a conviction of an infamous offence before marriage
unknown to the other; or, if one of the parties is charged with an
offence punishable with death or confinement in the penitentiary,
and has been a fugitive from justice for two years; pregnancy of
the wife before marriage unknown to the husband, or the wife's
being a prostitute before marriage unknown to the husband. One
party must be a resident of the state for one year preceding the
commencement of a suit for a divorce. When a divorce is obtained
because of adultery, permission of the guilty party to marry again
is in the discretion of the court. Marriages between whites and
negroes and bigamous marriages are void. The homestead of a
householder or head of a family to the value of $2000 and properly
recorded is exempt from levy, seizure, garnishment or forced sale,
except for purchase money, for services of a labouring person or
mechanic, for liabilities incurred by a public officer, fiduciary or
attorney for money collected, for taxes, for rent or for legal fees
of a public officer. If the owner is a married man his homestead
cannot be sold except by the joint deed of himself and his wife;
neither can it be mortgaged without his wife's consent except for
purchase money or for the erection or repair of buildings upon it.
The exemption continues after his death so long as there is an
unmarried widow or an unmarried minor child. The family library,
family pictures, school books, a seat or pew in a house of worship,
a lot in a burial ground, necessary wearing apparel, a limited amount
of furniture and household utensils, some of a farmer's domestic
animals and agricultural implements, and the wages of a labouring
man who is a householder are exempt from levy or distress. A law
enacted in 1908 forbids the employment of children under fourteen
years of age in any factory, workshop, mercantile establishment,
or mine within the state, except that orphans or other children
dependent upon their own labour for support or upon whom invalid
parents are dependent may be so employed after they are twelve
years of age, and that a parent may work his or her own children in
his or her own factory, workshop, mercantile establishment or mine.
Charitable and Penal Institutions. Virginia has four hospitals
for the insane: the Eastern State Hospital (1773), at Williams-
burg; the South-Western State Hospital (1887), at Marion; the
Western State Hospital (1828), with an epileptic colony, at Staun-
ton; and the Central State Hospital (1870; for negroes), at Peters-
burg. For the care of the deaf and blind there is the Virginia
School for Deaf and Blind (1839), at Staunton, and the Virginia
School for Coloured Deaf and Blind Children (1908), at Newport
News. The State Penitentiary is at Richmond. The Prison
Association of Virginia with an Industrial School (1890) at Laurel
Station, the Negro Reformatory Association of Virginia with a
Manual Labour School (1897) at Broadneck Farm, Hanover, and
the Virginia Home and Industrial School for white girls (1910) at
Bon Air take care of juvenile offenders; these are all owned and
controlled by self-perpetuating boards of trustees, but are supported
by the state, receiving an allowance per capita. For each state
hospital for the insane there is a special board of directors consisting
of three members appointed by the governor with the concurrence
of the Senate, one every two years, and over them all is the com-
missioner of state hospitals for the insane, who is appointed by the
governor with the concurrence of the Senate for a term of four
years. The members of the special boards under the chairmanship
of the commissioner constitute a general board for all the hospitals,
and the superintendent of each hospital is appointed by the general
board. Each school for the deaf and blind is managed by a board
of visitors appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the
Senate. About five-sixths of the convicts are negroes. Some of
them are employed on a state farm at Lassiter, Goochland county,
on which there is a tuberculosis hospital, and some of them on the
public roads; in 1909 there were 350 men at the state farm, 14
road camps with about 630 men, and 1273 men and 96 women in
the penitentiary at Richmond. When a prisoner has served one-
half of his term and his conduct has been good for two years
(if he has been confined for that period) the board of directors may
parole him for the remainder of his term, provided there is
satisfactory assurance that he will not be dependent on public
charity. The Prison Association of Virginia, the Negro Reformatory
Association of Virginia and the Virginia Home and Industrial School
for girls are each under a board of trustees appointed by the General
Assembly, and each is authorized to establish houses of correction,
reformatories and industrial schools. A general supervision of all
state, county, municipal and private charities and corrections is
vested by a law enacted in 1908 in a board of charities and correc-
tions consisting of five members appointed by the governor with
the concurrence of the Senate.
Education. The public free school system is administered by a
state board of education, a superintendent of public instruction,
division superintendents, and district and county school boards.
The state board of education consists of the governor; the attorney-
general; the superintendent of public instruction, who is ex ojficio
its president; three experienced educators chosen quadrennially
by the Senate from members of the faculties of the University of
Virginia, the Virginia Military Institute, the Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, the State Female Normal School at Farmville, the School
for the Deaf and Blind, and the College of William and Mary;
and two division superintendents, one from a county and one from
a city, chosen biennially by the other members of the board. This
board prescribes the duties of the superintendent of public instruc-
tion and decides appeals from his decisions; keeps the state divided
into school divisions, comprising not less than one county or city
each ; appoints quadrennially, with the concurrence of the Senate,
one superintendent for each school division and prescribes his
powers and duties; selects textbooks; provides for examination
of teachers; and appoints school inspectors. In each county an
electoral board, consisting of the attorney for the Commonwealth,
the division superintendent and one member appointed by the
judge of the circuit court, appoints a board of three school trustees
for each district, one each year. The division superintendent
and the school trustees of the several districts constitute a county
school board. The elementary schools are maintained from the
proceeds of the state school funds, consisting of interest on the
literary fund, a portion of the state poll tax, a property tax not less
than one mill nor more than five mills on the dollar, and special
appropriations; county funds, consisting principally of a property
tax; and district funds, consisting principally of a property tax
and a dog tax. A law enacted in 1908 encourages the establish-
ment of departments of agriculture, cfomestic economy and manual
training in at least one high school in each congressional district.
A law enacted in 1910 provides a fund for special aid from the
state to rural graded schools with at least two rooms. With state
aid normal training departments are maintained in several of the
high schools in counties which adopt the provisions of the statute.
All children between the ages of eight and twelve years are required
to attend a public school at least twelve weeks in a year (six weeks
consecutively) unless excused on account of weakness of mind or
body, unless the child can read and write and is attending a private
school, or unless the child lives more than two miles from the
nearest school and more than one mile from an established public
school wagon route. The State Female Normal School, at Farm-
ville, is governed by a board consisting of the state superintendent
and thirteen trustees appointed by the governor with the con-
currence of the Senate for a term of four years. The Virginia
Normal and Industrial Institute, at Petersburg, is governed by a
board of visitors consisting of the superintendent of public instruc-
tion and four other members appointed by the governor with the
concurrence of the Senate for four years. In 1908 the General
Assembly made an appropriation for establishing two state normal
and industrial schools for women, one at Harrisonburg and the
other at Fredericksburg, both under a board of trustees consisting
of the superintendent of public instruction and ten other members
appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate.
The Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Polytechnic
Institute, at Blacksburg, is governed by a board consisting of the
state superintendent and eight visitors appointed by the governor
with the concurrence of the Senate. The Virginia Military Institute,
at Lexington, is governed by a board of visitors consisting of the
adjutant general, the superintendent of public instruction and nine
other members appointed by the governor with the concurrence of
the Senate. The University of Virginia (), at Charlottesville,
was founded in 1817 and opened in 1825. The College of William
and Mary (1693), at Williamsburg, became a state institution in
1906 and is likewise governed under a board appointed by the
governor. Other institutions of higher learning which are net
under state control are: Washington and Lee University (non-
sectarian, 1749), at Lexington; Hampden-Sidney College (Presby-
terian, 1776), at Hampden-Sidney; Richmond College (Baptist,
1832), at Richmond; Randolph- Macon College (Methodist Episco-
pal, 1832), at Ashland; Emory and Henry College (Methodist
Episcopal, 1838), at Emory; Roanoke College (Lutheran, 1853),
at Salem; Brio'gewater College (German Baptist, 1879), at Bridge-
water; Fredericksburg College (Presbyterian, 1893), at Fredericks-
burg; Virgjnia Union University (Baptist, 1899), at Richmond;
and Virginia Christian College (Christian, 1903), at Lynchburg.
Finance. Revenue for state, county and municipal purposes is
derived principally from taxes on real estate, tangible personal
property, incomes in excess of $1000, wills and administrations,
122
VIRGINIA
deeds, seals, lawsuits, banks, trust and security companies, insurance
companies, express companies, railway and canal corporations,
sleeping-car, parlour-car and dining-car companies, telegraph and
telephone companies, franchise taxes, poll taxes, an inheritance tax
and taxes on various business and professional licences. The tax
laws require that property shall be assessed at its full value by
commissioners of the revenue elected by counties and cities. The
revenue is collected by county and city treasurers, clerks of courts,
and the state corporation commission, consisting of three members
appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the General
Assembly in joint session. The total receipts in the fiscal year
1908-1909 amounted to $5,536,510 and the total disbursements to
$5,796,980. By the 1st of January 1861 Virginia had incurred a
debt amounting to nearly $39,000,000, principally in aid of internal
improvements. She was unable to pay the interest on this during
the Civil War, and in March 1871 the principal together with the
overdue interest amounted to about $47,000,000. The General
Assembly passed an act at that time for refunding two-thirds of it,
claiming that the other third should be paid by West Virginia.
But the advocates of a " forcible readjustment " of the debt carried
the election in 1879 with the aid of the negro vote, and after prolonged
negotiations in 1892 a settlement was effected under which a debt
amounting to about $28,000.000 was again refunded. In 1908 this
had been reduced to about $24,000,000. The sinking fund consists
of damages recovered against defaulting revenue collectors, railway
stock and appropriations from time to time by the legislature.
History. Virginia was the first permanent English settle-
ment in North America. From 1583 to 1588 attempts had been
made by Sir Walter Raleigh and others to establish colonies on
the coast of what is now North Carolina. The only result was
the naming of the country Virginia in honour of Queen Eliza-
beth. But glowing accounts were brought back by the early
adventurers, and in 1606 an expedition was sent out by the
London Company, which was chartered with rights of trade
and settlement between 34 and 41 N. lat. It landed,
at a place which was called Jamestown, on the i3th cf May
1607, and resulted in the establishment of many plantations
along the James river. The purpose of the company was
to build up a profitable commercial and agricultural com-
munity; but the hostility of the natives, unfavourable climatic
conditions and the character of the colonists delayed the growth
of the new community. John Smith became the head of the
government in September 1608, compelled the colonists to submit
to law and order, built a church and prepared for more
extensive agricultural and fishing operations. In 1609 the
London Company was reorganized, other colonists were sent out
and the boundaries of the new country were fixed, according to
which Virginia was to extend from a point 200 m. south of Old
Point Comfort, at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, to another
point 200 m. north, " west and northwest to the South Sea."
The government of the country was in the hands of the
London Company, which in turn committed administrative and
local affairs to a governor and council who were to reside in the
colony. Before the arrival of the " government " and their
shiploads of settlers the original colony was reduced to the
direst straits. Captain Christopher Newport (d. 1618), Sir
Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers, the new authorities,
reached Jamestown at last with 150 men, but finding things
in such a deplorable state all agreed (June 10, 1610) to give up
the effort to found a colony on the James and set sail for New-
foundland. At the mouth of the river they met Lord Delaware,
however, who brought other colonists and plentiful supplies;
and they returned, set up a trading post at what is now Hampton
and undertook to bring the hostile natives to subjection. In
1611, 650 additional colonists landed, the James and Appo-
mattox rivers were explored and " plantations " were estab-
lished at Henrico and New Bermuda. In 1617 Virginia fell
into the hands of a rigid Puritan, Captain Samuel Argall. The
colonists were compelled on pain of death to accept the doctrine
of the trinity, respect the authority of the Bible and attend
church. This rigid regime was superseded in 1619 by a milder
system under Sir George Yeardley (d. 1627). Twelve hundred
new colonists arrived in 1619. At the same time negro slaves
and many " indentured " servants were imported as labourers.
At the beginning Virginia colonists had held their land and
improvements in common. But in 1616 the land was par-
celled out and the settlers were scattered along the shores of the
James and Appomattox rivers many miles inland. Twenty
thousand pounds of tobacco were exported in 1619. The com-
munity had now become self-supporting, and the year that
witnessed these changes witnessed also the first representative
assembly in North America, the Virginia House of Burgesses,
a meeting of planters sent from the plantations to assist the
governor in reforming and remaking the laws of the colony. In
1621 a constitution was granted whereby the London Company
appointed the governor and a council, and the people were to
choose annually from their counties, towns, hundreds and
plantations delegates to the House of Burgesses. The popular
assembly, like the English House of Commons, granted supplies
and originated laws, and the governor and Council enjoyed
the right of revision and veto as did the king and the House of
Lords at home. The Council sat also as a supreme court to
review the county courts. This system remained unchanged
until the revolution of 1776. But in 1624 the king took the
place and exercised the authority of the London Company.
Before 1622 there was a population of more than 4000 in
Virginia, and the many tribes cf Indians who were still the pro-
prietors of the soil over a greater portion of the country naturally
became jealous, and on the 22nd of March of that year fell upon
the whites and slew 350 persons. Sickness and famine once
again visited the colony, and the population was reduced
by nearly one-half. These losses were repaired, however; the
tobacco industry grew in importance, and the settlers built their
cabins far in the interior of lowland Virginia. This rapid
growth was scarcely retarded by a second Indian attack, in
April 1641, which resulted in the death of about 350 settlers.
By 1648 the population had increased to 15,000.
Virginia was neither cavalier nor roundhead, but both.
Sir William Berkeley had been the governor since 1641, and
though he was loyal enough to the crown, it was without
difficulty that his authority was overthrown in March 1652 and
that of Cromwell proclaimed in its stead. Richard Bennett, a
Puritan from Maryland, now ruled the province. Bennett and
his Puritan successors, Edward Digges and Samuel Mathews,
made no serious change in the administration of the colony
except to extend greatly the elective franchise. But this policy
was reversed in 1660, when Berkeley was restored to power.
The return of Berkeley was the beginning of a reaction which
concentrated authority, both in the House of Burgesses and in
the Council, in the hands of the older families, and thus created
a privileged class. The governor, supported by the great
families, retained the same House of Burgesses for sixteen years
lest a new one might not be submissive. The increasing mass
of the population dwelt along the western border or on the less
fertile ridges which make up the major part of the land even in
tide- water Virginia. These poorer people who were not,
however, " poor whites " developed an abiding hostility
towards the oligarchy. They desired a freer land-grant system,
protection against the inroads of the Indians along the border,
and frequent sessions of an assembly to be chosen by all the
freeholders. But a new code of laws outlawed many of these
people as dissenters, and in 1676 a burdensome tax was laid by
the unrepresentative assembly. The Indians had again attacked
the border farmers, and the governor had refused assistance,
being willing, it was generally believed, that the border pop-
ulation should suffer while he and his adherents enjoyed a
lucrative fur trade with the Indians. Under these circum-
stances, Nathaniel Bacon (1647-1676), whose grandfather was
a cousin of Francis Bacon, took up the cause of the borderers
and severely punished the Indians at the battle of Bloody
Run. But Berkeley meanwhile had outlawed Bacon, whose
forces now marched on the capital demanding recognition as the
authorized army of defence. This was refused, and civil war
began, in which the governor was defeated and Jamestown was
burned. But Bacon fell a victim to malaria and died in
October in Gloucester county. Berkeley closed the conflict
with wholesale executions and confiscations. Censured by
the king, he sailed to England to make his defence, but died
in London in 1677 without having seen Charles. Virginia
VIRGINIA
123
remained in the hands of the reactionary party and was governed
by men whose primary purpose was to " make their fortunes "
at the expense of the colonials. Even the accession of William
and Mary scarcely affected the fortunes of the " fifth kingdom,"
though Middle Plantation, a hamlet not far from Jamestown,
bc-i;ime Williamsburg and the capital of the province in 1691,
and the clergy received a head, though not a bishop, in the
person of James Blair (1656-1743), an able Scottish churchman,
who as commissary of the bishop of London became a counter-
poise to the arbitrary governors, and who as founder and head
of the College of William and Mary (established at Williams-
burg in 169,5) did valiant service for Virginia. Under the
stimulus of Blair's activity religion and education prospered
as never before. The powers and duties of the vestry were
denned, the position of the parish priest was fixed and his salary
was regularly provided for at the public expense, and peda-
gogues were brought over from Scotland.
By 1700 the population of Virginia had reached 70,000, of
whom 20,000 were negro slaves. The great majority of whites
were small farmers whose condition was anything but desirable
and who constantly encroached upon the Indian lands in the
Rappahannock region or penetrated the forests south of the
James, several thousand having reached North Carolina. Be-
tween 1707 and 1740 many Scottish immigrants, traders, teachers
and tobacco-growers settled along the upper Rappahannock,
and, uniting with the borderers in general, they offered strong
resistance to the older planters on the James and the York.
Tobacco-growing was the one vocation of Virginia, and many
of the planters were able to spend their winters in London or
Glasgow and to send their sons and daughters to the finishing
schools of the mother country. Negro slavery grew so rapidly
during the first half of the eighteenth century that the blacks
outnumbered the whites in 1740. The master of slaves set
the fashion. Handsome houses were built along the banks of
the sluggish rivers, and numerous slaves were employed. There
was as great a social distance between the planters and their
families on the one side and the masses of people in Virginia
on the other as that which separated the nobles from the yeo-
manry in Europe; and there was still another chasm between
the small farmers and the negroes.
In 1716 an expedition of Governor Alexander Spotswood
over the mountains advertised to the world the rich back-
country, now known as the Valley of Virginia; a migration
thither from Pennsylvania and from Europe followed which
revolutionized the province. The majority of blacks over
whites soon gave way before the influx of white immigrants,
and in 1756 there was a population of 292,000, of whom only
120,000 were negroes, and the small farmer class had grown
so rapidly that the old tide-water aristocracy was in danger
of being overwhelmed. The " West " had now appeared in
American history. This first West, made up of the older
small farmers, of the Scottish settlers, of the Germans from
the Palatinate and the Scottish-Irish, far outnumbering the
people of the old counties, demanded the creation of new
counties and proportionate representation in the Burgesses.
They did not at first succeed, but when the Seven Years' War
came on they proved their worth by fighting the battles of
the community against the Indians and the French. When
the war was over the prestige of the up-country had been
greatly enhanced, and its people soon found eastern leaders
in the persons of Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry. In
1763-1765 an investigation of the finances of the colony,
forced by the up-country party, showed widespread corruption,
and resulted in the collapse of the tide-water oligarchy, which
had been in power since 1660. In the meantime the Presby-
terians, who had been officially recognized in Virginia under
the Toleration Act in 1699, and had been guaranteed religious
autonomy in the Valley by Governor Gooch in 1738, had sent
missionaries into the border counties of eastern Virginia.
The Baptists about the same time entered the colony both
from the north and the south and established scores of churches.
The new denominations vigorously attacked the methods and
immunities of the established church, whose clergy had grown
lukewarm in zeal and lax in morals. When the clergy,
refusing to acknowledge the authority of the Burgesses in
reducing their stipends, and, appealing to the king against the
Assembly, entered the courts to recover damages from the
vestries, Patrick Henry at Hanover court in 1763 easily con-
vinced the jury and the people that the old church was well-
nigh worthless. From this time the old order was doomed,
for the up-country, the dissenters and the reformers had
combined against it. But the passage of the Stamp Act
hastened the catastrophe and gave the leaders of the new
combination, notably Henry, an opportunity to humiliate the
British ministry, whom not even the tide-water party could
defend. The repeal of the Stamp Act, followed as it was by
the Townshend scheme of indirect taxation, displeased Virginia
quite as much as had the former more direct system of taxation.
When the Burgesses undertook in May 1769 to declare in
vigorous resolutions that the right and power of taxation,
direct and indirect, rested with the local assembly, the governor
hastily dissolved them, but only to find the same men assem-
bling in the Raleigh tavern in Williamsburg and issuing forth
their resolutions in defiance of executive authority. Patrick
Henry and Richard Henry Lee, with Thomas Jefferson, a new
up-country leader of great ability, were the leaders.
In 1774 Lord Dunmore, the governor, led an army to the
Ohio river to break an Indian coalition which had been formed
to check the rapid expansion of Virginia over what is now
Kentucky and West Virginia. The up-country again furnished
the troops and did the fighting at Point Pleasant (q.v.), where
on the loth of October the power of the Indians was completely
broken. But the struggle with England had reached a crisis,
and Virginia supported with zeal the revolutionary movement
and took the lead in the Continental Congresses which directed
the succeeding war (see UNITED STATES). In 1775 Patrick
Henry organized a regiment of militia and compelled the
governor to seek safety on board an English man-of-war in
Chesapeake Bay. The war now assumed continental proportions,
and the Virginia leaders decided in May 1776 that a declaration
of independence was necessary to secure foreign assistance.
When the Continental Congress issued the famous Declaration
Virginia had already assembled in convention to draft a new
Constitution. Although Henry, Lee and Jefferson exercised
great power, they were unable to secure a Constitution which
embodied the demands of their party: universal suffrage,
proportional representation and religious freedom. A draft
for such a Constitution was submitted by Jefferson, but the
Conservatives rejected it. The system which was adopted
allowed the older counties, which must be conciliated, a large
majority of the representatives in the new Assembly, on the
theory that the preponderance of property (slavery) in that
section required this as security against the rising democracy.
In place of the former governor, there was to be an executive
chosen annually by the Assembly; the old Council was to be
followed by a similar body elected by the Assembly; and the
judges were likewise to be the creatures of the legislature.
The Assembly was divided into two bodies, a Senate and a
House of Delegates. The legislature would be all-powerful,
and yet representation was so distributed that about one-third
of the voters living in the tide-water region would return nearly
two-thirds of the members of the legislature. The franchise,
though not universal, was generously bestowed; it was a very
liberal freehold system.
The recruiting ground for the American army in Virginia was
the up-country among the Scottish-Irish and the Germans who
had long fought the older section of the colony. In 1779
Norfolk was again attacked, and great damage was also done
to the neighbouring towns. In January 1781 Benedict Arnold
captured Richmond and compelled governor and legislature
to flee beyond the Blue Ridge mountains, where one session of
the Assembly was held. The last campaign of the war closed
at Yorktown on the igth of October 1781.
Virginia leaders, including Henry, were the first to urge the
I2 4
VIRGINIA
formation of a national government with adequate powers
to supersede the lama confederacy. In 1787, under the pre-
sidency of Washington, the National Convention sat in Phila-
delphia, with the result that the present Federal Constitution
was submitted to the states for ratification during 1787-1789.
In Virginia the tide-water leaders urged adoption, while the up-
country men, following Henry, opposed; but after a long and
a bitter struggle, in the summer of 1788 the new instrument was
accepted, the low-country winning by a majority of ten votes,
partly through the influence of James Madison. Thus the
eastern men, who had reluctantly supported the War of Inde-
pendence, now became the sponsors for the national government,
and Washington was compelled to rely on the party of
slavery, not only in Virginia but in the whole South, in order to
administer the affairs of the nation.
In 1784, Virginia, after some hesitation, ceded to the Federal
government the north-west territory, which it held under the
charter of 1609; in 1792 another large strip of the territory
of Virginia became an independent state under the name
of Kentucky. But the people of these cessions, especially of
Kentucky, were closely allied to the great up-country party of
Virginia, and altogether they formed the basis of the Jeffersonian
democracy, which from 1794 opposed the chief measures of the
Washington administration, and which on the passage of the
Alien and Sedition laws in 1798 precipitated the first great
constitutional crisis in Federal politics by the adoption in the
Kentucky and Virginia legislatures of the resolutions, known
by the names of those states, strongly asserting the right and
duty of the states to arrest the course of the national
government whenever in their opinions that course had become
unconstitutional. Jefferson was the author of the Kentucky
resolutions, and his friend Madison prepared those passed by
the Virginia Assembly. But these leaders restrained their
followers sharply whenever the suggestion of secession was
made, and the question of what was meant by arresting the
course of Federal legislation was left in doubt. The election
of 1800 rendered unnecessary all further agitation by putting
Jefferson in the President's chair. The up-country party in
Virginia, with their allies along the frontiers of the other states,
was now in power, and the radical of 1776 shaped the policy
of the nation during the next twenty-five years. Virginia held
the position of leadership in Congress, controlled the cabinet
and supplied many justices of the Supreme Court.
Virginia played a leading r&le in the War of 1812, and up to
1835 her influence in the new Western and North- Western states
was overwhelming. But the steady growth of slavery in the East
and of a virile democracy in the West neutralized this influence
and compelled the assembling of the constitutional convention
of 1829, whose purpose was to revise the fundamental law in such
a way as to give the more populous counties of the West their
legitimate weight in the legislature. The result was failure, for
the democracy of small farmers which would have taxed slavery
out of existence was denied proportionate representation. The
slave insurrection under Nat Turner (q.v.) in 1831 led to
a second abortive effort, this time by the legislature, to
do away with the fateful institution. The failure of these
popular movements led to a sharp reaction in Virginia, as in
the whole South, in favour of slavery. From 1835 to 1861
many leading Virginians defended slavery as a blessing and as
part of a divinely established order.
In 1850 a third Convention undertook to amend the -Constitu-
tion, and now that the West yielded its bitter hostility to slavery,
representation was so arranged that the more populous section
was enabled to control the House while the East still held the
Senate; the election of judges was confided to the people; and
the suffrage was broadened. Although the West was not pleased,
the leaders of the slave-holding counties threatened secession.
In the national elections of 1860 Virginia returned a majority
of unionist electors as against the secession candidates, Breckin-
ridge and Lane, many of the large planters voting for the
continuance of the Union, and many of the smaller slave-owners
supporting the secessionists. The governor called an extra
session of the legislature soon after the Federal election, and this
in turn called a Convention to meet on the I3th of February 1861.
The majority of this body consisted of Unionists, but the Con-
vention passed the ordinance of secession when the Federal
government (April 17) called upon the state to supply its quota
of armed men to suppress " insurrection " in the lower Southern
states. An alliance was made with the provisional government
of the Confederate States, on April 25, without waiting for the
vote of the people on the ordinance. The Convention called
out 10,000 troops and appointed Colonel Robert E. Lee oi the
United States army as commander-in-chief. On the 23rd of
May the people of the eastern counties almost unanimously
voted approval of the acts of the Convention, and the western
counties took steps to form the state of West Virginia (q.v.).
Richmond soon became the capital of the Confederacy.
The Civil War was already begun, and Virginia was of neces-
sity the battle-ground. Of the six great impacts made upon
the Confederacy, four were upon Virginian soil: the first Man-
assas campaign (1861), the Peninsular battles (1862), second
Manassas (1862), Fredeiicksburg, Chancellorsville (1862-63)
and the great Wilderness-Petersburg series of attacks
(1864-65). About 50,000 men were killed in Virginia, and
probably 100,000 died of wounds and disease. The principal
battles were: the first Manassas, or Bull Run (July 21, 1861);
those around Richmond (June 26-July 2, 1862); second
Manassas (August 29-30); Fredericksburg (December 12, 1862);
Mechanicsville (May 2 and 3, 1863); the Wilderness (May 5
and 6); Spottsylvania (May 8); North Anna and Bethesda
church (May 29-30) ; Cold Harbor (June 3) ; the battles around
Petersburg (June 15, July 30 and November i, 1864); and
Five Forks (April i) and Appomattox (April 8-9, 1865).
With the surrender of the Confederate army under General
Lee to Grant at Appomattox the task of reconstruction began.
President Lincoln offered a very liberal plan of re-establishing
the civil authority over the counties east of the Alleghany
mountains, and Governor Francis H. Pierpont set up in Rich-
mond a government, based upon the Lincoln plan and supported
by President Johnson, which continued till the 2nd of March
1867, when the famous reconstruction order converting the
state into Military District No. i was issued. General John
M. Schofield was put in charge, and under his authority a
constitutional Convention was summoned which bestowed the
suffrage upon the former slaves, who, led by a small group of
whites, who had come into the state with the invading armies,
ratified the I4th and isth amendments to the Federal Constitu-
tion and govenied the community until 1869. Then the
secessionists and Union men of 1861 united and regained
control. Virginia was readmitted to the Union on the 26th
of January 1870. The Constitution of the reconstruction
years was unchanged until 1902, when the present fundamental
law was adopted.
In national elections the state has supported the Democratic
party, except in 1860, when its vote was cast for John Bell, the
candidate of the Constitutional Union party.
GOVERNORS OF VIRGINIA
Under the Company
Edward Maria Wingfield, President of the
Council .......
John Ratcliffe, President of the Council
ohn Smith, . .
George Percy, ,, ,, ,, .
Thomas West, Lord Delaware, " Governor and
Captain General " .
George Percy, Deputy Governor .
Sir Thomas Dale, '" High Marshal " and
Deputy Governor .....
Sir Thomas Gates, Acting Governor
Sir Thomas Dale, .
George Yeardley, Lieutenant or Deputy
Governor. . . ...
Samuel Argall, Lieutenant or Deputy Governor
Nathaniel Powell, Acting Governor
Sir George Yeardley, Governor
Sir Francis Wyatt, ...
1607 (April to Sept.)
1607-1608
1608-1609
1609-1610
1610-1618
i6n(March to May)
1611 (May to Aug.)
1611-1612
1612-1616
1616-1617
1617-1619
i6i9(April 9 to 19)
1619-1621
1621-1624
VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF
Under the Crown
Sir Francis Wyatt, Governor. 1624-1626
Sir George Yeardley, . 1626-1627
! r.uicis West (elected by Council) 1627-1628
John Pott 1628-1629
Sir John Harvey, Governor 1629-1635
John West (elected by Council) 1635-1636
Sir John Harvey, Governor 1636-1639
Sir Francis Wyatt, 1639-1641
Sir William Berkeley, 1641-1644
Richard Kemp (elected by Council) 1644-1645
Sir William Berkeley, Governor . 1645-1652
Under the Commonwealth
Richard Bennett(elccted by General Assembly) 1652-1655
Edward Uiggt-s (elected by House of Burgesses) 1655-1657
Samuel Mathews (elected by House of Bur-
gesses) ....... 1657-1660
Under the Crown
Sir William Berkeley, Governor
Francis Morrison (or Moryson), Deputy
Governor ......
Herbert Jeffreys, Lieutenant Governor .
Sir Henry Chicheley, Deputy Governor
Thomas, Lord Culpeper, Governor
Nicholas Spencer, President of the Council
Francis, Lord Howard of Effingham, Lieu-
tenant Governor .....
Nathaniel Bacon, President of the Council
Francis Nicholson, Lieutenant Governor
Sir Edmund Andros, Governor
Francis Nicholson, Lieutenant Governor
George Hamilton Douglas, Earl of Orkney,
Governor-in-Chief .....
Edward Nott, Lieutenant Governor
Edmund Jenings, President of the Council
Robert Hunter, Lieutenant Governor 1 .
Alexander Spotswood, Lieutenant Governor .
Hugh Drysdale,
Robert Carter, President, of the Council
William Gooch, Lieutenant Governor .
William Anne Keppel, Earl of Albemarle,
Governor-in-Chiei * .
James Blair, President of the Council .
Sir William Gooch, Governor
John Robinson, President of the Council
Thomas Lee,
Lewis Burwell, ,,
Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant Governor
John Campbell, Earl of Loudon, Governor
General of the American Colonies 1
John Blair, President of the Council
Francis Fauquier, Lieutenant Governor
Sir Jeffrey Amherst, Governor-in-Chief 1
John Blair, President of the Council
Norborne Berkeley, Baron de Botetourt,
Governor-in-Chief .....
William Nelson, President of the Council
John Murray, Earl of Dunmore, Governor-
in-Chief
State
Patrick Henry .
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Nelson, jun.
Benjamin Harrison
Patrick Henry .
Edmund Randolph
Beverley Randolph
Henry Lee
Robert Brooke .
ames Wood, Democratic-Republican
ames Monroe,
ohn Page,
William H. Cabell,
'ohn Tyler, sen.,
.ames Monroe,
George Wm. Smith (acting), Democratic Re-
publican ....
Peyton Randolph (acting) .
James Barbour, Anti-Democrat .
Wilson Gary Nicholas, Republican
James Patton Preston,
Thomas Mann Randolph,
James Pleasants, jun.,
John Tyler, State Rights Democrat
William Branch Giles, Democrat .
1660-1677
1661-1662
1677-1678
1678-1680
1680-1683
1683-1684
1684-1687
1687-1690
1690-1692
1692-1698
1698-1704
1704-1737
1705-1706
1706-1710
1707
1710-1722
1722-1726
1726-1727
1727-1740
1737-1754
1740-1741
I74I-I749
'749 (June to Sept.)
1749-1750
I750-I75I
I75I-I758
1756-1763
1758 (Jan. to June)
1758-1768
1763-1768
1768 (March to Oct.)
1768-1770
1770-1771
1771-1775
1776-1779
I779-I78I
1781
1781-1784
1784-1786
1786-1788
1788-1791
l 791-1 794
1794-1796
1796-1799
1799-1802
1802-1805
1805-1808
1808-1811
1811
1811
1811-1812
1812-1814
1814-1816
1816-1819
1819-1822
1822-1825
1825-1827
1827-1830
John Floyd, Democrat
Littleton Waller Tazewell, Democrat .
Wyndham Robertson (acting), Democrat
David Campbell, Whie
Thomas W. Gilmer, Whig .
ohn M. Patton (acting),
ohn Rutherford (acting),
ohn Munford Gregory (acting), Whig .
ames McDowell,
Yilliam Smith, Democrat .
ohn Buchanan Floyd, Democrat
oseph Johnson,
ienry Alexander Wise,
John Letcher,
William Smith,
1830-1834
1834-1836
1836-1837
1837-1840
1840-1841
1841
1841-1842
1842-1843
1843-1846
1846-1849
1849-1852
1852-1856
1856-1860
1860-1864
1864-1865
Francis H. Pierpont (provisional), Republican 1865-1867
Henry Horatio Wells,
Gilbert Carlton Walker,
James Lawson Kemper, Conservative
Frederick Wm. Mackey Holliday,
Paying "
VVilliam Ewan Cameron, Readjuster
Fitzhugh Lee, Democrat
Philip W. McKinney, Democrat .
Charles Triplett O'Ferrall, Democrat
James Hoge Tyler,
Andrew Jackson Montague, ,,
Claude Augustus Swanson,
William Hodges Mann, ,,
Debt
1868-1870
1870-1874
1874-1878
Never in Virginia.
1878-1882
1882-1886
1886-1890
1890-1894
1894-1898
1898-1902
1902-1906
1906-1910
1910
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For physical description see Henry Gannett,
Gazetteer of Virginia (Washington, 1904), U.S. Geological Survey
Bulletin 232 ; W. B. Rogers, Geology of the Virginias (New York,
1884) ; N. H. Darton and M. L. Fuller in Water Supply and Irriga-
tion Paper No. 114 (Washington, 1905) of the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey; G. T. Surface, " Physiography of Virginia," pp. 741-53, vol.
38 (1906), Bulletin, Am. Geog. Soc., and " Geography of Virginia,"
pp. 1-60, vol. 5 (1907), Bulletin, Philadelphia Geog. Soc.; T. L.
Watson el all.. Mineral Resources of Virginia (Lynchburg, 1907).
On fisheries see the Report of the Commission of Fisheries, 1908-9
(Richmond, 1909). For administration see J. G. Pollard (ed.),
Code of Virginia (2 vols., St Paul, 1904); and on finance, W. L.
Royall, History of the Virginia Debt Controversy (Richmond, 1897).
History. general histories are: Robert Beverley, History of
Virginia in Four Parts (Richmond, 1855); R. R. Howison, History
of Virginia (2 vols., ibid., 1849); S. Kercheval, History of the Valley
of Virginia (Woodstock, Va., 1850); and J. E. Cook, Virginia:
a History of Ike People (Boston, 1900). On the earlier period see W.
A. Clayton Torrence, " A Trial Bibliography of Colonial Virginia "
(Richmond, 1910), in the Report of the Virginia State Librarian;
L. G. Tyler (ed.), Narratives of Early Virginia, 1606-25 (New
York, 1907) ; W. Stith, History of the First Discovery and Settlement
of Virginia (ibid., 1865); Susan M. Kingsbury (ed.), Records of the
Virginia Company of London (2 vols., Washington. 1906) ; Alexander
Brown, The First Republic in America (Boston, 1898); idem (ed.),
Genesis of the United States (2 vols., ibid., 1800); I. S. Bassett, The
Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover (New York, 1901) ; John
Fiske, Old Virginia and her Neighbors (ibid., 1897); P. A. Bruce,
Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century (2 vols., New
York, 1895); J. P. Kennedy and H. R. Mcllwaine, Journals of
the House of Burgesses, 1742-76 (Richmond, 1905-7); Charles
Campbell, History of the Colony and Ancient Dominion of Virginia
(Philadelphia, 1859); E. I. Miller, Legislature of the Province of
Virginia (New York, 1908); and, for religious and social conditions,
Rt. Rev. W. Meade, Old Churches, Ministers and Families of Virginia
(ibid., 1857); and H. I. Eckenrode, "Separation of Church and
State in Virginia " (Richmond, 1909) in the fth Report of the Virginia
State Librarian. For the more recent period see Chas. H. Ambler,
Sectionalism in Virginia 1770-1861 (Chicago, 1910), a valuable study ;
P. L. Ford, Writings of Thomas Jefferson (10 vols., New York,
1892-99); W. C. Ford, Writings of George Washington (14 vols.,
ibid., 1889-93); W. W. Henry, Life, Correspondence and Speeches
of Patrick Henry (3 vols., ibid., 1891); J. Elliott, Debates in the
Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitu-
tion (Philadelphia, 1861); T. R. Dew, Review of the Debate in the
Virginia Legislature, 1831-32 (^Richmond, 1832), important for a
comprehension of the slavery issue; J. C. Ballagh, A History of
Slavery in Virginia (Baltimore, 1902); B. B. Munford, Virginia's
Attitude toward Slavery (New York, 1909); and the Debates of the
Virginia Conventions, 1776, 1829, iSjo, which are very important,
especially for 1829. See also R. A. Brock (ed.), Virginia Historical
Collections (n vols., Richmond, 1882-92); P. A. Bruce and W. G.
Stanard, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (ibid., 1893
sqq.); W. W. Hening, The Statutes at Large (13 vols. ibid.,
1819-23); and W. P. Palmer, Calendar of Virginia State Papers
(n. vols., ibid., 1874).
VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF, a state institution for higher
education, situated at Charlottesville among the foot-hills of
the Blue Ridge Mountains. Its buildings, arranged around
126
VIRGIN ISLANDS VIRGO
a large rectangular lawn and erected from a plan prepared
by Thomas Jefferson, are noted for their architectural effect.
At the head of the lawn is the Rotunda, modelled after the
Roman Pantheon and now containing the university library;
and at the foot of the lawn are three modern recitation and
laboratory buildings. On the sides are grouped buildings for
each individual professor and dormitories for students. There
are also a chapel, a gymnasium, a hospital, and on the summit
of Mount Jefferson Hill, a mile south-west of the campus, is the
M'Cormick Observatory. The university comprises twenty-
six independent schools, but the courses of instruction given
in these are so co-ordinated as to form six departments: two
academic the college and the department of graduate studies;
and four professional law, medicine, engineering and agri-
culture. The institution owns 522 acres of land, has productive
endowment funds amounting to $1,978,000, and receives from
the state an annual appropriation of $80,000. It is governed
by a rector, chosen by and from nine visitors, and a board of
visitors appointed by the governor and two visitors ex officio,
the state superintendent of public instruction and the president
of the university; and the corporate name of the university
is " The Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia."
In 1904 Edwin Anderson Alderman (b. 1861) was elected
president. In 1910 the faculty and officers numbered no,
the students (men only) 803, and the number of volumes in
the libraries 88,000.
The university traces its beginning to an act of the legislature
in January 1803 for incorporating the " Trustees of Albemarle
Academy." In 1814, before the site of this proposed institu-
tion had been chosen, Thomas Jefferson was elected a trustee,
and under his influence the legislature, in February 1816,
authorized the establishment of Central College in lieu of
Albemarle Academy. The corner-stone of Central College was
laid in October 1817, and Jefferson, who was rector of its board
of trustees, evolved a plan for its development into the univer-
sity of Virginia. The legislature, thanks to the efforts of Joseph
Carrington Cabell, a close personal friend of Jefferson, adopted
the plan in 1818 and 1819, and seven independent schools
ancient languages, modern languages, mathematics, natural
philosophy, moral philosophy, chemistry and medicine were
opened to students in March 1825; a school of law was opened
in 1826. In 1837 the School of Medicine became a department
of three individual schools; and in 1850 the School of Law
became a department of two schools. After the gift of $500,000
by Andrew Carnegie there were established in 1909 the Andrew
Carnegie School of Engineering, the James Madison School
of Law, the James Monroe School of International Law, the
James Wilson School of Political Economy, the Edgar Allan
Poe School of English and the Walter Reed School of Pathology.
Under Jefferson's plan only two degrees were granted: " Grad-
uate," to any student who had completed the course of any
one school; and " Doctor " to a graduate in more than one school
who had shown powers of research. But in 1831 for the Doctor's
degree the faculty substituted, following British custom, the
degree of Master of Arts. The college now grants the degrees of
" Bachelor of Arts," " Cultural Bachelor of Science " and " Voca-
tional Bachelor of Science "; the Department of Graduate Studies,
the degrees of " Graduate in a School," " Master of Arts," " Master
of Science" and " Doctor of Philosophy"; the Department of
Law, the degree of " Bachelor of Laws " ; the Department of
Medicine, the degree of " Doctor of Medicine " ; the Department
of Engineering, the degrees of " Civil Engineer," " Mechanical
Engineer," " Electrical Engineer," " Mining Engineer " and
"Chemical Engineer"; and the Department of Agriculture,
the degree of " Bachelor of Science in Agriculture."
See J. S. Patton, Jefferson, Cabell and the University of Virginia
(New York, 1906).
VIRGIN ISLANDS, a group of small islands in the West
Indies, about 100 in number, for the most part uninhabited.
They extend E. from Puerto Rico, lying between 17 and
18 50' N., and 64 10' and 65 30' W., their total area being about
465 sq. m. The islands are mostly rocky, or sandy and barren,
but such portions as are under cultivation yield sugar, maize,
coffee, cotton and indigo. Guinea grass grows abundantly
on the hillsides, affording excellent pasturage; the forests,
though few, include the mahogany and other useful trees.
The coasts abound with fish. The climate is more healthy
than that of the other West Indian islands, and the heat is
not so great. Some of the islands belong to the United
States, some to Denmark and some to Great Britain. The
United States' possessions (once dependencies of Puerto Rico,
but ceded by Spain in 1898) have an area of about 150 sq. m.
and include Culebra or Snake Island, and Vieques or Crab
Island. The chief Danish islands are St Thomas (q.v.), St Croix
(q.v.) and St John (q.v.), the total area being about 240 sq. m.
Of the British portion of the group the principal are Tortola,
Anegada, Virgin Gorda, Jost van Dyke, Peter's Island and
Salt Island, in all numbering 32, with an area of 58 sq. m.
With the exception of the island of Sombrero they form one
of the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands.
The inhabitants are peasant proprietors, mainly engaged in
raising cattle and in burning charcoal, but some are fishermen
and boatmen. The chief town is Roadtown (pop. 400) at the
head of a splendid harbour on the S. of Tortola, and what trade
there is is mostly with St Thomas. Sombrero is maintained
as a lighthouse by the British government. Population of
the presidency, mostly negroes (1891) 4639; (1901) 4908.
The Virgin Islands were discovered by Columbus in his second
voyage, in 1494, and named Las Virgenes, in honour of St Ursula
and her companions. In 1666 the British established them-
selves on Tortola, which has ever since remained in their pos-
session. In the 1 7th century the Virgin Islands were favourite
resorts of the buccaneers. The Danish islands of St Thomas
and St John were taken by the British in 1801, but restored
in the following year. In 1807 they surrendered to the British,
and continued in their hands till 1815, when they were again
restored.
VIRGINIUS RUFUS, LUCIUS (A.D. 15-97), Roman patriot
and soldier, three times consul (A.D. 63, 69, 97), was born ne
Comum, the birthplace of the two Plinys. When governor of
upper Germany under Nero (68), after he had put down the
revolt of Julius Vindex in Gaul, he was more than once urged
by his troops to assume the supreme power; but he firmly
refused, and further declared that he would recognize no one
as emperor who had not been chosen by the senate. Galba
on his accession, aware of the feelings of the German troops and
uncertain as to the intentions of Virginius, induced him to accom-
pany him to Rome. But Virginius, as always, remained loya
to the head of the state. After the death of Otho, the soldier
again offered the throne to Virginius, but he again refused it.
Considering themselves slighted, they drew their swords upon him,
and he only saved himself from their hands by making his escape
through the back of the tent. But the soldiers never forgave
the fancied insult. Under Vitellius, during a military disturb-
ance at Ticinum, one of Virginius's slaves was arrested and
charged with the design of murdering the emperor. Virginius
was accused of being implicated in the conspiracy, and his
death was loudly demanded by the soldiers. To his credit
Vitellius refused to sacrifice so valuable a servant, on who
loyalty he could depend, to the vengeance of a capricious army.
Virginius subsequently lived in retirement, chiefly in his villa at
Alsium, on the coast of Etruria, till his death in 97, in which year
he held the consulship, together with the emperor Nerva. At
the public burial with which he was honoured, the historia
Tacitus (then consul) delivered the funeral oration. The
younger Pliny, his neighbour and ward, has recorded the lines
which Virginius had ordered to be engraved upon his tomb:
" Hie situs est Rufus, pulso qui Vindice quondam
Imperium asseruit non sibi sed patriae."
See Tacitus, Hist. i. ii. ; Dio Cassius Ixiii. 24-27, Ixiv. 4,
Ixviii. 2; Pliny, Epp. ii. I, vi. 10; Juvenal viii. 221, with
Mayor's note; L. Paul in Rheinisches Museum (1899), liv. pp.
602-30.
VIRGO (" the Virgin "), in astronomy, the sixth sign of the
zodiac (q.v.), denoted by the symbol Tfl>. It is also a constella-
tion mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus
(3rd century B.C.) ; Ptolemy catalogued 32 stars, Tycho Brahe 33,
VIRUES VISCHER (FAMILY)
Hevelius 50. The Greeks represented this constellation as a
virgin, but different fables are current as to the identity of the
maid. She is variously considered to be: Justitia, daughter of
icus and Ancora, who lived before man sinned, and taught
him his duty, and when the golden age ended she returned to
heaven; according to Hesiod the virgin is the daughter of Jupiter
and Themis; others make her to be Erigone, daughter of
Icarius, or Parthene, daughter of Apollo. The most interesting
stars of this constellation are: a Virginis, or Spica, a star of the
first magnitude with a very faint companion; and y Virginis,
a binary star, having components of the third magnitude.
VIRUlSS, CHRIST6BAL DE (i5so?-i6is?), Spanish dramatist
and poet, was born at Valencia about the middle of the i6th
century, joined the army, fought at Lepanto, and retired to his
native place with the rank of captain shortly before 1586. The
first-fruit of his leisure was El Monserrate (1587), a dull poem on
a repulsive subject which had the honour of being praised by
Cervantes, and of being reprinted in 1601. Shortly afterwards
Virues returned to Italy and issued a recast of his poem entitled
El Monserrate segundo (1602). His Obras tr&gicas y llricas (1609)
include five tragedies: La Gran Semtramis, La Cruel Casandra,
Atila furioso, La Infelice Marcela and Elisa Dido. The date of
his death is unknown, but he is conjectured to have been alive
as late as 1614. Virues belongs to the school of dramatists
displaced by Lope de Vega, and his methods were out of fashion
before his plays were printed; yet he is an interesting figure,
chiefly because of the very extravagances which destroy the
effect of his best scenes.
VISBY, or WISBY, the capital of the Swedish island and
administrative district (la'n) of Gotland, in the Baltic Sea.
Pop. (1900) 8376. It is the seat of a bishop, the port of the
island, and a favourite watering-place. It is picturesquely
situated on the west coast, 150 m. S. by E. of Stockholm by sea.
The houses cluster beneath and above a cliff (klint) too ft. high,
and the town is thoroughly medieval in appearance. The
remains from its period of extraordinary prosperity from the
nth to the I4th century are of the highest interest. Its walls
date from the end of the I3th century, replacing earlier forti-
fications, and enclose a space much larger than that now
covered by the town. Massive towers rise at close intervals
along them, and nearly forty are in good preservation. Between
them are traces of bartizans. The cathedral church of St
Mary dates from 1190-1225, but has been much altered in
later times: it has a great square tower at the west end and
two graceful octagonal towers at the east, and contains numerous
memorials of the lyth century. There are ten other churches,
in part ruined, none of which is used for service. Among those
of chief interest St Nicholas', of the early part of the I3th
century, formerly belonged to a Dominican monastery. It
retains two beautiful rose-windows in the west front. The
church of the Holy Ghost (Helgeands-Kyrka) in a late Roman-
esque style (c. 1250) is a remarkable structure with a nave of two
storeys. The Romanesque St Clement's has an ornate south
portal, and the churches of St Drotten and St Lars, of the i2th
century, are notable for their huge towers. St Catherine's, of
the middle of the I3th century, is Gothic, with a pentagonal
apse. It belonged to a Franciscan convent, of the buildings of
which there are slight ruins. Among ancient remains in the
vicinity may be mentioned Galgberget, the place of execution,
with tall stone pillars still standing; and the remarkable stone
labyrinth of Trojeborg. Modern buildings include the Gotland
museum of antiquities, and the high school, with a museum and
library. The artificial harbour, somewhat exposed, lies south
of the ancient Hanseatic harbour, now filled up and covered
with gardens. The town is the terminus of railways to north
and south. It is the headquarters of the army division of
Gotland troops, and there are some modern forts.
The name V'isby is derived from the old Norse ve (sanctuary)
and by (town). This was no doubt a place of religious sacrifice
in heathen times. At any rate it was a notable trading-place
and emporium as early as the Stone Age, and continued to enjoy
its importance as such through the Bronze and Iron Ages, as is
127
proved, inter alia, by the large number of Arabic, Anglo-Saxon
and other coins which have been found on the island. See
GOTLAND and SEA LAWS.
VISCACHA, or BISCACHA, a large South American burrowing
rodent mammal belonging to the family Chinchillidae and com-
monly known as Lagostomus Irickodactylus, although some writers
prefer the name Viscacia. With the cheek-teeth formed of a
number of parallel plates in the manner characteristic of the
family, the viscacha is distinguished from the other members
of that group by having only three hind toes; while it is also
the heaviest-built and largest member of the group, with smaller
ears than the rest. It has a long tail and shaggy fur; the
general colour of the latter being dark grey, with conspicuous
black and white markings on the face. Viscachas inhabit
the South American pampas between the Uruguay river and
the Rio Negro in Patagonia, where they dwell in warrens
covering from 100 to zoo sq. ft. and forming mounds
penetrated by numerous burrows. The ground around the
" viscachera " is cleared from vegetation, the refuse of which
is heaped upon the mound. Anything the rodents may meet
with on their journeys, such as thistle-stalks or bones, are
collected and deposited on the viscachera. Deep down in
the burrows dwell the viscachas, from which in frequented
districts they seldom emerge till evening, unless to drink after a
shower. Their chief food is grass and seeds, but they also
consume roots. When alarmed, they rush to their burrows,
and if these are disturbed utter a growling sound. A pair of
prairie burrowing owls (Speotylo) are almost invariably inhabit-
ants of a viscachera (see RODENTIA). (R. L.*)
VISCHER, the name of a family of Nuremberg sculptors,
who contributed largely to the masterpieces of German art
in the isth and i6th centuries.
1. HERMANN, the elder, came to Nuremberg as a worker in
brass in 1453 and there became a " master " of his gild. There
is only one work that can be ascribed to him with certainty,
the baptismal font in the parish church of Wittenberg (1457)-
This is decorated with figures of the Apostles.
2. His son, PETER, the elder, was born about 1455 in Nurem-
berg, where he died on the 7th of January 1529. He became
" master " in 1489, and in 1494 was summoned by the Electoral
Prince Philipp of the Palatinate to Heidelberg. He soon
returned, however, to Nuremberg, where he worked with the
help of his five sons, Hermann, Peter, Hans, Jakob and Paul.
His works are: the tomb of Bishop Johannes IV., in the Breslau
cathedral (1496); the tomb of Archbishop Ernest, in Magde-
burg cathedral (1497); the shrine of Saint Sebald in the Sebal-
duskirche at Nuremberg, between 1508 and 1519; a large grille
ordered by the Fugger brothers in Augsburg (lost); a relief of
the " Crowning of the Blessed Virgin " in the Erfurt cathedral
(a second example in the Wittenberg Schlosskirche, 1521);
the tombstones for Margareta Tucherin in the Regensburg
cathedral (1521), and for the Eisen family in the Agidienkirche
at Nuremberg (1522); the epitaph for the cardinal Albrecht
of Brandenburg in the collegiate church at Aschaffenburg
(1525); the tomb of the electoral prince Frederick the Wise in
the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg (1521); the epitaph of the
duchess Helene of Mecklenburg in the cathedral at Schwerin.
Besides these works there are a number of others ascribed to
Peter the elder with less certainty. In technique few bronze
sculptors have ever equalled him, but his designs are marred
by an excess of mannered realism and a too exuberant fancy.
His chief early work, the tomb of Archbishop Ernest in Magde-
burg cathedral (1495), is surrounded with fine statuettes of the
Apostles under semi-Gothic canopies; it is purer in style than
the magnificent shrine of St Sebald, a tall canopied bronze
structure, crowded with reliefs and statuettes in the most
lavish way. The general form of the shrine is Gothic, 1 but the
details are those of the 16th-century Italian Renaissance treated
1 This great work is really a canopied pedestal to support and
enclose the shrine, not the shrine itself, which is a work of the I4th
century, having the gabled form commonly used in the middle ages
for metal reliquaries.
128
VISCHER, F. T. VISCONTI (FAMILY)
with much freedom and originality. Some of the statuettes
of saints attached to the slender columns of the canopy are
modelled with much grace and even dignity of form. A small
portrait figure of Peter himself, introduced at one end of the
base, is a marvel of clever realism: he has represented himself
as a stout, bearded man, wearing a large leathern apron and
holding some of the tools of his craft. This gorgeous shrine is a
remarkable example of the uncommercial spirit which animated
the artists of that time, and of the evident delight which they
took in their work. Dragons, grotesques and little figures of
boys, mixed with graceful scroll foliage, crowd every possible
part of the canopy and its shafts, designed in the most free and
unconventional way and executed with an utter disregard of
the time and labour which were lavished on them.
See R. Bauer, Peter Vischer und das alte Niirnberg (1886);
C. Headlam, Peter Vischer (1901).
VISCHER, FRIEDRICH THEODOR (1807-1887), German
writer on. the philosophy of art, was born at Ludwigsburg on the
3oth of June 1807, and was the son of a clergyman. He was
educated at Tubingen, and began life in his father's profession.
In 1835 he became Privatdozent in aesthetics and German
literature at his old university, was advanced in 1837 to extra-
ordinary professor, and in 1844 to full professor. In conse-
quence, however, of his outspoken inaugural address, he was
suspended for two years by the Wiirttemberg government, and
in his enforced leisure wrote the first two volumes of his Aesthelik,
oder Wissenschaft des Schonen (1846), the fourth and last volume
of which did not appear till 1857. Vischer threw himself
heartily into the great German political movement of 1848-49,
and shared the disappointment of patriotic democrats at its
failure. In 1855 he became professor at Zurich. In 1866, his
fame being now established, he was invited back to Germany
with a professorship at Tubingen combined with a post at the
Polytechnikum of Stuttgart. He died at Gmunden on the
i4th of September 1887. His writings include literary essays
collected under the titles Kritische Cdnge and Altes und Ncues,
poems, an excellent critical study of Goethe's Faust (1875),
and a successful novel, Auch Einer (1878; 25th ed., 1904).
Vischer was not an original thinker, and his monumental
Aestlietik, in spite of industry and learning, has not the higher
qualities of success. He attempts the hopeless task of explain-
ing art by the Hegelian dialectic. Starting with the definition
of beauty as " the idea in the form of limited appearance," he
goes on to develop the various elements of art (the beautiful,
sublime and comic), and the various forms of art (plastic art,
music and poetry) by means of the Hegelian antitheses form
and content, objective and subjective, inner conflict and recon-
ciliation. The shape of the work also is repellently Hegelian,
consisting of short highly technical paragraphs containing the
main argument, followed by detailed explanations printed
in different type. Still, Vischer had a thorough knowledge of
every branch of art except music, and much valuable material
is buried in his volumes. In later life Vischer moved consider-
ably away from Hegelianism, and adopted the conceptions
of sensuous completeness and cosmic harmony as criteria of
beauty; but he never found time to rewrite his great book. His
own work as a literary artist is of high quality; vigorous, im-
aginative and thoughtful without academic technicality.
See O. Keindl, F. T. Vischer, Erinnerungsblatter (1888); J. E.
von Gunthert, F. T. Vischer, ein Charakterbild (1888); I. Frapan,
Vischer-Erinnerungen (1889); T. Ziegler, F. T. Vischer (Vortrag)
(1893); J. G. Oswald, F. T. Vischer als Dichter (1896). (H. ST.)
VISCONTI, the name of a Celebrated Italian family which
long ruled Milan; they claimed descent from King Desiderius,
and in the nth century possessed estates on Lakes Como and
Maggiore. A certain OTTONE, who distinguished himself in
the First Crusade, is mentioned in 1078 as viscount of Milan.
The real basis for the family's dominion was laid, however,
by another OTTONE, a canon of Desio, appointed archbishop
of Milan by Pope Urban IV. in 1262 through the influence of
Cardinal Ubaldini. The Delia Torre family, who then con-
trolled the city, opposed the appointment, and not until his
victory at Desic in 1277 was Ottone able to take possession of
his see. He imprisoned Napoleone Delia Torre and five of his
relatives in iron cages, and directed his later efforts toward
the advancement of his nephew Matteo. He died on the
i8th of August 1295, aged eighty years. MATTEO, born at
Invorio on the I5th of August 1255, succeeded his uncle as
political leader of Milan, and although an uprising of the De
Torre in 1302 compelled him to take refuge at Verona,
steadfast loyalty to the imperial cause in Italy earned him t
gratitude of Henry VII., who restored him to Milan in 131
and made him imperial vicar of Lombardy. He brought
under his rule Piacenza, Tortona, Pavia, Bergamo, Vercelli,
Cremona and Alessandro. An able general, he yet relied for
his conquests more on diplomacy and bribery, and was esteemed
as a model of the prudent Italian despot. Persevering in
his Ghibelline policy, and quarrelling with Pope John XXII.
over an appointment to the archbishopric of Milan, he was
excommunicated by the papal legate Bertrand du Puy
1322. He at once abdicated in favour of his son Galeazzo
and died at Crescenzago on the 24th of June of the same year
He left besides Galeazzo several sons: Marco, Lucchino
Giovanni and Stefano. GALEAZZO I. (1277-1328), who rul
at Milan from 1322 to 1328, met the Holy Army which t
pope had sent against the Visconti at Vaprio on the Add
(1324), and defeated it with the aid of the emperor Louis th
Bavarian. In 1327 he was imprisoned by the emperor a
Monza because he was thought guilty of making peace wit
the church, and was released only on the intercession of his friei
Castruccio Castracane. By his wife Beatrice d'Este he ha<
the son Azzo who succeeded him. His brother MARCO com
manded a band of Germans, conquered Pisa and Lucca ani
died in 1329. Azzo (1302-1339), who succeeded his fath
in 1328, bought the title of imperial vicar for 25,000 flori
from the same Louis who had imprisoned Galeazzo I. He con
quered ten towns, murdered his uncle Marco (1329), suppresse
a revolt led by his cousin Lodrisio, reorganized the admmistr;
tion of his estates, built the octagonal tower of S. Gottard
and was succeeded in turn by his uncles Lucchino and Gi<
vanni. LUCCHINO made peace with the church in 1341, bough
Parma from Obizzo d'Este and made Pisa dependent on Milan.
Although he showed ability as general and governor, he wi
jealous and cruel, and was poisoned in 1349 by his wife Isabel
Fieschi. GIOVANNI, brother of the preceding, archbishop o:
Milan and lord of the city from 1349 to 1354, was one of th
most notable characters of his time. He befriended Petrare
extended the Visconti sway over Bologna (135:0), defied Po
Clement VI., annexed Genoa (1353), and died on the 5th
October 1354 after having established the rule of his famil
over the whole of northern Italy except Piedmont, Vero
Mantua, Ferrara and Venice. The Visconti from the tim
of Archbishop Giovanni were no longer mere rivals of tb
Delia Torre or dependants on imperial caprice, but real sovi
reigns with a recognized power over Milan and the surroundin
territory. The state was partitioned on the death of Giova
among his brother Stefano's three sons, Matteo II., Galeazzo II
and Bernabo. MATTEO II., who succeeded to Bologna, Lodi
Piacenza and Parma, abandoned himself to the most revolt
ing immorality, and was assassinated in 1355 by direct!'
of his brothers, who thenceforth governed the state jointl;
and with considerable ability. GALEAZZO II., who held hi:
court at Pavia, was handsome and distinguished, the patro
of Petrarch, the founder of the university of Pavia and
gifted diplomat. He married his daughter Violante to th
duke of Clarence, son of Edward III. of England, giving
dowry of 200,000 gold florins; and his son Gian Galeazzo
Isabella, daughter of King John of France. He died in 137?
BERNABO, who held his court at Milan, was involved in constan
warfare, to defray the expenses of which he instituted ver
oppressive taxes. He fought Popes Innocent VI. and Urban V.,
who proclaimed a crusade against him. He fought the en
peror Charles IV., who declared the forfeiture of his fief. He
I
VISCONTI-VENOSTA
129
endeavoured to exercise sole power in the state after the death
of his brother, but his young nephew Gian Galeazzo plotted
against him and put him to death (1385). GIAN GALEAZZO,
the most powerful of the Visconti, became joint ruler of the
Milanese territories on the death of his father in 1378 and
sole ruler on the death of his uncle seven years later. He
founded the cathedral of Milan, built the Certosa and the
bridge across the Ticino at Pavia, improved the university
of Pavia and established the library there, and restored the
university at Piacenza. His bureaucratic government was
excellent; he was an able and economical administrator,
and was reputed to be one of the wealthiest princes of his time.
He was ambitious to reduce all Italy under the sway of the
Visconti. He conquered Verona in 1387; and in the following
year, with the aid of the Venetians, took Padua. He plotted
successfully against the rulers of Mantua and Ferrara, and
now that the whole of Lombardy lay prostrate before him he
turned his attention to Tuscany. In 1399 he bought Pisa
and seized Siena. The emperor Wenceslaus had already con-
ferred on him the title of duke of Milan for 100,000 florins,
reserving only Pisa, and refused to take arms against him.
Gian Galeazzo took Perugia, Lucca and Bologna (1400-1),
and was besieging Florence when he died of the plague (3rd of
September 1402) at the age of fifty-five years. His sons,
Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria, were mere boys at the
time of his death, and were taken under the protection of
the celebrated condottiere Facino Cane de Cesale; but most of
Gian Galeazzo's conquests were lost to his self-seeking generals.
GIOVANNI MARIA was proclaimed duke of Milan in 1402, dis-
played an insane cruelty, and was killed in 1412 by Ghibelh'ne
partisans. FILIPPO MARIA, who became nominal niler of Pavia
in 1402, succeeded his brother as duke of Milan. Cruel and
extremely sensitive about his personal ugliness, he nevertheless
was a great politician, and by employing such powerful con-
dottieri as Carmagnola, Piccinino and Francesco Sforza he
managed to recover the Lombard portion of his father's duchy.
From his marriage with the unhappy widow of the above-
mentioned Facino Cane he received a dowry of nearly half a
million florins. He died in 1447, the last of the Visconti in direct
male line, and was succeeded in the duchy, after the shortlived
Ambrosian republic, by Francesco Sforza, who had married
his daughter Bianca in 1441 (see SFORZA). VALENTINA (1366-
1408), a daughter of Gian Galeazzo and a sister of the preceding,
married Louis of Orleans in 1387, and it was from her that
Louis XII. of France derived his claims to the duchy of Milan.
GABRIELE, an illegitimate brother, gained possession of Pisa
and other towns, but was despoiled and beheaded (1407) by
Charles VI. *s governor of Genoa, under whose protection he
had placed himself. Among collateral branches of the Vis-
conti family were the counts of Saliceto, counts of Zagnano,
lords of Brignano, marquis of San Giorgio di Borgoratto, marquis
of Invorio and Marquis Delia Motta. Other branches attained
to some prominence in the local history of Bari and of Tarento.
Tebaldo Visconti of Piacenza became Pope Gregory X. in
1271. Among the Visconti lords of Fontaneto was Gasparo,
who died in 1595 archbishop of Milan. An Ignatius Visconti
was sixteenth general of the Jesuits (1751-55).
There is a contemporary history of the principal members of the
family by Paolo Giovio, bishop of Nocera, which may be had in
several editions. See J. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Re-
naissance in Italy, trans, by S. G. C. Middlemore (London, 1898);
J. A. Symonds, Age of the Despots (New York, 1888); C. Magenta,
/ Visconti gli Sforza nel Castello di Pavia (1883); A. Medin, I
Visconti nella poesia contemforanea (Milan, 1891); F. Mugnier,
" Lettres des Visconti de Milan " in Memoires el documents de la
societe savoisienne d'histoire et d'archeologie, vol. x. of the second
series (1896). (C. H. HA.)
VISCONTI-VENOSTA, EMILIO, MARQUIS (1820- ),
Italian statesman, was born at Milan on the 22nd of January
1829- A disciple of Mazzini, he took part in all the anti-
Austrian conspiracies until the ineffectual rising at Milan on
the 6th of February 1853, of which he had foretold the failure,
induced him to renounce his Mazzinian allegiance. Continuing,
XXVIH. 5
nevertheless, his anti-Austrian propaganda, he rendered good
service to the national cause, but being molested by the Austrian
police, was obliged in 1859 to escape to Turin, and during the
war with Austria of that year was appointed by Cavour royal
commissioner with the Garibaldian forces. Elected deputy in
1860, he accompanied Farini on diplomatic missions to Modena
and Naples, and was subsequently despatched to London and
Paris to acquaint the British and French governments with
the course of events in Italy. As a recompense for the tact
displayed on this occasion, he was given by Cavour a permanent
appointment in the Italian foreign office, and was subsequently
appointed under-secretary of state by Count Pasolini. Upon
the latter's death he became minister of foreign affairs (24th
March 1863) in the Minghetti cabinet, in which capacity he
negotiated the September Convention for the evacuation of
Rome by the French troops. Resigning office with Minghetti
in the autumn of 1864, he was in March 1866 sent by La Marmora
as minister to Constantinople, but was almost immediately
recalled and reappointed foreign minister by Ricasoli. Assum-
ing office on the morrow of the second battle of Custozza, he
succeeded in preventing Austria from burdening Italy with
a proportion of the Austrian imperial debt, in addition to the
Venetian debt proper. The fall of Ricasoli in February 1867
deprived him for a time of his office, but in December 1869 he
entered the Lanza-Sella cabinet as foreign minister, and retained
his portfolio in the succeeding Minghetti cabinet until the fall
of the Right in 1876. During this long period he was called
upon to conduct the delicate negotiations connected with the
Franco-German War, the occupation of Romejby the Italians, and
the consequent destruction of the temporal power of the pope,
the Law of Guarantees and the visits of Victor Emmanuel II.
to Vienna and Berlin. Upon the occasion of his marriage
with the daughter of the marquis Alfieri di Sostegno, grand-
niece of Cavour, he was created marquis by the king. For a
time he remained a member of the parliamentary opposition,
and in 1886 was nominated senator. In 1894, after eighteen
years' absence from active political life, he was chosen to be
Italian arbitrator in the Bering Sea question, and in 1896 once
more accepted the portfolio of foreign affairs in the Di Rudini
cabinet at a juncture when the disasters in Abyssinia and the
indiscreet publication of an Abyssinian Green Book had rendered
the international position of Italy exceedingly difficult. His
first care was to improve Franco-Italian relations by negotiating
with France a treaty with regard to Tunis. During the nego-
tiations relating to the Cretan question and the Graeco-Turkish
War, he secured for Italy a worthy part in the European Concert
and joined Lord Salisbury in saving Greece from the loss of
Thessaly. Resigning office in May 1898, on a question of
internal policy, he once more retired to private life, but in
May 1899 again assumed the management of foreign affairs
in the second Pelloux cabinet, and continued to hold office in
the succeeding Saracco cabinet until its fall in February 1901.
During this period his attention was devoted chiefly to the
Chinese problem and to the maintenance of the equilibrium
in the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. In regard to the
Mediterranean he established an Italo-French agreement by
which France tacitly undertook to leave Italy a free hand in
Tripoli, and Italy not to interfere with French policy in the
interior of Morocco; and, in regard to the Adriatic, he came
to an understanding with Austria guaranteeing the status quo
in Albania. Prudence and sagacity, coupled with unequalled
experience of foreign policy, enabled him to assure to Italy her
full portion of influence in international affairs, and secured
for himself the unanimous esteem of European cabinets. In
recognition of his services he was created Knight of the Annun-
ziata by Victor Emmanuel III. on the occasion of the birth
of Princess Yolanda Margherita of Savoy (ist of June 1001).
In February 1906 he was Italian delegate to the Morocco con-
ference at Algeciras.
An account of Vjsconti-Venosta's early life (down to 1859) is
given in an interesting volume by his brother Giovanni Visconti-
Venosta, Ricordi di Gioventa (Milan, 1904).
130
VISCOUNT VISION
VISCOUNT (through O. Fr. mscomle, mod. vicomte, from Low
Lat. vice-comes, cf. Portug. visconde, Ital. visconte), the title
of the fourth rank of the European nobility. In the British
peerage it intervenes between the dignities of earl and baron.
The title is now purely one of honour, having long been
dissociated from any special office or functions.
In the Carolingian epoch the vice-comites, or missi comitis,
were the deputies or vicars of the counts, whose official powers
they exercised by delegation, and from these the viscounts of
the feudal period were undoubtedly derived. Soon after the
counts became hereditary the same happened in the case
of their lieutenants; e.g. in Narbonne, Nimes and Alby the
viscounts had, according to A. Molinier, acquired hereditary
rights as early as the beginning of the loth century. Viscount-
cies thus developed into actual fiefs, with their own jurisdiction,
domain and seigniorial rights, and could be divided or even
transmitted to females. Viscounts, however, continued for
some time to have no more than the status of lieutenants, call-
ing themselves either simply vice-comites, or adding to this title
the name of the countship from which they derived their
powers. It was not till the I2th century that the universal
tendency to territorialize the feudal dominions affected the
viscountcies with the rest, and that the viscounts began to
take the name of the most important of their patrimonial
domains. Thus the viscounts of Poitiers called themselves
viscounts of Thouars, and those of Toulouse viscounts of
Bruniquel and Montelar. From this time the significance of
the title was extremely various. Some viscounts, notably in
the duchy of Aquitaine and the county of Toulouse, of which
the size made an effective centralized government impossible,
were great barons, whose authority extended over whole
provinces, and who disputed for power on equal terms with
counts and dukes. Elsewhere, on the other hand, e.g. in the lie
de France, Champagne, and a great part of Burgundy, the
vicomtes continued to be half feudatories, half officials of the
counts, with the same functions and rank in the feudal hierarchy
as the chatelains; their powers were jealously limited and,
with the organization of the system of prevots and baillis in the
1 2th century, practically disappeared. In the royal domains
especially, these petty feudatories could not maintain them-
selves against the growing power of the crown, and they were
early assimilated to the prevots', thus there is no record of a
vicomte at Paris after 1027.
In Normandy, where from the first the central power had
been strong, vicomtes appeared at a very early date as deputies
of the counts (afterwards dukes) ot the Normans: " They are
both personal companions and hereditary nobles." When
local Norman counts began in the nth century, some of them
had vicomtes under them, but the normal vicomte was still a
deputy of the duke, and Henry I. largely replaced the hereditary
holders of the vicomtes by officials. " By the time of the
Conqueror the judicial functions of the viscount were fully
recognized, and extended over the greater part of Normandy."
Eventually almost the whole of Normandy was divided into
administrative viscountcies or bailiwicks by the end of
the 1 2th century. When the Normans conquered England,
they applied the term viscounle or vicecomes to the sheriffs
of the English system (see SHERIFF), whose office, how-
ever, was quite distinct and was hardly affected by the
Conquest.
Nearly four centuries later " viscount " was introduced as a
peerage style into England, when its king was once more lord
of Normandy. John, Lord Beaumont, K.G., who had been
created count of Boulogne in 1436, was made Viscount Beau-
mont, February 12, 1440, and granted precedence over all
barons, which was doubtless the reason for his creation. Within
a year the feudal vicomte of Beaumont in Normandy was granted
to him and the heirs male of his body on the ground that he
traced his descent from that district. In 1446 Lord Bourchier,
who held the Norman countship of Eu, was similarly made
a viscount. The oldest viscountcy now on the roll is that of
Hereford, created in 1550; but the Irish viscountcy of Gorman-
ston is as old as 1478. The dignity was sparingly conferred in
the peerage of England till recent times, when the number of
viscounts was increased by bestowing the dignity on retiring
speakers (e.g. Viscounts Canterbury, Hampden, Peel, Selby)
and ministers who accepted peerages (e.g. Viscounts Melville,
Halifax, Knutsford, Llandaff, Cross, Ridley, Goschen, St
Aldwyn, Morley of Blackburn, Wolverhampton).
A viscount is " Right Honourable," and is styled " My
Lord." His wife, also " Right Honourable," is a " viscountess,"
and is styled " My Lady." All their sons and daughters are
" Honourable." The coronet first granted by James I. has on
the golden circlet a row of fourteen small pearls set in contact,
of which number in representations nine are shown. The scarlet
parliamentary robe of a viscount has two and a half doublings
of ermine.
See A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franfaises (Paris, 1892),
bibliography on p. 282; Stapletpn's Rotuli Scaccarii Normanniae;
Powicke's " The Angevin Administration of Normandy " (Eng.
Hist. Rev. vols. xxi., xxii.) ; Lords' Reports on the Dignity of a Peer;
Courthope Nicolas's Historic Peerage.
VISHNU (Sanskrit, " the worker," from root msk, "to work "),
a solar deity, in later Hindu mythology a god of the first im-
portance, one of the supreme trinity with Brahma and Siva, but
in the Rig Veda only a minor deity. In the Vedic scriptures
his only anthropomorphic characteristics are the frequently
mentioned strides that he takes, and his being a youth vast in
body. His essential feature is the three strides (vi-kram) with
which he traverses the universe. Two of these steps are visible
to men, but the third or highest is beyond mortal sight. These
steps are symbolic of the rising, culminating and setting of the
sun, or alternatively the course of the solar deity through the
three divisions of the universe. To-day Vishnu is adored by the
Vishnavite sects as the equal or even the superior of Brahma,
and is styled the Preserver. He is represented with four arms,
and black in colour; in one hand he holds a club and in the
others a shell, a discus and a lotus respectively. He rides
on the Garuda, half man and half bird, having the head, wings,
beak and talons of an eagle, and human body and limbs, its
face being white, its wings red and its body golden. In his
character as preserver of men Vishnu has from time to time
become incarnate to rid the world of some great evil (see also
BRAHMANISM and HINDUISM).
See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897);
Sir W. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, iy. 63-298; Sir M. Monier-
Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, Hi. v. vi.
VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT, the function, in
physiology, of the organ known as the eye (<?..). The sense of
vision is excited by the influence of light on the retina, the
special terminal organ connected with the optic nerve. By
excitation of the retina, a change is induced in the optic nerve
fibres, and is conveyed by these to the brain, the result being a
luminous perception, or what we call a sensation of light or
colour. If light were to act uniformly over the retina, there
would be no image of the source of the light formed on that
structure, and consequently there would be only a general
consciousness of light, without reference to any particular
object. One of the first conditions, therefore, of vision for useful
purposes is the formation of an image on the retina. To effect
this, just as in a photographic camera, refractive structures must
be placed in front of the retina which will so bend luminous
rays as to bring them to a focus on the retina, and thus produce
an image. Throughout the animal kingdom various arrange-
ments are found for this purpose; but they may be all referred
to three types, namely (i) eye-specks or eye-dots, met with in
Medusae, Annelidae, &c.; (2) the compound eye, as found in
insects and crustaceans; and (3) the simple eye, common to
all vertebrates. The eye-specks may be regarded simply as
expansions of optic nerve filaments, covered by a transparent
membrane, but having no refractive media, so that the creature
would have the consciousness of light only, or a simple luminous
impression, by which it might distinguish light from darkness.
The compound eye consists essentially of a series of transparent
PHYSICAL CAUSES]
VISION
cone-like bodies, arranged in a radiate manner against the
inner surface of the cornea, with which their bases are united,
while their apices are connected with the ends of the optic
filaments. As each cone is separated from its neighbours, it
admits only a ray of light parallel with its axis, and its apex
represents only a portion of the image, which must be made up,
like a mosaic-work, of as many parts as there are cones in the
eye. When the cones are of considerable length, it is evident,
from their form and direction, their apices being directed in-
wards, that the oblique rays emanating from a luminous surface
will be cut off, and that only those rays proceeding along the
axis of the cone will produce an effect. Thus distinctness or
sharpness of definition will be secured. The size of the visual
field will depend on the form of the eye, the outermost cones
marking its limits. Consequently the size of the visual field will
depend on the size of the segment of the sphere forming its
surface. The eyes of many insects have a field of about half a
sphere, so that the creature will see objects before and behind it
as well as those at the side. On the other hand, in many the
eyes have scarcely any convexity, so that they must have a
narrow field of vision. For anatomical details, and diseases of
the eye, see EYE; the pathological aspects of vision itself are
treated at the end of this article.
i. PHYSICAL CAUSES OF VISION
A luminous sensation may be excited by various modes of
irritation of the retina or of the optic nerve. Pressure, cutting
or electrical shocks may act as stimuli, but the normal excitation
is the influence of !ight on the retina. From a physical point of
view, light is a mode of movement occurring in a medium,
termed the aether, which pervades ah 1 space; but the physiologist
studies the operation of these movements on the sentient
organism as resulting in consciousness of the particular kind
which we term a luminous impression. Outside of the body,
such movements have been studied with great accuracy; but
the physiological effects depend upon such complex conditions
as to make it impossible to state them in the same precise
way. Thus, when we look at the spectrum, we are conscious of
the sensations of red and violet, referable to its two extremities:
the physicist states that red is produced by 392 billions of
impulses on the retina per second, and that violet corresponds
to 757 billions per second; but he has arrived at this informa-
tion by inductive reasoning from facts which have not at present
any physiological explanation. We cannot at present trace
any connexion, as cause and effect, between 392 billions of
impulses on the retina per second and a sensation of red. Below
the red and above the violet ends of the spectrum there are
vibrations which do not excite luminous sensations. In the
first case, below the red, the effect as a sensation is heat; and
above the violet the result is that of chemical activity. Thus
the method of dispersion of light, as is followed in passing a
ray through a prism, enables us to recognize these general
facts: (i) rays below the red excite thermal impressions;
(2) from the lower red up to the middle of the violet, the thermal
rays become gradually weaker until they have no effect;
(3) from the lower red to the extreme violet, they cause luminous
impressions, which reach their greatest intensity in the yellow;
and (4) from about the end of the yellow to far beyond the
extreme violet, the rays have gradually a less and less luminous
effect, but they have the power of exciting such chemical
changes as are produced in photography. In general terms,
therefore, the lower end of the spectrum may be called thermal,
the middle luminous, and the upper actinic or chemical; but
the three merge into and overlap one another. It may be
observed that the number of vibrations in the extreme violet
is not double that of the low red, so that the sensibility of the
eye to vibrations of light does not range through an octave.
The ultra-violet rays may act on the retina in certain condi-
tions, as when they are reflected by a solution of sulphate of
quinine, constituting the phenomenon of fluorescence. Far
above the violet are the Rontgen radiations and probably
others.
2. OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OP THE EYE
i. General. When light traverses any homogeneous trans-
parent medium, such as the air, it passes on in a straight course
with a certain velocity; but if it meet with any other trans-
parent body of a different density, part of it is reflected or
returned to the first medium, whilst the remainder is propagated
through the second medium in a different direction and with a
different velocity. Thus we may account for the phenomena of
reflection of light (q.v.) and of refraction (<?..). Let ab, in fig. i, be
a plane surface of some trans-
parent substance, say a sheet *.
of glass; a ray, cd, perpendi-
cular to the surface, will pass
through without refraction;
but an oblique ray, ef, will
be sent in the direction eh.
If the ray eh had passed
from a dense into a rarer
medium, then the direction
would have been eg. It
might also be shown that the
FIG. i. Refraction of Light.
sine of the angle of incidence always bears a certain ratio to
the sine of the angle of refraction; this ratio is termed the
index of refraction. Thus, if a ray pass from air into water, the
sine of the angle of incidence will have to the sine of the angle
of the refraction the ratio of 4:3, or f .
Before a ray of light can reach the retina, it must pass through
a number of transparent and refractive surfaces. The eye
is a nearly spherical organ, formed of transparent parts situated
behind each other, and surrounded by various membranous
structures, the anterior part of which is also transparent. The
transparent parts are (i) the cornea; (2) the aqueous humour,
found in the anterior chamber of the eye; (3) the crystalline
lens, formed by a transparent convex body, the anterior sur-
face of which is less convex than the posterior; and (4) the
vitreous humour, filling the posterior chamber of the eye. The
ray must therefore traverse the cornea, aqueous humour, lens
and vitreous humour. As the two surfaces of the cornea
are parallel, the rays practically suffer no deviation in passing
through that structure, but they are bent or refracted during
their transmission through the other media.
From the optical point of view, the eye may be regarded
as a dioptric system consisting of various refractive media. In
such a system, as shown by K. F. Gauss, there are six cardinal
points, which have a certain relation to each other. These are
(i) Two focal points-.every ray passing through theirs* focal point
becomes, after its refraction, parallel to the axis, and every ray
which before refraction is parallel to the axis passes after its refraction
to the second focal point; (2) two principal points: every ray which
passes through the first point before refraction passes after refrac-
tion through the second, and every ray which passes through any
point of a plane elevated on a perpendicular axis from the first
principal point (the first principal plane) _passes through the corre-
sponding point of an analogous plane raised upon the axis at the
second principal point (the second principal plane); and (3) too
nodal points, which correspond to the optical centres of the two
principal planes just alluded to. The distance of the first principal
point from the first focal point is called the anterior focal length,
and the term posterior focal length is applied to the distance of the
posterior focal point from the second principal point. Listing has
given the following measurements in millimetres from the centre
of the cornea for the cardinal points in an ideal eye :
Anterior focal point . 12-8326
Posterior focal point . 22-6470
First principal point . 2-1746
Second principal point. 2-5724
First nodal point . 7-2420
Second nodal point . 7-6398
Anterior focal length . 15-0072
Posterior focal length . 20-0746
A view of such an ideal eye is shown in fig. 2.
The remaining measurements of such an eye are as follows :
Radii of Curvature
Of anterior face of cornea = 8 millimetres.
Of anterior face of lens = 10
Of posterior face of lens =6
Indices of Refraction
Aqueous humour .... SV = ' '3379
Crystalline lens .... It = 1-4545
Vitreous humour .... W= 1-3379
I 3 2
VISION
[OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS
The optical constants of the human eye may be still further
simplified by assuming that the two principal points and the two
FIG. 2. Transverse Section of an Ideal or Schematique Eye.
A, summit of cornea; SC, sclerotic; S, Schlemm's canal; CH,
choroid; I, iris; M, ciliary muscle; R, retina; N, optic
nerve; HA, aqueous humour; L, crystalline lens, the anterior
of the double lines on its face showing its form during accommoda-
tion; HV, vitreous humour; DN, internal rectus muscle; DE,
external rectus; YY', principal optical axis; **, visual axis,
making an angle of 5 with the optical axis; C, centre of the ocular
globe. The cardinal points of Listtne: HiH 2 , principal points;
KiKs, nodal points; ViFi, principal focal points. The dioptric
constants according to Giraud-Teulon: H, principal points
united ; *i*2, principal foci during the repose of accommodation ;
*'i*'z, principal foci during the maximum of accommodation ;
O, fused nodal points.
nodal points respectively are identical. Thus we may construct
a reduced eye, in which the principal point is 2-3448 mm. behind the
cornea and the single nodal point is 1-4764 mm. in front of the
posterior surface of the, lens. The refracting surface, or lens, has a
radius of 5 mm. and is 3 mm. behind the cornea; and the index
of refraction is that of the aqueous humour, or \f, or 1-3379-
2. The Formation of an Image on the Retina. This may
be well illustrated with the aid of a photographic camera.
If properly focused, an inverted image will be seen on the
glass plate at the back of the camera. It may also be observed
by bringing the eyeball of a rabbit near a candle flame. The
action of a lens in forming an inverted image is illustrated by
fig. 3, where the pencil of rays proceeding from a is brought
to a focus at a',
and those from
b at b'; conse-
quently the image
, of 06 is inverted
as at b'a'. The
three character-
istic features of
the retinal image are: (i) it is reversed; (2) it is sharp and
well defined if it be accurately focused on the retina; and
(3) its size depends on the visual angle. If we look at a distant
object, say a star, the rays' reaching the eye are parallel, and
in passing through the refractive media they are focused
at the posterior focal point that is, on the retina. A line
from the luminous point on the retina passing through the
nodal point is called the line of direction. If the luminous
object be not nearer than, say, 60 yds. the image is still
brought to a focus on the retina without any effort on the
part of the eye. Within this distance, supposing the condition
of the eye to be the same as in looking at a star, the image
would be formed somewhat behind the posterior focal point,
and the effect would be an indistinct impression on the retina.
To obviate this, for near distances, accommodation, so as to
adapt the eye, is effected by a mechanism to be afterwards
described.
When rays, reflected from an object or coming from a lumin-
ous point, are not brought to an accurate focus on the retina,
the image is not distinct in consequence of the formation of
circles of diffusion, the production of which will be rendered
evident by fig. 4. From the point A luminous rays enter
the eye in the form of a cone, the kind of which will depend
FIG. 3. Inversion bv Action of a Lens.
on the pupil. Thus it may be circular, or oval, or even tri-'
angular. If the pencil is focused in front of the retina, as at
FIG. 4. Formation of Circles of Diffusion.
d, or behind it as at /, or, in other words, if the retina, in place
of being at F, be in the positions G or H, there will be a luminous
circle or a luminous triangular space, and many elements of
the retina will be affected. The size of these diffusion circles
depends on the distance from the retina of the point where
the rays are focused: the greater the distance, the more
extended will be the diffusion circle. Its size will also be
affected by the greater or less diameter of the pupil. Circles
of diffusion may be studied by the following experiment, called
the experiment of Scheiner:
D E
FIG. 5. Diagram illustrating the Experiment of Scheiner.
Let C be a lens, and DEF be screens placed behind it. Hold
in front of the lens a card perf orated by two holes A and B, and
allow rays from a luminous point a to pass through these holes. The
point o on the screen E will be the focus of the rays emanating
from a; if a were removed farther from the lens, the focus would
be on F, and if it were brought near to C, the focus would then
be on D. The screens F and D show two images on the point a.
If, then, we close the upper opening in AB, the upper image m
on F and the lower image n on D disappear. Suppose now that
the retina be substituted for the screens D and F, the contrary
will take place, in consequence of the reversal of the retinal _image.
If the eye be placed at o, only one image will be seen; but if it be
placed either in the plane of F or D, then two images will be seen,
as at mm, or nn; consequently, in either of these planes there will
be circles of diffusion and indistinctness, and only in the plane E
will there be sharp definition of the image.
To understand the formation of an image on the retina,
suppose a line drawn from each of its two extremities to the
nodal point and continued onwards to the retina, as in fig. 6,
where the visual angle is x. It is evident that its size will
depend on the size of the
object and the distance of the
object from the eye. Thus,
also, objects of different sizes,
c, d, e in fig. 6, may be in-
cluded in the same visual
angle, as they are at different
distances from the eye. The
size of the retinal image may
be calculated if we know the
size of the object, its dis-
tance from the nodal point o,
and the distance of the nodal
point from the posterior focus.
Let A be the size of the object, B its distance from the
nodal point, and C the distance of o from the retina,
or 15 mm.; then the size of the retinal image oe=(A+is)/B.
The smallest visual angle in which two distinct points
may be observed is 60 seconds; below this, the two sen-
sations fuse into one; and the size of the retinal image
FIG. 6. The Visual Angle.
OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS]
VISION
133
FIG. 7. Spherical Aberration,
being focused at N. Thus on the
corresponding to this angle is -004 mm., nearly the diameter
of a single retinal rod or cone. Two objects, therefore, included
in a visual angle of less than 60 seconds, appear as one point.
A small visual angle is in most eyes a condition of sharpness
of definition. With a large angle, objects appear less sharply
marked. Acuteness is determined by a few retinal elements,
or even only one, being affected. A very minute image, if
thrown on a single retinal element, is apparently sufficient
to excite it. Thus it is possible to see a brilliant point in an
angle even so small as J of a second, and a sharp eye can see
a body the ^th of a line in diameter that is, about the a-foth
part of an inch.
3. The Optical Defects oj the ,ye. As an optical instrument,
the eye is defective; but from habit, and want of attention,
its defects are not appreciated, and consequently they have
little or no influence on our sensations. These defects are
chiefly of two kinds (i) those due to the curvature of the
refractive surfaces, and (2) those due to the dispersion of light
by the refractive media.
(a) Aberration of Sphericity. Suppose, as in fig. 7, M A K
to be a refractive
surface on which
parallel rays from
L to S impinge, it
will be seen that
[ those rays passing
near the circumfer-
ence are brought to
a focus at F 1 , and
those passing near
the centre at F*
intermediate rays
at N. Thus on the portion of the axis
between F 1 and P there will be a series of focal points,
and the effect will be a blurred and bent image. In the eye
this defect is to a large extent corrected by the following
arrangements: (i) the iris cuts off the outer and more
strongly refracted rays; (2) the curvature of the cornea is
more ellipsoidal than spherical, and consequently those
farthest from the axis are least deviated; (3) the anterior
and posterior curvatures of the lens are such that the
one corrects, to a certain extent, the action of the other;
and (4) the structure of the lens is such that its power of re-
fraction diminishes from the centre to the circumference, and
consequently the rays farthest from the axis are less refracted.
(b) Astigmatism. Another defect of the eye is due to different
meridians having different degrees of curvature. This defect
is known as astigmatism. It may be thus detected. Draw
on a sheet of white paper a vertical and a horizontal line with
ink, crossing at a right angle; at the point of distinct vision,
it will be found impossible to see the lines with equal distinct-
ness at the same time; to see the horizontal line distinctly
the paper must be brought near the eye, and removed from it
to see the vertical. In the cornea the vertical meridian has
generally a shorter radius of curvature, and is consequently
more refractive than the horizontal. The meridians of the
lens may also vary; but, as a rule, the asymmetry of the
cornea is greater than that of the lens. The optical explana-
tion of the defect will be understood with the aid of fig. 8.
Thus, suppose the vertical meridian C A D to be more strongly
curved than the horizontal F A E, the rays which fall on C A D
will be brought to a focus G, and those falling on F A E at B. If
we divide the pencil of rays at successive points, G, H, I, K, B,
by a section perpendicular to A B, the various forms it would
present at these points are seen in the figures underneath, so that
if the eye were placed at G, it would see a horizontal line a a'; if
at H, an ellipse with the long axis a a' parallel to A B; if at I, a
circle; if at K, an ellipse, with the long axis, b c, at right angles
to A B; and if at B, a vertical line b c. The degree of
astigmatism is ascertained by measuring the difference of re-
fraction in the two chief meridians; and the defect is corrected
by the use of cylindrical glasses, the curvature of which, added
to that of the minimum meridian, makes its focal length equal
to that of the maximum meridian.
f" IG -9- Diagram illustrating the Dispersion of
Light by a Lens.
FIG. 8. Diagram illustrating Astigmatism.
(c) Aberration of Refrangibilily. When a ray of white light
traverses on a lens, the different rays composing it, being
unequally refrangible, are dispersed: the violet rays (see fig. 9),
the most refran- A
gible, are brought
to a focus at e,
and the red rays,
less refrangible, -
at d. If a screen
were placed at e,
a series of con-
centnc coloured
circles would be formed, the central being of a violet, and
the circumference of a red colour. The reverse effect would
be produced if the screen were placed at d. Imagine the
retina in place of the screen in the two positions, the sensa-
tional effects would be those just mentioned. Under ordinary
circumstances, the error of refrangibility due to the optical
construction of the eye is not observed, as for vision at near
distances the interval between the focal point of the red and
violet rays is very small. If, however, we look at a candle flame
through a bit of cobalt blue glass, which transmits only the red
and blue rays, the flame may appear violet surrounded by blue,
or blue surrounded by violet, according as we have accommodated
the eye for different distances. Red surfaces always appear
nearer than violet surfaces situated in the same plane, because
the eye has to be accommodated more for the red than for the
violet, and consequently we imagine them to be nearer. Again,
if we contemplate red letters or designs on a violet ground the
eye soon becomes fatigued, and the designs may appear to move.
(d) Defects due to Opacities, &c., in the Transparent Media.
When small opaque particles exist in the transparent media,
they may cast their shadow on the retina so as to give rise to
images which are projected outwards by the mind into space,
and thus appear to exist outside of the body. Such phenomena
are termed entoptic. They may be of two kinds: (i) extra-
retinal, that is, due to opaque or semi-transparent bodies in any
of the refractive structures anterior to the retina, and presenting
the appearance of drops, striae, lines, twisted bodies, forms of
grotesque shape, or minute black dots dancing before the eye;
and (2) intra-retinal, due to opacities, &c., in the layers of the
retina, in front of Jacob's membrane. The intra-retinal may
be produced in a normal eye in various ways, (i) Throw a
strong beam of light on the edge of the sclerotic, and a curious
branched figure will be seen, which is an image of the retinal
vessels. The construction of these images, usually called
Purkinje's figures, will be understood from fig. 10. Thus, in the
figure to the left, the rays passing through the sclerotic at b",
in the direction b" c, will throw a shadow of a vessel at c on the
retina at b', and this will appear as a dark line at B. If the
light move from b* to a", the retinal shadow will move from 4'
to a', and the line in the field of vision will pass from B to A.
134
VISION
[OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS
B
It may be shown that the distance c b' corresponds to the
distance of the retinal vessels from the layer of rods and cones.
S If the light enter
the cornea, as in
the figure to the
right, and if the
light be moved,
the image * will
be displaced in
the same direc-
tion as the light,
if the movement
does not extend
beyond the
middle of the
cornea, but in the
FIG. to Purkinje's Figures. opposite direction
In the eye to the right the illumination is to the light
through the sclerotic, and in the one to the when the latter
left through the cornea. ; s moved up and
down. Thus, if a be moved to a', d will be moved to d', the shadow
on the retina from c to c', and the image b to b'. If, on the other
hand, a be moved above the plane of the paper, d will move
below, consequently c will move above, and b' will appear to
sink. (2) The retinal vessels may also be seen by looking at a
strong light through a minute aperture, in front of which a rapid
to-and-fro movement is made. Such experiments prove that the
sensitive part of the retina is its deepest and most external layer
(Jacob's membrane).
4. Accommodation, or the Mechanism of Adjustment for
Different Distances. When a camera is placed in front of an
object, it is necessary to focus accurately in order to obtain a
clear and distinct image on the sensitive plate. This may be
done by moving either the lens or the sensitive plate backwards
or forwards so as to have the posterior focal point of the lens
corresponding with the sensitive plate. For similar reasons,
a mechanism of adjustment, or accommodation for different
distances, is necessary in the human eye. In the normal eye,
any number of parallel rays, coming from a great distance, are
focused on the retina. Such an eye is termed emmetropic
(fig. ii, A). Another form of eye (B) may be such that parallel
rays are brought to a focus in
front of the retina. This form
of eye is myopic or short-
sighted, inasmuch as, for dis-
tinct vision, the object must be
brought near the eye, so as to
catch the divergent rays, which
are then focused on the retina.
A third form is seen in C, where
the focal point, for ordinary
distances, is behind the retina,
and consequently the object
must be held far off, so as to
allow only the less divergent or
parallel rays to reach the eye.
kind of eye is called hyper-
metropic, or far-sighted. For
ordinary distances, at which
objects must be seen distinctly
in everyday life, the fault of
the myopic eye may be corrected
by the use of concave and of
the hypermetropic by convex
glasses. In the first case, the
concave glass will move the posterior focal point a little
farther back, and in the second the convex glass will bring
it farther forwards; in both cases, however, the glasses may
be so adjusted, both as regards refractive index and radius
of curvature, as to bring the rays to a focus on the retina,
and consequently secure distinct vision.
From any point 65 metres distant, rays may be regarded
FIG. ii.
A, Emmetropic or normal eye;
B, Myopic or short-sighted
eye; C, Hypermetropic or
long-sighted eye.
as almost parallel, and the point will be seen without any effort
of accommodation. This point, either at this distance or in
infinity, is called the punctum remotum, or the most distant
point seen without accommodation. In the myopic eye it is
much nearer, and for the hypermetropic there is really no such
point, and accommodation is always necessary. If an object were
brought too close to the eye for the refractive media to focus it on
the retina, circles of diffusion would be formed, with the result
of causing indistinctness of vision, unless the eye possessed some
power of adapting itself to different distances. That the eye
has some such power of accommodation is proved by the fact
that, if we attempt to look through the meshes of a net at a
distant object, we cannot see both the meshes and the object
with equal distinctness at the same time. Again, if we look
continuously at very near objects, the eye speedily becomes
fatigued. Beyond a distance of 65 metres, no accommodation
is necessary; but within it, the condition of the eye must be
adapted to the diminished distance until we reach a point near
the eye which may be regarded as the limit of visibility for near
objects. This point, called the punctum proximum, is usually
12 centimetres (or 4-8 inches) from the eye. The range of
accommodation is thus from the punctum remotum to the
punctum proximum.
The mechanism of accommodation has been much disputed,
but there can be no doubt it is chiefly effected by a change in
the curvature of the anterior surface of the crystalline lens.
If we hold a lighted candle in front and a little to the side of an
eye to be examined, three reflections may be seen in the eye,
as represented in fig. 12. The first, a, is erect, large and bright,
from the anterior surface of the cornea;
the second, b, also erect, but dim, from the
anterior surface of the crystalline lens; and
the third, c, inverted, and very dim, from
the posterior surface of the lens, or perhaps
the concave surface of the vitreous humour
to which the convex surface of the lens is
adapted. Suppose the three images to be
in the position shown in the figure for FIG. 12. Reflected
distant vision, it will be found that the middle Images in the Eye.
image 6 moves towards a, on looking at a near object. The change
is due to an alteration of the curvature of the lens, as shown in
fig. 13. The changes occurring during accommodation are:
FIG. 13. Mechanism of Accommodation.
A, The lens during accommodation, showing its anterior surface
advanced; B, The lens as for distant vision; C, Position of the
ciliary muscle.
(i) the curvature of the anterior surface of the crystalline lens
increases, and may pass from 10 to 6 mm.; (2) the pupil con-
tracts; and (3) the intraocular pressure increases in the posterior
part of the eye. An explanation of the increased curvature of
the anterior surface of the lens during accommodation has been
thus given by H. von Helmholtz. In the normal condition,
that is, for the emmetropic eye, the crystalline lens is flattened
anteriorly by the pressure of the anterior layer of the capsule;
during accommodation, the radiating fibres of the ciliary muscles
pull the ciliary processes forward, thus relieving the tension
of the anterior layer of the capsule, and the lens at once bulges
forward by its elasticity.
By this mechanism the radius of curvature of the anterior
OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS]
VISION
surface of the lens, as the eye accommodates from the far to the
near point, may shorten from 10 mm. to 6 mm. The ciliary
muscle, however, contains two sets of fibres, the longitudinal or
meridional, which run from before backwards, and the circular
or equatorial (MUller's muscle), which run, as their name
indicates, around the band of longitudinal fibres forming the
muscle. Direct observation on the eye of an animal immediately
after death shows that stimulation of the ciliary nerves actually
causes a forward movement of the ciliary processes, and there
can be little doubt that the explanation above given applies to
man, probably most mammals, and to birds and most reptiles.
In birds, which are remarkable for acuteness of vision, the
mechanism is somewhat peculiar. In them the fibres of the
ciliary muscle have a strong attachment posteriorly, and when
these contract they pull back the inner posterior layers of the
cornea, and thus relax that part of the ciliary zone called the
ligamentum pectinatum. In a state of rest this structure in
the bird's eye is tense, but in accommodation it becomes relaxed.
Thus by a somewhat different mechanism in the bird, accom-
modation consists in allowing the anterior surface of the lens
to become more and more convex. In reptiles generally the
mechanism resembles that of the bird; but it is said that
in snakes and amphibia there is a movement forwards of the
lens as a whole, so as to catch rays at a less divergent angle.
When the eye is directed to a distant object, such as a star, the
mechanism of accommodation is at rest in mammals, birds,
reptiles and amphibia, but in fishes and cephalopods the eye
at rest is normally adjusted for near vision. Consequently
accommodation in the latter is brought about by a mechanism
that carries the lens as a whole backwards. There is still some
difficulty in explaining the action of the equatorial (circular)
fibres. Some have found that the increased convexity of the
anterior surface of the lens takes place only in the central
portions of the lens, and that the circumferential part of the
lens is actually flattened, presumably by the contraction of
the equatorial fibres. Seeing, however, that the central part
of the lens is the portion used in vision, as the pupil contracts
during accommodation, a flattening of the margins of the lens
can have no optical effect. Further, another explanation can
be offered of the flattening. As just stated, during accommoda-
tion the pupil contracts, and the pupillary edge of the iris,
thinned out, spreads over the anterior surface of the capsule
of the lens, which it actually touches, and this part of the iris,
along with the more convex central part of the lens, bulges
into the anterior chamber, and must thus displace some
of the aqueous humour. To make room for this, however,
the circumferential part of the iris, related to the ligamentum
pectinatum, moves backwards very slightly, while the flatten-
ing of the circumferential part of the lens facilitates this
movement.
Helmholtz succeeded in measuring with accuracy the sizes of
these reflected images by means of an instrument termed an ophthal-
mometer, the construction of which is based on the following optical
principles: When a luminous ray traverses a plate of glass having
parallel sides, if it fall perpendicular to the plane of the plate, it
will pass through without deviation ; but if it fall obliquely on the
plate (as shown in the left-hand diagram in fig. 14) it undergoes a
lateral deviation, but in a direction parallel to that of the incident
ray, so that to an eye placed behind the glass plate, at the lower A,
the luminous point, upper A, would be in the direction of the pro-
longed emergent ray, and thus there would be an apparent lateral
displacement of the point, the amount of which would increase
with the obliquity of the incident ray. If, instead of one plate,
we take two plates of equal thickness, one placed above the other,
two images will be seen, and by turning the one plate with reference
to the other, each image may be displaced a little to one side. The
instrument consists of a small telescope (fig. 14) T, the axis of which
coincides with the plane separating the two glass plates C C and
B B. When we look at an object X Y, and turn the plates till we
see two objects xy, xy touching each other, the size of the image
X Y will be equal to the distance the one object is displaced to the
one side and the other object to the other side. Having thus
measured the size of the reflection, it is not difficult, if we know the
size of the object reflecting the light and its distance from the eye,
to calculate the radius of the curved surface (Appendix to M'Ken-
dricks's Outlines of Physiology, 1878). The general result is that,
in accommodation for near objects, the middle reflected image
FIG. 14. Diagrammatic
ViewoftheOphthalmo-
meter of Helmholtz.
becomes smaller, and the radius of curvature of the anterior surface
of the lens becomes shorter.
5. Absorption and Reflection of Luminous Rays from the Eye.
When light enters the eye, it is
partly absorbed by the black pigment
of the choroid and partly reflected.
The reflected rays are returned
through the pupil, not only following
the same direction as the rays enter-
ing the eye, but uniting to form an
image at the same point in space as
the luminous object. The pupil of an
eye appears black to an observer,
because the eye of the obseiver does
not receive any of those reflected rays.
If, however, we strongly illuminate
the retina, and hold a lens in front of
the eye, so as to bring the reflected
rays to a focus nearer the eye, then
a virtual and erect, or a real and re-
versed, image of the retina will be
seen. Such is the principle of the
ophthalmoscope, invented by Helm-
holtz in 1851. Eyes deficient in pig-
ment, as in albinos, appear luminous,
reflecting light of a red or pink colour;
but if we place in front of such an
eye a card perforated by a round hole
of the diameter of the pupil, the hole
will appear quite dark, like the pupil of an ordinary eye. In
many animals a portion of the fundus of the eyeball has no
pigment, and presents' an iridescent appearance. This is called
a tapetum. It probably renders the eye more sensitive to light
of feeble intensity.
6. Functions of the Iris. The iris constitutes a diaphragm
which regulates the amount of light entering the eyeball. The
aperture in the centre, the pupil, may be dilated by contraction
of a system of radiating fibres of involuntary muscle, or con-
tracted by the action of another system of fibres, forming a
sphincter, at the margin of the pupil. The radiating fibres
are controlled by the sympathetic, while those of the circular
set are excited by the third cranial nerve. The variations
in diameter of the pupil are determined by the greater or less
intensity of the light acting on the retina. A strong light
causes contraction of the pupil; with light of less intensity,
the pupil will dilate. In the human being, a strong light acting
on one eye will often cause contraction of the pupil, not only
in the eye affected, but in the other eye. These facts indicate
that the phenomenon is of the nature of a reflex action, in
which the fibres of the optic nerve act as sensory conductors
to a centre in the encephalon, whence influences emanate which
affect the pupil. It has been ascertained that if the fibres
of the optic nerve be affected in any way, contraction of the
pupil follows. The centre is in the anterior pair of the corpora
quadrigemina, as destruction of these bodies causes immobility
of the pupil. On the other hand, the dilating fibres are derived
from the sympathetic; and it has been shown that they come
from the lower part of the cervical, and upper part of the dorsal,
region of the cord. But the iris seems to be directly susceptible
to the action of light. Thus the pupil of the eye of a dead
animal will contract if exposed to light for several hours, whereas,
if the eye on the opposite side be covered, its pupil will remain
widely dilated, as at the moment of death.
The pupil contracts under the influence (i) of an increased
intensity of light; (2) of the effort of accommodation for near
objects; (3) of a strong convergence cf the two eyes; and (4) of
such active substances as nicotine, morphia and physostig-
mine; and it dilates under the influence (i) of a diminished
intensity of light; (2) of vision of distant objects; (3) of a
strong excitation of any sensory nerve; (4) of dyspnoea; and
(5) of such substances as atropine and hyoscyamine. The chief
function of the iris is to so moderate the amount of light entering
136
VISION
[INFLUENCE OF LIGHT
the eye as to secure sharpness of definition of the retinal
image. This it accomplishes by (i) diminishing the amount of
light reflected from near objects, by cutting off the more
divergent rays and admitting only those approaching a parallel
direction, which, in a normal eye, are focused on the retina;
and (2) preventing the error of spherical aberration by cutting
off divergent rays which would otherwise impinge near the
margins of the lens, and would thus be brought to a focus in
front of the retina.
3. SPECIFIC INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON THE RETINA
The retina is the terminal organ of vision, and all the parts
in front of it are optical arrangements for securing that an image
will be accurately focused upon it. The natural stimulus of
the retina is light. It is often said that it may be excited by
mechanical and electrical stimuli; but such an observation
really applies to the stimulation of the fibres of the optic nerve.
It is well known that such stimuli applied to the optic nerve
behind the eye produce always a luminous impression; but
there is no proof that the retina, strictly speaking, is similarly
affected. Pressure or electrical currents may act on the eyeball,
but in doing so they not only affect the retina, consisting of its
various layers and of Jacob's membrane, but also the fibres
of the optic nerve. It is possible that the retina, by which
is meant all the layers except those on its surface formed
by the fibres of the optic nerve, is affected only by its
specific kind of stimulus, light. This stimulus so affects the
terminal apparatus as to set up actions which in turn stimulate
the optic fibres. The next question naturally is What is the
specific action of light on the retina? A. F. Holmgren, and
also J. Dewar and J. G. M'Kendrick, have shown that when
light falls on the retina it excites a variation of the electrical
current obtained from the eye by placing it on the cushions of
a sensitive galvanometer. One electrode touches the vertex
of the cornea and the other the back of the eyeball. The
corneal vertex is positive to the back of the eye, or to the
transverse section of the optic nerve. Consequently a current
passes through the galvanometer from the cornea to the back.
Then the impact of light causes an increase in the natural
electrical current during the continuance of light the current
diminishes slowly and falls in amount even below what it was
before the impact and the withdrawal of light is followed
by a rebound, or second increase, after which the current falls
in strength, as if the eye suffered from fatigue.
It was also observed in this research that the amount of
electrical variation produced by light of various intensities
corresponded pretty closely to the results expressed by G. T.
Fechner's law, which regulates the relation between the stimulus
and the sensational effect in sensory impressions. This law is,
that the sensational effect does not increase proportionally to
the stimulus, but as the logarithm of the stimulus. Thus, sup-
posing the stimulus to be 10, 100 or 1000 times increased, the
sensational effect will not be 10, 100 or 1000 times, but only
i, 2 and 3 times greater.
Such electrical phenomena probably result either from
thermal or chemical changes in the retina. Light produces
chemical changes in the retina. If a frog be killed in the dark,
and if its retina be exposed only to yellow rays, the retina has
peculiar purple colour, which is at once destroyed by exposure
to ordinary light. The purple matter apparently is decom-
posed by light. An image may actually be fixed on the retina
by plunging the eye into a solution of alum immediately after
death. Thus it would appear that light affects the purple-
matter of the retina, and the result of this chemical change is
to stimulate the optic filaments; if the action be arrested,
we may have a picture on the retina, but if it be not arrested,
the picture is evanescent; the purple-matter is used up, and
new matter of a similar kind is formed to take its place. The
retina might, therefore, be compared to a sensitive photographic
plate having the sensitive matter quickly removed and replaced;
and it is probable that the electrical expression of the chemical
changes is what has been above described.
(a) Phosgenes. Luminous impressions may also be pro-
duced by pressure on the eyeball. Such impressions, termed
phosgenes, usually appear as a luminous centre surrounded
by coloured or dark rings. Sometimes they seem to be small
bright scintillations of various forms. Similar appearances
may be observed at the moments of opening or of closing a
strong electrical current transmitted through the eyeball.
(b) The Retina's Proper Light. The visual field, even when
the eyelids are closed in a dark room, is not absolutely dark.
There is a sensation of faint luminosity which may at one
moment be brighter than at another. This is often termed
the proper light of the retina, and it indicates a molecular change,
even in darkness.
(c) The Excitability of the Retina. The retina is not equally
excitable in all its parts. At the entrance of the optic nerve,
as was shown by E. Mariotte in 1668, there is no sensibility to
light. Hence, this part of the retina is called the blind spot.
If we shut the left eye, fix the right eye on the cross seen in
fig. 15, and move the book towards and away from the eye,
a position will be found when the
round spot disappears, that is CK ^
when its image falls on the en-
trance of the optic nerve There FlG . , 5 ._ D ; agram for the
is also complete insensibility to Study of the Blind Spot.
colours at that spot. The diameter
of the optic papilla is about 1-8 mm., giving an angle of 6;
this angle determines the apparent size of the blind spot in
the visual field, and it is sufficiently large to cause a human
figure to disappear at a distance of two metres.
The yellow spot in the centre of the retina is the most sensitive
to light, and it is chiefly employed in direct vision. Thus, if
we fix the eye on a word in the centre of this line, it is distinctly
and sharply seen, but the words towards each end of the line
are vague. If we wish to see each word distinctly, we " run
the eye " along the line that is, we bring each successive
word on the yellow spot. This spot has a horizontal diameter
of 2 mm., and a vertical diameter of -8mm.; and it corresponds
in the visual field to an angle of from 2 to 4. The fossa in
the spot, where there are no retinal elements except Jacob's
membrane, consisting here entirely of cones (2000 in number),
is the area of most acute sensibility. This fossa has a diameter
of only -2 mm., which makes the angle ten times smaller. Thus
the field of distinct vision is extremely limited, and at the same
moment we see only a very small portion of the visual field.
Images of external objects are brought successively on this
minute sensitive area, and the different sensations seem to
be fused together, so that we are conscious of the object as
a whole.
Towards the anterior margin of the retina sensitiveness to
light becomes diminished; but the diminution is not uniform,
and it varies in different persons.
(d) Duration and Persistence of Retinal Impressions. To
excite the retina, a feeble stimulus must act for a certain time;
when the retina is excited, the impression lasts after the cessa-
tion of the stimulus; but if the stimulus be strong, it may be
of very short duration. Thus the duration of an electrical
spark is extremely short, but the impression on the retina is
so powerful, and remains so long, as to make the spark visible.
If we rotate a disk having white and black sectors we see con-
tinuous dark bands. Even if we paint on the face of the disk
a single large round red spot, and rotate rapidly, a continuous
red band may be observed. Here the impressions of red on
the same area of retina succeed each other so rapidly that
before one disappears another is superadded, the result being
a fusion of the successive impressions into one continuous
sensation. This phenomenon is called the persistence of retinal
impressions. An impression lasts on the retina from -5*5- to -fa
of a second. The cinematograph owes its effects to persist-
ence of retinal impressions.
(e) The Phenomena of Irradiation. If we look at fig. 16,
the white square in the black field appears to be larger than the
black square in the white field, although both are of precisely
COLOUR SENSATION]
VISION
137
the same size. This is due to irradiation. The borders of
dear surfaces advance in the visual field and encroach on
obscure surfaces. Prob-
ably, even with the most
exact accommodation,
diffusion images form round
the image of a white sur-
face on a black ground,
forming a kind of penum-
bra, thus causing it to appear
larger than it really is.
(/) Intensity of Light required
to excite the Retina. Light
FIG. 16. Illustrating the Effect of
Irradiation.
must have a certain intensity to produce a luminous impres-
sion. It is impossible to fix the minimum intensity necessary,
as the effect will depend, not only on the intensity of the stimulus,
but on the degree of retinal excitability at the time. Thus,
after the retina has been for some time in the dark, its excita-
bility is increased; on the other hand, it is much diminished
by fatigue. Aubert has stated that the minimum intensity
is about 300 times less than that of the full moon. The sensi-
bility of the eye to light is measured by the photometer.
(g) Consecutive Retinal Images. Images which persist on
the retina are either positive or negative. They are termed
positive when the bright and obscure parts of the image are
the same as the bright and obscure parts of the object; and
negative when the bright parts of the object are dark in the
image, and vice versa. Positive images are strong and sharply
marked when an intense light has acted for not less than $ of
a second. If the excitation be continued much longer, a nega-
tive and not a positive image will be seen. If, when the positive
image is still visible, we look on a very brilliantly illuminated
surface, a negative image appears. Negative images are seen
with greatest intensity after a strong light has acted for a
considerable time. These phenomena may be best studied
when the retina 1 is very excitable, as in the morning after a
sound sleep. On awakening, if we lox>k steadily for an instant
at the window and then close the eyes, a positive image of the
window will appear; if we then gaze fixedly
at the window for one or two minutes, close
the eyes two or three times, and then look at
a dark part of the room, a negative image will
be seen floating before us. The positive image Qranee
is due to excitation of the retina, and the
negative' to fatigue. If we fatigue a small Yellow
area of the retina with white light, and then
allow a less intense light to fall on it, the
fatigued area responds feebly, and conse- Green
quently the object, such as the window pane,
appears to be dark. Greenish
blue
4. SENSATIONS OF COLOUR Cyanic
blue
i. General Statement. Colour (q.v.) is a
special sensation excited by the action on the retina of rays of
light of a definite wave-length. On the most likely hypothesis as
to the physical nature of light, colour depends on the rate of vibra-
tion of the luminiferous aether, and white light is a compound of
all the colours in definite proportion. When a surface reflects
solar light into the eye without affecting this proportion, it is
white, but if it absorbs all the light so as to reflect nothing, it
appears to be black. If a body held between the eye and the sun
transmits light unchanged, and is transparent, it is colourless,
but if translucent it is white. If the medium transmits or reflects
some rays and absorbs others, it is coloured. Thus, if a body
absorbs all the rays of the spectrum but those which cause
the sensation of green, we say the body is green in colour;
but this green can only be perceived if the rays of light falling
on the body contain rays having the special rate of vibration
required for this special colour. For if the surface be illumin-
ated by any other pure ray of the spectrum, say red, these
red rays will be absorbed and the body will appear to be black.
As a white surface reflects all the rays, in red light it will be
seen to be red, and in a green light, green. Colour depends on
the nature of the body and on the nature of the light falling on
it, and a sensation of colour arises when the body reflects or
transmits the special rays to the eye. If two rays of different
rates of vibration, that is to say, of different colours, affect a
surface of the retina at the same moment, the effects are fused
together and we have the sensation of a third colour different
from its cause. Thus, if red be removed from the solar spec-
trum, all the other colours combined cause a sensation of green-
ish yellow. Again red and violet give purple, and yellow
and blue, white. Yellow and blue, however, only give white
when pure spectral colours are mixed. It is well known that
a mixture of yellow and blue pigments do not produce white,
but green; but, as was explained by Helmholtz, this is because
the blue pigment absorbs all the rays at the red end of the
spectrum up to the green, while the yellow pigment absorbs
all the rays at the violet end down to the green, and as the
only rays reflected into the eye are the green rays, the sub-
stance appears green. Finally, if colours are painted on a
disk in due proportions and in a proper order, the disk will,
when quickly rotated, appear white, from the rapid fusion of
colour effects.
When we examine a spectrum, we see a series of colours
merging by insensible gradations the one into the other, thus:
red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. These are termed
simple colours. If two or more coloured rays of the spectrum
act simultaneously on the same spot of the retina, they may
give rise to sensations of mixed colours. These mixed colours
are of two kinds: (i) those which do not correspond to any
colour in the spectrum, such as purple and white, and (2) those
which do exist in the spectrum. White may be produced
by a mixture of two simple colours, which are then said to be
complementary. Thus, red and greenish blue, orange and
cyanic blue, yellow and indigo blue, and greenish yellow and
violet all produce white. Purple is produced by a mixture of
red and violet, or red and bluish violet. The following table
by Helmholtz shows the compound colours produced by mixing
other colours:
Violet
Indigo
blue
Cyanic
blue
Greenish
blue
Green
Yellowish
green
Yellow
Purple
Deep
White
White
Whitish
Golden
Orange
Deep
rose
White
rose
White
Whitish
yellow
Yellow
yellow
Yellow
rose
rose
yellow
White
White
Whitish
Whitish
Yellowish
rose
White
Green
green
Green
green
Green
green
Blue
Water
Greenish
blue
blue
Water
Water
blue
blue
Indigo
blue
This table shows that if we mix two simple colours not
so far separated in the spectrum as the complementary colours,
the mixed colour contains
more white as the interval
between the colours em-
ployed is greater, and that
if we mix two colours
farther distant in the __
spectrum than the com-
plementary colours, the
mixture is whiter as the
FIG. 17. Form of Double Slit for the
Partial Superposition of Two Spectra.
interval is smaller. By mixing more than two simple colours,
no new colours are produced, but only different shades of colour.
2. Modes of Mixing Colour Sensations. Various methods
have been adopted for studying the effect of mixing colours.
(a) By Superposing Two Spectra. This may be done in a simple
way by having a slit in the form of the letter V (see fig. 17),
of which the two portions ab and be form a right angle; behind
this slit is placed a vertical prism, and two spectra are obtained,
138
VISION
as seen in fig. 18, in which bfea is the spectrum of the slit ab,
and cefd that of the slit cd; the coloured spectra are containec
in the triangle gef, and
by arrangement, the
effects of mixture of any
two simple colours may
be observed.
(b) By Method of Re-
flection. Place a red
FIG. 18. Diagram of Double Spectrum wafer on j m fig. IO and
partolly superposed. *
E
so angle a small glass plate a as to transmit to the eye a
reflection of the blue wafer on d in the same line as the rays
transmitted from the red
wafer on b. The sensation
will be that of purple; and
by using wafers of different
colours, many experiments
may thus be performed.
(c) By Rotating Disks which
quickly superpose on the same
Area of Retina the Impres-
, sions of Different Wave-lengths.
Such disks may be con-
structed of cardboard, on
which coloured sectors are
painted, as shown in fig. 20,
representing diagrammatically the arrangement of Sir Isaac
Newton. The angles of the sectors were thus given by him:-
Red
Orange
Yellow
60" 45-5'
34 10-5'
54 41
Violet
Green
Blue .
Indigo
. 6o c
45-5
60 45-5'
54 4i'
34 10-5'
With sectors of such a size, white will be produced on rotating
the disk rapidly. This method has been carried out with great
efficiency by the colour-top of J. Clerk-Maxwell. It is a flat top,
on the surface of which disks
of various colours may be
placed. Dancer has added
to it a method by which, even
while the top is rotating
rapidly and the sensation of
a mixed colour is strongly
perceived, the eye may be
able to see the simple colours
of which it is composed.
This is done by placing on
the handle of the top, a
short distance above the
FIG. 20. Diagram of the Colour
Disk of Sir Isaac Newton.
weighted a little on one side.
coloured surface, a thin black
disk, perforated by holes of
various size and pattern, and
This disk vibrates to and fro
rapidly, and breaks the continuity of the colour impression;
and thus the constituent colours are readily seen.
3. The Geometric Representation of Colours. Colours may
be arranged in a linear series, as in the solar spectrum. Each
point of the line corresponds to a determinate impression of
colour; the line is not a straight line, as regards luminous effect,
but is better represented by a curve, passing from the red to the
violet. This curve might be represented as a circle in the
circumference of which the various colours might be placed,
in which case the complementary colours would be at the
extremities of the same diameter. Sir Isaac Newton arranged
the colours in the form of a triangle, as shown in fig. 21. If we
place three of the spectral colours at three angles, thus green,
violet and red the sides of the triangle include the inter-
mediate colours of the spectrum, except purple.
The point S corresponds to white, consequently, from the inter-
section of the lines which join the complementary colours, the
straight lines from green to S, RS and VS represent the amount of
green, red and violet necessary to form white; the same holds good
_
[COLOUR SENSATION
for the complementary colours; for example, for blue and red, the
line SB = the amount of blue, and the line SR = the amount of red
required to form white.
Again, any point, say M ;
on the surface of the
triangle, will represent a
mixed colour, the composi-
tion of which may be ob-
tained by mixing the three
fundamental colours in the
proportions represented by
the length of the lines M to
green, MV and MR. But tU
the line VM passes on to && Purjdt Vu
reolaceThJ red" ST.SS FlG ' ^--Geometrical Representation
of the Relations of Colours as shown
by "
Indigo
portion of the length of the
line MY, and mix it with violet in the proportion of SV. The
same colour would also be formed by mixing the amount MY of
yellow with MS of white, or by the amount RM of red with the
amount MD of greenish blue.
The following list shows characteristic complementary colours,
with their wave-lengths (X) in millionths of a millimetre:
Red, X 656.
Orange, X 608.
Gold-yellow, X 574.
Yellow, Xs67.
Greenish yellow, X 564.
Blue-green, X 492.
Blue, X4QO.
Blue, X 482.
Indigo-blue, \464-
Violet, X 433.
By combining colours at opposite ends of the spectrum, the
effect of the intermediate colours may be produced; but the
lowest and the highest, red and violet, cannot thus be formed.
These are therefore fundamental or primary colours, colours
that cannot be produced by the fusion of other colours. If now
to red and violet we add green, which has a rate! of vibration
about midway between red and violet, we obtain a sensation of
white. Red, green and violet are therefore the three funda-
mental colours.
4. Physiological Characters of Colours. Colour physiologically
is a sensation, and it therefore does not depend only on the
physical stimulus of light, but also on the part of the retina
affected. The power of distinguishing colours is greatest when
they fall on, or immediately around, the yellow spot, where the
number of cones is greatest. In these regions more than two
hundred different tints of colour may be distinguished. Out-
side of this area lies a middle zone, where fewer tints are per-
ceived, mostly confined to shades of yellow and blue. If intense
coloured stimuli are employed, colours may be perceived even
to the margin of the periphery of the retina, but with weak
stimuli coloured objects may seem to be black, or dark like
shadows. In passing a colour from the periphery to the centre
of the yellow spot, remarkable changes in hue may be observed.
Orange is first grey, then yellow, and it only appears as orange
when it enters the zone sensitive to red. Purple and bluish
green are blue at the periphery, and only show the true tint
in the central region. Four tints have been found which do not
thus change: a red obtained by adding to the red of the spectrum
a little blue (a purple), a yellow of 574-5 X, a green of 495 X and
a blue of 471 X.
The question now arises, How can we perceive differences
in colour? We might suppose a molecular vibration to be set
up in the nerve-endings synchronous with the undulations of the
luminiferous aether, without any change in the chemical con-
stitution of the sensory surface, and we might suppose that
where various series of waves in the aether corresponding to
different colours act together, these may be fused together, or to
interfere so as to give rise to a vibration of modified form or rate
that corresponded in some way to the sensation. Or, to adopt
another line of thought, we might suppose that the effect of
different rays (rays differing in frequency of vibration and in
physiological effect) is to promote or retard chemical changes
n the sensory surface, " which again so affect the sensory nerves
as to give rise to differing states in the nerves and the nerve
centres, with differing concomitant sensations." The former
>f these thoughts is the foundation of the Young-Helmholtz
heory, while the latter is applicable to the theory of E. Hering.
COLOUR SENSATION]
VISION
139
r\
5. Theories of Colour-Perception. A theory widely accepte(
by physicists was first proposed by Thomas Young anc
H Y G B -y afterwards revived by
Helmholtz. It is basec
on the assumption that
three kinds of nervous ele-
ments exist in the retina
the excitation of which
give respectively sensa-
tions of red, green and
violet. These may be
regarded as fundamental
sensations. Homogene-
ous light excites all
three, but with different
intensities according to
the length of the wave.
Thus long waves will
excite most strongly
fibres sensitive to red,
medium waves those
sensitive to green, and
short waves those sensi-
tive to violet. Fig. 22
shows graphically the
irritability of the three
R O Y U B V
FIG. 22. Diagram showing the Irrita-
bility of the Three Kinds of Retinal
Elements.
I, red; 2, green; 3, violet. R, O, Y,
G, B, V, initial letters of colours.
sets of fibies. Helmholtz thus applies the theory:
" i. Red excites strongly the fibres sensitive to red and feebly the
other two sensation : Red.
2. Yellow excites moderately the fibres sensitive to red and
green, feebly the violet sensation : Yellow.
3. Green excites strongly the green, feebly the other two
sensation : Green.
4. Blue excites moderately the fibres sensitive to green and
violet, and feebly the red sensation : Blue.
5. Violet excites strongly the fibres sensitive to violet, and feebly
the other two sensation : Violet.
6. When the excitation is nearly equal for the three kinds of
fibres, then the sensation is White."
The Young-Helmholtz theory explains the appearance of the
consecutive coloured images. Suppose, for example, that we look
at a red object for a considerable time ; the retinal elements sensitive
to red become fatigued. Then (i) if the eye be kept in darkness,
the fibres affected by red being fatigued do not act so as to give a
sensation of red ; those of green and of violet have been less excited,
and this excitation is sufficient to give the sensation of pale greenish
blue ; (2) if the eye be fixed on a white surface, the red fibres, being
fatigued, are not excited by the red rays contained in the white light ;
on the contrary, the green and violet fibres are strongly excited, and
the consequence is that we have an intense complementary image;
(3) if we look at a bluish green surface, the complementary of red,
the effect will be to excite still more strongly the green and violet
fibres, and consequently to have a still more intense complementary
image; (4) if we regard a red surface, the primitive colour, the red
fibres are little affected in consequence of being fatigued, the green
and violet fibres will be only feebly excited, and therefore only a
very feeble complementary image will be seen; and (5) if we look
at a surface of a different colour altogether, this colour may combine
with that of the consecutive image, and produce a mixed colour;
thus, on a yellow surface, we will see an image of an orange colour.
Every colour has three qualities: (i) hue, or tint, such as red,
green, violet; (2) degree of saturation, or purity, according to
the amount of white mixed with the tint, as when we recognize
a red or green as pale or deep; and (3) intensity, or luminosity,
or brightness as when we designate the tint of a red rose as dark
or bright. Two colours are identical when they agree as to
these three qualities. Observation shows, however, that out of
one hundred men ninety-six agree in identifying or in discrimin-
ating colours, while the remaining four show defective apprecia-
tion. These latter are called colour-blind. This defect is about
ten times less frequent in women. Colour-blindness is congen-
ital and incurable, and it is due to an unknown condition of
the retina or nerve centres, or both, and must be distinguished
from transient colour-blindness, sometimes caused by the
excessive use of tobacco and by disease. When caused by
tobacco, the sensation of blue is the last to disappear. Absolute
inability to distinguish colour is rare, if it really exists; in some
rare cases there is only one colour sensation; and in a few
cases the colour-blind fails to distinguish blue from green, or
there is insensibility to violet. Daltonism, or red-green blind-
ness, of which there are two varieties, the red-blind and the
green-blind, is the more common defect. Red appears to a red-
blind person as a dark green or greenish yellow, yellow and
orange as dirty green, and green is green and brighter than the
green of the yellow and orange. To a green-blind person red
appears as dark yellow, yellow is yellow, except a little lighter
in shade than the red he calls dark yellow, and green is pale
yellow.
According to the Young-Helmholtz theory, there are three funda-
mental colour sensations, red, green and violet, by the combination
of which all other colours may be formed, and it is assumed that
there exist in the retina three kinds of nerve elements, each of
which is specially responsive to the stimulus of waves of a certain
frequency corresponding to one colour, and much less so to waves
of other frequencies and other colours. If waves corresponding
to pure red alone act on the retina, only the corresponding nerve
element for red would be excited, and so with green and violet.
But if waves of different frequencies are mixed (corresponding to a
mixture of colours), then the nerve elements will be set in action in
proportion to the amount and intensity of the constituent excitant
rays in the colour. Thus if all the nerve elements were simultane-
ously set in action, the sensation is that of white light ; if that corre-
sponding to red and green, the resultant sensation will be orange or
yellow; if mainly the green and violet, the sensation will be blue and
indigo. Then red-blindness may be explained by supposing that the
elements corresponding to the sensation of red are absent; and
green-blindness, to the absence of the elements sensitive to green.
If to a red-blind person the green and violet are equal, and when to
a green-blind person the red and violet are equal, they may have
sensations which to them constitute white, while to the normal
eye the sensation is not white, but bluish green in the one case and
green in the other. In each case, to the normal eye, the sensation
of green has been added to the sensations of red and blue. It will
be evident, also, that whiteness to the colour-blind eye cannot be
the same as whiteness to the normal eye. No doubt this theory
explains certain phenomena of colour-blindness, of after-coloured
images, and of contrast of colour, but it is open to various objections.
It has no anatomical basis, as it has been found to be impossible
to demonstrate the existence of three kinds of nerve elements, or
retinal elements, corresponding to the three fundamental colour
sensations. Why should red to a colour-blind person give rise to a
sensation of something like green, or why should it give rise to a
sensation at all ? Again, and as already stated, in cases of colour-
blindness due to tobacco or to disease, only blue may be seen, while
it is said that the rest of the spectrum seems to be white. It is
difficult to understand how white can be the sensation if the sensa-
tions of red and green are lost. On the other hand, it may be
argued that such colour-blind eyes do not really see white as seen
by a normal person, and that they only have a sensation which
they have been accustomed to call white. According to this theory,
we never actually experience the primary sensations. Thus we
never see primary red, as the sensation is more or less mixed with
primary green, and even with primary blue (violet). So with regard
to primary green and primary violet. Helmholtz, in his last work
on the subject, adopted as the three primary colours a red bluer
than spectral red, (a) a green lying between 540 X and 560 X (6, like
the green of vegetation), and a blue at about 470 X (c, like ultra-
marine), all, however, much more highly saturated than any colours
existing in the spectrum.
In Handbuch der J> hysiologischen Optik (Hamburg and Leipzig,
1896) Helmholtz pointed out that luminosity or brightness plays a
more important part in colour perception than has been supposed.
Each spectral colour is composed of certain proportions of these
fundamental colours, or, to put it in another way, a combination of
two of them added to a certain amount of white.
Hering's theory proceeds on the assumption of chemical changes
in the retina under the influence of light. It also assumes
that certain fundamental sensations are excited by light or occur
during the absence of light. These fundamental sensations are
white, black, red, yellow, green and blue. They are arranged in
pairs, the one colour in each pair being, in a sense, complementary to
the other, as white to black, red to green, and yellow to blue. Hering
also supposes that when rays of a certain wave-length fall on visual
substances assumed to exist in the retina, destructive or, as it is
rermed, katabolic changes occur, while rays having other wave-
engths cause constructive or anabolic changes. Suppose that in a
red-green substance katabolic and anabolic changes occur in equal
amount, there may be no sensation, but when waves of a certain
wave-length or frequency cause katabolic changes in excess, there
will be a sensation of red, while shorter waves and of greater fre-
quency, by exciting anabolic changes, will cause a sensation of
[reen. In like manner, katabolism of a yellow-blue visual sub-
tance gives rise to a sensation we call yellow, while anabolism,
>y shorter waves acting on the same substance, causes the sensation
of blue. Again, katabolism of a white-black visual substance
140
VISION
[EYE MOVEMENTS
gives white, while anabolism, in the dark, gives rise to the sensation
of blackness. Thus blackness is a sensation as well as whiteness,
and the members of each pair are antagonistic as well as comple-
mentary. In the red end of the spectrum the rays cause katabolism
of the red-green substance, while they have no effect on the yellow-
blue substance. Here the sensation is red. The shorter waves
of the spectral yellow cause katabolism of the yellow-blue material,
while katabolism and anabolism of the red-green substance are here
equal. Here the sensation is yellow. Still shorter waves, corre-
sponding to green, now cause anabolism of the red-green substance,
while their influence on the yellow-blue substance, being equal in
amount as regards katabolism and anabolism, is neutral. Here
the sensation is green. Short waves of the blue of the spectrum
cause anabolism of the yellow-blue material, and as their action on
the red-green matter is neutral, the sensation is blue. The very
short waves at the blue end of the spectrum excite katabolism of the
red-green substance, and thus give violet by adding red to blue.
The sensation orange is experienced when there is excess of kata-
bolism, and greenish blue when there is excess of anabolism in both
substances. Again, when all the rays of the spectrum fall on the
retina, katabolism and anabolism in the red-green and yellow-blue
matters are equal and neutralize each other, but katabolism is great
in the white-black substance, and we call the sensation white.
Lastly, when no light falls on the retina, anabolic changes are going
on and there is the sensation of black.
Hering's theory accounts satisfactorily for the formation of
coloured after-images. Thus, if we suppose the retina to be stimu-
lated by red light, katabolism takes place, and if the effect continues
after withdrawal of the red stimulus, we have a positive after-image.
Then anabolic changes occur under the influence of nutrition, and
the effect is assisted by the anabolic effect of shorter wave-lengths,
with the result that the negative after-image, green, is perceived.
Perhaps the distinctive feature of Hering's theory is that white is
an independent sensation, and not the secondary result of a mixture
of primary sensations, as held by the Young-Helmholtz view.
The greatest difficulty in the way of the acceptance of Hering's
theory is with reference to the sensation of black. Black is held to
be due to anabolic changes occurring in the white-black substance.
Suppose that anabolism and katabolism of the white-black sub-
stance are in equilibrium, unaccompanied by stimulation of either
the red-green or the yellow-blue substances, we find that we have a
sensation of darkness, but not one of intense blackness. This
" darkness " has still a certain amount of luminosity, and it has
been termed the " intrinsic light " of the retina. Sensations of
black differing from this darkness may be readily experienced, as
when we expose the retina to bright sunshine for a few moments
and then close the eye. We then have a sensation of intense black-
ness, which soon, however, is succeeded by the darkness of the
" intrinsic light." The various degrees of blackness, if it is truly a
sensation, are small compared with the degrees in the intensity of
whiteness. In the consideration of both theories changes in the
cerebral centres have not been taken into account, and of these we
know next to nothing.
6. The Contrast of Colours. If we look at a small white,
grey or black object on a coloured ground, the object appears
to have the colour complementary to the ground. Thus a circle
of grey paper on a red ground appears to be of a greenish-blue
colour, whilst on a blue ground it will appear pink. This effect
is heightened if we place over the paper a thin sheet of tissue
paper; but it disappears at once if we place a black ring or
border round the grey paper. Again, if we place two comple-
mentary colours side by side, both appear to be increased in
intensity. Various theories have been advanced to explain
these facts. Helmholtz was of opinion that the phenomena
consist rather in modifications of judgment than in different
sensory impressions; J. A. F. Plateau, on the other hand,
attempted to explain them by the theory of consecutive
images.
5. THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EYE
i. General Statement. The globe of the eye has a centre
of rotation, which is not exactly in the centre of the optic axis,
but a little behind it. On this centre it may move round axes
of rotation, of which there are three an antero-posterior,
a vertical and a transverse. In normal vision, the two eyes are
always placed in such a manner as to be fixed on one point, called
the fixed point or the point of regard. A line passing from the
centre of rotation to the point of regard is called the line of
regard. The two lines of regard form an angle at the point of
regard, and the base is formed by a line passing from the one
centre of rotation to, the other. A plane passing through
both lines of regard is called the plane of regard. With these
in*.
definitions, we can now describe the movements of the eyeball,
which are of three kinds: (i) First position. The head is erect,
and the line of regard is directed towards the distant horizon.
(2) Second position. This indicates all the movements round
the transverse and horizontal axes. When the eye rotates
round the first, the line of regard is displaced above or below,
and makes with a line indicating its former position an angle
termed by Helmholtz the angle of vertical displacement, or the
ascensional angle; and when it rotates round the vertical
axis, the line of regard is displaced from side to side, forming
with the median plane of the eye an angle called the angle of
lateral displacement. (3) Third order of positions. This includes
all those which the globe may assume in performing a rotatory
movement along with lateral or vertical displacements. This
movement of rotation is measured by the angle which the plane
of regard makes with
the transverse plane, an
angle termed the angle of
rotation or of torsion.
The two eyes move
together as a system, so
that we direct the two
lines of regard to the
same point in space.
The eyeball is moved
by six muscles, which
are described in the
article EYE (Anatomy).
The relative attach-
ments and the axes of
rotation are shown in
fig. 23.
The term visual field
is given to the area in-
tercepted by the ex-
treme visual lines which FIG. 23. Diagram of the Attachments
tv, tt a thrninrh tk*. ront of the Musclesof the Eye and of their
pass through the centre ^^ of Rotationi th ^ latter bei
of the pupil, the amount shown by dotted lines. (Pick.)
of dilatation of which The axis of rotation of the rectus
determines its size. It internus and rectus externus being
follows thp rrmwmpntc vertical, that is, perpendicular to the
movements , ane of the canno( . be shown
of the eye, and is dis-
placed with it. Each point in the visual field has a corre-
sponding point on the retina, but the portion, as already ex-
plained, which secures our attention is that falling on the
yellow spot.
2. Simple Vision with Two Eyes. When we look at an object
with both eyes, having the optic axes parallel, its image falls
upon the two yellow spots, and it is seen
as one object. If, however, we displace
one eyeball by pressing it with the finger,
then the image in the displaced eye does
not fall on the yellow spot, and we see
two objects, one of them being less dis-
tinct than the other. It is not necessary,
however, in order to see a single object FIG. 24. Diagram
with two eyes that the two images fall to illustrate the
on the two yellow spots; an object is Physiological Re-
always single if its image fall on corre- R e I t n| e ft
spending points in the two eyes.
The eye may rotate round three possible axes, a vertical,
horizontal and antero-posterior. These movements are effected
by four straight muscles and two oblique. The four straight
muscles arise from the back of the orbit, and pass forward to be
inserted into the front part of the eyeball, or its equator, if we
regard the anterior and posterior ends of the globe as the poles.
The two obliques (one originating at the back of the orbit)
come, as it were, from the nasal side the one goes above the
eyeball, the other below, while both are inserted into the eye-
ball on the temporal side, the superior oblique above and the
inferior oblique below. The six muscles work in pairs. The
internal and external recti turn the eye round the vertical axis,
VISUAL PERCEPTIONS]
VISION
141
so that the line of vision is directed to the right or left. The
superior and inferior recti rotate the eye round the horizontal
axis, and thus the line of vision is raised or lowered. The
oblique muscles turn the eye round an axis passing through the
centre of the eye to the back of the head, so that the superior
oblique muscle lowers, while the inferior oblique raises, the
visual line. It was also shown by Helmholtz that the oblique
muscles sometimes cause a slight rotation of the eyeball round
the visual axis itself. These movements are under the control
of the will up to a certain point, but there are slighter move-
ments that are altogether involuntary. Helmholtz studied
these slighter movements by a method first suggested by F. C.
Bonders. By this method the apparent position of after-
images produced by exhausting the retina, say with a red or
green object, was compared with that of a line or fixed point
gazed at with a new position of the eyeball. The ocular spectra
soon vanish, but a quick observer can determine the coincidence
of lines with the spectra. After producing an after-image
with the head in the erect position, the head may be placed
into any inclined position, and if the attention is then fixed on a
diagram having vertical lines ruled upon it, it can easily be seen
whether the after-image coincides with these lines. As the
after-image must remain in the same position on the retina,
it will be evident that if it coincides with the vertical lines there
must have been a slight rotation of the eyeball. Such a coin-
cidence always takes place, and thus it is proved that there is
an involuntary rotation. This minute rotation enables us to
judge more accurately of the position of external objects.
3. The horopter is the locus of those points of space which
are projected on retinal points. While geometrically it may
be conceived as simple, as a matter of fact it is generally a line
of double curvature produced by the intersection of two hyper-
boloids, or, in other words, it is a twisted cubic curve formed
by the intersection of two hyperboloids which have a common
generator. The curves pass through the nodal point of both
eyes. An infinite number of lines may be drawn from any point
of the horopter, so that the point may be seen as a single point,
and these lines lie on a cone of the second order, whose vertex
is the point. When we gaze at the horizon, the horopter is
really a horizontal plane passing through our feet. The
horopter in this instance is the ground on which we stand.
Experiments show " that the forms and the distances of these
objects which are situated in, or very nearly in, the horopter,
are perceived with a greater degree of accuracy than the same
forms and distances would be when not situated in the horopter "
(M'Kendrick, Life of Helmholtz, 1899, p. ijietseq.).
An object which is not found in the horopter, or, in other
words, does not form an image on corresponding points of the
retinae, is seen double. When the eyeballs are so acted upon
by their muscles as to secure images on non-corresponding
points, and consequently double vision, the condition is termed
strabismus, or squinting, of which there are several varieties
treated of in works on ophthalmic surgery. It is important
to observe that in the fusion of double, images we must assume,
not only the correctness of the theory of corresponding points
of the retina, but also that there are corresponding points in the
brain, at the central ends of the optic fibres. Such fusion of
images may occur without consciousness at all events, it is
possible to imagine that the cerebral effect (except as regards
consciousness) would be the same when a single object was
placed before the two eyes, in the proper position, whether the
individual were conscious or not. On the other hand, as we
are habitually conscious of a single image, there is a psychical
tendency to fuse double images when they are not too dissimilar.
4. Binocular Perception of Colour. This may be studied as
follows, Take two No. 3 eye-pieces of a Hartnack's micro-
scope, or two eye-pieces of the same optical value from any
microscope, place one in front of each eye, direct them to a clear
window in daylight, keep them parallel, and two luminous fields
will be seen, one corresponding to each eye. Then converge
the two eye-pieces, until the two luminous circles cross, and
the central part, like a bi-convex lens, will appear clear and
bright, while the outer segments will be much less intense, and
may appear even of a dim grey colour. Here, evidently, the
sensation is due to a fusion of impressions in the brain. With
a similar arrangement, blue light may be admitted by the one
eye-piece and red by the other; and on the convergence of the
two, a resultant colour, purple, will be observed. This may
be termed the binocular vision of colours. It is remarkable
that by a mental effort this sensation of a compound colour
may be decomposed into its constituents, so that one eye will
again see blue and the other red.
6. THE PSYCHICAL RELATIONS OP VISUAL PERCEPTIONS
i. General Characters of Visual Perceptions. All visual
perceptions, if they last for a sufficient length of time, appear
to be external to ourselves, erect, localized in a position in space
and more or less continuous.
(a) Visual Sensations are referred to the Exterior. This appears
to-be due, to a large extent, to habit. Those who have been
born blind, on obtaining eyesight by an operation, have
imagined objects to be in close proximity to the eye, and have
not had the distinct sense of exteriority which most individuals
possess. Slowly, and by a process of education, in which the
sense of touch played an important part, they gained the
knowledge of the external relations of objects. Again, phos-
genes, when first produced, appear to be in the eye, but when
conscious of them, by an effort of imagination, we may transport
them into space, although they never appear very far off.
(b) Visual Sensations are referred to Erect Objects. Although
the images of objects are inverted on the retina we see them
erect. The explanation of the effect is that we are conscious
not of the image on the retina, but of the luminous object from
which the rays proceed, and we refer the sensation in the
direction of these rays. Again, in running the eye over the
object, say a tall pole, from base to apex, we are not conscious
of the different images on the retina, but of the muscular move-
ments necessary to bring the parts successively on the yellow
spot.
(c) Visual Sensations are referred to a Position in Space.
The localization of a luminous point in space can only be
'determined by observing its relations to other luminous points
with a given position of the head and of the eye. For example,
in a perfectly dark room, if we look at a single luminous point,
we cannot fix its exact position in space, but we may get some
information of a vague character by moving the head or the
eye. If, however, a second luminous point appears in the dark-
ness, we can tell whether it is nearer or farther distant, above
or below the first. So with regard to other luminous points
we observe their reciprocal relations, and thus we localize a
number of visual impressions. There are three principal
directions in space: the transverse (breadth), the vertical
(height) and the sagittal (depth). Luminous points may be
localized either in the transverse or vertical directions. Here
we have to do simply with localization on a surface. A number
of points may be observed simultaneously (as when the eye is
fixed) or successively (as when the eye moves). If the move-
ment of the eye be made rapidly, the series of impressions from
different points may be fused to- g
gether, and we are conscious of f
a line, the direction of which is e
indicated chiefly by the muscular d
sensations felt in following it. A .<j...J
The case is different as regards
points in the sagittal direction. 4 .... .^
We see only a single point of. ^
this line at a time; it may be 9.....
a transverse series of retinal 4
elements, A B, and each of these ^
formed by a number of smaller FIG. 25. Diagram illustrating
elements, i, 2, 3, 4, situated in e jl^jjf tion f Visual
the axis of each principal element ;
it may be, on the other hand, the transverse line a b situated
in space and formed by a series of points in juxtaposition.
142
VISION
[ERRORS OF REFRACTION
Each of these points will impress a retinal element, and the
result will be the perception of a transverse line; but this will
not be the same for the points c, d, e, f, g, situated in space in
a linear series, in the sagittal direction; only one of those
points, c, will impress the corresponding retinal element, and we
can see only one point at a time in the line eg. By accom-
modating successively, however, for the various points at
different and considerable distances along the line eg, we may
excite retinal elements in rapid succession. Thus, partly by
the fusion of the successive impressions on the retina, and partly
from the muscular sensations caused by repeated accommoda-
tions and possibly of ocular movements, we obtain a notion of
depth in space, even with the use of only one eye. It is, how-
ever, one of the chief effects of binocular vision to give precision
to the notion of space in the sagittal direction.
(d) Visual Sensations are Continuous. Suppose the image
of a luminous line falls on the retina, it will appear as a line
although it is placed on perhaps 200 cones or rods, each of
which may be separately excited, so as to cause a distinct
sensation. Again, on the same principle, the impression of a
superficial surface may be regarded as a kind of mosaic, made
up of individual portions corresponding to the rods or cones
on which the image of the surface falls. But in both cases
the sensation is continuous, so that we see a line or a surface.
The individual images are fused together.
2. Notions derived from Visual Perceptions. When we look
at any object, we judge of its size, the direction of its surfaces
(unless it be a point), its distance from the eye, its apparent
movement or fixedness and its appearance of solidity.
(a) Apparent Size. This, so far as regards a comparatively
small object, depends on the size of the retinal image, as deter-
mined by the visual angle.
With a very large object,
** there is an appreciation of
? 6 - Diagram to illustrate s ; ze f ro m the muscular
Illusions of Size and Distance.
sensations derived from the
S45*9'*i'
Si *ilH*
liili
1 1 ill*
FIG. 27. Zoellner's Figure showing an
Illusion of Direction.
movements of the eyeball as we " range " the eye over it.
It is difficult to appreciate the distance separating two points
between which there are other points, as contrasted with an
apparently similar distance without intermediate points. For
example, the distance A to B appears to be greater than from
B to C, in fig. 26.
(b) Direction. As the retina is a curved surface, a long
straight line, especially when seen from a distance, appears
curved. In fig. 27 a curious illusion of direction, first shown
by J. K. F. Zoellner,
is depicted. If these
lines be looked at
somewhat obliquely,
say from one corner,
they will appear to
converge or diverge,
and the oblique lines,
on each side of the
vertical lines, will
appear not to be
exactly opposite each
other. But the ver-
A -A kB^ tical lines are parallel,
5 4 ^ h anc ^ ^ ne bliQ ue ' mes
are continuous across
them. The effect is
evidently due to an
error of judgment,
as it may be con-
trolled by an intense
effort, when the lines will be seen as they really are.
(c) Apparent Distance. We judge of distance, as regards
large objects at a great distance from the eye (i) from their
apparent size, which depends on the dimensions of the visual
angle, and (2) from the interposition of other objects between
the eye and the distant object. Thus, at sea, we cannot form,
without great experience, an accurate estimate of how many
miles we are off the coast, and all know how difficult it is to
estimate accurately the width of a river. But if objects be
interposed between the eye and the distant object, say a few
vessels at different distances at sea, or a boat in the river, then
we have certain materials on which to form a judgment, the
accuracy of which, however, even with these aids, will depend
on experience. When we look at a near object, we judge of
its distance chiefly by the sense of effort put forth in bringing
the two lines of regard to converge upon it.
(d) The Movement of a Body. It the eye be fixed, we judge
of movement by successive portions
of the retina being affected, and
possibly also by a feeling of an
absence of muscular contractions
necessary to move the eyeballs.
When the eye moves, so as to
"follow" the object, there is a
sense of muscular effort, which is
FIG. 28. Illustrating
Stereoscopic Vision.
increased when, in addition, we require to move the head.
(e) The Apparent Solidity of an Object. If we look at an
object, say a cube, first with the right eye and then with the
left, it will be found that the two images of the object are some-
what different, as in fig. 28. If, then, by means of a stereoscope,
or by holding a card between the two eyes, and causing a slight
convergence of the eyes, the two images are brought upon
corresponding points of the two retinae, the image will at once
be seen in relief.
See also article " Vision " by W. H. R. Rivers in Schafer's Text-
Book of Physiology, vol. ii. p. 1026. (J. G. M.)
7. ERRORS OF REFRACTION AND ACCOMMODATION AND
THEIR CURATIVE TREATMENT
The following is a classification of the diseases of vision, from
a medical point of view (see also EYE : diseases) :
a. Errors of refraction: hyperopia, myopia, astigmatism, aniso-
metropia, aphakia.
b. Errors of accommodation:
(1) Loss of accommodation (a) From advancing years (presby-
opia), or from debility.
(b) From paralysis (cycloplegia)
due to
1. Drugs such as atropine.
2. Systemic poisons: diph-
theria.influenza.syphilis,
&c.
3. Diseases of the nervous
system, concussion of the
brain.
(2) Spasm of accommodation.
(3) Meridional asymmetrical accommodation by means of which
low errors of astigmatism are corrected, producing eye-strain.
Hyperopia or Hypermetropia (H.) (Far-sight; German
= Uebersicht). This is a condition of the refraction of the eye
in which, with the eye at rest, parallel rays of light focus beyond
the retina, which means that the image of a distant object is
not in focus when it meets the retina, because the eye is too
short antero-posteriorly. Most eyes at birth are hyperopic,
but as the child grows the eye also grows; when, however,
this does not take place, or does not take place sufficiently,
normal development is thus arrested. There are other con-
ditions that cause hyperopia. but this shortening of the antero-
posterior axis is by far the commonest.
Hyperopia is corrected by convex glasses (fig. 29), and the
measurement of the hyperopia is that convex glass which enables
the hyperopic eye, at rest, to see distinctly objects at a distance.
When the hyperopia is not too high it can also be corrected
by the eye itself by means of the ciliary muscle (muscle of
accommodation) which causes the crystalline lens to become
more convex, and thus brings about the same result as placing
a convex glass before the eye.
In young people when the error is not too high this work
is done unconsciously, vision appears to be perfect, and it is
only by placing the eye under the influence of atropine that
ERRORS OF REFRACTION]
VISION
the defect is revealed. In the normal eye distant objects are
focused on the retina without the use of the ciliary muscle,
FIG. 29. Showing Parallel Rays focused on the Retina of a
Hyperopic Eye by means of a Convex Lens.
which is only employed when looking at near objects; but
the hyperope has to use this muscle all his waking hours for
both near and distant vision, so that his eyes are never at rest.
Fortunately he has some compensation for this extra work,
for in most hyperopes the ciliary muscle becomes more or less
hypertrophied; but even so, if near work is at all excessive,
or if the defect is associated with astigmatism or anisometropia,
symptoms of eye-strain will sooner or later show themselves
(see Eye-strain, below).
In older people a very common symptom is blurring of the
type while reading; the book has to be put down and the eyes
rested for some minutes before reading can be resumed. This
is due to the fatigued ciliary muscle giving way and becoming
unable to focus.
As we advance in years we lose accommodation power (see
Presbyopia, below), so that the time comes to every hyperope,
if he live long enough, when he not only has to use glasses for
reading (at an earlier period than the normal person), but he
also finds that he is gradually losing his distant vision. This
is very alarming to many, until it is explained that all that
has happened is the loss of power to correct the defect, which
defect, of course, has always existed, and which in future will
have to be corrected by suitable glasses. The higher the
hyperopia the sooner will these symptoms manifest themselves.
In quite young children, sometimes the earliest sign of the
presence of hyperopia is a convergent strabismus (internal
squint). As a rule, this squint is nothing more than an over-
convergence brought about by over-accommodation in those
who cannot dissociate their convergence and accommodation;
if we remove the necessity for over-accommodation by correcting
the defect with suitable glasses, the over-convergence disappears
and the squint is cured.
The total hyperopia of the eye is divided into manifest
hyperopia and latent hyperopia. Manifest hyperopia is ex-
pressed in amount by the strongest convex glass that allows
clear distant vision when the eye is not under atropine. Latent
hyperopia is the additional hyperopia which is revealed under
atropine. With advancing years the latent hyperopia becomes
more and more manifest, and between the ages of 45 and 50
the total hyperopia is entirely manifest.
In addition to the symptoms already described, a very
common one among young hyperopes is spasm of the ciliary
muscle. This cramp of the muscle causes distant objects
to be very indistinct, improvement only taking place with a
concave glass, and near work has to be approached very close
to the eyes, thus giving a wrong idea that the child is suffering
from myopia; by paralysing the ciliary muscle with atropine
the spasm disappears and the true nature of the defect is revealed.
The treatment essentially consists in ascertaining the total
hyperopia of the eye, and this can only be done satisfactorily,
when latent hyperopia is present, by paralysing the accommoda-
tion, using atropine for those under 25, and homatropine for
those between the ages of 25 and 35 or 40. Over 40 (and
when the hyperopia is high, even at an earlier age) no cyclo-
plegic is necessary in fact it is in many cases dangerous, as
an attack of glaucoma may be induced. (See EYE: diseases.)
Having found the total hyperopia, we learn the amount
of the latent hyperopia, and, roughly speaking, the convex
glass required is equal to the whole of the manifest hyperopia
added to, from one-third to a half, of the latent; but the treat-
ment varies with the age of the individual and the amount
of the hyperopia, and is too complicated to be detailed here.
Myopia (M.) (Short-sight). Typical myopia is due to an
elongation of the antero-posterior diameter of the eye, so that
the retina is situated behind the principal focus, and only diver-
FIG. 30.
gent rays of light from a near point (fig. 30), or parallel rays
made divergent by a concave glass (fig. 31), can come to a
FIG. 31.
focus on the retina. In other words, the far point of a myope
is at a short distance in front of the eye, the distance being
the measure of the myopia.
A myope ca'n see distinctly at a distance when the eye is
at rest (i.e. when accommodation is not being used), with that
concave glass whose focal length is equal to the distance of
the far point from the eye, and the converse is true; the measure-
ment of myopia is that concave glass with which the myopic
eye sees distinctly objects at a distance, and its focal length
is equal to the distance of the myope's far point from the eye.
The Causes of Myopia. Although myopia is hereditary, it is,
with few exceptions, not congenital. We have seen that almost
all eyes are hyperopic at birth. The savage is rarely myopic:
it is civilization that is responsible for it; the necessity for
constantly adapting the eye for near objects means undue con-
vergence. We find that myopia generally first shows itself at
the age of 8 to 10, when school work begins in earnest that is,
when convergence is first used in excess and there is no doubt
that it is excessive convergence that is mostly responsible for the
development of myopia. The over-used internal recti constantly
pulling at the sclerotic tend to lengthen the antero-posterior
diameter of the eye, and as this lengthening of the antero-
posterior axis necessitates greater convergence still, a vicious
circle is produced, and the myopia gradually increases. The
hereditary character of myopia is explained by the existence in
such eyes of an " anatomical predisposition " to myopia. The
sclera is unusually thin, and consequently less able to resist
the pull of the internal recti, and the relative position of the
recti and the position of the optic nerve, both of which may be
hereditary, may be factors in the production of this defect.
Anything which causes young subjects to approach their work
too near the eyes may be the starting-point. Bad illumination,
or the light coming from the wrong direction (for instance,
in front), or defective vision produced by corneal nebulae, or
lamellar cataract, &c., all necessitate over-convergence in order
to obtain clearer images, and myopia may be produced.
144
VISION
[ERRORS OF REFRACTION
It is interesting to note that when the work is approached
very near the eye, but convergence is not used, as in the case of
watchmakers, who habitually use a strong convex glass in one
eye, there is no special tendency to myopia.
Some of the more common symptoms of myopia are:
(i) Distant objects are seen indistinctly. (2) Near objects are
seen distinctly, and the near point is much nearer than in the
normal eye. (3) Acuteness of vision is often lowered, and
especially is this the case in high myopia. (4) Eye-strain is
often present, due to overuse of the muscles of convergence,
and this may lead to (5) an external or divergent squint.
(6) Floating black specks are often complained of, these are
generally muscae volitantes, but often, especially in high
myopia, may be actual opacities floating in the vitreous.
(7) Myopes often stoop and become " round shouldered " from
their habit of poring over their work.
A small amount of myopia, if it is stationary, is in no sense
a serious defect of the eye, the possessors of it are often quite
unconscious of any deficiency in vision, and in fact brag that they
have better vision than their fellows. The reason of this is
that they learn in early life to recognize indistinct distant
objects by the aid of other senses in a way that the ordinary
individual can hardly understand, and in later life they can
postpone the wearing of glasses for near work for many years,
and sometimes until extreme old age. Unfortunately myopia
is, as a rule, not stationary; it almost always tends to increase,
and if this increase leads to very high myopia such serious
changes may occur in the eyes as to lower the visual acuity
enormously and sometimes lead to total loss of vision.
The treatment of myopia is general and local.
General Treatment. The most important part of this is the pre-
ventive treatment (prophylaxis), especially in its application to
children. AH children who have one or both parents myopic are
specially " marked down " for this defect, for they have probably
inherited an anatomical predisposition. Bearing in mind that
excessive convergence is the most potent cause of myopia, the most
rigid attention should be paid to the ophthalmic hygiene of the
schoolroom. This room should be large, lofty and well ventilated,
and have good-sized high windows on one wall, preferably on the
north side. Each scholar should have an adjustable seat and desk
so arranged that his head is upright and the work not too near his
eyes. These desks should be arranged in rows so placed that the
pupils sit with the light on their left. Schoolbooks must be clearly
printed and the type should not be too small. The school work
that needs close application of the eyes should be continued only for
a short period at a time, the period alternating with other work
which does not require the use of the eyes, such as mental arithmetic,
black-board demonstrations, recitation, or play. Schoolmasters
should teach more that is, they should explain and impart know-
ledge by demonstrations and simple lectures, and reduce as much as
possible the time spent in " home preparations, " which is usually
work done by bad light and when the student is physically and
mentaHy tired. Even in the nursery the greatest care should be
taken. The little ones should be supplied with large toys, a large
box of plain wooden bricks being the best form; picture books
should be discouraged, and close work that entails undue con-
vergence, such as sewing, threading beads, &c., ought to be forbidden.
The nursery governess can teach the alphabet, small words and even
simple arithmetic with the bricks. No child with a tendency to
myopia, or with a myopic family history should be allowed to learn
to write or draw until at least seven years old. The child's bed
should not be allowed to face the window, preferably it should be
back to the light. Students, or those engaged in literary or other
work which entails close application for many hours a day, should be
advised to regulate their work, if they are free to do so, by working
for shorter periods and taking longer intervals of rest, they should
be specially careful not to approach their work too near to the eyes
and they should always work in a good light.
Local Treatment. This consists in correcting the error with
a concave 'glass. The testing must be done when the eye is
under atropinc in all those under 25, and under homatropine
between the ages of 25 and 35 or 40. Over 40 no cycloplegic is
required. Except when playing rough games the glasses must be
worn always. The wearing; of glasses for near work produces at
first considerable rebellion in children, because they can see near
work so much better without a glass. The object of enforcing this
treatment is to make the muscle of accommodation do its proper
work, and not only do we do this, but we also do away with the
excess of convergence over accommodation, and lastly, make
excessive convergence impossible, because, with the glasses on, the
near work has to be held at some considerable distance from the
eyes. In other words, we have practically made the eyes normal,
and it is only by doing this that we can prevent the increase of
myopia. Adults who have never worn their correction (especially
if the myopia is high) must have a weaker glass for near work.
Each case must be treated on its own merits. So-called malignant
myopia, which is high myopia with serious changes in the eye,
must be treated in_a special manner and with the greatest care.
Astigmatism. 1 The principal seat of astigmatism is the
cornea, the curvature of one meridian being greater than that
of the other. In regular astigmatism, which is the only form
that can as a rule be treated by glasses, the meridians of greatest
and least curvature are at right angles to each other, and the
intermediate meridians pass by regular gradations from one
to the other. Rays of light passing through such an astigmatic
surface do not focus at one point, but form many points, with
the result that the image is more or less indistinct according
to the amount of the error. In uncorrected astigmatism a
clock-face viewed at a distance of 4 or 5 yds. will appear to
have certain figures distinct, and others (at right angles)
indistinct; for instance, figures XI and V may appear quite
black, while figures II and VIII are grey and indistinct. If
one of the principal meridians be emmetropic the astigmatism
is simple; if both be hyperopic, or if both be myopic, it is
compound; and if one meridian be hyperopic and the other
myopic, it is styled mixed astigmatism. Generally the vertical
meridian or one near it is the most convex, and this is called
direct astigmatism (astigmatism " according to the rule ").
When the horizontal meridian or one near it is the most
convex, the term inverse astigmatism is used (astigmatism
" against the rule ") When the -meridians are oblique, that is,
about 45, it is .called oblique astigmatism. Low degrees
of astigmatism (of the cornea) are corrected by the ciliary
muscle, producing an astigmatism of the crystalline lens, the
opposite of that of the cornea, and so neutralizing the defect.
This work is done unconsciously, vision is generally quite good
and no suspicion is entertained of anything wrong until some
symptom of eye-strain shows itself (see Eye-strain, below),
and the detection of it is one of the most important duties
of the oculist. The only certain method of detecting and
consequently correcting a low error of astigmatism, in all
below the age of 50, is by paralysing the ciliary muscle with
atropine or homatropine and thus preventing it from correcting
the defect, and revealing the true refraction of the eye. As-
tigmatism is corrected by cylindrical glasses combined with
spherical convex or concave glasses if hyperopia or myopia
co-exist, and the correction must be worn always in the form
of rigid pince-nez or spectacles.
Presbyopia (Old Sight). A normal-sighted child at the age
of ten has his near point of accommodation 7 cms. from the eye,
and as age advances this near point recedes gradually. At the
age of 40 it has receded to 22 cms., in other words at this age
fine print cannot be read nearer to the eye than 22 cms. Between
the ages of 45 and 50 the person who has apparently enjoyed
good sight up till then, both for distance and near, finds that
by artificial light he cannot read the newspaper unless he
holds it some distance from the eyes, and he has to give up
consulting " Bradshaw " because he cannot distinguish between
3's and 8's. Another symptom often complained of is the
" running together of letters," so that the book has to be closed
and the eyes rested before work can be resumed. This loss of
accommodation power is due to the gradual hardening of the
crystalline lens from age, and convex glasses have to take
its place, in order to make reading possible and comfortable.
In hyperopia the presbyopic period is earlier, and in myopia
it is later than normal (see above).
It is unwise for the presbyope to select the glasses for himself,
as astigmatism or anisometropia may be present and must,
of course, be -corrected; the eyes should be properly tested, and
this testing should be repeated every two or three years, as,
not only does the old sight increase, but changes in the static
refraction of the eyes are probably taking place. When an
error of refraction exists with the presbyopia, glasses for distance,
as well as reading, have to be worn, and to avoid the trouble
1 See also A stigmatism, above.
VISITATION VISITING CARDS
of constantly changing, the two should be combined as bi-focal
glasses. The upper portion of the bi-focal corrects the distant,
and the lower the near vision, and in the best form the division
between the two is invisible. When properly fitted these
bi-focals prove the greatest boon to the presbyope.
Anisometropia (Odd Sight) is a condition in which the re-
fraction of the two eyes is different. There are three varieties,
(i) Binocular vision exists. As a rule a very small difference
is present, and the difference is generally in the astigmatism;
consequently eye-strain is very commonly manifested, and the
correction by suitable glasses is imperative. (2) The eyes are
used alternately. For instance, one eye may be hyperopic or
emmetropic, and the other myopic; in such a case the former
will be used for distant and the latter for near vision, and
although binocular or stereoscopic vision is lost, glasses may
never be required and any attempt at a correction of the defect
may be useless. However, if eye-strain is present, the attempt
should be made. (3) One of the eyes is permanently excluded.
When the difference between the eyes is great the most defective
eye is little used and tends to become amblyopic (partially
blind), if it is not so already. This condition is very common
in squint, and the treatment in such cases consists in providing
the defective eye with its correcting glass, completely covering
up the good eye and practising for certain periods every day,
and thus forcing the defective eye to work. This eye may
never take its share in binocular vision, but it may become
very useful, especially if disease or damage should affect the good
eye ; and the improvement of the Vision of the eye materially
assists the treatment of the squint. When one eye is irre-
mediably lost, the other should be very carefully tested, and
if any error exists it ought to be corrected and the glass worn
always.
Aphakia is the absence of the crystalline lens through dis-
location, or removal by operation, or injury. A strong convex
glass has to be worn in front of such an eye in order to obtain
clear vision even for distance, and a still stronger one for near
vision; after cataract operation astigmatism is generally
present and the convex glass must be combined with a cy Under:
these glasses are best worn in the form of bi-focals (see Pres-
byopia, above).
Eye-Strain. Eye-strain is a symptom, or group of symptoms,
produced by the correction, or attempt at correction, by the
ciliary muscle of an error of refraction, or a want of balance
between the external muscles of the eye (heterophoria). Where
gross errors exist either in the refraction or in the muscular equili-
brium, the correction cannot be made, and consequently no
attempt is made to correct the defect, and eye-strain is not
produced. The smaller the error the more likely is the eye-
strain to be present, and also, unfortunately, the more likely is
it to be overlooked. It is important to recognize what may be
the different manifestations of eye-strain. They may be grouped
under three headings : (i) manifestations on the eye and lids,
such as conjunctivitis, blepharitis, iritis, cyclitis, glaucoma
and cataract. (2) Peripheral irritation: (a) with pain: head-
aches and megrim; (V) without pain: epileptic attacks and
choreiform movements of the facial muscles: vertigo, nausea,
vomiting. (3) Nerve waste: nerve exhaustion, neurasthenia,
brain-fag. This last form of eye-strain is as common as it is
subtle. It is subtle because the sufferer never suspects the
eyes to be at fault; all his waking hours he is unconsciously
correcting a low degree of astigmatism, or anisometropia, or
heterophoria, which means a constant nerve waste; and when
he begins near work he starts with a big deficit, and further
strain results.
Insomnia is a prominent symptom of eye-strain; this leads
to depression, which in its turn may lead to the alcoholic or
morphia habit. There is no form of functional nerve disorder
that may not be caused by, or aggravated by, eye-strain.
The treatment of eye-strain consists in correcting all errors
of refraction (and in the case of astigmatism and anisometropia,
even the smallest) and in wearing the correction always. A
small amount of heterophoria will generally, in a short time,
disappear when the error is corrected; if not, it must be corrected
by prisms or decentring. (E. C.*)
VISITATION (Lat. from trisitare, frequentative form of visere,
to look at, go to see, visit, mdere, to see), an act of visiting, or
going to see, a formal visit. The use of the word for an act of
divine retributive justice, or generally of an occurrence of grave
import, such as a plague or famine, is due mainly to Biblical
phraseology, as in " the day of visitation " (Isa. x. 3). For the
duty of bishops of the Roman Church to visit periodically the
tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul at Rome, the Visitalio
Liminium Apostolorum, see BISHOP. The specific application
of the term is to a formal periodical visit paid by a superior
authority to an institution or to a district for the purpose of
investigation, examination or the like. There are three classes
of such visitations: ecclesiastical, charitable and heraldic.
Ecclesiastical visitations, originally the periodical journeys of
personal inspection to ascertain the temporal and spiritual
condition of each parish, form part of the functions of an arch-
bishop, a bishop and an archdeacon. All charitable corpora-
tions are at law subject to visitation; the functions of the
" visitors " have been largely taken over by the Board of
Charity Commissioners. Colleges at a university are regarded in
law as charitable institutions, and each college has a " visitor "
whose duty it is to represent the founder and see that his wishes
are carried out. Heraldic visitations were perambulations
made by a king-at-arms or other high heraldic officer with a
commission under the Great Seal to examine into pedigrees and
claims to bear arms. The results of these visitations were
entered in " Visitation Books," which are in the nature of
official records; their admissibility as evidence, though claimed,
is judicially questioned as containing merely experts' statements
from the families to whom they refer (D'Arcy de Knayth
Peerage Case, 1901). These heraldic visitations ceased about
1686.
In addition to these specific meanings may be mentioned the
festival of the " Visitation of Mary," in commemoration of the visit
of the Virgin to Elizabeth, mother of St John the Baptist, celebrated
in the Roman, Greek and other churches on the 2nd of July, and the
office of the English Church, the " Visitation of the Sick," ordered
for the spiritual comfort and benefit of sick persons.
For the international law relating to the right of belligerent vessels
to " visit and search " neutral vessels in time of war, see SEARCH,
RIGHT OF.
VISITING CARDS. The use of cards of personal identifica-
tion for social purposes is generally supposed to have had its
origin at the court of Louis XIV. of France, that centre of the
etiquette of the i?th century. But there appears to be little
doubt that, in a rougher and ruder form, this mark of intercourse
dates from much earlier times, and that the Chinese, and possibly
other Oriental nations also, had in bygone ages employed such
mediums of communication on calling at the houses of absent
friends. When and where visiting cards first came into vogue in
Europe is a matter of some uncertainty. It is probable, how-
ever, that they were first used in Germany and as early as the
1 6th century. A German visiting card recently discovered in
Venice bears this inscription: Johannes Weslerholt Westphalus
scribebat, Patami, 4 Martii /5 x 60. Concerning this, Professor
Dr Kirmis (Daheim, September 3oth, 1905) remarks that the
German students in Padua were wont, on quitting the university,
to pay farewell calls at the houses of the professors, and, in the
event of not finding them within, to leave their names on paper
billets; and he adds that the custom must, until that time,
have been unknown in Italy, for this card of the student Wester-
holt was sent by Professor Giacomo Contarini on the isth of
January 1572 to Venice as a curiosity. Under the reign of
Louis XIV., however, the fashion appears to have become firmly
established in France. Small strips of paper were at first em-
ployed for the purpose of the communication; but gradually
they attained a more elaborate finish and execution. Ladies
especially seem to have been the pioneers in this direction, and
to have embellished their cards with hand drawings, sometimes
taking the form of " hearts " and other amorous tokens of
affection. Under Louis XV., the reign of exquisite extravagance
146
VISOKO VITEBSK
and refined taste, visiting cards were furnished with deli-
cate engravings, frequently masterpieces of that art, showing
some fanciful landscape, or a view of the town or place where
the person resided. A further stage in the development of this
custom was the autograph signature at the foot of the card
beneath the engraved view. England followed the lead of
France, and visiting cards became a universal fashion in Europe
towards the close of the i8th century. But though in almost
every European country there are variations in the size and
shape of the card and the way of describing the quality of the
person whom it represents, the modern tendency is everywhere
in favour of simplicity and the avoidance of ostentation.
A valuable collection of visiting cards is that of the Gabinetto
della Stampe in Rome and the Museo Civico in Venice.
VISOKO (or VISOKI), a town of Bosnia, on the river Bosna,
15 m. N.W. of Serajevo by rail. Pop. (1895), about 5000.
Visoko has a brisk trade in leather, carpets and tobacco.
Between the I3th and i6th centuries Visoko was only second
to Jajce as a stronghold of the Bosnian rulers. There were
fortified palaces at SutjeCka, and Bobovac, among the mountains
on the north. Bobovac, which had withstood many previous
assaults, was betrayed to the Turks in 1463; at Sutjefka there
is a Franciscan monastery, founded in 1391, often razed by the
Turks, and finally rebuilt in 1821. Just below Visoko lay the
town of Podvisoko, called Sotto Visochi by the Ragusans, which
was the chief mart of the country from 1348 to 1430.
VISOR (also spelled viser, vizor, vizard or visard), a term now
used generally of the various forms of movable face-guards in
the helmet of medieval and later times. It meant properly
a mask for the face, and is an adaptation of the O.Fr.
visiere, mod. visi&re, as is seen by the M.E. forms viser, visere.
It is thus to be referred to the Fr. vis, face, Lat. visus, from
videre, to see. In this sense the word " visor " is modern, the
movable guard for the upper part of the face being known as
an " aventail " or " ventail," and that for the lower part a
" beaver " (see HELMET).
VISTULA (Ger. Weichsel, Polish Wisla), one of the chief rivers
of Europe, rising in Austria and flowing first through Russian
and then through Prussian territory. Its source is in Austrian
Silesia on the northern slopes of the West Beskiden range of
the Carpathian mountains.
The stream runs through a mountain valley, in a N.N.W. direction
to Schwarzwasser, where it-leaves the mountains, turns E. and N.E.,
and forms part of the Austrp-German frontier. Returning within
Austrian territory (Galicia), it passes Cracow, and thereafter forms
a long stretch of the frontier with Russia (Poland), bending gradually
towards the north, until at Zawichost it runs due N. and enters
Poland. Here it at first bisects the high-lying plateau of southern
Poland, but leaves this near Jozefow, and flows as far as the junction
with the Pilica in a broad valley between wooded bluffs. Crossing
the plain of central and northern Poland, it passes Warsaw, and at
the junction of the Bug sweeps W. and N.W. to pass Plock and
Wloclawek (see further POLAND for its course within this territory).
It enters Prussia 10 m. above Thorn, turns N.E. on receiving the
Brahe, passes Graudenz and turns towards the north. From this
point it throws off numerous branches and sweeps from side to side
of a broad valley, having steep banks on the side upon which it
impinges, and on the other being bordered by extensive flat lands.
Nearing the Baltic Sea it forms a delta, dividing into two main
arms, the left or western of which bears the name of Vistula, and
flows directly to Danzig Bay, while the right is called the Nogat, and
flows into the Frisches Haff. The enclosed deltaic tract is very
fertile. Parts of it are known as Werder (cf. the English " islands '
or " holms " in the Fens and other low-lying tracts of the east). In
the lower part of the delta the Haff Canal leads from the main river
to the Frisches Haff; there are also various natural channels in that
direction, but the main river passes on towards the N.W., having a
tendency to run parallel to the coast, and reaching Danzig Bay with
a direct course only through an artificial cut constructed in 1888-96.
The river broke a new channel into the bay, at a point between this
cut and the old mouth at Neufahrwasser, on the night of the ist-2nd
of February 1840. The important seaport of Danzig, however, is on
the old channel, and this channel is used by shipping, which enters
it by a canal at Neufahrwasser. The Nogat, formerly inconsider-
able, had become so much deepened and broadened by natural
means in the early part of the igth century that it carried more
water than the Vistula itself (i.e. the other main deltaic branch).
In 1845-57 the outflow of the Nogat was stopped and an artificial
channel was formed for it, so as to restore the proper head of wat
to the yistula.
Shifting banks form a serious impediment to navigation, and
these and floods (principally in spring and midsummer) necessitate
careful works of regulation. The river is ice-bound at Warsaw,
on an average, from about the aoth of December to the loth of
March. The navigation of the Vistula is considerable up to Cracow,
and the river forms a very important highway of commerce in
Poland (q.v.) and Prussia. For small craft it is navigable above
Cracow up to the Austro-German frontier, where the Przemsa
enters it. This river and the Pilica, Bzura, Brahe, Schwarzwasser and
Ferse are the chief left-bank tributaries; on the right the Vistula
receives the Skawa, Raba, Dunajec, Wisloka and San before reach-
ing Poland, the Wieprz and Bug in Poland, and the Drewenz in
Prussia. The Brahe and the Bromberg Canal give access from the
Vistula to the Netze and so to the Oder. The river is rich in fish.
Its total length is about 650 m., and its drainage area approaches
74,000 sq. m.
See H. Keller, Memel-, Pregel- und Weichselstrom, ihre Stromge-
biete, &c., vols. iii. and iv. (Berlin, 1900).
VITALIANUS, bishop of Rome from 657 to 672, succeeded
Eugenius I. and was followed by Adeodatus. In the mono-
thelite controversy then raging he acted with cautious reserve,
refraining at least from express condemnation of the Typus
of Constans II. The chief episode in his uneventful pontificate
was the visit of Constans to Rome; the pope received him
" almost with religious honours," a deference which he requited
by stripping all the brazen ornaments of the city even to the
tiles of the Pantheon and sending them to Constantinople.
Archbishop Theodore was sent to Canterbury by Vitalian.
VITEBSK, a government of western Russia, with the govern-
ment of Pskov on the N., Smolensk on the E., Mogilev, Minsk
and Vilna on the S., and Courland and Livonia on the W.,
having an area of 16,978 sq. m. Except on its south-eastern
and northern borders, where there are low hills, deeply eroded
by the rivers, its surface is mostly flat, or slightly undulating,
and more than a million acres are occupied by immense marshes,
while there are as many as 2500 small lakes. It is mainly
built up of Devonian red sandstones and red clays, but the
Carboniferous formations both the Lower, characterized
by layers of coal, and the Upper crop out in the east. The
whole is covered with Glacial and post-Glacial formations, in
which remains of extinct mammals and stone implements are
found in large quantities. There are numerous burial-mounds
containing bones and iron implements and ornaments. The
soil is for the most part unproductive. The W. Dvina rises
not far from the north-eastern angle of the government, and
flows through it, or along its southern boundary, for 530 m.
From its confluence with the Kasplya, i.e. for more than 450 m.,
it is navigable; and, through a tributary, the Ulyanka, it^ is
connected with the Dnieper by the Berezina Canal.
Mezha and Kasplya, tributaries of the W. Dvina, are navigable
in spring. The climate is relatively mild, the average yearly
temperature at the city of Vitebsk being 40 F. (January i6-4;
July 64-3). The population was estimated at 1,740,700 in
1906. The government is divided into eleven districts, the
chief towns of which are Vitebsk, Drisa, Dvinsk, formerly Diina-
burg, Gorodok, Lepel, Lyutsyn, Nevel, Polotsk, Ryezhitsa,
Sebezh and Velizh.
VITEBSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, on both banks of the W. Dvina, and on the
railway from Smolensk to Riga, 85 m. N.W. from the former.
Pop. (1885) 54,676; (1897) 65,871. It is an old town, with
decaying mansions of the nobility, and dirty Jewish quarters,
half of its inhabitants being Jews. There are two cathedrals,
founded in 1664 and 1777 respectively. The church of St
Elias, a fine example of the Old Russian style of architecture,
founded in 1643, was burned down in 1904. The manufactures
are insignificant, and the poorer cksses support themselves by
gardening, boat-building and the flax trade, while the merchants
carry on an active business with Riga in Corn, flax, hemp
tobacco, sugar and timber.
Vitebsk (Dbesk, Vitbesk and Vitepesk) is mentioned for
the first time in 1021, when it belonged to the Polotsk princi-
pality. Eighty years later it became the chief town of a separate
VITELLI VITERBO
'47
principality, and so continued until 1320, when it came under
the dominion of the Lithuanians. In the i6th century it fell
to Poland. Under the privileges granted to the city by the
1'ulish sovereigns it flourished, but it soon began to suffer from
the wars between Russia and Poland, during which it was
thrice taken by the Russians and burned. Russia annexed it
finally in 1772.
VITELLI, VITELLOZZO ( ?-i5O2), Italian condolliere.
Together with his father, Niccold, tyrant of Citta di Castello,
and his brothers, who were all soldiers of fortune,, he instituted
a new type of infantry armed with sword and pike to resist the
German men-at-arms, and also a corps of mounted infantry
armed with arquebuses. Vitellozzo took service with Florence
against Pisa, and later with the French in Apulia (1496) and
with the Orsini faction against Pope Alexander VI. In 1500
Vitellozzo and the Orsini made peace with the pope, and the
latter's son Cesare Borgia, being determined to crush the petty
tyrants of Romagna and consolidate papal power in that
province, took the condottierl into his service. Vitellozzo
distinguished himself in many engagements, and in 1501 he
advanced against Florence, moved as much by a desire to avenge
his brother Paolo, who while in the service of the republic had
been suspected of treachery and put to death (1499), as by
Cesare's orders. In fact, while the latter was actually nego-
tiating with the republic, Vitelli seized Arezzo. Forced by
Borgia and the French, much against his will, to give up the
city, he began from that moment to nurture hostile feelings-
towards his master and to aspire to independent rule. He took
part with the Orsini, Oliverotto da Fermo and other captains
in the conspiracy of La Magione against the Borgia; but
mutual distrust and the incapacity of the leaders before Cesare's
energy and the promise of French help, brought the plot to
naught, and Vitelli and other condottieri, hoping to ingratiate
themselves with Cesare once more, seized Senigallia in his name.
There they were decoyed by him and arrested while their
troops were out of reach, and Vitelli and Oliverotto were
strangled that same night (3151 of December 1502).
See vol. iii. of E. Ricotti's Storia della compagnie di venlura (Turin,
1845). in which Domenichi's MS. Vita di Vitellozzo Vitelli is quoted;
C. Yriarte, Cesar Borgia (Paris, 1889); P. Villari, Life and Times
of N. Machiavetti (English ed., London, 1892); see also under
ALEXANDER VI. and CESARE BORGIA.
VITELLIUS, AULUS, Roman emperor from the 2nd of
January to the 22nd of December A.D. 69, was born on the
24th of September A.D. 15. He was the son of Lucius Vitel-
lius, who had been consul and governor of Syria under Tiberius.
Aulus was consul in 48, and (perhaps in 60-61) proconsul of
Africa, in which capacity he is said to have acquitted himself
with credit. Under Galba, to the general astonishment, at
the end of 68 he was chosen to command the army of Lower
Germany, and here he made himself popular with his subalterns
and with the soldiers by outrageous prodigality and excessive
good nature, which soon proved fatal to order and discipline.
Far from being ambitious or scheming, he was lazy and self-
indulgent, fond of eating and drinking, and owed his elevation
to the throne to Caecina and Valens, commanders of two legions
on the Rhine. Through these two men a military revolution
was speedily accomplished, and early in 69 Vitellius was pro-
claimed emperor at Colonia Agrippinensis (Cologne), or, more
accurately, emperor of the armies of Upper and Lower Ger-
many. In fact, he was never acknowledged as emperor by
the entire Roman world, though at Rome the senate accepted
him and decreed to him the usual imperial honours. He
advanced into Italy at the head of a licentious and ruffianly
soldiery, and Rome became the scene of riot and massacre,
gladiatorial shows and extravagant feasting. As soon as it
was known that the armies of the East, Dalmatia and Illyricum
had declared for Vespasian, Vitellius, deserted by many of his
adherents, would have resigned the title of emperor. It was
said that the terms of resignation had actually been agreed
upon with Primus, one of Vespasian's chief supporters, but
the praetorians refused to allow him to carry out the agreement,
and forced him to return to the palace, when he was on his way
to deposit the insignia of empire in the temple of Concord.
On the entrance of Vespasian's troops into Rome he was dragged
out of some miserable hiding-place, driven to the fatal Gemonian
stairs, and there struck down. " Yet I was once your emperor,"
were the last and, as far as we know, the noblest words of
Vitellius. During his brief administration Vitellius showed
indications of a desire to govern wisely, but he was completely
under the control of Valens and Caecina, who for their own
ends encouraged him in a course of vicious excesses which threw
his better qualities into the background.
See Tacitus, Histories; Suetonius, Vitellius; Dio Cassius Ixv.;
Merivale, Hist, of the Romans under the Empire, chs. 56, 57;
H . Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. pt. I ; W. A. Spooner's
ed. of the Histories of Tacitus (introduction) ; B. W. Henderson,
Civil War and Rebellion in the Roman Empire, AJ). 69-70 (1908).
VITERBO, a city and episcopal see of the province of Rome,
Italy, 54 m. by rail N.N.W. of Rome, 1073 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901) 17,344 (town), 21,258 (commune). It lies on the
old high road between Florence and Rome, and besides the
railway to Rome it has a branch line (25 m.) going N.E. to
Attigliano, on the railway from Rome to Florence. It is
picturesquely surrounded by luxuriant gardens, and enclosed
by walls and towers, which date partly from the Lombard
period. The streets are paved with large lava blocks, of which
the town is also built. It has many picturesque medieval
towers and other edifices (the Palazzo degli Alessandri is perhaps
the most interesting), for which indeed it is one of the best
towns in central Italy, and some elegant fountains; among
the latter may be mentioned the Gothic Fontana Grande (1279,
restored in 1424) and Fontana della Rocca by Vignola (1566).
The citadel (Rocca) itself, erected by Cardinal Albornoz in
1345, is now a barrack. The Palazzo Patrizi is a building of
the early Renaissance in the Florentine style. The cathedral,
a fine basilica, of the izth (?) century, with columns and fantastic
capitals of the period, originally flat-roofed and later vaulted,
with 16th-century restorations, contains the tomb of Pope
John XXI., and has a Gothic campanile in black and white
stone. It is more probable that it was S. Silvestro (BOW Chiesa
del Gesii) and not the cathedral that, in 1271, was the scene
of the murder, on the steps of the high altar, during public
worship, of Henry, son of Richard of Cornwall, by Guy de
Montfort (see Dante, Inf. xii. 118). In front of the cathedral
Pope Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear) compelled the emperor
Frederick I. to hold his stirrup as his vassal. The old epis-
copal palace with a double loggia built on to it (recently
restored to its original form) is a Gothic building of the I3th
century, in which numerous conclaves have been held. The
church of S. Rosa exhibits the embalmed body of that saint,
a native of Viterbo, who died in her eighteenth year, after
working various miracles and having distinguished herself by
her invectives against Frederick II. (1251), some ruins of whose
palace, destroyed after his death, exist. S. Francesco, a Gothic
church (before 1256), contains the fine Gothic tombs of Popes
Clement IV. and Adrian V., and has an external pulpit of
the 1 5th century. The town also contains a few small Roman-
esque churches (S. Maria Nuova, S. Andrea, S. Giovanni in
Zoccoli, S. Sisto, &c.) and several other Gothic churches.
S. Maria della Cella is noteworthy among the former as having
one of the earliest campanili of any size in Italy (9th century).
The town hall, with a medieval tower and a 15th-century
portico, contains some Etruscan sarcophagi from sites in the
neighbourhood, and a few good paintings. At one corner of
the picturesque square in front of it is a Roman sarcophagus
with a representation of the hunt of Meleager, with an inscrip-
tion in honour of the fair Galiana, to win whom, it is said, a
Roman noble laid siege to Viterbo in 1135. Close by is the
elegant Gothic facade of S. Maria della Salute, in white and
red marble with sculptures. The Gothic cloisters of S. Maria
della Verita just outside the town are strikingly beautiful.
The church contains frescoes by Lorenzo da Viterbo (1469) and
a fine majolica pavement. A mile and a half to the north-east
VITET VITORIA
is the handsome early Renaissance pilgrimage church of the
Madonno della Quercia; the facade is adorned with three
lunettes by Andrea della Robbia. The fine wooden roof of
the interior is by Antonio da Sangallo the younger (1519-25).
The adjoining monastery has a pleasing cloistered court. A
mile and a quarter farther is the town of Bagnaia, with the
Villa Lante, still belonging to the family of that name, with
fine fountains and beautiful trees, ascribed to Vignola. The
inhabitants of Viterbo are chiefly dependent on agriculture;
hemp is a specialty of the district, and tobacco and various
grains are largely grown, as well as the olive and the vine.
There are in the vicinity numerous mineral springs; the warm
sulphur spring of Bollicame, about 2 m. off, is alluded to by
Dante (Inf. xiv. 79).
Viterbo is by some identified with Surrina nova, which is
only mentioned in inscriptions, while some place it at the
sulphur springs, called the Bollicame, to the west of Viterbo
on the line of the Via Cassia, where Roman remains exist.
This might well be the site of the Roman town. Here the
Via Cassia was joined by the Via Ciminia, passing east of the
Lacus Ciminius, while a road branched off to Ferentum. See
E. Bormann in Corp. Inscr. Lat. xi. (Berlin, 1888), p. 454;
H. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde (Berlin, 1902), ii. 343. The
forgeries of the Dominican Annio da Viterbo (d. 1502) were
directed to prove that Viterbo was the site of the Fanum
Voltumnae (see, however, MONTEFIASCONE). There are no
archaeological remains in Viterbo itself, except a few courses
of masonry under the bridge which connects the cathedral
with the city, near the cathedral, possibly the pier of an older
bridge. But the site is not unreasonably considered to be
ancient, and the name to be derived from Vetus urbs; tombs,
too, have been found in the neighbourhood, and it is not an
unlikely assumption that here, as elsewhere, the medieval
town occupies the Etruscan site. It' was fortified by the Lom-
bard king Desiderius (the decree ascribed to him, now in the
municipal palace, has long been recognized as a forgery of
Anm'o). It is the centre of the territory of the " patrimony
of Peter," which the countess Matilda of Tuscany gave to
the papal see in the I2th century; in the I3th century it
became a favourite papal residence. Popes Urban IV. (1261),
Gregory X. (1271), John XXI. (1276), Nicholas III. (1277)
and Martin IV. (1281) were elected here, and it was at Viterbo
that Alexander IV. (1261), Clement IV. (1268), Adrian V.
(1276) and John XXI. (1277) died. (T. As.)
VITET, LUDOVIC (1802-1873), French dramatist and poli-
tician, was born in Paris on the i8th of October 1802. He was
educated at the Ecole Normale. His politics were liberal, and
he was a member of the society " Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera." On
the triumph of liberal principles in 1830 Guizot created an office
especially for Vitet, who became inspector-general of historical
monuments. In 1834 he entered the Chamber of Deputies,
and two years later was made a member of the Council of State.
He was consistent in his monarchist principles, and abstained
from taking any part in politics during the second empire. The
disasters of 1870-71 reawakened Vitet's interest in public
affairs, and he published in the Revue des deux monies his
optimistic " Lettres sur le siege de Paris." He died in 1873.
Vitet was the author of some valuable works on the history of
'art, and his Monographic de I'Eglise Notre Dame de Noyon (1845)
especially did much to awaken popular interest in architecture.
In the early days of the Romantic movement he wrote some vivid
dramatic sketches of the time of the League. They are: Les
Barricades, scenes historiques (1826), Les Etats de Blois, scenes
(1827), and La Mart de Henri III. (1829), all three being published
together in 1844 with the title of La Ligite. The best of these is the
Etats de Blois, in which the murder of the duke of Guise is described
in the most convincing manner.
VITORIA, an episcopal city of northern Spain, and capital
of the province of Alava; on the Miranda de Ebro-Alsasua
section of the Northern railways, among the southern outliers
of the Cantabrian mountains, and on the left bank of the river
Zadorra, a left-hand tributary of the Ebro. Pop. (1900) 30,701.
The city is built on a hill 1750 ft. high, and overlooks the plain
of Alava. Its oldest part, the Campillo or Villa-Suso, occupies
the top of the hill; some of the walls and towers by which it
was formerly defended still remain. Below it is Vitoria Antigua,
with narrow tortuous lanes; on the still lower level ground
the modern town, with wide streets, an arcaded market-plac
and shady promenades. The cathedral of Santa Maria in th
Campillo dates from 1181, but has been considerably spoile
by late additions: the church of San Miguel also dates from th
1 2th century; it has an exceptionally beautiful altar, carved in
wood by J. Velazquez and G. Hernandez, in the i6th century.
The town hall and the palace of the provincial assembly cont
some fine paintings and interesting relics connected with the
history of Alava. Vitoria, from its favourable position on
main lines from Madrid to France and to the port of San Sebas
tian, is an important centre of trade in wine, wool, horses, rmi
and hardware; other industries are paper-making, carriag
building, cabinet-making, tanning and the manufacture
earthenware. There is a branch railway from Vitoria
Villarreal. The city is lighted by electricity; its trade
population have largely increased since 1875.
Vitoria was founded in 581 by Leovigild, king of the Visi-
goths; but its importance dates from the loth century.
1181 Sancho the Wise of Navarre granted it a charter and fo
fied it.
Battle of Vitoria. For the operations which preceded th
battle of Vitoria see PENINSULAR WAR. On June 2ist, 1813,
the French army in Spain (about 65,000 men with 150 guns),
under King Joseph Bonaparte, held an extended position in the
basin of Vitoria, south (with the exception of the extreme right)
of the river Zadorra. The left rested on the heights of Puebli
north of the Puebla Pass, and Puebla de Aj-ganzon, through
which ran the Miranda-Vitoria-Bayonne road, Joseph's line
communication with France. Thence the line stretched to the
ridge of Margarita, the troops so far being under General Gazan,
with a second supporting line under D'Erlon between Arine
and Hermandad and a reserve behind Arinez. The right under
Reille guarded the Bilbao-Vitoria road, occupying heights on
the north bank of the Zadorra, and also the villages and bridg
of Abechuco and Gamarra Mayor, as well as a ridge near .
on the south bank.
There were no troops between Hermandad and Ariaga, excep
a mass of cavalry near Ah'. The Zadorra, fordable in certa
spots only, was spanned by bridges at Puebla de Arganzon,
Nanclares, Villodas, Tres Puentes, Mendoza, Abechuco and
Gamarra Mayor, which French guns commanded; but, for SOD
reason, none of these had been destroyed. The faults of the
French position and their occupation of it were its extension;
that it was in prolongation of and (on the right especially) very
close to their line of retreat, so that if the right were driven back
this line could be at once seized ; that the centre was not strongly
held; and that all bridges were left intact.
The Allies (nearly 80,000, with 90 guns), under Wellington,
had moved from the river Bayas at daylight to attack Joseph,
in four columns, the right being under Hill (20,000, including
Morillos's Spaniards), the right centre and left centre under
Wellington (30,000) and the left under Graham (20,000, includ-
ing Longa's Spaniards). As the columns marched across the
intersected country between the Bayas and Zadorra, extending
from near Puebla de Arganzon to the Bilbao-Vitoria road, they
kept touch with each other; and as they neared the Zadorra
the battle opened all along the line soon after loa.m. Welling-
ton's instructions to Graham were to undertake no manoeuvre
which would separate his column from those on the right; but,
with this proviso, to seize the Vitoria-Bayonne road if the enemy
appeared decidedly in retreat. Hill after a sharp contest gained
the Puebla heights, too weakly held; and pushing through the
pass carried the village of Subijana de Alava. The right centre
column having reached Villodas, was waiting for Hill to gain
further ground, when the bridge at Tres Puentes was observed
to be unguarded, probably because it was commanded from the
south bank; and, the French attention being now turned towards
their flanks, it was surprised and rushed by Wellington with the
VITRE VITRIFIED FORTS
149
Light division, supported quickly by cavalry and other troops,
who maintained themselves on the south bank. Joseph's
Redrawn from Major-General C. W. Robinson's Wellington's Campaigns,
by permission ot Hugh Rees, Ltd.
centre was partially forced, while his left was hard pressed by
Hill; and, fearing that Gazan and D'Erlon might be cut off from
Reille, he ordered them to withdraw to a ridge farther back,
which they did, holding Arinez in front. Here there was no
hard fighting; but, as Wellington had now passed three divisions,
many guns and the cavalry (which, however, from the nature of
the ground could be but little used) across the Zadorra, Mar-
garita, Hermandad and Arinez soon fell to the Allies.
On the left, Graham, having turned the heights north of
Zadorra with Longa's Spaniards, seized Gamarra Menor close
to the Bayonne road. He also with heavy loss carried Gamarra
Mayor and Abechuco, but the bridges south of these villages,
though more than once taken, were always recaptured by Reille.
At length, when a brigade from the Allied centre had been
pushed up from Hermandad against Reille's flank, he withdrew
from the obstinately defended bridges, and before this Gazan
and D'Erlon had also fallen back, fighting, to a third position
on a ridge between Armentia and Ali west of Vitoria. Here, at
about 6 p.m., they made a last stand, being compelled in the end
to yield; and as Graham having now crossed the bridges was
close to the Bayonne road, the main body of Joseph's army fled
by a bad cross road towards Pampeluna, abandoning artillery,
vehicles and baggage (of which an enormous quantity was parked
near Vitoria), Reille afterwards joining it through Betonia.
The Allies then occupied Vitoria and pursued the French until
nightfall. All Joseph's equipages, ammunition and stores,
143 guns, a million sterling in money, and various trophies fell
into Wellington's hands, the French loss in men being nearly
7000, that of the Allies over 5000, of whom 1600 were Portuguese
and Spaniards. This decisive victory practically freed Spain
from French domination. (C. W. R.)
VITR6, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, situated
on a hill rising from the left bank of the Vilaine, 24 m. E. of
Rennes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 7106; commune, 10,092.
The town largely retains its feudal aspect. The ramparts on
the north side and on the west, consisting of a machicolated
wall with towers at intervals, are still standing. Only one
gateway remains of the original castle, founded towards the
end of the nth century; the rest was rebuilt in the i4th and
15th centuries (the best period of Breton military architecture)
and restored in recent times. It is now occupied by a prison,
a museum of natural history and painting and the town library.
The church of Notre-Dame, formerly a priory of the abbey
of St Melaine of Rennes, dates from the isth and i6th centuries.
An outside stone pulpit is a fine example of 16th-century
sculpture. The church possesses a fine enamelled triptych
of the 1 6th century. A tower of the i6th century is all that
remains of the church of St Martin. The chateau of Les
Rochers 3 m. from Vitr6 was the residence of Madame de
S6vigne.
Vitr6 was formerly a Breton barony, and belonged in the
loth century to the younger branch of the counts of Rennes.
In 1295 it passed to Guy IX., baron of Laval, on his marriage
with the heiress, and afterwards successively belonged to the
families of Rieux, Coligny and La Tremoille. The town was
seized by Charles VIII. in 1488. Protestantism spread under
the rule of the houses of Rieux and Coligny; Vitr6 became a
Huguenot stronghold; and a Protestant church was estab-
lished, which was not suppressed till the revocation of the edict
of Nantes in 1685. Philip Emmanuel, duke of Mercceur, the
head of the members of the League in Brittany, besieged the
town in vain for five months in 1589. The estates of Brittany,
over which the barons of Vitre and of Leon alternately presided,
met here several times.
VITRIFIED FORTS, the name given to certain rude stone
enclosures whose walls have been subjected in a greater or
less degree to the action of fire. They are generally situated
on hills offering strong defensive positions. Their form seems
to have been determined by the contour of the flat summits
which they enclose. The walls vary in size, a few being up-
wards of 12 ft. high, and are so broad that they present the
appearance of embankments. Weak parts of the defence are
strengthened by double or triple walls, and occasionally vast
lines of ramparts, composed of large blocks of unhewn and
unvitrified stones, envelop the vitrified centre at some distance
from it. No lime or cement has been found in any of these
structures, all of them presenting the peculiarity of being more
or less consolidated by the fusion of the rocks of which they
are built. This fusion, which has been caused by the applica-
tion of intense heat, is not equally complete in the various forts,
or even in the walls of the same fort. In some cases the stones
are only partially melted and calcined; in others their adjoining
edges are fused so that they are firmly cemented together;
in many instances pieces of rock are enveloped in a glassy
enamel-like coating which binds them into a uniform whole;
and at times, though rarely, the entire length of the wall presents
one solid mass of vitreous substance.
Since John Williams one of the earliest of British geologists,
and author of The Mineral Kingdom first described these
singular ruins in 1777, about fifty examples have been dis-
covered in Scotland. The most remarkable are Dun Mac
Uisneachain (Dun Macsnoichan) , the ancient Beregonium,
about 9 m. N.N.E. of Oban; Tap o' Noth, in Aberdeenshire;
Craig Phadraic, or Phadrick, near Inverness; Dun Dhardhail
(Dunjardil) in Glen Nevis; Knockfarrail, near Strathpeffer;
Dun Creich, in Sutherland; Finhaven, near Aberlemno;
Barryhill, in Perthshire; Laws, near Dundee; Dun Gall and
Burnt Island, in Buteshire; Anwoth, in Kirkcudbright; and
Cowdenknowes, in Berwickshire. Dun Mac Uisneachain is the
largest in area, being 250 yds. long by 50 yds. broad. In the
Tap o' Noth the walls are about 8 ft. high and between 20
and 30 ft. thick. In Dun Mac Uisneachain, Barryhill and Laws
the remains of small rectangular dwellings have been found.
For a long time it was supposed that these forts were peculiar
to Scotland; but they are found also in Londonderry and
Cavan, in Ireland; in Upper Lusatia, Bohemia, Silesia,
Saxony and Thuringia; in the provinces on the Rhine, especi-
ally in the neighbourhood of the Nahe; in the Ucker Lake,
in Brandenburg, where the walls are formed of burnt and
smelted bricks; in Hungary; and in several places in France,
such as Chateauvieux, Peran, La Courbe, Sainte Suzanne,
Puy de Gaudy and Thauron. They have not been found in
England or Wales.
In some continental forts the vitrified walls are supported
by masses of unvitrified stone built up on each side. This,
VITRIOL VITRU VI US
in all probability, constituted an essential feature in the Scottish
forts. Except on the hypothesis of buttresses of a similar
kind, it is impossible to explain the vast quantities of loose
stones which are tound both inside and outside many of the
vitrified walls.
The method by which the fusion of such extensive fortifications
was produced has excited much conjecture. Williams main
tained that the builders found out, either during the process
of smelting bog-ore, or whilst offering sacrifices, the power ot
fire in vitrifying stone, and that they utilized this method to
cement and strengthen their defences. This view has been
keenly controverted, and it has been suggested that the vitrified
summits were not forts but the craters of extinct volcanoes
an hypothesis long since abandoned; that they are not so
much forts as vitrified sites, and that the vitrescence was
produced by fires lighted during times of invasion, or in
'religious celebrations; and, lastly, that if they were forts they
must originally have been built of wood and stone, and that
their present appearance is due to their being set on fire by
a besieging enemy. The theory of Williams has, with modi-
fications, been accepted by the principal authorities. It is
supported by the following facts:
(i) The idea of strengthening walls by means of fire is not sin-
gular, or confined to a distinct race or area, as is proved by the
burnt-earth enclosure of Aztalan, in Wisconsin, and the vitrifiec
stone monuments of the Mississippi valley. (2) Many of the
Primary rocks, particularly the schists, gneisses and traps, which
contain large quantities of potash and soda, can be readily fused in
the open air by means of wood fires the alkali of the wood serving
in some measure as a flux. (3) The walls are chiefly vitrified al
the weakest points, the naturally inaccessible parts being un-
vitrified. (4) When the forts have been placed on materials prac-
tically infusible, as on the quartzose conglomerates of the Old
Red Sandstone, as at Craig Phadraic, and on the limestones ol
Dun Mac Uisneachain, pieces of fusible rocks have been selected and
carried to the top from a considerable distance. (5) The vitrified
walls of the Scottish forts are invariably formed of small stones
which could be easily acted upon by fire, whereas the outer ram-
parts, which are not vitrified, are built of large blocks. (6) Many
of the continental forts are so constructed that the fire must have
been applied internally, and at the time when the structure was
being erected. (7) Daubree, in an analysis which he made on
vitrified materials taken from four French forts, and which he sub-
mitted to the Academy of Paris in February 1881, found the pre-
sence of natron in such great abundance that he inferred that
sea-salt was used to facilitate fusion. (8) In Scandinavia, where
there are hundreds of ordinary forts, and where for centuries a
system of signal fires was enforced by law, no trace of vitrifaction
has yet been detected.
A great antiquity has been assigned to vitrified forts, without
sufficient proof. Articles of bronze and iron have been found
in the Scottish forts, while in Puy de Gaudy a Roman tile has
been discovered soldered to a piece of vitrified rock. In a few of
the German forts Professor Virchow found some of the logs used
as fuel in vitrifying the walls, and he concluded from the even-
ness of their cut surfaces that iron and not stone implements
must have been used. These results indicate that these
structures were possibly in use as late as the early centuries
of the Christian era. It has been suggested that they were
built as refuges against the Norsemen. Much in the situation
and character of the forts favours this supposition. This is
especially the case with reference to the Scottish forts. Here
the vitrified summits are invariably so selected that they not only
command what were the favourite landing-places of the vikings,
but are the best natural defences against attacks made from
the direction of the seacoast. In Saxony and Lusatia the
forts are known as Schwedenburgen, and in the Highlands of
Scotland as the fortresses of the Feinne designations which
also seem to point to an origin dating back to the times of the
vikings.
AUTHORITIES. John Williams. An Account of some Remarkable
Ancient Ruins (1777); A. Fraser Tytler, Edin. Phil. Trans, vol. ii.;
Sir George Mackenzie, Observations on Vitrified Forts; Hibbert, Arch.
Scot. vol. iv. ; J. MacCulIoch, Highlands and Western Islands
(1824), vol. i.; Hugh Miller, Rambles of a Geologist (1858), chap. ix. ;
Sir Daniel Wilson, Archaeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland
(1851), vol. ii.; J. H. Burton, History of Scotland (1867), vol. i.;
R. Angus Smith, Loch Etive and the Sons of Uisneach (1879);
J. Anderson, Scotland in Pagan Times (1886); C. MacLagan, The
Hill Forts of Ancient Scotland; Thomas Aitken, Trans. Inverness
Scientific Soc. vol. i.; Charles Proctor, Chemical Analysis of Vitri-
fied Stones from Tap o' Noth and Dunideer (Huntly Field Club) ;
various papers in Proceedings of Soc. Antiq. Scot, (since 1903 The
Scottish Historical Review) and Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy
R. Munro, Prehistoric Scotland (1899); G. Chalmers, Caledonia
(new ed., 7 vols., Paisley, 1887-94) ; Murray's Handbook to Scotland
(1903 ed.); Leonhard, Archiv. fur Mineralogie, vol. i. ; Virchow,
Ztschr. fur Ethnologie, vols. iii. and iv. ; Schaaffhausen, Verhand-
lungen der deutsch. anthrop. Gesellschaft (1881); Kohl, Verhand. d.
deutsch. anthrop. Gesellschaft (1883); Thuot, La Forteresse vitrifiee
du Puy de Gaudy, &c. ; De Nadaillac, Les Premiers Hommes, vol. i. ;
Memoires de la Soc. Antiq. de France, vol. xxxviii. ; Hildebrand,
De forhistoriska folken i Europa (Stockholm, 1880); Behla, Die
vorgeschichtlichen Rundwdlle im ostlichen Deutschland (Berlin, 1888);
Oppermann and Schuchhardt, Atlas vorgeschichtlicher Befestigungen
in Niedersachen (Hanover, 1888-98); Zschiesche, Die vorgeschicht-
lichen Burgen und Watte im Thiiringer Zentralbecken (Halle, 1889);
Bug, Schlesische Heidenschanzen (Grottkau, 1890); Gohausen, Die
Befestigungsweisen der Vorzeit und des Mittelalters (Wiesbaden, 1898).
(R. Mu.*)
VITRIOL, a name given to sulphuric acid and to certain
sulphates. Oil of vitriol is concentrated sulphuric acid. Blue
or Roman vitriol is copper sulphate; green vitriol, ferrous
sulphate (copperas); white vitriol, zinc sulphate; and vitriol
of Mars is a basic iron sulphate.
VITRUVIUS (MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO), Roman architect
and engineer, author of a celebrated work on architecture.
Nothing is known concerning him except what can be gathered
from his own writings. Owing to the discovery of inscriptions
relating to the Gens Vitruvia at Formiae in Campania (Mola di
Gaeta), it has been suggested that he was a native of that city,
and he has been less reasonably connected with Verona on the
strength of an existing arch of the 3rd century, which is inscribed
with the name of a later architect of the same family name
" Lucius Vitruvius Cerdo, a freedman of Lucius." From
Vitruvius himself we learn that he was appointed, in the reign
of Augustus, together with three others, a superintendent of
balistae and other military engines, a post which, he says, he
owed to the friendly influence of the emperor's sister, probably
Octavia (De Archilectura, i. pref.). In another passage (v. i) he
describes a basilica and adjacent aedes Augusti, of which he was
the architect. From viii. 3 it has been supposed that he had
served in Africa in the time of Julius Caesar, probably as a
military engineer, but the words hardly bear this interpretation.
He speaks of himself as being low in stature, and at the time of
his writing bowed down by age and ill-health (ii. pref.). He
appears to have enjoyed no great reputation as an architect,
and, with philosophic contentment, records that he possessed
but little fortune. Though a great student of Greek philosophy
and science, he was unpractised in literature, and his style is very
involved and obscure. To a great extent the theoretical and
historical parts of his work are compiled from earlier Greek
authors, of whom he gives a list at i. i and viii. 3. The practical
portions, on the contrary, are evidently the result of his own
professional experience, and are written with much sagacity,
and in a far clearer style than the more pedantic chapters, in
which he gives the somewhat fanciful theories of the Greeks.
Some sections of the latter, especially those on the connexion
between music and architecture, the scale of harmonic pro-
portions, and the Greek use of bronze vases to reverberate and
strengthen the actors' voices in the theatre, are now almost
wholly unintelligible. Vitruvius's name is mentioned by
Frontinus in his work on the aqueducts of Rome; and most of
what Pliny says (Hist. Nat. xxxv. and xxxvi.) about methods
of wall-painting, the preparation of the stucco surface, and other
sractical details in building is taken almost word for word from
Vitruvius, especially from vi. i, though without any acknow-
ledgment of the source.
The treatise De Architectura Libri Decem is dedicated to
Augustus. Lost for a long time, it was rediscovered in the
I5th century at St Gall; the oldest existing MS. dates from
the zoth century. From the early Renaissance down to a com-
>aratively recent time the influence of this treatise has been
remarkably great. Throughout the period of the classical revival
VITRY-LE-FRAN(JOIS VITTORIA
Vitruvius was the chief authority studied by architects, and in
every point his precepts were accepted as final. In some cases
a failure to understand his meaning led to curious results;
for example, the medieval custom, not uncommon in England,
of placing rows of earthenware jars under the floor of the stalls
in church choirs, appears to have been an attempt to follow out
suggestions raised by Vitruvius as to the advantages of placing
bronze vases round the auditorium of theatres. Bramante,
Michelangelo, Palladio, Vignola and earlier architects were
careful students of the work of Vitruvius, which through them
has largely influenced the architecture of almost all European
countries.
Bk. i. opens with a dedication to Augustus. C. I is on the science
of architecture generally, and the branches of knowledge with which
the trained architect ought to be acquainted, viz. grammar,
music, painting, sculpture, medicine, geometry, mathematics and
optics; c. 2 is on the general principles of architectural design;
c. 3 on the considerations which determine a design, such as strength,
utility, beauty; c. 4 on the nature of different sorts of ground for
sites; c. 5 on walls of fortification; c. 6 on aspects towards the
north, south and other points; c. 7 on the proper situations of
temples dedicated to the various deities.
Bk. li. relates to materials (preface about Dinocrates, architect to
Alexander the Great). C. I is on the earliest dwellings of man;
c. 2 on systems of Thales, Heraclitus, Democritus, &c.; c. 3 on
bricks, c. 4 on sand; c. 5 on lime; c. 6 on pozzolana; c. 7 on kinds
of stone for building; c. 8 on methods of constructing walls in stone,
brick, concrete and marble, and on the materials for stucco; c. 9
on timber, time for felling it, seasoning, &c. ; and c. 10 on the fir
trees of the Apennines.
Bk. iii., on styles, has a preface on ancient Greek writers. C. I is
on symmetry and proportion; c. 2 on various forms of Greek
temples, e.g in antis. prostyle, peripteral, dipteral, hypaethral; 1
c. 3 on inter-columniation pycnostyle, systyle, eustyle, &c. ; c._ 4
on foundations, steps and stylobates; c. 5 on the Ionic order, its
form and details.
Bk. iv., on styles and orders, has a preface to Augustus on the
scope of the work. The subjects of its nine chapters are (i) the
Corinthian, Ionic and Doric orders; (2) the ornaments of capitals,
&c.; (3) the Doric order; (4) proportions of the cella and pronaos;
(5) sites of temples; (6) doorways of temples and their archi-
traves; (7) the Etruscan or Tuscan order of temples; (8) circular
temples; (9) altars.
Bk. v., on public buildings, has a preface on the theories of
Pythagoras, &c. Its twelve chapters treat (i ) of fora and basilicae,
with a description of his own basilica at Fanum; (2) of the adjuncts
of a forum (aerarium, prison and curia) ; (3) of theatres, their site
and construction; (4) of laws of harmonics; (s)_of the arrangement
of tuned bronze vases in theatres for acoustic purposes; (6) of
Roman theatres; (7) of Greek theatres; (8) of the selection of sites
of theatres according to acoustic principles; (9) of porticus and
covered walks; (10) of baths, their floors, hypocausts, the construc-
tion and use of various parts; (li) of palaestrae, xysti and other
('.reek buildings for the exercise of athletes; (12) of harbours and
quays.
Bk. vi. is on sites and planning, and the preface treats of various
Greek authors. C. I is on selection of sites; c. 2 on the planning
of buildings to suit different sites; c. 3 on private houses, their
construction and styles, the names of the different apartments;
c. 4 on the aspects suited for the various rooms; c. 5 on buildings
fitted for special positions; c. 6 on farms and country houses;
c. 7 on Greek houses and the names of various parts; c. 8 on con-
struction of nouses in wood, stone, brick or concrete.
Bk. vii., mostly on methods of decoration, has a preface (as usual)
on the opinions of ancient Greek writers, with lists of Greek sculptors,
architects and writers on architecture, and of Roman architects.
C. i has for its subject pavements and roads, their construction,
mosaic floors; c. 2 is on white stucco for walls (opus albarium);
c. 3 on concrete vaults, gypsum mouldings, stucco prepared for
painting; c. 4 on building of hollow walls to keep out the damp,
wall decoration by various processes; c. 5 on methods and styles of
wall painting, the debased taste of his time; c. 6 on fine stucco
made of pounded marble three coats to receive wall paintings;
c. 7 on colours used for mural decoration ; c. 8 on red lead (minium]
and mercury, and how to use the latter to extract the gold from worn-
out pieces of stuff or embroidery; c. 9 on the preparation of red
lead and the method of encaustic painting with hot wax, finishec
by friction; cc. 10-14 on artificial colours black, blue, purple
c. 10 white lead and ostrum, i.e. murex purple and imitations ol
murexdye.
1 The excavations made in 1887 have shown that Vitruvius was
right in describing the great temple of Olympian Zeus at Athens as
being octastyle. The previously almost universal opinion that it
was decastyle had led to the needless theory that the passage con-
taining this statement was corrupt.
Bk. viii. is on hydraulic engineering, and the preface on theories of
the ancients. C. I treats of the finding of good water; c. 2 of rain-
water and rivers rivers in various countries; c. 3 of hot springs,
mineral waters, with an account of the chief medicinal springs
of the world ; c. 4 of selection of water by observation and experi-
ment; c. 5 of instruments for levelling used by aqueduct engineers;
c. 6 of construction of aqueducts, pipes of lead, clay, &c., and other
matter on the subject of water-supply.
Bk. ix. is on astronomy. The preface treats of Greek sciences,
geometry, the discovery of specific gravity by Archimedes, and
>ther discoveries of the Greeks, and of Romans of his time who
lave vied with the Greeks Lucretius in his poem De Rerum Natura,
"icero in rhetoric, and Varro in philology, as shown by his De
Lingua Latina* The subjects of the eight chapters are (l ) the signs
of the zodiac and the seven planets; (2) the phases of the moon;
[3) the passage of the sun through the zodiac ; (4) and (5) various
constellations; (6) the relation of astrological influences to nature;
j) the mathematical divisions of the gnomon; (8) various kinds
of sundials and their inventors.
Bk. x. is on machinery, with a preface concerning a law at ancient
Sphesus compelling an architect to complete any public building
le had undertaken; this, he says, would be useful among the
Romans of his time. 1 The chapters are (l) on various machines,
such as scaling-ladders, windmills, &c. ; (2) on windlasses, axles,
iulleys and cranes for moving heavy weights, such as those used
jy Chersiphron in building the great temple of Diana at Ephesus,
and on the discovery by a shepherd of a quarry of marble required
to build the same temple; (3) on dynamics; (4) on machines for
drawing water; (5) on wheels for irrigation worked by a river;
(6) on raising water by a revolving spiral tube; (7) on the machine
of Ctesibius for raising water to a height ; (8) on a very complicated
water engine, the description of which is not intelligible, though
Vitruvius remarks that he has tried to make the matter clear;
(9) on machines with wheels to register the distance travelled, either
by land or water; (10) on the construction of scorpiones for hurling
stones, (n) and (12) on balistae and catapults; (13) n battering-
rams and other machines for the attack of a fortress; (14) on shields
(testudines) to enable soldiers to fill up the enemy's ditches; (15) on
other kinds of testudines ; (16) on machines for defence, and examples
of their use in ancient times. (J. H. M.)
The best edition is by Rose (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1899); see also
Nohl, Index Vttruvianus (1876); Jolles, Vitruvs Aesthelik (1906);
Sontheimer, Vitruv und seine Zeit (1908). There is a good transla-
tion by Gwilt (1826; reprinted, 1874).
The name of Vitruvius has been given to several works on modern
architecture, such as Campbell, Vitruvius Britannicus (London,
1715-71), a series of illustrations of the chief buildings of the l8th
century in England, including many works of the brothers Adam ;
one of these brothers, William Adam, produced a similar work illus-
trating the buildings which he had designed for Scotland, under the
title of Vitruvius Scoticus (Edinburgh, 1790). Thurah, Le Vitruve
danois (Copenhagen, 1746-49), is a similar collection of modern
buildings in Denmark.
VITRY-LE-FRANCOIS, a town of north-eastern France,
capital of the department of Marne, on the right bank of the
Marne, 20 m. S.E. of Chalons, on the railway from Paris to
Strassburg. Pop. (1906) 7985. The Marne-Rhine canal, the
Haute-Mame canal, and the lateral canal of the Marne unite
at Vitry. Its church of Notre-Dame is a 17th-century building
with fine 18th-century monuments. A convent of the Recollets
now contains the town hall, the court-house, a library and a
small museum. There is a bronze statue of P. P. Royer-Collard
(1763-1845), the politician and philosopher, a native of the
district. The industrial establishments include important cement
works and the manufacture of faience is carried on. The
present town was built in 1545 on a uniform plan by Francis I.
to replace the older one of Vitry-en-Perthois, 2\ m. to the north-
east, burned in the previous year by Charles V.
VITTEL, a watering-place of north-eastern France, in the
department of Vosges, 31 m. W. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1006)
1954. The waters resemble those of Contrexfiville, but are
lighter in character; they are bottled and exported in large
quantities. They are prescribed in cases of gravel, gout, &c.
Vittel has been considerably developed in recent years, and is
well supplied with hotels, a fine casino and park, &c.
VITTORIA, a town of Sicily in the province of Syracuse,
95 m. W.S.W. of Syracuse by rail (42 m. direct), founded in 1605
by Giovanni Alphonso Henriquez, who named it after his
mother, the famous Vittoria Colonna. It is a prosperous town
1 Vitruvius names Cicero and Lucretius as post nostrum memoriam
nascentes.
' The architect being at that time also the contractor.
I 5 2
VITTORIO VIVES
in the centre of a fertile district, with the largest wine trade in
Sicily. Pop. (1901) 30,832 (town), 32,219 (commune).
VITTORIO, a town and episcopal residence of the province
of Treviso, Venetia, Italy, 25 m. by rail N. of Treviso, 466 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 2977 (town), 19,133 (commune).
It is a summer resort, with sulphur and saline springs (51-8 to
59 F.), and was formed in 1879 by the union of Ceneda (the epis-
copal see) and Serravalle. The cathedral contains paintings
by Pomponio Amalteo (a pupil of Pordenone) and others. At
Serravalle is a church with a fine altar-piece (1547) by Titian.
It is a seat of the silkworm breeding and silk-throwing industries.
VITUS, ST (German, Veit; French, Guy). According to the
legend, where he is associated with Modestus and Crescentia,
by whom he had been brought up, St Vitus suffered martyrdom
at a very early age under the emperor Diocletian. Son of a
Sicilian nobleman who was a worshipper of idols, Vitus was
converted to the Christian faith without the knowledge of his
father, was denounced by him and scourged, but resisted all
attacks on his profession. Admonished by an angel, he crossed
the sea to Lucania and went to Rome, where he suffered martyr-
dom. His festival is celebrated on the isth of June. The
Passion of St Vitus has no historical value, but his name occurs
in the Martyr ologium hieronymianum. In 836 the abbey of
Corvey, in Saxony, received his relics, and became a very active
centre of his cult. In the second half of the gth century the
monks of Corvey, according to Helmold's Chronica Slavorum,
evangelized the island of Rugen, where they built a church in
honour of St Vitus. The islanders soon relapsed, but they kept
up the superstitious cult of the saint (whom they honoured as a
god), returning to Christianity three centuries later. At Prague,
too, there are some relics of the saint, who is the patron of
Bohemia and also of Saxony, and one of the fourteen " pro-
tectors " (Nothhelfer) of the church in Germany. Among the
diseases against which St Vitus is invoked is chorea, also known
as St Vitus's Dance.
See Acla sanctorum, June, iii. 1013-42 and vi. 137-40;
Bibliotheca hagiographica Latina (Brussels, 1899), n. 871 1-23 ;J.H.
Kessel, " St Veit, seine Geschichte, Verehrung und bildlicne Dar-
stellungen," in Jahrbiicher des Vereins von ALterthumsfreunden im
Rheinlande (1867), pp. 152-83. (H. DE.)
VIVALDO, U60LINO and SORLEONE DE (fl. 1291-1315),
Genoese explorers, connected with the first known expedition
in search of an ocean way from Europe to India. Ugolino,
with his brother Guido or Vadino Vivaldo, was in command of
this expedition of two galleys, which he had organized in con-
junction with Tedisio Doria, and which left Genoa in May 1291
with the purpose of going to India " by the Ocean Sea " and
bringing back useful things for trade. Planned primarily for
commerce, the enterprise also aimed at proselytism. Two
Franciscan friars accompanied Ugolino. The galleys were well
armed and sailed down the Morocco coast to a place called
Gozora (Cape Nun), in 28 47' N., after which nothing more
was heard of them. Early in the next (i4th) century, Sorleone
de Vivaldo, son of Ugolino, undertook a series of distant wander-
ings in search of his father, and even penetrated, it is said, to
Magadoxo on the Somali coast. In 1455 another Genoese
seaman, Antcniotto Uso di Mare, sailing with Cadamosto in
the service of Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, claimed
to have met, near the mouth of the Gambia, with the last
descendant of the survivors of the Vivaldo expedition. The
two galleys, he was told, had sailed to the Sea of Guinea; in
that sea one was stranded, but the other passed on to a place
on the coast of Ethiopia-Mena or Amenuan, near the Gihon
(here probably meaning the Senegal) where the Genoese were
seized and held in close captivity.
See Jacopo Doria, " Annales " (under A.D. 1291) in Pertz, Monu-
menta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, xviii. 335 (1863); the
" Conocimiento de todos los Reinos," ed. Marcos Jimenez de }a
Espada in the Boletin of the Geographical Society of Madrid, vol. ii.,
No. 2, pp. ill, 113, 117-18 (Madrid, February, 1877); Canale,
Degli anttcki navigatori e scopritori Genovesi (Genoa, 1846); G. H.
Pertz, Der alteste Versuch zur Enldeckung des Seeweges nach Ostindien
(Berlin, 1859) ; Annali di Geografia e di Statistica composti . . .
da Giacomo Grdberg (Genoa, 1802); Belgrano, "... Annali . . . di
Caffarq," in Archiv. Star. Ilal., 3rd series, ii. 124, &c., and in Atli della
Soc. Lig. di Storia Patria, xv. 320 (1881); W. Heyd, Histoire du
commerce du Levant (the improved French edition of the Geschichte
des Levantehandels), ii. 140-43 (Paris, 1886); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of
Modern Geography, iii. 413-19, 551 (Oxford, 1906).
VIVARINI, the surname of a family of painters of Murano
(Venice), who produced a great quantity of work in Venice and
its neighbourhood in the isth century, leading on to that phase
of the school which is represented by Carpactio and the Bellinis.
ANTONIO VIVARINI (Antonio of Murano) was probably the
earliest of this family. He came from the school of Andrea
da Murano, and his works show the influence of Gentile da
Fabriano. The earliest known date of a picture of his, an
altar-piece in the Venetian academy, is 1440; the latest, in the
Lateran museum, 1464, but he appears to have been alive
in 1470. He worked in company with a certain " Joannes de
Alemania," who has been (with considerable doubt) regarded
as a brother (Giovanni of Murano), but no trace of this painter
exists of a date later than 1447. After 1447 Antonio painted
either alone or in combination with his younger brother Barto-
lommeo. The works of Antonio are well drawn for their epoch,
with a certain noticeable degree of softness, and with good flesh
and other tints. Three of his principal paintings are the
" Virgin Enthroned with the Four Doctors of the Church," the
" Coronation of the Virgin," and " Sts Peter and Jerome."
The first two (in which Giovanni co-operated) are in the Venetian
academy, the third in the National Gallery, London. This
gallery contains also specimens of the two under-named painters.
BARTOLOMMEO VIVARINI is known to have worked from
1450 to 1499. He learned oil-painting from Antonello da
Messina, and is said to have produced, in 1473, the first oil
picture done in Venice. This is in the church of S. Giovanni
e Paolo a large altar-piece in nine divisions, representing
Augustine and other saints. Most of his works, however,
including one in the National Gallery, are in tempera. His
outline is always hard, and his colour good; the figures have
much dignified and devout expression. As " vivarino " means
in Italian a goldfinch, he sometimes drew a goldfinch as the
signature of his pictures.
LUIGI or ALVISE VIVARINI, born about 1446, painted m
1475 and on to 1502, when he died. It has sometimes been
supposed that, besides the Luigi who was the latest of this
pictorial family, there had also been another Luigi who was the
earliest, this supposition being founded on the fact that one
picture is signed with the name, with the date 1414. There
is good ground, however, for considering this date to be a forgery
of a later time. The works of Luigi show an advance on those
of his predecessors, and some of them are productions of high
attainment; one of the best was executed for the Scuola di
S. Girolamo in Venice, representing the saint caressing his lion,
and some monks decamping in terror. The architecture and
perspective in this work are superior. Other works by Luigi
are in Treviso and in Milan. He painted some remarkable
portraits. (W. M. R.)
VIVERO, a town of north-western Spain, in the province
of Lugo; on the Ria de Vivero, an estuary formed by the
river Landrove, which here enters the Bay of Biscay. Pop.
(1900) 12,843. Vivero is an old-fashioned and picturesque town,
connected with the opposite bank of the estuary by a bridge
of twelve arches and a causeway. Its fishing fleet, its coasting
trade and the agricultural products of the fertile country
around are important. The only means of communication with
the interior is by the road to Cabreiros, for Lugo and Ferrol.
VIVES, JUAN LUIS (1492-1540), Spanish scholar, was born
at Valencia on the 6th of March 1492. He studied at Paris
from 1509 to 1512, and in 1519 was appointed professor of
humanities at Louvain. At the instance of his friend Erasmus
he prepared an elaborate commentary on Augustine's De
Civitate Dei, which was published in 1522 with a dedication
to Henry VIII. Soon afterwards he was invited to England,
and is said to have acted as tutor to the princess Mary, for
whose use he wrote De ratione studii puerilis epistolae duae
VIVIAN, IST BARON VIVISECTION
153
(1523). While in England he resided at Corpus Christi College,
Oxford, where he was made doctor of laws and lectured
on philosophy. Having declared himself against the king's
divorce from Catherine of Aragon, he lost the royal favour and
confined to his house for six weeks. On his release he
withdrew to Bruges, where he devoted himself to the com-
position of numerous works, chiefly directed against the schol-
astic philosophy and the preponderant authority of Aristotle.
The most important of his treatises is the De Cauiis corruptarum
Arlium, which has been ranked with Bacon's Organon. He
died at Bruges on the 6th of May 1540.
A complete edition of his works was published by Gregorio
Mayans y Siscar (Valencia, 1782). Adolfo Bonilla y San Martin's
Luis Vives y lajilosofia del renacimiento (Madrid, 1903) is a valuable
and interesting study which includes an exhaustive bibliography
of Vives's writings and a critical estimate of previous monographs.
The best of these are A. J. Nameche, " M6moire sur la vie et les dcrits
de Jean Louis Vives " in Mimoires couronnes par I'Academie Royale
des sciences et belles-lettres de Bruxelles (Brussels, 1841), vol. xv. ;
A. Lange's article in the Encyklopadie des gesammten Erziehungs-
und Unterrichtswesens (Leipzig, 1887), vol. ix. ; Berthe Vadier, Un
Moraliste du X VI *" sikcle: Jean-Louis Vives et son livre de I'educa-
tion de la femnte chritienne (Geneva, 1892) ; G. Hoppe, Die Psy-
chologie von Juan Luis Vives (Berlin, 1901).
VIVIAN, RICHARD HUSSEY VIVIAN, IST BARON (1775-
1842), British cavalry leader, came of a Cornish family. Edu-
cated at Harrow and Exeter College, Oxford, Vivian entered
the army in 1793. and less than a year later became a captain
in the 28th foot. Under Lord Moira he served in the campaign
of 1 794 in Flanders and Holland. At the end of the expedition,
the 28th bore a distinguished part in Lord Cathcart's action of
Gueldermalsen. In 1798 Vivian was transferred to the 7th
Light Dragoons (now Hussars), and in Sir Ralph Abercromby's
division was present at the battles of Bergen and Alkmaar (igth
September to 6th October 1799). In 1800 he received his
majority, and in 1804 he became lieut.-colonel of the 7th. In
command of this regiment he sailed to join Baird at Corunna in
1808, and took part in Lord Paget's cavalry fights at Sahagun
and Benavente. During the retreat of Moore's army the 7th
were constantly employed with the rearguard. Vivian was
present at Corunna, and returned with the remainder of the
army to England. It was not until late in 1813 that the 7th
returned to the Peninsula, and Vivian (now colonel and A.D.C.
to the prince regent) was soon taken away to command a cavalry
brigade under Hill. With this corps he served throughout
the fighting on the Nive (9th-i3th December). At the begin-
ning of 1814 he was transferred to a cavalry brigade of Beres-
ford's corps, and took a marked part in the action of Gave de
Pau and the battle of Orthes. In the advance on Toulouse
Vivian fought a brilliant action at Crois 'd'Orade on the Ers
(8th April), when he was very severely wounded. At the
beginning of 1815 he was made K.C.B.; he had been a major-
general for several months. In April Sir Hussey Vivian was
appointed to command a brigade of Uxbridge's cavalry, and
at Waterloo his regiments, with those of Vandeleur's brigade,
made the final charge of the day between Hougoumont and La
Haye Sainte, sweeping everything before them. This service
was rewarded by the thanks of both houses of parliament,
the K.C.H. and the orders of Maria Theresa and St Vladimir
from the emperors of Austria and Russia. He sat in the
House of Commons as member for Truro from 1821 to 1831;
he was then made commander of the forces in Ireland, and
given the G.C.H. In 1835 he became master-general of the
ordnance. In 1837 he received the G.C.B., and in 1841, being
then M.P. for East Cornwall, was created Baron Vivian in the
English peerage. A year later he died at Baden-Baden. He
was twice married (first in 1804), and the title descended in the
direct line. His natural son, Sir Robert John Hussey Vivian
(1802-1887), was a famous soldier in India, who in 1857 was
made K.C.B. and in 1871 G.C.B., having previously attained the
rank of general.
VIVIANITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated iron phosphate
Fej(PO4)2+8H 2 O, crystallizing in the monoclinic system. The
crystals possess a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of
symmetry and are usually bladed] in habit; they are soft
(H = |), flexible and sectile. The specific gravity is 2-6.
When unaltered and containing no ferric oxide, the mineral
is colourless, but on exposure to the light it very soon becomes
of a characteristic indigo-blue colour. Crystals were first found
in Cornwall (at Wheal Jane, near Truro, associated with
pyrrhotite) by J. G. Vivian, after whom the species was named
by A. G. Werner in 1817. The mineral had, however, been
earlier known as a blue powdery substance, called " blue iron-
earth," met with in peat-bogs, in bog iron-ore, or with fossil
bones and shells. (L. J. S.)
VIVISECTION, literally the cutting (sectio) of living (vivus)
animals, a word which might be applied to all surgical operations
whether practised upon the lower animals or on man. As
conventionally used, however, it has exclusive reference to
experiments upon the lower animals undertaken for the advance-
ment of medical sciences. There are a number of people who,
calling themselves anti-vivisectionists, strongly object to these
experiments on the lower animals; and it must be conceded
that the humane reasons which they advance against it
can only be set aside as " sentimental " if considerations of
a wider humanity can show that the arguments of the anti-
vivisectionists really run counter to human progress. The
supporters of vivisection, properly considered, must not be
confused with those who would make a barbarous use of this
means of research. What is at stake here is the right to use it
properly and at all. It would be possible for cruelty of an
unnecessary kind to result if the practice of vivisection were
unrestricted; and the purpose of this article is to give some
account of the method of experiments on animals as sanctioned
by law in the United Kingdom, and to justify that method by
setting forth the chief historical discoveries that have been
made by the help of vivisection. Such experiments have for
their object the advancement of the sciences of physiology
and pathology. From the earliest periods experimental vivi-
sections have occasionally been practised, but before the days
of anaesthetics it was difficult to execute them, and not less
difficult to draw conclusions. The invention of anaesthetics
has greatly extended the scope of the experimental method,
because an animal can be kept unconscious and quiet, without
even a quiver of a muscle, during prolonged operations. Further,
the introduction of the antiseptic method has made it possible
to subject all tissues and regions of the body to surgical inter-
ference, and this has also had the effect of increasing the possi-
bilities of experimental research.
In 1906 a British Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into
the whole subject under the chairmanship of Lord Selby, on whose
death Mr A. J. Ram, K.C., took the chair. The Commission sat
from October 1906 to March 1908, and heard no fewer than 21,761
questions and answers. In view of attempts on the part of the
anti-vivisectionists to misrepresent the nature of the evidence given
before the Commission, in January 1908 the supporters of experi-
ments on animals founded the Research Defence Society, under the
presidency of Lord Cromer; by July 1910 this society had some 3500
members. Its official address is 21 Ladbroke Square, London, W.
I. METHODS EMPLOYED. The present act relating to experi-
ments on animals was passed in 1876. At that time the
majority of these experiments were physiological. There was,
it may be fairly said, no such thing as bacteriology, no general
following up of Pasteur's work. A few experiments were made
in pathology, for instance in tubercle; and a few in surgery,
in pharmacology, and in the action of poisons, especially snake
venom. But the chief use of experiments on animals was for
the advancement of physiology. The evidence given before the
Royal Commission (1875) was almost entirely on physiological
matters, on the discoveries of Harvey, Bell, Magendie and
Claude Bernard, on the Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory,
and so forth. The act, therefore, was drafted with a view to
physiology, without much concern for pathology, and without
foreknowledge of bacteriology. At the time of writing (1910),
95% of the experiments are inoculations. Every experi-
ment must be made in a registered place open to govern-
ment inspection. But inoculation experiments are sometimes
154
VIVISECTION
permitted in non-registered places, for the immediate study of
outbreaks of disease, or in circumstances which render it im-
practicable to use a registered place. Every experiment must
be made under a licence; and every application for a licence
must be recommended by the signatures of two out of a small
body of authorities specified in the act presidents of certain
learned societies and professors of certain universities and
colleges. The word " experiment " is not allowed to cover
the use of more than one animal.
Most experiments are made not under a licence alone, but
under a licence plus one or more certificates, and the wording
and working of these certificates must be clearly understood,
because it is over them that the question arises as to the amount
of pain inflicted by these experiments. Under the licence alone,
the animal must be kept under an anaesthetic during the whole
of the experiment; and " if the pain is likely to continue after
the effect of the anaesthetic has ceased, or if any serious injury
has been inflicted on the animal," it must be killed forthwith
under the anaesthetic. Thus, under the licence alone, it is
impossible to make an inoculation; for the experiment consists,
not in the introduction of the needle under the skin, but in the
observation of the results of the inoculation. A guinea-pig
inoculated with tubercle cannot be kept under an anaesthetic
till the disease appears. The disease is the experiment, and it
is therefore an experiment made without an anaesthetic, and
not authorized by the licence alone. Again, under the licence
alone it would have been impossible to work out the thyroid
treatment of myxoedema, or the facts of cerebral localization.
For to remove the thyroid gland, or to remove a portion of the
surface of the brain, is to inflict a serious injury on the animal.
The operation is done under profound anaesthesia it would
be impracticable otherwise; the wound is treated and dressed
by the antiseptic method suppuration would invalidate the
result. But a serious injury has been inflicted. Nevertheless,
the animal must not be killed forthwith: the result must be
watched. These and the like experiments cannot therefore
be made under the licence alone. For the removal of such
disabilities as these, the act empowers the home secretary to
allow certain certificates, to be held with the licence. They
must be recommended by two signatures, and various restrictions
are put upon them by the home secretary. On July n, 1898,
the home secretary was asked, in the House of Commons, what
were the conditions and regulations attached by the Home Office
to licences and certificates; and he answered
" The conditions are not always the same, but may vary according
to the nature of the investigation. It is hardly possible, therefore,
for me to state all the conditions attached to licences and certificates.
The most important conditions, however (besides the limitations as
to place, time and number of experiments), and the conditions
most frequently imposed, are those as to reporting and the use of
antiseptics. The latter condition is that the animals are to be
treated with strict antiseptic precautions, and if these fail and pain
results, they are to be killed immediately under anaesthetics. The
reporting conditions are, in brief, that a written record, in a pre-
scribed form, is to be kept of every experiment, and is to be open for
examination by the inspector; that a report of all experiments is to
be forwarded to the inspector; and that any published account of
an experiment is to be transmitted to the secretary of state. Another
condition requires the immediate destruction under anaesthetics
of an animal in which severe pain has been induced, after the main
result of the experiment has been attained."
The home secretary attaches to licences and certificates such
endorsements as he thinks fit. The bare text of the act, now
thirty-four years old, is a very different thing from the administra-
tion of the act ; and the present writer is in a position to say that
the act is administered with great strictness, under a careful
system of inquiry and reference.
The certificates are distinguished as A, B, C, E, EE and F.
Certificate D, which permitted the testing, by experiments, of
" former discoveries alleged to have been made," has fallen into
disuse. Certificate C permits experiments to be made by way
of illustration of lectures. They must be made under the
provisions contained in the act as to the use of anaesthetics.
Certificates E and EE permit experiments on dogs or cats;
certificate F permits experiments on horses, asses or mules.
These certificates are linked with Certificate A or Certificate B.
It is round these two certificates, A and B, that the controversy
as to the pain caused by experiments on animals is maintained.
Certificate A permits experiments to be made without anaesthesia.
It is worded as follows: " Whereas A. B. of [here insert address
and profession} has represented to us (i.e. two authorities) that he
proposes, if duly authorized under the above-mentioned act, to
perform on living animals certain experiments described below:
We hereby certify that, in our opinion, insensibility in the animal
on which any such experiment may be performed cannot be pro-
duced by anaesthetics without necessarily frustrating the object of
such experiment." All inoculations under the skin, all feeding
experiments and the like, are scheduled under this certificate.
They must be scheduled somehow: they cannot legally be made
under a licence alone. Though the only instrument used is a
hypodermic needle, yet every inoculation is officially returned as
an experiment, calculated to give pain, performed without an
anaesthetic. It is for inoculations and the like experiments, and
for them alone, and for nothing else, that Certificate A is allowed
(or A linked with E or F). This want of a special certificate for
inoculations, and this wresting of Certificate A for the purpose,
have led to an erroneous belief that " cutting operations are
permitted by the act without an anaesthetic. But, as the home
secretary said in parliament, in March 1897, " Certificate A is never
allowed except for inoculations and similar trivial operations,
and in every case a condition is attached to prevent unnecessary
pain." And again he wrote in 1898, " Such special certificates
(dispensing with anaesthetics) are granted only for inoculations,
feeding and similar procedures involving no cutting. The animal
has to be killed under anaesthetics if it be in pain, so soon as the
result of the experiment is ascertained."
Certificate B permits the keeping alive of the animal after the
initial operation of an experiment. It is worded as follows:
" Whereas A. B. of [here insert address and profession} has repre-
sented to us (i.e. two authorities) that he proposes, if duly authorized
under the above-mentioned act, to perform on living animals certain
experiments described below, such animals being, during the whoie
of the initial operation of such experiments, under the influence of
some anaesthetic of sufficient power to prevent their feeling pain:
We hereby certify that, in our opinion, the killing of the animal on
which any such experiment is performed before it recovers from the
influence of the anaesthetic administered to it would necessarily
frustrate the object of such experiment." Certificate B (or B linked
with EE or F) is used for those experiments which consist in an
operation plus subsequent observation of the animal. The section
of a nerve, the removal of a secretory organ, the establishment of
a fistula, the plastic surgery of the intestine, the sub-dural method
of inoculation these and the like experiments are made under
this certificate. We may take, to illustrate the use of Certificate
B, Horsley's observations on the thyroid gland. The removal of the
gland was the initial operation; and this was performed under an
anaesthetic, and with the antiseptic method. Then the animal
was kept under observation. The experiment is neither the opera-
tion alone nor the observation alone, but the two together. The
purpose of this certificate is set forth in the inspector's report for
1909. " In the experiments performed under Certificate B, or
B linked with EE, 1704 in number, the initial operations are
performed under anaesthetics from the influence of which the
animals are allowed to recover. The operations are required to
be performed antiseptically, so that the healing of the wounds
shall, as far as possible, take place without pain. If the antiseptic
precautions fail, and suppuration occurs, the animal is required to
be killed. It is generally essential for the success of these experi-
ments that the wounds should heal cleanly, and the surrounding
parts remain in a healthy condition. After the healing of the
wounds the animals are not necessarily, or even generally, in pain,
since experiments involving the removal of important organs,
including portions of the brain, may be performed without giving
rise to pain after the recovery from the operation; and after the
section of a part of the nervous system, the resulting degenerative
changes are painless. In the event of a subsequent operation being
necessary in an experiment performed under Certificate B, or E
linked with EE, a condition is attached to the licence requiring all
operative procedures to be carried out under anaesthetics of sufficient
power to prevent the animal feeling pain; and no observations or
stimulations of a character to cause pain are allowed to be made
without the animals being anaesthetized. In no case has a cutting
operation more severe than a superficial venesection (the opening
of a vein just under the skin) been allowed to be performed without
anaesthetics."
From this brief account of the chief provisions of the act, we
come to consider the general method of experiments on animals
in the United Kingdom, and the question of the infliction of pain
on them. The figures for a representative year may be given.
The total number of licensees in 1909, in England and Scotland,
was 483: of whom 135 performed no experiments during the
VIVISECTION
155
year. The total number of experiments was 86,277, being 2357
less than in 1908. They v/ere made as follows :
Under Licence alone 1,980
Certificate C 196
Certificate A 81,566
Certificates A + E . . . . 595
Certificates A+F . . . . 228
Certificate B 1,385
Certificates B + EE ... 319
Certificate F 8
The experiments performed under Certificate A (or A+E,
or A+F) were mostly inoculations; but a few were feeding
experiments, or the administration of various substances by
the mouth or by inhalation, or the abstraction of blood by
puncture or by simple venesection. Inoculations into deep
parts, involving a preliminary incision, are required to be per-
formed under anaesthetics (Certificate B).
" It will be seen," says the report for 1909, " that the operative
procedures in experiments performed under Certificate A, without
anaesthetics, are only such as are attended by no considerable,
if appreciable, pain. The certificate is, in fact, not required to
cover these proceedings, but to allow of the subsequent course of the
experiment. '
The animals most used for inoculations are mice, rats, guinea-
pigs and rabbits. It is not once in a thousand times that a dog
or a cat is used for inoculation. The act of inoculation is not in
itself painful. A small area of the skin is carefully shaved and
cleansed, that it may be aseptic, the hypodermic needle is
sterilized and the method of hypodermic injection or of vaccina-
tion is the same as it is in medical practice. " A guinea-pig
that will rest quietly in your hands before you commence to
inject it, will remain perfectly quiet during the introduction of
the needle under the skin; and the moment it is returned to the
cage it resumes its interrupted feeding. Arteries, veins and
most of the parts of the viscera are without the sense of touch.
We have actual proof of this in what takes place when a horse
is bled for the purpose of obtaining curative serum. With a
sharp lance a cut may be made in the skin so quickly and easily
that the animal does nothing more than twitch the skin-muscle
of the neck, or give his head a shake, while of the further pro-
ceeding of introducing a hollow needle into the vein, the animal
takes not the slightest notice. Some horses, indeed, will stand
perfectly quiet during the whole operation, munching a carrot,
nibbling at a wisp of hay, or playing with a button on the vest
of the groom standing at its head." These sentences, written
in the Medical Magazine (June 1898) by Dr Sims Woodhead,
Professor of Pathology at Cambridge, are sufficient evidence that
inoculations and the like experiments are not painful at the time.
In a few instances cultures of micro-organisms have been made
in the anterior chamber of the eye, by the introduction of a
needle behind the cornea. This might be thought painful, but
cocaine renders the surface of the eye wholly insensitive. Many
operations of ophthalmic surgery are done under cocaine alone,
and the anterior chamber of the eye is so far insensitive that a
man may have blood or pus (hypopyon) in it, and hardly be
conscious of the fact. The results of inoculation are in some
cases negative, in others positive; the positive results are, in the
great majority of cases, not a local change, but a general infection
which may end in recovery, or in death. The diseases thus
induced may, in many cases, fairly be called painless such are
septicaemia in a mouse, snake-venom in a rat, and malaria in a
sparrow. Rabbits affected with rabies do not suffer in the same
way as dogs and some other animals, but become subject to a
painless kind of paralysis. It is probable that animals kept
for inoculation have, on the whole, less pain than falls to the lot
of a like number of animals in a state of nature or in subjection
to work: they are well fed and sheltered, and escape the rapacity
of larger animals, the inevitable cruelties of sport, and the
drudgery and sexual mutilation that man inflicts on the higher
domestic animals.
The present writer has, of course, seen the mice that are
used for the study of cancer (Imperial Cancer Research Fund),
and the guinea-pigs that are used at the Lister Institute for the
testing of the London milk-supply, lest the milk should convey
tubercle. He did not see, among all the many animals, one that
appeared to be suffering: save that a very few of the mice were
incommoded, or, if the word be applicable to mice, distressed,
by large tumours. Of the guinea-pigs that had been inoculated,
not one seemed to be in any pain. A nodule of tubercle, or a
tuberculous gland, is painless in us, and therefore cannot be
painful in a guinea-pig. It is not denied that the study of some
diseases (plague, tetanus) causes some pain to rats and rabbits;
but this pain is hardly to be compared with the pain and horror
of these diseases in man.
We come now to Certificate B. If it were lawful, under
Certificate B, to make an incision under an anaesthetic, to call
this the " initial operation," and then, without an anaesthetic,
to make painful experiments, through the incision, on the deeper
structures, doubtless much pain might be inflicted under this
certificate. But experiments of this kind can be, and are, made
under the licence alone, the animal being kept under an
anaesthetic all the time, and killed under it. " No experiments
requiring anything of the nature of a surgical operation, or that
would cause the infliction of an appreciable amount of pain, are
allowed to be performed without an anaesthetic" (Inspector's
Report for 1899). " These certificates (B) are granted on con-
dition that antiseptic precautions are used; and if these fail,
and pain continues after the anaesthetics have ceased to operate,
the animal is immediately killed painlessly " (Letter from the
Home Secretary, 1898).
Of experiments made under this certificate (which must be
linked with Certificate EE for any experiment on a dog or a cat) ,
three instances may be given here: an operation on the brain,
a removal of part or the whole of a secreting gland, and the
establishment of a fistula. It is to be noted that, for these and
the like operations, profound anaesthesia and the strict observ-
ance of the antiseptic method are matters of absolute necessity
for the success of the experiment: the operation could not be
performed without anaesthesia; and the experiment would
come to nothing if the wound suppurated. It is to be noted,
also, that these operations are such as are performed in surgery
for the saving of life or for the relief of pain.
As to operations on the brain, it must be remembered that
the surface of the brain is not sensitive. Therefore the removal
or destruction of a portion of the surface of the brain, or the
division of some tract of central nervous tissue, though it might
entail some loss of power or of control, does not cause pain:
a wound of the brain is painless. Tension within the cranial
cavity, as in cases of cerebral tumour or cerebral abscess, may
indeed cause great pain; and, if the aseptic method failed in an
experiment, inflammation and tension would ensue: in that case
the animal must be killed.
The removal of part or the whole of a secreting gland (e.g.
the thyroid, the spleen, the kidney) is performed by the same
methods, and with the same precautions, as in human surgery.
Profound anaesthesia, and the use of a strict antiseptic pro-
cedure, are of absolute necessity. The skin over the part to be
removed must be shaved and carefully cleansed for the opera-
tion; the instruments, sponges and ligatures must be sterile, not
capable of infecting the wound; and when the operation is over,
the wound must be carefully closed with sutures, and left to heal
under a proper surgical dressing.
The establishment of a fistula, again, is an operation practised,
as a matter of course, in large numbers of surgical cases. The
stomach, the gall-bladder, the large intestine, are opened for the
relief of obstruction, and kept open, either for a time or per-
manently, according to the nature of the case. Under anaes-
thesia, the organ that is to be opened is exposed through an
incision made through the structures overlying it, and is secured
in the wound by means of fine sutures. Then, when it has
become adherent there, it is opened by an incision made into it;
no anaesthetic is needed for this purpose, because these internal
organs are so unlike the skin in sensitiveness that an incision
is hardly felt: the patient may say that he " felt a prick," or he
may be wholly unconscious that anything has been done. A
i 5 6
VIVISECTION
fistula thus established is not afterward painful, though there
may be some discomfort now and again.
The classical instance is the case of Alexis St Martin, who was
shot in the stomach in 1822, and recovered, but with a fistula.
He let Dr Beaumont make experiments on him for nine years:
" During the whole of these periods, from the spring of 1824 to the
present time (1833), he has enjoyed general good health . . . active,
athletic and vigorous; exercising, eating and drinking like other
healthy and active people. For the last four months he has been
unusually plethoric and robust, though constantly subjected to a
continuous series of experiments on the interior of the stomach;
allowing to be introduced or taken out at the aperture different
kinds o? food, drinks, elastic catheters, thermometer tubes, gastric
juice, chyme, &c., almost daily, and sometimes hourly. Such have
been this man's condition and circumstances for several years past;
and he now enjoys the most perfect health and constitutional
soundness, with every function of the system in full force and vigour "
(Beaumont, Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice, 1838).
We come now to the question, What anaesthetics are used in
these experiments, and are they properly administered ? The
anaesthetics used are (i) chloroform, ether, or a mixture
containing chloroform and ether; (2) morphia, chloral, ure-
thane. It is sometimes said that morphia is not an anaesthetic.
That depends on the quantity given. Not a month passes in
this country without somebody killing himself or herself with
morphia or chloral. They die profoundly anaesthetized: they
cannot be roused; even the pain of a strong electric shock is not
enough to rouse them. So it is with animals. The doses given
to them are enormous and produce complete insensibility. On
this point the evidence given before the Royal Commission of
1906-8 by Mr Thane, Professor Schafer, Sir Lauder Brunton, Sir
Henry Morris, Professor Dixon, Dr Dudley Buxton and Professor
Starling is absolutely conclusive. " As to the statements,"
says Sir Lauder Brunton, " that chloral and opium or morphia
are not narcotics, and do not remove pain, there is no other word
for it, it is simply a lie; you may as well say that chloroform
does not remove pain. If you give any animal a sufficiently
large dose of chloral or opium, you so completely abolish sensi-
bility that there is nothing you can do that will awaken its
sensibility. The animal is as senseless as a piece of board."
With regard to chloroform, ether and the A.C.E. mix-
ture (alcohol, chloroform and ether) it is absolutely certain
that animals can be kept, with these anaesthetics, profoundly
unconscious for three or four or more hours. Nothing on
this point is more worthy of consideration than the evidence
in veterinary surgery, given before the Royal Commission
by Mr Hobday, one of the very foremost veterinary surgeons
in this country (Reports of Evidence, vol. iv. Q. 16284-16523).
The opponents of all experiments on animals are apt to believe
that dogs and cats must be bound and fastened on boards, and
then have the anaesthetic given to them. That is not the case.
They can take the anaesthetic first, and then be put in position;
just as we 1 , for many of the operations of surgery, are bound in
position. And, of course, dogs and cats cannot lie on their backs
as we can. " The usual thing we do," said Professor Starling,
in his evidence before the Royal Commission, " is to give the
animal, half an hour before the experiment, a hypodermic
injection of morphia, of about a quarter of a grain from a
quarter to a third. The effect of that is, that the dog becomes
sleepy and stupid, and then sometimes it will lie down quietly,
and if it is very sleepy you can put a mask over its nose con-
taining the chloroform, alcohol and ether mixture, which it
takes quite quietly. If, at the time one wants to begin the
operation, the animal is not fully under the influence of morphia
if it still seems restless it is put in a box, and there it has
some wool saturated with the A.C.E. mixture put in the box.
The air gradually gets saturated, the dog gets more and more
sleepy, and finally subsides at the bottom of the box."
A few words must be said here about curare. It was said, some
years ago, by an opponent of experiments on animals, that " curare
is used daily throughout England," whereas, it is seldom used at
all, and is never used alone in any sort or kind of operation on any
animal in this country: in every such case a recognized anaesthetic
must be given, and is given. In large doses curare not only
abolishes the movement of the voluntary muscles, but also acts
as an anaesthetic: in small doses it acts only on the voluntary
muscles, i.e. on the endings of the motor nerves going to these
muscles. For example, suppose that the object of the experi-
ment is to observe and record the action of a nerve on the contraction
of certain blood vessels. The nerve gives off some branches to
muscles, and other branches to blood vessels. If the animal be
anaesthetized, and the nerve stimulated, muscles and vessels will
x>th contract; but, if curare be given, as well as an anaesthetic,
the vessels alone will contract, without the muscles: for curare
does not act on the endings of motor nerves going to blood vessels.
But, as a practical matter, curare is very hard to obtain, and is often
impure, and is very seldom used. One of the inspectors said to the
Royal Commission that he had once seen it used, fifteen years ago.
Professor Gotch said that he had not used it, in his own work, Tor
twenty years. Professor Schafer said that he had not used it for
years. And Sir Lauder Brunton said that he did not think he had
used it at all since the passing of the act of 1876. The fear that, in
a case where curare was being used, the effect of the anaesthetic
might " pass off," and the animal be left under curare alone, is not
reasonable. The dosage and administration of anaesthetics is not
left to chance. If, for example, an animal is receiving a definite
percentage of chloroform vapour, it is of necessity under the influenc
of the chloroform: and the anaesthesia will gradually become no
less but more profound. (See the evidence given before the Roya
Commission by Professor Langley and Professor Waller.)
It may be interesting to compare the pain, or death, or dis-
comfort among 86,277 animals used for experiments in Grea
Britain in 1909, with the pain, or death, or discomfort of an
equal number of the same kinds of animals, either in a state
of nature, or kept for sport, or used for the service of human
profit or amusement. But it would be outside the purpose of
this article to describe the cruelties which are inseparable
from sport, and from the killing of animals for food, and fron
fashion; neither is this the place to describe the millions of
mutilations which are practised on domestic animals by farmer
and breeders. As one of the Royal Commissioners recently said,
the farmyards, at certain times of the year, simply " seeth
with vivisection." The number of animals wounded in sport,
or in traps, cannot be guessed. Against this vast amount
suffering we have to put an estimate of the condition of 86,277
animals used for medical science. Ninety-five per cent, of then
were used for inoculation. In many of these inoculations
result was negative: the animal did not take any disease,
and thus did not suffer any pain. In many more, e.g. cance
in mice, tubercle in guinea-pigs, the pain or discomfort, if any,
may fairly be called trivial or inconsiderable. It could hardly
be said that these small animals suffer much more than an
equal number of the same kind of animals kept in little cage
to amuse children. There remain 3888 animals which we
submitted to operation under an anaesthetic . In the great
number of these cases the animal was killed then and ther
under the anaesthetic, without recovering consciousness,
the remaining cases the animal was allowed to recover, and
to be kept for observation; but no further observation of an)
kind, which could cause pain, was allowed to be made on it
unless it were again placed under an anaesthetic. Many
these cases, thus allowed to recover after an operation, may
fairly be compared to an equal number of domestic anima"
after one of the formal operations of veterinary surgery. Thes
observations made under Certificate B form but a very sma
proportion of the total number of experiments on animals
the United Kingdom; and they have led, in recent years,
discoveries of the very utmost importance for human life and
health.
II. SCIENTIFIC RESULTS. We come now to consider th
results of experiments on animals, but we must remember tha
not we alone, but animals also, owe a great debt to them. Gr
epizootic diseases like anthrax, swine-fever, chicken choler
. silkworm disease, pleuro-pneumonia, glanders, Texas catt
fever, blackleg, tuberculosis in cattle, have killed yearly million
of animals, and have been brought under better control by
these experiments. The advantages that have been obtaine'
for man may be arranged under two heads (A) Physiology,
(B) Pathology, Bacteriology and Therapeutics.
A. PHYSIOLOGY
I. The Blood. Galen (A.D. 131) confuted the doctrine of
tratus, that the arteries contained TTWUMO, the breath of life, proviti
VIVISECTION
157
by experiment that they contain blood. " Ourselves, having
tied the exposed arteries above and below, opened them, and
showed that they were indeed full of blood." Realdus Columbus
(i5S9). though he did not discover the general or " systematic "
circulation of the blood, yet seems to have discovered, by experi-
ment, the pulmonary circulation. ' The blood is carried through
the pulmonary artery .to the lung, and there is attenuated ; thence,
mixed with air, it is carried through the pulmonary vein to the
left side of the heart. Which thing no man hitherto has noted or
left on record, though it is most worthy of the observance of all
men. . . . And this is as true as truth itself; for if you will look
not only in the dead body but also in the living animal, you will
always find this pulmonary vein full of blood, which assuredly it
would not be if it were designed only for air and vapours. . . .
Verily I pray you, O candid reader, studious of authority, but more
studious of truth, to make experiment on animals. You will find
the pulmonary vein full of blood, not air orfuligo, as these men call
it, God help them." Harvey's treatise De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis
in Animalibus was published at Frankfort in 1621. It begins thus:
" When by many dissections of living animals, as they came to
hand, Cum multis vivorum disseclionibus, uti ad manum dabantur,
I first gave myself to observing how I might discover, with my
own eyes, and not from books and the writings of other men, the
use and purpose of the movement of the heart in animals, forthwith
I found the matter hard indeed and full of difficulty; so that I
began to think, with Frascatorius, that the movement of the heart
was known to God alone. ... At last, having daily used greater
disquisition and diligence, by frequent examination of many and
various living amma\s-r-multa frequenter et varia animalia viva
introspiciendo I came to believe that I had succeeded, and had
escaped and got out of this labyrinth, and therewith had dis-
covered what I desired, the movement and use of the heart and the
arteries. And from that time, not only to my friends but also in
public in my anatomical lectures, after the manner of the Academy,
I did not fear to set forth my opinion in this matter." Here, and
again at the end of the Preface, and again in the eighth chapter
of the De Motu, he puts his experiments in the very foreground
of the argument. Take the headings of his first four chapters:
I. Causae, quibus ad scribendum auctor permotus fuerit. 2. Ex
vivorum dissectione, qualis fit cordis ntotus. 3. Arteriarum motus
qualis, ex vivorum dissectione. 4. Motus cordis et auricularum
qualis, ex vivorum dissectione. He had, of course, help from. other
sources from anatomy and from physics; but it is certain, from
his own words, that he attributed his discovery, in a very great
measure, to experiments on animals. Malpighi (1661), professor of
medicine at Bologna, by examining with a microscope the lung and
the mesentery of the live frog, made out the capillary vessels. He
writes to Borelli, professor of mathematics at Pisa, that he has
failed in every attempt to discover them by injecting fluids into
the larger vessels, but has succeeded by examining the tissues with
the microscope: " Such is the divarication of these little vessels
coming off from the vein and the artery, that the order in which a
vessel ramifies is no longer preserved, but it looks like a network
woven from the offshoots of both vessels " (De Pulmonibus, 1661).
Stephen Hales (1733), rector of Farringdon and minister of Tedding-
ton, and a Fellow of the Royal Society, made the first exact esti-
mates of the blood pressure, the real force of the blood, by inserting
one end of a vertical glass tube into the crural artery of a mare,
and noting the rise of the blood in the tube (Statical Essays, con-
taining Haemostatic ks, &fc., 1733). John Hunter, born 1738, made
many observations on the nature and processes of the blood; and,
above all, he discovered the facts of collateral circulation. These
facts were fresh in his mind when he first ventured, in December
1785, to tie the femoral artery in " Hunter's canal " for the cure
of aneurism in the popliteal space. The experiment that gave
him his knowledge of the collateral circulation was made on one of
the deer in Richmond Park: he tied its externaj carotid artery,
to see what effect would be produced on the shedding of the antler.
Some days later he found that the circulation had returned in
the antler. He had the buck killed, and found that the artery
had been completely closed by the ligature, but the small branches
coming from it, between the heart and the ligature, were enlarged
and were in communication with others of its branches beyond
the ligature; and by this collateral circulation the flow of blood
to the antler had been restored. Among later observations on
the circulation must be mentioned the use of the mercurial mano-
meter by Poiseuille (1828) and Ludwig (1849), the study of the
blood pressure within the heart by Hering (1849) and the per-
manent tracing of the pressure curves by Chauveau and Marey
(1863). Finally came the study of those more abstruse problems
of the circulation that the older physiologists had left alone the
influences of the central nervous system, the relations between
blood pressure and secretion, the automatism of the heart-beat, and
the influence of gravitation. Professor Starling, in 1906, writes
as follows of this part of physiology: "Among the researches of
the last thirty years, those bearing on the circulation of the blood
must take an important place, both for their physiological interest
and for the weighty influence they have exerted on our knowledge
and treatment of disorders of the vascular system, such as heart
disease. We have learned to measure accurately the work done
by the great heart-pump; and by studying the manner in which
this work is affected by different conditions, we are enabled to in-
crease or diminish it, according to the needs of the organ. Ex-
periments in what is often regarded as the most transcendental
department of physiology i.e. that which treats of muscle and
nerve-^have thrown light on the wonderful process of ' com-
pensation ' by which a diseased heart is able to Keep up a normal
circulation." And Dr James Mackenzie, writing in 1910 of certain
irregularities of the circulation during pregnancy (venous pulse in
the neck and irregular beat of the heart), says, very emphatically,
that these conditions in patients have been interpreted by ex-
periments on animals. " The outcome ot these researches [Wencke-
bach's clinical studies], as well as those of a great number of other
observers, has been to elucidate the nature and meaning of a great
number of abnormal conditions of the heart. It might be said
with truth that, whereas a few years ago irregular action of the
heart was one of the most obscure symptoms in clinical medicine,
it is now one of the best understood. It is needless to repeat that
this advance would have been absolutely impossible without the
knowledge gained by experiment " (Research Defence Society, May
1910).
2. The Lacteals. Asellius (1622) by a single experiment demon-
strated the flow of chyle along the lacteals. The existence pt
these minute vessels had been known even to Galen and Erastis-
tratus, but they had made nothing of their knowledge. Aselliu-
says: "I observed that the nerves of the intestines were quite
distinct from these white threads, and ran a different course.
Struck with this new fact, I was silent for a time, thinking of the
bitter warfare of words among anatomists as to the mesenteric
veins and their purposes. When I came to myself, to satisfy my-
self by an experiment, I pierced one of the largest cords with a
scalpel. I hit the right point, and at once observed a white liquid
like milk flowing from the divided vessel." Jehan Pecquet (1647),
in the course of an experiment on the heart, observed the now
of chyle into the subclavian vein, and its identity with the chyle
in the lacteals; and by further experiment found the thoracic
duct, and the chyle flowing up it: "I perceived a white sub-
stance, like milk, flowing from the vena cava ascendens into the
pericardium, at the place where the right auricle had been
I found these vessels (the thoracic duct) all along the dorsal ver-
tebrae, lying on the spine, beneath the aorta. They swelled below
a ligature; and when I relaxed it, I saw the milk carried to the
orifices that I had observed in the subclavian vein-." The existence
of this duct, which is empty and collapsed after death, had been
overlooked by Vesalius and all the great anatomists of his time.
3. The Gastric Juice. Our knowledge about digestion dates
back to the end of the I7th century, when Valisnieri _first ob-
served that the stomach of a dead animal contained a fluid which
acted on certain bodies immersed in it " a kind of aqua forlis."
In 1752 Reaumur began his observations on this fluid, making
birds swallow fine fenestrated tubes containing grain or meat, or
sponges with threads attached; and observed that digestion con-
sists in the dissolution of food, not in any sort of mechanical action
or trituration. His observations were extended and perfected by
Spallanzani (1777). Then came a period of uncertainty, with-
out further advance; until in 1823 the_ French Academy offered
a prize for the best work on the subject, and Tiedemann and
Gmelin submitted their observations to them : " The work of
Tiedemann and Gmelin is of especial interest to us on account
of the great number of their experiments, from which came not
only the absolute proof of the existence of the gastric juice, but
also the study of the transformation of starch into glucose. Thus
the theory of digestion entered a new phase : it was finally recog-
nized, at least for certain substances, that digestion is not simplv
dissolution, but a true chemical transformation " (Claude Bernard,
Physiologic opfratoire, 1879). Beaumont's experiments on Alexis
St Martin (vide supra) were published in 1838. They were, of
course, based on the work of the physiologists: " I make no claim
to originality in my opinions as respects the existence and opera-
tion of the gastric juice. My experiments confirm the doctrine?
(with some modifications) taught by Spallanzani and many of the
most enlightened physiological writers " (Beaumont's preface to
his book). Eberle, in 1834, showed how this knowledge of the
gastric juice might be turned to a practical use, by extracting it
from the mucous membrane of the stomachs of animals after death :
hence came the invention of the various preparations of pepsin.
Later, Blondlot of Nancy, in 1842, studied the gastric juice by the
method of a fistula, like that of St Martin. More recent observa-
tions have been made on the movements of the stomach during
digestion, and on the influences of the nervous system on the process.
The stomach is, of course not the only organ of digestion: the
liver, the pancreas and the intestinal glands, all are concerned.
The recent work of Pawlow and of Starling has greatly advanced
our knowledge of the actions of the secretions from these organs.
The whole chain of processes, nervous and chemical, psychical and
physical, from the taking of food into the mouth to the expulsion
of the waste residue, is now viewed in its entirety; and especial
study has been given to the influences, nervous or chemical, which
i S 8
VIVISECTION
are exercised, as it were, on a particular tract of the digestive
system, at the bidding of another tract. Pawlow, recognizing the
importance of keeping the animals under the most normal condi-
tions that were possible, and of studying the different tracts of the
digestive system in animals not anaesthetized, yet free from pain
or distress, made use of fistulae established at different points of
the digestive canal, and was able to study the digestive juices at
different stages during digestion, without causing pain to the
animals. The work of Pawlow has been further developed by
Professor Starling's recent work on the chemical substances produced
in the body, during the act of digestion, to promote digestion.
4. Glycogen. Claude Bernard's work on the assimilation and
destruction of sugar in the body was begun in 1843. His discovery
of the glycogenic action of the liver was made by keeping two dogs
on different diets, one with sugar, the other without it, then killing
them during digestion, and testing the blood in the veins coming
from the liver: " What was my surprise when I found a considerable
quantity of sugar in the hepatic veins of the dog that had been
fed on meat only, and had been kept for eight days without sugar !
. . . Finally, after many attempts apres beaucoup d'essais el
plusieurs illusions que je fus oblige de rectifier par des t&tonnements
I succeeded in showing, that in dogs fed on meat the blood passing
through the portal vein (from the stomach) does not contain sugar
before it reaches the liver; but when it leaves the liver and comes
by the hepatic veins into the inferior vena cava, this same blood
contains a considerable quantity of a sugary substance (glucose) "
(Nouvdle fonction dufoie, Paris, 1853).
5. The Pancreas. The I7th century was a time of very fanci-
ful theories about the pancreas (Lindanus, Wharton, Bartholini),
which need not be recalled here. But Sylvius (Francois de Bois)
had the wisdom to see that the pancreas must be estimated, not
according to its position, but according to its structure, as of the
nature of the salivary glands. He urged his pupil, Regnier de
Graaf, to study it by experiment, and de Graaf says: " I put my
hand to the work; and though many times I despaired of success,
yet at last, by the blessing of God on my work and prayers, in the
year 1662 I discovered a way of collecting the pancreatic juice."
By the method of a fistula he collected and studied the secretion
of the pancreas; and by further experiment he refuted Bartholini's
theory that the pancreas was a sort of appanage or " biliary vesicle "
of the spleen. But he got no help from the chemistry of his time ;
he could no more discover the amylolytic action of the pancreatic
secretion than Galvani could discover wireless telegraphy. Still,
he did good work; and Claude Bernard, 180 years later, went back
to de Graaf's method of the fistula. His observations, begun in
1846, received a prize from the French Academy in 1850. Sir
Michael Foster says of them: " Valentin, it is true, had in 1844
not only inferred that the pancreatic juice had an action on starch,
but confirmed his view by actual experiment with the juice expressed
from the gland; and Eberle had suggested that the juice had some
action on fat; but Bernard at one stroke made clear its threefold
action. He showed that it on the one hand emulsified, and on the
other hand split up into fatty acids and glycerine, the neutral fats;
he clearly proved that it had a powerful action on starch, converting
it into sugar; and lastly, he laid bare its remarkable action on
proteid matters." At a later date it was discovered that the
pancreas, beside its work in digestion, has an " internal secretion ":
that it, like the thyroid gland and the suprarenal capsules, helps
to keep the balance of the general chemistry of the whole body.
Professor Schafer, writing in 1894, says on this subject: " It
was discovered a few years ago by von Mering and Minkowski that
if, instead of merely diverting its secretion, the pancreas is bodily
removed, the metabolic processes of the organism, and especially
the metabolism of carbo-hydrates, are entirely deranged, the result
being the production of permanent diabetes. But if even a very
small part of the gland is left within the body, the carbo-hydrate
metabolism remains unaltered, and there is no diabetes. The
small portion of the organ which has been allowed to remain (and
which need not even be left in its proper place, but may be trans-
planted under the skin or elsewhere) is sufficient, by the exchanges
which go on between it and the blood generally, to prevent those
serious consequences to the composition of the blood, and the
general constitution of the body, which result from the complete
removal of this organ." This fact, that complete removal of the
pancreas, in a cat or a dog, may cause fatal diabetes, is of import-
ance, because the pancreas in some cases of diabetes in man is
diseased : but, at present, experiments on animals have not led to
any certain or specific cure of diabetes in man.
6. The Growth of Bone. The experiments made by du Hamel
(i739-'843) on the growth of bone by deposit from the periosteum
(the thin membrane ensheathing each bone) rose out of Belchier's
observation (1735) that the bones take up the stain of madder
mixed with the food. Du Hamel studied the whole subject very
carefully, and discovered this bone-producing power of the peri-
osteum, which is an important fact in all operations on the bones.
As he puts it, in the title of one of his own memoirs, Les os croissent
en grosscur par I'addition de couches osseuses qui tirent leur origine
du perioste, commc le corps ligneux des Arbres augmente en grosseur
par I'addition de couches ligneuses qui se forment dans I'ecorce. By
feeding pigs at one time with dyed food, at another with und>
food, he obtained their bones in concentric layers alternately stain,
and unstained. His facts were confirmed by Bazan '.1746) an
Boehmer (1751); but his conclusions, unfortunately, v,ere oppos
by Haller. Still, he brought men to study the whole subject of :
growth of bones, in length as well as in thickness, and the wh___
modelling of the bones, in adult life, by deposit and absorption.
Bichat, John Hunter, Troja and Cruveilhier took up his work in
physiology and in surgery. Later, from the point of view of surge
Syme (1837) and Stanley (1849) made experiments on the grow
of bone, and on the exfoliation of dead bone; and, after the_
Oilier, whose influence on this part of surgical practice has been
the very highest value.
7. The Nervous System. A. The Nerve-Roots. Through all th
centuries between Galen, who lived in the time of Commodus, an
Sir Charles Bell, who lived in the time of George III., no grez
advance was made in our knowledge of the nervous system. Th
way of experiment, which had led Galen far ahead of his age,
neglected, and everything was overwhelmed by theories. Bell
London and Magendie in Paris took up the experimental study
the nervous system about where Galen had left it. The questio
of priority of discovery does not concern us here: we may take Sii
Michael Foster's judgment, that Magendie brought exact and full
proof of the truth which Bell had divined rather than demonstrated,
that the anterior and posterior roots of spinal nerves have essentially
different functions " a truth which is the very foundation of the
physiology of the nervous system." The date of Bell's work is 1811,
An Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain, submitted for the Observativ
of the Author's Friends. In it he says: " Considering that the spins
nerves have a double root, and being of opinion that the propertie
of the nerves are derived from their connexions with the parts e
the brain, I thought that I had an opportunity of putting my opinio
to the test of experiment, and of proving at the same time tha
nerves of different endowments were in the same cord (the sam
nerve-trunk) and held together by the same sheath. On layin
bare the roots of the spinal nerves I found that I could cut acres
the posterior fasciculus of nerves, which took its origin from th
spinal marrow, without convulsing the muscles of the back; bu
that on touching the anterior fasciculus with the point of the knife
the muscles of the back were immediately convulsed. Such we
my reasons for concluding that the cerebrum and cerebellum
parts distinct in function, and that every nerve possessing a doubl<
function obtained that by having a double root. I now saw tl
meaning of the double connexion of the nerves with the spin
marrow, and also the cause of that seeming intricacy in the con
nexions of nerves throughout their course, which were not doubli
at their origins." His other work, on the cranial nerves, which ar
" not double at their origins," bore fruit at once in surgery.
John Erichsen says of it : " Up to the time that Sir Charles
made his experiments on the nerves of the face, it was the comn
custom of surgeons to divide the facial nerve for the relief
neuralgia, tic douleureux; whereas it exercises, and was prove
by Sir Charles Bell to exercise, no influence over sensation, and it
division consequently for the relief of pain was a useless operation."
B. Reflex Action. The observations made by Sir Robert Boyli
Redi, Le Gallois and others on the reflex movements of decapitate
vipers, frogs, eels and butterflies were of no great use from tli
point of view of physiology; but they led toward the discover
that nerve-power is stored in the spinal cord, and is liberated thenc
in action independent of the higher cerebral centres. Marshall Ha
(1832-1837) discovered, by his experiments, that reflex actions i
the work of definite groups of cells, set at certain points or levels in
the cord; he proved the segmental structure of the cord, the ex'
ence of nerve-centres in it, and thus foreshadowed the discov
of the like centres in the brain. In his earlier writings (18323
he extended the principles of the doctrines of reflex action to t
larynx, the pharynx and the sphincter muscles; later, in 1837,
demonstrated the course of nerve-impulses within the cord, fri
one level to another, and the effects of direct stimulation of the co
Also he noted the effects of opium and of strychnine on refle
action; and the reflex character of the convulsions that occur
certain diseases.
C. The Medulla Oblongata and the Cerebellum. Flourens, wh
was among the earliest students of the use of chloroform, is
known for his experiments on the respiratory centre and the c
bellum. He localized the cells in the medulla that govern the refle
movement of respiration. Afterward came the discovery of cardia
and other centres in the neighbourhood of the respiratory centif
He showed also that the cerebellum is concerned with the equilibra-
tion and co-ordination of the muscles ; that an animal, a few days ol<"
deprived of sensation and consciousness by removal of the cerebn
hemispheres, was yet able to stand and to move forward, but whe
the cerebellum also was removed, lost all power of co-ordinatio
(Recherches experimental , Paris, 1842). And from the observation
made by him and by others, it was found that the semicircular can
of the internal ears are the terminal organs of the sense of equilibr
tion.
D. The Vaso-Motor Nerves. Claude Bernard, studying the sym-
pathetic nervous system, discovered the vaso-motor nerves that
VIVISECTION
'59
control the calibre of the arteries. The question of priority between
him and Brown Sequard need not be considered here. His first
account of his work was communicated to the Societe de Biologie in
December 1851. The following account of it is from his Lemons de
physiologie operatoire (1879):
" Let me remind you how I was led to discover the vaso-motor
ervcs. Starting from the clinical observation, made long ago, that
in paralysed limbs you find at one time an increase of cold and
at another an increase of heat, I thought that this contradiction
might be explained by supposing that, side by side with the general
action of the nervous system, the sympathetic nerve might have the
function of presiding over the production of heat ; that is to say, that
in the case where the paralysed limb was chilled, I supposed the
sympathetic nerve to be paralysed, as well as the motor nerves;
while in the paralysed limbs that were not chilled the sympathetic
nerve had retained its function, the systematic nerves alone having
been attacked. This was a theory, that is to say, an idea, leading
me to make experiments; and for these experiments I must find a
sympathetic nerve-trunk of sufficient size, going to some organ that
was easy to observe; and must divide the trunk to see what would
happen to the heat-supply of the organ. You know that the rabbit's
car, and the cervical sympathetic of this animal, offered us the
required conditions. So I divided this nerve; and, at once, the
ex|H:riment gave the lie direct to my theory Je coupai done ce filet
el aussitoi I 'experience donna <J man hypothcse le plus eclatant dementi.
I had thought that the section of the nerve would suppress the
function of nutrition, of calorification, over which the sympathetic
system had been supposed to preside, and would cause the hollow of
the ear to become chilled; and here was just the opposite, a very
warm ear, with great dilatation of its vessels." The experiments of
Budge and Waller (1853) and of Schiff (1856) threw light on the
action of these vaso-motor nerves, and on the place of the vaso-
motor centre in the cord; and in 1858 Claude Bernard, by his
experiments on the chorda tympani and the submaxillary gland,
demonstrated their twofold influence, either to dilate or to constrict
the vessels. " It is almost impossible to exaggerate the importance
of these labours of Bernard on the vaso-motor nerves, since it is
almost impossible to exaggerate the influence which our knowledge
of the vaso-motor system, springing as it does from Bernard's
researches as from its fount and origin, has exerted, is exerting, and
in widening measure will continue to exert, on all pur physiological
and pathological conceptions, on medical practice, and on the
conduct of human life. There is hardly a physiological discussion
of any width in which we do not sooner or later come on vaso-motor
questions " (Foster, Life of Claude Bernard).
E. Cerebral Localization. The study of the motor and sensory
centres of the cerebral hemispheres began in clinical observation.
Observation of cases, and examination of the brain after death
(Bouillard, 1825, Dax, 1836, Broca, 1861), led men to believe that a
particular area of the left frontal lobe of the brain did indeed govern
and permit the use of speech. Physiological experiments had
nothing to do with the discovery of the speech centres. " Bouillard
in 1825 collected a series of cases to show that the faculty of speech
resided in the frontal lobes. In 1861 his views were brought by
Aubertin before the notice of the Anthropological Society of Paris.
Broca, who was present at the meeting, had a patient under his care
who had been aphasic for twenty-one years, and who was in an
almost moribund state. The autopsy proved of great interest, as
it was found that the lesion was confined to the left side of the brain,
and to what we now call the third frontal convolution. ... In a
subsequent series of fifteen typical cases examined, it was found .that
the lesion had destroyed, among other parts, the posterior part of
the third frontal in fourteen " (Hamilton, Text-Book of Pathology).
From this clinical fact, that the movements of speech depend on the
integrity of a special area of the brain's surface, and from the facts
of " Jacksonian epilepsy ," and similar observations in medicine and
surgery, began the experimental work of cerebral localization, by
Hitzig, Goltz, Schiff, Ferrier, Yeo, Horsley, Beevor and many more.
It would be hard to find a more striking instance of the familiar
truth that science and practice work hand in hand.
Again, the experimental method has thrown a flood of light on
the minute anatomy of the central nervous system. For example,
we have what is called Marchi's method; it was described to the
Royal Commission (1906-8) by Dr Head and Sir Victor Horsley.
It was found, by Professor Waller, that nerve-fibres, separated from
the nerve-cells which nourish them, degenerate in a definite way.
The application of this law experimentally has been of great value.
" Let me," says Dr Head, " just take a simile. Imagine a wall
covered with creepers arising from several stems. If we wished to
know from which of these stems any one branch takes its origin, we
could cut one stem, and every leaf arising from it would die, marking
out among the healthy foliage the offshoots of the divided stem.
This is the principle that has been used in tracing the paths in the
nervous system. Gpwers, by applying this method, discovered
the ascending tracts in the lateral columns of the spinal cord." If a
microscopic section of a spinal cord, containing some fibres thus
degenerate, be treated with osmic acid (Marchi's method), the
degenerate fibres show dark: and in this way their course may be
traced at all levels of the cord.
Indeed, it may truly be said that, alike in anatomy and in physio-
logy, the whole present knowledge of the brain, the spinal cord and
the nerves, is in great measure due to the use of experiments on
animals. And this knowledge is daily applied to the diagnosis and
treatment of diseases and injuries of the central nervous system.
" In the case of operations on the brain, you have to form your
opinion as to what is going on entirely from your knowledge of the
physiology of the brain : and that we owe, of course, in the greatest
measure to the discoveries of Hitzig and Fritsch and Ferrier. That
has all happened since 1870; and we are now able to cure epilepsy,
we are able to cure abscess of the brain, and we are able to cure
tumours of the brain. Then, in operations on the spinal cord, the
same thing prevails. In fact, the first operation on the spinal cord
I am responsible for, so that I know the history of the subject. The
technique of that operation I owe entirely to experiments on animals.
As regards operations on the peripheral nerves. Bell's operative
treatment of neuralgia was guided entirely by his experiments on
animals. Then we come to the great subject of nerve suture. The
initial work bearing upon that subject was carried out by Flourens,
who was the first, to my knowledge, to make experiments on animals,
to suture nerves together, to investigate their function " (Sir Victor
Horsley, evidence before the Royal Commission, vol. iv. p. 124).
[These notes cover a part only of the results that have been
obtained in physiology by the help of experiments on animals.
The work of Boyle, Hunter, Lavoisier, Despretz, Regnault and
Haldane, on animal heat and on respiration; of Petit, Dupuy,
Breschet and Reid, on the sympathetic system; of Galvani, Volta,
Hafler, du Bois-Reymond and Pfluger, on muscular contraction
all these subjects have been left out, and many more. In his evidence
before the Royal Commission (1875), Mr Darwin said : " I am fully
convinced that physiology can progress only by the aid of experi-
ments on living animals. I cannot think of any one step which has
been made in physiology without that aid."]
B. PATHOLOGY, BACTERIOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS
1. Inflammation. Pathology is so intimately associated with
the work of the microscope that it is a new study, in comparison
with physiology. In 1850 the microscope was not in general use
as it is now; nor did men have the lenses, microtomes and stain-
ing fluids that are essential to modern histology. Bacteriology,
again, is even younger than pathology. In 1875 it had hardly
begun to_ exist. For example, in the evidence before the Royal
Commission (1875) one of the witnesses said that they " believed
they were beginning to get an idea of the nature of tubercle."
Anthrax was the first disease studied by the methods of bacteriology ;
and in his evidence concerning this disease, Sir John Simon speaks
of bacteriology as of a discovery wholly new and unexplored. Then,
in 1881, came Koch's discovery of the bacillus of tubercle. But a
great advance was made, in days before 1875, by the more general
use of the microscope. Every change in the tissues during inflam-
mation the slowing of the blood stream in the capillary vessels,
the escape of the leucocytes through their walls into the surround-
ing tissues, the stagnation of the blood in the affected part all
these were observed in such transparent structures as the web or the
mesentery of the frog, the bat's wing, or the tadpole's tail, irritated
by a drop of acid, or a crystal of salt, or a scratch with a needle. It
was in the course of observations of this kind that Wharton Jones
observed the rhythmical contraction of veins, and Waller and
Cohnheim observed the escape of the leucocytes, diapedesis, through
the walls of the capillaries. From these simple experiments under
the microscope arose all our present knowledge of the minute pro-
cesses of inflammation. Later came the work of Metschnikoff and
others, showing the importance of dicpedesis in relation to the
presence of bacteria in the tissues.
2. Suppuration and Wound- Infection. Practically every case of sup-
puration, wound-infection or " blood-poisoning," all abscesses, boils,
carbuncles, and all cases of puerperal fever, septicaemia, or pyaemia,
are due to infection, either from without or from within the body, by
various forms of micro-organisms. The same is true of every case
of erysipelas, or cellulitis, or acute gangrene in short, of the whole
multitude of " septic " diseases. The work done on these micro-
cocci, and on other pathogenic micro-organisms, involved the study
of the phases, antagonisms and preferences of each kind, their range
of variation and of virulence, their products, and the influences on
them of air, light, heat and chemical agents. The beginning of
Lister's work was in Pasteur's study of the souring of milk, about
1856. Pasteur's discovery, that lactic fermentation was due to
a special micro-organism, opened the way for modern surgery.
Lister had been long studying the chemical changes in decomposing
blood and other animal fluids; now he brought these studies into
line with Pasteur's work. Thus, in 1867, in his first published
writing on the antiseptic treatment of compound fractures, he speaks
as follows: " We find that a flood of light has been thrown upon
this most important subject by the philosophic writing of M. Pas-
teur, who has demonstrated, by thoroughly convincing evidence,
that it is not to its oxygen, or to any o? its gaseous constituents,
that the air owes this property (of producing decomposition), but to
minute particles suspended in it, which are the germs of various
low forms of life long since revealed by the microscope, and regarded.
1 60
as merely accidental concomitants of putrescence; but now shown
by Pasteur to be its essential cause." The present antiseptic
method includes the aseptic method. That is to say, the instru
ments and other accessories of an operation are " sterilized " by
heat; and, where heat cannot be applied, as to the patient's skin
and the surgeon's hands, antiseptics are used. Modern surgery is
both antiseptic and aseptic.
3. Anthrax. The bacillus of anthrax (charbon, malignant
pustule, wool-sorter's disease) was the first specific micro-organism
discovered. Rayer and Davaine (1850) observed the petits bdtonnets
in the blood of sheep dead of the disease; and in 1863, when
Pasteur's observations on lactic-acid fermentation were published
Davaine recognized that the bdtonnets were not blood crystals
but living organisms. Koch afterward succeeded in cultivating
the bacillus, and in reproducing the disease in animals by inocula
tion from these cultures. Pasteur's discovery of preventive in-
oculation of animals against the disease was communicated to the
Academic des Sciences in February 1881; and in May of that year
he gave his public demonstration at Pouilly-le-Fort. Two months
later, at the International Medical Congress in London, he spoke as
follows of this discovery: "... La m&hode que je viens de vous
exposer pour obtenir des vaccins du charbon etait a peine connue
quelle passait dans la grande pratique pour prevenir 1'affection
charbonneuse. La France perd chaque annee pour une valeur de
plus de vmgt millions d'animaux frappes du charbon, plus de
30 millions, m'a dit une des personnes autoris^es de notre Ministere
de 1'Agriculture; mais des statistiques exactes font encore dgfaut.
On me demanda de mettre a 1'epreuve les resultats qui precedent
par une grande experience publique, a Pouilly-le-Fort, pres de
Melun. . ._ . Je presume en quelques mots; 50 moutons furent
mis a ma disposition, nous en vaccin&mes 25, les 25 autres ne sub-
irent aucun traitement. puinze jours apres environ, les 50 moutons
furent inocules par le microbe charbonneux le plus virulent. Les
25 vaccine's resisterent; les 25 non-vaccines moururent, tous char-
bonneux, en cinquante heures. Depuis lors, dans mon laboratoire,
on ne peut plus suffire a preparer assez de vaccin pour les demandes
des fermiers. En quinze jours, nous avons vaccine^ dans les ddparte-
ments voisins de Paris pres de 20,000 moutons et un grand nombre de
boeufs, de vaches et de chevaux." The extent of this preventive
vaccination may be judged from the fact that a single institute, the
Sero-Therapeutic Institute of Milan, in a single year (1897-98) sent
out 165,000 tubes of anti-charbon vaccine, enough to inoculate
33.734 cattle and 98,792 sheep. In France, during the years
1882-93, more than three million sheep and nearly half a million
cattle were inoculated. In the Annales de I'lnstitui Pasteur, March
1894, M. Chamberland published the results of these twelve years in
a paper entitled " Resultats pratiques des vaccinations contre le
charbon et le rouget en France." The mortality from charbon
before vaccination, was 10% among sheep and 5% among
cattle, according to estimates made by veterinary surgeons all over
the country. With vaccination, the whole loss of sheep was about
I %; the average for the twelve years was 0-94. The loss of
vaccinated cattle was still less; for the twelve years it was 0-34
or about one-third %. The annual reports sent to M. Chamber-
land by the veterinary surgeons represent not more than half of
the work. A certain number of veterinary surgeons neglect to
send their reports at the end of the year. The number of reports
that come to us even tends to become less each year. The fact is,
that many veterinary surgeons who perform vaccinations every year
content themselves with writing, 'The results are always very good ;
it is useless to send you reports that are always the same.' We
have every reason to believe, as a matter of fact, that those who send
no reports are satisfied; for if anything goes wrong with the herds,
they do not fail to let us know it at once by special letters."
The following tables, from M. Chamberland's paper, give the
results of Pasteur's treatment against charbon during 1882-93,
and against rouget (swine-measles) during 1886-92. It is to be
noted that the mortality from rouget among swine, in years before
vaccination, was much higher than that from charbon among sheep
and cattle: "It was about 20%; a certain number of reports
speak of losses of 60 and even 80%; so that almost all the
veterinary surgeons are loud in their praises of the new vaccination."
It would be too much to say that every country, in every year
has obtained results with this anthrax-vaccine equal to those which
have been obtained in France. Nor would it be reasonable to
advocate the compulsory or wholesale use of the vaccine in the
British Islands, where anthrax is rare. For the general value of the
vaccine, however, we have this striking fact, that the use of it has
steadily increased year by year. A note from the Pasteur Institute,
dated November 29, 1909, says: " Qepuis 1882 jusqu'au i" Janvier
1909, il a ete expedie, pour la France, 8,400,000 doses de vaccin
anti-charbonneux pour moutons, 1,300,000 pour boeufs. Pour
letranger, 8,500,000 doses pour moutons, 6,200,000 pour boeufs.
Le nombre de doses augmente d'annee en annee, de sorte que pour
I annee 1908 seule il faut compter en tout 1,500,000 doses pour
moutons (France et dtranger) 1,100,000 pour bceufs." (Two doses
are used for each animal.) It remains to be added that a serum-
treatment, introduced by Sclavo, has been found of considerable
e in cases of anthrax (malignant pustule) occurring in man
VIVISECTION
VACCINATION AGAINST CHARBON (FRANCE)
Sheep.
3 "2
CO
e
aS
S j-
Mortality.
g
fcg
o
p.
rt C-
,
o
<|
II
1
o ^
.g
.
$ n
i,
"a -I
Years
8
&
ft 2
"e o
8
i
CO
O rt
jn
31
it
D
^
~.E $
11
O *+j
$*
tifcc
>4
gob
SI
<5 ^
u. w
e "
i
2^>
H S
3
*
31
D
Q
>
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
270,040
268,505
316,553
342,040
313,288
293,572
269,574
239,974
223,611
218,629
259,696
281,333
112
103
109
144
88
107
50
43
69
65
70
30
243,199
193,119
231,693
280,107
202,064
187,811
101,834
88,483
69,865
53.640
63,125
73,939
756
436
770
884
652
718
149
238
331
181
319
234
847
272
444
735
303
737
181
1 02
183
56
1037
784
1033
990
5'4
968
300
244
77
126
224
2,640
1,492
2,247
2,609
1,469
2,423
630
1,024
836
360
628
514
i -08
o-77
o-97
o-93
0-72
1-29
0-62
1-16
1-20
0-67
0-99
0-69
10%
M
Total:
3,296,815
990
1,788,879
5668
4406
6798
16,872
0-94
, f
Cattle.
1882
1883
35,654
26,453
127
130
22,916
20,501
22
17
12
I
48
46
82
6 4
o-35
0-31
5%
1884
33,900
139
22,616
20
13
S2
85
0-37
1885
34,ooo
192
21,073
32
8
67
107
0-50
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
39,154
48,484
34,464
32,251
33,965
40,736
135
148
61
68
71
68
22,113
28,083
10,920
11,610
11-057
10,476
18
23
8
14
5
6
18
4
7
4
4
39
68
35
3"
14
4
6 4
109
47
52
23
14
0-29
o-39
o-43
o-45
0-21
0-13
'
1892
41,609
71
9-757
8
15
26
0-26
1893
38,154
45
9,840
4
i
13
18
0-18
,
Total :
438,824
1255
200,962
'77
82
432
69!
0-34
,,
VACCINATION AGAINST ROUGET (FRANCE)
ri
i
ga
Mortality.
g
i_ t
53. e
05
If
|
I*
CJ
f .
6
ca
CJ
rt
4ri
.
Years.
"o
>*->.
^0
el
11
QJ <U
a
f
W 1
o
ft
31
o.S
"1
31 B
gl
*l
.fl
J
be oJ
He
3
e o
3 O
O
<
*
<8
51
<
Q
H
For these
two years
P.
Prance
1887
and other
countries
-49
49
7,087
7,467
91
57
24
10
56
23
171
90
2-41
20%
are put
together.
1888
1889
1890
1891
15.958
19,338
17,658
20,583
31
41
41
47
6,968
"-257
H,992
17-556
31
92
118
1 02
25
12
6 4
34
38
40
72
70
94
144
254
206
35
28
70
17
1892
37.900
38
10,128
43
19
46
1 08
07
Total :
1 1 1. 437
296
75,455
534
1 88
345
1067
1-45
,i
4. Tubercle. Laennec, who in 1816 invented the stethoscope,
recognized the fact that tubercle is a specific disease, not a simple
degeneration of the affected tissues. Villemin, in 1865, communi-
cated to the Academic des Sciences the fact that he had produced
the disease in rabbits by inoculating them with tuberculous matter;
a u 1 appealed to these inoculations en voici les premies to
how that La tuberculose est une affection specifique: Sa cause reside
dans un agent inoculable: L'inoculation se fait tres-bien de I'homme
au lapin: La tuberculose appartient done a la, classe des maladies
inrulentes. In 1868 Chauveau produced the disease not by inocula-
lon but by admixture of tuberculous matter with the animals'
ood. In 1880, after a period of some uncertainty and confusion
VIVISECTION
161
of doctrines, Cohnheim reaffirmed the infectivity of the disease,
and even made the proof of tubercle depend on inoculation alone :
" everything is tuberculous that can produce tuberculous disease by
inoculation in animals that are susceptible to the disease; and
nothing is tuberculous that cannot do this." In 1881 Koch dis-
covered the tubercle bacillus, and, in spite of the tragic failure of his
uilHTculin in 1890-91, a vast amount of practical advantage has
already issued out of Koch's discovery, both by way of cure and by
of prevention. It has been proved, by experiment on animals,
that the sputa of phthisical patients are infective; and this and the
like facts have profoundly influenced the nursing and general care
ich cases. Bacteriology has brought about (under the safe-
guard of modern methods of surgery) a thorough and early surgical
ment of all primary tuberculous sores or deposits the excision
of tuberculous ulcers, the removal of tuberculous glands and the
like. It has helped us to make an early diagnosis, in obscure cases,
by finding tubercle bacilli in the sputa, or in the discharges, or in a
particle of the tissues. It has proved, past all reasonable doubt,
that tabes mesenterica, a disease that kills every year in England
alone many thousands of children, may arise from infection of the
bowels by the milk of tuberculous cows. And it has helped to
bring about the present rigorous control of the milk trade and the
meat trade.
The " new tuberculin," now that the use of the opsonic index
has guided physicians to a better understanding of the tuberculin
treatment, has been found of great value, and is giving excellent
results in suitable cases. Moreover, tuberculin is used, tecause of
the reaction that it causes in tuberculous animals, as a test for the
detection of latent tuberculosis in cattle. An injection of one to
two cubic centimetres under the skin of the neck is followed by a
hi^h temperature if the animal be tuberculous. If it be not, there
is no rise of temperature, or only a very slight rise. For example,
in 1899 this test was applied to 270 cows on farms in Lancashire:
180 reacted to the test, 85 did not, 5 were " doubtful." Tuberculous
disease was actually found in 175 out of the 180. Eber of Dresden
used the test on I?A animals, of whom 136 reacted, 32 did not react
and 6 were doubtful. Of the 136, 22 were slaughtered, and were all
found to have tubercle; of the 32, 3 were slaughtered, and were
found free. The opinion of Professor M'Fadyean, one of the highest
authorities on the subject, is as follows: I have most implicit
faith in tuberculin as a test for tuberculosis when it is used on animals
standing in their own premises and undisturbed. It is not reliable
when used on animals in a market or slaughter-house. A con-
siderable number of errors at first were found when I examined
animals in slaughter-houses after they had been conveyed there by
rail, &c. Since that, using it on animals in their own premises, I
have found that it is practically infallible. I have notes of one
particula- case where 25 animals in one dairy were tested, and after-
wards all were killed. There was only one animal which did not
react, and it was the only animal not found to be tuberculous when
killed." This test has now been in regular use for many years
in many countries, and it is accepted everywhere as of national
importance.
5. Diphtheria. The Bacillus diphtheriae (Klebs-Loffler bacillus)
was described by Klebs in 1875, and obtained in pure culture by
Loffler in 188^. Behring and Kitasato, in 1890, succeeded in
immunizing animals against the disease. The first cases treated
with diphtheria antitoxin were published in 1893 by Behring,
Kossel and Hiibner. In England the antitoxin treatment was
begun in the latter part of 1894. Besides its curative use, the
antitoxin has also been used as a preventive, to stop an outbreak
of diphtheria in a school or institute or hospital or village, and
with admirable success. (See DIPHTHERIA.)
6. Tetanus (lock-jaw). Experiments on animals have taught
us the true nature of this disease, and have led to the discovery
of an antitoxin which has given fairly good results. We possess,
moreover, a preventive treatment against the disease; though,
unfortunately, the time of latency, when the antitoxin is most
needed, cannot be recognized. The old, mischievous doctrine
that tetanus was due to acute inflammation of a nerve, tracking
up from a wound to the central nervous system, was abolished
once and for ever by Sternberg (1880), Carle and Rattone (1884)
and Nicolaier (1884), who proved that the disease is due to infection
by a specific flagellate organism in superficial soil. " It is said to
be present in almost all nch garden soils, and that the presence of
horse-dung favours its occurrence. There seems to be no doubt
as to the ubiquity of the tetanus germ " (Poore, Milroy Lectures,
1899). The work of discovering and isolating the bacillus was full
of difficulty. Nicolaier, starting from the familiar fact that the
disease mostly comes from wounds or scratches contaminated with
earth, studied the various microbes of the soil, and inoculated
rabbits with garden mould. He produced the disease, and suc-
ceeded in finding and cultivating the bacillus, but failed to obtain a
pure culture. Kitasato, in 1899, obtained a pure culture. Others
studied the chemical products of the bacillus, and were able to
produce the symptoms of the disease by injection of these chemical
products obtained from cultures, or from the tissues in cases of
tetanus. It has been proved that the infection tends to remain
local; that the bacilli in and near the wound pour thence into the
xxvm. 6
blood their chemical products, and that these have a selective action,
like strychnine, on the cells of the central nervous system. There-
fore the rule that the wounded tissues should be at once excised,
in all cases where this can possibly be done, has received confirma-
tion. Before Nicolaier, while men were still free to believe that
tetanus was the result of an acute ascending neuritis, this rule was
neither enforced nor explained.
As a preventive against tetanus, in man or in animals, the
antitoxin has proved of the very utmost value. This has been
shown in a striking way in America- " One of the wounds most
commonly followed by lock-jaw is the blank-cartridge wound of the
hand common on the glorious Fourth of July. The death-rate from
these wounds is appalling. An active campaign has been conducted
throughout the medical profession to reduce this mortality. All
over the country, surgeons and medical journals have advised the
injection of tetanus antitoxin in every case of blank-cartridge wound.
The American Medical Association has compiled statistics of Fourth
of July fatalities for the past six years. In 1903, the Fourth of July
tetanus cases numbered 416. Then physicians began a more general
use of antitoxin in all cases of blank-cartridge and common cracker
wounds. As a result of this campaign of prophylaxis by antitoxin
injections, from 416 cases of tetanus in 1903 the number dropped
to 105 cases in 1904, 104 cases in 1905, 89 cases in 1906, 73 cases in
1907 and 55 cases in 1908. This reduction in the number of tetanus
cases took place while the number of accidents remained practically
the same each year, and while the number of deaths from causes
other than tetanus was steadily rising from 60 in 1903 to 108 in 1908.
It is thus evident that the saving of at least 300 lives from tetanus
has been accomplished each year through the prophylactic use of
antitoxin in the cases of Fourth of July wounds alone " (James P.
Warbasse, M.D., The Conquest of Disease through Animal Experi-
mentation, Appleton & Co., 1910).
The preventive use of the serum in veterinary practice has
yielded admirable results. In some parts of the world tetanus is
terribly common among horses. Nocard of Lille has reported as
follows: " The use of anti-tetanus serum as a preventive has been
in force for some years in veterinary practice in cases of wounds or
surgical procedures. To this end the Pasteur Institute has supplied
7000 doses of anti-tetanus serum, a dose being 10 cubic centimetres;
a quantity which has sufficed to treat preventively 3100 horses in
those parts of the country where tetanus is endemic. Among these
there has been no death from tetanus. In the case of one horse,
injected five days after receiving a wound, tetanus devejoped, but
the attack was slight. During the same time that these animals were
injected, the same veterinary surgeon observed, among animals not
treated by injection, 259 cases of tetanus " (Lancet, August 7, 1897).
7. Rabies (hydrophobia). The date of the first case treated by
Pasteur's preventive method Joseph Meister, an Alsatian shepherd-
boy is July 1885. The existence of a specific micro-organism of
rabies was a matter of inference. The incubation period of the
disease is so variable that no preventive treatment was possible
unless this incubation period could be regulated. Inoculations of
the saliva of a rabid animal, introduced under the skin of animals,
sometimes failed; and if they succeeded, the incubation period of
the disease thus induced was hopelessly variable. Next, Pasteur
used not saliva, but an emulsion of the brain or the spinal cord;
because the central nervous system is the chief seat of the poison.
But this emulsion, introduced under the skin, was also uncertain
in action, and gave no fixed incubation period. Therefore, he argued,
as the poison has a selective action on the nerve cells of the central
nervous system, and a sort of natural affinity with them, it must be
introduced directly into them, where it will have its proper environ-
ment; the emulsion must be put not under the skin, but under
the dura mater (the membrane enveloping the brain). These sub-
dural inoculations were the turning-point of his work. By trans-
mitting the poison through a series of rabbits, by subdural inoculation
of each rabbit with a minute quantity of nerve tissue from the
rabbit that had died before it, he was able to intensify the poison,
to shorten its period of incubation, and to fix this period at six days.
Thus he obtained a poison of exact strength, a definite standard of
virulence, virus fixe: the next rabbit inoculated would have the
disease in six days, neither more nor less. By gradual drying, after
death, of the cords of rabid animals, he was able to attenuate the
poison contained in them. The spinal cord of a rabbit that has
died of rabies slowly loses virulence by simple drying. A cord
dried for four days is less virulent than a cord dried for three, and
more virulent than a cord dried for five. A cord dried for a fortnight
has lost all virulence; even a large dose of it will not produce the
disease. By this method of drying, Pasteur was able to keep going
one or more series of cords, of known and exactly graduated strengths,
according to the length of time they had been dried, ranging From
absolute non-virulence through every shade of virulence.
As with fowl cholera and anthrax, so with rabies: the poison,
attenuated till it is innocuous, can yet confer immunity against a
stronger dose of the same poison. A man, bitten by a rabid animal,
has at least some weeks of respite before the disease can break out ;
and during that time of respite he can be immunized against the
disease, while it is still dormant. He begins with a dose of poison
attenuated past all power of doing harm, and advances day by day
162
VIVISECTION
to more active doses, guarded each day by the dose of the day
before, till he has manufactured within himself enough antitoxin
to make him proof against any outbreak of the disease. (See
HYDROPHOBIA.)
8. Cholera. The specific organism of Asiatic cholera, the
"comma-bacillus," was discovered by Koch in 1883; but such a
multitude of difficulties arose over it that it was not universally
recognized as the real cause of the disease before 1892, the year of
the epidemic at Hamburg. The discovery of preventive inoculation
was the work of many men, but especially of Haffkine, one of
Pasteur's pupils. Ferran's earlier inoculations in Spain (1885)
were a failure. Haffkine's first inoculations were made in 1893.
At Agra, in April 1893, he vaccinated over 900 persons; and from
Agra went to many other cities of India. Altogether, in twenty-
eight months (April i893~July 1895) no less than 42,179 persons
were vaccinated (many of them twice} in towns, cantonments, gaols,
tea estates, villages, schools, &c., " without having to record a single
instance of mishap or accident of any kind produced by our vaccines."
(See CHOLERA.)
9. Bubonic Plague. The Bacillus pestis was discovered in 1894
by Kitasato and Yersin, working independently. The preventive
treatment was worked out by Haffkine in 1896: " Twenty healthy
rabbits were put in cages. Ten of them were inoculated with
Haffkine's plague vaccine. Then both the vaccinated rabbits and
the other ten rabbits that had not been vaccinated were infected
with plague. The unprotected rabbits all died of the disease, and
in their bodies innumerable quantities of the microbes were found.
But the vaccinated rabbits remained in good health. Professor
Haffkine then vaccinated himself and his friends. This produced
some fever, from which, after a day or two, they recovered. Plague
broke out in Byculla Gaol, in Bombay, in January 1897. About
half the prisoners volunteered to be inoculated. Of these, 3
developed plague on the day of inoculation, and it is probable
that they had already plague before the treatment was carried out.
Of the remaining 148 who were inoculated, only 2 were afterwards
attacked with plague, and both of them recovered. At the same
time, of the 173 who had not been vaccinated, 12 were attacked,
and out of these 6 died." (See PLAGUE.)
10. Typhoid Fever. The Bacillus typhosus was discovered by
Klebs, Eberth and Koch in 1 880-81. The first protective inocula-
tions in England were made at Netley Hospital in 1896 by Sir
Almroth Wright and Surgeon-Major Semple: 1 6 medical men
and 2 others offered themselves as subjects. The first use of
the vaccine during an actual outbreak of typhoid was in October
1897 at the Kent County Asylum: " All the medical staff and a
number of attendants accepted the offer. Not one of those vaccin-
ated 84 in number contracted typhoid fever; while of those
unvaccinated, and living under similar conditions, 16 were attacked.
This is a significant fact, though it should in fairness be stated that
the water was boiled after a certain date, and other precautions
were taken, so that the vaccination cannot be said to be altogether
responsible for the immunity. Still, the figures are striking "
(Lancet, March 1898). In 1899 Wright vaccinated against typhoid
more than 3000 of the Indian army, at Bangalore, Rawal Pindi and
Lucknow. Government has now sanctioned voluntary inoculation
against typhoid, at the public expense, among the British troops.
" All regiments leaving for the tropics are offered this inoculation,
and each year a larger percentage of the soldiers are accepting it.
Here are some of the statistics: In August and September 1905,
150 men of a single regiment were inoculated: of these, 23 refused
to accept a second inoculation. The regiment reached India,
September 28. A month later, typhoid fever broke out; and
during the following few months 63 cases were observed in the
regiment. With but two exceptions, the disease attacked only the
men who had not been inoculated, and both of these exceptions
were men who had refused a second inoculation. Careful experi-
ments were made with the second battalion of Royal Fusiliers in
India in 1905 and 1906. The average strength of this regiment was
948 men. During the two years, 284 were inoculated with Wright's
anti-typhoid vaccine. The regiment had a total of 46 cases of
typhoid. Thirty-five of these were men who had not been
inoculated ; 9 had been inoculated. Five of the uninoculated died ;
none of the inoculated died. Another Indian regiment, the 1 7th
Lancers, in 1905, 1906 and 1907 inoculated about one-third of its
men. During the three years it had 293 cases of typhoid fever.
There were 44 deaths, with not a single death of an inoculated man.
During the first half of 1908, in the largest seven Indian stations
where careful records were kept, out of a total of 10,420 soldiers,
2207 volunteered for inoculation. Typhoid developed in 2%
of the uninoculated, and in less than I % of the inoculated men.
Forty-five deaths occurred. Five per cent of these deaths were
among the uninoculated and I % was among the inoculated men.
... In the United States army, a medical board has strongly
recommended anti-typhoid vaccinations, and vaccination is now
offered to those who desire it. Already 2000 soldiers have volun-
tarily received inoculation. The German army has adopted
the same means of prophylaxis, and is pushing it vigorously "
(Warbasse, loc. tit.).
Beside the preventive treatment, bacteriology has given us
" Widal's reaction " for the early diagnosis of the disease a matter
of the very highest practical importance. A drop of blood, from
the finger of a patient suspected to be suffering from typhoid fever,
is diluted fifty or more times, that the perfect delicacy of the test
may be ensured; a drop of this dilution is mixed with a nutrient
fluid containing living bacilli of typhoid, and a drop of this mixture
is observed under the microscope. The motility of the bacilli is
instantaneously or very quickly arrested, and in a few minutes the
bacilli begin to aggregate together into clumps. This " clumping "
is also made visible to the naked eye by the subsidence of the
agglutinated bacilli to the bottom of the containing vessel. The
amazing delicacy of " Widat's test " is but a part of the wonder.
Long after recovery, a fiftieth part of a drop of the blood will still
cause clumping: it has even been obtained from an infant whose
mother had typhoid shortly before the child was born. A drop of
blood from a case suspected to be typhoid can now be sent by post
to be tested a hundred miles away, and the answer telegraphed
back.
11. Malta Fever (Mediterranean fever). The Micrococcus Meli-
tensis was discovered in 1887 by Sir David Bruce. The work of dis-
covering and preparing an immunizing serum was done at Netley
Hospital. In this fever, as in typhoid and some others, Widal's
test is of great value: " The diagnosis of Malta fever from typhoid
is, of course, a highly important practical matter. It is exceedingly
difficult in the early stages" (Manson). Even in a dilution of I in
looo, the blood of Malta fever can give the typical reaction with the
Micrococcus Melitensis; and this occurred in a case at Netley of acci-
dental inoculation with Malta fever: one of three cases that have
happened there. The case is reported in the British Medical
Journal, October 16, 1897: " It appears that he had scratched his
hand with a hypodermic needle on September 17, when immunizing
a horse for the preparation of serum-protective against Malta fever;
and his blood, when examined, had a typical reaction with the
micrococcus of Malta fever in looo-fold dilution. The horse, which
has been immunized for Malta fever for the last eight months, was
immediately bled, and we are informed that the patient has now
had two injections, each of 30 cub. cm. of the serum. He is doing
well, and it is hoped that the attack has been cut short." About
50 cases of the fever, by April 1899, had been treated at Netley.
The Lancet, April 15, 1899, says that the treatment was "with
marked benefit: whereas they found that all drug treatment failed,
the antitoxin treatment had been generally successful." Happily,
it has now been proved that the usual source of infection with Malta
fever is the drinking of the milk of infected goats: thus, by the
avoidance, or by the careful and thorough boiling of the milk, the
fever may be prevented: and prevention is better than cure. In
1904 a commission was sent out to Malta by the Royal Society, at
the request of our government, to discover how the fever is conveyed
to man. They found that it is not conveyed by air, or by drinking-
water, or by pollution of sewage, or by contact; nor are its germs
carried, like those of malaria, yellow fever and sleeping sickness,
by insects. They found that it might be conveyed in food. There-
fore Bruce examined the milch-goats, since goats' milk is universally
drunk in Malta. The goats looked healthy enough, but it was found
that the blood of 50% of them gave the Widal reaction, and that
some 10% of them were actively poisonous: monkeys fed on milk
from one of them, even for one day, almost invariably got the
disease. On the 1st of July 1906, an official order was issued
forbidding the supply of goats' milk to our garrison. The year
before, there had been 643 cases among our soldiers alone. In 1906,
up to the ist of July, there were 123 cases. During the rest of the
year, including the three worst months for the fever, there were 40
cases. In 1907 there were II cases; in 1908 there were 5 cases;
in 1909 there was i case; in 1910, by latest accounts, none.
12. Epidemic Meningitis. The history of the serum treatment
of epidemic meningitis affords an admirable example of the place
of experiments on arimals in the advancement of medical practice.
This form of meningitis is one of the worst ways in which a man can
die. Dr Robb, who had charge of the Belfast fever hospitals
during an epidemic in Belfast, calls it " the most terrible in its
manifestations, and the most disastrous in its death-rate, of all the
epidemic diseases met with in Eng'ish-speaking countries." Very
little is known as to the way in which it spreads, and the public
health authorities cannot prevent its sudden appearance in a town.
" Many of those attacked," says Dr Robb, " died within a few
hours of the onset, and that after terrible suffering; while many
of those who survived the acute attack lingered on for weeks and
months, going steadily downhill in spite of every effort to save
them. Again, many of those who did survive were left permanently
maimed." That is the usual picture of the disease when it is left
to the older methods of treatment.
By means of inoculation experiments, Dr Flexner and Dr Jobling,
of the Rockefeller Institute, proved that the disease is due to a
particular kind of germ, diplococcus intracellularis. They obtained
these germs from the bodies of patients who had died of the disease;
they cultivated the germs all by themselves, in test tubes, apart
from all other kinds of germs; and they were able to reproduce
the disease in monkeys by injecting under the skin a minute
quantity of this pure culture of the germs. It may be worth noting
VIVISECTION
163
that the disease in monkeys is less violent and less painful than it is
in man. By the help of these experiments, Flexner and Jobling
WITI- able to prepare a serum for the treatment of the disease, in
the ^.irne way as the serum is prepared which has been such a
ing to the world in cases of diphtheria. This serum for the
tri'.itment of epidemic meningitis was first used in the spring of
1907.
The contrast between cases without serum treatment and cases
ith serum treatment is very plain. We may first give the records
fore the use of the serum. Of 4000 cases in New York in 1904,
% died; Baker reports from Greater New York 2113 cases with
36 deaths, giving 77-4% mortality; Chalmers reports from
_ilasgow (1907) 998 cases with 683 deaths, giving 68-4% mortality;
Bailie reports in Belfast (1907) 623 cases with 493 deaths, giving
,, mortality; Ker reports that in the Edinburgh epidemic there
-S% mortality; Robertson reports from Leith (1907) 62 cases
ith 74-4% mortality; Tumour reports from the Transvaal 200
~ises with 74% mortality. Amongst patients treated in hospitals
Vath-rate was no better. Of 202 cases in Ruchill Hospital,
,ow, 79-2% died; of 108 cases in Edinburgh Fever Hospital,
80-5 % died; of 275 cases in Belfast Fever Hospital, 72-3% died;
and Dunn reports that in the Boston Children's Hospital, during the
years 1899-1907, the mortality varied from 69% to 80%.
,ist with these the results in cases treated with Flexner's and
Jobling's Serum:
wit
Bw
-'-
s*'
cases
Cases.
Died.
Mortality
per cent.
Citv Hospital, Cincinnati.
45
H
3I-I
Dr Dunn, Boston ....
4
9
22-5
Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore .
Rhode Island Hospital
22
17
4
6
18-1
35-2
Lakeside Hospital, Cleveland .
29
ii
37-7
Edinburgh Fever Hospital
33
13
43-3
Mount Sinai Hospital (Children)
15
2
13-3
Municipal Hospital, Philadelphia
21
9
42-7
Belfast Fever Hospital
98
29
29-6
These figures speak for themselves. Similar results have been
obtained with similar treatment in France and Germany. " From
these figures," says Dr Robb, " it will be seen that the death-rate in
cases not treated with serum averaged some 75%. This has been
reduced in cases treated with the serum to less than half, and in
many instances much below that figure." " My own experience
has been that of 275 cases under my care in hospital, before the use
of the serum was commenced, 72-3% died; while of the 98 cases
treated with serum 29-6% died. No selection of cases was made:
every case sent into hospital since September 1907 has been treated
in this way. No change in the severity of the attack was observed :
in the three months immediately before the serum arrived with
us 45 cases came under treatment, of whom 37, or 82 %, died ; and
in the first four months after we began its use in hospital 30 cases
were treated, of whom 8 died, a mortality of 26-6%; while of the
34 cases occurring in the city in the same period, but not sent
into hospital, and not treated with the serum, over 80% died.
Great as this change in the death-rate has been, it is not more strik-
ing than the improvement in the course run by the cases; for
whereas it was common to have cases running on into weeks
and even months, such cases are no longer met with " (R. D. S.
pamphlet, 1909).
13. Malaria. Laveran, in 1880, discovered the Plasmodium
malariae, an amoeboid organism, in the blood of malarial patients.
In 1894 Manson took, as a working theory of malaria, the old belief
that the mosquito is the intermediate host of the parasite. In 1895
came MacCullum's observations on an allied organism, Halteridium.
In 1897, after two years' work, Ross found bodies, pigmented like
the Plasmodium, in the outer coat of the stomach of the grey or
" dapple-winged " mosquito, after it had been fed on malarial blood.
In February 1898 he started work in Calcutta: "Arriving there
at a non-fever season, he took up the study of what may be called
' bird malaria.' In birds, two parasites have become well known
(l) the Halteridium, (2) the Proteosoma of Labbe 1 . Both have
flagellate forms, and both are closely allied to the Plasmodium
malariae. Using grey mosquitoes and protepsoma-infected birds,
Ross showed by a large number of observations that it was only
from blood containing the proteosoma that pigmented cells in the
grey mosquito could be got; therefore that this cell is derived from
the proteosoma, and is an evolutionary stage of that parasite "
(Manson, 1898). These pigmented cells give issue to innumerable
swarms of spindle-shaped bodies, " germinal rods "; and in infected
mosquitoes Ross found these rods in the glands of the proboscis.
Finally, he completed the circle of development, by infecting healthy
sparrows by causing mosquitoes to bite them. It would be hard to
surpass Ross's work, and that done in Italy by Grass! and others,
for fineness and carefulness. He says, for instance, " out of 245
grey mosquitoes fed on birds with proteosoma, 178, or 72%, con-
tained pigmented cells; out of 249 fed on blood containing halter-
idium, immature proteosoma, &c., not one contained a single
pigmented cell. . . . Ten mosquitoes fed on the sparrow with
numerous proleosoma contained 1009 pigmented cells, or an average
of 101 each. Ten mosquitoes fed on the sparrow with moderate
proteosoma contained 292 pigmented cells, or an average of 29 each.
Ten mosquitoes fed on the sparrow with no proteosoma contained
no pigmented cells."
By these and the like observations it was made practically certain
that malaria is transmitted from man to man by a special kind of
mosquito. Then came the final experiments on man. In 1900
Sambon, Low and Terzi made their famous experiment on them-
selves in the neighbourhood of Ostia. They put up a little mosquito-
proof hut in a neighbourhood " saturated with malaria." In this
little hut they lived through the whole of the malaria season,
without taking a grain of quinine, and not one of them had a touch
of the fever. Then another experiment was made. A consignment
of mosquitoes containing blood from a case of malaria was sent from
Rome to the London School of Tropical Medicine. Dr Manson and
Dr Warren then submitted themselves to being bitten by these
mosquitoes, and in due time suffered malarial fever. On these proven
facts was founded the whole plan of campaign against malaria.
The nature, habits and breeding-places of the mosquito of malaria
(Anopheles maculipennis) have been studied with infinite care, and
are now thoroughly recognized. The task is to destroy its eggs and
its larvae, to break the cycle of its life, and to do away with its
favourite breeding-places.
14. Yellow Fever. A special mosquito (Slegomyia) conveys
yellow fever from man to man. The germ, like the germ of rabies,
has not yet been made visible under the microscope. It is probably
a very minute spirochaete, which undergoes a slow evolution in the
body of the mosquito told off for that purpose. The earlier experi-
ments (1810-20) made on themselves by Chervin, Potter, Firth
and others were truly heroic, but provecf nothing. Finlay (1880-
1900) experimented with mosquitoes on himself and other volunteers,
and certainly proved the transmissibility of the fever through
mosquitoes. Sanarelli (1898) prepared an immunizing serum which
gave good results: but the germ which he took to be the specific
cause of the fever, having found it in cases cf the fever, is not now
accepted by bacteriologists as specific. But the great work, which
proved to the world the way of infection of yellow fever, was done
by the Army Commission of the United States (1900). This Com-
mission was sent to Havana, and the experiments were carried out
by Drs Walter Reed, Carrol, Lazear and Agrampnte in the Army
Camp in Havana. A hut was constructed with two compart-
ments, divided from each other by a wire mosquito-proof screen.
In one compartment they placed infected mosquitoes, which had
bitten a yellow fever patient within the first three days of the fever.
More than twenty volunteers offered themselves for experiment. In
one set of experiments, clothing and other material, soiled by the
vomit or blood or excretions from cases of the fever, were placed in
one of the rooms, and some of the experimenters slept for 21 con-
secutive nights in contact with these materials, and in some cases
in the very sheets on which yellow fever patients had died. Not one
of these experimenters took the fever. In another set of experi-
ments, 22 of the experimenters submitted themselves to be bitten by
the infected mosquitoes, and in each instance they took the disease.
It was thus proved, past all reasonable doubt, that yellow fever
cannot be conveyed by ordinary infection, but must be transmitted
from man to man through the agency of the mosquito. It might
be said, by the opponents of all experiments on animals, that the
discovery of these facts has nothing to do with " vivisection." But,
as Professor Osier said in his evidence before the Royal Commission
(vol. iv. p. 158), these experiments would never have been thought of
if it had not been for previous experiments on animals. " The men
who made these investigations spent their lives in laboratories, and
their whole work has been based on experimentation on animals.
They could not otherwise, of course, have ventured to devise a series
of experiments of this sort." Out of this work came the wiping out
of yellow fever (q.v.) from Cuba after the Spanish- American War,
and from the area of the Panama Canal.
15. Sleeping-Sickness. Experiments on animals have proved that
sleeping-sickness is due to specific germs carried by tse-tse flies from
man to man. By measures taken to prevent this way of infection,
legions of human lives have been saved or safeguarded.
16. Infantile Paralysis. Flexner, of the Rockefeller Institute, has
proved, by experiments on animals, the infective nature of this
disease, and its transmissibility by inoculation: a discovery of the
very utmost value and significance.
17. Myxoedema. Our knowledge of myxoedema, like our know-
ledge of cerebral localization, began not in experimental science
but in clinical observation (Gull, 1873; Ord, 1877). In 1882-
1883 Reverdin and Kocher published cases where removal of the
thyroid gland for disease (goitre) had been followed by symptoms
such as Gull and Ord had (described. In 1884 Horsley, by removal
of the thyroid gland of monkeys, . produced in them a chronic
myxoedema, a cretinoid state, the exact image of the disease in
man: the same symptoms, course, tissue-changes, mental and
physical hebetude, the same alterations of the excretions, the
temperature and the voice. In 1888 the Clinical Society of London
164
VIZAGAPATAM
published an exhaustive report, of 215 pages, on 119 cases of th
disease, giving all historical, clinical, pathological, chemical an<
experimental facts; but out of 215 pages there is but half a pag
about treatment, of the useless old-fashioned sort. In 1890 Horslej
published the suggestion that a graft of thyroid gland from a
newly killed animal should be transplanted beneath the skin in
cases of myxoedema: " The justification of this procedure rested on
the remarkable experiments of Schiff and von Eisselsberg. I onl-
became aware in April 1890 that this proposal had been in fac
forestalled in 1889 by Dr Bircher in Aarau. Kocher had tried t(
do the same thing jn 1883, but the graft was soon absorbed; bu
early in 1889 he tried it again in five cases, and one greatly im
proved." In 1891 George Murray published his Note on the Treat-
ment of Myxoedema by Hypodermic Injections of an Extract of th
Thyroid Gland of a Sheep. Later, the gland was administered in food
At the present time tabloids of thyroid extract are given. We coulc
not have a better example how experiments on animals are necessary
for the advancement of medicine. Now, with little bottles of tabloids
men and women are restored to health who had become degenerati
in body and mind, disfigured and debased. The same treatmen
has given back mental and bodily growth to countless cases o
sporadic cretinism. Moreover, the action of the thyroid gland has
been made known, and the facts of " internal secretion " have been
in part elucidated. (Claude Bernard, speaking of the thyroid
the thymus anc 1 the suprarenal capsules, said : " We know abso
lutely nothing about the functions of these organs; we have not
so much as an idea what use and importance they may possess
because experiments have told us nothing about them, and anatomy
left to itself, is absolutely silent on the subject.")
18. The Action of Drugs. Even in the i8th century medicine
was still tainted with magic and with gross superstition: the
1721 Pharmacopoeia contains substances that were the regular
stock-in-trade of witchcraft. Long after 1721 neither clinica
observation, nor anatomy, nor pathology brought about a reason-
able understanding of the action of drugs: it was the physiologists,
more than the physicians, who worked the thing out Bichat,
Magendie, Claude Bernard. Magendie's study of upas and strych-
nine, Bernard's study of curare and digitalis, revealed the selective
action of drugs: the direct influence of strychnine on the central
nerve-cells, of carare on the terminal filaments of motor nerves.
Two instances may be given how experiments on animals have
elucidated the action of drugs. A long list might be made
aconite, belladonna, chloride of calcium, cocain, chloral, ergot,
morphia, salicylic acid, strophanthus, the chief diuretics, the chief
diaphoretics all these and many more have been studied to good
purpose by this method; but it must suffice to quote here (i) Sir
Thomas Eraser's account of digitalis, and (2) Sir Thomas Lauder
Brunton's account of nitrite of amyl :
" i. Digitalis was introduced as a remedy for dropsy; and on
the applications which were made of it for the treatment of that
disease, a slowing action upon the cardiac movements was observed,
which led to its acquiring the reputation of a cardiac sedative. . . .
It was not until the experimental method was applied in its investiga-
tion, in the first instance by Claude Bernard, and subsequently
by Dybkowsky, Pelikan, Meyer, Bohm and Schmiedeberg, that
the true action of digitalis upon the circulation was discovered.
It was shown that the effects upon the circulation were not in any
exact sense sedative, but, on the contrary, stimulant snd tonic,
rendering the action of the heart more powerful, and increasing
the tension of the blood vessels. The indications for its use in
disease were thereby revolutionized, and at the same time rendered
more exact; and the striking benefits which are now afforded by
the use of this substance in most (cardiac) diseases were made avail-
able to humanity."
" 2. In the spring of 1867 I had opportunities of constantly
observing a patient who suffered from angina pectoris, and of
obtaining from him numerous sphygmographic tracings, both
during the attack and during the interval. These showed that
during the attack the pulse became quicker, the blood-pressure rose
and tne arterioles contracted. ... It occurred to me that if it was
possible to diminish the tension by drugs instead of by bleeding,
the pain would be removed. I knew from unpublished experiments
on animals by Dr A. Gamgee that nitrite of amyl had this power,
and therefore tried it on the patient. My expectations were per-
fectly answered."
19. Snake Venom. Sewall (1887) showed that animals could
be immunized, by repeated injection of small doses of rattlesnake's
yenom,_ against a sevenfold fatal dose. Kanthack (1891) immun-
ized animals against cobra venom : afterward Fraser, Calmette and
many others worked at the subject. Eraser's work on the anti-
dotal properties of the bile of serpents is of the very highest interest
and value, both _ in physiology and in serp-therapy. Calmette's
work is an admirable instance of the delicacy and accuracy of
the experimental method. The different venoms were measured
in decimal milligrammes, and their action was estimated by the
body-weights of the animals inoculated ; but of course this estimate
of _ virulence was checked according to the susceptibility of the
animals; guinea-pigs, rabbits and especially rats being more sus-
ceptible than dogs.
" The following table gives^the relative toxicity, for i kilogramme
of rabbit, of the different venoms that I have tested " :
1. Venom of Naja . . . . 0-25 milligramme per
kilogramme of rabbit. One gramme of this venom
kills 4000 kilogrammes of raBbit: activity = 4,000,000.
2. Venom of Hoplocephalus . . 0-29 . 3,450 ooo
3. Venom of Pseudechis . . .1-25 '. 'gooiooo'
4. Venom of Pelias herus . . 4-00 . 250,000.
By experiments in vitro Calmette studied the influence of heat
and chemical agents on these venoms; and, working by various
methods, was able to immunize animals:
I have got to immunizing rabbits against doses of venom that
are truly colossal. 1 have several, vaccinated more than a year
ago, that take without the least discomfort so much as forty milli-
grammes of venom of Naja tripudians at once. Five drops of serum
from these rabbits wholly neutralize in vitro the toxicity of one
milligramme of Naja venom. ... It is not even necessary that
the serum should come from an animal vaccinated against the
same sort of venom as that in the mixture. The serum of a rabbit
immunized against the venom of the cobra or the viper acts it
differently on all the venoms that I have tested."
In 1895 he had prepared a curative serum: " If you first inocu-
late a rabbit with such a dose of venom as kills the control-animals
in three hours; and then, an hour after injecting the venom, inject
under the skm of the abdomen four to five cubic centimetres of
serum, recovery is the rule. When you interfere later than this,
the results are uncertain; and out of all my experiments the
delay of an hour and a half is the most that I have been able to
reach."
In 1896 four successful cases were reported in the British Medical
Journal. In 1898 Calmette reports:
"It is now nearly two years since the use of my anti venomous
serum was introduced in India, in Algeria, in Egypt, on the West
Coast of Africa, in America, in the West Indies, Antilles, &c. It
has been very often used for men and domestic animals (dogs,
horses, oxen), and up to now none of those that have received
an injection of serum have succumbed. A great number of obser-
vations have been communicated to me, and not one of them refers
to a case of failure " (Brit. Med. Journ., May 14, 1898; see also
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, April 7, 1898).
It is of course impossible that " antivenene " should be always
at hand, or that it should bring about any great decrease in the
number of deaths from snake-bite, which in India alone are 30,000
annually ; but at least something has been accomplished with it.
The account given above of the chief discoveries that have
been made by the help of experiments on animals, in physi-
ology, pathology, bacteriology and therapeutics, might easily
have been lengthened if we added to it other methods of treat-
ment that owe less, but yet owe something, to these experi-
ments. Nevertheless the facts quoted in this article are
sufficient to indicate the great debt that medicine owes to the
employment of vivisection. (S. P.)
VIZA6APATAH, a town and district of British India, in the
Madras presidency. The town stretches 3 m. along the coast,
and has a station on a short branch of the East Coast railway,
484 m. N.E. of Madras. Pop. (1901) 40,892. It lies on a
small bay, the south extremity of which is bounded by a
promontory known as the Dolphin's Nose, and its northern
extremity by the suburb of Waltair. The town or fort, as it
s called, is separated from the Dolphin's Nose by a small river,
which forms a bar where it enters the sea, but is passable for
vessels of 300 tons during spring tides. An English factory
was established here early in the i7th century, which was cap-
ured by the French in 1757, but shortly afterwards recovered.
The town owes much to the munificence of the neighbouring
aja of Vizianagram. A water supply has been provided at
a cost of 30,000. Waltair is the European quarter. There
s a considerable Roman Catholic population and a branch of
he London Mission. The exports by sea include manganese
re, rice and sugar. Some weaving is carried on, and there
s a speciality of ornamental boxes, &c., carved out of sandal-
vood, horn, ivory, porcupine quills and silver.
The DISTRICT OF VIZAGAPATAM has an area of 17,222 sq. m.,
eing one of the largest districts in India. It is a picturesque
nd hilly country, but for the most part unhealthy. The
urface is generally undulating, rising towards the interior,
nd crossed by streams, which are dry except during the rainy
eason. The main portion is occupied by the Eastern Ghats.
'he slopes of these mountains are clothed with luxuriant
VIZETELLY VLAARDINGEN
165
vegetation, amid which rise many tall forest trees, while the
bamboo grows profusely in the valleys. The drainage on the
east is carried by numerous streams direct to the sea, and that
to the west flows into the GodSvari through the Indravati or
through the Sabari and Siller rivers. To the west of the range
is situated the greater portion of the extensive zamindari of
Jaipur, which is for the most part very hilly and jungly. In the
extreme north a remarkable mass of hills, called the Nim-
giris, rise to a height of 5000 ft. The plain along the Bay of
Bengal is a vast sheet of cultivation, green with rice fields and
gardens of sugar-cane and tobacco. There are great varieties
of climate in the district. Along the coast the air is soft and
relaxing, the prevailing winds being south-easterly. The
average annual rainfall at Vizagapatam exceeds 40 in. Pop.
(100:) 2,933,650, showing an increase of 4-7% in the decade.
The principal crops are rice, millets, pulses and oil-seeds, with
some sugar-cane, cotton and tobacco. The coast portion of
the district is traversed throughout by the East Coast railway,
opened from Madras to Calcutta in 1004; and a line through
the hills from Vizianagram to Raipur in the Central Provinces
has been sanctioned. The chief seaports are Bimlipatam and
Vizagapatam.
On the dissolution of the Mogul empire Vizagapatam formed
part of the territory known as the Northern Circars, which were
ceded to the East India Company by treaties in 1765 and 1766.
It was long before British authority was established over the
hilly tract inland, inhabited by aboriginal tribes, and still ad-
ministered under a peculiar system, which vests in the collector
the powers of a political agent. This tract, forming more than
two-thirds of the whole district, is known as the Agency.
See The Vizagapatam District Gazetteer (Madras, 1907).
VIZETELLY, HENRY (1820-1894), English publisher, was
born in London on the 3oth of July 1820, the son of a printer.
He was early apprenticed as a wood engraver, and one of his
first blocks was a portrait of " Old Parr." Encouraged by the
success of the Illustrated London News, Vizetelly in 1843, with
his brother James Thomas Vizetelly (1817-1897) and Andrew
Spottiswoode (1787-1866), started the Pictorial Times, which was
published successfully for several years. In 1855, in partnership
with Boyne, he started a threepenny paper called the Illus-
trated Times, which four years later was merged in the Penny
Illustrated Paper. In 1865 Vizetelly became Paris corre-
spondent for the Illustrated London News. During the years he
remained in Paris he published several books Paris in Peril
(1882), The Story of the Diamond Necklace (1867) and a free
translation of Topin's Man in the Iron Mask. In 1872 he was
transferred to Berlin; where he wrote Berlin under the New
Empire (1879). In 1887 he established a publishing house in
London, issuing numerous translations of French and Russian
authors. In 1888 he was prosecuted for publishing a transla-
tion of Zola's La Terre, and was fined 100 ; and when he
reissued Zola's works in 1889 he was again prosecuted, fined
200 and imprisoned for three months. In 1893 he wrote a
volume of autobiographical reminiscence called Glances Back
through Seventy Years, a graphic picture of literary Bohemia in
Paris and London between 1840 and 1870. He died on the ist of
January 1894. His younger brother, Frank Vizetelly (1830-1883),
was a clever artist and journalist ; he went to Egypt as war
correspondent for the Illustrated London News and was never
heard of after the massacre of Hicks Pasha's army in Kordofan.
VIZEU, or VISEU, an episcopal city and the capital of the
district of Vizeu, Portugal, at the terminus of a branch of the
Figueira da Foz-Guarda railway, and on the Ribeira d'Asnos,
a sub-tributary of the Mondego. Pop. (1000) 8057. The
cathedral, which was founded in the I2th century, contains
pictures by the native artist Grao Vasco (i6th century). The
city stands near the ruins of the ancient Vacca, or Cava de
Viriato, a Roman military colony founded by Decius Brutus
and captured by Viriathus (and century B.C.). The adminis-
trative district of Vizeu coincides with the central and northern
parts of the ancient province of Beira (<;..). Pop. (1900)
402,259; area, 1937 sq. m.
VIZIADRUG, VIJAYADURG OR GHERIA, a port on the W.
coast of India in Ratnagiri district, Bombay, 170 m. S. of Bom-
bay city. Pop. (1901) 2339. It is one of the best harbours on
the west coast, being without any bar, and may be entered in
all weathers; even to large ships it affords safe shelter dur-
ing the south-west monsoon. At the beginning of the i8th
century the pirate chief Angria made Viziadrug the capital of
a territory stretching for 150 m. along the coast and from 30
to 60 m. inland. The fort was taken by Admiral Watson and
Colonel Clive in 1756.
VIZIANAGRAM, a town of British India, in the Vizagapatam
district of Madras, 17 m. from the seaport of Bimlipatam, on
the East Coast railway, 522 m. N.E. of Madras. Pop. (1001)
37,270. It has a small military cantonment. It contains the
residence of a zamindar of the same name, who ranks as the
first Hindu nobleman of Madras. His estate covers about
3000 sq. m., with a population of 900,000. The estimated
income is 180,000 , paying a permanent land revenue of
34,000. The town possesses many fine buildings, entirely
supported by the raja. It has a college and two high
schools.
The ruling family, which claims descent from a high official
at the court of Golconda, established itself in Vizagapatam in
the 1 7th century. In 1754 Viziarama Raz made an alliance
with the French, but his son, on succeeding, fell out with them,
captured Vizagapatam from them and ceded it to the British
in 1758. The next raja, another Viziarama, was entirely under
the influence of his half-brother Sita Ram, whose power, how-
ever, became so great a menace that he was forced to retire in
1793. A period of decay now set in. The raja was incompetent,
and, his estate having been sequestrated for debt, revolted and
was defeated and killed in 1794. The next raja, Narayana
Babu, was no more successful, and his estate had been
long under the management of the British government when
he died in 1845. Viziarama Gajapati Raz, who succeeded
him and took over full powers in 1852, was a man of ability,
and received the titles of maharaja and K. C.S.I.; as also was
his son, the maharaja Ananda Raz, G.C.I.E. He died in 1897,
and was succeeded by Raja Pusapati Viziarama Gajapati Raz,
during whose minority (till 1904) the estate was again under
government administration.
VIZIER, more correctly VIZIR (Arabic Wazir), literally
" burden-bearer " or " helper," originally the chief minister
or representative of the Abbasid caliphs. The office of vizier,
which spread from the Arabs to the Persians, Turks, Mongols,
and other Oriental peoples, arose under the first Abbasid caliphs
(see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS, and CALIPHATE, C i) and
took shape during its tenure by the Barmecides (q.v.). The
vizier stood between sovereign and subjects, representing the
former in all matters touching the latter. This withdrawal
of the head of the state from direct contact with his people
was unknown to the Omayyads, and was certainly an imitation
of Persian usage; it has even been plausibly conjectured that
the name is but the Arabic adaptation of a Persian title. In
modern usage the term is used in the East generally for any
important official under the sovereign.
VIZZOLA TICINO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Milan, 6 m. W. of Gallarate and 31 m. N.W. of
Milan, 725 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 469. It is situated
on the Ticino, and is remarkable as having one of the largest
electric works in Europe, worked by water-power from the
Ticino brought by a canal 4$ m. long, constructed in 1889-91
by the Societa Lombarda per Distribuzione di Energia Elettrica.
Gallarate, Sesto Calende, Saronno and other neighbouring
places are supplied from here with electricity.
VLAARDINGEN, a river port of Holland, in the province of
South Holland, on the Maas, 6 m. by rail W. of Rotterdam.
Pop. 17,000. A very old town and the seat of a former mar-
graviate belonging to the counts of Holland, Vlaardingen is
now chiefly important as the centre of the great herring and
cod fisheries of the North Sea. Its only ornaments are the old
market-place and the gardens formed by the purchase in 1825
i66
VLACHS
of a seat called the Hof. The chief industries are those connected
with the large fishing trade.
VLACHS. The Vlach (Vlakh, Wallach) or Ruman race
constitutes a distinct division of the Latin family of peoples,
Distribu- widely disseminated throughout south-eastern Europe,
tiooof both north and south of the Danube, and extending
the viach sporadically from the Russian river Bug to the
nce ' Adriatic. The total numbers of the Vlachs may be
estimated at 10,000,000 or 11,000,000. North of the Danube,
5,400,000 dwell in Rumania; 1,250,000 are settled in Transyl-
vania, where they constitute a large majority of the population;
and a still greater number are to be found in the Banat and
other Hungarian districts west and north of Transylvania.
Close upon 1,000,000 inhabit Bessarabia and the adjoining
parts of South Russia, and about 230,000 are in the Austrian
province of Bukovina. South of the Danube, about 500,000
are scattered over northern Greece and European Turkey,
under the name of Kutzo-Vlachs, Tzintzars or Aromani. In
Servia this element is preponderant in the Timok valley, while
in Istria it is represented by the Cici, at present largely Slavon-
ized, as are now entirely the kindred Morlachs of Dalmatia.
Since, however, it is quite impossible to obtain exact statistics
over so wide an area, and in countries where politics and racial
feeling are so closely connected, the figures given above can
only be regarded as approximately accurate; and some writers
place the total of the Vlachs as low as 9,000,000. It is note-
worthy that the Rumans north of the Danube continually gain
ground at the expense of their neighbours; and even the long
successful Greek propaganda among the Kutzo-Vlachs were
checked after 1860 by the labours of Apostolu Margaritis and
other nationalists.
A detailed account of the physical, mental and moral characteristics
of the Vlachs, their modern civilization and their historical develop-
ment, will be found under the headings RUMANIA and MACEDONIA.
All divisions of the race prefer to style themselves Romani,
Romeni, Rumeni or Aromani; and it is from the native pro-
nunciation of this name that we have the equivalent expres-
sion Ruman, a word which must by no means be confined to
that part of the Vlach race inhabiting the present kingdom of
Rumania.
The name " Vlachs," applied to the Rumans by their neigh-
bours but never adopted by themselves, appears under many
allied forms, the Slavs saying Volokh or Woloch, the
Greeks Vlachoi, the Magyars Ol6h, and the Turks,
at a later date, Iffldk, In its origin identical with the
English Wealh or Welsh, it represents a Slavonic adaptation
of a generic term applied by the Teutonic races to all Roman
provincials during the 4th and 5th centuries. The Slavs, at
least in their principal extent, first knew the Roman empire
through a Teutonic medium, and adopted their term Volokh
from the Ostro-Gothic equivalent of the Anglo-Saxon Wealh.
It thus finds its analogies in the German name for Italy
Wdschland (WalisMand), in the Walloons of the Low Countries
and the Wattgau of Tirol. An early instance of its application
to the Roman population of the Eastern empire is found (c. 550-
600) in the Traveller's Song, where, in a passage which in all
probability connects itself with the early trade-route between
the Baltic staple of Wollin and Byzantium, the gleeman speaks
of Caesar's realm as Walaric, " Welshry." In verse 140 he
speaks of the Rum-walas, and it is to be observed that Rum is
one of the words by which the Vlachs of eastern Europe still
know themselves.
The Vlachs claim to be a Latin race in the same sense as
the Spaniards or Provencals Latin by language and culture,
and, in a smaller degree, by descent. Despite the
character. ' On 8 predominance of Greek, Slavonic and Turkish
influence, there is no valid objection to this claim,
which is now generally accepted by competent ethnologists.
The language of the Vlachs is Latin in structure and to a great
extent in vocabulary; their features and stature would not
render them conspicuous as foreigners in south Italy; and that
their ancestors were Roman provincials is attested not only
Its name.
by the names " Vlach " and " Ruman " but also by popular
and literary tradition. In their customs and folk-lore both
Latin and Slavonic traditions assert themselves. Of their
Roman traditions the Trajan saga, the celebration of the Latin
festivals of the Rosalia and Kalendae, the belief in the striga
(witch), the names of the months and days of the week, may
be taken as typical examples. Some Roman words connected
with the Christian religion, like biserica (basilica) = a church,
botez=baptizo, duminica = Sunday, preot (presbyter) = priest,
point to a continuous tradition of the Illyrian church,
though most of their ecclesiastical terms, like their liturgy
and alphabet, were derived from the Slavonic. In most that
concerns political organization the Slavonic element is also
preponderant, though there are words like imp&rat = imperator,
and domn = dominus, which point to the old stock. Many
words relating to kinship are also Latin, some, like vitrig
(vitricus) = father-in-law, being alone preserved by this branch
of the Romance family. But if the Latin descent of the Vlachs
may be regarded as proven, it is far less easy to determine
their place of origin and to trace their early migrations.
The centre of gravity of the Vlach or Ruman race is at present
unquestionably north of the Danube in the almost circular
territory between the Danube, Theiss and Dniester; /<
and corresponds roughly with the Roman province original
of Dacia, formed by Trajan in A.D. 106. From this t>o&e.
circumstance the popular idea has arisen that the race itself
represents the descendants of the Romanized population of
Trajan's Dacia, which was assumed to have maintained
an unbroken existence in Walachia, Transylvania and the
neighbour provinces, beneath the dominion of a succession of
invaders. The Vlachs of Pindus, and the southern region
generally, were, on this hypothesis, to be regarded as later
immigrants from the lands north of the Danube. In 1871, E. R.
Roesler published at Leipzig, in a collective form, a series of
essays entitled Romanische Studien, in which he absolutely
denied the claim of the Rumanian and Transylvanian Vlachs
to be regarded as' autochthonous Dacians. He laid stress on
the statements of Vopiscus and others as implying the total
withdrawal of the Roman provincials from Trajan's Dacia by
Aurelian, in A.D. 272, and on the non-mention by historians of a
Latin population in the lands on the left bank of the lower
Danube, during their successive occupation by Goths, Huns,
Gepidae, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and other barbarian races. He
found the first trace of a Ruman settlement north of the Danube
in a Transylvanian diploma of 1222. Roesler's thesis has been
generally regarded as an entirely new departure in critical
ethnography. As a matter of fact, his conclusions had to a
great extent been already anticipated by F. J. Sulzer in his
Gexhichte des Transalpinischen Daciens, published at Vienna in
1781, and at a still earlier date by the Dalmatian historian
G. Lucio (Lucius of Trail) in his work De Regno Dalmaliae et
Croatiae, Amsterdam, 1666.
The theory of the later immigration of the Rumans into
their present abodes north of the Danube, as stated in its most
extreme form by Roesler, commanded wide acceptance, and in
Hungary it was politically utilized as a plea for refusing parity
of treatment to a race of comparatively recent intruders. In
Rumania itself Roesler's views were resented as an attack on
Ruman nationality. Outside Rumania they found a determined
opponent in Dr J. Jung, of Innsbruck, who upheld the continuity
of the Roman provincial stock in Trajan's Dacia, disputing
from historic analogies the total withdrawal of the provincials
by Aurelian; and the reaction against Roesler was carried still
farther by J. L. Pid, Professor A. D. Xenopol of Jassy, B. P.
Hasdeu, D. Onciul and many other Rumanian writers, who
maintain that, while their own race north of the Danube repre-
sents the original Daco-Roman population of this region, the
Vlachs of Turkey and Greece are similarly descended from
the Moeso-Roman and Illyro-Roman inhabitants of the pro-
vinces lying south of the river. On this theory the entire
Vlach race occupies almost precisely the same territories to-day
as in the 3rd century.
VLACHS
167
P 1
I
On the whole it may be said that the truth lies between
the two extremes. Roesler is no doubt so far right that after
272, and throughout the early middle ages, the bulk of the
Ruman people lay south of the Danube. Pit's view that the
population of the Roman provinces of Moesia and Illyria were
"ellenized rather than Romanized, and that it is to Trajan's
'acia alone that we must look for the Roman source of the
,'lach race, conflicts with what we know of the Latinizing
of the Balkan lands from inscriptions, martyrologies, Pro-
copius's list of Justinian's Illyrian fortresses and other sources.
This Roman element south of the Danube had further received
a great increase at the expense of Trajan's colonial foundation
to the north when Aurelian established his New Dacia on the
Moesian side of the river. On the other hand, the analogy
supplied by the withdrawal of the Roman provincials from
Riparian Noricum tells against the assumption that the official
withdrawal of the Roman colonists of Trajan's Dacia by Aurelian
entailed the entire evacuation of the Carpathian regions by
their Latin-speaking inhabitants. As on the upper Danube the
continuity of the Roman population is attested by the Vici
Romanisci of early medieval diplomas and by other traces of a
Romanic race still represented by the Ladines of the Tirol, so it
is reasonable to suppose a Latin-speaking population continued
to exist in the formerly thickly colonized area embracing the
present Transylvania and Little Walachia, with adjoining
Carpathian regions. Even as late as Justinian's time (483-565),
the official connexion with the old Dacian province was not
wholly lost, as is shown by the erection or restoration of certain
fortified posts on the left bank of the lower Danube.
We may therefore assume that the Latin race of eastern
Europe never wholly lost touch of its former trans-Danubian
Burly strongholds. It was, however, on any showing greatly
migra- diminished there. The open country, the broad plains
of what is now the Rumanian kingdom, and the Banat
of Hungary were in barbarian occupation. The centre of
gravity of the Roman or Romance element of Illyricum had
now shifted south of the Danube. By the 6th century a
large part of Thrace, Macedonia and even of Epirus had
become Latin-speaking.
What had occurred in Trajan's Dacia in the 3rd century was
consummated in the 6th and ?th throughout the greater part
of the South-Illyrian provinces, and the Slavonic and Avar
conquests severed the official connexion with eastern Rome.
The Roman element was uprooted from its fixed seats, and swept
hither and thither by the barbarian flood. Nomadism became
an essential of independent existence, while large masses of
homeless provincials were dragged as captives in the train
of their conquerors, to be distributed in servile colonies. They
were thus in many cases transported by barbarian chiefs
Slav, Avar and Bulgarian to trans-Danubian and Pannonian
regions. In the Acts of St Demetrius of Thessalonica (d. A.D.
306) we find an account of such a Roman colony, which,
having been carried away from South-Illyrian cities by the
Avar khagan (prince) , and settled by him in the Sirmian district
beyond the Save, revolted after seventy years of captivity,
made their way once more across the Balkan passes, and finally
settled as an independent community in the country inland from
Salonica. Others, no doubt, thus transported northwards
never returned. The earliest Hungarian historians who describe
the Magyar invasion of the Qth century speak of the old in-
habitants of the country as Romans, and of the country they
occupied as Pascua Romanorum; and the Russian Nestor,
writing about noo, makes the same invaders fight against
Slavs and Vlachs in the Carpathian Mountains. So far from
the first mention of the Vlachs north of the Danube occurring
only in 1222, as Roesler asserts, it appears from a passage of
Nicetas of Chonae that they were to be found already in 1164
as far afield as the borders of Galicia; and the date of a passage
in the Nibelungenlied, which mentions the Vlachs, under their
leader Ramunc, in association with the Poles, cannot well be
later than 1200.
Nevertheless, throughout the early middle ages the bulk of
the Ruman population lay south of the Danube. It was in the
Balkan lands that the Ruman race and language took their
characteristic mould. It is here that this new Illyrian Romance
first rises into historic prominence. Already in the 6th century,
as we learn from the place-names, such as Sceptecasas, Bur-
gualtu, Clisura, &c., given by Procopius, the Ruman language
was assuming, so far as its Latin elements were concerned,
its typical form. In the somewhat later campaigns of Com-
mentiolus (587) and Priscus, against the Avars and Slavs, we
find the Latin-speaking soldiery of the Eastern emperor
making use of such Romance expressions as torna fralet (turn,
brother!), or sculca (out of bed) applied to a watch (cf. Ruman
a se cidca = Italian coricarsi+ex-(s-) privative). Next we find
this warlike Ruman population largely incorporated in the
Bulgarian kingdom, and, if we are to judge from the names
Paganus and Sabinus, already supplying it with rulers in
the 8th century. The blending and close contact during this
period of the surviving Latin population with the Slavonic
settlers of the peninsula impregnated the language with its large
Slavonic ingredient. The presence of an important Latin
element in Albanian, the frequent occurrence of Albanian
words in Rumanian, and the remarkable retention by both
languages of a suffix article, may perhaps imply that both alike
took their characteristic shapes in the same region. The fact
that these peculiarities are common to the Rumans north of the
Danube, whose language differs dialectically from that of their
southern brothers, shows that it was this southern branch
that throughout the early periods of Ruman history was exer-
cising a dominating influence. Migrations, violent trans-
plantation, the intercourse which was kept up between the most
outlying members of the race, in its very origin nomadic, at a
later period actual colonization and the political influence of
the Bulgaro-Vlachian empire, no doubt contributed to propa-
gate these southern linguistic acquisitions throughout that
northern area to which the Ruman race was destined almost
imperceptibly to shift its centre of gravity.
Byzantium, which had ceased to be Roman, and had become
Romanic, renewed its acquaintance with the descendants of the
Latin provincials of Illyiicum through a Slavonic medium, and
applied to them the name of Vlach, which the Slav himself had
borrowed from the Goth. The first mention of Vlachs in a
Byzantine source is about the year 976, when Cedrenus (ii. 439)
relates the murder of the Bulgarian tsar Samuel's brother
" by certain Vlach wayfarers," at a spot called the Fair Oaks,
between Castoria and Prespa. From this period onwards the
Ruman inhabitants of the Balkan peninsula are constantly
mentioned by this name, and we find a series of political organiza-
tions and territorial divisions connected with the name of
Vlachia. A short synopsis may be given of the most important
of these, outside the limits of Rumania itself.
1. The Btdgaro-Vlach Empire. After the overthrow of the older
Bulgarian tsardom by Basil Bulgaroktonos (976-1025), the Vlach
population of Thrace, Haemus and the Moesian lands paiH^-mi
passed once more under Byzantine dominion; and in
1185 a heavy tax, levied in kind on the cattle of these f!!J Woril |
warlike mountain shepherds, stirred the Vlachs to revolt (
against the emperor Isaac Angelus, and under the leader-
snip of two brothers. Peter and Asen, to found a new Bulgaro-
Vlachian empire, which ended with Kaliman II. in 1257. The
dominions of these half-Slavonic half-Ruman emperors extended
north of the Danube over a great deal of what is now Rumania,
and it was during this period that the Vlach population north of
the river seems to have been most largely reinforced. The 13th-
century French traveller Rubruquis speaks of all the country
between Don and Danube as Asen s land or Blakia.
2. Great Walachia (Me-yiXij BXax'a). It is from Anna Comnena,
in the second half of the nth century, that we first hear of a Vlach
settlement, the nucleus of which was the mountainous region of
Thessaly. Benjamin of Tudela, in the succeeding century, gives
an interesting account of this Great Walachia, then completely
independent. It embraced the southern and central ranges of
Pindus, and extended over part of Macedonia, thus including the
region in which the Roman settlers mentioned in the Acts of
St Demetrius had fixed their abode. After the Latin conquest of
Constantinople in 1204, Great Walachia was included in the enlarged
despot, ue of Epirus, but it soon reappears as an independent
principality under its old name, which, after passing under the yoke
i68
VLADIKAVKAZ VLADIMIR
of the Serb emperor Dushan, was finally conquered by the Turks
in 1393. Many of their old privileges were accorded to the in-
"habitants, and their taxes were limited to an annual tribute. Since
this period the Megalovlachites have been largely Hellenized, but
they are still represented by the flourishing Tzintzar settlements of
Pindus and its neighbourhood (see MACEDONIA).
3. Little Walachia($AiKpA. BXaxMwas a name applied by Byzantine
writers to the Ruman settlements of Aetolia and Acarnania, and
with it may be included " Upper Walachia," or Avw/SXoxa. Its inha-
bitants are still represented by the Tzintzars of the Aspropotamo
and the Karaguni (Black Capes) of Acarnania.
4. The Morlachs (Mavrovlachi) of the West. These are already
mentioned as Nigri Latini by the presbyter of Dioclea (c. 1150)
in the old Dalmatian littoral and the mountains of what is now
Montenegro, Herzegovina and North Albania. Other colonies ex-
tended through a great part of the old Servian interior, where is
a region still called Stara Vlaska or " Old Walachia." The great
commercial staple of the east Adriatic shores, the republic of Ragusa,
seems in its origin to have been a Ruman settlement, and many
Vlach traces survived in its later dialect. Philippus de Diversis,
who described the city as it existed in 1440, says that " the various
officers of the republic do not make use either of Slav or Italian, with
which they converse with strangers, but a certain other dialect only
partially intelligible to us Latins," and cites words with strong
Ruman affinities. In the mountains above Ragusa a number of
Vlach tribes are mentioned in the archives of that city, and the
original relationship of the Ragusans and the nomadic Alpine repre-
sentatives of the Roman provincials, who preserved a traditional
knowledge of the old lines of communication throughout the penin-
sula, explains the extraordinary development of the Ragusan com-
merce. In the I4th century the Mavrovlachi or Morlachs extended
themselves towards the Croatian borders, and a large part of mari-
time Croatia and northern Dalmatia began to be known as Morlacchia.
A Major Vlachia was formed about the triple frontier of Bosnia,
Croatia and Dalmatia, and a " Little Walachia " as. far north as
Pozega. The Morlachs have now become Slavonized (see DALMATIA) .
5. Cici of Istria. The extreme Ruman offshoot to the north-west
is still represented by the Cici of the Val d'Arsa and adjoining
Istrian districts. They represent a 15th-century Morlach colony
from the Isles of Veglia, and had formerly a wider extension to
Trieste and the counties of Gradisca and Gorz. The Cici have
almost entirely abandoned their native tongue, which is the last
remaining representative of the old Morlach, and forms a connecting
link between the Daco-Roman (or Rumanian) and the Illyro- or
Macedo-Roman dialects.
6. Rumans of Transylvania and Hungary. As already stated,
a large part of the Hungarian plains were, at the coming of the
Magyars in the oth century, known as Pascua Romanorum. At a
later period privileged Ruman communities existed at Fogaras,
where was a Silva Vlachorum, at Marmaros, Deva, Hatzeg, Hunyad
and Lugos, and in the Banat were seven Ruman districts. Two of
the greatest figures in Hungarian history, the 15th-century rulers
John Corvinus of Hunyad and his son King Matthias, were due to
this element. For its later history see TRANSYLVANIA.
See, in addition to the books already mentioned, J. L. Pic, ffber die
Abstammung der Rumanen (Leipzig, 1880); A. D. Xenopol, Les
Roumains au moyen Age (Jassy, 1886); B. P. Hasdeu, " Stratu si
Substratu: Genealogia poporeloru balcanice," inAnnalele Academiei,
ser. II, vol. 14 (Bucharest, 1893); D. Onciul, " Romanil in Dacia
Traiana," &c., in Enciclopedia Romdna, vol. iii. (Bucharest, 1902).
VLADIKAVKAZ, a town and fortress of Russia in northern
Caucasia, the capital of the province of Terek. Pop. (1900)
49,924. It stands on a plateau, at an altitude of 2345 ft., on
both banks of the Terek, where that river issues from the Darial
gorge. It is 434 m. by rail S.E. from Rostov-on-the-Don, and
has regular communication with Tiflis (133 m.) by coach through
the Darial Pass (Georgian military road) of the Caucasus.
Moreover, a line of railway, running eastwards to the Caspian
ports of Petrovsk and Baku, connects Vladikavkaz, or rather
the station Beslan, 14 m. N. of it, with the Transcaucasian
railway, i.e. with Tiflis, Poti and Batum. Russians, Armenians
and Jews constitute the bulk of the population, which also con-
tains Ossetes, Chechens, Ingushes and others. There are dis-
tilleries and a number of smaller factories. The fort, around
which the town has grown up, was built in 1784. The town is an
episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church.
VLADIMIR, ST (c. 956-1015), grand duke of Kiev and of all
Russia, was the youngest son of Svyatoslav I. and his mistress
Malushka. In 970 he received Great Novgorod as his apanage.
On the death of Svyatoslav in 972, a long civil war took place
between his sons Yaropolk and Oleg, in which Vladimir was
involved. From 977 to 984 he was in Scandinavia, collect-
ing as many of the viking warriors as he could to assist him
to recover Novgorod, and on his return marched against Yaro-
polk. On his way to Kiev he sent ambassadors to Ragvald,
prince of Polotsk, to sue for the hand of his daughter Ragnilda.
The haughty princess refused to affiance herself to " the son of
a bondswoman," but Vladimir attacked Polotsk, slew Ragvald,
and took Ragnilda by force. Subsequently (980) he captured
Kiev also, slew Yaropolk by treachery, and was proclaimed
prince of all Russia. In 981 he conquered the Chervensk cities,
the modern Galicia; in 983 he subdued the heathen Yatvyags,
whose territories lay between Lithuania and Poland; in 985
he led a fleet along the central rivers of Russia to conquer the
Bulgarians of the Kama, planting numerous fortresses and
colonies on his way. At this time Vladimir was a thoroughgoing
pagan. He increased the number of the trebishcha, or heathen
temples; offered up Christians (Theodore and Ivan, the proto-
martyrs of the Russian Church) on his altars; had eight
hundred concubines, besides numerous wives; and spent his
whole leisure in feasting and hunting. He also formed a great
council out of his boyars, and set his twelve sons over his subject
principalities. In the year 987, as the result of a consultation
with his boyars, Vladimir sent envoys to study the religions of
the various neighbouring nations whose representatives had
been urging him to embrace their respective faiths. The result
is amusingly described by the chronicler Nestor. Of the Mussul-
man Bulgarians of the Volga the envoys reported " there is no
gladness among them; only sorrow and a great stench; their
religion is not a good one." In the temples of the Germans they
saw "no beauty"; but at Constantinople, where the full
festival ritual of the Orthodox Church was set in motion to
impress them, they found their ideal. " We no longer knew
whether we were in heaven or on earth, nor such beauty, and
we know not how to tell of it." If Vladimir was impressed by
this account of his envoys, he was yet more so by the offer of
the emperor Basil II. to give him his sister Anna in marriage.
In 988 he was baptized at Kherson in the Crimea, taking the
Christian name of Basil out of compliment to his imperial
brother-in-law; the sacrament was followed by his marriage
with the Roman princess. Returning to Kiev in triumph, he
converted his people to the new. faith with no apparent diffi-
culty. Crypto-Christians had been numerous in Kiev for some
time before the public recognition of the Orthodox faith. The
remainder of the reign of Vladimir was devoted to good works.
He founded numerous churches, including the splendid Desya-
tinnuy Sobor or " Cathedral of the Tithes " (989), established
schools, protected the poor and introduced ecclesiastical courts.
With his neighbours he lived at peace, the incursions of the
savage Petchenegs alone disturbing his tranquillity. His nephew
Svyatpolk, son of his brother and victim Yaropolk, he married
to the daughter of Boleslaus of Poland. He died at Berestova,
near Kiev, while on his way to chastise the insolence of his son,
Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod. The various parts of his dis-
membered body were distributed among his numerous sacred
foundations and were venerated as relics. The university of
Kiev has rightly been named after the man who both civilized
and Christianized ancient Russia. His memory was also kept
alive by innumerable folk ballads and legends. With him the
Varangian period of Russian history ceases and the Christian
period begins.
See Memorials (Rus.) published by the Commission for the ex-
amination of ancient documents (Kiev, 1881, &c.) ; I. Komanin
and M. Istomin, Collection of Historical Materials (Rus.) (Kiev, 1890,
&c.) ; O. Partitsky, Scandinavianism in Ancient Russia (Rus.)
(Lemberg, 1897); A. Lappo-Danilevsky, Scythian Antiquities
(Rus.) (Petersburg, 1887); J. Macquart, Osteuropaische u. ostasia-
tische Streifziige (Leipzig, 1903); L. C. Goetz, Das Kiever Hohlen-
kloster als Kulturzentrum des vormongolischen Russlands (Passau,
1904)- (R- N. B.)
VLADIMIR, a government of middle Russia, bounded W. by the
governments of Moscow and Tver, N. by Yaroslav and Kostroma,
E. by Nizhniy-Novgorod, S. by Tambov and Ryazan, with an
area of 18,815 sq. m. It belongs to the eastern part of the
central plateau of middle Russia, which has an average elevation
of 800 to 950 ft., and is grooved by river valleys to a depth of
VLADIMIR VLADIVOSTOK
169
300 ft. to 450 ft. below the general level, so that the country has
a hilly appearance.
The lacustrine depression of the middle Volga and Oka extends
into the east of the government. The Upper Carboniferous lime-
stones, of which it is mostly built up, are overlain by Permian
sandstones towards the east, and patches of Jurassic clays denuded
remnants of formerly extensive deposits are scattered over its
surface. The whole is covered with a thick sheet of boulder clay,
considered to be the bottom moraine of the North-European ice-
sheet, and overlaid, in its turn, in the depressions, by extensive
l.ii ustrine clays and sands. The geology, especially of the western
parts, has been investigated by Professor Nikitin, who has ascer-
tained that under the Glacial and post-Glacial deposits the lower
sirata of which contain remains of the mammoth and rhinoceros
and the upper fossils of extensive prehistoric forests occur Lower
Mceous deposits and deposits intermediate between the Cre-
taceous and the Jurassic (" Volga " deposits). Upper Jurassic
(Kellaway and Oxford) and Upper Carboniferous deposits are also
found, and at Gorbatov Permian marls.
The soil is for the most part unfertile, save in the district of
Yuriev, where are patches of black earth, which have occasioned a
good deal of discussion among Russian geologist's. Iron ore is
widely diffused, and china clay and gypsum are met with in several
places. Peat is of common occurrence. Forests cover extensive
tracts in the south-east. The climate resembles that of Moscow,
but is a little colder, and still more continental : the average yearly
temperature at the city of Vladimir is 38 F. (January, 16; July,
The Oka flows through the government for 85 m., and is navigable
throughout. Of its tributaries, the Klyazma is navigable to Kovrov,
and even to Vladimir in summer; and timber is floated on the Teza.
Small lakes are numerous; that of Pleshcheyevo or Pereyaslavl
(5 m. in length) has historical associations, Peter the Great having
there acquired in his boyhood his first experiences in navigation.
The marshes extend to more than half a million acres.
The population was estimated in 1906 as 1,730,400. It is
thoroughly Great Russian. The Finnish tribes, Muroma and Merya,
which formerly inhabited the region, have been absorbed by the
Slavs, as also have the Karelians, who are supposed to have formerly
inhabited the territory. The descendants of the few hundred Kare-
lian families, which were settled by Peter the Great on the shores
: Lake Pereyaslavl, still, however, preserve their own language.
The government is divided into thirteen districts, the chief towns
of which are Vladimir, Alexandrov, Gorokhovets, Kovrov, Melenki,
Murom, Pereyaslavl Zalyeskiy, Pokrov, Shuya, Sudogda, Suzdal,
Vyazniki and Yuriev Pojskiy. Ivanovo- Voznesensk, Gusevsk and
Kholui are important industrial towns. The zemsivos (district
councils) make considerable efforts to foster education and improve
the sanitary arrangements.
The soil is not very fertile, and the standard of agriculture is low,
the inhabitants being largely engaged in manufactures. In 1900
1,008^200 acres (15.8% of the entire area) were under cereals.
Cherries and apples are exported in considerable quantities.
The cultivation of flax, both for local manufactures and for
export especially about Melenki is important; so also is that of
hemp. Natural pastures are numerous, and support large herds
)f cattle. The principal crops are rye, oats, wheat, barley and
potatoes. The peasants hold 5,591,000 acres in communal owner-
ship: of this 60% is arable land, 3,802,800 acres belong to private
owners, 552,300 acres to the crown and 370,000 acres to the imperial
family. The only important mineral is alabaster.
Vladimir ranks third among the governments of European Russia
for manufactures. It has some 500 large factories, which employ
over 100,000 persons (one-third women); the principal establish-
ments are cotton, linen and silk mills, dye-works, and rope, paper,
cardboard, oil, chemical, machinery, glass and iron works, tanneries
and distilleries. Wood, coal, petroleum and peat are all used as fuel.
A distinctive feature of Vladimir is the great varietv of petty
trades carried on by peasants who still continue to cultivate their
allotments. While in some villages almost all the male population
leave their homes and travel all over Russia as carpenters, masons,
iron-roof makers, or as oedlars or travelling merchants, other villages
nave their specialties in some branch of manufactured produce.
Nearly 30,000 carpenters leave Vladimir every year. Whole
illages are engaged in painting sacred pictures or ikons; and
ilthough the ikons are sold at a shilling the hundred, the aggregate
trade is valued at 150,000 a year; and the Vladimir (or rather
buzdal) pictures are sold all over Russia and the Balkan peninsula
In other villages some 1200 men are employed in making sickles,
lives and locks. Wooden vessels, boxes and baskets, lapti (shoes
made of lime-tree bark, which are worn in Great Russia and are
xiuced by the million), wheels and sledges, sieves, combs, woollen
ungs and gloves, sheep-skins and sheep-skin gloves, felt, toys,
earthenware, and all kinds of woven fabrics, are specialties of other
v! ages In these petty trades Vladimir occupies the first rank in
ssia, the annual production being one-third of the total output for
the whole country. '
The movement of shipping on the Volga and its tributaries and
sub-tnbutanes, the Oka, Klyazma and Teza, is considerable. The
principal ports are Murom on the Volga and Kovrov and Vyazniki
on the Klyazma. Timber, wood for fuel and manufactured goods
are the chief exports.
Numbers of Palaeolithic stone implements, intermingled with
bones of the mammoth and the rhinoceros, and still greater numbers
of Neolithic stone implements, have been discovered. There are a
great number of burial-mounds belonging to the Bronze and Iron
periods, and containing decorations in amber and gold; nearly
2000 such burial-mounds are scattered round Lake Pleshcheyevo,
some of them belonging to the pagan period and some to the early
Christian. Coins from Arabia, Bokhara, Germany and Anglo-Saxon
lands are found in great quantities. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
VLADIMIR, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name known in history as Vladimir-on-the-Klyazma, to
distinguish it from Vladimir in Volhynia. It is picturesquely
situated on the Klyazma and Lybed, 118 m. by rail E.N.E.
of Moscow. Pop. (1884) 18,420; (1900) 32,029. The city is an
archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek church. The Lybed
divides it into two parts. Extensive cherry orchards occupy
the surrounding slopes, and in each is a small watch-tower, with
cords drawn in all directions to be shaken by the watcher when
birds alight. The kreml stands on a hill and contains two very
old cathedrals the Uspenskiy (1150; restored in 1891), where
all the princes of Vladimir have been buried, and the Dmitri-
evskiy (1197; restored in 1834-1835). Several churches date from
the 1 2th century, including one dedicated to the Birth of Christ,
in which St Alexander Nevski was buried. The " Golden
Gate " a triumphal gate surmounted by a church was built
by the grand duke Andrei Bogolyubskiy in 1158.
Vladimir was founded in the izth century. It first comes
into notice in 1151, when Andrei Bogolyubskiy secretly left
Vyshgorod the domain of his father in the principality of Kiev
and migrated to the newly settled land of Suzdal, where he
became (1157) grand prince of the principalities of Vladimir,
Suzdal and Rostov. In 1242 the principality was overrun by
the Mongols under Batu Khan, and he and his successors
asserted their suzerainty over it until 1328. During this period
Vladimir became the chief town of the Russian settlements
in the basin of the Oka, and it disputed the superiority with the
new principality of Moscow, to which it finally succumbed in
1328. In the I4th century it began to decay.
VLADIMIR-VOLHYNSKIY, a town of Russia, in the govern-
ment of Volhynia, 19 m. N.N.E. of the spot where the frontiers
of Russia, Poland and Galicia meet and 300 m. W.N.W. of
Kiev. Pop. (1885) 8752; (1897) 9695, three-fourths Jews.
Though not mentioned in the annals before 988, Vladimir was
probably in existence in the 9th century under the name of
Ladomir. In the icth century it was the capital of the princi-
pality of Volhynia. The Tatars and the Lithuanians destroyed
it several times, but it always recovered, and only fell into decay
in the 1 7th century. It was finally annexed to Russia after the
irst division of Poland (1772). The ruins in and near the town
nclude remains of a church supposed to have been built by
Vladimir, grand duke of Kiev, in the loth-nth centuries, and
of another built in 1160 by his descendant Mstislav. This
atter was apparently very well built, and its length exceeded
that of the temple of St Sophia at Kiev. The town contains a
good archaeological museum.
VLADIVOSTOK, the chief Russian seaport and naval station
on the Pacific Ocean, situated at the southern extremity
'43 ?' N. and 131 55' E.) of the Maritime Province, not far from
:he point where that government touches both Manchuria and
fCorea (Cho-sen). It is connected by rail with Khabarovsk
[479 m. N.N.E.), the capital of the Amur region, and with Chita
n Transbaikalia (1362 m.) via Ninguta, Kharbin, Tsitsikar and
Khailar. Pep. (1000) 38,000. The town stands on Peter the
Great Gulf, occupying the northern shore of one of its horn-like
expansions, which the Russians have called the Golden Horn.
The depth of the Eastern Bosporus ranges from 13 to 20
'athoms, and that of the Golden Horn from 5 to 13, the latter
affording a spacious harbour. The hills are covered with forests
of oak, lime, birch, maple, cork, walnut, acacia, ash, aspen,
poplar, elm, apple, pear and wild cherry, with a rich undergrowth
of the most varied shrubs. Excellent timber is supplied by
170
oak and cedar forests not far off. The climate, however, is
severe, as compared with that of corresponding latitudes in
Europe. Though standing in almost the same parallel as
Marseilles, Vladivostok has an average annual temperature of
only 40 F., and, although the gulf itself never freezes, a thin
ice-crust forms along the shores in December and remains until
April. The town has several handsome buildings, a monument
to Admiral Nevelskiy (1897), a cathedral, a museum, an observa-
tory, an Oriental institute (opened in 1890), professional schools,
a naval hospital, mechanical and naval works, steam saw-mills
and flour-mills. The drawback of Vladivostok is that it has
not, and cannot have, a well-developed hinterland, despite the
great efforts which have been made by the Russian government
to supply the Usuri region (to the north of Vladivostok) with
Russian settlers. The town of Vladivostok was founded in
1860-1861, and from 1865 to 1900 was a free port.
VODENA (Turk, and Bulg. Voden, anc. Edessa, q.v.), a city
of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Salonica, western
Macedonia; at the source of the small river Bistritza, which
flows east and south into Lake Yenije, and on the railway
from Salonica to Monastir. Pop. (1905) about 25,000, con-
sisting of Turks, Slavs and Greeks. The town stands on a
rocky height commanding views of Pindus and Olympus;
the approaching slopes are richly wooded, and traversed by
picturesque waterfalls, from which the name of Vodena (Slav.
voda, water) is probably derived. Vodena is the see of a Greek
archbishop, and possesses numerous churches and mosques,
besides unimportant remains of Roman and Byzantine build-
ings. It has manufactures of cotton, tobacco and leather, and
a large trade in wine, silk cocoons and red pepper.
VODEYSHANKAR, GOWRISHANKAR (1805-1892), native
minister of the state of Bhaunagar in Kathiawar, Bombay,
was born on the 2ist of August 1805, of a family of Nagar
Brahmins. He rose from being a revenue officer to be state
minister in 1847. His success in this capacity was such that
on the death of the reigning chief, in 1870, he was appointed
joint administrator in concert with a British official. The
experiment was in every respect successful. Under the simple
and economical forms used in native states, improvements
suggested by British experience were introduced. The land
revenue was based on a cash system, the fiscal and customs
systems were remodelled and tree planting was encouraged.
The town of Bhaunagar received the great boon of the Gowri-
shankar Waterworks, on which six lakhs of rupees were spent.
The Bhaunagar state also warmly pressed for railway com-
munication with the continent of India, and thus began a
movement which has spread a network of railway lines over
the peninsula of Kathiawar. The British government re-
warded these many services of Gowrishankar with the distinc-
tion of C.S.I, in 1877. He helped to establish the Rajkumar
College at Rajkot, for the education of native princes, and also
the Rajasthanik Court, which, after settling innumerable dis-
putes between the land-owning classes and the chiefs, has since
been abolished. In 1879 Gowrishankar resigned office, and
devoted himself to the study of the higher literature of that
Vedanta philosophy which through his whole life had been to him
a solace and a guide. In 1884 he wrote a work called Svarupanu-
sandhan, on the union of the soul with Deity, which led to
a letter of warm congratulation from Max Miiller, who also
published a short biography of him. In 1887 he put on the robe
of the Sanyasi or ascetic, the fourth stage, according to the
Hindu Shastras, in the life of the twice-born man, and in this
manner passed the remainder of his life, giving above ten hours
each day to Vedantic studies and holy contemplation. He
died, revered by all classes, in December 1892.
See Javerital U. Yajnik, Gowrishankar Udayashankar (Bombay,
1889).
VODKA, VODKI or WODKY, the Russian national spirituous
beverage. Originally vodka was made almost entirely from
rye, barley malt to the extent of 15 to 20% being used
to effect saccharification (see SPIRITS), but at the present day
potatoes and maize are the staple raw materials from which
VODENA VOGEL, SIR J.
this spirit is manufactured, and, as a rule, green rye malt is
now used instead of barley. The distillation is conducted
by means of live steam in a double still of the " patent " type.
Vodka as manufactured contains from 90 to 96% of
alcohol, but it is diluted, previous to retailing, to a strength
of 60 to 40%. It is illegal to sell it with less than 40% of
alcohol.
VOETIUS (VOET), GYSBERTUS (1588-1676), Dutch theo-
logian, was born at Heusden, Holland. He studied at
Leiden, and in 1611 became pastor of Blymen, whence in 1617
he returned to Heusden. In 1619 he played an influential
part in the Synod of Dort, and in 1634 was made professor
of theology and Oriental science at Utrecht. Three years
later he became pastor of the Utrecht congregation. He was
an advocate of the extremest form of Calvinism against the
Arminians; but his personal influence was good, and the
city of Utrecht perpetuated his memory by giving his name
to the street in which he had lived.
VOGEL, EDUARD (1820-1856), German traveller in Central
Africa, was born at Krefeld on the 7th of March 1829. He
studied mathematics and astronomy at Leipzig and Berlin,
and in 1851 engaged in astronomical work in London. In
1853 he was chosen by the British government to take supplies
to Heinrich Earth, then in the western Sudan; and Vogel
met Earth at Kuka in Bornu (1854). During 1854 and 1855
he explored the countries round Lake Chad and the upper
course of the Benue. On the ist of December 1855 he left
Kuka for the Nile Valley, and nothing further was heard of
him. Several search expeditions were organized to ascertain
his fate and to recover his papers; it was not until 1873 that
Gustav Nachtigal on reaching Wadai learnt that Vogel had
been murdered in that country in February 1856.
See Erinnerungen an einen Verschollenen (Leipzig, 1863), by
Vogel's sister, E. Polko, and Der Afrikaforschcr Eduard Vogel
(Hamburg, 1889).
VOGEL, SIR JULIUS (1835-1899), British colonial statesman,
son of Albert Leopold Vogel, was born in London on the 24th
of February 1835, was educated at University College school,
London, and emigrated to Victoria during the exciting years
which followed the discovery of goldfields there. He became
editor of a newspaper at Maryborough, stood for the Legislative
Assembly and was defeated, and in 1861 left Victoria, carried in
the mining rush to Otago, New Zealand, where much gold had
just been found. Settling in Dunedin, he bought a half-share
in the Olago Daily Times, and was soon its editor and a member
of the Otago Provincial Council. He made his paper the most
influential in the colony, and was returned to the House of
Representatives. In 1866 he was head of the Otago Provincial
Executive; by 1869 he had made his mark in the New Zealand
parliament, and was treasurer in the ministry of Sir William Fox.
Without delay he brought forward a scheme for the construction
of trunk railways and other public works, the purchase of land
from the Maori tribes, and the introduction of immigrants, all
to be done with money borrowed in London. At that time New
Zealand hardly contained a quarter of a million of white settlers,
was exhausted by the ten years' struggle with the Maori, not
then ended, and was depressed by the low price of her staple
product, wool, and the abatement of a gold-fever. Yet Vogel's
sanguine, energetic appeals and remarkable gift of persuasion
induced the House of Assembly to adopt a modified version of
his scheme. For the next six years he was the most powerful
man in the colony. Millions were borrowed, railways were
pushed on, immigrants state and voluntary streamed in.
Lasting peace was made with the Maori, a telegraph line laid to
Australia, a steam mail service secured across the Pacific to San
Francisco; a government life insurance office, and a public
trust office, were established, both of which proved useful and
were well-managed. During a visit to London on the colony's
financial business, Vogel succeeded in arranging for the in-
scription.of colonial loans at the Bank of England, an arrange-
ment afterwards confirmed by the imperial parliament. In
1875 he was knighted.
VOGHERA VOGLER
171
In 1874 Vogel, until that time a supporter of the Provincial
system, decided to abolish it. In this, with the aid of Sir E. W.
:.>r.l and Sir H. A. Atkinson, he succeeded. In the struggle,
however, he broke with many of his old allies, and in 1876 sud-
denly quitted New Zealand to take the post of agent-general in
London. This he held until 1880, and while holding it nego-
tiated a loan for five millions. Having become connected with
certain public companies, and the New Zealand government
objecting thereto, he had to resign his position. An attempt,
tot), which he made in 1880 to enter the House of Commons as
orvative member for Penryn was unsuccessful. In 1884
he returned to New Zealand, was at once elected to parliament,
and formed a coalition ministry with the Radical leader, Sir
R. Stout. They held office for three years, but though Vogel
showed some of his old financial skill, they were not years of
prosperity for the colony, or triumph for the government. A
deficit, a rejected scheme of taxation and a crushing defeat at
the polls ended Vogel's career as a minister. After a few
months of failure as leader of an outnumbered Opposition he
gave up the contest, left New Zealand for the last time, and
for the last eleven years of his life lived quietly near London.
Throughout his life he had from time to time to struggle with
deafness, lameness and acute bodily pain, while an impul-
sive, speculative nature led him once and again into financial
difficulties. The persistency with which he faced trouble and
embarrassment, the hopefulness he showed under stress of ill
fortune, the sympathy and pleasantness of manner which won
him friends at all times, were elements in his curious and
interesting character no less remarkable than the fertility and
imaginative power of his busy brain.
Vogel was among the pioneers of Imperial Federation; he
would have extended Great Britain's influence in the Pacific
Ocean had he been allowed. He was the first minister to
secure the second reading of a Women's Franchise Bill in New
Zealand. As long ago as 1874 he endeavoured to save the
New Zealand forests from the reckless destruction by axe and
ure which has since gone on. In 1889 a novel from his pen,
Anno Domini 2000, was published, and reached a second edition.
He died at East Molesey on the I3th of March 1899. His wife,
who was the daughter of William Clayton, government architect,
New Zealand, two sons and a daughter survived him. Another
son had been killed in the Matabele War in South Africa. Vogel
was a Jew of the Ashkenazi rite. (W. P. R.)
VOGHERA (anc. Iria), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Pavia, and 19 m. by rail S.S.W. of that city, 305 ft.
above sea-level, on the Staffora (a tributary of the Po). Pop.
(1901) 14,453 (town); 20,442 (commune). The fortifications
erected by the Visconti in the middle ages have given place to
shady promenades. The large church of San Lorenzo dates
from the nth century, but was remodelled in the baroque
style about the beginning of the i7th. The suppressed church
of S. Ilario (Chiesa Rossa), so called from the red colour of the
brick of which it is built, dates from the loth century. The
neighbourhood produces much silk, in which, as well as in corn
and wine, an active trade is carried on. The ancient Iria took
its name from the river on which it was situated. It was on
the road from Placentia to Dertona, and was made a colony
by Augustus (colonia Forum lulium Iriensium).
VOGLER, GEORG JOSEPH (1740-1814), usually known as
Abbe or Abt (Abbot) Vogler, German organist and composer,
was born at Pleichach in Wiirzburg on the isth of June 1749.
His father, a violin maker, while educating him in the Jesuit
college, encouraged his musical talent, which was so marked
that at ten years old he could not only play the organ well, but
had also acquired a fair command of the violin and some other
instruments. In 1771 he went to Mannheim, where he com-
posed a ballet for the elector Karl Theodor, who sent him
to Bologna in 1774 to study under the Padre Martini. Dis-
satisfied with the method of that learned theorist, he studied
for five months under Valotti at Padua, and afterwards pro-
ceeded to Rome, where, having been oidained priest, he was
admitted to the famous academy of Arcadia, made a knight of
the Golden Spur, and appointed protonotary and chamberlain
to the pope.
On his return to Mannheim in 1755 Vogler was appointed
court chaplain and second " maestro di cappella." He now
established bis first great music school. His pupils were
devoted to him, but he made innumerable enemies, for the
principles upon which he taught were opposed to those of all
other teachers. He had invented a new system of fingering
for the harpsichord, a new form of construction for the organ,
and a new system of musical theory founded upon that of
Valotti. Mozart condemned the fingering as " miserable,"
and many rumours to his discredit have survived to this day
owing to Mozart's share in the prejudice felt against him. The
proposed change in the construction of the organ consisted in
simplifying the mechanism, introducing free-reeds in place of
ordinary reed-stops, and substituting unisonous stops for the
great " mixtures " then in vogue. The theoretical system,
though professedly based upon Valotti's principles, was to a
great extent empirical. Nevertheless, in virtue of a certain
substratum of truth which seems to have underlain his new
theories, Vogler undoubtedly exercised a powerful influence
over the progress of musical science, and numbered among his
disciples some of the greatest geniuses of the period.
In 1778 the elector removed his court to Munich. Vogler
followed him thither in 1780, but, dissatisfied with the reception
accorded to his dramatic compositions, soon quitted his post.
He went to Paris, where after much hostility his new system
was recognized as a continuation of that started by Rameau.
His organ concerts in the church of St Sulpice attracted con-
siderable attention. At the request of the queen, he composed
the opera Le Patriolisme, which was produced before the court
at Versailles. His travels were wide, and extended over Spain,
Greece, Armenia, remote districts of Asia and Africa, and even
Greenland, in search of uncorrupted forms of national melody.
In 1786 he was appointed " kapellmeister " to the king of
Sweden, founded his second music school at Stockholm, and
attained extraordinary celebrity by his performances on an
instrument called the " orchestrion " a species of organ in-
vented by himself. 1 In 1700 he brought this instrument to
London, and performed upon it with great effect at the Pantheon,
for the concert-room of which he also constructed an organ upon
his own principles. The abbe's pedal-playing excited great
attention. His most popular pieces were a fugue on themes
from the " Hallelujah Chorus," composed after a visit to the
Handel festival at Westminster Abbey, and A Musical
Picture for the Organ, by Knecht, containing the imitation
of a storm.
From London Vogler proceeded to Rotterdam and the chief
towns on the Rhine. At Esslingen he was presented with the
" wine of honour," reserved for the use of sovereigns. At
Frankfort he attended the coronation of the emperor Leopold II.
He then visited Stockholm, and after a long residence there,
interrupted by endless wanderings, once more established
himself in Germany, where his compositions, both sacred and
dramatic, received at last full credit. We hear of him at Berlin
in 1800, at Vienna in 1804 and at Munich in 1806. While
at Frankfort in 1807 he received an invitation from Louis I.,
grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, offering him the appointment
of " kapellmeister," with the order of merit, the title of privy
councillor, a salary of 3000 florins, a house, a table supplied
from the duke's own kitchen, and other privileges,which deter-
mined him to bring his wanderings at last to a close.
At Darmstadt he opened his third and most famous music
school, the chief ornaments of which were Gansbacher, Weber
and Meyerbeer, whose affection for their old master was un-
bounded. One of Vogler's latest exploits was a journey to
Frankfort in 1810, to witness the production of Weber's Syltana.
He continued to work hard to the last, and died suddenly of
apoplexy at Darmstadt on the 6th of May 1814. He was a
1 Robert Browning's poem on " Abt Vogler extemporizing on an
instrument of his own invention " has made his name familiar to
the literary public.
172
VOGT VOICE
briDiant and accomplished performer, and an excellent if an
eccentric teacher; but his own compositions have not survived.
VOGT, KARL CHRISTOPH (1817-1895), German naturalist
and geologist, was born at Giessen on the sth of July 1817.
In 1847 he became professor of zoology at Giessen, and in 1852
professor of geology and afterwards also of zoology at Geneva,
where he died on the sth of May 1895. His earlier publications
were on zoology; he dealt with the Amphibia (1839), Reptiles
(1840), with Mollusca and Crustacea (1845) and more generally
with the invertebrate fauna of the Mediterranean (1854).
His separate works include Im Gebirg und auf den Gletschern
(1843); Physiologische Brief e (1845-46); Grundriss der Geologic
(1860); and Lehrbuch der Geologic und Petrefactenkunde (2 vols.,
1846-47; ed. 4, 1879). An English version of his Lectures on Man:
his Place in Creation and in the History of the Earth was published
by the Anthropological Society of London in 1864.
VOGTLAND, or VOIGTLAND, a district of Germany, forming
the S.W. corner of the kingdom of Saxony, and also embracing
parts of the principality of Reuss and of the duchies of Saxe-
Altenburg and Saxe-Weimar. It is bounded on the N. by
the principalities of Reuss, in the S.E. by Bohemia, and on the
S.W. and W. by Bavaria. Its character is generally mountain-
ous, and geologically it belongs to the Erzgebirge range. It
is extremely rich in mineral ores silver, copper, lead and
bismuth. The name denoted the country governed for the
emperor by a Vogt (bailiff or steward), and was, in the middle
ages, known as terra advocatorum. The Vogte are first met
with in the country in the zoth century, and the office shortly
afterwards appears to have become hereditary in the princely
line of Reuss. But this house was not in undivided possession,
rival claims being raised from time to time; and after being
during the middle ages a bone of contention between Bohemia,
the burgraves of Nuremberg and the Saxon house of Wettin,
it passed gradually to the Wettins, falling by the division of
1485 to the Ernestine branch of the family. The elector
Augustus I. made it one of the circles of his dominions.
See Limmer, Geschichte des Vogtlandes (Gera, 1825-28, 4 vols.) ;
Simon, Das Vogtland (Meissen, 1904) ; C. F. Collmann, Das Vogtland
im Mittelalter (Greiz, 1892) ; and Metzner, Vogtldndische Wanderungen
(Anriaberg, 1902).
VOGU6, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- ),
French author, was born at Nice on the 25th of February 1848.
He served in the campaign of 1870, and on the conclusion of
the war entered the diplomatic service, being appointed suc-
cessively attache to the legations at Constantinople and Cairo
and secretary at St Petersburg. He resigned in 1882, and
from 1893 to 1898 was deputy for Ardeche. His connexion
with the Revue des deux mondes began in 1873 with his Voyage
en Syrie et en Palestine, and subsequently he was a frequent
contributor. He did much to awaken French interest in the
intellectual life of other countries, especially of Russia, his
sympathy with which was strengthened by his marriage in
1878 with a Russian lady, the sister of General Annenkov.
De Vogue was practically the first to draw French attention
to Dostoievski and his successors. He became a member of
the French Academy in 1888.
His works include: Histoires orientales (1879); Portraits du
siecle (1883) ; Le Fils de Pierre le Grand (1884) ; Histoires d'hiver
(1885); Le Roman russe (1886); Regards historiques et litteraires
(1892); C&urs russes (1894); Devant le siecle (1896); Jean d'Agreve
(1898); Le Rappel des ombres (1900); Le Maitre de la mer (1903);
Maxime Gorky (1905).
VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox), the sound produced by the
vibrations of the vocal cords, two ligaments or bands of fibrous
elastic tissue situated in the larynx. It is to be distinguished
from speech, which is the production of articulate sounds
intended to express ideas. Many of the lower animals have
voice, but none has the power of speech in the sense in which
man possesses that faculty. There may be speech without
voice, as in whispering, whilst in singing a scale of musical
tones we have voice without speech. (See SONG; and for
speech see PHONETICS; also the articles on the various letters
of the alphabet.)
i. Physiological Anatomy. The organ of voice, the larynx,
is situated in man in the upper and fore part of the neck, where
it forms a well-known prominence in the middle line (see
details under RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). It opens below into the
trachea or windpipe, and above into the cavity of the pharynx,
and it consists of a framework of cartilages, connected by
elastic membranes or ligaments, two of which constitute the
true vocal cords. These cartilages are movable on each other
by the action of various muscles, which thus regulate the position
and the tension of the vocal cords. The trachea conveys the
blast of air from the lungs during expiration, and the whole
apparatus may be compared to an acoustical contrivance in
which the lungs represent the wind chest and the trachea the
tube passing from the wind chest to the sounding body con-
tained in the larynx. Suppose two tight bands of any elastic
membrane, such as thin sheet india-rubber, stretched over
the end of a wide glass tube so that the margins of the bands
touched each other, and that a powerful blast of air is driven
through the tube by a bellows. The pressure would so distend
the margins of the membrane as to open the aperture and
allow the air to escape; this would cause a fall of pressure,
and the edges of the membrane would spring back by their
elasticity to their former position; again the pressure would
increase, and again the edges of the membrane would be dis-
tended, and those actions would be so quickly repeated as to
cause the edges of the membrane to vibrate with sufficient
rapidity to produce a musical tone, the pitch of which would
depend on the number of vibrations executed in a second of
time. In other words, there would be a rapid succession of
puffs of air. The condensation and rarefaction of the air thus
produced are the chief cause of the tone, as H. von Helmholtz
has pointed out, and in this way the larynx resembles the siren
in its mode of producing tone. It is evident also that the
intensity or loudness of the tone would be determined by the
amplitude of the vibrations of the margins of the membrane,
and that its pitch would be affected by any arrangements
effecting an increase or decrease of the tension of the margins
of the membrane. The pitch might also be raised by the
strength of the current of air, because the great amplitude of
the vibrations would increase the mean tension of the elastic
membrane. With tones of medium pitch, the pressure of the
air in the trachea is equal to that of a column of mercury of
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
FIG. i. Cartilages and Ligaments of the Larynx, seen from the
front; half natural size, i, epiglottis; 2, hyoid bone; 3, small
cornu of hyoid bone; 4, middle thyro-hyoid ligament; 5, great
cornu of hyoid bone; 6, small nodules of cartilage (cartilago
triticea) ; 7, the lateral thyro-hyoid ligament ; 8, left lamina or
wing of thyroid cartilage; 9, cricoid cartilage; 10, lower cornu of
thyroid cartilage; n, part of cricoid united to the thyroid by
the middle cricc-thyroid ligament; 12, second ring of trachea.
(From Krause.)
FIG. 2. Cartilages and Ligament of Larynx, seen from behind;
half natural size. I, epiglottis; 2, lesser cornu of hyoid bone>
3, greater cornu of hyoid ; 4, lateral thyro-hyoid ligament ; 5, car-
tilago triticea; 6, upper cornu of thyroid; 7, thyro-epiglottic liga-
ment; 8, cartilages of Santorini; 9, arytenoid cartilages; 10, left
lamina of thyroid; n, muscular process of arytenoid cartilage;
12, inferior cornu of thyroid ; 13, first ring of trachea ; 14, posterior
membranous wall of trachea; 15, lamina of cricoid cartilage.
(From Krause.)
160 mm.; with high pitch, 020 mm.; and with notes of very
high pitch, 945 mm.; whilst in whispering it may fall as low
VOICE
173
14
as that represented by 30 mm. of water. Such is a general
conception of the mechanism of voice.
The cartilages form the framework of the larynx. They consist
of three single pieces (the thyroid, the cricoid and the cartilage of
the epiglottis) and of three pairs (two
arytenoids, two cornicula laryngis or
cartilages of Santorini, and two cunei-
form cartilages or cartilages of Wris-
berg), see figs. I and 2. The epiglottis,
the cornicula laryngis, the cuneiform
cartilages and the apices of the aryten-
oids are composed of yellow or elastic
fibro-cartilage, whilst the cartilage of
all the others is of the hyaline variety,
resembling that of the costal or rib
cartilages. These cartilages are bound
together by ligaments, some of which are
seen in figs. I and 2, whilst the re-
mainder are represented in fig. 3. The
ligaments specially concerned in the pro-
duction of voice are the inferior thyro-
arytenoid ligaments, or true vocal cords.
These are composed of fine elastic fibres
attached behind to the anterior pro-
jection of the base of the arytenoid
D- u -,if ~f u^ cartilages, processus vocalis, 3 in fig. 3,
FIG. 3 .-Right Half of the d .* { ^r the mid(jle O f the , e
Larynx from a vertical n the wings or laminae of the
age, 5. capsuar ^tween the edges of the true vocal
SSSJ cords, the rima glottidis. Immediately
latera crico-thyroid above the true vocal cords> ^^
fh -I' ,P s1sn ^ these and the false vocal cords, there
crico-thyroid ligament; . h ;d recesg of h
! inferior thyro-aryten- termed the venMe Q{ UoTS ^ and
1 ligament, or true ; from e&ch ventricle there is a
voca cord; 9, thyroid K ^ h l ^ pouch
SUP '
tn A
' r, thvr
II, thyro-ary-
epiglottideus
Mch passes for the space of half an inch
between the superior vocal cords in-
side and the tb ^ oid cartilage outside,
* the * border of
"
reac as
muscle; h * ., *
Y ' g^ttis. The ventricles no doubt permit
P " a free vibration of the true vocal cords.
yofbone; e u ?P er a.perture of the glottis is
f, ?! triangular, wide in front and narrow
smaller cornu of hyoid behil f d a ' nd , when seen from above by
bone. (From Krause.) means of {he laryngoscope| it presents
the view represented in fig. 4. The aperture is bounded in front
by the epiglottis, e, behind by the summits of the arytenoid carti-
lages, or, and on the sides by two
folds of mucous membrane, the
aryteno-epiglottic folds, ae. The
rounded elevations corresponding to
the cornicula laryngis and cunei-
form cartilages, c, and also the cushion
of the epiglottis, e, are readily seen
in the laryngoscopic picture. The
glottis, o, is seen in the form of a
long narrow fissure, bounded by the
true vocal cords, ti, whilst above
them we have the false vocal cords,
ts, and between the true and false
cords the opening of the ventricle, v.
FIG. 4. Laryngoscopic View The rima glottidis, between the true
of the Glottis. /, tongue; vocal cords, in the adult male mea-
e, epiglottis ; *e, pharyngo- sures about 23 mm., or nearly an
epiglottic fold; g, pha- inch from before backwards, and
ryngo-laryngeal groove; from 6 to 12 mm. across its widest
o, aryteno-epiglottic fold; part, according to the degree of
c, cuneiform cartilage, or dilatation. In females and in males
cartilage of Wrisberg; before puberty the antero-posterior
or, arytenoid cartilage; diameter is about 17 mm. and its
r, inter-arytenoid fold; transverse diameter about 4 mm.
o, glottis; v, ventricle ; The vocal cords of the adult male
ti, inferior or true vocal are in length about 15 mm., and
cord; ts, superior or false O f the adult female about u mm.
vocal cord. (FromMandl.) The larynx is lined with a layer of
epithelium, which is closely adherent
to underlying structures, more especially over the true vocal
cords. The cells of the epithelium, in the greater portion of the
larynx, are of the columnar ciliated variety, and by the vibratory
action of the cilia mucus is driven upwards, but over the true
vocal cords the epithelium is squamous. Patches of squamous
epithelium are also found in the ciliated tract above the glottis,
on the under surface of the epiglottis, on the inner surface of the
arytenoid cartilages, and on the free border of the upper or false
cords. Numerous mucous glands exist in the lining membrane of
the larynx, more especially in the epiglottis. In each laryngeal
pouch there are sixty to seventy such glands, surrounded by fat.
We are now in a position to understand the action of the muscles
of the larynx by which the vocal cords, forming the rima glottidis,
can be tightened or relaxed, and by
which they can be approximated or
separated. Besides certain extrinsic
muscles sterno-hyoid, omohyoid,
sterno-thyroid and thyro-hyoid which
move the larynx as a whole, there
are intrinsic muscles which move the
cartilages on each other. Some of
these are seen in fig. 5. These muscles
are (a) the crico-thyroid, (6) the pos-jj ;
terior crico-arytenoid, (c) the lateral I
crico-arytenoid, (d) the thyro-arytenoid, M V
(e) the arytenoid, and (f) the aryteno-
epiglottidean. Their actions will be'
readily understood with the aid of thejj ^
diagrams in fig. 6. (i) The crico-thyroid
is a short thick triangular muscle, its 11-
fibres passing from the cricoid cartilage
obliquely upwards and outwards to be
inserted into the lower border of the \
thyroid cartilage and to the outer ... . f , . ,
border of its lower horn. When the FIG. S.-Musclesof the left
muscle contracts, the cricoid and thy- ? lde of . t . he larynx, seen
roid cartilages are approximated. In
this action, however, it is not the thy-
roid that is depressed on the cricoid,
as is generally stated, but, the thyroid
being fixed in position by the action
of the extrinsic muscles, the anterior
border of the cricoid is drawn upwards,
whilst its posterior border, in conse-
quence of a revolution around the axis
uniting the articulations between the
lower cornua of the cricoid and the
thyroid, is depressed, carrying the ary-
tenoid cartilages along with it. Thus
the vocal cords are stretched. (2) The
thyro-arytenoid has been divided by
anatomists into two parts one, the
internal, lying close to the true vocal
cord, and the other, external, imme-
diately within the ala of the thyroid
cartilage. Many of the fibres of the
anterior portion pass from the thyroid
cartilage with a slight curve (concavity
inwards) to the processus vocalis at the
base of the arytenoid cartilage. They
are thus parallel with the true vocal
cord, and when they contract the ary-
tenoids are drawn forwards, carrying
with them the posterior part of the cncoid and relaxing the vocal
cords. Thus the thyro-arytenoids are the antagonists of the crico-
thyroids. K. F. W. Ludwig has pointed out that certain fibres (portio-
ary-vocalis) arise from the side of the cord itself and pass obliquely back
to the processus vocalis. These will tighten the parts of the cord in
front and relax the parts behind their points of attachment. Some
of the fibres of the outer portion run obliquely upwards from the side
of the crico-thyroid membrane, pass through the antero-posterior
fibres of the inner portion of the muscle, and finally end in the tissue
of the false cord. These fibres have been supposed to render the
edge of the cord more prominent. Other fibres inserted into the
processus vocalis will rotate slightly the arytenoid outwards, whilst
a few passing up into the aryteno-epiglottidean folds may assist
in depressing the epiglottis (Quain). 1 (3) The posterior and lateral
crico-arytenotd muscles have antagonistic actions, and may be con-
sidered together. The posterior arise from the posterior surface of
the cricoid cartilage, and passing upwards and outwards are attached
to the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid. On the other hand,
the lateral arise from the upper border of the cricoid as far back as the
articular surface for the arytenoid, pass backwards and upwards,
and are also inserted into the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid
before the attachment of the posterior crico-arytenoid. Imagine
the pyramidal form of the arytenoid cartilages. To the inner angle
of the triangular base are attached, as already described, the true
vocal cords; and to the outer angle the two muscles in question.
The posterior crico-arytenoids draw the outer angles backwards and
inwards, thus rotating the inner angles, or processus _ vocalis, out-
wards, and, when the two muscles act, widening the rima glottidis.
This action is opposed by the lateral crico-thyroids, which draw the
outer angle forwards and outwards, rotate the inner angles inwards,
from within ; two-thirds
natural size. i,hyo-epi-
glottic Hgament, seen _in
profile; 2, epiglottis;
3, aryteno - epiglottic
muscle; 4, Santorini 's
cartilage; 5, oblique ary-
tenoid muscle; 6, trans-
verse arytenoid muscle,
seen in profile; 7, pos-
terior crico - arytenoid ;
8, lateral crico-arytenoid ;
9, lower cornu of thyroid
cartilage cut through ;
10, insertion of posterior
portion of crico-thyroid
muscle; II, left lamina
of thyroid cartilage cut
through; iz.longthyro-
epiglottic muscle (a var-
iety) ; 13, inferior thyro-
arytenoid ; 14, thyro-
epiglottic ; I5,su perior
thyrp - arytenoid; 1 6,
median thyro-hyoid liga-
ment. (From Krause.)
VOICE
and thus approximate the cords. (4) The arytenoids pass from the
one arytenoid cartilage to the other, and in action these cartilages
will be approximated and slightly depressed. (5) The aryteno-epi-
elottidean muscles arise near the outer angles of the arytenoid ; their
fibres pass obliquely upwards, decussate and are inserted partly into
FIG. 6. Diagrams explaining the action of the muscles of the larynx.
The dotted lines show the positions taken by the cartilages and the
true vocal cords by the action of the muscle, and the arrows show
the general direction in which the muscular fibres act. A, Action
of crico-thyroid : I, cricoid cartilage; 2, arytenoid cartilage;
3, thyroid cartilage; 4, true vocal cord; 5, thyroid cartilage, new
position ; 6, true vocal cord, new position. B, Action of arytenoid :
1, section of thyroid; 2, arytenoid; 3, posterior border of epi-
glottis; 4, true vocal cord; 5, direction of muscular fibres;
6, arytenoid, new position; 7, true vocal cord, new position.
C, Action of lateral crico-arytenoid; same description as for A
and B ; 8, posterior border of epiglottis, new position ; 9, arytenoid
in new position. D, Action of posterior crico-arytenoid; same
description. (From Beaunis and Bouchard.)
the outer and upper border of the opposite cartilage, partly into
the aryteno-epiglottic fold, and partly join the fibres of the thyro-
arytenoids. In action they assist in bringing the arytenoids together,
whilst they also draw down the epiglottis, and constrict the upper
aperture of the larynx. The vocal cords will be also relaxed by the
elasticity of the parts.
2. Physiology of Voice Production. The vocal cords are
tightened by the action of the crico-thyroid, or, as it might
Muscular be more appropriately termed, the thyro-cricoid
mechau- muscle. It stretches the thyro-arytenoid ligaments,
Isms. tne f ree e( jg es O f which, covered by mucous membrane,
form the vocal cords. The adductors of the cords are the
lateral crico-arytenoids, while the posterior crico-arytenoids
are the abductors. The arytenoid muscle brings the cords
together. Many of the fibres of the thyro-arytenoid are inserted
obliquely into the sides of the cord, and in contraction they
tighten the cord by pulling on the edge and making it curved
instead of straight. Some such action is indicated by the
elliptical shape of the rima glottidis in passing from the chest
register to the middle register. Other fibres, however, running
parallel with the cord may tend to relax it in certain circum-
stances. All the muscles except the thyro-cricoid (which is
innervated by the superior laryngeal) receive nerve filaments
from the inferior laryngeal branch of the vagus, the fibres
being derived from the accessory roots. Both the abductor
and adductor nerves come therefore from the inferior laryngeal.
When an animal is deeply anaesthetized stimulation of the
inferior laryngeal nerve causes abduction of the cord, but if
the anaesthesia is slight, then we have adduction. The tonic
contraction of the abductors is stronger than that of the
adductors, so in a state of rest the glottis is slightly open. The
centre of innervation is in the medulla oblongata, and this is
dominated by a centre in' the Rolandic region of the cerebral
cortex.
The intensity or loudness of voice depends on the amplitude
General
physio-
logical
char-
acters.
of the movement of the vocal cords. Pitch depends on the
number of vibrations per second; and the length, size and
degree of tension of the cords will determine the number of
vibrations. The more tense the cords the higher the pitch,
and the greater the length of the cords the lower will be the
pitch. The range of the human voice is about three octaves
that is, from fai (87 vibrations per second) to soU (768 vibra-
tions). In men, by the development of the larynx, the
cords become more elongated than in women, in the ratio of
3 to 2, so that the male voice is of lower pitch and
is usually stronger. At the age of puberty the larynx
grows rapidly, and the voice of a boy " breaks "
in consequence of the lengthening of the cords,
generally falling an octave in pitch. A similar
change, but very much less in amount, occurs at the same
period in the female. At puberty in the female there is an
increase of about one-third in the size of the glottis, but it is
nearly doubled in the male, and the adult male larynx is
about one-third greater than that of the female. In advanced
life the upper notes of the register are gradually weakened
and ultimately disappear, whilst the character of the voice
also changes, owing to loss of elasticity caused by ossification,
which first begins about middle life in the thyroid cartilage,
then appears in the cricoid, and much later in the arytenoid.
Eunuchs retain the voices of childhood; and by careful train-
ing it is possible in normal persons to arrest the development
of the larynx so that an adult male can still sing the soprano
parts sometimes used in cathedral choirs. The ranges of the
different varieties of voice are shown in the following diagram,
where the dotted lines give the range of certain remarkable
voices, and the figures represent vibrations per second, taking
the middle C of the piano as 256 vibrations per second.
2048. Upper note of Lucrezia Ajugari.
do,
sit
lat
soU
fat 1365. Upper note of Nilsson in // Flauto Ifagico.
mit
ret
sii
la,
sob
fa.
mil
ri'i
dot
sii
la>
sob
fa,
mil
rej
dot
sb
la,
so It
fa.
mii
rei
doi
sii
lai
soli
fai
mil
rei
doi
si i
la-i
sol i
fa-i
mi i
re-i
do i
1152. Ajugari trilled on this note.
1024.
768.
640.
512.
435-
341-
288.
piano.
256. Mid C in
240.
192.
128.
106.
87.
Tenor.
Baritone.
Contralto.
Sessi, 3! octaves.
_ Soprano.
Mezzo-soprano.
Ajugari.
Farinelli, 3! octaves.
64.
4-'-
Gaspard Forster, 3 octaves.
32. Beginning of musical tone.
A basso named Gaspard Forster passed from fa_i to las; the
younger of the sisters Sessi had a contralto voice from do2 to
fas; the voice of Catalan! ranged three and a half octaves; a
eunuch singer, Farinelli, passed from lai to res; Nilsson, in 11
Flauto Magico, could take fa 5 ; and Mozart states that he heard
in Parma in 1770 a singer, Lucrezia Ajugari, range from soh to
doe, which she gave purely, whilst she could execute trills on res.
The latter is the most highly pitched voice referred to in
musical literature, an octave and a half above the highest
ordinary soprano. It will be observed that the lowest note
of Gaspard Forster's voice is not much above the pitch at which
VOICE
the perception of musical tone begins, and that from this note
to the upper note of Lucrezia Ajugari there is a range of nearly
six octaves, whilst the extreme range of ordinary voices, from
the lowest bass to the highest soprano, is a little over three
octaves. It is also interesting to observe that the range of
the human ear for the perception of musical tone is from do_i
to do 10 , or from about 32 to 33,768 vibrations per second-
eleven octaves.
3. The Voice Registers. The voice has been divided by
writers into three registers the lower or chest, the middle
and the small or head register. In singing, the voice changes
in volume and in quality in passing from one register into
another. There is remarkable diversity of opinion as to
what happens in the larynx in passing through the various
registers. There has also been much discussion as to the
production of falsetto tones. Lehfeldt and Johannes Miiller
held that a weak blast of air caused only a portion of the cords,
as regarls length, to vibrate; M. J. Ortel noticed that when
a falsetto tone is produced nodal lines are formed in the cords
parallel to their edges, an observation supporting the first
contention; M. Garcia was of opinion that as the voice rose
in pitch into falsetto only the ligamentous edges of the cords
vibrated; and W. R. E. Hodgkinson showed, by dusting finely
powdered indigo into the larynx and observing the blue specks
with the laryngoscope, that " in the deeper note of the lower
register the vibrating margin extended from the thyroid carti-
lage in front to a point behind the junction of the ligamentous
and cartilaginous portions of the cord." In singing falsetto
tones these additional parts are not thrown into action. Some
remarkable and instructive photographs obtained by French
show that in proceeding from the lowest to the highest notes
of the lower register the cords became lengthened by one-eighth
of an inch in a contralto singer's larynx; the same singer, in
passing into the middle register, showed a shortening of the
cords by one-sixteenth of an inch, and another increase in
length when the upper part of the middle register was reached.
4. Condition of the Larynx in the Various Registers. In
singing, one can readily observe that the tone may appear to
come chiefly from the chest, from the throat or from the head,
or it may show the peculiar quality of tone termed falsetto.
Authorities differ much in the nomenclature applied to these
varieties of the voice. Thus the old Italian music masters
spoke of the voce di petto, voce di gola and voce di testa.
Madame Seiler describes five conditions, viz. the first series
of tones of the chest register, the second series of tones of the
chest register, the first series of tones of the falsetto register, the
second series of tones of the falsetto register, and the head register.
French writers usually refer to two registers only, the chest and
the head; whilst Behnke gives three registers for male voices
(lower thick, upper thick and upper thin) and five for the voices
of women and children (lower thick, upper thick, lower thin,
upper thin and small). These distinctions are of more import-
ance practically than as implying any marked physiological
differences in the mechanism of the larynx during the pro-
duction of the tones in the different registers. By means
of the laryngoscope it is possible to see the condition of the
rima glottidis and the cords in passing through all the range
of the voice.
In 1807 Bozzini first showed that it was possible to see into the
dark cavities of the body by illumining them with a mirror, and
in 1829 W. Babington first saw the glottis in this way. In 1854
Garcia investigated his own larynx and that of other singers, and
three years later Tiirck, and especially J. N. Czermak, perfected the
construction of the laryngoscope. In 1883 Lennox Browne and
Emil Behnke obtained photographs of the glottis in the living man.
The laryngoscope is a small mirror, about the diameter of a shilling,
fixed to the end of a long handle at an angle of 125 to 130. This
mirror is gently pushed towards the back of the throat, and if
sufficient light be thrown into the mouth from a lamp, and if the
eye of the observer be in the proper position, by angling the small
mirror it is not difficult to get a view of the glottis. The light
from the lamp is reflected by the mirror down on the glottis; from
this it is reflected back to the mirror, and then by the mirror it is
finally reflected to the eye of the observer. Usually the observer
has in front of his eye a mirror by which a powerful beam of light
can be thrown from a lamp into the mouth and throat. In the
centre of the mirror there is a small hole through which the eye of
the observer sees the image in the small mirror at the back of the
throat. By placing a second plane mirror in front of the face, an
observer can easily study the mechanism of his own larynx.
Suppose the picture of the larynx to be examined in the small
mirror at the back of the throat, an image will be seen as in fig. 4.
During calm breathing, the glottis is lance-shaped, between the
yellowish white cords. A deep inspiration causes the glottis to open
widely, and in favourable circumstances one may look into the
trachea. When a sound is to be made, the vocal cords are brought
close together, either along their whole length, as in fig. 7, or only
along the ligamentous portion, the space between the arytenoids
being still open, as in fig. 8. Then when the sound begins the
rap
',. 7. FIG. 8.
FIG. 7. Arrangement of Glottis previous to Emission of a Sound.
b, epiglottis; rs, false cord; n, true vocal cord; or, arytenoid
cartilages. (From Mandl.)
FIG. 8. Closure of the Ligamentous Portion of Glottis. b, epiglottis :
rs, false cord; ri, true vocal cord; or, space between arytenoids:
ar, arytenoid cartilages; c, cuneiform cartilages; rap, ary-epiglottic
fold ; >, inter-arytenoid fold. (From Mandl.)
glottis opens (fig. 4), the form of the opening influencing the kind of
voice, whilst the degree of tension of the cords will determine the
pitch.
During inspiration the edges of the true vocal cords may occa-
sionally be close together, as in sobbing, and during inspiration the
false cords are easily separated, even when they touch, and during
expiration, owing to dilatation of the ventricles, they come together
and may readily close. Thus, from the plane of the cords, the
true cords are most easily closed during inspiration and the false
cords during expiration. J. Wyllie clearly showed in 1865 that thi-
false vocal cords play the chief part in closure of the glottis during
expiration. Lauder Brunton and Cash have confirmed J. Wyllie's
results, and have shown further that the function of the false cords
is to close the glottis and thus fix the thorax for muscular effort.
During the production of the chest voice, the space between the
arytenoid cartilages is open, and between the vocal cords there is an
ellipsoidal opening which gradually closes as the pitch of the sound
rises (see figs. 9, 10, n). During head voice, the opening between
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
FIG. 9. Chest yoice, Deep Tone, b, epiglottis; or, glottis; rs, false
vocal cord; ri, true vocal ccrd; rap, ary-epiglottidean fold; ar,
arytenoid cartilages. (From Mandl.)
FIG. 10. Chest Voice, Medium Tone. orJ, ligamentous portion of
glottis; ore, portion of glottis between arytenoids; remaining
description as in fig. 7. (From Mandl.)
the arytenoids is completely closed ; the portion between the vocal
cords is open, but in place of being almost a narrow straight slit
as in chest voice, it is wide open so as to allow an escape of more air
(see fig. 12). Paralysis of the motor fibres causes aphonia, or loss of
voice. If one cord is paralysed the voice may be lost or become
falsetto in tone. Sometimes the cords may move in breathing or
during coughing, but be motionless during an attempt at the pro-
duction of voice. Rarely, incomplete unilateral paralysis of the
recurrent nerve, or the existence of a tumour on each cord, thus
making them unequal in length, may cause a double tone, or
diphthongta. Hoarseness is caused by roughness or swelling of the
cords.
5. The quality of the human voice depends on the same
laws that determine the quality, clang-tint or timbre of the
tones produced by any musical instrument. Musical tones
are formed by the vibrations of the true vocal cords. These
tones may be either pure or mixed, and in both cases they are
iy6
VOICE
strengthened by the resonance of the air in the air-passages
and in the pharyngeal and oral cavities. If mixed that is,
FIG. n.
FIG. 12.
FIG. II. Chest Voice, High Tone. Description same as for figs. 7
and 8. (From Mandl.)
FIG. 12. Head Voice, Deep Tones. /, tongue; e, epiglottis;
pe, pharyngo-epiglottidean folds; ae, ary-epiglottic folds; rs,
false cords; ri, true vocal cords; g, pharyngo-laryngeal groove;
or, arytenoid cartilages; c, cuneiform cartilages; o, glottis;
r, inter-arytenoid folds. (From Mandl.)
if the tone is compounded of a number of partials one or
more of these will be strengthened by the cavities above the
cords acting as a resonator; and so strongly may these partials
be thus reinforced that the fundamental one may be obscured,
and a certain quality or timbre will be communicated to the
ear. Further, Helmholtz has shown that special forms of
the oral cavity reinforce in particular certain partials, and thus
give a character to vowel tones, indeed to such an extent
that each vowel tone may be said to have a fixed pitch. This
may be proved by putting the mouth in a certain form, keep-
ing the lips open, and bringing various tuning forks sounding
feebly in front of the opening. When a fork is found to which
the resonant cavity of the mouth corresponds, then the tone
of the fork is intensified, and by thus altering the form and
capacity of the oral cavity its pitch in various conditions may
be determined. Thus, according to Helmholtz, the pitch
corresponding to the vowels may be expressed:
Vowels . . . OU O A AI E I EU
Tone . . . faj sibj sij> soli situ ree do
or or or or
re< fas fa las
No. of vibrations . 170 470
U
solt
or
fa,
940 1536 1920 2304 1024 1536
or or or or or
576 341 170 341 170
R. Koenig has fixed the pitch of the vowels differently, thus:
Vowels . . OU O A El
Tone . . sibj sibi sit>< sibs sib
No. of vibrations . 235 470 940 1880 3760
F. C. Bonders has given a third result, differing from each of
the above; and there is little doubt that much will depend
on the quality of tone peculiar to different nationalities. By
means of Koenig's manometric flames with revolving mirror
the varying quality of tone may be illustrated: with a pure
tone, the teeth in the flame-picture are equal, like the serrations
of a saw, whilst usually the tone is mixed with partials which
show themselves by the unequal serrations. Thus quality of
voice depends, not merely on the size, degree of elasticity and
general mobility of the vocal cords, but also on the form of
the resonating cavities above, and very slight differences in these
may produce striking results.
6. Vowel Tones. A vowel is a musical tone produced by the
vibrations of the vocal cords. The tone produced by the
vocal cords is a mixed one, composed of a fundamental and
partials, and certain of the partials are strengthened by the
resonance of the air in the air-passages and in the pharyngeal
and oral cavities. In this respect the quality of the human
voice depends on the same laws as those determining the
quality or timbre of the tones produced by any musical instru-
ment. The pitch of the note of a musical instrument, however,
depends on the pitch of the first or fundamental tone, while
the partials are added with greater or less intensity so as to
give a special character to the sound; and in the case of a
vowel tone the pitch does not appear to depend on that of the
fundamental tone but on the pitch of the resonance cavity,
as adjusted for the sounding of any particular vowel. When
we wish to pronounce or sing a vowel the oral cavity must
be adjusted to a certain form, and it is only when it has
that form that the vowel can be sounded. The nature of
vowel tones has been investigated by means of the phono-
graph by Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing, L. Hermann, Pipping,
Boeke, Lloyd, McKendrick and others. E. W. Scripture
has worked with the gramophone. These observers may be
ranged in two divisions those who uphold the theory of
relative as opposed to those who contend for the theory of
fixed pitch. Assuming that a vowel is always a compound
tone, composed of a fundamental and partials, those who uphold
the relative pitch theory state that if the pitch of the funda-
mental is changed the pitch of the partials must undergo a
relative change, while their opponents contend that whatever
may be the pitch of the tone produced by the larynx, the pitch
of the partials that gives quality or character to a vowel is
always the same, or, in other words, vowel tones have a fixed
pitch. Helmholtz held that all the partials in a vowel tone
were harmonic to the fundamental tone, that is that their periods
were simple multiples of the period of the fundamental tone.
Hermann, however, has conclusively shown that many of the
partials are inharmonic to the fundamental. This practically
upsets the theory of Helmholtz. The methods by which this
problem can be investigated are mainly two. The pitch of the
oral cavity for a given vowel may be experimentally determined,
or an analysis may be made of the curve-forms of vowels on
the wax cylinder of the phonograph or the disk of the gramo-
phone. By such an analysis, according to Fourier's theorem,
the curve may be resolved into the partials that take part in
its formation, and the intensity of those partials may be thus
determined. The observations of Bonders, Helmholtz, Konig
and others as to the pitch of the resonating cavities gave
different results. Greater success has followed the attempts
made by Hermann, Boeke, McKendrick, Lloyd and Marichelle
to analyse the curves imprinted on the phonograph. (Examples
of such phonograms are given by McKendrick in the article on
"Vocal Sounds" in Schafer's Physiology, ii. 1228; see also
PHONOGRAPH.)
The following is an instructive analysis by Boeke of the
curves representing the tones of a cornet, and it illustrates
the laws that govern the production of quality in such an
instrument:
Note .
/ =i7ovibs.
c' = 256
' =384
" = 512 ..
I-O5 1-22 I -IS I-OI O-8O O'53 O-28 O-I3 O-IO
0-92 0-81 0-53 0-39 0-20 0-07 0-04 0-06 0-04
0-76 0-46 0-14 O-O9 O-O6 O-O7 OO2 O-OI O'OI
o-Q2 030 0-14 0:5 0-09 0-07 0-06 0-03 0-02
10 Partials.
These figures represent the relative intensities of the partials enter-
ing into the formation of the note, and it will be observed that the
intensity gradually diminishes. This analysis may be contrasted
with that of the vowel da sung by Boeke (aet. 50) on the notes /and
c', and the same vowel sung on the notes g' and e* by his son (aet. 12).
Man, aet. 50, singing da.
Pitch . .12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Partials.
/ =170-6 vibs. I 0-86 0-46 1-74 1-90 1-55 0-51 0-54 0-43 0-44 ,,
' 256 i 0-49 1-96 1-25 0-60 0-56 0-23 0-05 0-06 o-io
Boy, aet. 12, singing da.
Pitch
j'^384
t =640
.12 3 4 56 Partials.
. i 1-22 2-67 0-45 0-17 0-06
. x 8-09 1-45 0-53 .. ..
It will be observed that in both these cases the intensity of the
partials does not fade away gradually as we proceed from the
lower to the higher partials, as with the cornet, but that certain
partials are intensified more than others, namely, those printed
in black. In other words, the form of the resonating cavity
develops particular partials, and these modify the quality
of the tone. If we multiply the vibrational number of the
fundamental tone by the number of the partial we obtain the
pitch of the resonance cavity; or if we take the mean of the
VOI RON VOIT U RE
177
partials reinforced we obtain the pitch of the mean resonance.
Lloyd applies this method to the foregoing figures as follows:
Partials.
Reinforced.
Mean
Partial.
Pitch in
Complete
Vibration.
Man's ad.
f =170-6 vibs.
'=256
Boy's ad.
^=384 vibs.
' = 640 ...
4-6
3-4
2-4
'-3
4.96
3-39
2-82
2-04
846
868
1084
1307
This analysis shows: (i) that the man's resonance rises slightly
(half-semitone) in ascending seven semitones in the middle of
his register; (2) that the boy's resonance rises three semitones
in ascending nine semitones in the upper half of his register;
and (3) in the mid-register the boy's resonance is to the man's
as 5:4. Thus, as we sing a vowel in an ascending scale the pitch
of the oral cavity slightly changes, or, in other words, the pitch
of the resonating cavity for a given vowel may be slightly altered.
It would appear that both theories are partially true; they
are not mutually exclusive. The view of Bonders that each
vowel has an oral cavity of unchangeable and fixed pitch is too
exclusive, and, on the other hand, it cannot be denied that
each vowel has a predominant partial or predominant partials
which give it a definite character, and which must be produced
by the oral cavity as a whole, or by the double resonance of
portions of the cavity, as suggested by Lloyd. As we sing a
vowel in an ascending scale the form of the resonance cavity
may slightly change, but not sufficiently to alter the quality
of the vowel. Thus we still detect the vowel tone. A singer
almost instinctively chooses such vowels as best suit the re-
sonating arrangements of his or her voice, and avoids vowels
or words containing vowels that would lead to the production
of notes of inferior quality.
AUTHORITIES. Helmholtz, Sensations of Tone, trans, by Ellis
('875), p. 165. Konig, Complex Rendus (1870), t. Ixx. p. 931; also
Quelques experiences d'acoustigue (1882), p. 47. Donders, De
physwlogie der spraakklanken (1870), s. 9; also " Ueber de Vokell,"
Archiv f. d. Holland Beitr. 3. Nat. v. Heti. (Utrecht, 1857), Bd. i.
s. 354. Donkin, Fourier's theorem, Acoustics, p. 65; Fleeming
Jenkin and Ewing, Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed. vol. xxviii. p. 750;
Lloyd, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed. (1898); Phonetische Stud. (1890-92);
Jl. of Anal, and Phys. (London), vol. xxxi. p. 23; ibid. vol. xxxi.
p. 240. Hermann, Phonophotographische Unlersuch., Bd. L-v. ;
Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol. (Bonn), Bd. xlv. s. 582; Bd. xlvii. s. 44;
Bd. xlvii. s. 347 ; Bd. liii. s. i ; Bd. Iviii. s. 255. Pipping, Zeitschr.
f. Biol. (Munich), Bd. xxyii. s. i ; also Acta Societatts Scienliarum
Fennicae, Bd. xx. part ii. Boeke, " Mikroskopische Phonogram-
studien," Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol. (Bonn), Bd. i. s. 297; also Proc.
Roy. Soc. Ed. (1896). McKendrick, Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed. vol.
xxxviii. part ii.; Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed. (1896-97); Sound and Speech
Waves as revealed by the Phonograph (London, 1897); Schafer's
Text-book of Physiology, vol. ii. art. Vowel Sounds ; and Nature
(Dec. 26, 1901). (In the latter there is an account of the important
researches of Dr Marage.) Marichelle, La Parole d'apres la
tract du Phonographe (Paris, 1897). Marage, FMorie de la
formation des voyelles. E. W. Scripture, Speech Curves (1906). See
also Nature (February 1907). (J. G. M.)
VOIRON, a town of France in the department of the Isere.
Pop. (1901) 12,625. It stands at a height of 950 ft., on the
Morge (a tributary of the Isere). It is a manufacturing town,
and contains numerous factories which produce a sort of cloth
named after the town, and also silk-weaving factories (2000
looms, with an annual output of eight to nine million yards).
There are also paper-making factories in the town. The fine
church of St Bruno was built 1864-73 at the expense of the
monks of the Grande Chartreuse. Voiron is the starting-point
of the steam tramways to St Laurent du Pont, 12 m. (for the
Grande Chartreuse), and to Charavines, io m. (for the Lac
de Paladru). Voiron long formed part of Savoy, but in 1355
was exchanged (with the rest of the region between the Rhone
and the Isere, watered by the Guiers Mort) by the count with
France for Faucigny and Gex.
VOISENON, CLAUDE HENRI DE FUZfe, ABBE DE (1708-75),
French dramatist and man of letters, was born at the chateaju
of Voisenon near Melun, on the 8th of July 1708. At the age
of ten he addressed an epistle in verse to Voltaire, who asked the
boy to visit him. From this introduction dated a friendship
that lasted for fifty years. Voisenon made his dfibut as a
dramatist with L'Heureuse ressemblance in 1728, followed in
1739 by a three-act comedy L'Ecole du monde at the Theatre
francais. This was preceded by a verse prologue, L'Ombre de
Moliere, and a month later Voisenon produced a criticism on
his own piece in Le Retour de I'ombre de Moliere. A duel in
which he was the aggressor inspired him with remorse, and he
entered the priesthood, becoming vicar-general to the bishop of
Boulogne. He received the abbey of Jard, which made no
demands on him. He became closely attached to Madame du
Chatelet, the mistress of Voltaire (?..), and was intimate with
the comte de Caylus and Mademoiselle Quinault Dufresne. He
made witty but by no means edifying contributions to the
Elrennes de Saint- Jean, the Bals de Bois, &c. In 1 744 he pro-
duced the Mariages assortis and in 1746 his masterpiece, the
Coquette fixie. He lived on terms of the closest intimacy with
Charles Simon Favart and his wife. His pen was always at the
service of any of his friends, and it was .generally supposed,
though on insufficient grounds, that he had a considerable share
in Favart's most successful operas. Voisenon had, strange to
say, scruples all his life about the incongruity between his way
of living and his profession, but he continued to write indecent
stories for private circulation, and wrote verses in honour of
Madame du Barry, as he had done for Madame de Pompadour.
He was elected to the Academy in 1762. On the disgrace of his
patron, the due de Choiseul, he lost his pensions and honours,
but soon recovered his position. He was intimate with the
chancellor Maupeou, and was suspected of writing on his behalf
in defence of the abolition of the parlement. This and some
other incidents brought him into general disgrace. Early in
1775 he retired to the chateau de Voisenon, where he died on
the 22nd of November of the same year.
His (Euvres completes were published by his executrix, Madame
de Turpin, in 1781.
VOIT URE, VINCENT (1598-1648), French poet, was the son of
a rich merchant of Amiens. He was introduced by a school-
fellow, the comte d'Avaux, to Gaston d'Orleans, and accom-
panied him to Brussels and Lorraine on diplomatic missions.
Although a follower of Gaston, he won the favour of Richelieu,
and was one of the earliest academicians. He also received
appointments and pensions from Louis XIII. and Anne of
Austria. He published nothing in book form, but his verses
and his prose letters were the delight of the coteries, and were
copied, handed about and admired more perhaps than the
work of any contemporary. He had been early introduced to
the H6tel de Rambouillet, where he was the especial friend of
Julie d'Angennes, who called him her " dwarf king." His
ingenuity in providing amusement for the younger members of
the circle ensured his popularity, which was never seriously
threatened except by Antoine Godeau, and this rivalry ceased
when Richelieu appointed Godeau bishop of Grasse. When at
the desire of the due de Montausier nineteen poets contributed
to the Guirlande de Julie, which was to decide the much-feted
Julie in favour of his suit, Voiture refused to take part. The
quarrel between the Uranistes and the Jobelins arose over the
respective merits of a sonnet of Voiture addressed to a certain
Uranie, and of another composed by Isaac de Benserade, till
then unknown, on the subject of Job. Another famous piece
of his of the same kind, La Belle Matineuse, is less exquisite,
but still very admirable, and Voiture stands in the highest rank
of writers of vers de socittt. His prose letters are full of lively
wit, and, in some cases, as in the letter on Richelieu's policy
(Letter LXXIV.), show considerable political penetration. He
ranks with Jean de Balzac as the chief director of the reform in
French prose which accompanied that of Malherbe in French
verse. Voiture died at the outbreak of the Fronde, which killed
the society to which he was accustomed, on the 26th of May 1648.
1 See A. Roux, (Euvres de M. de Voiture (Paris, 1856); and C. A.
Saint e-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. xii.
VOIVODE VOLCANO
VOIVODE (also Vaivode, Vayvode, Wayvode, &c., Med. Gr.
00/365os) , a title in use among certain Slavonic peoples,
meaning literally " leader of an army " (SI. voi, host, army;
voidUi, to lead), and so applied at various periods and in various
eastern European countries to rulers, governors or officials of
varying degree. It is best known as the title of the princes of
Moldavia and Wallachia. In these states the title remained in
use from the earliest times until 1658 in the case of the first
state, and until 1716 in that of the second, when it gave way to
Hospodar (g.v.). During the period of Hungarian domination
of Transylvania (1004-1526) it was governed by a voivode as an
Hungarian province, the last voivode raising himself to the
position of an independent prince. In Poland the title was
used of certain administrative officials; Polish historians
latinized it by palatinus. At the present day voivode is used,
in its original sense of a high military officer, in the Monte-
negrin army, where it corresponds to the general officer in
other European armies.
VOKES, the name of a family of English actors. FREDERICK
MORTIMER YOKES (1846-1888), the son of a costumier, made
his first appearance on the stage in 1854. In 1861 he, his sisters
Jessie (1851-1884), Victoria (1853-1894) and Rosina (1858-
1894), and Walter Fawdon (Yokes), first as the " Yokes
Children " and then as the " Yokes Family," began to perform
at music halls and at the pantomimes, and by their agility and
humour made the name well known to English and American
theatre-goers. Fred Yokes was a man of real inventiveness as
well as rare acrobatic skill.
VOLAPUK, the first artificial language (see UNIVERSAL
LANGUAGES) to attain any measure of practical success. First
published in 1880, it was the work of J. M. Schleyer (b. 1839),
a south-German priest. Volapiik is not, like the earliest
attempts of the kind, an a priori language, but is based mainly
on English, the rest of the vocabulary being made up from
Latin and the Romance languages. The borrowed words are
reduced to a monosyllabic form and are often altered in a very
arbitrary manner. Thus the name Volapuk itself is made up
of the two English words, world and speak, the first in the
genitive, the three vowels, a, e, i, being used to express the three
cases, genitive, dative and accusative respectively; the nomina-
tive is expressed by the bare root, and s is added to form the
plural. The grammar of Volapuk is therefore partly borrowed,
like the vocabulary, partly original. Adjectives end in -ik.
The persons of the verb are indicated by adding the pronouns
ob " I," ol " thou," om " he," &c., plural 065 " we," &c.; the
tenses and the passive are indicated by prefixes, the moods by
suffixes following the person-endings, many other inflections
being used as well, so that the Volapuk verb boasts of no less
than 505,440 different forms.
Although founded on English, Volapuk is mainly German
in structure. It gets rid of the German word-order and the
irregularities of German grammar, but it is often impossible
to understand a Volapuk text without thinking in German.
The following is a specimen of the language:
Lofob kemenis valik vola lolik, patiko etis pekulivol, kels kon-
fidoms Volapuke, as bale medas gletikun netasfetana.
" I love all my fellow-c'reatures of the whole world, especially
those cultivated (ones) who believe in Volapuk as (being) one of the
greatest means of nation-binding."
Here konfid governs the dative just as its German equivalent
does, and " cultivated " is used in the sense of the German
gebildeler.
The history of Volapuk has an interest greater than that of
the language itself. It has proved (i) that people in general
are ready to adopt an artificial language, and (2) that an
artificial language is easier to learn than any national language,
and supplies an efficient means of communication between
those who have no other language in common. Volapuk had no
special philological merits to recommend it; yet, after a few
years' incubation in south Germany, it spread, first to France
(about 1885) and then in a few years over the whole civilized
world, so that in 1889, when the third Volapuk congress met
at Paris, there were 283 Volapuk societies all over the world
and the total number of Volapuk students was estimated
over a million. At this congress every one even the waiters
spoke Volapuk, and the permanent triumph of the language
seemed certain. But the year of its zenith was the beginning
of a decline even more rapid than its rise. It fell to pieces
through dissensions in its own camp, the first cause of which
was the opposition of the inventor to those of his disciples who
aimed at making the language mainly an instrument of com-
mercial correspondence, and advocated the greatest possible
simplification of grammar and vocabulary. The divergence
of views between the inventor and his colleagues became more
and more marked; and after the third congress the breach
between M. Schleyer and the Volapuk Academy (founded at
the second congress in 1887) became a definite one: the
director of the Academy proposed a totally new scheme of
grammar, and other members proposed others, although one
of the objects of the foundation of the Academy was the pre-
servation of the integrity of the language. A new director,
M. Rosenberger of St Petersburg, was elected in 1893; and
from this moment the Academy dissociated itself from Volapuk
and began to construct a new international language, Idiom
Neutral (see UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES). (H. Sw.)
VOLCAE, a Celtic people in the province of Gallia Nar-
bonensis, who occupied the district between the Garumna
(Garonne), Cerbenna mons (Cevennes), and the Rhodanus (or
even farther to the east in earlier times), corresponding roughly
to the old province of Languedoc. They were divided into
two tribes, the Arecomici on the east and the Tectosages
(whose territory included that of the Tolosates) on the west,
separated by the river Arauris (Herault) or a line between the
Arauris and Orbis (Orbe). The Volcae were free and indepen-
dent, had their own laws, and possessed the jus Latii. The
chief town of the Tectosages was Tolosa (Toulouse); of the
Arecomici, Nemausus (Mimes); the capital of the province
and residence of the governor was Narbo Martius (Narbonne).
It was said that there was an early settlement of Volcae
Tectosages near the Hercynia Silva in Germany; Tectosages
was also the name of one of the three great communities of
Gauls who invaded and settled in Asia Minor in the country
called after them Galatia.
See A. Holder, Altcetiischer Sprachschatz, i. ii. (1896, 1904),
s.w. "Arecomici" and "Tectosagi"; T. R. Holmes, Caesar's
Conquest of Gaul (1899) p. 513; A. Desjardins, Geographic de la
Gaule romaine, i. (1876).
VOLCANO, an opening in the earth's crust, through which
heated matter is brought, permanently or temporarily, from
the interior of the earth to the surface, where it usually forms
a hill, more or less conical in shape, and generally with a hollow
or crater at the top. This hill, though not an essential part
of the volcanic mechanism, is what is commonly called the
volcano. The name seems to 'have been applied originally
to Etna and some of the Lipari Islands, which were regarded
as the seats of Hephaestus, a Greek divinity identified with
Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. All the pheno-
mena connected directly or indirectly with volcanic activity
are comprised under the general designation of vulcanism or
vulcanicity words which are also written less familiarly as
volcanism and volcanicity; whilst the study of the phenomena
forms a department of natural knowledge known as vulcanology.
Vulcanicity is the chief superficial expression of the earth's
internal igneous activity.
It may happen that a volcano will remain for a long period
in a state of moderate though variable activity, as illustrated
by the normal condition of Stromboli, one of the Lipari Islands;
but in most volcanoes the activity is more decidedly inter-
mittent, paroxysms of greater or less violence occurring after
intervals of comparative, or even complete, repose. If the
period of quiescence has been very protracted, the renewed
activity is apt to be exceptionally violent. Thus, Krakatoa
before the great eruption of 1883 had been dormant for some-
i thing like two centuries, and it is believed that the Japanese
VOLCANO
179
volcano Bandaisan previously to the gigantic outburst of 1888
had been silent for more than a thousand years. A volcano
may indeed remain so long dormant as to be mistaken for one
completely extinct. The volcanoes of central France are
regarded as extinct, inasmuch as no authentic historical record
of any eruption is known, but there are not wanting signs that in
some parts of this vclcanic region the subterranean forces may
yet be slumbering rather than dead.
Premonitory Symptoms. A volcanic eruption is usually
preceded by certain symptoms, of which the most common are
In. ;il earthquakes. The mountain, or other eruptive centre,
may be thrown by internal activity into a state of tremor;
the tremors perhaps continuing intermittently for months or
even years, and becoming more frequent and violent as the
crisis approaches. At first they are usually confined to the
volcano and its immediate neighbourhood, but may sub-
sequently extend to a considerable distance, though probably
never developing into earthquakes of the first magnitude.
The sudden opening of a subterranean crack, by rupture of a
rock under strain, or the rapid injection of lava into such a
fissure, will tend to produce a jar at the surface. For at least
sixteen years before the first recorded eruption of Vesuvius in
A.D. 79 earthquakes had been frequent in the Campania and
had wrought havoc in the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
Again, the formation of Monte Nuovo, near Pozzuoli, in 1538,
heralded by local earthquakes beginning several years in
advance of the eruption. So too in recent years many volcanic
outbursts have been preceded by a succession of earthquakes;
but as volcanoes are frequently situated in areas of marked
seismic activity, the shocks antecedent to an eruption may
not, unless exceptionally violent, receive much attention from
local observers.
It commonly happens that a volcanic outburst is announced
by subterranean roaring and rumbling, often compared to
thunder or the discharge of artillery underground. Other
precursory symptoms may be afforded by neighbouring springs,
which not unusually flow with diminished volume, or even
fail altogether. Possibly fissures open underground and
drain off the water from the springs and wells in the im-
mediate locality. Occasionally, however, an increased flow
has been recorded. In some cases thermal springs make their
appearance, whilst the temperature of any existing warm springs
may be increased, and perhaps carbon dioxide be evolved. A
disturbed state of the atmosphere is by no means a constant
forerunner of an eruption, some of the greatest outbursts
having occurred in a period of atmospheric stability: indeed
the air is often felt to be close and still.
Immediately before a renewed outburst in an old volcano,
the floor of the crater is generally upheaved to a greater or
less extent, whilst the discharge of vapour from any fumaroles
is increased. Where a crater has been occupied by water,
forming a crater-lake, the water on the approach of an erup-
tion becomes warm, evolves visible vapour, and may even boil.
In the case of cones which are capped with snow, the internal
heat of the rising lava usually causes a rapid melting of the
snow-cap, resulting perhaps in a disastrous deluge.
It seems probable that by attention to the premonitory
symptoms a careful local observer might in many cases foretell
an eruption.
It generally happens that a great eruption is preceded by
a preliminary phase of feeble activity. Thus, the gigantic
catastrophe at Krakatoa on the 27th of August 1883, so far
from having been a sudden outburst, was the culmination of a
state of excitement, sometimes moderate and sometimes violent,
which had been in progress for several months.
Emission of Vapour. Of all volcanic phenomena the most
constant is the emission of vapour. It is one of the earliest
features of an eruption; it persists during the paroxysms,
attaining often to prodigious volume; and it lingers as the
last 'elic of an outburst, so that long after the ejection of ashes
and lava has ceased an occasional puff of vapour may be the
only memento of the disturbance.
By far the greatest proportion of the vapour is steam, which
sometimes occurs almost to the exclusion of other gaseous
products. Such, at least, is the usual and probably correct
view, though it is opposed by A. Brun, who regards the volcanic
vapours as chiefly composed of chlorides with steam in only
subordinate amount. In the case of a mild eruption, like
that occurring normally at Stromboli, the vapours may be
discharged in periodical puffs, marking the explosion of bubbles
rising more or less rhythmically from the seething lava in
the volcanic cauldron. S. Wise observed at the volcano of
Sangay, in Ecuador, no fewer than 267 explosions in the course
of an hour, the vapour here being associated, as is so often
the case, with ashes. During a violent eruption the vapour
may be suddenly shot upwards as a vertical column of enormous
height, penetrating the passing clouds. For a short distance
above the vent the superheated steam sometimes exists as a
transparent vapour, but it soon suffers partial condensation,
forming clouds, which, if not dispersed by winds, accumulate
over the mountain. When the vapour is free from ash it forms
rolling balls of fleecy cloud, but usually it carries in mechanical
association more or less finely divided lava as volcanic dust
and ashes, whereby it becomes yellow, brown, or even black,
sometimes as foul as the densest smoke. In a calm atmo-
sphere the dust-laden vapour may rise in immense rings with
a rotatory movement, like that of vortex-rings. Frequently
the vapours, emitted in a rapid succession of jets, form cumulus
clouds, or are massed together in cauliflower-like forms. The
well-known " pine-tree appendage " of Vesuvius (pino vul-
canico), noted by the younger Pliny in his first letter to Tacitus
on the eruption in the year 79, is a vertical shaft of vapour
terminating upwards in a canopy of cloud, and compared
popularly with the trunk and spreading branches of the stone-
pine. Whilst in some cases the cloud resembles a gigantic
expanded umbrella, in others it is more mushroom-shaped.
In a great eruption, the height of the mountain itself may
appear dwarfed by comparison with that of the column of
vapour. During the eruption of Vesuvius in April 1906, the
steam and dust rose to a height of between 6 and 8 m.
At Krakatoa in 1883 the column of vapour and ashes reached
an altitude of nearly 20 m.; whilst it was estimated by some
authorities that during the most violent explosions the finely-
divided matter must have been carried to an elevation of more
than 30 m. The emission of vast volumes of vapour at high
tension naturally produces much atmospheric disturbance, often
felt at great distances from the centre of eruption.
Electrkal Excitement. It is probably to the uprushing current
of vapour that much of the electrical excitement which invari-
ably accompanies an eruption may be referred. The friction
of the steam rushing in jets through the volcanic vent must
produce electrical disturbance, and indeed an active volcano
has been aptly compared to a hydroelectric machine of gigantic
power. Another cause of excitement may be found in the
mutual friction of the ejected cinders and ashes as they rise
and fall in showers through the air. Much trituration of
volcanic material may go on in the crater and elsewhere during
the eruption, whereby the solid lava is reduced to a fine dust.
Other means of generating electricity are found in the chemical
reactions effected in the volcano and in the sudden condensa-
tion of the emitted vapour. L. Palmieri, in the course of his
investigations at the observatory on Vesuvius, found that the
vapours free from cinders carried a positive charge, whilst the
cinders were negative.
The electrical phenomena attending an eruption are often
of great intensity and splendour. The dark ash-laden clouds
of vapour are shot through and through by volcanic lightning,
sometimes in rapid horizontal flashes, then in oblique forked
streaks, or again in tortuous lines compared to fiery serpents,
whilst the borders of the cloud may be brilliant with electric
scintillations, often forming balls and stars of fire. During
the great eruption of Krakatoa remarkable phenomena were
observed by ships in the Strait of Sunda, luminous balls
like " St Elmo's fire " appearing at the mast-heads and the
i8o
VOLCANO
yard-arms, whilst the volcanic mud which fell upon rigging and
deck was strongly phosphorescent.
Quite distinct from any electrical phenomena is that inter-
mittent reddish glare which is often seen at night in clouds
hanging over an active crater, and which is simply a glow due
to reflection from the incandescent lava and stones in the
volcanic cauldron below.
Volcanic Rain and Mud. The condensation of the vast
volumes of steam exhaled during an eruption produces torrents
of rain, which, mingling to a greater or less extent with the
volcanic ashes, forms a hot muddy stream known in Italy as
lava d'acqua and lava di fango, and in South America as moya.
Deluges of such mud-lava may rush violently down the moun-
tain-side and spread over the neighbouring country with terribly
destructive effect, whence they are greatly dreaded by those
who dwell at the base of a volcano. The solidified volcanic
mud, often mingled with larger fragments of lava, is known as
tuff or tufa. Herculaneum was buried beneath a flood of mud
swept down from Vesuvius during the Plinian eruption of 79,
and the hard tufaceous crust which thus sealed up the ill-
fated city came in turn to be covered by lava-flows from sub-
sequent eruptions: hence the difficulty of excavating at
Hercalaneum compared with similar work at Pompeii, where
there was probably much less mud, since the city, having been
at a greater distance from the volcanic centre, was overwhelmed
in great measure by loose ashes, capable of removal with com-
parative ease.
It sometimes happens that volcanic mud is formed by the
mingling of hot ashes not directly with rain but with water
from streams and lakes, or even, as in Iceland, with melted
.snow. A torrent of mud was one of the earliest symptoms of
the violent eruption of Mont Pele in Martinique in 1902. This
mud had its source in the Etang Sec, a crater-basin high up
on the S.W. side of the mountain. By the explosive discharge
of ashes and vapours mingled with the water of the tarn
there was produced a vast volume of hot muddy matter which
on the sth of May suddenly escaped from the basin, when a
huge torrent of boiling black mud, charged with blocks of rock
and moving with enormous rapidity, rolled like an avalanche
down the gorge of the Riviere Blanche. If a stream of lava
obstructs the drainage of a volcano, it may give rise to floods.
Ejected Blocks. When a volcano after a long period of re-
pose starts into fresh activity, the materials which have accu-
mulated in the crater, including probably large blocks from
the disintegration of the crater-walls, have to be ejected.
If the lava from the last eruption has consolidated as a plug
in the throat of the volcano, the conduit may be practically
closed, and hence the first effort of the renewed activity is
to expel this obstruction. The hard mass becomes shattered
by the explosions, and the angular fragments so formed are
hurled forth by the outrushing stream of vapour. When the
discharge is violent, the vapour, as it rushes impetuously up
the volcanic duct, may tear fragments of rock from its walls and
project them to a considerable distance from the vent. Such
ejected blocks, by no means uncommon in the early stages of
an eruption, are often of large size and naturally vary accord-
ing to the character of the rocks through which the duct has
been opened. They may be irregular masses of igneous rocks,
possibly lavas of earlier eruptions, or they may be stratified,
sedimentary and fossiliferous rocks representing the platform
on which the volcano has been built, or the yet more deeply
seated fundamental rocks. By Dr H. J. Johnston-Lavis,
who specially studied the ejected blocks of Vesuvius, the
volcanic materials broken from the cone are termed " accessory "
ejecta, whilst other fragmentary materials he conveniently calls
" accidental " products, leaving the term " essential " ejecta
for plastic lava, ashes, crystals, &c. Masses of Cretaceous
or Apennine limestone ejected from Somma are scattered
through the tuffs on the slopes of Vesuvius; and objects carved
in such altered limestone are sold to tourists as " lava " orna-
ments. Under the influence of volcanic heat and vapours, the
ejected blocks suffer more or less alteration, and may contain
in their cavities many crystallized minerals. Certain blocks
of sandstone ejected occasionally at Etna are composed of white
granular quartz, permeated with vitreous matter and encased
in a black scoriaceous crust of basic lava.
A rock consisting of an irregular aggregation of coarse ejected
materials, including many large blocks, is known as a " volcanic
agglomerate." Any fragmental matter discharged from a
volcano may form rocks which are described as " pyroclastic."
Cinders, Ashes and Dust. After the throat of a volcano has
been cleared out and a free exit established, the copious dis-
charge of vapour is generally accompanied by the ejection of
fresh lava in a fragmentary condition. If the ejected masses
bear obvious resemblance to the products of the hearth and the
furnace, they are known as " cinders " or " scoriae," whilst the
small cinders not larger than walnuts often pass under their
Italian name of " lapilli " (q.v.). When of globular or ellipsoidal
form, the ejected masses are known as " bombs " (j..) or
" volcanic tears." Other names are given to the smaller
fragments. If the lava has become granulated it is termed
" volcanic sand "; when in a finer state of division it is called
ash, or if yet more highly comminuted it is classed as dust;
but the latter terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The
pulverized material, consisting of lava which has been broken
up by the explosion, or triturated in the crater, is often dis-
charged in prodigious quantity, so that after an eruption the
country for miles around the volcano may be covered with a
coating of fine ash or dust, sometimes nearly white, like a fall
of snow, but often of greyish colour, looking rather like Portland
cement, and in many cases becomirg reddish by oxidation of
the ferruginous constituents. Even when first ejected the ash
is sometimes cocoa-coloured. This finely divided lava insinu-
ates itself into every crack and cranny, reaching the interior of
houses even when windows and doors are closed. A heavy fall
of ash or cinders may cause great structural damage, crushing
the roofs of buildings by sheer weight, as was markedly the case
at Ottajano and San Guiseppe during the eruption of Vesuvius
in April 1906. On this occasion the dry ashes slipped down the
sides of the volcanic cone like an avalanche, forming great ash-
slides with ridges and furrows rather like barrancos, or ravines,
caused by rain. The burial of Ottajano and San Ginseppe in
1906 by Vesuvian ejecta, mostly lapilli, has been compared with
that of Pompeii in 79.
Deposits of volcanic sand and ashes retain their heat long after
ejection, so that rain will cause them to evolve steam, and if the
rain be heavy and sudden it may produce explosions with emis-
sion of great clouds of vapour. The fall of ash is at first prejudicial
to vegetation, and is often accompanied or followed by acid rain;
but ultimately the ash may prove beneficial to the soil, chiefly in
consequence of the alkalis which it contains. The " May dust " of
Barbados was a rain of volcanic ash which fell in May 1812 from
the eruption of the Soufriere in St Vincent. It is estimated that
the amount of dust which during this eruption fell on the surface
of Barbados, 100 m. distant from the eruptive centre, was about
3,000,000 tons. The distance to which ash is carried depends
greatly on the atmospheric conditions at the time of the eruption.
Ashes from Vesuvius in an eruption in the year 472 were carried,
it is said, as far as Constantinople. During an eruption of Cotopaxi,
on the 3rd of July 1880, observed by E. Whymper, an enormous
black column of dust-laden vapour was shot vertically upwards
with such rapidity that in less than a minute it rose to a height
estimated at 20,000 ft. above the crater-rim, or nearly 40,000 ft.
above sea-level, when it was dispersed by the wind over a very
wide area. It is believed that the amount of dust in this discharge
must have been more than 2,000,000 tons. Enormous quantities
of dust ejected from Krakatoa in 1883 were carried to prodigious
distances, samples having been collected at more than a thousand
miles from the volcano; whilst the very fine material in ultra-
microscopic grains which remained suspended for months in the
higher regions of the atmosphere seems to have enjoyed an almost
world-wide distribution, and to have been responsible for the re-
markable sunsets at that period.
The ash falling in the immediate vicinity of a volcanic vent will
generally be coarser than that carried to a distance, since the
particles as they are wafted through the air undergo a kind of
sifting. Professor J. W. Judd, who made an exhaustive examination
of the products of the eruption of Krakatoa, found that the dust
near the volcano was comparatively coarse, dense and rather dark-
coloured, in consequence of the presence of numerous fragments of
VOLCANO
181
**(.*
5
heavy, dark, crystalline minerals, whilst the dust at a distance was
excessively fine and perfectly white. According to this observer, the
particles tended to fall in the following order : magnetite, pyroxenes,
frl-par, glass. The finely comminuted material, carried to a great
height in the atmosphere, consisted largely of delicate threads and
attenuated plates of vitreous matter, in many cases hollow and
containing air-bubbles. The greater part of the dust was formed
by the mutual attrition of fragments of brittle pumice as they rose
and fell in the crater, which thus became a powerful "dust-making
mill." By this trituration of the pumiceous lava, carried on for a
space of three months during which the eruption lasted, the quantity
of finely pulverized material must have been enormous; yet the
amount of ejected matter was probably very much less than that
extruded during some other historical eruptions, such as that of
Tomboro in Sumbawa, in 1815. The explosions at Krakatoa
however, exceptionally violent, having been sufficient to
Jject some of the finely pulverized lava to an altitude estimated
lave been at least 30 m. It is usually impossible during a great
ci uption to determine the height of the column of " smoke,"
since it hangs over the country as a pall of darkness.
The great black cloud, which was so characteristic a feature in
the terrible eruptions in the West Indies in 1902, was formed of
steam with sulphur dioxide and other gases, very heavily charged
with incandescent sand or dust, forming a dense mixture that in
some respects behaved like a liquid. Unlike the Krakatoa dust,
which was derived from a vitreous pumice, the solid matter of the
black cloud was largely composed of fragments of crystalline
minerals. According to Drs Anderson and Flett it is not impossible
that on the afternoon of the lyth of May 1902, the solid matter
ejected from the Soufriere of St Vincent amounted to several
billions of tons, and that some of the dust fell at distances more
than 2000 m. east of the centre of eruption.
In Mexico and Central America, under the favourable influence
of warmth and moisture, rich soils are rapidly formed by the decom-
position of finely divided volcanic ejecta. Vast areas in North
America, especially in Nebraska and Kansas, are covered with thick
deposits of volcanic dust, partly from recent eruptions but princi-
pally from volcanic activity in geologic time. The dust is used in
the arts as an abrasive agent.
Lava. The volcanic cinders, sand, ashes and dust described
above are but varied forms of solidified lava. Lava is indeed
the most characteristic product of volcanic activity. It consists
of mineral matter which is, or has been, in a molten state;
but the liquidity is not due to simple dry fusion. The magma,
or subterranean molten matter, may be regarded as composed
essentially of various silicates, or their constituents, in a state
of mutual solution, and heavily charged with certain vapours
or gases, principally water-vapour, superheated and under
pressure. In consequence of the peculiar constitution of the
magma, the order in which minerals separate and solidify from
it on cooling does not necessarily correspond with the inverse
order of their relative fusibility. The lava differs from the
magma before eruption, inasmuch as water and various volatile
substances may be expelled on extrusion. The rapid escape
of vapour from the lava contributes to the explosive phenomena
of an eruption, whilst the rate at which the vapour is disengaged
depends largely on the viscosity of the magma.
The lava on its immediate issue from the volcanic vent is probably
at a white heat, but the temperature is difficult of determination since
the molten matter is usually not easy of approach, by reason of the
enshrouding vapour. Determinations of temperature are generally
made at a short distance from the exit, when the lava has undergone
more or less cooling, or on a small stream from a subordinate vent.
A. Bartoli, using a platinum electric resistance pyrometer, found that
a stream of lava near a bocca, or orifice of emission, on Etna, in the
eruption of 1892, had at a depth of one foot a temperature of 1060
C. In the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna thin wires of silver and of
copper have frequently been melted. Probably the lava at the
surface of the stream has a temperature of something like 1100 C.,
but this must not be assumed to be its temperature at the volcanic
focus. C. Doelter, in some experiments on tne melting-point of lava
by means of an electric furnace, found that a lava from Etna softened
at from 962 to 970 C. and became fluid at 1010 to 1040, whilst a
Vesuvian lava softened at 1030 to 1060 and acquired fluidity at
1080 to 1090. These results were obtained at ordinary atmospheric
pressure, but it has been assumed that the melting-point of lava at a
great depth would, through pressure alone, exceed that obtained in the
laboratory. On the other hand the presence of water and of certain
volatile fluxes in the magma lowers the fusing-point, and hence the
extruded lava from which these have largely escaped may be much
less fusible than the original magma.
Determinations of the melting-points of various glasses formed
by the fusion of certain igneous rocks have been made by J. A.
Douglas, with the meldometer of Professor J. Joly. The results give
temperatures ranging from 1260 C. for rhyolite to 1070 for dolerite
from the Clee Hills in Shropshire. The melting-points of the rocks
in a glassy condition as here given are, however, lower than those of
the corresponding rocks in a crystalline state.
It should be noted that all determinations of the melting-points of
minerals and rocks involving ocular inspection of the physical
state of the material are liable to considerable error, and the only
accurate method seems to be that of determining the point at which
absorption of heat abruptly occurs; the latent heat of fusion. This
has been done in the refined investigations by Mr A. L. Day and his
colleagues in the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution
at Washington.
It is believed that the temperature of lava in the volcanic conduit
may be in some cases sufficiently high to fuse the neighbouring rocks,
and so melt out a passage through them in its ascent. The wall-
rock thus dissolved m the magma will not be without influence on the
composition of the lava with which it becomes assimilated.
Many interesting observations are on record with regard to the
heating effect of lava on metals and other objects with which it may
have come in contact. Thus, after the destruction of Torre del
Greco by a current of lava from Vesuvius in 1794, it was found that
brass in the houses under the lava had suffered decomposition, the
copper having become crystallized ; whilst silver had been not only
fused but sublimed. This indicates a temperature of upwards of
1000 C. Panes of glass in the windows at Torre del Greco on the
same occasion suffered devitrification.
Notwithstanding the high temperature of lava on emission, it
cools so rapidly, and the consolidated lava conducts heat so slowly,
that vegetable structures may be involved in a lava-flow without
being entirely destroyed. A stream of lava on entering a wood, as
in the sylvan region on Etna, may burn up the undergrowth but
leave many of the larger trees with their trunks merely carbonized.
On Vesuvius a lava-flow has been observed to surround trees while
the foliage has been apparently uninjured. A vertical trunk of a
coniferous tree partially enveloped in Tertiary basalt occurs at
Gribon in the Isle of Mull, as described by Sir A. Geikie and others;
plant-remains in basalt from the Bo'ness coalfield in Linlithgow-
shire have been noticed by H. M. Cadell; and attention has been
called by B. Hobson to a specimen of scoriaceous basalt, from Mexico,
which shows the impression of ears of maize and even relics of the
actual grains. In consequence of the slow transmission of heat by
solid lava, the crust on the surface of a stream may be crossed with
impunity whilst the matter is still glowing at a short distance below.
Lichens may indeed grow on lava which remains highly heated in the
interior.
The solidified surface of a sheet of lava may be smooth and
shining, sometimes quite satiny in sheen, though locally wrinkled
and perhaps even ropy or hummocky, the irregularities being mainly
due to superficial movement after partial solidification. The
" corded lava " has a surface similar to that often seen on blast-
furnace slag, and is suggestive of a tranquil flow. After a lava
stream has oecpme crusted over on cooling, the subjacent lava, still
moving in a viscous condition, tends to tear the crust, forming
irregular blocks, or clinkers, which are carried forward by the flow
and ultimately left in the form of confused heaps, perhaps of con-
siderable magnitude. The front of a stream may present a wall of
scoriaceous fragments looking like a huge pile of coke. As the
clinkers are carried along, on the surface of the lava, they produce
by mutual friction a crunching noise; and the sluggish flow of the
lava-stream laden with its burden has been compared with that of a
glacier. Since the upper part of the stream moves more rapidly than
the lower, which is retarded by cooling in contact with the bed-rock,
the superficial clinkers are carried forward and, rolling over the end,
may become embedded in the lava as it advances. Scoriae formed
on the top of a stream may thus find their way to the base. Rock-
fragments or other detrital matter occurring in the path of the lava
will be caught up by the flow and become involved in the lower part
of the molten mass; whilst the rocks over which the lava travels
may suffer more or less alteration by the heat of the stream.
The rapidity of a lava flow is determined partly by the slope of
the bed over which it moves and partly by the consistency of the lava,
this being dependent on its chemical composition and on the condi-
tions of cooling. In an eruption of Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, in 1855,
the lava was estimated to flow at a rate of 40 m. an hour; and at an
eruption of Vesuvius in 1805 a velocity of more than 50 m. an hour, at
the moment of emission, was recorded. The rapidity of flow is, how-
ever, rapidly checked as the stream advances, the retardation being
very marked in small flows. Where lava travels down a steep incline
there is naturally a great tendency to form a rugged surface, whilst
a quiet flow over a flat plane favours smoothness. If the lava meet
a precipice it may form a cascade of great beauty, the clinkers
rapidly rolling down with a clatter, as described by Sir W. Hamilton
in the eruption of Vesuvius in 1771, when the fiery torrent had a
perpendicular fall of 50 ft.
In Hawaii the smooth shining lava, often superficially waved and
lobed, is known as pahoehoe, whilst the rugged clinker beds are
termed aa. These terms are now used in general terminology,
having been introduced by American geologists. The fields of aa
often contain lava-balls and bombs. It may be said that the
182
VOLCANO
pahoehoe corresponds practically with the Fladen lava of German
vulcanologists, and the aa with their Schollen lava. Rugged flows
are known in Auvergne as cheires. The surface of a clinker-field
has often a horribly jagged character, being covered with ragged
blocks bristling with sharp points. In the case of an obsidian- now
a most dangerous surface is produced by the keen edges and points
of the fragmentary volcanic glass.
If, after a stream of lava has become crusted over, the underlying
magma should flow away, a long cavern or tunnel may be formed.
Should the flow be rapid the roof may collapse and the fragments,
falling on to the stream, may be carried forward or become absorbed
in the fused mass. The walls and roof of a lava-cave are occasionally
adorned with stalactites, whilst the floor may be covered with
stalagmitic deposits of lava. The volcanic stalactites are sjender,
tubular bodies, extremely fragile, often knotted and rippled.
Beautiful examples of lava stalactites from Hawaii have been
described by Professor E. S. Dana. Caverns may also be formed in
lava-flows by the presence of large bubbles, or by the union of several
bubbles. It may happen, too, that certain monticules thrown up on
the surface of the lava are hollow, of which a famous example is
furnished by the Caverne de Rosemond, at the base of Piton Barry,
in the Isle of Reunion.
It is of great interest to determine whether molten lava contracts
or expands on solidification, but the experimental evidence on this
subject is rather conflicting. According to some observers a piece
of solid lava thrown on to the surface of the same lava in a liquid
state will sink, while according to others it floats. It has often been
observed that cakes formed by the natural fracture of the crust on
the lava of Kilauea sink in the liquid mass, but it has been suggested
that the fragments are drawn down by convection-currents. On
the other hand a solid piecf, though denser than the corresponding
liquid, may be buoyed up for a time by the viscous condition of the
molten lava. Moreover, the presence of minute vesicles may lighten
the mass. Although the minerals of a rock-magma may separately
contract on crystallization it does not follow that the magma itself,
in which they probably exist in a state of solution, will undergo on
crystallization a similar change of volume. On the whole, however,
there seems reason to believe that lava on solidifying almost always
diminishes in volume and consequently increases in density.
According to the experiments of C. Doelter the specific gravity of
molten lava is invariably less than that of the same lava when solid,
though in some cases the difference is but slight. In a vitreous or
isotropic condition the lava has a lower density than when crystalline.
denser than the same rock in a crystalline condition in the interior
of the dykes.
Physical Structure of Lavas. An amorphous vitreous mass may
result from the rapid cooling of a lava on its extrusion from the
volcanic vent. The common type of volcanic glass is known as
obsidian (?..). Microscopic examination usually shows that even
in this glass some of the molecules of the magma have assumed
definite orientation, forming the incipient crystalline bodies known
as microlites, &c. By the increase of these minute enclosures, in
number and magnitude, the lava may become devitrified and assume
a lithoidal or stony structure. If the molten magma consolidate
slowly, the various silicates in solution tend to separate by crystalliza-
tion as their respective points of saturation are reached. Should
the process be arrested before the entire mass has crystallized, the
crystals that have been developed will be embedded in the residual
magma, which may, on consolidation, form a vitreous base. It
is believed that in many cases the lava brings up, through its
conduit, myriads of crystals that have been developed during slow
solidification in the heart of the volcanic apparatus. Showers of
crystals of leucite have occurred at Vesuvius, of labradorite at
Etna, and of pyroxene at Vesuvius, Etna and Stromboli. These
" intratelluric crystals '' were probably floating in the molten
magma, and had they remained in suspension, this magma might on
consolidation have enveloped them as a ground-mass or base. A
rock so formed is generally known as a " porphyry," and the
structure as porphyritic. In such a lava the large crystals, or
phenocrysts, evidently represent an early phase of consolidation,
and the minerals of the matrix a later stage. It is notable that the
intratelluric crystals often lack sharpness of outline, as though they
had suffered corrosion by attack of the molten magma, whilst they
may contain vitreous enclosures, suggesting that the surrounding
mass was liquid during their consolidation. It is believed that the
more slowly consolidation has occurred, the larger generally arc
the crystals; and the higher the temperature of the magma the
greater the corrosion or resorption. Possibly under certain con-
ditions the phenocrysts and the ground-mass may have solidified
simultaneously.
In some cases the entire igneous mass assumes a crystalline
structure, or becomes " holocrystalline." Such a structure is well
displayed when the magma has consolidated at considerable depths,
cooling slowly under great pressure, and forming rocks which are
termed " plutonic " or " abyssal " to distinguish them from rocks
truly volcanic, or those which, if not effusive, like lava-flows, have at
least solidified very near to the surface as dykes and sills. Volcanic
and plutonic rocks pass, however, into each other by gradual transi-
tion. The dyke-rocks, or intrusive masses, form an intermediate
group sometimes distinguished under the name of " hypabyssal "
rocks, as suggested by W. C. Brogger. Lavas extruded in sub-
marine eruptions may have solidified under a great weight of sea-
water, and therefore to that extent rather under plutonic conditions.
Chemical Composition of Lavas. Lavas are usually classified
roughly, from a chemical point of view, in broad groups according to
the proportion of silica which they contain. Those in which the
proportion of silica reaches 66% or upwards are said to be acid or
acidic, whilst those in which it falls to 55 % or below are called basic
lavas. The two series are connected by a group of intermediate com-
position, whilst a small number of igneous rocks of exceptional type
are recognized as ultrabasic. Professor F. W. Clarke has suggested
a grouping of igneous rocks as per-silicic, medio-silicic and sub-
silicic, in which the proportion of silica is respectively more than 60,
between 50 and 60, or less than 50 %.
By far the greater part of all lavas consists of various silicates,
either crystallized as definite minerals or unindividualized as volcanic
glass. In addition, however, to the mineral silicates, a volcanic rock
may contain a limited amount of free acid and basic oxides, repre-
sented by such minerals as quartz and magnetite. Rhyolite may be
cited as a typical example of an acid lava, andesite as an intermediate
and basalt as a basic lava. The various volcanic rocks are described
under their respective headings, so that it is needless to refer here
to their chemical or mineralogical composition. It may, however,
be useful to cite a few selected analyses of some recent lavas and
ashes :
Sgures give the specific gravity:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Natural
solid
lava.
Liquid.
Rapidly
cooled,
glassy.
Slowly
cooled,
crystalline.
Silica
Alumina .
Ferric oxide
Ferrous oxide .
48-28
18-39
I-I2
7-88
49-73
18-46
6-95
5-59
50-00
13-99
5-13
9-10
68-99
16-07
2-63
I-IO
61-88
18-30
1-97
4-32
49-20
14-90
4-Si
12-75
Lava of Etna
,, Vesuvius
2-83
2-83-2-85
2-58-2-74
2-68-2-74
2-71-2-75
2-69-2-75
2-81-2-83
2-77-2-81
Manganous oxide .
Magnesia .
Lime
3-72
9-20
3-99
10-71
4-06
10-81
0-28
i -08
,Vi6
2-71
6-32
0-28
3-9
9-20
Experiments by Dr C. Barus showed that a diabase of specific
gravity 3-017 formed a glass of sp. gr. 2-717, and melted to a liquid
Soda ....
Potash
Titanium dioxide
2-84
7-25
1-28
3-50
1-07
3-02
2-87
4-04
1-83
0-82
3-17
1-09
0-31
1-96
o-95
1-72
of sp. gr. 2-52. J. A. Douglas on examining various igneous rocks
Found that in all cases the rock in a vitreous state had a lower sp. gr.
than in a crystalline condition, the difference being greatest in the
Phosphorus pentoxide
Loss on ignition
0-51
0-62
0-24
0-09
0-19
0-42
O-IO
acid plutonic rocks. A. Harker, however, has called attention to
the fact that the elassv selvace of certain basic civkes in Scotland is
100-96
lOO'OO
99-22
IOO-OO
100-35
99-89
I. From Vesuvius, eruption of 1906; by M. Pisani.
II. ,, Etna. Mean of several analyses by Silvestri and Fuchs
(Mercalli).
III. ,, Stromboli, 1891 ; by Ricciardi.
IV. Krakatoa, eruption of 1883; by C. Winkler.
V. Mont Pel<5, Martinique, eruption of 1902; by M. Pisani.
VI. Kilauea, Hawaii ; by O. Silvestri.
In the course of the life of a volcano, the lava which it emits may
undergo changes, within moderate limits, being at one time more acid,
at another more basic. Such changes are sometimes connected with
a shifting of the axis of eruption. Thus at Etna the lavas from the
old axis of Trifogjietto in the Valle del Bove were andesites, with
about 55% of silica, but those rising in the present conduit are
doleritic, with a silica-content of only about 50%. It seems
probable that, to a limited extent, changes in the character of a lava
may sometimes be due to contact of the magma with different rocks
underground : if these are rich in silica, the acidity of the lava will
naturally increase; while if they are rich in calcareous and ferro-
magnesian constituents, the basicity will increase: the variation is
consequently apt to be only local, and probably always slight.
By von Richthpfen and some others it has been held that during
a long period of igneous activity a definite order in the succession
of the erupted rocks is everywhere constant; but though some
striking coincidences may be cited, it can hardly be said that this
generalization has been satisfactorily established. It has, however,
often been observed, as emphasized by Professor Iddings, that a
volcanic centre will start with the emission of lavas of neutral or
intermediate type, followed in the course of a geological period by
VOLCANO
183
md basic lavas, and ending with those of extreme composition,
indicating progressive change in the magma.
The old idea of a universal magma, or continuous pyrosphere, has
generally abandoned. Whatever may have been the case in a
itive condition of the interior of the earth, it seems necessary to
that the magma must now exist in separate reservoirs. The
.. -intent activity of neighbouring volcanoes strikingly illustrated
in Kilauea and Mauna Loa in Hawaii, only 20 m. apart, suggests
it i >f communication between the conduits; and though the
t-r very similar at these two centres, it would seem that they
, ,ITI hardly be drawn from a common source. Again, the volcanoes
a hern Italy and the neighbouring islands exhibit little or no
ithy in their action, and emit lavas of diverse type. The lavas
ilcano, one of the Lipari Isles, are rhyolitic, whilst those of
Stromboli, another of the group, are basaltic.
It is believed that the magma in a subterranean reservoir, though
originally homogeneous, may slowly undergo certain changes,
whereby the more basic constituents migrate to one quarter whilst
the acid segregate in another, so that the canal, at successive periods,
may bring up material of different types. The cause of this " mag-
matic differentiation," which has been the subject of much discus-
-ion, is of fundamental importance in any broad study of the genetic
relations of igneous rocks.
It has often been observed that all the rocks from a definite
igneous centre have a general similarity in chemical and minera-
il characters. This relationship is called, after Professor Iddings,
" consanguinity," and appears to be due to the fact that the rocks
are drawn from a common source. Professor Judd pointed out the
nee of distinct " petrographical provinces," within which the
eruptive rocks during a given geological period have a certain family
likeness and have appeared in definite succession. Thus he recog-
nized a Brito-Icelandic petrographical province of Tertiary and recent
lavas. It has been shown by A. Marker that alkali igneous rocks
are generally associated with the Atlantic type of coast-line and
sub-alkali rocks with the Pacific type.
Although changes in the character of an erupted product from a
Riven centre are usually brought about very slowly, it has often been
supposed that even in the course of a single prolonged eruption, or
series of eruptions, the character of the lava may vary to some
extent. That this is not, however, usually the case has been re-
peatedly proved. M. H. Arsandaux, for instance, analysed the
bombs of augite-andesite thrown out from Santorin at the beginning
of theeruptionof 1866, others ejected in 1867, and others again at the
close of the eruption in 1868; and he found no important variation
in the composition of the magma during these successive stages.
Moreover, Professor A. Lacroix found that the material extruded from
Vesuvius in 1906 remained practically of the same composition from
thebcginningtotheendof theeruption, and further, that it presented
great analogy to that of 1872 and even to that of 1631.
All the Vesuvian lavas are of the type of rock known as leuco-
tephrite or leucitetephrite, or they pass, by the presence of a little
ohvine, into leucite-basanite. Leucite is characteristic of the lavas
of Vesuvius, whilst it is excessively rare in those of Etna, where a
normal doleritic type prevails. Nepheline, a felspathoid related to
leucite, is characteristic of certain lavas, such as those of the Canary
Islands, which comprise nepheline-tephrites and nepheline-basanites.
Most of the lavas from the volcanoes of South America consist of
hypersthene-andesite, and it is notable that the fragmental ejecta-
menta from the eruptions of St Vincent and Martinique in 1902 and
from Krakatoa in 1883 were evidently derived from a magma of
this Pacific type.
It commonly happens that acid lavas are paler in colour, less dense
and less fusible than basic lavas, and they are probably drawn in
some cases from shallower depths. As a consequence of the ready
fusibility of many basic lavas, they flow freely on emissjon, running
to great distances and forming far-spreading sheets, whilst the more
acid lavas rapidly become viscid and tend to consolidate nearer to
their origin, often in hummocky masses. The shape of a volcanic
mountain is consequently determined to a large extent by the
chemical character of the lavas which it emits. In the Hawaiian
Islands, for instance, where the lavas are highly basic and fluent,
they form mountains which, though lofty, are flat domes with very
gently sloping sides. Such is the fluidity of the lava on emission that
it flows freely on a slope of less than one degree. In consequence,
too, of this mobility, it is readily thrown into spray and even pro-
jected by the expansive force of vapour into jets, which may rise
to the height of hundreds of feet and fall back still incandescent,
producing the appearance of "fire fountains." The emission is not
usually accompanied, however, by violent explosions, such as are
often associated with the eruption of magmas of less basic and
more viscous nature. The viscosity of the lava at Kilauea was
estimated by G. F. Becker to be about fifty times as great as that
of water. It may be pointed put that the fusibility of a lava depends
not on the mere fact that it is basic, but rather on the character of
the bases. A lava from Etna or Vesuvius may be really as basic
as one from Hawaii.
Capillary Lava. A filamentous form of lava well known at Kilauea,
in Hawaii, is termed Pelt's hair, after Pele, the reputed goddess of the
Hawaiian volcanoes. It resembles the capillary slag much used in
the arts under the name of " mineral wool " a material formed by
injecting steam into molten slag from an iron blast-furnace. It is
commonly supposed that Pele's hair has been formed from drops of
lava splashed into the air and drawn out by the wind into fine
threads. According, however, to Major C. E. Dutton, the filaments
are formed on the eddying surface of the lava by the elongation of
minute vesicles of water-vapour expelled from the magma. C. F. W.
Krukenberg, who examined the hair microscopically, figured a large
number of fibres, some of which showed the presence of minute
vesicles and microscopic crystals, the former when drawn out
rendering the thread tubular. In a spongy vitreous scoria from
Hawaii, described as " thread-lace," a polygonal network of delicate
fibres forms little skeleton cells. Capillary lava is not confined to
the Hawaiian volcanoes : it is known, for example, in Reunion, and
may be formed even at Vesuvius.
Pumiceous Lava. The copious disengagement of vapour in a
glassy lava gives rise to the light cellular or spongy substance,
full of microscopic pores, known as pumice (g.P.J. It is usually,
though not invariably, produced from an acid lava, and may some-
times be regarded as the solidified foam of an obsidian. During the
eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 enormous quantities of pumice were
ejected, and were carried by the sea to vast distances, until they
ultimately became water-logged and sank. Professor Judd found the
pumice to consist of a vitieous lava greatly inflated by imprisoned
vapours; the walls of the air-cells were formed of the lava drawn
out into thin plates and threads, often with delicate fibres running
across the cavities. Having been suddenly cooled, it was extremely
brittle, and its ready pulverization gave rise to much of the ash
ejected during this eruption. It has been shown by Dr Johnston-
Lavis that a bed of pumiceous lava, especially if basic, is generally
vitreous towards the base, becoming denser, darker and more crys-
talline upwards, until it may pass superficially into scoria. The
change is explicable by reduction in the temperature of the magma
consequent on the conversion of water Into steam.
Water in Lavas. Whether an eruption is of an explosive or a
tranquil character must depend largely, though not wholly, on the
chemical composition of the magma, especially on the extent to
which it is aquiferous. By relief of pressure on the rise of the
column in the volcanic channel, or otherwise, more or less steam
will be disengaged, and if in large quantity this must become, with
other vapours, a projectile agency of enormous power. The precise
physical condition in which water exists in the magma is a matter
of speculation, and hence Johnston-Lavis proposed to designate it
simply as H 8 O. Water above its critical point, which is about
370 C. or 698 F., cannot exict as a liquid, whatever be the pressure,
neither is it an ordinary vapour. It has been estimated that the
critical point would probably be reached at a depth of about 7 m.
At very high temperatures the elements of water may exist in a
state of dissociation.
Much discussion has ansen as to the origin of the volcanic water,
but probably it is not all attributable to a single source. Some may
be of superficial origin, derived from rain, river or sea; whilst the
upward passage of lava through moist strata must generate large
volumes of steam. It has often been remarked that wet weather
increases the activity of a volcano, and that in certain mountains
the eruptions are more frequent in winter. According, however, to
Professor A. Ricco's prolonged study of Etna, rain has no apparent
influence on the activity of this mountain, and indeed the number of
eruptions in winter, when rains are abundant, seems rather less than
in summer.
The popular belief that explosive action is due to the admission
of water to the volcanic focus is founded mainly on the topographic
relation of volcanoes to large natural bodies of water, many being
situated near the shore of a continent or on islands or even on
the sea-floor. Salt water gaining access to heated rocks, through
fissures or by capillary absorption, would give rise not only to water-
vapour but to the volatile chlorides so common in volcanic exhala-
tions. Yet it is notable that comparatively little chlorine is found
among the products exhaled by the volcanoes of Hawaii, though
these are typically insular. L. Palmieri, however, described certain
sublimates on lava at Vesuvius after the eruption of 1872 as deposits
of " sea-salt," to show that they were not simply sodium chloride,
but contained other constituents found in sea-water. Professor
T. J. J. See believes that sea-water gains access to the heated rocks
of the earth's interior by leakage through the floor of the ocean, the
bottom never being water-tight, and Arrhenius supposes that it
reaches the magma by capillarity through this floor.
It has been supposed that water on reaching the hot walls of a
subterranean cavity would pass into the spheroidal state, and on
subsequent reduction of temperature might come into direct contact
with the heated surface, when it would flash with explosive_ violence
into steam. Such catastrophes probably occur in certain cases.
When, for example, a volcano becomes dormant, water commonly
accumulates in the crater, and on a renewal of activity this crater-
lake may be absorbed through fissures in the floor leading to the
reopened duct, and thus become rapidly, even suddenly, converted
into vapour. But such incidents are accidental rather than normal,
and seem incompetent to account for volcanic activity in general.
The effect of the contact of lava with water is often misunderstood.
184
VOLCANO
When a stream of lava flows into the sea it no doubt immediately
generates a prodigious volume of steam ; but this is only a temporary
phenomenon, for the lava rapidly becomes chilled by the cold water,
with formation of a superficial solid layer, which by its low thermal
conductivity allows the internal mass to cool slowly and quietly.
In the great eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 the sea-water gained-
occasional access to the molten lava, and by its cooling effect checked
the escape of vapour, thus temporarily diminishing the volcanic
activity. But Judd compares this action to that of fastening down
the safety-valve of a steam-boiler. The tension of the elastic fluids
being increased by this repression would give rise subsequently to
an explosion of greater violence; and hence the short violent
paroxysms characteristic of the Krakatoa eruption were due to
what he calls a " check and rally " of the subterranean forces. The
action in the volcanic conduit has, indeed, been compared with that of
a geyser.
The downward passage of water through fissures must be confined
to the upper portion of the earth's crust known as the " zone of
fracture, for it is there only that open channels can exist. Water
might also percolate through the pores of the rocks, but even the
pores are closed at great depths. It was shown many years ago by
G. A. Daubree that water could pass to a limited extent through a
heated rock against the pressure of steam in the opposite direction.
According to S. Arrhemus, water may pass inwards through the
sea-bottom by osmotic pressure.
As the melting points of various silicates are lowered by admixture
with water, it appears that the access of surface-waters to heated
rocks must promote their fusibility. Judd has suggested that the
proximity of large bodies of water may be favourable to volcanic
manifestations, because the hydrated rocks become readily melted
by internal heat and thus yield a supply of lava.
Whilst some of the water-vapour exhaled from a volcano is
undoubtedly derived from superficial sources, notably in such insular
volcanoes as Stromboli, the opinion has of late years been gaining
ground, through the teaching of Professor E. Suess and others, that
the volcanic water must be largely referred to a deep-seated sub-
terranean origin that it is, in a word, " hypogene " or magmatic
rather than meteoric. It is held that the magma as it rises through
the volcanic conduit brings up much water-vapour and other gaseous
matters derived from original sources, perhaps a relic of what was
present in the earth in its molten condition, having possibly been
absorbed from a dense primordial atmosphere, or, as suggested by
Professor T. C. Chamberlin, entrapped by the globe during its
formation by accretion of planetesimal matter.
Water brought from magmatic depths to the surface, and appear-
ing there for the first time, has been termed " juvenile," and it
has been assumed that such water may be seen in hot springs like
those at Carlsbad. Professor I. W. Gregory has suggested that
certain springs in the interior of Australia may derive part of their
supply from juvenile or plutonic waters.
According to A. Gautier, the origin of volcanic water may be
found in the oxidation of hydrogen, developed from masses of
crystalline rock, which by subsidence have been subjected to the
action of subterranean heat.
Volcanic Vapours. It seems not unlikely that the vapours
and gases exist in the volcanic magma in much the same way
that they can exist in molten metal. It is a familiar fact
that certain metals when .melted can absorb large volumes of
gases without entering into chemical combination with them.
Molten silver, for example, is capable of absorbing from the
atmosphere more than twenty times its volume of oxygen,
which it expels on solidification, thus producing what is called
the " spitting of silver." Platinum again can absorb and retain
when solid, or occlude, a large volume of hydrogen, that can be
expelled by heating the metal in vacuo. In like manner molten
rock under pressure can absorb much steam. It appears that
many igneous rocks contain gases locked up in their pores, not
set free by pulverization, yet capable of expulsion by strong
heat. The gases in rocks have been the subject of elaborate
study by R. T. Chamberlin, whose results appear in Publication
No. 106 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Sir W. A. Tilden has found that granite, gabbro, basalt and
certain other igneous rocks enclose many times their volume of
gases, chiefly hydrogen and carbon dioxide, with carbon monoxide,
methane and nitrogen. Thus, the basalt of Antrim in Ireland,
which is a Tertiary lava, yielded eight times its volume of gas having
the _ following percentage composition: hydrogen 36-15, carbon
dioxide 32-08, carbon monoxide 20-08, methane 10, nitrogen 1-61.
No doubt some of the gases evolved on heating rocks may be gener-
ated by reactions during the experiment, as shown by M. W. Travers,
and also by Armand Gautier. It has been pointea out by Gautier
that the gas exhaled from Mont Pel during the eruption of 1902
had practically the same composition as that which he obtained
on heating granite and certain other rocks. According to this
authority a cubic kilometre of granite heated to redness would yield
not less than 26,000,000 tons of water-vapour, besides other pases.
If then a mass of granite in the earth's crust were subject to a great
local accession of heat it might evolve vast volumes of gaseous
matter, capable of producing an eruption of explosive type. Judd
found that the little balls of Siberian obsidian called marekanite
threw off, when strongly heated, clouds of finely divided particles
formed by rupture of the distended mass through the escape of
vapour. Pitchstone when ignited loses in some cases as much as
10% of its weight, due to expulsion of water.
Much of the steam and other vapour brought up from below
by the lava may be evolved on mere exposure to the air, and hence
a stream freshly extruded is generally beclouded with more or less
vapour. Gaseous bubbles in the body of the lava render it vesicular,
especially in the upper part of a stream, where the pressure is relieved,
and the vesicles by the onward flow of the lava tend to become
elongated in the direction of movement. Vesiculatipn, being
naturally resisted by cohesion, is not common in very viscid lavas of
acid type, nor is it to be expected where the lava has been subject
to great pressure, but it is seen to perfection in surface-flows of
liquid lavas of basaltic character. A vesicular structure may some-
times be seen even in dykes, but the cavities are usually rounded
rather than elongated, and are often arranged in bands parallel to
the walls of the dyke. A very small proportion of water in a lava
suffices to produce vesiculation. Secondary minerals developed in a
cellular lava may be deposited in the steam-holes, thus producing an
amygdaloidal rock.
After the surface of a lava-stream has become crusted over, vapour
may still be evolved in the interior of the mass, and in seeking release
may elevate or even pierce the crust. Small cones may thus be
thrown up on a lava-flow, and when vapour escapes from terminal or
lateral orifices they are known as " spiracles." The steam may issue
with sufficient projectile force to toss up the lava in little fountains.
When the lava is very liquid, as in the Hawaiian volcanoes, it may
after projection from the blow-hcle fall back in drops and plastic
clots, which on consolidation form, by their union, small cones.
Vapour-vents on lava are often known as fumaroles (q.v.). The
character of the gaseous exhalations varies with the temperature,
and the following classification was suggested by C. Sainte-Claire
Deville: (i) Dry or white fumaroles having a temperature above
500 C. and evolving compounds of chlorine, and perhaps fluorine.
(2) Acid fumaroles, exhaling much steam, with hydrocholoric acid and
sulphur dioxide. (3) Alkaline fumaroles, at a temperature of about
100, with much steam and ammonium chlorideand some sulphuretted
hydrogen. (4) Cold fumaroles, below 100, with aqueous vapour,
carbon dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen. (5) Mofettes, indicating
the expiring phase of vulcanism. A similar sequence of emanations,
following progressive cooling of the lava, has been noted by other
observers. During an eruption, the gaseous products may vary
considerably. Johnston-Lavis found at Vesuvius that the vapour
which first escaped from the boiling lava contained much sul-
phurous acid, and that hydrochloric acid and other chlorides
appeared later.
If the vapours exhaled from volcanoes were derived originally
from superficial sources, the lava would, of course, merely return to
the surface of the earth what it had directly or indirectly absorbed.
But if, as is now rather generally believed, much if not most of the
volcanic vapour is derived from original subterranean sources, it
must form a direct contribution from the interior of the earth to the
atmosphere and hydrosphere, and consequently becomes of extreme
geological interest.
Description of Special Gases and Vapours. Hydrochloric acid,
HC1, escapes abundantly from many vents, often accompanied with
the vapours of certain metallic chlorides, and is responsible for much
of the acrid effects of volcanic exhalations. To avoid dangerous
vapours an active volcano should be ascended on the windward side.
Free hydrofluoric acid, HF, has sometimes been detected with the
hydrochloric acid among Vesuvian vapours, and silicon fluoride,
SiF4, has also been reported. Sulphuretted hydrogen, H 2 S, is a
frequent emanation, and being combustible may contribute to the
lambent flames seen in some eruptions. It readily suffers oxidation,
giving rise to sulphur dioxide and water. By the interaction of
hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide, water and carbon oxy-
sulphide, COS, are formed ; whilst bv reaction with sulphur dioxide,
water and free sulphur are produced, such being no doubt the origin
of many deposits of volcanic sulphur. Hydrogen sulphide may be
formed by the decomposition of certain metallic sulphides, like that
of calcium, in the presence of moisture, as suggested by Anderson
and Flett with regard to certain muds at the Soufriere of St Vincent.
Sulphur dioxide, SOj, is one of the commonest exhalations, especially
at acid fumaroles. It may be detected by its characteristic smell,
that of burning brimstone, even when present in very small pro-
portion and in the presence of an excess of hydrochloric acid. By
hydration it readily forms sulphurous acid, which may be further
oxidized to sulphuric acid. J. B. Boussingault found free sulphuric
acid (with hydrochloric acid) in the water of the Rio Vinagre which
issues from the volcano of Purac6 m the Andes of Colombia; and
it occurs also in certain other volcanic waters. Carbon dioxide,
COj, is generally a product of the later stages of an eruption, and is
i e J d
VOLCANO
185
often evolved after all other gases have ceased to escape. Although
it may sometimes be due to the decomposition of limestone, it seems
to be mostly of true magmatic origin. At the well-known Grotta
del Cane, at Lake Agnano, in the Phlegraean Fields near Naples,
there has been for ages a copious discharge, and analyses of the air
of the cave by T. Graham Young showedthe presence of from 61-5
tn 71 % of carbon dioxide. Gautier, in 1907, found 96 to 97% of
this yas in the vapours (excluding water-vapour) emitted from the
,tara near Pozzuoli in the Bay of Naples. The gas by its
ay tends to accumulate in depressed areas, as in the Death
li in the Yellowstone Park and in the Upas Valley of Java. In
the Eifel, in the Auvergne and in many other volcanic regions it is
:,irged at temperatures not above that of the atmosphere. This
natural carbonic acid gas is now utilized industrially at many
localities. In the gases of the fumaroles of Mont Pele, carbon
monoxide, CO, was detected by H. Moissan. Probably certain
hydrocarbons, notably methane or marsh-gas, CH, often exist in
inic gases. They might be formed by the action of water on
natural carbides, such as that of magnesium, calcium, &c. Moissan
found 5-46% of methane in vapour from a fumarole on Mont Pel6
in 1902. Free hydrogen was detected by R. Bunsen as far back as
1846 in vapours from volcanoes in Iceland. In 1861 Deville and
Fouqu found it, with hydrocarbons, at Torre del Greco near Naples ;
and in 1866 Fouque discovered it at Santorin, where some of the
vapour at the immediate focus of eruption contained as much as
of hydrogen. It is notable that at Santorin free oxygen was
also found. The elements of water may possibly exist, at the high
temperature of the magma, in a state of dissociation, and certain
volcanic explosions have sometimes been attributed to the com-
bination of these elements. Oxygen is not infrequently found among
volcanic emanations, but may perhaps be derived in most cases from
superficial air and ground-water; and in. like manner the nitrogen,
often detected, may be sometimes of atmospheric origin, though in
other cases derived from nitrides in the lava. In the vapours
emitted by Mont Pele in 1902 argon was detected by H. Moissan,
to the extent of 0-71 %; and in those from Vesuvius in 1906 argon
and neon were found by Gautier. The collection of volcanic vapours
offers difficulty, and it is not easy to avoid admixture with the atmo-
sphere. F. A. Perret has successfully collected gases on Vesuvius.
Volcanic Flames. Although the incandescence of the lava and
stones projected during an eruption, and the reflection from incan-
descent matter in the crater have often been mistaken for red flames,
there can be no doubt that true combustion, though generally feeble,
does occur during volcanic outbursts. Among the gases cited above,
hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide and the hydrocarbons are inflammable.
The names seen in volcanoes are generally pale and of bluish,
greenish or yellowish tint. They were first examined spectro-
scopically by J. Janssen, who in 1867 detected the lines of burning
hydrogen at Santorin. Subsequently he proved the presence of
hydrogen, sodium and hydrocarbons in the volcanic flames of
Kilauea. During the eruption of Vulcano, in the Lipari Isles, in
1888, flames with a bluish or greenish tinge were seen by A. E.
Narlian, an experienced observer resident in the island. These,
however, were referred to the kindling of sulphur deposited around
the fumaroles, the flames being coloured by the presence of boric
acid and arsenic sulphide.
When a stream of lava flows over vegetation the combustion of
the leaves and wood may be mistaken for flames issuing from the
lava. In like manner brushwood may grow in the crater of a
dormant volcano and be ignited by a fresh outburst of lava, thus
producing flames which, Ifrom their position in the crater, may readily
deceive an observer.
Volcanic Sublimates. Certain mineral substances occur as sub-
limates in and around the volcanic vents, forming incrustations on
the lava. They are either deposited directly from the effluent
vapours, which carry them in a volatile condition, or are produced
by interaction of the vapours among themselves; whilst some of the
incrustations, rather loosely called sublimates, are due to reaction
of the vapours on the constituents of the lava. Possibly at the
temperature of the magma-reservoirs even silica and various
silicates may be volatilized, and might thus yield sublimation
products. Many of the volcanic sublimates occur at first as incan-
descent crusts on the lava. Being generally unstable they are
difficult of preservation, and are not usually well represented in
collections.
Among the commonest sublimates is halite, or sodium chloride,
X.iCl, occurring as a white crystalline incrustation, sometimes
accompanied, as at Vesuvius, by sylvite, or potassium chloride,
KC1, which forms a similar sublimate. The two chlorides may
be intimately associated. Sal ammoniac, or ammonium chloride,
NH 4 CI, is not uncommon, especially at Etna, as a white crystalline
crust, probably formed in part by the reaction of hydrochloric acid
with nitrogen and hydrogen in the vapours. Bunsen, on finding
it in Iceland, regarded it as a product of the distillation of organic
matter. At the Solfatara, near Pozzuoli, sal ammoniac was formerly
collected as a sublimate on tiles placed round a bocca or vapour-
vent. . Ferric chloride, FeCli, not infrequently occurs as a reddish
or brownish yellow deliquescent incrustation, and because it thus
colours the lava it has received the name of molysite (from Gr.
/lAXuffij, stain). The action of hydrochloric acid on the iron com-
pounds in the lava may readily yield this chloride, which from its
yellowish colour has sometimes been mistaken for sulphur. A
crystalline sublimate from the fumaroles on Vesuvius, containing
ferric and alkaline chlorides, KCl-NH 4 Cl-2FeCl,+6H,O, is known
as kremersite, after P. Kremers. From a scoriaceous lava found on
Vesuvius after the eruption of 1906, Johnston-Lavis procured a
yellow rhombohedral sublimate, which he proved to be a chloride of
manganese and potassium, whence he proposed for it the name
chlormanganokahte. It was studied by L. J. Spencer, and found
to contain 4KCl-MnClj. Chlorocalcite, or native calcium chloride,
CaCU, has been found in cubic crystals on Vesuvian lava. Fluorite,
or calcium fluoride, CaFj, is also known as a volcanic product. Lead
chloride, PbCl 2 , a rare Vesuvian mineral, was named cotunnite,
after Dr Cotugno of Naples. The action of hydrogen sulphide on this
chloride may give rise to galena, PbS, found by A. Lacroix on Vesu-
vius in 1906. Atacamite, or cupric oxychlonde, CuCl a -3Cu(OH),,
occurs as a green incrustation on certain Vesuvian lavas, notably
those of 1631. Another green mineral from Vesuvius was found
by A. Scacchi to be a sulphate containing copper, with potas-
sium and sodium, which he named from its fine colour euclorina
a word which has been written in English as euchlorinite. The
copper in the sublimates on Vesuvius will sometimes plate the iron
nails of a traveller's boots when crossing the newly erupted lava.
Cupric oxide, CuO, occurs in delicate crystalline scales termed
tenorite, after Professor G. Tenore of Naples; whilst cupric sulphide,
CuS, forms a delicately reticulated incrustation known as covellite,
after N. Covelli, its discoverer at Vesuvius.
A sublimate not infrequently found in feathery crystalline
deposits on lava at Vesuvius, and formerly called " Vesuvian salt,"
is a potassium and sodium sulphate, (K'NaWSO* known as aphthi-
talite (from Gr. t^ffirm, imperishable, and 4Xs, salt). A sulphate
with the composition PbSO4-(K-Na) z SO4, found in the fumaroles at
Vesuvius after the eruption of 1906, was named by A. Lacroix
palmierite, after L. Palmieri, who was formerly director of the
observatory on Vesuvius. Various sulphites are formed on lavas
by the sulphurous acid of the vapours. Ferric oxide, FejOi, which
occurs in beautiful _ metallic scales as specular iron-ore, or as an
amorphous reddish incrustation on the lava, is probably formed in
most cases by the interaction of vapour of ferric chloride and steam
at a high temperature. Less frequently, magnetite, FeO, and
magnesioferrite, MgFejO*, are found in octahedral crystals on lava.
An iron nitride (FejNj) was detected thinly incrusting a lava erupted
at Etna in 1874, and was named by O. Silvestri, who examined it,
siderazote.
Boric acid, HsBOs, occurs in the crater of Vulcano so abundantly
that it was at one time collected commercially. It has also led to
the foundation of an industry in Tuscany, where it is obtained from
the soffipni (g.v.) of the Maremma. From Sasso in Tuscany it
has received the name of sassolin or sassplite. Realgar, or arsenic
sulphide, AsjSj, occurs in certain volcanic exhalations and is de-
posited as an orange-red incrustation, often associated with sulphur,
as at the Solfatara, where orpiment, AsjSj, has also been found.
Of all volcanic products, sulphur (q.v.) is in some respects the most
important. It may -occur in large quantity lining the walls of the
crater, as at Popocatepetl in Mexico, where it was formerly worked
by the Indian " volcaneros," or on the other hand ft may be a rare
product, as at Vesuvius. Sulphur appears generally to owe its
origin in volcanic areas to the interaction of sulphur dioxide and
sulphuretted hydrogen, or to the action of water on the latter. A"
volcanic vent where sulphur is deposited is truly a solfatara (solfo
terra) or a spufriere, but all volcanoes which have passed into that
stage in which they emit merely heated vapours now pass under
this name (see SOLFATARA). The famous Solfatara, an old crater
in the Phlegraean Fields, exhales sulphurous vapours, especially at
the Bocca Grande, from which sulphur is deposited. In the orange-
coloured sulphur of the Solfatara, realgar may be present to the
extent of as much as 18 %. A brown seleniferous sulphur occurring
at Vulcano, one of the Lipari Islands, was termed by W. Haidinger
volcanite, but it should be noted that Professor W. H. Hobbs has
applied this name to an anorthoclase-augite rock ejected as bombs
at Vulcano. Sulphur containing selenium is known as a volcanic
product in Hawaii, whilst in Japan not only selenium but tellurium
occurs in certain kinds of sulphur.
At the Solfatara, near Pozzuoli, the hot sulphurous vapours attack
the trachytic rocks from which they issue, giving rise to such pro-
ducts as alum, kaolin and gypsum. To some of these products,
including alunogen and mendozite (soda-alum), the name solfatarite
was given by C. W. Sheppard in 1835. By prolonged action of the
acid vapours on lava, the bases of the silicates may be removed,
leaving the silica as a soft white chalk-like substance. The occur-
rence of kaolin and other white earthy alteration-products led to
the hills around the Solfatara being known to the Romans as the
Colli leucogei.
The Hot Dust Cloud and Avalanche of Pelf. The terrific erup-
tions in the islands of Martinique and St Vincent in the West
Indies in 1902, furnished examples of a type of activity not previ-
ously recognized by vulcanologists, though, as Professor A. Lacroix
i86
VOLCANO
has pointed out, similar phenomena have no doubt occurred
elsewhere, especially in the Azores. By Drs Jempest Anderson
and J. S. Flett, who were commissioned by the Royal Society to
report on the phenomena, this type of explosive eruption is
distinguished as the " Pelean type." Its distinctive character
is found in the sudden emission of a dense black cloud of super-
heated and suffocating gases, heavily charged with incandescent
dust, moving with great velocity and accompanied by the dis-
charge of immense volumes of volcanic sand, which are not
rained down in the normal manner, but descend like a hot
avalanche. The cloud, with the avalanche, is called by Lacroix
a nue Peleenne, or nufe ardente, the latter term having been
applied to the fatal cloud in the eruptions at San Jorge in the
Azores in 1818. In its typical form, the cloud seen at Pele
appeared as a solid bank, opaque and impenetrable, but having
the edge in places hanging like folds of a curtain, and apparently
of brown or purplish colour. Rolling along like an inky torrent,
it produced in its passage intense darkness, relieved by vivid
lightning. So much solid matter was suspended in the cloud,
that it became too dense to surmount obstacles and behaved
rather like a liquid. It has, however, been suggested that its
peculiar movement as it swept down the mountain was due not
simply to its heavy charge of solids, but partly to the oblique
direction of the initial explosion. After leaving the crater,
it underwent enormous expansion, and Anderson and Flett were
led to suggest that possibly at the moment of emission it might
have been partly in the form of liquid drops, which on solidify-
ing evolved large volumes of gas held previously in occlusion.
The deadly effect of the blast seems to have been mostly due
to the irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory
passages by the fine hot dust, but suffocating gases, like sulphur
dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, were associated with the
water-vapour. Possibly the incandescent dust was even hotter
than the surrounding vapour, since the latter might be cooled
by expansion.
It is said that the black cloud as it swept along was accom-
panied by an indraught of air, not however sufficiently powerful
to check its rapid advance. The current of air was likened by
Anderson and Flett to the inrush of air at a railway station as
an express train passes. An attempt was made to determine
the temperature of the fatal blast which destroyed St Pierre,
but without very definite results. Thus it was assumed that
as the telephone wires were not melted the temperature was below
the fusing-point of copper: possibly, however, the blast may
have passed too rapidly to produce the effects which might
normally be due to its temperature.
Shape of Volcanic Cones. Those volcanic products which are solid
when ejected, or which solidify after extrusion, tend to form by
their accumulation around the eruptive vent a hill, which, though
generally more or less conical, is subject to much variation in shape.
It occasionally happens that the hill is composed wholly of ejected
blocks, not themselves of volcanic origin. In this case an explosion
has rent the ground, and the effluent vapours have hurled forth
fragments of the shattered rock through which the vent was opened,
but no ash or other fragmentary volcanic material has been ejected,
nor has any lava been poured forth. _ This exceptional type is
represented in the Eifel by certain monticules which consist mainly
of fragments of Devonian slate, more or less altered. In some cases
the area within a ring of such rocky materials is occupied by a sheet
of water, forming a crater-lake, known in the Eifel as a maar. Piles
of fragmentary matter of this character, though containing neither
cinders nor lava, may be fairly regarded as volcanic, inasmuch as
they are due to the explosive action of hot subterranean vapours.
In the ordinary paroxysmal type of eruption, however, cinders and
ashes are shot upwards by the explosion and then descend in showers,
forming around the orifice a mound, in shape rather like the diminu-
tive cone of sand in the lower lobe of an hour-glass. Little cinder-
cones of this character may be formed within the crater of a large
volcano during a single eruption; whilst large cones are built up
by many successive discharges, each sheet of fragmentary material
mantling more or less regularly round the preceding layer. The
symmetry of the hill is not infrequently affected by disturbing
influences a strong wind, for example, blowing the loose matter
towards one side. The sides of a cinder cone have generally a steep
slope, varying from 30 to 45, depending on the angle of repose
of the ejectamenta. Excellent examples of small scoria-cones are
found among the puys of Auvergne in central France, whilst a mag-
nificent illustration of this type of hill is furnished by Fusiyama,
in Japan, which reaches an altitude of 12,000 ft. How such a cone
may be rapidly built up was well shown by the formation of Monte
Nuovo, near Pozzuoli a hill 400 ft. high and a mile and a half in
circumference, which is known from contemporary evidence to have
been formed in the course of a few days in September 1538. The
shape of a cinder cone may be retained for ages, since it is not liable
to suffer greatly by denudation, as the rain soaks into the loose
porous mass instead of running down the outside. If lava rises in
the duct of a cinder cone, it may, on accumulation in the crater,
break down the wall, and thus effect its escape as a stream. Cones
/breached in this way are not uncommon in Auvergne.
It often happens that the cinders and ashes ejected from a volcano
become mixed with water, and so form a paste, which sets readily
as a hard tufaceous mass. Such natural tuff is indeed similar to
the hydraulic cement known as pozzolana, which is formed artificially
from volcanic ashes, and is renowned for durability. Although
streams of volcanic mud are commonly associated with the ashes of
a cinder-cone they may also form independent structures or tuff-
cones. These are generally broad-topped hills, having sides with an
angle of slope as low in some cases as 15.
Lava-cones are built up of streams of lava which have consolidated
around the funnel of escape. Associated with the lava, however,
there is usually more or less fragmentary matter, so that the cones
are composite in structure and consequently more acute in shape
than if they were composed wholly of lava. As the streams of lava
in a volcano run at different times in different directions, they radiate
from the centre, or flow from lateral or eccentric orifices, as irregular
tongues, and do not generally form continuous sheets covering the
mountain.
When lava is the sole or chief element in the cone, the shape of the
hill is determined to a great extent by the chemical composition and
viscosity of the lava, its copiousness and the rapidity of flow. If
the lava be highly basic and very mobile, it may spread to a great
distance before solidifying, and thus form a hill covering a large area
and rising perhaps to a great height, but remarkably flat in profile.
Were the lava perfectly liquid, it would indeed form a sheet without
any perceptible slope of surface. As a matter of fact, some lavas
are so fluent as to run down an incline of i, and flat cones of basalt
have in some cases a slope of only 10 or even less. The colossal
mass of Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, forms a remarkably flat broad cone,
spreading over a base of enormous area and rising to a height of
13,900 ft. Major Dutton, writing in 1883, said that " a moderate
eruption of Mauna Loa represents more material than Vesuvius
has emitted since the days of Pompeii." Yet the lava is so mobile
that it generally wells forth quietly, without explosive demonstra-
tion, and therefore unaccompanied by fragmentary ejectamenta.
Fluent lavas like those of Hawaii are also poured forth from the
volcanoes and volcanic fissures of Iceland.
If the lava be less basic and less fusible, the hill formed by its
accumulation instead of being a low dome will take the shape of a
cone with sides of higher gradient : in the case of andesite cones, for
instance, the slope may vary from 25 to 35. Acid rocks, or those
rich in silica, such as rhyolites and trachytes, may be emitted as
very viscous lavas tending to form dome-shaped or bulbous masses.
Experiment shows that such lavas may persist for a considerable
time in a semi-solid condition. It is possible for a dome to increase
in size not by the lava running over the crater and down the sides
but by injection of the pasty magma within the expanding bulb
while still soft; or if solidified, the crust yields by cracking. Such
a mode of growth, in which the dome consists of successive sheets
that have been compared to the skins of an onion, has been illustrated
by the experiments of Dr A. Reyer, and the structure is typically
represented by the mamelons- or steep-sided domes of the Isle of
Bourbon. The Puy-de-D6me in Auvergne is an example of a cone
formed of the trachytic rock called from its locality domite, whilst
the Grand Sarcoui in the same region illustrates the broad dome-
shaped type of hill. Such domes may have no summit-crater, and
it is then usually assumed that the top with the crater has been
removed by denudation, but possibly in some cases such a feature
never existed. The " dome volcano " of von Seebach is a dome of
acid lava extruded as a homogeneous mass, without conspicuous
chimney or crater. Although domes are usually composed of acid
rocks, it seems possible that they may be formed also of basic lavas,
if the magma be protruded slowly at a low temperature so as to be
rapidly congealed.
The Spine of Pele. A peculiar volcanic structure appeared at Mont
Pel6 in the course of the eruption of 1902, and was the subject of
careful study by Professor A. Lacroix, Dr E. A. Hoovey, A. Heilprin
and other observers. It appears that from fissures in the floor
of the Etang Sec a viscous andesitic lava, partly quartziferous, was
poured forth and rapidly solidified superficially, forming a dome-
shaped mass invested by a crust or carapace. According to Lacroix,
the crust soon became fractured, partly by shrinkage on consolida-
tion and partly by internal tension, and the dome grew rapidly by
injection of molten matter. Then there gradually rose from the
dome a huge monolith or needle, forming a terminal spine, which in
the course of its existence varied in shape and height, having been
at its maximum in July. 1903, when its absolute height was about
VOLCANO
187
5276 ft. above sea-level. The walls of the spine, inclined at from
75 to 90 to the horizon, were apparently slickensided, or polished
and scratched by friction: masses were occasionally detached and
.iirs were continually escaping. Several smaller needles were
tormcd. Some observers regarded the great spine as a solidified
of lava from a previous outburst, expelled on a renewal of
1-acroix, however, believed that it was formed by the
of an enormous mass of highly viscid magma, perhaps
!y solidified before emission, and he compared the formation of
the dome in the crater to the structure on Santorin in 1866, described
bv Fouqu6 as a " cumulo-volcano." Professor H. F. Cleland has
-u-il a comparison with the cone of andesite in the crater of the
volcano of Toluca in Mexico, and it is said that similar formations
U-en observed in the volcanoes of the Andes. Dr Tempest
Anderson, on visiting Pel6 in 1907, found a stump of the spine,
consisting of a kind of volcanic agglomerate, rising from a cone of
talus formed of its ruins.
The Crater. The eruptive orifice in normal volcano the bocca
of Italian vulcanologists is usually situated at the bottom of a
depression or cup, kno\yn as the crater. This hollow is formed and
kept open by the explosive force of the elastic vapours, and when the
i no becomes dormant or extinct it may be closed, partly by
rock falling from its crumbling walls and partly by the solidification
of the lava which it may contain. If a renewed outburst occurs,
the floor of the old crater may reopen or a new outlet may be formed
at some weak point on the side of the mountain : hence a crater may,
with regard to position, be either terminal or lateral. The position
of the crater will evidently be also changed on any shifting of the
general axis of eruption. In shape and size the crater vanes from
to time, the walls being perhaps breached or even blown away
during an outburst. Hence the height of a volcanic mountain
in activity, measured to the rim of the crater or the terminal peak,
is not constant. Vesuvius, for example, suffered a reduction of
several hundred feet during the great eruption of 1906, the east side
of the cone having lost, according to V. R. Matteucci, 120 metres.
Whilst in many cases the crater is a comparatively small circular
hollow around the orifice of discharge, it forms in others a large bowl-
like cavity, such as is termed in some localities a " caldera." In
the Sandwich Islands the craters are wide pits bounded by nearly
vertical walls, showing stratified and terraced lavas and floored by a
great plain of black basalt, sometimes with lakes of molten lava.
Professor W. H. Pickering compares the Java-pits of Hawaii to the
crater-rings in the moon. Some of the pit-craters in the Sandwich
Islands are of great size, but none comparable with the greatest of
the lunar craters. Dr G. K. Gilbert, however, has suggested that the
ring-shaped pits on the moon are not of volcanic origin, but are
depressions formed by the impact of meteorites. Similarly the
" crater " of Coon Butte, near Canyon Diablo, in Arizona, which is
4000 ft. in diameter and 500 ft. deep, has been regarded as a vast
pit due to collision of a meteorite of prodigious size. Probably the
largest terrestrial volcanic crater is that of Aso-san, in the isle of
Kiushiu (Japan), which is a huge oval depression estimated by some
observers to have an area of at least 100 sq. m. Some of the
large pit-craters have probably been formed by subsidence, the
cone of a volcano having been eviscerated by extravasation of lava,
and the roof of the cavity having then subsided by loss of support.
The term caldera has sometimes been limited to craters formed by
such collapse.
On the floor of the crater, ejected matter may accumulate as a
conoidal pile; and if such action be repeated in the crater of the
new cone, a succession of concentric cones will ultimately be formed.
The walls of a perfect crater form a ring, giving the cone a truncated
appearance, but the ring may suffer more or less destruction in the
course of the history of the mountain. A familiar instance of such
change is afforded by Vesuvius. _The mountain now so called, using
the term in a restricted sense, is a huge composite cone built up
within an old crateral hollow, the walls of which still rise as an
encircling rampart on the N. and N.E. sides, and are known as
Monte Somma ; but the S. and S.W. sides of the ancient crater have
disappeared, haying been blown away during some former outburst,
probably the Plinian eruption of 79. In like manner the relics of an
old crater form an ampnitneatre partially engirdling the Soufriere
in St Vincent, and other examples of " Somma rings are known to
vulcanologists.
Much of the fragmental matter ejected from a volcano rolls down
the inside of the crater, forming beds of tuff which incline towards
the central axis, or have a centroclinal dip. On the contrary, the
sheets of cinder and lava which form the bulk of the cone slope
away from the axis, or have a dip that is sometimes described as peri-
centric or qua-qua-versal. According to the old " crater-of -elevation
theory," held especially by A. von Humboldt, L. von Buch and Elie
de Beaumont, this inclination of the beds was regarded as mainly due
to upheaval. It was contended that the volcanic cone owed its
shape, for the most part, to local distension of the ground, and was
indeed comparable to a huge blister of the earth's crust, burst at
the summit to form the " elevation crater." Palma, in the Canary
Islands, was cited as a_ typical example of such a formation. This
view was opposed mainly by Poulett-Scrope, Sir Charles Lyell and
Constant Prevost, who argued that the volcano, so far from being
bladder-like, was practically a solid cone of erupted matter: hence
this view came to be known as the " crater-of-eruption theory." Its
general soundness has been demonstrated whenever an insight has
been obtained into the internal structure of a volcano. Thus, after
the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 a magnificent natural section of the
great cone of Rakata, at the S. end of the island, was exposed the
northern half haying been blown away and it was then evident
that this mountain was practically a solid cone, built up of a great
succession of irregular beds of tuff and lava, braced together by
intersecting dykes. The internal architecture of a volcano is raiely
so well displayed as in this case, but dissections of cones, more or less
distinct, are often obtained by denudation. It should be mentioned
that, in connexion with the structures called laccoliths, there may
have been an elevation, or folding, and even faulting, of the super-
ficial rocks by subterranean intrusion of lava ; but this is different from
the local expansion and rupture of the ground required by the old
theory. It may be noted, however, that in recent years the view of
elevation, in a modified form, has not been without supporters.
Where the growth of a volcanic mound takes place from within,
as in certain steep-sided trachytic cones, there may be no perceptible
crater or external outlet. Again, there are many volcanoes which have
no crater at the summit, because the eruptions always take place
from lateral outlets. Even when a terminal pit is present, the lava
may issue from the body of the mountain, and in some cases it exudes
from so many vents or cracks that the volcano has been described as
" sweating fire."
Parasitic Cones. In the case of a lofty volcano the column of lava
may not have sufficient ascensional force to reach the crater at the
summit, or at any rate it finds easier means of egress at some weak
spot, often along radial cracks, on the flanks of the mountain.
1 hus at Etna, which rises to a height of more than 10,800 ft., the
eruptions usually proceed from lateral fissures, sometimes at least
hall-way down the mountain-side. When fragmental materials are
ejected from a lateral vent a cinder-cone is formed, and by frequent
repetition of such ejections the flanks of Etna have become dotted
over with hundreds of scoria-cones much like the puys of Auvergne,
the largest (Monte Minardo) rising to a height of as much as 750 ft.
Hills of this character, seated on the parent mountain, are known as
parasitic cones, minor cones, lateral cones, &c.
Such subordinate cones often show a tendency to a linear arrange-
ment, rising from vents or bocche along the floor ot a line of fissure.
Thus in 1892 a_ chain of five cones arose from a rift on the S. side of
Etna, running in a N. and S. direction, and the hills became known as
the Monti Silvestri, after Professor Orazio Silvestri of Catania. This
rift, however, was but acontinuation of a fissure from which therearose
in 1886 the series of cones called the Monti Gemmellaro, while this
in turn was a prolongation of a rent opened in 1883. The eruption
on Etna in the spring of 1910 took place along the same general
direction, but at a much higher elevation. The tendency for erup-
tions to be renewed along old lines of weakness, which can be readily
opened afresh and extended, is a feature well known to vulcanologists.
The small cones which are frequently thrown up on lava streams
were admirably exemplified on Vesuvius in the eruption of 1855 and
figured by J. Schmidt. The name of "driblet cones" was given
by J. D. Dana to the little cones and pillars formed by jets of lava
projected from blowing holes at Kilauea, the drops of lava remaining
plastic and cohering as they fell. Such clots may form columns and
pyramids, with almost vertical sides. Steep-sided cones more or
less of this character occur elsewhere, but are usually built up around
spiracles. Small cones formed by mere dabs of lava are known
trivially as " spatter cones."
Fissure Eruptions. In certain parts of the world there are vast
tracts of basaltic lava with little or no evidence of cones or of
pyroclastic accompaniment. To explain their formation, Baron F.
von Richthofen suggested that they represent great floods of lava
which were poured forth not from ordinary volcanic craters with
more or less explosive violence, but from great fissures in the earth's
crust, whence they may have quietly welled forth and spread as a
deluge over the surface of the country. The eruptions were thus
effusive rather than explosive. Such phenomena, constituting a
distinct type of vulcanism, are distinguished as fissure eruptions or
massive eruptions terms which suggest the mode of extrusion and
the character of the extruded matter. As the lava in such outflows
must be very fusible, it is generally of basaltic type, like \hat of
Hawaii: indeed, the Hawaiian volcanoes, with their quiet emission
of highly fluent lavas, connect the fissure eruptions with the " central
eruptions," which are usually regarded as representing the normal
type of activity. At the present day true fissure eruptions seem
to be of rather limited occurrence, but excellent examples are
furnished by Iceland. Here there are vast fields of black basalt,
formed of sheets of lava which have issued from long chasms,
studded in most cases with rows of small cones, but these generally
so insignificant that they make no scenic features and might be
readily obliterated by denudation. Dr T. Thoroddsen enumerates
87 great rifts and lines _of cones in Iceland, and even the larger cones
of Vesuvian type are situated on fissures.
It is believed that fissure eruptions must have played a far more
important part in the history of the earth than eruptions of the
familiar cone-and-crater type, the latter representing indeed only
VOLCANO
a declining phase of vulcanism. Sir Archibald Geikie, who has
specially studied the subject of fissure eruptions, regards the Tertiary
basaltic plateaus of N.E. Ireland and the Inner Hebrides as out-
flows from fissures, which may be represented by the gigantic
system of dykes that form so marked a feature in the geological
structure of the northern part of Britain and Ireland. These dykes
extend over an area of something like 40,000 sq. m., while the
outflows form an aggregate of about 3000 ft. in thickness. In parts
of Nevada, Idaho. Oregon and Washington, sheets of late Tertiary
basalt from fissure eruptions occupy an area of about 200,000
sq. m., and constitute a pile at least 2000 ft. thick. In India the
" Deccan traps " represent enormous masses of volcanic matter,
probably of like origin but of Cretaceous date, whilst South Africa
furnishes other examples of similar outflows. Professor J. W. Gregory
recognized in the Kapte plains of East Africa evidence of a type of
vulcanism, which he distinguished as that of " plateau eruptions. "
According to him a number of vents opened at the points of inter-
section of lines of weakness in a high plateau, giving rise to many
small cones, and the simultaneous flows of lava from these cones
united to form a far-spreading sheet.
Extrusive and Intrusive Magmas. When the molten magma in the
interior of the earth makes its way upwards and flows forth super-
ficially as a stream of lava, the product is described as extrusive,
effusive, effluent or eruptive; but if, failing to reach the surface,
the magma solidifies in a fissure or other subterranean cavity, it is
said to be intrusive or irruptive. Rocks of the former group only
are sometimes recognized as strictly " volcanic, " but the term is
conveniently extended, at least in certain cases, to igneous rocks
of the latter type, including therefore certain hypabyssal and even
plutonic rocks.
When the intrusive magma has been forced into narrow irregular
crevices it forms " veins, which may exhibit complex ramifications,
especially marked in some acid rocks; but when injected into a
regularly shaped fissure,, more or less parallel-sided, and cutting
across the planes of bedding, it forms a wall-like mass of rock termed
a " dyke. " Most dykes are approximately vertical, or at least
highly inclined in position. The inclination of a dyke to a vertical
plane is termed its " hade. " In a cinder-cone, the lava as it rises
may force its way into cracks, formed by pressure of the magma
and tension of the vapours, and will thus form a system of veins
and dykes, often radiating from the volcanic axis and strengthening
the structure by binding the loose materials together. Thus, in
the Valle del Bove, a huge cavity on the east side of Etna, the walls
exhibit numerous vertical dykes, which by their hardness stand out
as rocky ribs, forming a marked feature in the scenery of the valley.
In a similar way dykes traverse the walls of the old crater of Monte
Somma at Vesuvius. Exceptionally a dyke may be hollow, the
lava having solidified as a crust at the margin of the fissure but
having escaped from the interior while still liquid.
When molten matter is thrust between beds of tuff or between
successive lava-flows or even ordinary sedimentary strata, it forms
an intrusive sheet of volcanic rock known as a " sill. " A sill may
sometimes be traced to its connexion with a dyke, which represents
the channel up which the lava rose, but instead of reaching the
surface the fluid found an easier path between the strata or perhaps
along a horizontal rent. Although a dyke may represent a conduit
for the ascent of lava which has flowed out superficially, yet if the
lava has been removed at the surface by denudation the dyke
terminates abruptly, so that its function as the former feeder of a
lava-current is not evident. In other cases a dyke may end bluntly
because the crack which it occupies never reached the surface.
Lava which has insinuated itself between planes of stratification
may, instead of spreading out as a sheet or sill, accumulate locally as
a lenticular mass, known as a laccolith or laccolite (q.v.). Such a
mass, in many cases rather mushroom-shaped, may force the super-
incumbent rocks upwards as a dome, and though at first concealed
may be ultimately exposed by removal of the overlying burden by
erosion. The term phacolite was introduced by A. Harker to denote
a meniscus-shaped mass of lava intruded in folded strata, along
a crest or a trough. The bysmalith of Professor Iddings is a laccolith
of rather plug-like shape, with a faulted roof. An intrusive mass
?uite irregular in shape has been termed by R. A. Daly a chonolith
Gr. xte"!, a mould), whilst an intrusion of very great size and ill-
defined form is sometimes described as a bathylith or batholite.
Structural Peculiarities in Lava. Many of the structures exhibited
by lava are due to the conditions under which solidification has been
effected. A dyke, for example, may be vitreous at the margin
where it has been rapidly chilled by contact with the walls of the
fissure into which it was injected, whilst the main body may be
lithoidal or crystalline: hence a basalt dyke will sometimes have
a selvage formed of the basaltic glass known as tachylyte. A
similar glass may form a thin crust on certain lava-flows. In a
homogeneous vitreous lava, contraction on solidification may
develop curved fissures, well seen in the delicate " perlitic " cracks
of certain obsidians, indicating a tendency to assume a globular
structure. This structure becomes very distinct by the develop-
ment of " spherulites, " or globular masses with a radiating fibrous
structure, sometimes well seen in devitrified glass. Occasionally
the spherulitic bodies in lava are hollow, when they are known as
lithophyses, of which excellent examples occur at Obsidian Cliff in
the Yellowstone National Park, as described by Professor Iddings.
Globular structure on a large scale is sometimes displayed by lavas,
especially those of basic type, such as the basalt of Aci Castello in
Sicily, which was probably formed, according to Professor Gaetano
Platania, by flow of the lava into submarine silt, relics of which still
occur between the spheroids. Ellipsoidal or pillow-shaped masses are
not infrequently developed in ancient lava-flows, and Sir A. Geikie
has suggested the term " pillow-structure " for such formations.
Dr T. Anderson has observed them in the recent lavas of Savaii.
Joints, or cracks formed by shrinkage on solidification, may
divide a sheet of lava into columns, as familiarly seen in basalt,
where the rock often consists of a close mass of regular polygonal
prisms, mostly hexagonal. Each prism is divided at intervals by
transverse joints, more or less curved, so that the portions are
united by a slight ball-and-socket articulation. As the long axes
of the columns lie at right angles to the cooling surface they are
vertical in a horizontal sheet of lava, horizontal in a vertical dyke,
and inclined or curved in other cases. It sometimes happens that
in a basaltic dyke the formation of the prisms, having started from
the opposite walls as chilling surfaces, has not been completed;
and hence the prisms fail to meet in the middle. A spheroidal
structure is often developed in basalt columns by weathering, the
rock exfoliating in spherical shells, rather like the skins of an onion :
such a structure is characteristically shown at the Kasekellar,
known also as the Elfen Grotto, at Bertrich, near Alf on the Mosel,
where the pillars of the lava are broken into short segments which
suggest by their flattened globular shape a pile of Dutch cheeses.
Although prismatic jointing, or columnar structure, is most common
in basalt, it occurs also in other volcanic rocks. Fine columns of
obsidian, for instance, are seen at Obsidian Cliff in the Yellowstone
Park, where the pillars may be 50 ft. or more in height. Such an
occurrence, however, is exceptional.
Vitreous lavas often show fluxion structure in the form of streaks,
bands or trains of incipient crystals, indicating the flow of the mass
when viscous. The character of this structure is related to the
viscosity of the lava. Those structural peculiarities which depend
mainly on the presence of vapour, such as vesiculation, have been
already noticed, and the porphyritic structure has likewise beei
described.
Submarine Volcanoes.
Considering how large a proportion of the face of the earth
is covered by the sea, it seems likely that Volcanic eruptions
must frequently occur on the ocean-floor. When, as occasionally
though not often happens, the effects of a submarine eruption
are observed during the disturbance, it is seen that the surface
of the sea is violently agitated, with copious discharge of
steam; the water passes into a state of ebullition, perhaps
throwing up huge fountains; shoals of dead fishes, with volcanic
cinders, bombs and fragments of pumice, float around the centre
of eruption, and ultimately a little island may appear above
sea-level. This new land is the peak of a volcanic cone which
is based on the sea-floor, and if in deep water the submarine
mountain must evidently be of great magnitude. Christmas
Island in the Indian Ocean, described by Dr C. W. Andrews,
appears to be a volcanic mountain, with Tertiary limestones,
standing in water more than 14,000 ft. deep. Many volcanic
islands, such as those abundantly scattered over the Pacific,
must have started as submarine volcanoes which reached the
surface either by continued upward growth or by upheaval of
the sea-bottom. Etna began its long geological history by
submarine eruptions in a bay of the Mediterranean, and Vesuvius
in like manner represents what was originally a volcano on
the sea-floor. As the ejectamenta from a submarine vent
accumulate on the sea-bottom they become intermingled with
relics of marine organisms, and thus form fossiliferous volcanic
tuffs. By the distribution of the ashes over the sea-floor,
through the agency of waves and currents, these tuffs may pass
insensibly into submarine deposits of normal sedimentary type.
One of the best examples of a submarine eruption resulting in the
formation of a temporary island occurred in 1831 in the Mediter-
ranean between Sicily and the coast of Africa, where the water was
known to have previously had a depth of 100 fathoms. After the
usual manifestations of volcanic activity an accumulation of black
cinders and ashes formed an island which reached at one point a
height of 200 ft., so that the pile of erupted matter had a thickness
of about 800 ft. The new island, which was studied by Constant
PreVost, became known in England as Graham's Island, in France as
Tie Julie and in Italy by various names as Isola Ferdinandea. Being
merely a loose pile of scoriae, it rapidly suffered erosion by the sea,
and in about three months was reduced to a shoal called Graham's
VOLCANO
189
Ki'i-f. In 1891 a submarine eruption occurred near the isle of
I'.iniellaria in the same waters, and the eruptive centre was termed
|py I'rof essor H.S.Washington and Foci stner volcano, butit gave rise
to no island. A well-known instance of a temporary volcanic island
furnished by Sabrina an islet of cinders thrown up by sub-
marine eruptions in 1811, off the coast of St Michael's, one of the
Azores. The island of Bogosloff, or Castle Island, in Bering Sea,
about 40 m. W. of Unalaska Island, is a volcanic mass which was
first observed in 1796 after an eruption. In 1883 another eruption
in the neighbouring water threw up a new volcanic cone of black
sand and ashes, known as New Bogosloff or Fire Island, situated
about half a mile to the N.W. of Old Bogosloff, with which it was
connected by a low beach. Another island, called Perry Island,
larger than either of the others, made its appearance in the neigh-
bourhood about the time of the great earthquake in California in
1906. It is reported that some of these islands have since dis-
appeared.
Mud Volcanoes.
Mud volcanoes are small conical hills of clay which discharge,
more or less persistently, streams of fine mud, sometimes as-
sociated with naphtha or petroleum, and usually with bubbles
of gas. As the mud is generally saline, the hills are known also
as " salses." The gases are chiefly hydrocarbons, often with
more or less sulphuretted hydrogen and carbon dioxide, and
sometimes with nitrogen. Though generally less than a yard
in height, the cones may in exceptional cases rise to an elevation
of as much as 500 ft. The mud oozes from the top and
spreads over the sides, or is spurted forth with the gases.
Occasionally the discharge is vigorous, mud and stones being
thrown up to a considerable height, sometimes accompanied
by flames due to combustion of the hydrocarbons.
Mud volcanoes occur in groups, and have a wide distribu-
tion. They are known in Iceland; in Modena; at Taman and
Kertch, in the Crimea; at Baku on the Caspian; in Java and in
Trinidad: Humboldt described those near Turbaco, in Colombia.
In Sicily they occur near Girgenti, and a group is known at
Paterno on Etna. By the Sicilians they are termed, maccalube,
a word of Arabic origin. The " paint-pots" of the Yellowstone
National Park are small mud volcanoes.
Many so-called mud volcanoes appear to be due to the de-
rangement of subterranean water-flow or to landslips in con-
nexion with earthquakes, whilst others may be referable to
certain chemical reactions going on underground; but there are
others again which seem to be truly of volcanic origin. Hot
water and steam escaping through clays, or crumbling tuffs
reduced to a clayey condition, may form conical mounds of
pasty material, through which mud oozes and water escapes.
Geysers are closely related to volcanoes, but in consequence of
their special interest they are treated separately (see GEYSER). For
natural steam-holes and other phenomena connected with declining
vulcanicity, see SOFFIONI, SOLFATARA and MOFETTA.
Geographical Distribution of Volcanoes.
It is matter of frequent observation that volcanoes are most
abundant in regions marked by great seismic activity. Although
the volcano and the earthquake are not usually connected
in the direct relation of cause and effect, yet in many cases
they seem referable to a common origin. Both volcanic ex-
trusion and crustal movement may be the means of relieving
local strains in the earth's crust, and both are found to occur,
as might reasonably be expected, in many parts of the earth
where folding and fracture of the rocks have frequently
happened and where mountain-making appears to be still in
progress. Thus, volcanoes may often be traced along zones
of crustal deformation, cr folded mountain-chains, especially
where they run near the borders of the oceanic basins. They
are frequently associated with the Pacific type of coast-line.
The most conspicuous example of linear distribution is furnished
by the great belt of volcanoes, coinciding for the most part with a
band of seismic disturbance, which engirdles intermittently the huge
basin of the Pacific ; though here, as elsewhere in studying volcanic
topography, regard must be paid to dormant and extinct centres
as well as to those that are active at the present time. As volcanoes
are in many cases ranged along what are commonly regarded as
lines of fracture, it is not surprising that the centres of most intense
vulcanicity are in many cases situated at the intersection of two or
more fracture-lines. On the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean the
great volcanic ring may be traced, though with many and extensive
interruptions, from Cape Horn to Alaska. In South America the
chain of the Andes between Corcovado in the south and Tolima in
the north is studded at irregular intervals with volcanoes, some recent
and many more extinct, including the loftiest volcanic mountains
in the world. The grandest group of South American volcanoes,
though mostly quiescent, is in Ecuador. Cotopaxi, seen in activity
by E. Whymper in 1880, has, according to him, a height Of 19,613 ft.,
whilst Saneay is said to be one of the most active volcanoes in the
world. The linear arrangement, often a marked feature in the
distribution of volcanoes, is well exemplified in the general north-and-
south trend of the Andean ranges, the volcanoes being situated along
the orographic axis. These folded mountains with their volcanoes
also illustrate the close relationship to the sea so frequently observed
in volcanic topography, a relationship, however, not without many
exceptions. The volcanic rock called andesite was so named by
L. von Buch from its characteristic occurrence in the Andes. It is
notable that the volcanic rocks throughout the great Pacific belt
present much similarity in composition. The volcanoes of Ecuador
nave, been described in detail by A. Stubel and others (see ANDES).
Central America contains a large number of active volcanoes
and solfataras, many of which are located in the mountains parallel
to the western coast. Conseguina, on the south side of the Gulf of
Fonseca, is remarkable for its eruption in 1835, when an enormous
volume of ash was ejected and the summit of the mountain blown
away. Izalco, in San Salvador, came into existence in 1770, and
is habitually active. In the centre of Lake Ilopango in Salvador,
which possibly occupies an ancient crater, a volcanic island arose in
1880 and attained a height of 160 ft. Guatemala is peculiarly-
rich in volcanoes, as described by Dr Tempest Anderson, who
visited the country in 1907. The Cerro Quemado, or the Volcano
of Quezaltenango, was the scene of a great eruption in 1785. At
the Volcano of Santa Maria there was an outburst in 1902 more
violent than the simultaneous eruptions in the Lesser Antilles.
The cones of Guatemala include the Volcan de Fuego and the
Volcan de Agua, the former often active in historic times, whilst
the latter is notable for the flood which in 1541 swept down from
the mountain and destroyed Old Guatemala, but this flood was
probably not of volcanic origin.
The plateau of Mexico is the seat of several active volcanoes
which occur in a band stretching across the country from Colima
in the west to Tuxtla near Vera Cruz. The highest of these volcanic
mountains is Orizaba, or Cithaltepetl, rising to an altitude of
18,200 feet, and known to have been active in the l6th century.
Popocatepetl (" the smoking mountain ") reaches a height of about
17,880 ft., and from its crater sulphur was at one time systemati-
cally collected. The famous volcano of Jorullo, near Toluca, at a
distance of about 120 m. from the sea, has been the centre of much
scientific discussion since it was regarded by Humboldt, who visited
it in 1803, as a striking proof of the elevation theory. It came into
existence rapidly during an eruption which began in September
!759. when it was said by unscientific observers that the ground
became suddenly inflated from below. The cone, though not of
exceptional magnitude, is situated in an elevated district, and its
summit rises to about 4330 ft. above sea-level. In the neighbour-
hood of Jorullo there are three subordinate cones of similar cha-
racter known as volcancitos, with great numbers of small mounds
of cinder and ash formed around fumaroles on the lava, and locally
called hornitos, or " little ovens. " The streams of basaltic lava
from Jorullo form rough barren surfaces, which pass under the
name of malpays, or bad lands.
In the United States very few volcanoes are active at the present
day, though many have become extinct only in times that are
geologically recent. An eruption occurred in 1857 atTres Virgines,
in the south of California, and the cinder cone on Lassen's Peak
(California) was also active in the middle of the 19th century. The
Mono Valley craters and Mount Shasta, in California, are extinct.
The Cascade Range contains numerous volcanic peaks, but only
few show signs of activity. Mount Hood, in Oregon, exhales vapour,
as also does Mount Rainier in Washington. Mount St Helens
(Washington) was in eruption in 1841 and 1842; and Mount Baker
(Washington), the most northern of the volcanoes connected with
the Cascade Range, is said to have been active in 1843. Few
volcanic peaks occur in the Rocky Mountains, but evidence of
lingering activity is very marked in the geysers and hot springs of
the Yellowstone National Park. The earth's internal heat is also
manifested at many points elsewhere, as at Steamboat Springs on
the Virginia Range, an offshoot of the Sierra Nevada, and in the
Comstock Lode
Volcanic activity is prominent in Alaska, along the Coast Range
and in the neighbouring islands. The crater of Mount Edgecumbe,
in Lazarus Island, is said to have been active in 1796, but this is
doubtful. Mount Fairweather has probably been in recent activity,
and the lofty cone of Mount Wrangell, on Copper river, is reported
to have been in eruption in 1819. In the neighbourhood of Cook's
Inlet there are several volcanoes, including the island of St Augustine.
Unimak Island has two volcanoes, which have supplied the natives
with sulphur and obsidian; one of these volcanoes being Mount
Shishaldm, a cone rivalling Fusiyama in graceful contour. The
VOLCANO
Aleutian volcanic belt is a narrow, curved chain of islands, extending
from Cook's Inlet westwards for nearly 1600 m. It is notable that
the convexity of the curve faces the great ocean, as has been observed
in other cases, the arcs following the direction of the rock-folds.
According to Professor I. C. Russell, an authority on the volcanoes
of N. America, there are in the Aleutian Islands and in the peninsula
no fewer than 57 craters, either active or recently extinct.
From the Aleutian Islands the volcanic band of the Pacific
changes its direction, and passing to the peninsula of Kamschatka,
where 14 volcanoes are said to be active, turns southwards and forms
the festoon of the Kurile Islands. Here again the convexity of the
insular arc is directed towards the ocean. This volcanic archi-
pelago leads on to the great islands of Ja^an, where the volcanoes
have been studied by Professor J. Milne, who also described those of
the Kuriles. Of the 54 volcanoes recognized as now active or only
recently extinct in Japan, the best known is the graceful cone of the
sacred mountain Fusiyama, but others less pretentious are far more
dangerous. The great eruption of Bandaisan, about 120 m. N.
of Tokio, which occurred in 1888, blew off one side of the peak called
Kobandai, removing, according to Professor Sekiya's estimate, about
2982 million tons of material. Aso-san in Kiushui, the southern-
most large island of Japan, is notable for the enormous size of its
crater. In the Bonin group of islands volcanic activity is indicated
by such names as Volcano Island and Sulphur Island.
South of the Japanese archipelago the train of volcanoes passes
through some small islands in or near the Loo Choo (Liu Kiu) group
and thence onwards by Formosa to the Philippine Islands, where
subterranean activity, finds abundant expression in earthquakes
and volcanoes. After leaving this region the linear arrangement of
the eruptive centres becomes less distinctly marked, for almost
every island in the Moluccas and the Sunda Archipelago teems
with volcanoes, solfataras and hot springs. Possibly, however, a
broken zone may be traced from the Moluccas through New Guinea
and thence to New Zealand, perhaps through eastern Australia
(for though no active volcanoes are known there, relics of com-
paratively recent activity are abundant) ; or again by way of the
Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides,
the Fiji Islands and Kermodoc Island.
The great volcanic district in New Zealand is situated in the northern
part of North Island, memorable for the eruption of Tarawera in
1886. This three-peaked mountain on the south side of Lake
Tarawera, not previously known to have been active, suddenly burst
into action; a huge rift opened, and Lake Rotomahana subsided,
with destruction of the famous sinter terraces. The crater of
Tongariro is in the solfatara stage, whilst Mount Ruapehu is regarded
as extinct. On White Island in the Bay of Plenty the cone of
Wharkari is feebly active.
Far to the south, on Ross Island, off South Victoria Land, in
Antarctica, are the volcanoes of Erebus and Terror, the former of
which is active. These are often regarded as remotely related to
the Pacific zone, but Dr G. T. Prior has shown that the Antarctic
volcanic rocks which he examined belonged to the Atlantic and not
the Pacific type.
Within the great basin of the Pacific, imperfectly surrounded by
its broken girdle of volcanoes, there is a vast number of scattered
islands and groups of islands of volcanic origin, rising from deep
water, and haying in many cases active craters. The most im-
portant group is the Hawaiian Archipelago, where there is a chain
of at least fifteen large volcanic mountains all extinct, however,
with the exception of three in Hawaii, namely Mauna Loa, Kilauea
and Hualalai; and of these Hualalai has been dormant since 1811.
It is notable that the two present gigantic centres of activity, though
within 20 m. of each other, appear to be independent in their
eruptivity. Several of the Hawaiian Islands, as pointed out by
J. D. Dana, who was a very high authority on this group, consist of
two volcanoes united at the base, forming volcanic twins or doublets.
The volcanic regions of the Pacific are connected with those of
the Indian Ocean by a grand train of islands rich in volcanoes,
stretching from the west of New Guinea through the Moluccas and
the Sunda Islands, where they form a band extending axially through
Java and Sumatra. Here is situated the principal theatre of terrestrial
vulcanicity, apparently representing an enormous fissure, or system
of fissures, in the earth's crust, sweeping in a bold curve, with its
convexity towards the Indian Ocean.
Numerous volcanic peaks occur in the string of small islands to
the east of Java notably in Flores, Sumbawa, Lombok and Bali;
and one of the most terrific eruptions on record in any part of the
world occurred in the province of Tomboro, in the island of Sumbawa,
in the year 1815. Java contains within its small area as many as
49 great volcanic mountains active, dormant and extinct. The
largest is Smerin, about 12,000 ft. high, but the most regularly
active is said to be Gownong Lamongang, which is in almost un-
interrupted activity, emitting usually only ashes and vapour, though
in 1883 lava streamed forth. Many of the Javanese volcanoes
present marked regularity 01 contour, with the sides of the cones
rather symmetrically furrowed by tropical rains and probably
ridged by ash-slides. The radial furrows on volcanic cones are
sometimes known as " barrancos."
The little uninhabited island of Krakatoa in the Strait of Sunda
appears to be situated at a volcanic node, or the intersection of two
curved fissures, and it is believed that the island itself represents
part of the basal wreck of what was once a volcano of gigantic size.
After two centuries of repose, a violent catastrophe occurred in
1883, whereby the greater part of the island was blown away. This
eruption and its effects were made the subject of careful study by
Verbeek, Breon and Judd.
Through the great island of Sumatra, a chain of volcanoes runs
longitudinally, and may possibly be continued northwards in the
Bay of Bengal by Barren Island and Norcondam the former an
active and the latter an extinct volcano. On the western side of
the Indian Ocean a small volcanic band may be traced in the islands
of the Mascarene group, several craters in Reunion (Bourbon) being
still active. Far south in the Indian Ocean are the volcanic islands
of New Amsterdam and St Paul. The Comoro Islands in the
channel of Mozambique exhibit volcanic activity, whilst in East and
Central Africa there are several centres, mostly extinct but some
partially active, associated with the Rift Valleys. The enormous
cones of Kenia and Kilimanjaroo are extinct, but on Kibo, one of the
summits of the latter, a crater is still preserved. The Mfumbiro
volcanoes, S. of Lake Edward, rise to a height of more than
14,700 feet. Kirunga, N. of Lake Kivu, is still partially active.
Elgon is an old volcanic peak, but Ruwenzori is not of volcanic
origin. On the west side of Africa, the Cameroon Peak is a volcano
which was active in 1909, and the island of Fernando Po is also vol-
canic. Along the Red Sea there are not wanting several examples
of volcanoes, such as Jebel Teir. Aden is situated in an old crater.
Passing to the Atlantic, a broken band of volcanoes, recent and
extinct, may be traced longitudinally through certain islands, some
of which rise from the great submarine ridge that divides the ocean,
in part of its length, into an eastern and a western trough. The
northern extremity of the series is found in Jan Mayen, an island in
the Arctic Ocean, where an eruption occurred in 1818. Iceland,
however, with its wealth of volcanoes and geysers, is the most
important of all the Atlantic centres. According to Dr T.
Thoroddsen there are in Iceland about 130 post-glacial volcanoes,
and it is known that from 25 to 30 have been in eruption during the
historic period. Many of the Icelandic lava-flows, such as the
immense flood from Laki (Skapta Jokull) in 1783, are referable to
fissure eruptions, which are the characteristic though not the
exclusive form of activity in this island. Probably this type was
also responsible for the sheets of old lava in the terraced hills of
the Faroe Islands, to which may have been related the Tertiary
volcanoes of the west of Scotland and the north of Ireland.
An immense gap separates the old volcanic area of Britain from
the volcanic, archipelagoes of the Azores, the Canaries and the Cape
Verd Islands. Palma a little island in the Canary group, with a
caldera or large crater at its summit, from which fissures or barrancos
radiate is famous in the history of vulcanology, in that it furnished
L. von Buch with evidence on which he founded the " crater-of-
elevation " theory. The remaining volcanic islands of the Atlantic
chain, all now cold and silent, include Ascension, St Helena and
Tristan da Cunha, whilst in the western part of the South Atlantic
are the small volcanic isles of Trinidad and Ferdinando do Noronha.
St Paul's rocks appear also to be of volcanic origin.
One of the most important volcanic regions of the world is found
in the West Indies, where the Lesser Antilles the scene of the great
catastrophes of 1902 form a string of islands, stretching in a regular
arc that sweeps in a N. and S. direction across the eastern end of
the Caribbean Sea. Subject to frequent seismic disturbance, and
rich in volcanoes, solfataras and hot springs, these islands seem to
form the summit of a great earth-fold which, rising as a curved ridge
from deep water, separates the Caribbean Sea from the Atlantic.
The volcanoes are situated on the inner border of the curve. It is
notable that the Antilles and the Sunda Islands, two of the grandest
theatres of vulcanicity on the face of the earth, are situated at the
antipodes of each other one being apparently an eastern and the
other a western offshoot of the great Pacific girdle.
The European volcanoes, recent and extinct, may be regarded
as representing rather ill-defined branches thrown off eastwards from
the Atlantic band. Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the main-
land, but in the Mediterranean there are Etna on the coast of
Sicily; the Lipari Islands, with Stromboli and Vulcano in chronic
activity ; and farther to the east the archipelago of Santorin, where
new islands have appeared in historic times. Submarine eruptions
have occurred also between Sicily and the coast of Africa; one in
1831 having given rise temporarily to Graham's Island, and another
in 1891 appearing near Pantellaria, itself a volcanic isle. Of
the extinct European volcanoes, some of the best known are in
Auvergne, in the Eifel, in Bohemia and in Catalonia, whilst the vol-
canic land of Italy includes the Euganean hills, the Alban hills, the
Phlegraean Fields, &c. The great lakes of Bolsena and Bracciano
occupy old craters, and many smaller sheets of water are on similar
sites. The volcanic islands no longer active include Ischia, with the
great cone of Epomeo which was in a state of eruption in 1301;
the Ponza Islands, Nisida, Vivera and others near Naples; and
several in the Greek archipelago, such as Milos, Kimolos and
Polinos.
From the eastern end of the Mediterranean evidence of former
VOLCANO
191
volcarr activity may be traced into Asia Minor and thence to
Armenia and the Caucasus. East of Smyrna there is a great desolate
tr.ict which the ancients recognized as volcanic and termed the
irccaumene (burnt country). The volcanic districts of Lydia were
ic-d by Professor H. S. Washington. In the plateau of Armenia
an- several extinct volcanic mountains, more or less destroyed,
(J f which the best known is Ararat. Nimrud Dagh on the shore of
Y.m is said to have been in eruption in the year 1441. Dr F.
ild has described the volcanoes of Armenia. Of the volcanoes
rsian territory not now active, Demavend, south of the Caspian,
important example. Elburz is also described as an old volcano.
1 1 lias been said that in Central Asia there are certain vents still
r, and recent volcanic rocks are known irom the Przhevalsky
i-luiii and other localities.
The number of volcanoes known to be actually active on the earth
iierally estimated at between 300 and 400, but there is reason
lieve that this estimate is far too low. If account be taken of
volcanic cones which have not been active in historic time, the
will probably rise to several thousands. The distribution of
noes at various periods of the earth's history, as revealed by the
: occurrence of volcanic rocks at different horizons in the crust
of the earth, is discussed under GEOLOGY. Periods of great earth-
movement have been marked by exceptional volcanic activity.
Causes of Vidcanicity.
In discussing the cause of vulcanicity two problems demand
attention: first the origin of the heat necessary for the mani-
festation of volcanic phenomena, and secondly the nature of
the force by which the heated matter is raised to the surface
and ejected. According to the old view, which assumed that
the earth was a spheroid of molten matter invested by a com-
paratively thin crust of solid rock, the explanation of the
phenomena appeared fairly simple. The molten interior
supplied the heated matter, while the shrinkage of the cooling
crust produced fractures that formed the volcanic channels
through which it was assumed the magma might be squeezed
out in the process of contraction. When physicists urged the
necessity of assuming that the globe was practically solid,
vulcanologists were constrained to modify their views. Follow-
ing a suggestion of W. Hopkins of Cambridge, they supposed
that the magma, instead of existing in a general central cavity,
was located in comparatively small subterranean lakes. Some
authorities again, like the Rev. O. Fisher, regarded the magma
as constituting a liquid zone, intermediate between a solid core
and a solid shell.
If solidification of the primitive molten globe pioceeded from
the centre outwards, so as to form a sphere practically solid, it
is conceivable that portions of the original magma might never-
theless be retained in cavities, and thus form " residual lakes."
Although the mass might be for the most part solid, the outer
portion, or " crust," could conceivably have a honeycombed
structure, and any magma retained in the cells might serve
indirectly to feed the volcanoes. Neighbouring volcanoes seem
in some cases to draw their supply of lava from independent
sources, favouring the idea of local cisterns or " intercrustal
reservoirs." It is probable, however, that subterranean re-
servoirs of magma, if they exist, do not represent relics of an
original fluid condition of the earth, but the molten material
may be merely rock which has become fused locally by a
temporary development of heat or more likely by a relief of
pressure. It should be noted that the quantity of magma
required to supply the most copious lava-flows is comparatively
small, the greatest recorded outflow (that of Tomboro in Sum-
bawa, in 1815) not having exceeded, it is said, six cubic miles;
and even this estimate is probably too high. Whilst in many
cases the magma-cisterns may be comparatively small and
temporary, it must be remembered that there are regions where
the volcanic rocks are so similar throughout as to suggest a
common origin, thus needing intercrustal reservoirs of great
extent and capacity. It has been suggested that comparatively
small basins, feeding individual volcanoes, may draw their
supply from more extensive reservoirs at greater depths.
Much speculation has been rife as to the source of the heat
required for the local melting of rock. Chemical action has
naturally been suggested, especially that of superficial water, but
its adequacy may be doubted. After Sir Humphry Davy's dis-
covery of the metals of the alkalis, he thought that their remark-
able behaviour with water might explain the origin of subterranean
heat ; and in more recent years others have seen a local source of
heat in the oxidation of large deposits of iron, such as that brought
up in the basalt of Disco Island in Greenland. It has been
assumed by Moissan and by Gautier that water might attack
certain metallic carbides, if they occur as subterranean deposits,
and give rise to some of the products characteristic of volcanoes.
But it seems that all such action must be very limited, and
utterly inadequate to the geneial explanation of volcanic
phenomena. At the same time it must be remembered that
access of water to a rock already heated may have an important
physical effect by reducing its melting point, and may thus
greatly assist in the production of a supply of molten matter.
The admission of surface-waters to heated rocks is naturally
regarded as an important source of motive power in consequence
of the sudden generation of vapour, but it is doubtful to
what extent it may contribute, if at all, to the origin of
volcanic heat.
According to Robert Mallet a competent source of sub-
terranean heat for volcanic phenomena might be derived from
the transformation of the mechanical work of compressing and
crushing parts of the crust of the earth as a consequence of
secular contraction. This view he worked out with much
ingenuity, supporting it by mathematical reasoning and an
appeal to experimental evidence. It was claimed for the theory
that it explained the linear distribution of volcanoes, their
relation to mountain chains, the shallow depth of the foci and
the intermittence of eruptive activity. A grave objection,
however, is the difficulty of conceiving that the heat, whether
due to crushing or compression, could be concentrated locally
so as to produce a sufficient elevation of temperature for
melting the rocks. According to the calculations of Rev. O.
Fisher, the crushing could not, under the most .favourable cir-
cumstances, evolve heat enough to account for volcanic
phenomena.
Since pressure raises the melting-point of any solid that
expands on liquefaction, it has been conjectured that many
deep-seated rocks, though actually solid, may be potentially
liquid; that is, they are maintained in a solid state by pressure
only. Any local relief of pressure, such as might occur in the
folding and faulting of rocks, would tend, without further
accession of heat, to induce fusion. But although moderate
pressure raises the fusing-point of most solids, it is believed,
from modern researches, that very great pressures may have
a contrary effect.
It is held by Professor S. Arrhenius that at great depths in
the earth the molten rock, being above its critical point, can
exist only hi the gaseous condition; but a gas under enormous
pressure may behave, so far as compressibility is concerned,
like a rigid solid. He concludes, from the high density of the
earth as a whole and from other considerations, that the central
part of our planet consists of gaseous iron (about 80% of the
earth's diameter) followed by a zone of rock magma in a
gaseous condition (about 15%), which passes insensibly out-
wards into liquid rock (4%), covered by a thin solid crust (less
than i% of diameter). If water from the crust penetrates by
osmosis through the sea-floor to the molten interior, it acts, at
the high temperature, as an acid, and decomposes the silicates
of the magma. The liquid rock, expanded and rendered more
mobile by this water, rises in fissures, but in its ascent suffers
cooling, so that the water then loses its power as an acid and is
displaced by silicic acid, when the escaping steam gives rise to
the explosive phenomena of the volcano. The mechanism of the
volcano is therefore much like that of a geyser, a comparison
long ago suggested by Rev. O. Fisher and other geologists.
According to the " planetesimal theory " of Professor T. C.
Chamberlin and Dr F. R. Moulton, which assumes that the
earth was formed by the accretion of vast numbers of small
cosmical bodies called planetesimals, the original heat of the
earth's interior was due chiefly to the compression of the grow-
ing globe by its own gravity. The heat, proceeding from the
192
VOLCANO ISLANDS VOLE
centre outwards, caused local fusion of the' rocks, though
without forming distinct reservoirs of molten magma, and the
fused matter charged with gases rose in liquid threads or tongues,
which worked their way. upwards, some reaching the super-
ficial part of the earth and escaping through fissures in the
zone of fracture, thus giving rise to volcanic phenomena. It
is held that the explosive activity of a volcano is due to the
presence of gases which have been brought up from the interior
of the earth, whilst only a small and perhaps insignificant part
is played by water of superficial origin.
Entirely new views of the origin of the earth's internal heat
have resulted from the discovery of radioactivity. It has been
shown by the Hon. R. J. Strutt, Professor J. Joly and others
that radium is present in all igneous rocks, and it is estimated
that the quantity in the crust of the earth is amply sufficient
to maintain its temperature. An ingenious hypothesis was
enunciated by Major C. E. Button, who found in the radio-
activity of the rocks a sufficient source of heat for the ex-
planation of all volcanic phenomena. He believes that the
development of heat arising from radioactivity may gradually
bring about the local melting of the rocks so as to form large
subterranean pools of magma, from which the volcanoes may
be supplied. The supply is usually drawn from shallow sources,
probably, according to Button, from a depth of not more than
three or rarely four miles, and in some cases at not more than
a mile from the surface. If the water in the local magma should
attain sufficient expansive power, it will rupture the overlying
rocks and thus give rise to a volcanic eruption. When the
reservoir becomes exhausted the eruption ceases, but if more
heat be generated by continued radioactivity further fusion
may ensue, and in time the eruption be repeated. According,
however, to Professor Joly, it is improbable that sufficient
heat for the manifestation of volcanic phenomena could be
developed by the local radioactivity of the rocks in the upper
part of the earth's crust.
AUTHORITIES. On general vulcanicity see G. Mercalli, I Vulcani
attivi delta terra (1907) ; Sir A. Geikie, Text-Book of Geology (4th ed.,
'903) (with bibliography) ; The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain
(2 vols., 1897) (with general sketch of vulcanology) ; T. C. Chamberlin
and R. D. Salisbury, Geology, Processes and their Results (1905);
G. P. Scrope, Volcanoes (2nd ed., 1872); J. W. Judd, Volcanoes
(2nd ed., 1881); T. G. Bonney, Volcanoes (1899); Tempest Ander-
son, Volcanic Studies in many Lands (1903) (excellent views).
On special volcanoes see J. Phillips, Vesuvius (1869); J. L. Lobley,
Mount Vesuvius (1889); H. J. Johnston-Lavis, The South Italian
Volcanoes (with copious bibliography) (1891); "The Eruption of
Vesuvius in April 1906," Sci. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc. (Jan. 1909);
W. Sartorius von Waltershausen, Der Aetna (herausgegeben von
A. von Lasaulx, 1880); F. Fouqu6, Santorin et ses eruptions (1879);
R. D. M. Verbeek, Krakatau (1886) (with Album Atlas); The
Eruption of Krakaloa and Subsequent Phenomena, Report of the
Krakatoa Committee of the Royal Society (" On the Volcanic
Phenomena, &c.," by Professor J. W. Judd) (1888); Royal Society
Report on the Eruption of the Soufribre, in St Vincent, in 1902, by
Tempest Anderson and J. S. Flett, two parts, Phil. Trans., 1903,
ser. A. vol. 200, and 1908, vol. 208; A. Lacroix, La Montagne
Pelee (1904); La Montagne Pelee apres ses eruptions, avec observa-
tions sur les eruptions du Vesuve en 1879 et en 1906 (1908) ; A.
Heilprin, Mont Pelee (1903); E. O. Hoovey, The 1902-3 Eruptions
of Mont Pelee and the Soufriere, Ninth Internal. Geolog. Congress
(Vienna, 1903); Am. Jour. Sci. xiv. (1902), p. 319; JVai. Geog. Mag.
xiii. (1902), p. 444; J. Milne, " The Volcanoes of Japan," Trans.
Seismological Soc. of Japan (1886); A. Stubel, Die Vulkanberge
von Ecuador (1897); I. C. Russell, Volcanoes of North America
(1897) ; J. D. Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes (Hawaiian Islands)
(1890); C. E. Dutton, Hawaiian Volcanoes, 4th Rep. U.S. Geological
Survey (1882-83), 1884; C. H. Hitchcock, Hawaii and its Vokanoes
(Honolulu, 1909). For the chemistry of volcanic phenomena see
F. W. Clarke, " The Data of Geochemistry," Bull. U.S. Geolog.
Survey, No. 330 (1908). For the planetesimal theory consult T. C.
Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury, Geology : Earth History, vol. ii.
(1906). For other modern views of vulcanism see S. Arrhenius,
" Zur Physik des Vulcanismus" in Geologiska Foreningens i Stock-
holm Forhandlingar, Band xxii. (1900) (Abstract by R. H. Rastall
in the Geological Magazine, April 1907) ; C. E. Dutton, " Volcanoes
47;
(1909); A. Harker,"r& Natural ~Hi'story of Igneous Rocks (1909!";
and E. Suess, The Face of the Earth (Das Antlitz der Erde), transl.
by H. B. C. Sollas, vol. iv. cap. xvi. (1909). (F. W. R.*)
ises
5
128
ibe
ory
im.
VOLCANO ISLANDS, three small islands in the weste:
Pacific Ocean, S. of the Bonin Islands, forming part of t!
Japanese empire (annexed in 1891). They are also known
the Magellan Archipelago, and in Japan as Kwazan-ret
(series of volcanic islands). They are situated between 2,
and 26 N. and 141 and 142 E. Their names are Kita-iwo-
jima (Santo Alessandro), Iwo-jima (Sulphur) and Minami-
iwo-jima (Santo Agostino). Kita-iwo-jima which, as its
name (kita) implies, is the most northerly of the three rises
2520 ft. above the water, and Minami-iwo-jima, the mi
southerly, to a height of 3021 ft. The islands are not inhabit
With this group is sometimes included another island, Ar:
bispo, nearer the Bonin group.
VOLCEI (mod. BUCCINO), an ancient town of Lucania, 2128
ft. above sea-level, the chief town of the independent tribe
of the Volceiani, Vulcientes or Volcentani, whose territory
was bounded N. by that of the Hirpini, W. and S. by Luca
and E. by the territory of Venusia. Some pre-Roman rui
still exist (Not. Scav., 1884, 115). It became a municipium,
and in A.D. 323 had an extensive territory attached to it, includ-
ing the town of Numistro, the large Cyclopean walls of whii
may still be seen, 25 m. below Muro Lucano. Below the to'
is a well-preserved Roman bridge over the Tanager (mi
Tanagro).
See G. Patroni in Notizie degli scavi (1897), 183.
VOLCI, or VULCI, an ancient town of Etruria. The circ
of the walls measures about 4 m., and scanty traces of the
and of Roman buildings within them still exist. The Pon
della Badia over the Fiora, a bridge with a main arch of 66
span, 98 ft. above the stream, is also Roman. An aquedu
passes over it. The former wealth of the town is mainly provi
by the discoveries made in its extensive necropolis from 18
onwards Greek vases, bronzes and other remains man
of which are now in the Vatican. By 1856 over 15,000 torn
had, it was calculated, been opened. These were entirely su
terranean, and little is now to be seen on the site but
great tumulus, the Cucumella, and a few smaller ones. T!
frescoes from the Francois tomb, discovered in 1857, illustrati:
Greek and Etruscan myths, are now in the Museo Torloni
at Rome. Volci was one of the twelve towns of Etruri;
Coruncanius triumphed over the people of Vulsinii and Vol
in 280 B.C.. and the colony of Cosa was founded in their territory.
This seems to have led to the decline of the city, and it d
not seem to have been of great importance in the Rom
period, though it became an episcopal see.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883
i. 437, ii. 503; S. Gsell, Fouilles dans la necropole de Vulci (Pari
1891), for the excavations of 1889 (with copious references to earli
publications). (T. As.)
VOLE, a book-name (invented by Br J. Fleming, author
a work on British animals) for the water-rat and those sped
of field-mice which have cheek-teeth of the same general ty]
Although the British representatives of this group shoul
undoubtedly retain their vernacular designations of water-ra
and short-tailed field-mouse, the term " vole" is one of grea
convenience in zoology as a general one for all the membe
of the group. Systematically voles are classed in the mammalia
order RODENTIA, in which they constitute the typical sectioi
of the subfamily Microtinae in the Muridae, or mouse-group.
As a group, voles are characterized by being more heavil
built" than rats and mice, and by their less brisk movements.
They have very small eyes, blunt snouts, inconspicuous ears
and short limbs and tails, in all of which points they are
markedly contrasted with true rats and mice. In common with
lemmings and other representatives of the Microtinae, voles
are, however, broadly distinguished from typical rats and mice
by the structure of their three pairs of molar teeth. These,
as shown in the figure, are composed of a variable number of
vertical triangular prisms, in contact with one another by two
(or one) of their angles. On the number and relations of these
prisms the voles, which form an exceedingly large group, rang-
ing all over Europe and Asia north of (and inclusive of) the
VOLGA
'93
Himalaya, and North America, are divided into genera and
subgenera. Examples of some of these are afforded by the
English representatives
ofthe rou P-
The first of these is
the common short-
tailed field-mouse, or
" field-vole," Microtus
agrestis, which belongs
to the typical section
of the type genus, and
is about the size of a
mouse, with a short
stumpy body, and a
Uppcrand Lower Molarsof the Water-Rat f ail *** one-third th !
[or Water- Vole), Microtus amphibius. length of the head and
body. The hind feet
have six pads on their inferior surfaces, and the colour is dull
grizzled brown above and greyish white below. The molar teeth
have respectively 5, 5 and 6 prisms above, and 9, 5 and 3 below.
This rodent is one of the commonest of British mammals, and fre-
quents fields, woods and gardens in numbers, often doing consider-
able damage owing to its fondness for garden produce. It is
spread over the whole of Great Britain (exclusive of the Orkneys),
while on the continent of Europe its range extends from Fin-
land to North Italy and from France and Spain to Russia.
The second and larger species is the water-rat, or " water-
vole," which belongs to a second section of the genus, and is
commonly known as Microtus (Arvicola) amphibius, although
some writers employ the inappropriate specific name terrestris.
It is about the size of a rat, and has long soft thick fur, of a
uniform grizzled brown, except when (as is not uncommon)
it is black. The tail is about half the length of the head and
body, and the hind feet are long and powerful, although not
webbed, and have five rounded pads on their lower surfaces.
In the upper jaw the first molar has 5, the second 4 and the
third 4 prisms, of which the last is irregular and sometimes
divided into two, making 5. In the lower jaw the first molar
has 7 prisms, of which the 3 anterior are generally not fully
separated from one another, the second 5 and the third 3.
The water-rat is perhaps the most often seen of all English
mammals, owing to its diurnal habits. It frequents rivers
and streams, burrowing in the banks, and often causing con-
siderable damage. Its food consists almost wholly of water-
weeds, rushes and other vegetable substances, but it will
also eat animal food on occasion, in the shape of insects, mice
or young birds. The female has during the summer three or
four litters, each of from two to seven young. The range of
the water-rat extends over Europe and North Asia from
England to China, but the species is not found in Ireland,
where no member of the group is native.
The red-backed field-mouse or " bank-vole " may be distinguished
externally from the first species by its more or less rusty or rufous-
coloured back, its larger ears and its comparatively longer tail,
which attains to about half the length of the head and body. On
account of an important difference in the structure of its molars,
it is now very generally referred to a distinct genus, under the name
of Evotomys gtareolus; these teeth developing roots at a certain
stage of existence, instead of growing permanently. Their prisms
number respectively 5 and 4 and 5 above, and 7, 3 and 3 below.
The habits of this species are in every way similar to those of the
one first on the list. Its range in Great Britain extends northwards
to Morayshire, but it is represented in an island off the Pembroke
coast by a distinct form; on the continent of Europe it extends
from France and Italy to southern Russia, while it is represented
in northern Asia and North America by closely allietl species.
Fossil voles from the Pliocene of England and Italy with molars
which are rooted as soon as developed form the genus Mimomys.
(R. L.")
VOLGA (known to the Tatars as Etil, Ilil or Aid; to the
Finnish tribes as Rau, and to the ancients as Rfia and Oarus),
the longest and most important river of European Russia. It
rises in the Valdai plateau of Tver and, after a winding course
of 2325 m. (1070 in a straight line), falls into the Caspian at
Astrakhan, It is by far the longest river of Europe, the
x xvm. 7
Danube, which comes next to it, being only 1775 m., while
the Rhine (760 m.) is shorter even than two of the chief tri-
butaries of the Volga the Oka and the Kama. Its drainage
area, which includes the whole of middle and eastern as well
as part of south-eastern Russia, amounts to 363,300 sq. m.,
thus exceeding the aggregate superficies of Germany, France
and the United Kingdom, and containing a population of fifty
millions. Its tributaries are navigable for an aggregate length
of nearly 20,000 m. The " basin " of the Volga is not limited
to its actual catchment area. By a system of canals which
connect the upper Volga with the Neva, the commercial mouth
of the Volga has been transferred, so to speak, from the Caspian
to the Baltic, thus making St Petersburg, the capital and
chief seaport of Russia, the chief port of the Volga basin as
well. Other less important canals connect it with the Western
Dvina (Riga) and the White Sea (Archangel); while a railway
only 45 m. in length joins the Volga with the Don and the Sea
of Azov, and three great trunk lines bring its lower parts into
connexion with the Baltic and western Europe.
The Volga rises in extensive marshes on the Valdai plateau, where
the W. Dvina also has its origin. Lake Seliger was formerly considered
tobetheprincipalsource;butthatdistinctionisnowgivento
a small spring issuing beneath a chapel (57 15' N. ; 32 30'
E.) in the midst of a large marsh to the west of Seliger.
The honour has also been claimed, not without plausibility, for the
Runa rivulet. Recent exact surveys have shown these originating
marshes to be no more than 665 ft. above sea-level. The stream
first traverses several small lakes, all having the same level, and,
after its confluence with the Runa, enters Lake Volga. A dam
erected a few miles below that lake, with a storage of nearly 10,000
million cub. ft. of water, makes it possible to raise the level of the
Volga as far down as the Sheksna, thus rendering it navigable, even
at low water, from its 6j>th mile onwards.
From its confluence with the Sheksna the Volga flows with a very
gentle descent towards the south-east, past Yaroslavl and Kostroma,
along a broad valley hollowed to a depth of 150-200 ft. in the
Permian and Jurassic deposits. In fact, its course lies through a
string of depressions formerly filled with wide lakes, all linked
together. When the Volga at length assumes a due south-east
direction it is a large river (8250 cub. u. per second, rising occasionally
in high flood to as much as 178,360 cub. ft.) ; of its numerous tribu-
taries, the Unzha (365 m., 330 navigable), from the north, is the
most important.
The next great tributary is the Oka, which comes from the south-
west after having traversed, on its course of 950 m., all the Great
Russian provinces of central Russia. It rises in the govern- Cooao ,
ment of Orel, among hills which also send tributaries to the face wltll
Dnieper and the Don, and receives on the left the Upa, the tAe otfc
Zhizdra, the Ugra (300 m.), the Moskva, on which steamers
ply up to Moscow, the Klyazma (395 m.), on whose banks arose the
middle- Russian principality of Suzdal, and on the right the navigable
Tsna (255 m.) and Moksha. Every one of these tributaries is con-
nected with some important event in the history of Great Russia.
The drainage area of the Oka is a territory of 97,000 sq. m. _ It has
been maintained that, of the two rivers which unite at Nizhniy-
Novgorod, the Oka, not the Volga, is the chief; the fact is that both
in length (818 m.) and in drainage area above the confluence (89,500
sq. m.), as well as in the aggregate length of its tributaries, the Volga
is the inferior stream.
At its confluence with the Oka the Volga enters the broad lacustrine
depression which must have communicated with the Caspian during
the post-Pliocene period by means of at least a broad strait.
Its level at low water is only 190 ft. above that of the ocean.
Immediately below the confluence the breadth of the river
ranges from 350 to 1 750 yds. There are many islands which
change their appearance and position after each inundation. On
the right the Volga is joined by the Sura, which drains a large area
and brings a volume of 2700 to 22,000 cub. ft. of water per second,
the Vetluga (465 m. long, of which 365 are navigable), from the
forest-tracts of Yaroslavl, and many smajler tributaries. Then
the stream turns south-east and descends into another lacustrine
depression, where it receives the Kama, below Kazan. Remains
of molluscs still extant in the Caspian occur extensively throughout
this depression and up the lower Kama.
The Kama, 1 which brings to the Volga a contribution ranging
from 52,500 to 144,400 cub. ft. and occasionally reaching 515,000 cub.
ft. per second, might again be considered as the more important
of the two rivers. It rises in Vyatka, takes a wide sweep towards
the north and east, and then flows south and south-west to join the
Volga after a course of no less than 1 150 m.
1 To the Votyaks it is known as the Budzhim-Kam, to the
Chuvashes as the Shoiga-adil and to the Tatars as the Cholman-idel
or Ak-idel, all words signifying " White river."
194
VOLGA
The
Samara
bead.
Along the next 738 m. of its course the Volga now 580 to 2600 yds.
wide flows south-south-west, with but one great bend at Samara.
At this point, where it pierces a range of limestone hills,
the course of the river is very picturesque, fringed as
it is by cliffs which rise 1000 ft. above the level of the
stream (which is only 54 ft. above the sea at Samara). Along
the whole of the Samara bend the Volga is accompanied on its
right hank by high cliffs, which it is constantly undermining, while
broad lowland areas stretch along the left or eastern bank, and are
intersected by several old beds of the Volga.
At Tsaritsyn the great river reaches its extreme south-western
limit, and is there separated from the Don by an isthmus only
45 m. in width. The isthmus is too high to be crossed by means
of a canal, but a railway to Kalach brings the Volga into some sort
of connexion with the Don and the Sea of Azov. At Tsaritsyn the
river takes a sharp turn in a south-easterly direction towards the
Caspian; it enters the Caspian steppes, and a few miles above
Tsaritsyn sends off a branch the Akhtub?. which accompanies
it for 330 m. before falling into the Caspian. Here the Volga
_ receives no tributaries; its right bank is skirted by low
The lower ^JH^ j jut Qn tne j e f t ; t anastomoses freely with the
delta ' Akhtuba when its waters are high, and floods the country for
X 5 to 35 m. The width of the main stream ranges from 520
to 3500 yds. and the depth exceeds 80 ft. The delta proper begins
40 m. above Astrakhan, and the branches subdivide so as to reach
the sea by as many as 200 separate mouths. Below Astrakhan
navigation is difficult, and on the sand-bars at the mouth the
maximum depth is only 12 ft. in calm weather.
The figures given show how immensely the river varies in
volume, and the greatness of the changes which are constantly
going on in the channel and on its banks. Not only does its
level occasionally rise in flood as much as 50 ft. and overflow
its banks for a distance of 5 to 15 m.; even the level cf the
Caspian is considerably affected by the sudden influx of water
brought by the Volga. The amount of suspended matter
brought down is correspondingly great. All along its course
the Volga is eroding and destroying its banks with great
rapidity; towns and loading ports have constantly to be
shifted farther back.
The question of the gradual desiccation of the Volga, and
its causes, has often been discussed, and in 1838 a committee
which included Kail Baer among its members was appointed
by the Russian academy of sciences to investigate the subject.
No positive result was, however, arrived at, principally on
account of the want of regular measurements of the volume of
the Volga and its tributaries measurements which began
to be made on scientific principles only in 1880. Still, if we
go back two or three centuries, it is indisputable that rivers
of the Volga basin which were easily navigable then are now
hardly accessible to the smallest craft. The desiccation of the
rivers of Russia has been often attributed to the steady destruc-
tion of its forests. But it is obvious that there are other
general causes at work, which are of a much more important
character causes of which the larger phenomena of the
general desiccation of Eastern and Western Turkestan are
contemporaneous manifestations. The gradual elevation of
the whole of northern Russia and Siberia, and the consequent
draining of the marshes, is one of these deeper-seated, ampler
causes; another is the desiccation of the lakes all over the
northern hemisphere.
Fisheries. The network of shallow and still limans or " cut-offs "
in the delta of the Volga and the shallow waters of the northern
Caspian, freshened as these are by the water of the Volga, the Ural,
the Kura and the Terek, is exceedingly favourable to the breeding
of fish, and as a whole constitutes one of the most productive
fishing grounds in the world. As soon as the ice breaks up in the
delta innumerable shoals of roach (Lettciscus ruiilus) and trout
(Luciotrutta leucichthys) rush up the river. They are followed by
the great sturgeon (Acipenser huso), the pike, the bream and the
Eike perch (Leucioperca sandra). Later on appears the Caspian
erring (Clupea casp'.a), which formerly was neglected, but has now
become more important than sturgeon; the sturgeon A. stellatus
and " wels " (Silurus glanis) follow, and finally the sturgeon
Acipenser gtildenstadtii, so much valued for its caviare. In search
of a gravelly spawning-ground the sturgeon go up the river as far
as Sarepta (250 m.). The lamprey, now extensively pickled, the
sterlet (A. ruthenus), the tench, the gudgeon and other fluvial
species also appear in immense numbers. It is estimated that
180,000 tons of fish of all kinds, of the value of considerably over
1,500,000, are taken annually in the four fishing districts of the
Volga, Ural, Terek and Kura. Seal-hunting is carried on off the
Chief River
Ports on the
Volga.
Vessels.
Tons.
Approxi-
mate
Value.
Entered.
Cleared.
Imported.
Exported.
Total.
Astrakhan
Tsaritsyn .
Rybinsk .
Nizhniy-
Novgorod
Saratov .
2.724
6,412
3-760
12,960
1-639
3,228
1,482
6,295
7,585
1,738
938,000
1,152,000
590,000
4,092,000
923,000
3,734,000
462,000
172,000
84,000
128,000
4,672,000
1,614,000
762,000
4,176,000
1,051,000
7,812,000
5,000,000
3,573,000
2,727,000
1,882,000
Volga mouth, and every year about 40,000 of Phoca viliilina
killed to the north of the Manghishlak peninsula on the east side i
the Caspian.
Ice Covering. In winter the numberless tributaries and sut
tributaries of the Volga become highways for sledges. The ic.
lasts 90 to 160 days, and breaks up earlier in its upper course than in
some parts lower down. The average date of the break-up is April
nth at Tver, and 14 days later about Kostroma, from which point
a regular acceleration is observed (April i6th at Kazan, April 7th at
Tsaritsyn, and March 1 7th at Astrakhan).
Traffic. The greater part of the traffic is up river, the amour
of merchandise which reaches Astrakhan being nearly fifteen time
less than that reaching St Petersburg by the Volga canals. The
goods transmitted in largest quantity are fish, metals, manufacture
wares, hides, flax, timber, cereals, petroleum, oils and salt. The down-
river traffic consists chiefly of manufactured goods and timber, the
latter mostly for the treeless governments of Samara, Saratov and
Astrakhan, as well as for the region adjacent to the lower course of
the Don. Dredging machines are kept constantly at work, while
steamers are stationed near the most dangerous sandbanks to assist
vessels that run aground. The following table shows the principal
river ports, with the movement of shipping in an average year:
Formerly tens of thousands of burlaki, or porters, were employ
m dragging boats up the Volga and its tributaries, but this metni
of traction has disappeared unless from a few of the tributarii
Horse-power is still extensively resorted to along the three ca
systems. The first large steamers of the American type were built
in 1872. Thousands of steamers are now employed in the traffic,
to say nothing of smaller boats and rafts. Many of the steamei
use as fuel mazut or petroleum refuse. Large numbers of the boa
and rafts are broken up after a single voyage.
History. The Volga was not improbably known to the earl;
Greeks, though it is not mentioned by any writer previous to
Ptolemy. According to him, the Rha is a tributary of an
interior sea, formed from the confluence of two great rivers,
the sources of which are separated by twenty degrees of longi-
tude, but it is scarcely possible to judge from his statements
how far the Slavs had by that time succeeded in penetrating
into the basin of the Volga. The Arab geographers throw
little light on the condition of the Volga during the great
migrations of the 3rd century, or subsequently under the
invasion of the Huns, the growth of the Khazar empire in the
southern steppes and of that of Bulgaria on the middle Volga.
But we know that in the 9th century the Volga basin was
occupied by Finnish tribes in the north and by Khazars and
various Turkish races in the south. The Slavs, driven perhaps
to the west, had only the Volkhov and the Dnieper, while the
(Mahommedan) Bulgarian empire, at the confluence of the
Volga with the Kama, was so powerful that for some time
it was an open question whether Islam or Christianity would
gain the upper hand among the Slav idolaters. But, while
the Russians were driven from the Black Sea by the Khazars,
and later on by a tide of Ugrian migration from the north-east,
a stream of Slavs moved slowly towards the north-east, down
the upper Oka, into the borderland between the Finnish and
Turkish regions. After two centuries of struggle the Russians
succeeded in colonizing the fertile valleys of the Oka basin;
in the i2th century they built a series of fortified towns on the
Oka and Klyazma; and finally they reached the mouth of the
Oka, there founding (in 1222) a new Novgorod the Novgorod
of the Lowlands, now Nizhniy-Novgorod. The great lacustrine
depression of the middle Volga was thus reached; and
when the Mongol invasion of 1239-42 came, it encountered in
the Oka basin a dense agricultural population with many
fortified and wealthy towns a population which the Mongols
found they could conquer, indeed, but were unable to drive
before them as they had done so many of the Turkish tribes.
:
rly
VOLHYNIA VOLLMAR
'95
This invasion checked but did not stop the advance o:
the Russians down the Volga. Two centuries elapsed before
the Russians covered the 300 m. which separate the mouths
of the Oka and the Kama and took possession of Kazan. Bui
in the meantime a flow of Novgorodian colonization had
moved eastward, along the upper portions of the left-bank
tributaries of the Volga, and had reached the Urals.
With the capture of Kazafi (1552) the Russians found the
lower Volga open to their boats, and eight years afterwards
they were masters of the mouth of the river at Astrakhan.
Two centuries more elapsed before the Russians secured a free
passage to the Black Sea and became masters of the Sea of
Azov and the Crimea; the Volga, however, was their route.
During these two centuries they fortified the lower river,
settled it, and penetrated farther eastward into the steppes
towards the upper Ural and thence to the upper parts of the
Tobol and other great Siberian rivers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. P. Semenov's Geogtaphical and Statistical
Dictionary (5 vols., St Petersburg, 1863-85) contains a full biblio-
graphy of the Volga and tributaries. See also V. Ragozin's Volga
"Is., St Petersburg, 1880-81, with atlas; in Russian); N.
Bogolyubov, The Volga from Tver to Astrakhan (Russian, 1876);
1. Roskoschny, Die Wolga tind ihre Zuflusse (Leipzig, 1887, vol. i.),
history, ethnography, hydrography and biography, with rich
bibliographical information ; N. Boguslavskiy, The Volga as a Means
of Communication (Russian, 1887), with detailed profile and maps;
Peretyatkovich, Volga Region in the ijth and i6th Centuries (1877);
and Lender, Die Wolga (1889). (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
VOLHYNIA, a government of south-western Russia, bounded
by the Polish governments of Lublin and Siedlce on the W.,
Grodno and Minsk on the N., Kiev on the E. and Podolia and
Galicia (Austria) on the S., with an area of 27,690 sq. m. A
broad, flat spur of the Carpathians the Avratynsk plateau
which enters from the west and stretches out eastward towards
the Dnieper occupies its southern portion, reaching a maximum
elevation of 1200 ft.; another branch of the Carpathians in
the west of the government ranges between 700 and 900 ft. at
its highest points. Both are deeply grooved in places, and
the crags give a hilly aspect to the districts in which they occur.
The remainder of the government, which is quite flat, with
an imperceptible slope towards the marshes of Pinsk, is known
as the Polyesie (see MINSK).
The population in 1906 was estimated at 3,547,500. Some
three-fourths of the population are Little Russians; the
other elements are White and Great Russians, Poles (5-2%),
Jews (13-3%) and Germans (5-7 %). The government
is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns of which
are Zhitomir, the capital, Dubno, Kovel, Kremenets, Lutsk,
Novograd Volhynskiy, Ostrog, Ovruch, Vladimir Volhynskiy,
Rovno, Staro-Konstantinov and Zaslavl. The conditions of
peasant ownership differ from those which prevail in other
parts of Russia, and of the total area the peasants hold ap-
proximately one-half; 42% of the total is in the hands of
private owners, a considerable number of Germans having settled
and bought land in the government.
Forests cover nearly 50 % of the area in the north (that is, in the
Polyesie) and 15% elsewhere. Agriculture is well developed in
the south, and in 1900 there were 4,222,400 acres (24%) under
cereal crops alone. In the Polyesie the principal occupations are
connected with the export of timber and firewood, the preparation
of pitch, tar, potash and wooden wares, and boat-building. Lignite
and coal, some graphite and kaolin, are mined, as also amber, which
cultural machinery works. Domestic industry in the villages is
chiefly limited to the making of wooden goods, including parquetry.
The exports of grain and timber, chiefly to Germany and Great
Britain, and of wool and cattle, are considerable.
Volhynia has been inhabited by Slavs from a remote antiquity.
In Nestor's Annals its people are mentioned under the name of
Dulebs, and later in the i2th century they were known as
Velhynians and Buzhans (dwellers on the Bug). From the
Qth century the towns of Volhynia-Vladimir, Ovruch, Lutsk
and Dubno were ruled by descendants of the Scandinavian
or Varangian chief Rurik, and the land of Volhynia remained
independent until the I4th century, when it fell under Lithuania.
In 1569 it was annexed to Poland, and so remained until 1795,
when it was taken possession of by Russia.
VOLK, LEONARD WELLS (1828-1895), American sculptor,
was born at Wellstown (now Wells), Hamilton county, New
York, on the ?th of November 1828. He first followed the
trade of a marble cutter with his father at Pittsfield, Massa-
chusetts. In 1848 he opened a studio at St Louis, Missouri,
and in 1855 was sent by his wife's cousin, Stephen A. Douglas,
to Rome to study. Returning to America in 1857, he settled
in Chicago, where he helped to establish an Academy of Design
and was for eight years its head. Among his principal works
are the Douglas monument at Chicago and the Soldiers' and
Sailors' monument at Rochester, New York, and statues of
President Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas (in the Illinois State
Capitol at Springfield, III.), and of General James Shields (in
Statuary Hall, Capitol, Washington), Elihu B. Washburn,
Zachariah Chandler and David Davis. In 1860 he made a life-
mask (now in the National Museum, Washington) of Lincoln,
of whom only one other, by Clark Mills in 1865, was ever made.
His son, Douglas Volk (b. 1856), figure and portrait painter,
who studied under J. L. Ger6me in Paris, became a member
of the Society of American Artists in 1880 and of the National
Academy of Design in 1899.
VOLKSRUST, a town of the Transvaal, 175 m. S.E. of
Johannesburg and 308 m. N.N.W. of Durban. Pop. (1904)
2382, of whom 1342 were whites. The town lies at an ele-
vation of 5429 ft. just within the Transvaal frontier and 4 m. N.
of the pass through the Drakensberg known as Laing's Nek.
It is the centre of a rich agricultural district. It was founded
by the Boer government in 1888. As a customs port of entry
it was of some importance, and it maintains its position as
a distributing depot. It was created a municipality in 1003.
Sandstone is quarried in the district.
VOLLENDAM, a small fishing village of Holland in the
province of North Holland, adjoining Edam on the shores of
the Zuider Zee. It is remarkable for the quaintness of the
buildings and the picturesque costume of the villagers, who are
of a singularly dark and robust type. Many artists have been
attracted to settle here. Vollendam has its origin in the build-
ing of the great sea-dam for the new waterway to Edam in the
middle of the I4th century. On the seaward side of the dike
are some houses built on piles in the style of lake dwellings.
VOLLMAR, GEORG HEINRICH VON (1850- ), German
Socialist, was born at Munich in 1850. He was educated in a
school attached to a Benedictine monastery at Augsburg, and
in 1865 entered the Bavarian army as a lieutenant in a cavalry
regiment. He served in the campaign of 1866, and then
entered the papal army as a volunteer. In 1869 he returned
to Germany, and during the war with France served in the army
railway department. He was severely wounded at Blois and
pensioned. Permanently crippled by his wounds, he devoted
himself to political and social studies. In 1872 he was con-
verted to the principles of Social Democracy, and threw himself
with great energy into political agitation. In 1877 he became
editor of the party organ at Dresden, and under the Socialist
law was repeatedly condemned to various terms of imprisonment,
and was also expelled from that city. From 1879 to 1882 he
lived at Zurich, then the headquarters of Social Democracy,
when, besides attending the university, he took part in editing
the Social Demokrat. In 1881 he was elected member of the
Reichstag, and from 1883 to 1889 was a member of the Saxon
diet. After 1885 he resided in Bavaria, and it was to him
that was chiefly due the great success of the Socialists in the
older Bavarian provinces. He identified himself with the more
moderate and opportunist section of the Socialist party, decisively
dissociating himself from the doctrine of a sudden and violent
overthrow of society, and urging his associates to co-operate in
>ringing about a gradual development towards the Socialistic
tate. He refused to identify Social Democracy with the extreme
views as to religion and the family advocated by Bebel, and
uccessfully resisted attempts made in 1891 to expel him from
196
VOLNEY VOLOGDA
the party in consequence of his opinions. He became a member
of the Bavarian Diet in 1893.
In addition to a couple of books on the preservation of forests, he
published Der isolierte Soziale Stoat (Zurich, 1880).
VOLNEY, CONSTANTIN FRANQOIS CHASSEBffiUF, COMTE
DE (1757-1820), French savant, was born at Craon (Maine-et-
Loire) on the 3rd of February 1757, of good family; he was at
first surnamed Boisgirais from his father's estate, but afterwards
assumed the name of Volney. He spent some four years in
Egypt and Syria, and published his Voyage en Egypte el en
Syrie in 1787, and Considerations sur la guerre des Turcs et de la
Russie in 1788. He was a member both of the States-General
and of the Constituent Assembly. In 1791 appeared Les Ruines,
ou meditations sur les revolutions des empires, an essay on the
philosophy of history, containing a vision which predicts the
final union of all religions by the recognition of the common
truth underlying them all. Volney tried to put his politico-
economic theories into practice in Corsica, where in 1792 he
bought an estate and made an attempt to cultivate colonial
produce. He was thrown into prison during the Jacobin
triumph, but escaped the guillotine. He was some time
professor of history at the newly founded Ecole Normale. In
1795 he undertook a journey to the United States, where he
was accused in 1797 of being a French spy sent to prepare for
the reoccupation of Louisiana by France. He was obliged
to return to France in 1798. The results of his travels took
form in his Tableau du climat et du sol des Etats-Unis (1803).
He was not a partisan of Napoleon, but, being a moderate
man, a savant and a Liberal, was impressed into service by
the emperor, who made him a count and put him into the senate.
At the restoration he was made a peer of France. He became
a member of the Institute in 1795. He died in Paris on the
25th of April 1820.
VOLO) a town and seaport of Greece, on the east coast of
Thessaly, at the head of the gulf to which it gives its name.
Pop. (1907) 23,319. It is the chief seaport and second in-
dustrial town of Thessaly, connected by rail with the town of
Larissa. The anchorage is safe, vessels loading and discharging
by means of lighters. The port has a depth of 23 to 25 ft.
The Kastro, or citadel, of Vo!o stands on or close to the site of
Pagasae, whence the gulf took the name of Sinus Pagasaeus or
Pagasicus, and which was one of the oldest places of which mention
occurs in the legendary history of Greece. From this port the
Argonautic expedition was said to have sailed, and it was already
a nourishing place under the tyrant Jason, who from the neighbour-
ing Pherae ruled over all Thessaly. Two miles farther south stand
the ruins of Demetrias, founded (290 B.C.) by Demetrius Ppliorcetes,
and for some time a favourite residence of the Macedonian kings.
On the opposite side of the little inlet at the head of the gulf rises the
hill of Episcopi, on which stood the ancient city of lolcus. At
Dimini, about 3 m. W. of Volo, several tombs have been found which
yielded remains of the later. Mycenean Age.
VOLOGAESES (Vologaesus, Vologases; on the coins
Ologases; Armen. Valarsh; Mod. Pers. Balash), the name
of five Parthian kings.
(i) VOLOGAESES I., son of Vonones II. by a Greek con-
cubine (Tac. Ann. xii. 44), succeeded his father in A.D. 51
(Tac. Ann. xii. 14; cf. Joseph. Ant. xx. 3, 4). He gave the
kingdom of Media Atropatene to his brother Pacorus, and
occupied Armenia for another brother, Tiridates (Tac. Ann.
xii. 50, xv. 2; Joseph. Ant. xx. 3, 4). This led to a long
war with Rome (54-63), which was ably conducted by the
Roman general Corbulo. The power of Vologaeses was
weakened by an attack of the Dahan and Sacan nomads,
a rebellion of the Hyrcanians, and the usurpation of VardanesII.
(Tac. Ann. xjii. 7, 37; xiv. 25; xv. i; cf. Joseph. Ant.
xx. 4, 2, where he is prevented from attacking the vassal
king of Adiabene by an invasion of the eastern nomads).
At last a peace was concluded, by which Tiridates was ac-
knowledged as king of Armenia, but had to become a vassal
of the Romans; he went to Rome, where Nero gave him
back the diadem (Tac. Ann. xv. iff.; Dio Cass. Ixii. 19 ff.,
Ixiii. i ff.) ; from that time an Arsacid dynasty ruled in Armenia
under Roman supremacy. Vologaeses was satisfied with this
result, and honoured the memory of Nero (Suet. Nero, 57
though he stood in good relations with Vespasian also, to whom
he offered an army of 40,000 archers in the war against Vitellius
(Tac. Hist. iv. 51; Suet, Vespas. 6; cf. Joseph. Ant. vii.
5, 2. 7, 3; Dio Cass. Ixvi. n). Soon afterwards the Alani,
a great nomadic tribe beyond the Caucasus, invaded Media
and Armenia (Joseph. Bell. vii. 7, 4); Vologaeses applied in
vain for help to Vespasian (Dio Cass. Ixvi. u; Suet. Domiliijn, 2).
It appears that the Persian losses in the east also could not be
repaired; Hyrcania remained an independent kingdom (Joseph.
Bell. vii. 7,4; Aurel. Viet. Epit. 15, 4). Vologaeses I. died
about A.D. 77. His reign is marked by a decided reaction
against Hellenism; he built Vologesocerta (Balashkert) in the
neighbourhood of Ctesiphon with the intention of drawing to
this new town the inhabitants of the Greek city Seleucia (Plin.
vi. 122). Another town founded by him is Vologesias on a
canal of the Euphrates, south of Babylon (near Hira; cf.
Noldeke in Zeitschnft der deutschen-morgenl. Gesellschaft, xxviii.
93 ff.). On some of his coins the initials of his name appear in
Aramaic letters.
(2) VOLOGAESES II., probably the son of Vologaeses I
appears on coins, which bear his proper name, in 77-79, an
again 121-47. During this time the Parthian kingdom was
torn by civil wars between different pretenders, which reached
their height during the war of Trajan, 114-17. Besides
Vologaeses II. we find on coins and in the authors Pacorus
(78-c. 105), Artabanus III.(8o-8i), Osroes (106-29), Mithradates
V. (c. 129-47) and some others; thus the Parthian empire seems
during this whole time to have been divided into two or three
different kingdoms. By classic authors Vologaeses II. is men-
tioned in the time of Hadrian (c. 131), when Cappadocia, Armenia
and Media were invaded by the Alani (Dio Cass. Ixix. 15).
(3) VOLOGAESES III., 147-91. Under him, the unity of
the empire was restored. But he was attacked by the Romans
under Marcus Aurelius and Verus (162-65). In this war
Seleucia was destroyed and the palace of Ctesiphon burnt down
by Avidius Cassius (164); the Romans even advanced into
Media. In the peace, western Mesopotamia was ceded to the
Romans (Dio Cass. Ixxi. i ff.; Capitolin. Marc. Aw. 8 f.; Verus
8, &c.). Vologaeses III. is probably the king Volgash of the
Parsee tradition, preserved in the Dinkart, who began the gather-
ing of the writings of Zoroaster.
(4) VOLOGAESES IV., 191-209. He was attacked by Septimius
Severus in 195, who advanced into Mesopotamia, occupied
Nisibis and plundered Ctesiphon (199), but attempted in vain
to conquer the Arabic fortress Atra; in 202 peace was restored.
(5) VOLOGAESES V., 2oo-e. 222, son of Vologaeses IV. Soon
after his accession his brother Artabanus IV., the last Arsacid
king, rebelled against him, and became master of the greater
part of the empire (Dio Cass. Ixxvii. 12). But Vologaeses V.
maintained himself in a part of Babylonia; his dated coins
reach down to A.D. 222. (ED. M )
VOLOGDA, a government of north-eastern Russia, having the
government of Archangel on the N., Tobolsk on the E., Perm,
Vyatka, Kostroma and Yaroslavl on the S., Novgorod, Olonetz
and Archangel on the W. This immense government, which
comprises an area of 155,218 sq. m., stretches in a north-
easterly direction for 800 m., from Novgorod to the Urals, and
includes the broad depression drained by the Sukhona from
the S.W., and the Vychegda from the N.E., both head-waters
of the N. Dvina. From the basin of the Volga it is separated
by a flat, swampy, wooded swelling, where the heads of tribu-
taries belonging to both Arctic and Caspian drainage-areas
are closely intermingled. The eastern boundary of Vologda
follows the main water-parting of the Urals, which has but few
points over 3000 ft.; wide parmas, or woody plateaus, fill up
the space between the main chain of the Urals and the southern
spurs of the Timan Mountains, in the upper basin of the Pechora.
It is above the parmas especially over those which are
nearest the Urals proper that the highest summits of the
Urals rise in the form of dome-shaped mountains (T6ll-poz-iz,
5535 ft.; Kozhem-iz, 4225 ft.; Shadmaha, 4115 ft.). The Timan
u
i
VOLOGDA VOLSCI
197
Mountains are a swampy plateau, where the rivers flowing to
the N. Dvina or to the Pechora take their rise in common
marshes; so that on the Mylva portage boats have to be
dragged a distance of only 3 m. to be transported from one
system to the other.
Permian sandstones and cupriferous slates cover most ot the
territory; only a few patches of Jurassic clays overlie them; in
the east, in the Ural parmas, coal-bearing Carboniferous, Devonian
and Silurian slates and limestones appear, wrapping the crystalline
of the main ridge. Vast layers of boulder clay and Lacustrine
its overlie the whole. Rock-salt and salt springs, iron ore,
ones and grindstones are the chief mineral products; but
mining is in its infancy.
The river Sukhona, which rises in the south-west and flows
north-east, is navigable for 375 m. After its confluence with the
Vug (390 m. long), which flows from the south, it becomes the
u-ina, which proceeds north-west, and receives the Vychegda,
740 m. long and navigable for 570 m., though it passes through a
nearly uninhabited region. The Luza, a tributary of the Yug, is
also navigated for more than 250 m. The Pechora, which flows
through eastern Vologda, is an artery for the export of corn and the
import of fish. The Pinega, the Mezen and the Vaga, all belonging
to the Arctic basin, rise in northern Vologda. In the south-west the
Sukhona is connected by means of Lake Kubina and the canal of
Alexander von Wurttemberg with the upper Volga. Numberless
smaller lakes occur, and marshes cover a considerable part of the
surface.
The climate is severe, the average yearly temperature beine
36 F. at Vologda (Jan., I o -?; July, 63-5) and 32-5 at Ust-Sysolsk
(Jan., 4-8; July, 6i-7).
The flora and the physical aspects vary greatly as the traveller
moves north-east down the Sukhona and up the Vychegda, towards
the parmas of the Pechora. In the south-west the forests are cleared,
and the dry slopes of the hills have been converted into fields and
meadows; the population is relatively dense, and nearly one-quarter
of the area is under crops. There is a surplus of grain, which is
used for distilleries, and apples are extensively cultivated. The
flora is middle- Russian. Farther north-east the climate grows more
severe; but still, until the Dvina is reached, corn succeeds well,
and there is no lack of excellent meadows on the river-terraces.
Flax is cultivated for export ; but only 4 % of the area is tilled, the
remainder being covered with thick fir forests with occasional groups
of deciduous trees (birch, aspen, elder). At about 46 E. the larch
appears and soon supersedes the fir. Several plants unknown in
western Russia make their appearance (SUene tartarica, Anthyllis
vulneraria. Euphorbia palustns, Filago arvensis, Lycopodium com-
planatum, Sanguisorba officinalis). The Veratrum is especially
characteristic; it sometimes encroaches on the meadows to such an
extent as to compel their abandonment. The region of the upper
Mezen (the Udora) again has a distinctive character. The winter
is so protracted, and the snowfall so copious, that the Syryenians are
sometimes compelled to clear away the snow from their barley-fields.
But the summer is so hot (a mean of 54 for the three summer months)
that barley ripens within forty days after being sown. The Timan
plateaus are a marked boundary for the middle-Russian flora.
Those to the east of them are uninhabitable; even on the banks
of the rivers the climate is so severe, especially on account of the
icy northern winds, that rye and barley are mostly grown only in
orchards. The whole is covered with quite impenetrable forests,
growing on a soil saturated with water. Mosquitoes swarm in the
forests; birds are rare. The Siberian cedar begins and the lime
tree disappears. Fir, cedar, pine and larch compose the forests,
with birch and aspen on their outskirts. Hunting is the chief
occupation of the Syryenian inhabitants.
The population was estimated in 1906 at 1,517,500,0! whom
57,407 lived in towns; 90% were Great Russians and 8-4%
Syryenians (q.v.). The government is divided into ten districts,
the chief towns of which are Vologda, Gryazovets, Kadnikov,
Nikolsk, Solvychegodsk, Totma or Totyma, Ustyug Velikiy,
Ust-Sysolsk, Velsk and Yarensk. Agriculture thrives in the
three south-western districts. Live-stock breeding occupies
considerable numbers of people. A little salt is raised, and
there are a few ironworks, but manufacturing industries are in
their infancy; the chief branch is the weaving of linen in the
villages. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
VOLOGDA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, situated in its south-western corner on the river
Vologda, above its confluence with the navigable Sukhona,
127 m. by rail N. of Yaroslavl. Pop. (1881) 17,025; (1897)
27,822. It is an old town, having many ancient churches,
including one which dates from the i2th century, and the
cathedral, founded in 1568. Vologda is a considerable com-
mercial centre flax, linseed, oats, hemp, butter and eggs
being exported to both St Petersburg and Archangel. It has
distilleries, tanneries, and oil, soap, tobacco, candle and fur-
dressing works.
Vologda existed as a trading town as early as the izth
century. It was a colony of Novgorod, and was founded in
1147, and carried on a brisk trade in flax, tallow, furs, corn,
leather and manufactured goods. In 1273 it was plundered
by the prince of Tver in alliance with the Tatars, but soon
recovered. Moscow disputed its possession with Novgorod
until the isth century; the Moscow princes intrigued to find
support amidst the poorer inhabitants against the richer Nov-
gorod merchants, and four successive times Vologda had to
&ght against its metropolis. It was definitely annexed to
Moscow in 1447. When Archangel was founded, and opened
Eor foreign trade in 1553, Vologda became the chief depot for
goods exported through that channel. Polish bands plundered
it in 1613, and the plague of 1648 devastated it; but it main-
tained its commercial importance until the foundation of
St Petersburg, when Russian foreign trade took another channel.
VOLSCI, an ancient Italian people, well known in the history
of the first century of the Roman Republic. They then in-
habited the partly hilly, partly marshy district of the S. of
Latium, bounded by the Aurunci and Samnites on the S.,
the Heinici on the E., and stretching roughly from Norba
and Cora in the N. to Antium in the S. They were
among the most dangerous enemies of Rome, and frequently
allied with the Aequi, whereas the Hernici from 486 B.C.
onwards were the allies of Rome. In the Volscian territory lay
the little town of Velitrae(Velletri), the birthplace of Augustus.
From this town we have a very interesting though brief in-
scription dating probably from early in the 3rd century B.C.;
it is cut upon a small bronze plate (now in the Naples Museum),
which must have once been fixed to some votive object, dedi-
cated to the god Declunus (or the goddess Declaim}.
The language of this inscription is clear enough to show the
very marked peculiarities which rank it close beside the lan-
guage of the Iguvine Tables (see IGTJVTOM). It shows on the
one hand the labialization of the original velar ^(Volscian pis=
Latin quis), and on the other hand it palatalizes the guttural
c before a following i (Volscian /ofw = Latin facial). Like
Umbrian also, but unlike Latin and Oscan, it has degraded all
the diphthongs into simple vowels (Volscian se parallel to Oscan
svai; Volscian deue, Old Latin and Oscan deiuai or deiuoi).
This phenomenon of what might have been taken for a piece of
Umbrian text appearing in a district remote from Umbria and
hemmed in by Latins on the north and Oscan-speaking Sam-
nites on the south is a most curious feature in the geographical
distribution of the Italic dialects, and is dearly the result of
some complex historical movements.
In seeking for an explanation we may perhaps trust, at least
in part, the evidence of the Ethnicon itself. The name Volsci
belongs to what may be called the -CO- group of tribal names
in the centre, and mainly on the west coast, of Italy, all of
whom were subdued by the Romani before the end of the 4th
century B. C.; and many of whom were conquered by the
Samnites about a century or more earlier. They are, from
south to north, Osci, Aurunci, Hernici, Marruci, Falisci; with
these were no doubt associated the original inhabitants of Aricia
and of Sidici-num, of Vescia among the Aurunci, and of Labici
close to Hernican territory. The same formative element appears
in the adjective Mons Massicus, and the names Glanica and
Marica belonging to the Auruncan district, with Graviscae in
south Etruria, and a few other names in central Italy (see
" I due strati nella popolazione Indo-Europea dell' Italia Antica,"
in the Atti del Congresso Internasionale di Scicnze Storiche, Rome,
1903, p. 17). With these names must clearly be judged the
forms Tusci and Etrusci, although these forms must not be re-
garded as anything but the names given to the Etruscans by
the folk among whom they settled. Now the historical fortune
of these tribes is reflected in several of their names (see SABINI).
The Samnite and Roman conquerors tended to impose the
form of their own Ethnicon, namely the suffix -NO-, upon
198
VOLSINII VOLTA
the tribes they conquered; hence the Marruci became the
Marrucini, the * Ariel became Aricini, and it seems at least
probable that the forms Sidicini, Carecini, and others of this
shape are the results of this same process. The conclusion sug-
gested is that these -CO- tribes occupied the centre and west
coast of Italy at the time of the Etruscan invasion (see ETRURIA:
Language) ; whereas the -NO- tribes only reached this part of
Italy, or at least only became dominant there, long after the
Etruscans had settled in the Peninsula.
It remains, therefore, to ask whether any information can
be had about the language of this primitive -CO- folk, and
whether they can be identified as the authors of any of the
various archaeological strata now recognized on Italian soil.
If the conclusions suggested under SABINI may be accepted as
sound we should expect to find the Volsci speaking a language
similar to that of the Ligures, whose fondness for the suffix
-sco- we have noticed (see LIGURES), and identical with that
spoken by tlie plebeians of Rome, and that this branch of
Indo-European was among those which preserved the original
Indo-European Velars from the labialization which befell them
in the speech of the Samnites. The language of the inscription
of Velitrae offers at first sight a difficulty from this point of view,
in the conversion which it shows of q to p; but it is to be
observed that the Ethnicon of Velitrae is Veliternus, and that the
people are called on the inscription itself Veleslrom (genitive
plural) ; so that there is nothing to prevent our assuming that
we have here a settlement of Sabines among the Volscian hills,
with their language to some extent (e.g. in the matter of the
diphthongs and palatals) corrupted by that of the people round
about them; just as we have reason to suppose was the case
with the Safine language of the Iguvini, whose very name was
later converted into Igumnales, the suffix -ti- being much
more frequent among the -CO- tribes than among the Safines
(see SABINI).
The name Volsci itself is significant not merely in its suffix;
the older form Volusci clearly contains the word meaning
"marsh" identical with Gr. ?Xos, since the change of *velos-
to *volus- is phonetically regular in Latin. The name Marica
(" goddess of the salt-marshes ") among the Aurunci appears
also both on the coast of Picenum and among the Ligurians;
and Stephanus of Byzantium identified the Osci with the Siculi,
whom there is reason to suspect were kinsmen of the Ligures.
It is remarkable in how many marshy places this -co- or -ca-
suffix is used. Besides the Aurunci and the dea Marica and the
intempestaeque Graviscae (Virg. Aen. x. 184), we have the Ustica
Cubans of Horace (Odes i. 17, n), the Hernici in the Trerus
valley, Satricum and Glo.nica in the Pomptine marshes.
For the text and fuller account of the Volscian inscription, and for
other records of the dialect, see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects,
pp. 267 sqq. (R. S. C.)
VOLSINII, an ancient town of Etruria, Italy. The older
Volsinii occupied in all probability the isolated tufa rock, so
strongly defended by nature, upon which in Roman times stood
the town which Procopius (B.C. ii. n seq.) calls Ovpfiifiti/Tos
(Urbs veins, the modern Orvieto). This conjecture, first made
by O. Miiller, has been generally accepted by modern archae-
ologists; and it is a strong point in its favour that the bishop
of Orvieto in 595 signs himself episcopus cvnlatis Bulsiniensis
(Gregor. Magn. Registr. v. 570; cf. ii. n, vi. 27). It had, and
needed, no outer walls, being surrounded on all sides except
the S.W. by abrupt tufa cliffs; but a massive wall found by
excavation on the S.W. side of the town may have belonged
to the acropolis. No remains of antiquity are to be seen
within the city; but at the foot of the hill on the N. a large
Etruscan necropolis was found in 1874, dating from the 5th
century B.C. The tombs, constructed of blocks of stone and
arranged in rows divided "by passages (like houses in a town),
often had the name of the deceased on the facade. Many
painted vases, &c., were found; some of the best are in the
Museo Civico at Orvieto. Tombs with paintings have also
been found to the W. of the town on the way to Bolsena.
Volsinii was reputed the richest of the twelve cities of
Etruria. Wars between Volsinii and Rome are mentioned
392, 308 and 294 B.C., and in 265-64 B.C. the Romans assiste
the inhabitants against their former slaves, who had successfully
asserted themselves against their masters and took the tov
Fulvius Flaccus gained a triumph for his victory, and it
probably then that the statue of Vertumnus which stood
the Vicus Tuscus at Rome was brought from Volsinii. Zonar;
states that the city was destroyed and removed elsewhere,
though the old site continued apparently to be inhabited, to
judge from the inscriptions found there. The new city
certainly situated on the hills on the N.E. bank of the Lak
of Bolsena (Lacus V olsiniensis) , 12 m. W.S.W. of Orvieto, wh
many remains of antiquity have been found, on and abov
the site of the modern Bolsena (q.v.). These remains consis
of Etruscan tombs, the sacred enclosure of the goddess Nortia,
with votive objects and coins ranging from the beginning of
the 3rd century B.C. to the middle of the 3rd century A.D.,
remains of Roman houses, &c., and an amphitheatre of the
imperial period (E. Gabrici in Monumenti dei Lincei, xvi., 1906,
169 sqq., and in Notizie degli Scavi, 1906, 59 sqq.).
The history of the new Volsinii is somewhat scanty. Sejanus,
the favourite of Tiberius, and Musonius Rufus the Stoic were
natives of the place. The earliest dated inscription from the
cemetery of S. Christina (discovered with its subterranean
church in 1880-81) belongs to A.D. 376 and the first known
bishop of Volsinii to A.D. 499. In the next century, however,
the see was transferred to Orvieto. Etruscan tombs have
been found on the Isola Bisentina, in the lake; and on the
west bank was the town of Visentium, Roman inscriptions
belonging to which have been found. The site is marked by
a medieval castle bearing the name Bisenzo.
See E. Bprmann in Corp. Inscr. Latin. xi., 1888, pp. 423 sqq.;
Notizie degli Scavi, passim; G. Dennis, op. c.it. (ii. 18 sqq.).
(T. As.)
VOLTA, ALESSANDRO (1745-1827), Italian physicist, was
born at Como on the i8th of February 1745. He is celebrated
as a pioneer of electrical science, after whom the " volt " is
named. In 1774 he was appointed professor of physics in the
gymnasium of Como, and in 1777 he travelled through Switzer-
land, where he formed an intimate friendship with H. B. de
Saussure. In 1779 a chair of physics was founded in Pavia,
and Volta was chosen to occupy it. In 1782 he journeyed
through France, Germany, Holland and England, and became
acquainted with many scientific celebrities. In 1791 he re-
ceived the Copley medal of the Royal Society. In 1801
Napoleon called him to Paris, to show his experiments on contact
electricity, and a medal was struck in his honour. He was
made a senator of the kingdom of Lombardy. In 1815 the
emperor of Austria made him director of the philosophical
faculty of Padua. In 1819 he retired and settled in his native
town, where he died on the 5th of March 1827. For Volta's
electrical work, and his place in the history of discovery (see
ELECTRICITY; also VOLTMETER).
VOLTA, the largest river of the coast of Upper Guinea,
between the Gambia and the Niger, with a length of about
900 m. Its mouth and the greater part of its course are in
British territory. Its lower course had been known since the
discoveries of the Portuguese, from whom it received (isth
century) its name on account of the winding nature of its
stream. It was not, however, until the last fifteen years of
the igth century that the extent of its basin extending far
north within the bend of the Niger -was made known.
There are two main upper branches, the Black and the White Volta.
Their sources lie on the grassy plateaus north of the forest belt of the
Guinea coast, the Black Volta rising (as the Baule) in about 1 1 I
4 50' W. Its course is at first E. and N.E., to 12 25' N., at which
point, after receiving a tributary from nearly 14 N. the most
northerly point of the basin, it turns sharply south. From the
eleventh to the ninth parallel the river forms the boundary between
the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British) and the French
Ivory Coast colony. The southerly course of the stream ceases
at 8* 15' N. where it is deflected E., and even N., by a mountain range
composed of sandstone and granite, which it finally breaks through
by a narrow pass, in which its width is only some 60 yds. Elsewhere
VOLTAIRE
199
it has a general width of 150 to 200 yds. In o 50' W. it re-
es the White Volta, which flows generally south from about
13 N. and likewise breaks through a narrow gap in the plateau
:pmcnt. Both rivers shrink greatly in the dry season, reaching
their loweM level at the end of January. Below the junction the
. Hows S.E. and S., turning, however, E. for 40 m. just north
of 6. In 7 37' N. it receives on the left bank a large tributary,
>ii, coming from 12 N. In its lower course, through the forest
i he river has often a width of over half a mile, with a depth
in places of 40 to 50 ft. in the rains, but in 6 18' N. it traverses a
in which its width is narrowed to 30 yds. Its use as a water-
way is limited by a number of rapids, the lowest of which occur
in 6 7' N., above the trading port of Akuse. Its mouth is
obstructed during the greater part of the year by a bar.
The river is usually navigable by small vessels from its mouth for
about 60 m.
The lower Volta was explored by M. J. Bonnat in 1875, but
the upper basin was first traversed by the German traveller
Krause (1886-87) and the French captain L. G. Binger
(1888). It has since been explored by a number of colonial
officials German, French and British. Between 6 41' and
8 8' N. the Volta forms the boundary between the Gold Coast
and Togoland.
VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE (1694-1778),
French philosopher, historian, dramatist and man of letters,
whose real name was Francois Marie Arouet simply, was born
on the zist of November 1694 at Paris, and was baptized the
next day. His father was Francois Arouet, a notary; his
mother was Marie Marguerite Daumart or D'Aumard. Both
father and mother were of Poitevin extraction, but the Arouets
had been for two generations established in Paris, the grand-
father being a prosperous tradesman. The family appear to
have always belonged to the yeoman-tradesman class; their
special home was the town of Saint-Loup. Voltaire was the
fifth child of his parents twin boys (of whom one survived),
a girl, Marguerite Catherine, and another boy who died young,
having preceded him. Not very much is known of the mother,
who died when Voltaire was but seven years old. She pretty
certainly was the chief cause of his early introduction to good
society, the abbe de Chateauneuf (his sponsor in more ways
than one) having been her friend. The father appears to have
been somewhat peremptory in temper, but neither inhospitable
nor tyrannical. Marguerite Arouet, of whom her younger
brother was very fond, married early, her husband's name
being Mignot; the eider brother, Armand, was a strong Jan-
senist, and there never was any kind of sympathy between him
and Francois.
The abbe de Chateauneuf instructed him early in belles-
lettres and deism, and he showed when a child the unsurpassed
faculty for facile verse-making which always distinguished him.
At the age of ten he was sent to the College Louis-le-Grand,
which was under the management of the Jesuits, and remained
there till 1711. It was his whim, as part of his general liberal-
ism, to depreciate the education he received; but it seems
to have been a very sound and good education, which formed
the basis of his extraordinarily wide, though never extra-
ordinarily accurate, collection of knowledge subsequently, and
(a more important thing) disciplined and exercised his literary
faculty and judgment. Nor can there be much doubt that the
great attention bestowed on acting the Jesuits kept up the
Renaissance practice of turning schools into theatres for the
performance of plays both in Latin and in the vernacular
had much to do with Voltaire's lifelong devotion to the stage.
It must have been in his very earliest school years that the
celebrated presentation of him by his godfather to Ninon de
Lenclos took place, for Ninon died in 1705. She left him two
thousand francs " to buy books with." He worked fairly,
played fairly, lived comfortably, made good and lasting friends.
Some curious traits are recorded of this life one being that
in the terrible famine year of Malplaquet a hundred francs a
year were added to the usual boarding expenses, and yet the
boys had to eat pain bis.
In August 1711, at the age of seventeen, he came home,
and the usual battle followed between a son who desired no
profession but literature and a father who refused to consider
literature a profession at all. For a time Voltaire submitted,
and read law at least nominally. The abbe de Chateauneuf
died before his godson left school, but he had already intro-
duced him to the famous and dissipated coterie of the Temple,
of which the grand prior Vend6me was the head, and the
poets Chaulieu and La Fare the chief literary stars. It does
not appear that Voltaire got into any great scrapes; but his
father tried to break him off from such society by sending him
first to Caen and then, in the suite of the marquis de Chateauneuf,
the abb's brother, to the Hague. Here he met a certain
Olympe Dunoyer (" Pimpette "), a girl apparently of respect-
able character and not bad connexions, but a Protestant,
penniless, and daughter of a literary lady whose literary reputa-
tion was not spotless. The mother discouraged the affair, and,
though Voltaire tried to avail himself of the mania for prosely-
tizing which then distinguished France, his father stopped any
idea of a match by procuring a letlre de cachet, which, however,
he did not use. Voltaire, who had been sent home, submitted,
and for a time pretended to work in a Parisian lawyer's office;
but he again manifested a faculty for getting into trouble
this time in the still more dangerous way of writing libellous
poems so that his father was glad to send him to stay for
nearly a year (1714-15) with Louis de Caumartin, marquis
de Saint-Ange, in the country. Here he was still supposed
to study law, but devoted himself in part to literary essays,
in part to storing up his immense treasure of gossiping history .
Almost exactly at the time of the death of Louis XIV. be
returned to Paris, to fall once more into literary and Templar
society, and to make the tragedy of CEdipe, which he had
already written, privately known. He was now introduced to
a less questionable and even more distinguished coterie than
Venddme's, to the famous " court of Sceaux," the circle of
the beautiful and ambitious duchesse du Maine. It seems
that Voltaire lent himself to the duchess's frantic hatred of
the regent Orleans, and helped to compose lampoons on that
prince. At any rate, in May 1716 he was exiled, first to Tulle,
then to Sully. Allowed to return, he again fell under suspicion
of having been concerned in the composition of two violent
libels one in Latin and one in French called from their first
words the Puero Regnante and the J'ai vu, was inveigled by
a spy named Beauregard into a real or burlesque confession,
and on the i6th of May 1717 was sent to the Bastille. He
there recast (Edipe, began the Henriade and determined to
alter his name. Ever after his exit from the Bastille in April
1718 he was known as Arouet de Voltaire, or simply Voltaire,
though legally he never abandoned his patronymic. The origin
of the famous name has been much debated, and attempts
have been made to show that it actually existed in the Daumart
pedigree or in some territorial designation. Some are said to
maintain that it was an abbreviation of a childish nickname,
" le petit wlontaire." The balance of opinion has, however,
always inclined to the hypothesis of an anagram on the name
" Arouet le jeune," or " Arouet 1. j.," u being changed to t>
and j to * according to the ordinary rules of the game.
A further " exile " at Chatenay and elsewhere succeeded the
imprisonment, and though Voltaire was admitted to an audience
by the regent and treated graciously he was not trusted.
(Edipe was acted at the Theatre Francais on the i8th of Novem-
ber of the year of release, and was very well received, a rivalry
between parties not dissimilar to that which not long before
had helped Addison's Cato assisting its success. It had a run
of forty-five nights, and brought the author not a little profit.
With these gains Voltaire seems to have begun his long series
of successful financial speculations. But in the spring of next
year the production of Lagrange-Chancel's libels, entitled the
Philippiques, again brought suspicion on him. He was in-
formally exiled, and spent much time with Marshal Villars.
again increasing his store of " reminiscences." He returned
to Paris in the winter, and his second play, Arlimire, was pro-
duced in February 1720. It was a failure, and though it was
recast with some success Voltaire never published it as a whole,
and used parts of it in other work. He again spent much of
200
VOLTAIRE
his time with Villars, listening to the marshal's stories and
making harmless love to the duchess. In December 1721 his
father died, leaving him property (rather more than four
thousand livres a year), which was soon increased by a pension
of half the amount from the regent. In return for this, or in
hopes of more, he offered himself as a spy or at any rate as
a secret diplomatist to Dubcis. But meeting his old enemy
Beauregard in one of the minister's rooms and making an
offensive remark, he was waylaid by Beauregard some time
after in a less privileged place and soundly beaten.
His visiting espionage, as unkind critics put it his secret
diplomatic mission, as he would have liked to have it put
himself began in the summer of 1722, and he set out for it
in company with a certain Madame de Rupelmonde, to whom
he as usual made love, taught deism and served as an amusing
travelling companion. He stayed at Cambrai for some time,
where European diplomatists were still in full session, jour-
neyed to Brussels, where he met and quarrelled with Jean
Baptiste Rousseau, went on to the Hague, and then returned.
The Henriade had got on considerably during the journey,
and, according to his lifelong habit, the poet, with the help
of his friend Thieriot and others, had been "working the
oracle" of puffery. During the late autumn and winter of
1722-23 he abode chiefly in Paris, taking a kind of lodging in
the town house of M. de Bernieres, a nobleman of Rouen, and
endeavouring to procure a "privilege" for his poem. In this
he was disappointed, but he had the work printed at Rouen
nevertheless, and spent the summer of 1723 revising it. In
November he caught smallpox and was very seriously ill, so
that the book was not given to the world till the spring of
1724 (and then of course, as it had no privilege, appeared
privately). Almost at the same time, the 4th of March, his
third tragedy, Mariamne appeared, was well received at first,
but underwent complete damnation before the curtain fell.
The regent had died shortly before, not to Voltaire's advantage;
for he had been a generous patron. Voltaire had made, however,
a useful friend in another grand seigneur, as profligate and
nearly as intelligent, the duke of Richelieu, and with him he
passed 1724 and the next year chiefly, recasting Mariamne
(which was now successful), writing the comedy of L'Indiscret,
and courting the queen, the ministers, the favourites and
everybody who seemed worth. The end of 1725 brought a
disastrous close to this period of his life. He was insulted by
the chevalier de Rohan, replied with his usual sharpness of
tongue, and shortly afterwards, when dining with the duke of
Sully, was called out and bastinadoed by the chavelier's hire-
lings, Rohan himself looking on. Nobody would take his part,
and at last, nearly three months after the outrage, he challenged
Rohan, who accepted the challenge, but on the morning
appointed for the duel Voltaire was arrested and sent. for the
second time to the Bastille. He was kept in confinement a
fortnight, and was then packed off to England in accordance
with his own request. Voltaire revenged himself on the duke
of Sully for his conduct towards his guest by cutting Maxi-
milien de Bethune's name out of the Henriade.
No competent judges have ever mistaken the importance
of Voltaire's visit to England, and the influence it exercised
on his future career. In the first place, the ridiculous and
discreditable incident of the beating had time to blow over;
in the second, England was a very favourable place for French-
men of note to pick up guineas; in the third, and most im-
portant of all, his contact with a people then far more different
in every conceivable way from their neighbours than any two
peoples of Europe are different now, acted as a sovereign tonic
and stimulant on his intellect and literary faculty. Before
the English visit Voltaire had been an elegant trifler, an adept
in the forms of literature popular in French society, a sort of
superior Dorat or Boufflers of earh'er growth. He returned
from that visit one of the foremost literary men in Europe,
with views, if not profound or accurate, yet wide and acute
on all les grands sujets, and with a solid stock of money. The
visit lasted about three years, from 1726 to 1729; and, as if
to make the visitor's luck certain, George I. died and George II.
succeeded soon after his arrival. The new king was not fond
of " boetry," but Queen Caroline was, and international
jealousy was pleased at the thought of welcoming a distin-
guished exile from French illiberality. The Walpoles, Bubb
Dodington, Bolingbroke, Congreve, Sarah, duchess of Marl-
borough, Pope, were among his English friends. He made
acquaintance with, and at least tried to appreciate, Shake-
speare. He was much struck by English manners, was deeply
penetrated by English toleration for personal freethought and
eccentricity, and gained some thousands of pounds from an
authorized English edition of the Henriade, dedicated to the
queen. But he visited Paris now and then without permis-
sion, and his mind, like the mind of every exiled Frenchman,
was always set thereon. He gained full licence to return in
the spring of 1729.
He was full of literary projects, and immediately after his
return he is said to have increased his fortune immensely by
a lucky lottery speculation. The Henriade was at last licensed
in France; Brutus, a play which he had printed in England,
was accepted for performance, but kept back for a time by the
author; and he began the celebrated poem of the Pucelle, the
amusement and the torment of great part of his life. But he
had great difficulties with two of his chief works which were
ready to appear, Charles XII. and the Lettres sur les Anglais.
With both he took all imaginable pains to avoid offending
the censorship; for Voltaire had, more than any other
man who ever lived, the ability and the willingness to
stoop to conquer. At the end of 1730 Brutus did actually
get acted. Then in the spring of the next year he went to
Rouen to get Charles XII. surreptitiously printed, which he
accomplished. In 1732 another tragedy, Eriphile, appeared,
with the same kind of halting success which had distinguished
the appearance of its elder sisters since (Edipe. But at last,
on the I3th of August 1732, he produced Zaire, the best (with
Mirope) of all his plays, and one of the ten or twelve best plays
of the whole French classical school. Its motive was borrowed
to some extent from Othello, but that matters little. In the
following winter the death of the comtesse de Fontaine-Martel,
whose guest he had been, turned him out of a comfortable
abode. He then took lodgings with an agent of his, one
Demoulin, in an out-of-the-way part of Paris, and was, for
some time at least, as much occupied with contracts, specu-
lation and all sorts of means of gaming money as with literature.
In the middle of this period, however, in 1733, two important
books, the Lettres philosophiques sur les Anglais and the Temple
du gout appeared. Both were likely to make bad blood, for
the latter was, under the mask of easy verse, a satire on con-
temporary French literature, especially on J. B. Rousseau,
and the former was, in the guise of a criticism or rather panegyric
of English ways, an attack on everything established in the
church and state of France. It was published with certain
" remarks " on Pascal, mere offensive to orthodoxy than itself,
and no mercy was shown to it. The book was condemned
(June loth, 1734), the copies seized and burnt, a warrant issued
against the author and his dwelling searched. He himself
was safe in the independent duchy of Lorraine with Emilie
de Breteuil, marquise du Chatelet, 1 with whom he began to be
intimate in 1733; he had now taken up his abode with her
at the chateau of Cirey.
If the English visit may be regarded as having finished
1 Gabrielle Emilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, marquise du Ch&telet
(1706-1749), was the daughter of the baron de Breteuil, and married
the marquis du Chatelet-Lomont in 1725. She was an accom-
plished linguist, musician and mathematician, and deeply interested
in metaphysics. When she first became intimate with Voltaire she
was practically separated from her husband, though he occasionally
visited Cirey. She is only important from her connexion with
Voltaire, though an attempt has been made to treat her as an
original thinker; see F. Hamel, An Eighteenth Century Marquise
(1910). She wrote Institutions de physique (1740), Dissertation
sur la nature et la propagation du feu (1744), Doutes sur les religions
reculees (1792), and in 1756 published a translation of Newton's
Principia.
VOLTAIRE
2OI
Voltaire's education, the Cirey residence may be justly said to
be the first stage of his literary manhood. He had written
important and characteristic work before; but he had always
been in a kind of literary Wanderjahre. He now obtained a
settled home for many years, and, taught by his numerous
brushes with the authorities, he began and successfully carried
out that system of keeping out of personal harm's way, and of
at once denying any awkward responsibility, which made him
for nearly half a century at once the chief and the most pros-
perous of Eurcpean heretics in regard to all established ideas.
It was not till the summer of 1734 that Cirey, a half -dismantled
country house on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine,
was fitted up with Voltaire's money and became the head-
quarters of himself, of his hostess, and now and then of her
accommodating husband. Many pictures of the life here,
some of them not a little malicious, survive. It was not en-
tirely a bed of roses, for the " respectable Emily's " temper
was violent, and after a time she sought lovers who were not
so much des certbraux as Voltaire. But it provided him with
a safe and comfortable retreat, and with every opportunity
for literary work. In March 1735 the ban was formally taken
off him, and he was at liberty to return to Paris, a liberty of
which he availed himself sparingly.
At Cirey he wrote indefatigably and did not neglect business.
The principal literary results of his early years here were the
Discours en vers sur I'homme, the play of Alzire and L' Enfant
prodigue (1736), and a long treatise on the Newtonian system
which he and Madame du Chatelet wrote together. But, as
usual, Voltaire's extraordinary literary industry was shown
rather in a vast amount of fugitive writjngs than in substantive
works, though for the whole space of his Cirey residence he
was engaged in writing, adding to, and altering the Pucelle.
In the very first days of his sojourn he had written a pamphlet
with the imposing title of Treatise on Metaphysics. Of
metaphysics proper Voltaire neither then nor at any other
time understood anything, and the subject, like every other,
merely served him as a pretext for laughing at religion with
the usual reservation of a tolerably affirmative deism. In
March 1736 he received his first letter from Frederick of Prussia,
then crown prince only. He was soon again in trouble, this
time for the poem of Le Mondain, and he at once crossed the
frontier and then made for Brussels. He spent about three
months in the Low Countries, and in March 1737 returned to
Cirey, and continued writing, making experiments in physics
(he had at this time a large laboratory), and busying himself
with iron-founding, the chief industry of the district. The
best-known accounts of Cirey life, those of Madame de Grafigny,
date from the winter of 1738-39; they are somewhat spiteful
but very amusing, depicting the frequent quarrels between
Madame du Chatelet and Voltaire, his intense' suffering under
criticism, his constant dread of the surreptitious publication
of the Pucelle (which nevertheless he could not keep his hands
from writing or his tongue from reciting to his visitors), and
so forth. The chief and most galling of his critics at this time
was the Abb Desfontaines, and the chief of Desfontaines's
attacks was entitled La Voltairomanie, in reply to a libel of
Voltaire's called Le Presenatif. Both combatants bad, accord-
ing to the absurd habit of the time, to disown their works,
Desfontaines's disavowal being formal and procured by the
exertion of all Voltaire's own influence both at home and
abroad. For he had as little notion of tolerance towards others
as of dignity in himself. In April 1739 a journey was made
to Brussels, to Paris, and then again to Brussels, which was
the headquarters for a considerable time, owing to some law
affairs, of the Du Chatelets. Frederick, now king of Prussia,
made not a few efforts to get Voltaire away from Madame du
Chatelet, but unsuccessfully, and the king earned the lady's
cordial hatred by persistently refusing or omitting to invite
her. At last, in September 1740, master and pupil met for the
first time at Cleves, an interview followed three months later
by a longer visit. Brussels wa.i again the headquarters in 1741,
by which time Voltaire had fnished the best and the second
or third best of his plays, Merope and Mahomet. Mahomet
was played first at Lille in that year;, it did not appear in
Paris till August next year, and Merope not till 1743. This
last was, and deserved to be, the most successful of its author's
whole theatre. It was in this same year that he received the
singular diplomatic mission to Frederick which nobody seems
to have taken seriously, and after his retuin the oscillation
between Biussels, Cirey and Paris was resumed. During
these years much of the Essai sur les mceurs and the Siecle de
Louis XIV. was composed. He also returned, not too well-
advisedly, to the business of courtiership, which he had given
up since the death of the regent. He was much employed,
owing to Richelieu's influence, in the ffites of the dauphin's
marriage, and was rewarded through the influence of Madame
de Pompadour on New Year's Day 1745 by the appointment
to the post of historiographer-royal, once jointly held by
Racine and Boileau. The situation itself and its accompanying
privileges were what Voltaire chiefly aimed at, bat there was a
salary of two thousand livres attached, and he had the year
before come in for three times as much by the death of his
brother. In the same year he wrote a poem on Fontenoy, he
received medals from the pope and dedicated Mahomet to him,
and he wrote court divertissements and other things to admira-
tion. But he was not a thoroughly skilful courtier, and one of
the best known of Voltairiana is the contempt or at least silence
with which Louis XV. a sensualist but no fool received the
maladroit and almost insolent inquiry Trajan est-il content?
addressed in his hearing to Richelieu at the close of a piece
in which the emperor had appeared with a transparent reference
to the king. All this assentation had at least one effect. He,
who had been for years admittedly the first writer in France,
had been repeatedly passed over in elections to the Academy.
He was at last elected in the spring of 1746, and received on
the 9th of May. Then the tide began to turn. His favour
at court had naturally exasperated his enemies; it had not
secured him any real friends, and even a gentlen.anship of the
chamber was no solid benefit, except from the money point
of view. He did not indeed hold it very long, but was per-
mitted to sell it for a large sum, retaining the rank and privileges.
He had various proofs of the instability of his hold on tbe king
during 1747 and in 1748. He once lay in hiding for two months
with the duchesse du Maine at Sceaux, where were produced
the comedietta of La Prude and the tragedy of Rome sawtte,
and afterwards for i time lived chiefly at Luneville; here
Madame du Chatelet had established herself at the court of
King Stanislaus, and carried on a liaison with Saint-Lambert,
an officer in the king's guard. In September 1749 she died
after the birth of a child.
The death of Madame du Chatelet is another turning-point
in the history of Voltaire. He was fifty-five, but he had
nearly thirty years more to live, and he had learnt much during
what may be called his Cirey cohabitation. For some time,
however, after Madame du Chatelet's death he was in a state
of pitiable unsettlemtnt. At first, after removing his goods
from Cirey, he hired the greater part of the Chatelet town house,
and then the whole. He had some idea of settling down in
Paris, and might perhaps have done so if mischief had not
been the very breath of his nostrils. He went on writing
satiric tales like Zadig. He engaged in a foolish and undigni-
fied struggle with Cr billon pere (notfils), a rival set up against
him by Madame de Pompadour, but a dramatist who, in part
of one play, Rhadamiste et Zenobie, has struck a note of tragedy
in the grand Cornelian strain, which Voltaire could never
hope to echo. Semirame (1748), Oreste (1750) and Rome sauvfe
itself were all products of this rivalry. He used the most
extraordinary efforts to make himself more popular than he was,
but he could not help being uncomfortable.
All this time Frederick of Prussia had been continuing his
invitations. Voltaire left Paris on the isth of June 1751, and
reached Berlin on the loth of July. This Berlin visit is more
or less familiar to English readers from the two great essays
of Macaulay and Carlyle as well as from the Frederick of the
202
VOLTAIRE
latter. But these two masters of English were not perhaps
the best qualified to relate the story. Both were unjust to
Voltaire, and Macaulay was unjust to Frederick as well. It
is certain that at first the king behaved altogether like a king
to his guest. He pressed him to remain; he gave him (the
words are Voltaire's own) one of his orders, twenty thousand
francs a year, and four thousand additional for his niece,
Madame Denis, in case she would come and keep house for her
uncle. But Voltaire's conduct was from the first Voltairian.
He insisted on the consent of his own king, which was given
without delay. But Frenchmen, always touchy on such a
point, regarded Voltaire as something of a deserter; and it
was not long before he bitterly repented his desertion, though
his residence in Prussia lasted nearly three years. It was
quite impossible that Voltaire and Frederick should get on
together for long. Voltaire was not humble enough to be a
mere butt, as many of Frederick's led poets were; he was not
enough of a gentleman to hold his own place with dignity and
discretion; he was constantly jealous both of his equals in
age and reputation, such as Maupertuis, and of his juniors
and inferiors, such as Baculard D'Arnaud. He was greedy,
restless, and in a way Bohemian. Frederick, though his love
of teasing for teasing's sake has been exaggerated by Macaulay,
was a martinet of the first water, had a sharp though one-sided
idea of justice, and had not the slightest intention of allowing
Voltaire to insult or to tyrannize over his other guests and
servants. If he is to be blamed in this particular matter, the
blame must be chiefly confined to his imprudence in inviting
Voltaire at the beginning and to the brutality of his conduct
at the end. Within Voltaire there was always a mischievous
and ill-behaved child; and he was never more mischievous,
more ill-behaved and more childish than in these years. He
tried to get D'Arnaud exiled, and succeeded. He got into a
quite unnecessary quarrel with Lessing. He had not been in
the country six months before he engaged in a discreditable
piece of financial gambling with Hirsch, the Dresden Jew.
He was accused of something like downright forgery that is
to say, of altering a paper signed by Hirsth after he had signed
it. The king's disgust at this affair (which came to an open
scandal before the tribunals) was so great that he was on the
point of ordering Voltaire out of Prussia, and Darget the
secretary had no small trouble in arranging the matter (February
1751). Then it was Voltaire's turn to be disgusted with an
occupation he had undertaken himself the occupation of
" buckwashing " the king's French verses. However, he suc-
ceeded in finishing and printing the Slide de Louis XIV.,
while the Dictionnaire philosophique is said to have been
devised and begun at Potsdam. But Voltaire's restless temper
was brewing up for another storm. In the early autumn of
1751 La Mettrie, one of the king's parasites, and a man of
much more talent than is generally allowed, horrified Voltaire
by telling him that Frederick had in conversation applied to
him (Voltaire) a proverb about " sucking the orange and flinging
away its skin," and about the same time the dispute with
Maupertuis, which had more than anything else to do with his
exclusion from Prussia, came to a head. Maupertuis got into
a dispute with one Konig. The king took his president's part;
Voltaire took Konig's. But Maupertuis must needs write his
Letters, and thereupon (1752) appeared one of Voltaire's most
famous, though perhaps not one of his most read works, the
Diatribe du Docteur Akakia. Even Voltaire did not venture to
publish this lampoon on a great official of a prince so touchy
as the king of Prussia without some permission, and if all tales
are true he obtained this by another piece of something like
forgery getting the king to endorse a totally different pamphlet
on its last leaf, and affixing that last leaf to Akakia. Of this
Frederick was not aware; but he did get some wind of the
Diatribe itself, sent for the author, heard it read to his own
great amusement, and either actually burned the MS. or be-
lieved that it was burnt. In a few days printed copies appeared.
Frederick did not like disobedience, but he. still less liked being
made a fool of, and he put Voltaire under arrest. But again
the affair blew over, the king believing that the edition
Akakia confiscated in Prussia was the only one. Alas! Vol-
taire had sent copies away; others had been printed, abroad;
and the thing was irrecoverable. It could not be proved that
he had ordered the printing, and all Frederick could do
to have the pamphlet burnt by the hangman. Things wi
now drawing to a crisis. One day Voltaire sent his on
&c., back; the next Frederick returned them, but Voltaire
had quite made up his mind to fly. A kind of reconciliation
occurred in March, and after some days of good-fellowship
Voltaire at last obtained the long-sought leave of absence and
left Potsdam on the 26th of the month (1753). It was nearly
three months afterwards that the famous, ludicrous and brutal
arrest was made at Frankfort, on the persons of himself and
his niece, who had met him meanwhile. There was some
faint excuse for Frederick's wrath. In the first place, the poet
chose to linger at Leipzig. In the second place, in direct dis-
regard of a promise given to Frederick, a supplement to Akakia
appeared, more offensive than the main text. From Leipzig,
after a month's stay, Voltaire moved to Gotha. Once more,
on the 25th of May, he moved on to Frankfort. Frankfort,
nominally a free city, but with a Prussian resident who did
very much what he pleased, was not like Gotha and Leipzig.
An excuse was provided in the fact that the poet had a copy
of some unpublished poems of Frederick's, and as soon as
Voltaire arrived hands were laid on him, at first with courtesy
enough. The resident, Freytag, was not a very wise person
(though he probably did not, as Voltaire would have it, spell
" poesie " "poeshie"); constant references to Frederick were
necessary; and the affair was prolonged so that Madame
Denis had time to join her uncle. At last Voltaire tried to
steal away. He was followed, arrested, his niece seized separ-
ately, and sent to join him in custody; and the two, with the
secretary Collini, were kept close prisoners at an inn called the
Goat. This situation was at last put an end to by the city
authorities, who probably felt that they were not playing a
very creditable part. Voltaire left Frankfort on the 7th of
July, travelled safely to Mainz, and thence to Mannheim,
Strassburg and Colmar. The last-named place he reached
(after a leisurely journey and many honours at the little courts
just mentioned) at the beginning of October, and here he pro-
posed to stay the winter, finish his Annals of the Empire ai
look about him.
Voltaire's second stage was now over. Even now, howevi
in his sixtieth year, it required some more external pressure
to induce him to make himself independent. He had been,
in the first blush of his Frankfort disaster, refused, or at least
not granted, permission even to enter France proper. At
Colmar he was not safe, especially when in January 1754 a
pirated edition of the Essai sur les mceurs, written long before,
appeared. Permission to establish himself in France was
now absolutely refused. Nor did an extremely offensive per-
formance of Voltaire's the solemn partaking of the Eucharist
at Colmar after due confession at all mollify his enemies.
His exclusion from France, however, was chiefly metaphorical,
and really meant exclusion from Paris and its neighbourhood.
In the summer he went to Plombieres, and after returning
to Colmar for some time journeyed in the beginning of winter
to Lyons, and thence in the middle of December to Geneva.
Voltaire had no purpose of remaining in the cjty, and almost
immediately bought a country house just outside the gates,
to which he gave the name of Les Delices. He was here
practically at the meeting-point of four distinct jurisdictions-
Geneva, the canton Vaud, Sardinia and France, while other
cantons were within easy reach; and he bought other houses
dotted about these territories, so as never to be without a refuge
close at hand in case of sudden storms. At Les Delices he
set up a considerable establishment, which his great wealth
made him able easily to afford. He kept open house for
visitors; he had printers close at hand in Geneva; he fitted
up a private theatre in which he could enjoy what was perhaps
the greatest pleasure of his whcle life acting in a play of
VOLTAIRE
203
own, stage-managed by himself. His residence at Geneva
brought him into correspondence (at first quite amicable) with
the most famous of her citizens, J. J. Rousseau. His Orphelin
de la Chine, performed at Paris in 1755, was very well received;
the notorious La Pucelle appeared in the same year. The
earthquake at Lisbon, which appalled other people, gave
Voltaire an excellent opportunity for ridiculing the beliefs
of the orthodox, first in verse (1756) and later in the (from a
literary point of view) unsurpassable tale of Candide (1759).
All was, however, not yet quite smooth with him. Geneva
had a law expressly forbidding theatrical performances in
any circumstances whatever. Voltaire had infringed this law
already as far as private performances went, and he had
thought of building a regular theatre, not indeed at Geneva
but at Lausanne. In July 1755 a very polite and, as far as
Voltaire was concerned, indirect resolution of the Consistory
declared that in consequence of these proceedings of the Sieur
de Voltaire the pastors should notify their flocks to abstain,
and that the chief syndic should be informed of the Consistory's
perfect confidence that the edicts would be carried out.
Voltaire obeyed this hint as far as Les Delices was concerned,
and consoled himself by having the performances in his
Lausanne house. But he never was the man to take opposi-
tion to his wishes either quietly or without retaliation. He
undoubtedly instigated D'Alembert to include a censure of
the prohibition in his Encyclopedic article on " Geneva," a
proceeding which provoked Rousseau's celebrated Lettre d
D'Alembert stir les spectacles. As for himself, he looked about
for a place where he could combine the social liberty of France
with the political liberty of Geneva, and he found one.
At the end of 1758 he bought the considerable property of
Ferney, on the shore of the lake, about four miles from Geneva,
and on French soil. At Les Delices (which he sold in 1765)
he had become a householder on no small scale; at Ferney
(which he increased by other purchases and leases) he became
a complete country gentleman, and was henceforward known
to all Europe as squire of Ferney. Many of the most celebrated
men of Europe visited him there, and large parts of his usual
biographies are composed of extracts from their accounts of
Ferney. His new occupations by no means quenched his
literary activity. He did not make himself a slave to his
visitors, but reserved much time for work and for his immense
correspondence, which had for a long time once more included
Frederick, the two getting on very well when they were not
in contact. Above all, he now, being comparatively secure in
position, engaged much more strongly in public controversies,
and resorted less to his old labyrinthine tricks of disavowal,
garbled publication and private libel. The suppression of
the Encyclopedic, to which he had been a considerable con-
tributor, and whose conductors were his intimate friends, drew
from him a shower of lampoons directed now at " 1'infame "
(see infra) generally, now at literary victims, such as Le Franc
de Pompignan (who had written one piece of verse so much
better than anything serious of Voltaire's that he could not
be forgiven), or Palissot (who in his play Les Philosophes had
boldly gibbeted most of the persons so termed, but had not
included Voltaire), now at Freron, an excellent critic and a'
dangerous writer, who had attacked Voltaire from the con-
servative side, and at whom the patriarch of Ferney, as he
now began to be called, levelled in return the very inferior
farce-lampoon of L'Ecossaise, of the first night of which Fr6ron
himself did an admirably humorous'criticism.
How he built a church and got into trouble in so doing at
Ferney, how he put " Deo erexit Voltaire " on it (1760-61) and
obtained a relic from the pope for his new building, how he
entertained a grand-niece of Corneille, and for her benefit wrote
his well-known " commentary " on that poet, are matters of
interest, but to be passed over briefly. Here, too, he began
that series of interferences on behalf of the oppressed and
the ill-treated which, whatever mixture of motives may have
prompted it, is an honour to his memory. Volumes and
almost libraries have been written on the Galas affair, and
we can but refer here to the only less famous cases of Sirven
(very similar to that of Calas, though no judicial murder was
actually committed), Espinasse (who had been sentenced to
the galleys for harbouring a Protestant minister), Lally (the
son of the unjustly treated but not blameless Irish-French
commander in India), D'Etalonde (the companion of La Barre),
Montbailli and others. In 1768 he entered into controversy
with the bishop of the diocese; he had differences with the
superior landlord of part of his estate, the president De Brasses;
and he engaged in a long and tedious return match with the
republic of Geneva. But the general events of this Ferney
life are somewhat of that happy kind which are no events.
In this way Voltaire, who had been an old man when he
established himself at Ferney, became a very old one almost
without noticing it. The death of Louis XV. and the accession
of Louis XVI. excited even in his aged breast the hope of
re-entering Paris, but he did not at once receive any encourage-
ment, despite the reforming ministry of Turgot. A much
more solid gain to his happiness was the adoption, or practical
adoption, in 1776 of Reine Philiberte de Varicourt, a young
girl of noble but poor family, whom Voltaire rescued from the
convent, installed in his house as an adopted daughter, and
married to the marquis de Villette. Her pet name was " Belle
et Bonne," and nobody had more to do with the happiness
of the last years of the " patriarch " than she had. It is
doubtful whether his last and fatal visit to Paris was due to
his own wish or to the instigation of his niece, Madame Denis;
but this lady a woman of disagreeable temper, especially to
her inferiors appears to have been rather hardly treated
by Voltaire's earlier, and sometimes by his later, biographers.
The suggestion which has been made that the success of
Beaumarchais piqued him has nothing impossible in it. At
any rate he had, at the end of 1777 and the beginning of 1778,
been carefully finishing a new tragedy Irene for production
in the capital. He started on the 5th of February, and five
days later arrived at the city which he had not seen for eight-
and-twenty years.
He was received with immense rejoicings, not indeed directly
by the court, but by the Academy, by society and by all the
more important foreign visitors. Abcut a fortnight after his
arrival, age and fatigue made him seriously ill, and a confessor
was sent for. But he recovered, scoffed at himself as usual,
and prepared more eagerly than ever for the first performance
of Irene, on the i6th of March. At the end of the month he
was able to attend a performance of it, which was a kind of
apotheosis. He was crowned with laurel in his box, amid
the plaudits of the audience, and did not seem to be the worse
for it. He even began or proceeded with another tragedy
Agathocle and attended several Academic meetings. But
such proceedings in the case of a man of eighty-four were
impossible. To keep himself up, he exceeded even his usual
excess in coffee, and about the middle of May he became very
ill. On the 3oth of May the priests were once more sent for
to wit, his nephew, the abb6 Mignot, the abb6 Gaultier, who
had officiated on the former occasion, and the parish priest,
the cure of St Sulpice. He was, however, in a state of half-
insensibility, and petulantly motioned them away, dying in
the course of the night. The legends about his death in a
state of terror and despair are certainly false; but it must
be regarded as singular and unfortunate that he, who had more
than once gone out of his way to conform ostentatiously and
with his tongue in his cheek, should have neglected or missed
this last opportunity. The result was a difficulty as to burial,
which was compromised by hurried interment at the abbey
of Scellieres in Champagne, anticipating the interdict of the
bishop of the diocese by an hour or two. On the loth of July
1791 the body was transferred to the Pantheon, but during
the Hundred Days it was once more, it is said, disentombed,
and stowed away in a piece of waste ground. His heart, taken
from the body when it was embalmed, and given to Madame
Denis and by her to Madame de Villette, was preserved in a
silver case, and when it was proposed (in 1864) to restore it to
204
VOLTAIRE
the other remains, the sarcophagus at Sainte Genevieve (the
Pantheon) was opened and found to be empty.
In person Voltaire was not engaging, even as a young man.
His extraordinary thinness is commemorated, among other
things, by the very poor but well-known epigram attributed
to Young, and identifying him at once with " Satan, Death
and Sin." In old age he was a mere skeleton, with a long nose
and eyes of preternatural brilliancy peering out of his wig.
He never seems to have been addicted to any manly sport, and
took little exercise. He was sober enough (for his day and
society) in eating and drinking generally; but drank coffee,
as his contemporary, counterpart and enemy, Johnson, drank
tea, in a hardened and inveterate manner. It may be presumed
with some certainty that his attentions to women were for the
most part platonic; indeed, both on the good and the bad side
of him, he was all brain. He appears to have had no great
sense of natural beauty, in which point he resembled his
generation (though one remarkable story is told of his being
deeply affected by Alpine scenery); and, except in his passion
for the stage, he does not seem to have cared much for any of
the arts. Conversation and literature were, again as in Johnson's
case, the sole gods of his idolatry. As for his moral character,
the wholly intellectual cast of mind just referred to makes it
difficult to judge that. His beliefs or absence of beliefs eman-
cipated him from conventional scruples; and he is not a good
subject for those who maintain that a nice morality may exist
independently of religion. He was good-natured when not
crossed, generous to dependents who made themselves useful
to him, and indefatigable in defending the cause of those who
were oppressed by the systems with which he was at war. But
he was inordinately vain, and totally unscrupulous in gaining
money, in attacking an enemy, or in protecting himself when
he was threatened with danger. His peculiar fashion of attack-
ing the popular beliefs of his time has also failed to secure the
approval of some who had very little sympathy with those
beliefs. The only excuse made for the alternate cringing and
insult, the alternate abuse and lying, which marked his course
in this matter, has been the very weak plea that a man cannot
fight with a system a plea which is sufficiently answered by
the retort that a great many men have so fought and have won.
Voltaire's works, and especially his private letters, constantly
contain the word " 1'infame " and the expression (in full or
abbreviated) " ecrasez 1'infame." This has been misunderstood
in many ways the mistake going so far as in some cases
to suppose that Voltaire meant Christ by this opprobrious
expression. No careful and competent student of his works
has ever failed to correct this gross misapprehension. " L'in-
fame " is not God; it is not Christ; it is not Christianity;
it is not even Catholicism. Its briefest equivalent may be
given as " persecuting and privileged orthodoxy " in general,
and, more particularly, it is the particular system which
Voltaire saw around him, of which he had felt the effects in his
own exiles and the confiscations of his books, and of which he
saw the still worse effects in the hideous sufferings of Calas and
La Barre.
Vast and various as the work of Voltaire is, itsvastness and
variety are of the essence of its writer's peculiar quality. The
divisions of it have long been recognized, and may be treated
regularly.
The first of these divisions in order, not the least in bulk, and,
though not the first in merit, inferior to none in the amount of
congenial labour spent on it, is the theatre. Between fifty and sixty
different pieces (including a few which exist only in fragments or
sketches) are included in his writings, and they cover his literary
life. It is at first sight remarkable that Voltaire, whose comic
power was undoubtedly far in excess of his tragic, should have
written many tragedies of no small excellence in their way, but
only one fair second-class comedy, Nanine. His other efforts in
this latter direction are either slight and almosj: insignificant in
scope, or, as in the case of the somewhat famous Ecossaise, deriving
all their interest from being personal libels. His tragedies, on the
other hand, are works of extraordinary merit in their own way.
Although Voltaire had neither the perfect versification of Ra_cine
nor the noble poetry of Cprneille, he surpassed the latter certainly,
and the former in the opinion of some not incompetent judges, in
playing the difficult and artificial game of the French tragedy.
Zaire, among those where love is admitted as a principal motive',
and Merope, among those where this motive is excluded and kept in
subordination, yield to no plays of their classe in such interest as is
possible on the model, in stage effect and in uniform literary merit.
Voltaire knew that the public opinion of his time reserved its highest
prizes for a capable and successful dramatist, and he was deter-
mined to win these prizes. He therefore set all his wonderful
cleverness to the task, going so far as to adopt a little even of that
Romantic disobedience to the strict classical theory which he con-
demned, and no doubt sincerely, in Shakespeare.
As regards his poems proper, of which there are two long ones,
the Henriade and the Pucelle, besides smaller pieces, of which a
bare catalogue fills fourteen royal octavo columns, their value
is very unequal. The Henriade has by universal consent been
relegated to the position of a school reading book. Constructed
and written in almost slavish imitation of Virgil, employing for
medium a very unsuitable vehicle the Alexandrine couplet (as
reformed and rendered monotonous for dramatic purposes) and
animated neither by enthusiasm for the subject nor by real under-
standing thereof, it could not but be an unsatisfactory performance.
The Pucette, if morally inferior, is from a literary point of view of
far more value. It is desultory to a degree; it is a base libel on
religion and history; it differs from its model Ariosto in being, not,
as Ariosto is, a mixture of romance and burlesque, but a sometimes
tedious tissue of burlesque pure and simple; and it is exposed to
the objection often and justly urged that much of its fun depends
simply on the fact that there were and are many people who believe
enough in Christianity to make its jokes give pain tb them and to
make their disgust at such jokes piquant to others. Nevertheless,
with all the Pucclle's faults, it is amusing. The minor poems are
as much above the Pucelle as the Pucelle is above the Henriade.
It is true that there is nothing, or hardly anything, that properly
deserves the name of poetry in them no passion, no sense of the
beauty of nature, only a narrow " criticism of life, " only a conven-
tional and restricted choice of language, a cramped and monotonous
prosody, and none of that indefinite suggestion which has been
rightly said to be of the poetic essence. But there is immense wit,
a wonderful command of such metre and language as the taste of
the time allowed to the poet, occasionally a singular if somewhat
artificial grace, and a curious felicity of diction and manner.
The third division of Voltaire's works in a rational order consists
of his prose romances or tales. These productions incomparably
the most remarkable and most absolutely good fruit of his genius
were usually composed as pamphlets, with a purpose of polemic
in religion, politics, or what not. Thus Candide attacks religious
and philosophical optimism, L'Homme aux quarante ecus certain
social and political ways of the time, Zadig and others the received
forms of moral and metaphysical orthodoxy, while some are mere
lampoons on the Bible, the unfailing source of Voltaire's wit. But
(as always happens in the case of literary work where the form
exactly suits the author's genius) the purpose in all the best of them
disappears almost entirely. It is in these works more than in any
others that the peculiar quality of Voltaire^ ironic style without
exaggeration ^appears. That he learned it partly from Saint
Evremond, still more from Anthony Hamilton, partly even from
his own enemy Le Sage, is perfectly true, but he gave it perfection
and completion. If one especial peculiarity can be singled out,
it is the extreme restraint and simplicity of the verbal treatment.
Voltaire never dwells too long on this point, stays to laugh at what
he has said, elucidates or comments on his own jokes, guffaws over
them or exaggerates their form. The famous " pour encourager
les autres " (that the shooting of Byng did " encourage the others "
very much is not to the point) is a typical example, and indeed the
whole of Candide shows the style at its perfection.
The fourth division of Voltaire's work, the historical, is the
bulkiest of all except his correspondence, and some parts of it are
or have been among the most read, but it is far from being even
among the best. The small treatises on Charles XII. and Peter
Great are indeed models of clear narrative and ingenious if soi
what superficial grasp and arrangement. The so-called Siecle
Louis XI V. and Siecle de Louis X V. (the latter inferior to the foi
but still valuable) contain a great miscellany of interesting mat
treated by a man of great acuteness and unsurpassed power
writing, who had also had access to much important private inforr
tion. But even in these books defects are present, which appear
much more strongly in the singular olla podrida entitled Essai svr
les mceurs, in the Annales de I' empire and in the minor historical
works. These defects are an almost total absence of any compre-
hension of what has since been called the philosophy of history,
the constant presence of gross prejudice, frequent inaccuracy of
detail, and, above all, a complete incapacity to look at anything
except from the narrow standpoint of a half-pessimist and half
self-satisfied philosophe of the i8th century.
His work in physics concerns us less than any other here; it is,
however, not inconsiderable in bulk, and is said by experts to give
proof of aptitude.
To his own age Voltaire was pre-eminently a poet and a pluto
sopher; the unkindness of succeeding ages has sometimes questioned
VOLTERRA
205
whether he had any title to either name, and especially to the latter.
His largest philosophical work, at least so called, is the curious
medley entitled Dtctionnaire philosophique, which is compounded
,( the articles contributed by him to the great Encydoptdu and of
.,1 minor pieces. No one of Voltaire's works shows his anti-
religious or at least anti-ecclesiastical animus more strongly. The
various title- words of the several articles are of ten the merest stalking-
horses, under cover of which to shoot at the Bible or the church, the
target 'being now and then shifted to the political institutions of the
writer's country, his personal foes, &c., and the whole being largely
ml with that acute, rather superficial, common-sense, but
also commonplace, ethical and social criticism which the i8th century
called philosophy. The book ranks perhaps second only to the
novels as showing the character, literary and personal, of Voltaire;
and despite its form it is nearly as readable. The minor philosophical
works are of no very different character. In the brief Traiti de
melaphysique the author makes his grand effort, but scarcely succeeds
in doing more than show that he had no real conception of what
metaphysic is.
In general criticism and miscellaneous writing Voltaire is not
inferior to himself in any of his other functions. Almost all his
more substantive works, whether in verse or prose, are preceded by
prefaces of one sort or another, which are models of his own light
pungent causerie; and in a vast variety of nondescript pamphlets
and writings he shows himself a perfect journalist. In literary
criticism pure and simple his principal work is the Commenlaire
sur Corneule, though he wrote a good deal more of the same kind
y.iiu'times (as in his Life and notices of Moliere) independently
limes as part of his Sieclts. Nowhere, perhaps, except when
dealing with religion, are Voltaire's defects felt more than
IHTC. He was quite unacquainted with the history of his own
language and literature, and more here than anywhere else he showed
thi' extraordinarily limited and conventional spirit which accom-
panied the revolt of the French i8th century against limits and
conventions in theological, ethical and political matters.
There remains only the huge division of his correspondence, which
is constantly being augmented by fresh discoveries, and which,
according to Georges Bengesco, has never been fully or correctly
printed, even in some of the parts longest known. In this great
mass Voltaire's personality is of course best shown, and perhaps his
literary qualities not worst. His immense energy and versatility,
his adroit and unhesitating flattery when he chose to flatter, his
ruthless sarcasm when he chose to be sarcastic, his rather un-
scrupulous business faculty, his more than rather unscrupulous
resolve to double and twist in any fashion so as to escape his enemies,
all these things appear throughout the whole mass of letters.
Most judgmentsjof Voltaire have been unduly coloured by sympathy
with or dislike of what may be briefly called his polemical side.
When sympathy and dislike are both discarded or allowed for, he
remains one of the most astonishing, if not exactly one of the most
admirable, figures of letters. That he never, as Carlyle complains,
gave utterance to one great thought is strictly true. That his
characteristic is for the most part an almost superhuman cleverness
rather than positive genius is also true. But that he was merely
a mocker, which Carlyle and others have also said, is not strictly
true or fair. In politics proper he seems indeed to have had few or
no constructive ideas, and to have been entirely ignorant or quite
reckless of the fact that his attacks were destroying a state of things
for which as a whole he neither had nor apparently wished to have
any substitute. In religion he protested stoutly, and no doubt
sincerely, that his own attitude was not purely negative; but here
also he seems to have failed altogether to distinguish between pruning
and cutting down. Both here and elsewhere his great fault was an
inveterate superficiality. But this superficiajity was accompanied
by such wonderful acuteness within a certain range, by such an
absolutely unsurpassed literary aptitude and sense of style in all
the lighter and some of the graver modes of literature, by such
untiring energy and versatility in enterprise, that he has no parallel
among; ready writers anywhere. Not the most elaborate work of
Voltaire is of much value for matter; but not the very slightest
work of Voltaire is devoid of value in form. In literary craftsmanship,
at once versatile and accomplished, he has no superior and scarcely
a rival.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The bibliography of Voltaire is a very large
subject, and it has been the special occupation of a Rumanian
diplomatist of much erudition and judgment, Georges Bengesco,
Bibliographic de Voltaire (4 vols., Paris, 1882-90). The best edi-
tion of the works is that by Louis Moland in 52 volumes (Paris,
Gamier) ; the handiest and most compact is that issued in 13 volumes
royal octavo by Fume, and kept in print by the house of Didot.
3f the earlier editions, though their bulk is an objection, several are
interesting and valuable. Especially may be noticed the so-called
edition of Kehl, in which Voltaire himself, and later Beaumarchais,
were concerned (70 vols., 1785-89) ; those of Dalibon and Baudouin.
each in 97 volumes (from which " the hundred volumes of Voltaire "
have become a not infrequent figure of speech); and the excellent
edition of Beuchot (1829) in 72 volumes. Editions of separate or
selected works are innumerable, and so are books upon Voltaire.
There is no really good detailed life of him, with complete examina-
tion of his work, in any language, though the works containing
materials for such are numerous (the first of importance being that
jf T. J. Du/ernet in 1797), a d sometimes (especially in the case of
M. Desnoiresterres, Voltaire et la socUtt franchise, 1867 and others)
excellent. In English the essays of Carlyle and Viscount Morley
(1872) are both in their way invaluable, and to a great extent correct
one another. The principal detailed life in English is that of an
American writer, James Parton (1881), which gives the facts with
very considerable detail and fair accuracy, but with little power of
criticism. That of Mr S. G. Tallentyre (London, 1903, 2 vols.) is
jossiping and popular. Francis Espinasse's Voltaire (.1882), which
:ontains a useful bibliography, J. Churton Collins's Voltaire in
England (1886), and J. R. Lounsbury's Shakespeare and Voltaire
(1902) may also be specified. (G. SA.)
VOLTERRA (anc. Volaterrae), a town and episcopal see of
Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Pisa, from which it is 51 m.
by rail S.E., and 35 by road W.N.W. from Siena. Pop. (1901)
5522 (town); 14,207 (commune). It stands on a commanding
olive-clad eminence 1785 ft. above sea-level, with a magnificent
view over mountains and sea (the latter some 20 m. distant),
and is surrounded by the massive remains of its ancient walls
of large, roughly-rectangular blocks of stone, some 4$ m. in
circuit, enclosing an area which must have been larger than
was actually needed for habitation. Tombs of the pre-Etruscan
or Villanova period have been found within its circuit, but
only at the north-west extremity near S. Giusto. Here the
clay of which the hill is formed is gradually giving way, causing
landslips and the collapse of buildings, notably of the abbey
church of S. Salvatore (1030). The medieval town occupies
only the southern portion of this area. The most important
relic of its Etruscan period is the Porta dell' Arco, an archway
of dark greystone, about 20 ft. high, the corbels of which are
adorned with almost obliterated heads, probably representing
the guardian deities of the city. There are remains of baths
and a cistern of Roman date. Volterra preserves its medi-
eval character, having suffered little modification since the
1 6th century. The town contains many picturesque medieval
towers and houses. The Palazzo dei Priori (1208-54), now
the municipal palace, is especially fine, and the piazza in which
it stands most picturesque. The museum contains a very
valuable collection of Etruscan antiquities, especially cinerary
urns from the ancient tombs N. and E. of the town. The urns
themselves are of alabaster, with the figure of the deceased on
the lid, and reliefs from Greek myths on the front. They
belong to the 3rd-2nd centuries B.C. A tomb outside the
town of the 6th century B.C., discovered in 1898, consisted of
a round underground chamber, roofed with gradually projecting
slabs of stone. The roof was supported in the centre by a
massive square pillar (E. Petersen in Romische Mitteilungen,
1898, 409; cf. id. ibid., 1904, 244 for a similar one near Florence).
There are also in the museum Romanesque sculptures from the
old church of S. Giusto, &c. The cathedral, consecrated in
1 1 20 (?), but enlarged and adorned by Niccolo Pisano (?) in
1254, has a fine pulpit of that period, and on the high altar are
sculptures by Mino da Fiesole ; it contains several good pictures
the best is an " Annunciation " by Luca Signorelli. The sacristy
has fine carvings. The baptistery belongs to the I3th century;
the font is by Andrea Sansovino, and the ciborium by Mino
da Fiesole. Both these buildings are in black and white
marble. S. Francesco has frescoes of 1410, and S. Girolamo
terra-cottas and pictures. The citadel, now a house of correc-
tion, consists of two portions, the Rocca Vecchia, built in
J 343 by Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, and the Rocca
Nuova, built by the Florentines (1472). The inhabitants are
chiefly employed in the manufacture of vases and other orna-
ments from alabaster, of good quality, found in the vicinity.
There are also in the neighbourhood rock-salt works and mines,
as well as boracic acid works. This acid is exhaled in volcanic
gas, which is passed through water tanks. The acid is deposited
in the water and afterwards evaporated. It is sent to England,
and used largely in the manufacture of pottery glaze.
Volaterrae (Etruscan Velathrf) was one of the most powerful of
the twelve confederate cities of Etruria. During the war between
Marius and Sulla it withstood the lattcr's troops for two years in
2o6
VOLTMETER
82-80 B.C. As a result of its resistance Sulla carried a law for the
confiscation of the land of those inhabitants of Volaterrae who had
had the privileges of Roman citizenship. This, however, does not
seem to have been carried out until Caesar as dictator divided some
of the territory of Volaterrae among his veterans. Among its noble
families the chief was that of the Caecinae, who took their name
from the river which runs close to Volaterrae and still retains the
name Cecilia. Cicero defended one of its members in an extant
speech. It is included by Pliny among the municipal towns of
Etruria. In the lath and I3th centuries it enjoyed free institutions;
in 1361 it fell under the power of Florence. It rebelled, but was
retaken and pillaged in 1472. Persius the satirist and the painter
Daniele da Volterra were both natives of the town. Several works
of the latter are preserved there.
See C. Ricci, Volterra (Bergamo, 1905); E. Bormann in Corp.
Inscr. Latin, xi. (Berlin, 1888), p. 324; G. Dennis, Cities and
Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883), ii. 136. (T. As.)
VOLTMETER, an instrument for measuring difference of
electric potential (see ELECTROSTATICS) in terms of the unit
called a volt. The volt (so called after A. Volta) is defined to
be difference of potential which acting between the terminals
of a resistance of one ohm sends through it a continuous current
of one ampere. A voltmeter is therefore one form of electro-
meter (q.v.), but the term is generally employed to describe
the instrument which indicates on a scale, not merely in
arbitrary units but directly in volts, the potential difference of
its terminals. Voltmeters may be divided into two classes,
(a) electrostatic, (b) electrokinetic.
Electrostatic voltmeters are based on the principle that when two
conductors are at different potentials they attract one another
with a force which varies as the square of the potential difference
(P. D.) between them. This mechanical stress may be made the
measure of the P. D. between them, if one of the conductors is fixed
while the other is movable, this last being subject to a constraint
due to a spring or to gravity, means being also provided for measur-
ing either the displacement of the movable conductor against the
constraint or the force required to hold it in a fixed position relatively
to the fixed conductor. One large class of electrostatic voltmeters
consists of a fixed metal plate or plates and a movable plate or plates,
the two sets of plates forming a condenser (see LEYDEN JAR). The
movable system is suspended or pivoted, and when a P. D. is created
between the fixed and movable plates, the latter are drawn into a
new position which is resisted by the torque of a wire or by the force
due to a weight. Utilizing this principle many inventors have
devised forms of electrostatic voltmeter. One of the best known
of these is Lord Kelvin's multicellular voltmeter. In this instru-
ment (fig. i) there are two sets of fixed metal plates, connected
FIG. I. Lord Kelvin's Multicellular Electrostatic Voltmeter.
together and having a quadrantal shape, that is, approximately
the shape of a quarter of a circular disk. In the space between
them is suspended a " needle " which consists of a light aluminium
axis, to which are affixed a number of paddle-shaped aluminium
blades. This needle is suspended by a fine platinum silver wire,
and its normal position is such that the aluminium paddle blades
are just outside the quadrantal-shaped plates. If the needle is
connected to one terminal of a circuit, and the fixed plates or cells
to the other member of the circuit, and a difference of potential
is created between them, then the movable needle is drawn in so
that the aluminium blades are more included between the fixed
plates. This movement is resisted by the torsional elasticity of
the suspending wire, and hence a fixed indicating needle attached
to the movable system can be made to indicate directly on a scale
the difference of potential between the terminals of the instrument
in volts. Instruments of this kind have been constructed not only
by Lord Kelvin, but also by W. E. Ayrton and others, for measuring
voltages from 10,000 volts down to I volt. In other types
of electrostatic instruments the movable system rotates round a
horizontal axis or rests upon knife edges like a scale beam ; in others
again the movable system is suspended by a wire. In the former
case the control is generally due to gravity, the plates being so
balanced on the knife edge that they tend to take up a certain
fixed position from which they are constrained when the electric
forces come into play, their displacement relatively to the fixed
plates being shown on a scale and thus indicating the P. D. between
them. In the case of high tension voltmeters, the movable plate
takes the form of a single plate of paddle shape, and for extra high
tensions it may simply be suspended from the end of a balanced
arm; or the movable system may take the form of a cylinder
which is suspended within, but not touching, another fixed cylinder,
the relative position being such that the electric forces draw the
suspended cylinder more into the fixed one. Electrostatic volt-
meters are now almost entirely used for the measurement of high
voltages from 2000 to 50,000 volts employed in electrotechnics.
For such purposes the whole of the working parts are contained in a
metal case, the indicating needle moving over a divided scale which
is calibrated to show directly the potential difference in volts of
the terminals of the instrument. One much-used electrostatic
voltmeter of this type is the Kelvin multicellular vertical pattern
voltmeter (fig. 2). For use at the switch-boards of electric supply
stations the instrument takes
another form known as the
" edge- wise " pattern.
Another class of voltmeters
comprises the electrokinetic volt-
meters. In these instruments
the potential difference between
two points is measured by the
electric current produced in a
wire connecting to two points.
In any case of potential differ-
ence measurement it is essential
not to disturb the potential
difference being measured ;
hence it follows that in electro-
kinetic voltmeters the wire con-
necting the two points of which
the potential difference is to be FIG. 2. Round Dial Kelvin Multi-
measured must be of very cellular Electrostatic Voltmeter,
high resistance. The instrument 5-in. scale. For high pressure,
then simply becomes an am-
meter of high resistance, and may take any of the forms of prac-
tically used ammeters (see AMPEREMETER). Electromagnetic
voltmeters may therefore be thermal, electromagnetic or electro-
dynamic.
As a rule, electromagnetic voltmeters are only suitable for the
measurement of relatively small potentials o to 200 or 300 volts.
Numerous forms of hot-wire or thermal voltmeter have been devised.
In that known as the Cardew voltmeter, a fine platinum-silver wire,
having a resistance of about 300 ohms, is stretched in a tube or upon
a frame contained in a tube. This frame or tube is so constructed of
iron and brass (one-third iron and twc-thirds brass) that its tempera-
ture coefficient of linear expansion is the same as that of the platinum-
silver alloy. The fine wire is fixed to one end of the tube or frame
by an insulated support and the other end is attached to a motion-
multiplying gear. As the frame has the same linear expansion as
the wire, external changes of the temperature will not affect their
relative length, but if the fine wire is heated by the passage of an
electric current, its expansion will move the indicating needle over
the scale, the motion being multiplied by the gear. In the Hartmann
and Braun form of hot-wire voltmeter, the fine wire is fixed between
two supports and the expansion produced when a current is passed
through it causes the wire to sag down, the sag being multiplied
by a gear and made to move an indicating needle over a scale.
In this case, the actual working wire, being short, must be placed
in series with an additional high resistance. Hot wire voltmeters,
like electrostatic voltmeters, are suitable for use with alternating
currents of any frequency as well as with continuous currents, since
their indications depend upon the heating power of the current,
which is proportional to the square of the current and therefore
to the square of the difference of potential between the terminals.
Electromagnetic voltmeters consist of a coil of fine wire connected
to the terminals of the instrument, and the current produced in
that wire by a difference of potential between the terminals creates
a magnetic field proportional at any point to the strength of the
current. This magnetic field may be made to cause a displacement
VOLTURNO VOLUINSKY
207
in a small piece of soft iron, as in the case of the corresponding
ammeters, and this in turn may be made to displace an indicating
^^e over a scale so that corresponding to every given potential
^^Eence between the terminals of the instrument there is a corre-
. iing fixed position of the needle on the scale. One of the most
! forms of electromagnetic voltmeter is that generally known
,3 a movable coil voltmeter (fig. 3). In this instrument there is a
fixed permanent magnet, produc-
ing a constant magnetic field, and
in the interspace between the poles
is fixed a delicately pivoted coil
of wire carried in jewelled bear-
ings. The normal position of this
coil is with its plane parallel to the
lines of force of the field. The
current is got in and out of the
movable coil by means of fine
flexible wires. The movable coil
has attached to it an index needle
moving over a scale, and a fixed
coil of high-resistance wire is
included in series with the movable
coil between the terminals of the
instrument. When a difference
i. Round Dial Voltmeter of potential is made between the
of 'Kelvin Siphon Recorder, terminals, a current passes through
1 beat moving coil type, the movable coil, which then tends
with front removed. to place itself with its plane more
at right angles to the lines of force
of the field. This motion is resisted by the torsion of a spiral spring
resembling the hair-spring of a watch having one end fixed to the
coil axis, and there is therefore a definite position of the needle on
the scale corresponding to each potential difference between the
termin.il>, provided it is within the range of the control. These
instruments are only adapted for the measurement of continuous
potential difference, that is to say, unidirectional potential differ-
but not for alternating voltages. Like the corresponding
ammeters, they have the great advantage that the scale? are equi-
divisional and that there is no dead part in the scale, whereas both
the electrostatic and electrothermal voltmeters, above described,
labour under the disadvantage that the scale divisions are not equal
but increase with rise of voltages, hence there is generally a portion
of the scale near the zero point where the divisions are so close as to
be useless for reading purposes and are therefore omitted. For the
measurement of voltages in continuous current generating stations,
movable coil voltmeters are much
employed, generally constructed
then in the " edgewise " pattern
(fig. 4)-
Electrodynamic Voltmeters. A
high-resistance electrodynamo-
meter may be employed as a volt-
meter. In this case both the fixed
and movable circuits consist of
fine wires, and the instrument is
constructed and used in a manner
similar to the Siemens dynamo-
meter employed for measuring con-
tinuous alternating current (see
AMPEREMETER). Another much-
used method of measuring con-
tinuous current voltages or unidirectional potential difference
employs the principle of potentiometer (g.v.). In this case a high-
' ,mce wire is connected between the points of which the potential
difference is required, and from some known fraction of this resist-
ance wires are brought to an electrostatic voltmeter, or to a mov-
able coil electromagnetic voltmeter, according as the voltage to
be measured is alternating or continuous. This measurement is
applicable to the measurement of high potentials, either alternating
or continuous, provided that in the case of alternating currents the
high resistance employed is wound non-inductively and an electro-
voltmeter is used. The high-resistance wire should, moreover,
be one having a negligible change of resistance with temperature.
For this purpose it must be an alloy such as manganin or constant an.
It is always an advantage, if possible, to employ an electrostatic
voltmeter for measuring potential difference if it is necessary to
keep the voltmeter permanently connected to the two points. Any
form of electrokinetic voltmeter which involves the passage of a
current through the wire necessitates the expenditure of energy to
maintain this current and therefore involves cost of production.
This amount may not by any means be an insignificant quantity.
Consider, for instance, a hot-wire instrument, such as a Cardew's
voltmeter. If the wire has a resistance of 300 ohms and is connected
to two points differing in potential by 100 volts, the instrument
passes a current of one-third of an ampere and takes up 33 watts in
power. Since there are 8760 hours in a year, if such an instrument
were connected continuously to the circuit it would take up energy
equal to 263,000 watt-hours, or 260 Board of Trade units per annum.
If the cost of production of this energy was only one penny per unit,
FIG. 4. Edgewise Voltmeter.
Stanley D'Arsonval type.
the working expenses of keeping such a voltmeter in connexion with
a circuit would therefore be more than 1 per annum, representing
a capitalized value of, say, 10. Electrostatic instruments, however,
take up no power and hence cost nothing for maintenance other than
wear and tear of the instrument.
The qualities required in a good voltmeter are: (i.) It should be
quick in action, that is to say, the needle should come quickly to a
position giving immediately the P.D. of the terminals of the instru-
ment, (li.) The instrument should give the same reading for the
same P.D. whether this has been arrived at by increasing from a lower
value or decreasing from a larger varue; in other words, there should
be no instrumental hysteresis, ^iii.) The instrument should have
no temperature correction; this is a good quality of electrostatic
instruments, but in all voltmeters of the electrokinetic type which
are wound with copper wire an increase of one degree centigrade
in the average temperature of that wire alters the resistance by
0-4%, and therefore to the same extent alters the correctness of
the indications, (iv.) It should, if possible, be available both for
alternating and continuous currents, (v.) It should be portable
and work in any position, (vi.) It should not be disturbed easily by
external electric or magnetic fields. This last point is important in
connexion with voltmeters used on the switchboards of electric
generating stations, where relatively strong electric or magnetic
fields may be present, due to strong currents passing through con-
ductors near or on the board. It is therefore always necessary to
check the readings of such an instrument in situ. Electrostatic
voltmeters are also liable to have their indications disturbed by
electrification of the glass cover of the instrument; this can be
avoided by varnishing the glass with a semi-conducting varnish so
as to prevent the location of electrostatic charges on the glass.
See J. A. Fleming, Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and
Testing-Room (London, 1903); G. Aspinall Parr, Electrical Engineer-
ing Measuring Instruments (London, 1903); K. Edgecumbe and
F. Punga, " On Direct Reading Measuring Instruments for Switch-
board Use," Jo-urn. Inst. Elec. Eng. (London, 1904), 33, 620.
0- A. F.)
VOLTURNO (anc. Volturnus, from where, to roll), a river
of central Italy, which rises in the neighbourhood of Alfedena
in the central Apennines of Samnium, runs S. as far as Venafro,
and then S.E. After a course of some 75 m. it receives, about
5 m. E. of Caiazzo, the Galore, only 3 m. less in length.which
runs first N. and then W., and after 37 m. reaches Benevento,
near which it receives several tributaries; then curves round
the mountain mass to the N. of the Caudine Forks, and so
beyond Telese joins the Volturno. The united stream now
flows W.S.W. past Capua (anc. Casiiinum) , where the Via
Appia and Latina joined just to the N. of the bridge over it,
and so through the Campanian plain, with many windings,
into the sea. The direct length of the lower course is about
31 m., so that the whole is slightly longer than that of the
Liri, and its basin far larger. The river has always had con-
siderable military importance, and the colony of Volturnum
(no doubt preceded by an older port of Capua) was founded
in 194 B.C. at its mouth on the S. bank by the Romans; it
is now about one mile inland. A fort had already been placed
there during the Roman siege of Capua, in order, with Puteoli,
to serve for the provisioning of the army. Augustus placed a
colony of veterans here. The Via Domitiana from Sinuessa to
Puteoli crossed the river at this point, and some remains of
the bridge are visible. The river was navigable as far as Capua.
On [the ist of October 1860 the Neapolitan forces were
defeated on the S. bank of the Volturno, near S. Maria di Capua
Vetere, by the Piedmontese and Garibaldi's troops, a defeat
which led to the fall of Capua. (T. As.)
VOLUINSKY, ARTEMY PETROVICH (1689-1740), Russian
general and statesman, son of Peter Voluinsky, one of the
dignitaries at the court of. Theodore III., came of an ancient
family. He entered a dragoon regiment in 1704 and rose to
the rank of captain; then, exchanging the military service for
diplomacy, he was attached to the suite of Vice- Chancellor
Shafirov. He was present during the campaign of the Pruth,
shared Shafirov's captivity in the Seven Towers and in 1715
was sent by Peter the Great to Persia to promote Russian
influence there, and if possible to find an outlet to India. In
1718 Peter made him one of his six adjutant-generals, and
governor of Astrakhan. In this post Voluinsky displayed dis-
tinguished administrative and financial talents. In 1723 he
married Alexandra Naruishkina, Peter's cousin. The same
208
VOLUNTEERS
year he was accused of peculation and other offences to the
emperor, who caned him severely and deprived him of his
plenipotentiary powers, despite his undeniable services in
Persia, but for which Peter could never have emerged so tri-
umphantly from the difficult Persian war of 1722-23. Cath-
erine I. made Voluinsky governor of Kazan for a short time,
and he held the same post for two years (1728-30) under
Peter II. But his incurable corruption and unbridled temper
so discredited the government that he was deprived of the
post shortly after the accession of Anne. From 1730 to 1736
Voluinsky served in the army under Miinnich. In 1737 he
was appointed the second Russian plenipotentiary at the
abortive congress of Nemirov held for the conclusion of peace
with the Porte. In 1738 he was introduced into the Russian
cabinet by Biren as a counterpoise against Andrei Osterman.
Voluinsky, however, now thought himself strong enough to
attempt to supersede Biren himself, and openly opposed the
favourite in the Council of State in the debates as to the in-
demnity due to Poland for the violations of her territory during
the war of the Polish Succession, Biren advising that a liberal
indemnity should be given, whereas Voluinsky objected to any
indemnity at all. Biren thereupon forced Anne to order an
inquiry into Voluinsky's past career, with the result that he
was tried before a tribunal of Biren's creatures and condemned
to be broken on the wheel and then beheaded. On the scaffold,
" by the clemency of the empress," his punishment was miti-
gated to the severing of his right hand followed by decapitation.
The whole business seems to have been purely a piece of
vindictiveness on the part of Biren.
See R. N. Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London, 1897) ;
D. A. Korsakov, From the Lives of Russian Statesmen of the X Vlllth
Century (Rus.) (Kazan, 1891). (R. N. B.)
VOLUNTEERS, a general term for soldiers who are not pro-
fessionals nor permanently embodied under arms in peace.
Although it would be difficult to say when the principle of
volunteer organization for national defence was first adopted in
England, it is certain that voluntary military societies existed
in various parts of the country in the reign of Henry VIII., who
in fact granted a charter in 1537 to the " Fraternity or Guylde
of Saint George: Maisters and Rulars of the said Science of
Artillary as aforesaid rehearsed for long-bowes Cros-bowes and
Hand-Gonnes." This ancient corps is now the Honourable
Artillery Company of London. Although the Honourable Artillery
Company has always been a distinct association, it was at one
time (notably during the Great Rebellion) a centre of instruction
for the City-trained bands, and in later times the H.A.C., divided
into artillery and infantry units, has been assimilated as regards
training and obligations to the Volunteer or Territorial Forces.
Charters of a similar kind were granted to a Colchester society
in 1619 and to one at Bury St Edmunds in 1628. In the i6th
and 1 7th centuries also various temporary corps outside the
militia or trained-band organization were called volunteers.
At Boston, Massachusetts, there is established a corps bearing
the name of the " Antient and Honorable Artillery Company
of Massachusetts." This company was formed in 1638 after its
London prototype.
The notion of a large organized Volunteer Force, however,
seems to have originated hi England at the time of the Militia
Bill of 1757, which was amended hi 1758 so as to allow the
militia captains to accept volunteers instead of the ordinary
militiamen who were compulsorily furnished pro rat a by each
parish. In 1778 the volunteers were still voluntary substitutes
for militiamen, though formed in separate companies of the
militia unit, but volunteer corps soon began to form themselves
independently of the militia. In the meantime a large volunteer
force had sprung up in Ireland. In 1 7 79, Ireland being threatened
with foreign invasion, a levy of 20,000 Protestants was made by
the gentry in the north. The 20,000 Protestants had grown in
1782 to 100,000 of all arms and both creeds, and they used their
strength effectively for political purposes. After the establish-
ment of the parliament at Dublin, and the general peace of 1783,
attempts were made to use this army for party purposes, and
the moderate men in parliament therefore hastened to disband
it. But this military coup d'etat was not forgotten in England.
Ireland indeed supplied 70,000 volunteers during the Napoleonic
wars, practically in place of her militia quota. But the rebellion
of 1798 kept alive the memory of 1782, and about 1804 the
government disarmed and disbanded them.
The English and Scottish volunteers, disbanded in 1783, were
promptly revived when the French Revolutionary Wars pro-
duced a new and more formidable enemy. Volunteer corps,
some dependent as companies upon the militia, others inde-
pendent units, were raised in 1794, volunteer service counting
as militia service for the purposes of raising the county, town or
parish quota. This was followed in 1798 by the formation, for
purely local defence, of the Armed Associations, the equivalent
of the modern " rifle clubs." At the peace of Amiens the
340,000 volunteers then serving were nearly all disbanded, but
one or two crops passed into the regular army as entire regiments,
and some others managed to avoid disbandment until the
renewal of the war revived the whole force. The danger of
invasion was then at its height, and in a few months the force
numbered 380,000 men, or 35% of a population which already
kept up a regular army and a militia. But the training of this
mass was very unequal; the numbers fell off as the likelihood of
invasion decreased, and in the reaction from the first enthusiasm
it began to be questioned whether the volunteers could be of
much value under the easy conditions of service prevailing. In
1808, therefore, the Local Militia was formed, in which the terms
of enlistment and training liabilities were both stricter and better
defined. The greater part of the volunteers transferred them-
selves to the Local Militia, which by 1812 (aided by the ballot)
had reached a strength of 215,000 as against the 70,000 of the
remaining volunteers. With the general peace of 1814 all these
forces except the H.A.C. and the Yeomanry (q.v.) disappeared.
After an interval of nearly half a century the warlike attitude
of France caused British citizens once more to arm for the
protection of their country. The British army and navy had
declined in strength and efficiency; France, on the other hand,
by the energetic development of her military and naval power
and the early application of steam to ships of war, brought
the possibilities of the invasion of England in 1846 within
measurable distance. England at this time was awakened to
the gravity of the situation by the publication of a letter
from Wellington to Sir John Burgoyne, 1 followed by a well-
timed pamphlet by Sir Charles Napier, entitled The Defence of
England by Volunteer Corps and Militia. The French danger,
in abeyance during the Crimean War, was revived in 1857,
when the tone of the French press became more and more
menacing. The war in China, the Indian Mutiny and diffi-
culties with the United States taxed the regular army to the
utmost; while at home, besides the actual garrisons, there were
barely 36,000 militia. This threatening condition of affairs
tended to aggravate, if not to produce, a serious commercial
panic. It was then that the volunteer movement began, and the
Orsini episode and the openly expressed threats of French officers
were all that was necessary to free the pent-up enthusiasm.
A few rifle clubs were already in existence, and two of these,
working as military bodies from the outset (1852-53), became
the two senior volunteer battalions ist V.B. (now 4th Bn.)
Devonshire Regt., and Victoria Rifles (now gth Bn. London
Regt.). But it was not until the situation became acute that
the War Office took the step of raising the " Volunteer Force."
A circular letter, dated i2th May 1859, from the secretary for
war to the lords-lieutenant of counties in Great Britain authorized
the formation of volunteer corps. The general enrolment took
place at first under the old statute (44 Geo. III.). The main
provisions of that act, however, were found inapplicable to the
altered conditions under which invasion was now possible, and
they failed also to provide for the maintenance of the volunteer
force on a permanent footing in peace. A new act (Volunteer
Act 1863) was therefore passed, the most important provision
of which was that apprehended invasion should constitute a
1 See Life and Letters of Field- Marshal Sir John Burgoyne.
VOLUSENUS
209
sufficient reason for the sovereign to call out the volunteers, in lieu
of the old condition which required the actual appearance of the
enemy. The volunteers were, when called out, bound to serve
in Great Britain until released by a proclamation declaring the
sion to have passed. This was modified in 1900 during the
South African War, a new enactment allowing the authorities
to call them out at times of " imminent national danger and great
emergency." In 1871 the volunteers were removed from the
control of the lords-lieutenant and placed under the War Office.
In 1 88 1 the infantry battalions were affiliated to the various
line regiments.
The force thus brought into existence was composed of corps of
light horse, mounted rifles, garrison and heavy artillery, engineers
and rifle volunteers. 1 Later there existed also in connexion with
the admiralty a corps of " Royal Naval Artillery Volunteers " for
the coast defences. The terms of service and training liabilities
underwent no alteration of principle during the forty-eight years
of the force's existence. The property belonging to the corps
was vested in the commanding officer and administered by a com-
mittee of officers under the rules of the corps. These rules were
in the first instance agreed on at a general meeting of officers and
men, and, having received the queen's approval, became legal,
and could be enforced. The commanding officer could dis-
miss a man from the corps, and a volunteer not on actual service
could terminate his engagement at fourteen days' notice. But,
as it became the almost universal practice for the government
or the regimental commander to issue clothing and equipment
free, the volunteers contracted in return to serve for three, four or
five years, and, if they exercised their statutory rights, were
obliged to refund part of the cost. Further, when capitation
grants were given for the maintenance of the corps, the volunteer
had either to earn this by continued service or repay the sum lost
to the corps by his resignation. These conditions materially
modified the statute law in practice, and in fact the term of
four years exacted from the Territorial to-day differs in little
more than name from the requirements of the former " corps
rules." Military law was appli cable to officers and men when
training with regulars.
The formation of volunteer corps was so rapid that in the
course of a few months in 1850-60 a force of 119,000 was created.
More, however, remained to be done to put an end to the ever-
recurring commercial panics. The government, which in the
beginning had tolerated rather than encouraged the movement,
and had required the volunteer to serve and to equip himself
entirely at his own expense, now followed the lead of public
opinion, and decided on maintaining the volunteer force as a part
of the regular defensive system. The personnel of the volunteer
corps (with a few exceptions) thereupon underwent a change.
The wealthy and professional classes, who had at first joined the
ranks in anticipation of war, cared no longer to bear arms.
Their places were taken by the artisan class, which added
materially to the number and permanence of the force. But, as
contributions and subscriptions now flagged, it became evident
that public grants would have to be voted for its maintenance,
and a scale of capitation allowances, subject to regulation, was
fixed, on the recommendation of a Royal Commission. This
capitation allowance per efficient volunteer was thenceforward
the basis of all regimental finance and administration.
The turning-point in the history of the volunteers was the
South African War. In January 1900, and on several subse-
quent occasions, the volunteers were invited to supply service
companies for South Africa, to be incorporated in the regular
battalions to which the volunteer battalions were affiliated.
About one-third of the whole force volunteered for service in
South Africa, and some 20,000 served in the volunteer com-
panies with the line and in the " City Imperial Volunteers,"
besides a great number of volunteers whom the higher pay,
1 The light horse and mounted rifles disappeared in the end, or
else were converted into yeomanry. The " rifles " title was main-
tained even after the infantry had been assimilated in drill, uniform
and other respects to the fine battalions. For this reason even
scarlet-clothed battalions had no colours, pouch-belts instead of
sashes, &c.
easier conditions and better prospects of active employment
in the mounted guerrilla warfare tempted into the ranks of the
yeomanry. The return of these companies infused into the
force a leaven of officers and men who had been through an
experience of constant small skirmishes and prolonged marching
and bivouacking. Meantime the force as a whole had been
subjected to a more earnest and vigorous training than it had
ever had before. The establishment was greatly increased, and
24 battalions were selected for special training and included with
the regular home army in the field force. Various partial
reorganizations followed in 1902-5, and at last, in 1907-8, the
whole force was re-cast, re-enlisted upon somewhat different
terms, and organized along with the yeomanry into the new
Territorial Force (see UNITED KINGDOM: Army).
STRENGTH OF THE VOLUNTEER FORCE
(From the Territorial Year Book /pop),,
Year.
.Establishment.
Strength.
Classed as
Efficient.
1861
211,961
161,239
140,100
1870
244,966
'93,893
170,671
1880
243,546
206,537
196,938
1885
250,967
224,012
218,207
1890
260,310
221,048
212,293
1895
260,968
231,704
224,962
1809
263,416
229,854
223,921
1900
339-5"
277,628
270,369
1901
342,003
288,476
281,062
1 002
345,547
268,550
256,451
1903
346,171
253,281
242,104
1904
343,246
253,909
244,537
1905
341.283
249,611
241.549
1906
338,452
255,854
246,654
1907
335,849
252,791
244,212
VOLUSENUS, FLORENTIUS [FLORENCE WOLSON, or WOLSEY,
in later writers WILSON, though in letters in the vernacular
he writes himself VOLUSENE](C. iso4-c. 1547), Scottish humanist,
was born near Elgin about 1504. He studied philosophy at
Aberdeen, and in the dialogue De Animi Tranquiilitate says
that the description of the abode of tranquillity was based on
a dream that came to him after a conversation with a fellow-
student on the banks of his native Lossie. He was then a
student of philosophy of four years' standing. Proceeding to
Paris, he became tutor to Thomas Wynter, reputed son of
Cardinal Wolsey. He paid repeated visits to England, where
he was well received by the king, and, after Wolsey's fall, he
acted as one of Cromwell's agents in Paris. He was in England
as late as 1534, and appears to have been rector of Speldhurst
in Kent. In Paris he knew George Buchanan, and found
patrons in the cardinal Jean de Lorraine and Jean du Bellay.
He was to have gone with du Bellay on his mission to Italy
in 1535, but illness kept him in Paris. As soon as he recovered
he set out on his journey, but at Avignon, by the advice of his
friend Antonio Bonvisi (d. 1558), he sought the patronage of
the bishop of the diocese, the learned and pious Paul Sadolet,
who made him master in the school at Carpentras, with a
saiary of seventy crowns. Volusenus paid frequent visits to
Lyons (where Conrad Gesner saw him, still a young man, in
1540), probably also to Italy, where he had many friends,
perhaps even to Spain. A letter addressed to him by Sadolet
from Rome in 1546 shows that he had then resolved to return
to Scotland, and had asked advice on the attitude he should
adopt in the religious dissensions of the time. He died on the
journey, however, at Vienne in Dauphinc, in 1546, or early
in the next year.
Volusenus's linguistic studies embraced Hebrew as well as Greek
and Latin. His reputation, however, rests on the beautiful dia-
logue, De Animi Tranquillitate, first printed by S. Gryphius at
Lyons in 1543. From internal evidence it appears to have been
composed about that time, but the subject had exercised the writer
for many years. The dialogue shows us Christian humanism at
its best. Volusenus is a great admirer of Erasmus, but he criticizes
the purity of his Latin and also his philosophy. His own philo-
sophy is Christian and Biblical rather than classical or scholastic.
He takes a fresh and independent view of Christian ethics, and ha
ultimately reaches a doctrine as to the witness of the Spirit and the
2IO
VOLUTE VONNOH
assurance of grace which breaks with the traditional Christianity
of his time and is based on ethical motives akin to those of the
German Reformers. The verses which occur in the dialogue, and the
poem which concludes it, give Volusenus a place among Scottish Latin
poets, but it is as a Christian philosopher that he attains distinction.
The dialogue was reissued at Leiden in 1637 by the Scots writer
David Echlin, whose poems, with a selection of three poems from
the dialogue of Volusenus, appear, with others, in the famous
Amsterdam collection Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum hujus aevi,
printed by Blaev in 2 vols. in 1637. Later editions of the dialogue
appeared at Edinburgh in 1707 and 1751 (the latter edited by
G. Wishart). All the reissues contain a snort life of the author by
Thomas Wilson, advocate, son-in-law and biographer of Arch-
bishop Patrick Adamson. Supplementary facts are found in the
letters and state papers of the period, and in Sadolet's Letters.
VOLUTE (Lat. volutum, volvere, to roll up), in architecture,
the spiral scroll of the capital of the Ionic order. As in the
earliest example known, that of the archaic temple of Diana
at Ephesus, the width of the abacus is twice that of the depth,
constituting therefore a bracket-capital; it is probable that at
first it consisted of an oblong block of timber, which, raised
on a vertical post or column, lessened the bearing of the
architrave or beam, and the first volutes or scrolls were painted
on. In votive columns carrying a sphinx, as at Delphi, or
statues, the oblong form of capital with largely developed
volutes was long retained, but in the porticoes of the Greek
temples the abacus was made square and the volute diminished
in projection on each side. In the side elevation the portion
of the capital which joins the two volutes is known as the
cushion, and when the Ionic column was used in porticoes in
the capitals of the angle columns the volute was brought out
on the diagonal, so as to present the same design on front and
side; this, however, at the back led to a very awkward arrange-
ment with two half volutes at right angles to one another,
which was not of much importance under the portico, but
when, in the open peristyle of the Pompeian house, it faced
the open court, another design was necessary, and the angle
volute was employed on all four sides. A similar arrangement
was devised by Ictinus for the capitals in the interior of the
temple at Bassae (430 B.C.), and was employed in the semi-
detached columns of the raised stage at Epidaurus. The
Romans adopted the angle volute in the temple of Fortuna
Virilis at Rome, but, except in their porticoes and as semi-
detached between arches, the Ionic order was rarely employed
by them, and few Roman examples are known.
The architects of the Revival in the l6th century entirely mis-
understood the origin and meaning of the volutes (the upper fillet
of which was always carried horizontally across under the abacus
in Greek and Roman work), and mistook them for horns, which they
turned down into the echinus moulding.
VONDEL, JOOST VAN DEN (1587-1679), Dutch poet, was
born at Cologne on the i7tb of November 1587. His father,
a hatter, was an exile from Antwerp on account of his Ana-
baptist opinions; but he returned to Holland when Joost was
about ten years old, and settled in Amsterdam, where he carried
on a hosiery business. Joost was the eldest son, and was
expected to succeed to his father's shop. He was early intro-
duced to the chamber of the Eglantine, however, and devoted
most of his time to poetry and study. When the elder Vondel
died he married Maria de Wolff, and seems to have left the
management of his affairs in her capable hands. He read the
French contemporary poets, and was especially influenced by
the Divine Sepmaine of Du Bartas; he made some translations
from the German ; he was soon introduced to the circle gathered
in the house of Roemer Visscher, and with these friends began
to make a close study of classical writers. His first play, Het
Pascha, was printed in 1612, and proved to be the beginning
of a long and brilliant literary career (see DUTCH LITERATURE).
After the production of his political drama of Palamedes, or
Murdered Innocence (1625), which expressed his indignation
at the judicial murder of Oldenbarneveldt in 1619, Vondel had
to go into hiding, but the Amsterdam magistrates eventually
satisfied themselves with exacting a small fine. In the follow-
ing years he issued a number of stinging satires against the
extreme Calvinists, and he entered into close relationship
with Hugo Grotius, another sufferer for his liberal opinions.
Vondel had long been attracted by the aesthetic side of the
Roman Catholic Church, and this inclination was perhaps
strengthened by his friendship with Marie Tesselschade Visscher,
for the Visscher household had been Catholic and liberal."
Tesselschade's husband died in 1634; Vondel's wife died in
1635; and the ties between the two were strengthened by time.
Vondel eventually showed his revolt against the Calvinist
tyranny by formally embracing the Roman Catholic faith in
1640. The step was ill-received by many of his friends, and
Hooft forbade him the hospitality of his castle at Muiden.
In 1657 his only surviving son, who was entrusted with the
hosiery business, mismanaged affairs to such an extent that
he had to take ship for the East Indies, leaving his father to face
the creditors. Vondel had to sacrifice the whole of his small
fortune, and became a government clerk. He was pensioned
after ten years' service, and died on the sth of February 1679.
The more important of his thirty-two dramas are: Hierusalem
Verwoest ("Jerusalem laid desolate") (1620); Palamedes, of Ver-
moorde onnooselheyd (" Palamedes, or Murdered Innocence ") (1625);
Gijsbreght van Aemstel (1637); De Cebroeders (1640), the subject
of which is the ruin of the sons of Saul; Joseph in Egypten (1640),
Maria Stuart, of gemartelde majesteit (1646); the pastoral of De
Samson (1660) ; Batavische Cebroeders, the subject of which is the
story of Claudius Civilis (1663); Adam in battingschap (" Adam in
exile ") (1664), after the Latin tragedy of Hugo Grotius. He also
wrote translations from the tragedies of Seneca, Euripides and
Sophocles; didactic poems, and much lyrical poetry beside what
is to be found in the choruses of his dramas.
His complete works were edited by van Lennep (12 vols., 1850-
1869). A bibliography (1888) was published by J. H. W. Unger,
who revised van Lennep's edition in 1888-94. Lucifer was trans-
lated into English verse by L. C. van Noppen (New York, 1898). See
also E. Gosse, Studies in Northern Literature (1879); G. Edmundson,
Milton and Vondel (1885), where Milton's supposed indebtedness
to Vondel is discussed; and critical studies by A. Baumgartner,
S. J. (Freiburg, 1882); C. Looten (Lille, 1889), by J. A. Alberdingk
Thijm (Portretten van Joost van den Vondel, 1876); and especially
the chapters on Vondel (pp. 133-325) in W. J. A. Jonckbloet's
Geschiedenis der nederlandsche letterkunde (vol. iv. 1890).
VON HOLST, HERMANN EDUARD (1841-1904), German-
American historian, was born at Fellin in the province of Livonia,
on the igth of June 1841. He was educated at the universities
of Dorpat and Heidelberg, receiving his doctor's degree from
the latter in 1865. He emigrated to America in 1867, remaining
there until 1872. He was professor of history in the newly
reorganized university of Strassburg from 1872 to 1874, and
at Freiburg in Baden from 1874 to 1892, and for ten years he
was a member of the Baden Herrenhaus, and vice-president for
four. He revisited the United States in 1878-79 and in 1884,
and in 1892 he became head of the department of history at
the university of Chicago. Retiring on account of ill-health
in 1900, he returned to Germany and died at Freiburg on the
20th of January 1904. Both through his books and through
his lectures at the university of Chicago, Von Hoist exerted
a powerful influence in encouraging American students to
follow more closely the German methods of historical research.
His principal work is his Constitutional and Political History of the
United States (German ed., 5 vols., 1873-91; English trans,
by Lalor and Mason, 8 vols , 1877-92), which covers the period
from 1783 to 1861, though more than half of it is devoted to the
decade 1850-60; it is written from a strongly anti-slavery
point of view. Among his other writings are The Consti-
tutional Law of the United Stales of America (German ed., 1885;
English trans., 1887); JohnC. Calhoun (1882), in the American
Statesmen Series; John Brown (1888), and The French Revolution
Tested by Mirabeau's Career (1894).
See the Political Science Quarterly, v. 677-78; the Nation,
Ixxviii. 65-67.
VONNOH, ROBERT WILLIAM (1858- ), American
portrait and landscape painter, was born in Hartford, Connec-
ticut, on the 1 7th of September 1858. He was a pupil of
Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris; became an instructor at
the Cowles Art School, Boston (1884-85), at the Boston
VONONES VORONEZH
211
Museum of Fine Art Schools (1885-87), and in the schools
of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia
(1891-96), and a member of the National Academy of Design,
New York (1906), and of the Secessionists, Munich. His wife,
Bessie Potter Vonnoh (b. 1872), a sculptor, was a pupil of the
Art Institute, Chicago, and became a member of the National
Sculpture Society.
VONONES (on coins ONONES), the name of two Parthian kings.
(1) VONONES I., eldest son of Phraates IV. After the assassina-
tion of Orodes II. (c. A.D. 7), the Parthians applied to Augustus
for a new king from the house of Arsaces. Augustus sent them
Yonones (Man. Anc. 5, 9; Tac. Ann. ii. i f.; Joseph. Ant.
xviii. 3, 4), who was living as a hostage in Rome. But Vonones
could not maintain himself; he had been educated as a Roman,
and was despised as a slave of the Romans. Another member
of the Arsacid house, Artabanus II,, who was living among the
Dahan nomads, was invited to the throne, and defeated and
expelled Vonones. The coins of Vonones (who always uses
his proper name) date from A.D. 8-12, those of Artabanus II.
begin in A.D. 10. Vonones fled into Armenia and became
king here. But Artabanus demanded his deposition, and as
Augustus did not wish to begin a war with the Parthians he
removed Vonones into Syria, where he was kept in custody
(Tac. Ann. ii. 4.). When he tried to escape, A.D. 19, he was
killed by his guards (Tac. Ann. ii. 58, 68).
(2) VONONES II., governor of Media, was raised to the throne
after the death of Gotarzes in A.D. 51 (perhaps he was his
brother, cf. Joseph. Ant. xx. 3, 4). But he died after a few
months, and was succeeded by his son Vologaeses I. (Tac.
Ann. xii. 14). (Eo. M.)
VOODOO or VAUDOUX (Creole Fr. -eaudoux, a negro sorcerer,
probably originally a dialectic form of Fr. Vaudois, a Walden-
sian), the name given to certain magical practices, superstitions
and secret rites prevalent among the negroes of the West Indies,
and more particularly in the Republic of Haiti.
VOORHEES, DANIEL WOLSEY (1827-1897), American
lawyer and political leader, was born in Butler county, Ohio,
on the 26th of September 1827, of Dutch and Irish descent.
During his infancy his parents removed to Fountain county,
Indiana, near Veedersburg. He graduated at Indiana Asbury
(now De Pauw) University, Greencastle, Indiana, in 1849;
was admitted to the bar in 1850, and began to practise in
Covington, Indiana, whence in 1857 he removed to Terre
Haute. In 1858-60 he was U.S. district-attorney for Indiana;
in 1861-66 and in 1869-73 he was a Democratic repre-
sentative in Congress; and in 1877-97 he was a member
of the U.S. Senate. During the Civil War he seems to have
been affiliated with the Knights of the Golden Circle, but he
was not so radical as Vallandigham and others. He was a
member of the committee on finance throughout his service in
the Senate, and his first speech in that body was a defence of
the free coinage of silver and a plea for the preservation of the
full legal tender value of greenback currency, though in 1893
he voted to repeal the silver purchase clause of the Sherman
Act. He had an active part in bringing about the building
of the new Congressional Library. He was widely known as
an effective advocate, especially in jury trials. In allusion to
his unusual stature he was called " the Tall Sycamore of the
Wabash." He died in Washington, D.C., on the loth of April
1897.
Some of his speeches were published under the title, Forty Years
of Oratory (2 vols., Indianapolis, Indiana, 1898), edited by his three
sons and his daughter, Harriet C. Voorhees, and with a biographical
sketch by T. B. Long.
VORARLEERG, the most westerly province of the Austrian
empire, extending S. of the Lake of Constance along the right
bank of the Rhine valley. It consists of three districts, Bregenz,
Bludenz and Feldkirch, which are under the administrative
authority of the Statthalter (or prefect) at Innsbruck, but
possess a governor and a diet of their own (twenty-one members),
and send four members to the imperial parliament. Vorarl-
berg is composed of the hilly region of the Bregenzerwald,
and, to its south, of the mountain. valley of Montafon or of the
upper 111, through which an easy pass, the Zeinisjoch (6076 ft.),
leads to the Tirolese valley of Paznaun, and so to Landeck.
Near Bludenz the Kloster glen parts from the 111 valley,
through the latter runs the Arlberg railway (1884) beneath
the pass of that name (5912 ft.) to Landeck and Innsbruck.
The 111 valley is bounded south by the snowy chain of the
Rhatikon (highest point, the Scesaplana, 9741 ft., a famous
view-point), and of the Silvretta (highest point, Gross Piz Buin,
10,880 ft.), both dividing Vorarlberg from Switzerland; slightly
to the north-east of Piz Buin is the Dreilanderspitze (10,539
ft.), where the Vorarlberg, Tirolese and Swiss frontiers unite.
The total area of Vorarlberg is 1004-3 S Q- m - Of this 88J%,
or about 886 sq. m., is reckoned " productive," 30% of this
limited area being occupied by forests, while 118 sq. m. rank as
" unproductive." In 1900 the total population was 129,237,
all but wholly German-speaking and Romanist. The largest
town is Dornbirn (pop. 13,052), but Bregenz (pop. 7595) is the
political capital; Feldkirch has about 4000 inhabitants, while
Bludenz has rather more (see the separate articles on the three
former). In the hilly districts the inhabitants mainly follow
pastoral pursuits, possessing much cattle of all kinds. In the
towns the spinning and weaving of cotton (introduced towards
the end of the i8th century) is very flourishing. Forests cover
about one-sixth of the district, and form one of the principal
sources of its riches. But the Vorarlberg is predominantly an
Alpine region, though its mountains rarely surpass the snow-
level. Ecclesiastically it is in the diocese of Brixen, whose
vicar-general (a suffragan bishop) resides at Feldkirch.
The name of the district means the " land that is beyond
the Arlberg Pass," that is, as it seems to one looking at it from
the Tirol. This name is modern and is a collective appellation
for the various counties or lordships in the region which the
Habsburgs (after they secured Tirol in 1363) succeeded in pur-
chasing or acquiring Feldkirch (1375, but Hohenems in 1765
only), Bludenz with the Montafon valley (1394), Bregenz (in
two parts, 1451 and 1523) and Sonnenberg (i4SS)- After
the annexation of Hohenems (its lords having become extinct
in 1759), Maria Theresa united all these lordships into an
administrative district of Hither Austria, under the name
Vorarlberg, the governor residing at. Bregenz. In 1782
Joseph II. transferred the region to the province of Tirol. The
lordship of Blumenegg was added in 1804, but in 1805 all
these lands were handed over, by virtue of the peace of Press-
burg, to Bavaria, which in 1814 gave them all back, save
Hoheneck. In 1815 the present administrative arrangements
were made.
See A. Achleitner and E. Ubl, Tirol und Vorarlberg (Leipzig, 1895) ;
. R. von Bergmar.n, Landeskunde v. Vorarlberg (Innsbruck, 1868);
flax Haushofer, Tirol und Vorarlberg (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1890);
k. C. Heer, Vorarlberg und Liech'enstein Land und Leute (Feld-
irch, 1906); O. von Pfister, Das Afontavon (Augsburg, 1884);
J. Staffler, Tirol und Vorarlberg (5 vols., Innsbruck, 1839-46);
A. Steinkzer, Geschichtliche und Kulturgeschichtliche Wanderungen
durch Tirol und Vorarlberg (Innsbruck, 1905); A. Waltenberger,
Algdu, Vorarlbero und Westtirol (loth edition, Innsbruck, 1906).
See also the list of books at the end of TIROL, and especially vol. xiii.
(" Tirol u. Vorarlberg ") (Vienna, 1893) of the great official work
entitled Die oesterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic in Wort *nd Bud.
(W. A. B. C.)
VORONEZH, a government of southern Russia, bounded N.
by the government of Tambov, E. by Saratov and the Don
Cossacks, S. by Kharkov and W. by Kursk and Orel; area,
2 5.435 sq. m. It occupies the southern slopes of the middle-
Russian plateau, and its average elevation is from 450 to
700 ft. The surface is hilly, and intersected by ravines in the
west (where two ranges of chalk hills separated by a broad
valley run north and south), but flat and low east of the Don.
Devonian sandstones crop out in the north; further south
these are covered with Cretaceous deposits. Glacial clays with
northern erratic boulders extend as far south as Voronezh,
and extensive areas are covered with Lacustrine days and
sands. The soil is very fertile, owing to the prevalence of
black earth; it becomes, however, sandy towards the east.
212
VORONEZH VORONTSOV
Voronezh lies on the border between the forest and meadow
region of middle Russia and the southern steppes; the forests
disappear rapidly towards the south, and those which in the
time of Peter the Great stood on the upper tributaries of the
Don, and were used for shipbuilding, have now been almost
entirely destroyed. Less than one-tenth of the entire area is
under wood.
The Don traverses Voronezh from N. to S.E., draining it
for more than 400 m.; it is an important channel for the
export of corn, tallow and other raw produce, as well as for
the import of wood, floated down from the north. Its tributary
the Voronezh is also navigated, and the Bityug and Khoper,
both left-hand affluents of the Don, flow in part through the
government. Many other small streams flowing into the Don
intersect the territory, but the influence of the dry steppes
begins to make itself felt; there are no lakes, and marshes
persist only in the valleys. The climate is continental, and
although the mean temperature at the town of Voronezh is
42-7 F., that of January is as low as 8-3, and that of July
as high as 74- 2.
The estimated pop. in 1906 was 3,097,700. The inhabitants
consist in nearly equal parts of Great Russians in the north
and Little Russians in the south, but there are a few Poles,
Germans and Jews, both Orthodox and Karaites. The govern-
ment is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns of which
are Voronezh, Biryuch, Bobrov, Boguchar, Korotoyak, Nizhne-
Dyevitsk, Novo-Khopersk, Ostrogozhsk, Pavlovsk,- Valuiki,
Zadonsk and Zemlyansk. Agriculture is the chief occupation,
and grain is exported to a considerable amount. The peasants
own 67% of the land, the crown and the imperial domains
3% and private owners 30%.
The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes.
Aniseed, sunflowers, tobacco and beetroot are extensively culti-
vated, and much attention is paid to the growth of the pineapple.
There are large tracts of excellent pasture land, on which cattle are
bred; good breeds of cart-horses and trotting-hprses are obtained.
There are nearly two hundred breeding establishments, those at
Hrenovoye and Chesmenka being the most important. In many
villages the inhabitants are engaged in the making of wooden
wares. There are flour-mills, distilleries, oil, sugar and woollen
mills, iron works and tobacco factories.
VORONEZH, a town of Russia, capital of the government
of the same name, on the river Voronezh, 5 m. above its
confluence with the Don and 367 m. by rail S.S.E. of Moscow.
Pop. (1901) 84,146. It is one of the best-built and most
picturesque provincial towns of Russia, and is situated on
the steep bank of the river, surrounded by three large suburbs
Troitskaya, Yamskaya and Chizhovka. It has a military
school of cadets, two museums, a monument (1860) to Peter the
Great, a railway college, a pilgrimage church, and a theatre
which figures in the history of the Russian stage. It was the
birthplace of two peasant poets, who wrote some of the finest
examples of Russian poetry A. V. Koltsov (1800-1842) and
I. S. Nikitin (1824-1861). A memorial to the former was
erected in 1868. There are factories for cleansing wool and
for the preparation of linens, woollens, bells, tallow and oil,
as well as some distilleries. Voronezh is an important entrep6t
for corn, flax, tallow, hides, sugar, wood and coal from the Don.
The city was founded in 1586, as a fort against Tatar raids,
on a site which had been occupied from the nth century by a
Khazar town, but had been deserted during the i4th and isth
centuries. Four years afterwards it was burned by the Tatars,
but again rebuilt, and soon became an important trading place.
Peter the Great recognized its importance, and in 1695 built
here a flotilla of boats for the conquest of Azov. The town
was almost completely destroyed by fire in 1703, 1748 and
1773. but was always rebuilt.
VORONTSOV (or WORONZOFF), the name of a Russian family,
various members of which are distinguished in Russian history.
MIKHAIL ILLARIONOVICH VORONTSOV (1714-1767), Russian
imperial chancellor, was the first to become prominent. At
the age of fourteen he was appointed a Kammer junker at
the court of the cesarevna Elizabeth Petrovna, whom he
dis-
llor
materially assisted during the famous coup d'ttat of the 6th of
December 1741, when she mounted the Russian throne on the
shoulders of the Preobrazhensky Grenadiers. On the 3rd of
January 1742 he married Anna Skavronskaya, the empress's
cousin; and in 1744 was created a count and vice-chancellor.
His jealousy of Alexis Bestuzhev induced him to participate
in Lestocq's conspiracy against that statesman. The empress's
affection for him (she owed much to his skilful pen and still
more to the liberality of his rich kinsfolk) saved him from the
fate of his accomplices, but he lived in a state of semi-ecli]
during the domination of Bestuzhev (1744-1758). On the dis-
grace of Bestuzhev, Vorontsov was made imperial chancellor
in his stead. Though well-meaning and perfectly honest,
Vorontsov as a politician was singularly timorous and irre-
solute, and always took his cue from the court. Thus, under
Elizabeth he was an avowed enemy of Prussia and a warm
friend of Austria and France; yet he made no effort to prevent
Peter III. from reversing the policy of his predecessor. Yet
he did not lack personal courage, and endured torture after
the Revolution of the 9th of July 1762 rather than betray his
late master. He greatly disliked Catherine II., and at first
refused to serve under her, though she reinstated him in the
dignity of chancellor. When he found that the real control
of foreign affairs was in the hands of Nikita Panin, he resigned
his office (1763). Vorontsov was a generous protector of the
nascent Russian literature, and, to judge from his letters, was a
highly cultivated man.
ALEXANDER ROMANOVICH VORONTSOV (1741-1805), Russian
imperial chancellor, nephew of the preceding and son of Count
Roman Vorontsov, began his career at the age of fifteen in the
Izmailovsky regiment of the Guards. In 1759, his kinsman,
the grand chancellor Mikhail Illarionovich, sent him to Strass-
burg, Paris and Madrid to train him in diplomacy. Under
Peter III. he represented Russia for a short time at the court
of St James's. Catherine II. created him a senator and
president of the Board of Trade; but she never liked him, and
ultimately (1791) compelled him to retire from public life.
In 1802 Alexander I. summoned him back to office and ap-
pointed him imperial chancellor. This was the period of
the triumph of the Vorontsovs, who had always insisted on
the necessity of a close union with Austria and Great Britain,
in opposition to Panin and his followers, who had leaned on
France or Prussia till the outbreak of the Revolution made
friendship with France impossible. Vorontsov was also an
implacable opponent of Napoleon, whose " topsy-turvyness "
he was never weary of denouncing. The rupture with Napoleon
in 1803 is mainly attributable to him. He also took a leading
part in the internal administration and was in favour of a
thorough reform of the senate and the ministries. He retired
in 1804. He possessed an extraordinary memory and a firm
and wide grasp of history.
His " Memoirs of my Own times " (Rus.) is printed in vol. vii. of
the Vorontsov Archives.
SEMEN ROMANOVICH VORONTSOV (1744-1832), Russian
diplomatist, brother of Alexander Romano vich, distinguished
himself during the first Turkish War of Catherine II. at Larga
and Kagula in 1770. In 1783 he was appointed Russian
minister at Vienna, but in 1785 was transferred to London,
where he lived for the rest of his life. Vorontsov enjoyed great
influence and authority in Great Britain. Quickly acquainting
himself with the genius of English institutions, their ways and
methods, he was able to render important services to his
country. Thus during Catherine's second Turkish War he
contributed to bring about the disarmament of the auxiliary
British fleet which had been fitted out to assist the Turks, and
in 1793 obtained a renewal of the commercial treaty between
Great Britain and Russia. Subsequently, his extreme ad-
vocacy of the exiled Bourbons, his sharp criticism of the
Armed Neutrality of the North, which he considered dis-
advantageous to Russia, and his denunciation of the partitions
of Poland as contrary to the first principles of equity and a
shock to the conscience of western Europe, profoundly irritated
VOROSMARTY VORTIGERN
213
the empress. On the accession of Paul he was raised to the
rank of ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary,
and received immense estates in Finland. Neither Vorontsov's
detention of the Russian squadron under Makarov in British
ports nor his refusal, after the death of Bezborodko, to accept
the dignity of imperial chancellor could alienate the favour of
Paul. It was only when the emperor himself began to draw
nearer to France that he began to consider Vorontsov as
incompetent to serve Russia in England, and in February 1800
all the count's estates were confiscated. Alexander I. on his
accession at once reinstated him, but ill-health and family
affairs induced him to resign his post in 1806. From that time
till his death in 1832 he continued to live in London.
Besides his valuable Note on the Russian War (Rus.) and numerous
letters, Vorontsov was the author of an autobiography (in Russky
Arkhiv, Petersburg, 1881) and " Notes on the Internal Government
of Russia " (Rus.) (in Russky Arkhiv, 1881).
MIKHAIL SEMENOVICH VORONTSOV (1782-1856), Russian
prince and field-marshal, son of the preceding, spent his
childhood and youth with his father in London, where he
received a brilliant education. During 1803-4 he served in
the Caucasus under Tsitsianov and Gulyakov, and was nearly
killed in the Zakatahko disaster (January 15, 1804). From
1805 to 1807 he served in the Napoleonic wars, and was present
at the battles of Pultusk and Friedland. From 1809 to 1811
he participated in the Turkish 'War and distinguished himself
in nearly every important action. He was attached to
Bagration's army during the war of 1812, was seriously
wounded at Borodino, sufficiently recovering, however, to re-
join the army in 1813. In 1814, at Craonne, he brilliantly
withstood Napoleon in person. He was the commander of
the corps of occupation in France from 1815 to 1818. On the
7th of May 1823 he was appointed governor-general of New
Russia, as the southern provinces of the empire were then
called, which under his administration developed marvellously.
He may be said to have been the creator of Odessa and the
benefactor of the Crimea. He was the first to start steam-
boats on the Black Sea (1828). The same year he succeeded
the wounded Menshikov as commander of the forces besieging
Varna, which he captured on the 28th of September. In the
campaign of 1829 it was through his energetic efforts that the
plague, which had broken out in Turkey, did not penetrate
into Russia. In 1844 Vorontsov was appointed commander-
in-chief and governor of the Caucasus with plenipotentiary
powers. For his brilliant campaign against Shamyl, and
especially for his difficult march through the dangerous forests
of Ichkerinia, he was raised to the dignity of prince, with the
title of Serene Highness. By 1848 he had captured two-thirds
of Daghestan, and the situation of the Russians in the Caucasus,
so long almost desperate, was steadily improving. In the be-
ginning of 1853 Vorontsov was allowed to retire because of
his increasing infirmities. He was made a field-marshal in
1856, and died the same year at Odessa. Statues have been
erected to him both there and at Tiflis.
See V. V. Ogarkov, The Vorontsovs (Rus.) (Petersburg, 1892);
Vorontsov Archives (Rus. and Fr.) (Moscow, 1870, &c.); M. P.
Shelverbinin, Biography of Prince M. S. Vorontsov (Rus.) (Peters-
burg, 1858). (R. N. B.)
VflRflSMARTY, MIHALY (1800-1855), Hungarian poet, was
born at Puszta-Nyek on the ist of December 1800, of a
noble Roman Catholic family. His father was a steward of
the Nadasdys. Mihaly was educated at Szekesfejervar by
the Cistercians and at Pest by the Piarists. The death of the
elder V6rosmarty in 1811 left his widow and numerous family
extremely poor. As tutor to the Perczel family, however, Voros-
marty contrived to pay his own way and go through his aca-
demical course at Pest. The doings of the diet of 1825 first
enkindled his patriotism and gave a new direction to his poetical
genius (he had already begun a drama entitled Salomon), and
he flung himself the more recklessly into public life as he was
consumed by a hopeless passion for Etelka Perczel, who socially
was far above him. To his unrequited love we owe a whole
host of exquisite lyrics, while his patriotism found expression
in the heroic epos Zalan fut&sa (1824), gorgeous in colouring,
exquisite in style, one of the gems of Magyar literature. This
new epic marked a transition from the classical to the romantic
school. Henceforth Vorosmarty was hailed by Kisfaludy and
the Hungarian romanticists as one of themselves. All this
time he was living from hand to mouth. He had forsaken
the law for literature, but his contributions to newspapers and
reviews were miserably paid. Between 1823 and 1831 he
composed four dramas and eight smaller epics, partly historical,
partly fanciful. Of these epics he always regarded Cserhalom
(1825) as the best, but modern criticism has given the pre-
ference to Ket szomsld vdr (1831), a terrible story of hatred
and revenge. When the Hungarian Academy was finally
established (November 17, 1830) he was elected a member of
the philological section, and ultimately succeeded Kar61y Kis-
faludy as director with an annual pension of 500 florins. He
was one of the founders of the Kisfaludy Society, and in 1837
started the Athenaeum and the Figyelmezo, the first the chief
bellettristic, the second the best critical periodical of Hungary.
From 1830 to 1843 he devoted himself mainly to the drama,
the best of his plays, perhaps, being Vernasz (1833), which won
the Academy's ico-gulden prize. He also published sftveral
volumes of poetry, containing some of his best work. Szozat
(1836), which became a national hymn, Az dhagyott anya
(1837) and Az Uri holgyhoz (1841) are all inspired by a burning
patriotism. His marriage in 1843 to Laura Csajaghy inspired
him to compose a new cycle of erotics. In 1848, in conjunction
with Arany and Petofi, he set on foot an excellent translation
of Shakespeare's works. He himself was responsible for
Julius Caesar and King Lear. He represented Jankovics at
the diet of 1848, and in 1849 was made one of the judges of
the high court. The national catastrophe profoundly affected
him. For a short time he was an exile, and when he returned
to Hungary in 1850 he was already an old man. A profound
melancholy crippled him for the rest of his life. In 1854 he
wrote his last great poem, the touching A vn cig&ny. He died
at Pest in 1855 in the same house where Kar61y Kisfaludy
had died twenty-five years before. His funeral, on the 2ist of
November, was a day of national mourning. His penniless
children were provided for by a national subscription collected
by Ferencz Deak, who acted as their guardian.
The best edition of Vorosmarty's collected works is by P41 Gyulai
(Budapest, 1884). Some of them have been translated into German,
e.g. Gedichte (Pest, 1857); Ban Marot, by Mihaly Ring (Pest, 1879);
Ausgewahlte Dichte, by Paul Hoffmann (Leipzig, 1895). See P41
Gyulai, The Life of Vorosmarty (Hung.) (3rd ed., Budapest, 1890),
one of the noblest biographies in the language; Brajjer, Vdrdsmarty,
sein Leben und seine Werke (Nagy-Becskerek, 1882). (R. N. B)
VORTICELLA, the Bell-Animalcule, a genus of Peritrichous
Infusoria (q.v.) characterized by the bell-shaped body, with
short oral disk and collar, attached by a hollow stalk, inside
and around which passes, attached spirally, a contractile
bundle of myonemes. By their contraction the stalk is brought
into the form of a corkscrew, the thread being now on the
shorter, i.e. the inner, side of the turns; and the animal is
jerked back near to the base of the stalk. As soon as the
contraction of the thread ceases, the elasticity of the stalk ex-
tends the animal to its previous position. On fission, one of the
two animals swims off by the development of the temporary
posterior girdle of membranelles, the disk being retracted
and closed over by the collar, so that the cell is ovoid: on
its attachment the posterior girdle of cilia disappears and a
stalk forms. The other cell remains attached to the old stalk.
In the allied genera Carchesium and Zoothamnium the two
produced by fission remain united, so that a branching colony
is ultimately produced. The genus is a large one, and many
species are epizoic on various water animals.
VORTIOERN (GUORTHIGIRNUS, WYRTGEORN), king of the
Britons at the time of the arrival of the Ssxons under Hengest
and Horsa. The records do not agree as to the date of the
arrival of these chieftains or the motives which led them to
come to Britain. It seems clear, however, that Vortigern
VOSGES VOSMAER
made use of them to protect his kingdom against the Picts and
Scots, and rewarded them for their services with a grant of
land. Later we find the Britons at war with the new-comers,
now established in Kent, and four battles are fought, in the
last of which, according to the Historia Brittonum, the king's
son Vortemir, their leading opponent, is slain. The Historia
Brittonum is our only authority for the marriage of Vortigern
with the daughter of Hengest before the war. It also records
the massacre of the British nobles after the death of Vortemir
and the subsequent grant of Essex and Sussex to the invaders
by Vortigern.
See Historia Brittonum, ed. Th. Mommsen in Man. Hist. Germ.
xiii. ; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899) ;
Bede, Hist. Eccl., ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896).
VOSGES, a frontier department of eastern France, formed
in 1790 chiefly of territory previously belonging to Lorraine,
together with portions of Franche-Comte and Champagne,
and bounded N. by the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle,
E. by Alsace, S.E. by the territory of Belfort, S. by the
department of Haute-Sa6ne, W. by Haute-Marne and N.W,
by Meuse. Pop. (1906) 429,812; area, 2279 sq. m. The
Vosges mountains (see below) form a natural boundary on
the east, their highest French eminence, the Hohneck, attaining
4482 ft. The Monts Faucilles traverse the south of the depart-
ment in a broad curve declining on the north into elevated
plateaus, on the south encircling the upper basin of the Saone.
This chain, dividing the basins cf the Rhone and the Rhine,
forms part of the European watershed between the basins of
the Mediterranean and Atlantic. The Moselle and the Meuse,
tributaries of the Rhine, have the largest drainage areas in the
department; a small district in the N.W. sends its waters to
the Seine, the rest belongs to the basin of the Rhone. The
Moselle rises in the Col de Bussang in the extreme south-east,
and in a N.N.W. course of about 70 m. in the department
receives the Moselotte and the Vologne on the right; the
Mortagne and Meurthe on the right and the Madon on the
left bank also belong to this department though they join
the Moselle outside its borders. The source of the Sa6ne is
on the southern slope of the Faucilles. On the shore of Lake
Gerardmer lies the beautifully situated town of Gerardmer, a
well-known centre for mountain excursions.
The elevation and the northward exposure of the valleys make
the climate severe, and a constant dampness prevails, owing
both to the abundance of the rainfall and to the imper-
meability of the subsoil. The average temperature at Epinal
(1070 ft.) is 49 F. The annual rainfall at Epinal is 28 in., at
St Di6 32 in. and in the mountains more. Arable farming
flourishes in the western districts where wheat, oats and potatoes
are largely grown. The vine is cultivated on the river banks,
to best advantage on those of the Moselle. Pasture is abundant
in the mountainous region, where cheese-making is carried on
to some extent, but the best grazing is in the central valleys.
Forests, which occupy large tracts on the flanks of the Vosges,
cover about one-third of the department, and are a principal
source of its wealth. Sawmills are numerous in the Vosges
and the manufacture of furniture, sabots, brushes and wood-
working in general are prominent industries. The department
has mines of lignite and stone quarries of various kinds.
There are numerous mineral springs, of which those of Contrex6-
ville, Plombieres, Vittel, Bains-les-Bains, Martigny-les-Bains
and Bussang may be named. The manufacture of textiles is
the chief industry, comprising the spinning and weaving of
cotton, wool, silk, hemp and flax, and the manufacture of
hosiery and of embroidery and lace, Mirecourt (pop. 5092)
being an important centre for the two last. The department
forms the diocese of St Die (province of Besancon), has its court
of appeal and educational centre at Nancy, and belongs to the
district of the XX. Army Corps. It is divided into the arrondisse-
ments of Epinal, Mirecourt, Neufchateau, Remiremont and
St Di6, with 29 cantons and 530 communes.
VOSGES (Lat. Vogesus or Vosagus, Ger. Wasgau or Vogeseri),
a mountain range of central Europe, stretching along the west
side of the Rhine valley in a N.N.E. direction, from Basel to
Mainz, for a distance of 150 m. Since 1871 the southern
portion, from the Ballon d'Alsace to Mont Donon, has been the
frontier between France and Germany. There is a remarkable
similarity between the Vosges and the corresponding range
of the Black Forest on the other side of the Rhine: both lie
within the same degrees of latitude and have the same geological
formation; both are characterized by fine forests on their
lower slopes, above which are open pasturages and rounded
summits of a uniform altitude; both have a steep fall to the
Rhine and a gradual descent on the other side. The Vosges
in their southern portion are mainly of granite, with some
porphyritic masses, and of a kind of red sandstone (occasionally
1640 ft. in thickness) which on the western versant bears the
name of " gres Vosgien."
Geographically the range is divided south to north into four
sections: the Grandes Vosges (62 m.), extending from Belfort to
the valley of the Bruche; the Central Vosges (31 m.), between the
Bruche and the Col de Saverne; the Lower Vosges (30 m.), between
the Col de Saverne and the source of the Lauter; and the Hardt
(q.v.). The rounded summits, of the Grandes Vosges are called
" ballons." The departments of Vosges and Haute Sa6ne are
divided from Alsace and the territory of Belfort by the Ballon d'Alsace
or St Maurice (4100 ft.). Thence northwards the average height of
the range is 3000 ft., the highest point, the Ballon de Guebwiller
(Gebweiler), or Soultz, rising to the east of the main chain to 4680 ft.
The Col de Saales, between the Grandes Vosges and the central
section, is nearly 1900 ft. high; the latter is both lower and narrower
than the Grandes Vosges, the Mont Donon (3307 ft.) being the highest
summit. The railway from Paris to Strassburg and the Rhine and
Marne Canal traverse the Col de Saverne. No railway crosses the
Vosges between Saverne and Belfort, but there are carriage roads
over the passes of Bussang from Remiremont to Thann, the Schlucht
(3766 ft.) from Gerardmer to Munster, the Bonhomme from St
Did to Colmar, and the pass from St Did to Ste Marie-aux-Mines.
The Lower Vosges are a sandstone plateau ranging from 1000 to
1850 ft. high, and are crossed by the railway from Hagenau to Sarre-
guemines, defended by the fort of Bitche.
Meteorologically the difference between the eastern and western
versants of the range is very marked, the annual rainfall being much
higher and the mean temperature being much lower in the latter
than in the former. On the eastern slope the vine ripens to a height
of 1300 ft.; on the other hand, its only rivers are the 111 and other
shorter streams. The Moselle, Meurthe and Sarre all rise on the
Lorraine side. Moraines, boulders and polished rocks testify the
existence of the glaciers which formerly covered the Vosges. The
lakes, surrounded by pines, beeches and maples, the green meadows
which provide pasture for large herds of cows, and the fine views
of the Rhine valley, Black Forest and snow-covered Swiss moun-
tains combine to make the district picturesque. On the lower
heights and buttresses of the main chain on the Alsatian side are
numerous castles, generally in ruins. At several points on the main
ridge, especially at St Odile above Ribeauville (Rappoltsweiler), are
the remains 01 a wall of unmortared stone with tenons of wood,
6 to 7 ft. thick and 4 to 5 ft. high, called the pagan wall (Mur Payen).
It was used for defence in the middle ages, and archaeologists are
divided as to whether it was built for this purpose by the Romans,
or before their arrival.
VOSMAER, CAREL (1826-1888), Dutch poet and art-critic,
was born at the Hague on the 2cth of March 1826. He was
trained to the law, and held various judiciary posts, but in
1873 withdrew entirely from legal practice. His first volume
of poems, 1860, did not contain much that was remarkable.
His temperament was starved in the very thin air of the
intellectual Holland of those days, and it was not until after
the sensational appearance of Multatuli (Edward Douwes-
Dekker) that Vosmaer, at the age of forty, woke up to a con-
sciousness of his own talent. In 1869 he produced an exhaustive
monograph on Rembrandt, which was issued in French.
Vosmaer became a contributor to, and then the leading spirit
and editor of, a journal which played an immense part in the
awakening of Dutch literature; this was the Nederlandsche
Spectator, in which a great many of his own works, in prose
and verse, originally appeared. The remarkable miscellanies of
Vosmaer, called Birds of Diverse Plumage, appeared in three
volumes, in 1872, 1874 and 1876. In 1879 he selected from
these all the pieces in verse, and added other poems to them.
In 1 88 1 he published an archaeological novel called Amazone,
the scene of which was laid in Naples and Rome, and which
described the raptures of a Dutch antiquary in love. Vosmaer
VOSS, J. H. VOSSIUS
215
undertook the gigantic task of translating Homer into Dutch
hexameters, and he lived just long enough to see this completed
and revised. In 1873 he came to London to visit his lifelong
friend, Sir (then Mr) Lawrence Alma-Tadema, and on his
return published Londinias, an exceedingly brilliant mock-
heroic poem in hexameters. His last poem was Nanno, an
idyll on the Greek model. Vosmaer died, while travelling in
Switzerland, on the I2th of June 1888. He was unique in his
fine sense of plastic expression; he was eminently tasteful,
lettered, refined. Without being a genius, he possessed immense
ulent, just of the order to be useful- in combating the worn-
out rhetoric of Dutch poetry. His verse was modelled on
Heine and still more on the Greeks; it is sober, without colour,
stately and a little cold. He was a curious student in versifica-
tion, and it is due to him that hexameters were introduced and
the sonnet reintroduced into Holland. He was the first to
repudiate the traditional, wooden alexandrine. In prose he
greatly influenced by Multatuli, in praise of whom he wrote
an eloquent treatise, Een Zaaier (A Sower). He was also some-
what under the influence of English prose models. (E. .G.)
VOSS. JOHANN HEINRICH (1751-1826), German poet and
translator, was born at Sommersdorf in Mecklenburg-Strelitz
on the 20th of February 1751, the son of a farmer. After
attending (1766-69) the gymnasium at Neubrandenburg, he
was obliged to accept a private tutorship in order to earn money
to enable him to study at a university. At the invitation of
H. C. Boie, whose attention he had attracted by poems con-
tributed to the Gottingen Musenalmanach, he went to Gottingen
in 1772. Here he studied philology and became one of the
leading spirits in the famous Hain or Dichterbund. In 1775
Boie made over to him the editorship of the Musenalmanach,
which he continued to issue for several years. He married
Boie's sister Ernestine in 1777 and in 1778 was appointed rector
of the school at Otterndorf in Hanover. In 1782 he accepted
the rectorship of the gymnasium at Eutin, where he remained
until 1802. Retiring in this year with a pension of 600 thalers
he settled at Jena, and in 1805, although Goethe used his utmost
endeavours to persuade him to stay, accepted a call to a pro-
fessorship at Heidelberg. Here, in the enjoyment of a consider-
able salary, he devoted himself entirely to his literary labours,
translations and antiquarian research until his death on the
29th of March 1826.
Voss was a man of a remarkably independent and vigorous
character. In 1785-95 he published in two volumes a collection of
original poems, to which he afterwards made many additions. The
best of these works is his idyllic poem Luise (1795), in which he
sought, with much success, to apply the style and methods of
classical poetry to the expression of modern German thought and
sentiment. In his Mythologische Briefe (2 vols., 1794), in which he
attacked the ideas of Christian Gottlob Heyne, in his Antisymbolik
(2 vols., 1824-26), written in opposition to Georg Friedrich Creuzer
(1771-1858), and in other writings he made important contributions
to the study of mythology. He was also prominent as an advocate
of the right of free judgment in religion, and at the time when some
members of the Romantic school were being converted to the
Roman Catholic church he produced a strong impression by a
powerful article, in Sophronizon, on his friend Friedrich von Stol-
berg's repudiation of Protestantism (1819). It is, however, as a
translator that Voss chiefly owes his place in German literature.
His translations indicate not only sound scholarship but a thorough
mastery of the laws of German diction and rhythm. The most
famous of his translations are those of Homer. Of these the best
is the translation of the Odyssey, as originally issued in I78i._ He
also translated Hesiod, Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, Virgil,
Horace, Tibullus, Prppertius and other classical poets, and he
prepared a critical edition of Tibullus. In 1818-29 wa . s published,
in 9 vols., a translation of Shakespeare's plays, which he com-
pleted with the help of his sons Heinrich and Abraham, both of
whom were scholars and writers of considerable ability.
J. H. Voss's Sdmtliche poelische Werkc were published by his son
Abraham in 1835; new ed. 1850. A good selection is in A. Sauer,
Der Gdttinger Dtchterbund, vol. i. (Kurschner's Deutsche National-
literatur, vol. 49, 1887). His Letters were also published by his son
in 4 vols. (1829-33). Voss left a short autobiography, Abriss meines
Lebens (1818). See also W. Herbst, /. H. Voss (3, vols., 1872-76);
A. Heussner, 7. H. Voss als Schulmann in Eutin (1882).
VOSS, RICHARD (1851- ), German dramatist and
novelist, was born at Neugrape, in Pomerania, on the 2nd of
September 1851, the son of a country squire. Though intended
for the life of a country gentleman, he showed no inclination
for outdoor life, and on his return from the war of 1870-71, in
which he was wounded, he studied philosophy at Jena and
Munich, and then settled at Berchtesgaden. In 1884 Voss was
appointed by the grand duke of Weimar librarian of the
Wartbarg, but, in consequence of illness, he resigned the post.
Chief among his dramas are Savonarola (1878); Magda (1879);
Die Patricierin (1880); Der Mohr des Zaren (1883); Unehrlich Volk
(1885); Alexandra (1888); Eva (1889); Wehe dem Besiegten (1889);
Die neue Zeil (1891); Schuldig (1892). Among his novels may be
mentioned San Sebastian (1883); Der Sohn der Volskerin (1885);
Die Sabinerin (1888); Der Monch von Berchtesgaden (1891); Der
neue GoU (1898); Die Rdcherin (1899); Allerlei ErUbtes (1902);
and Die Leute von Valdarb (1902).
See M. Goldmann, Richard Voss, ein literarisches Charaklerbild
(1900).
VOSSEVANGEN, or Voss, a village and favourite tourist-
centre of Norway, in South Bergenhus ami (county), 67 m. N.W.
of Bergen by rail. It was the terminus of the finely engineered
Bergen & Vossevangen railway, which, however, forms part
of the projected trunk line between Christiania and Bergen.
Vossevangen is pleasantly situated on the Vangsvand, in
fertile upland, and has a stone church of the I3th century,
and a.finneloft or two-storeyed timber house of the I4th century,
with an outside stair. Driving roads run N.E. and S.E. from
Vossevangen. The former, passing Stalheim, descends into the
sombre Naerodal, a precipitous valley terminating in the Naero
Fjord, a head-branch of the Sogne Fjord. The latter route
follows the deep but gentler valley of the Skjerve, whence from
Ovre Vasenden roads continue to Eide (18 m.) and to Ulvik
(32 m.), both on branches of the Hardanger Fjord.
VOSSIUS [Voss], GERHARD JOHANN (1577-1649), German
classical scholar and theologian, was the son of Johannes Voss,
a Protestant of the Netherlands, who fled from persecution
into the Palatinate and became pastor in the village near
Heidelberg where Gerhard was born. Johannes was a Calvinist,
however, and the strict Lutherans of the Palatinate caused
him once more to become a wanderer; in 1578 he settled at
Leiden as student of theology, and finally became pastor at
Dort, where he died in 1585. Here the son received his educa-
tion, until in 1595 he entered the university of Leiden, where
he became the lifelong friend of Hugo Grotius, and studied
classics, Hebrew, church history and theology. In 1600 he
was made rector of the high school at Dort, and devoted
himself to philology and historical theology. From 1614 to
1619 he was director of the theological college at Leiden.
Meantime he was gaining a great reputation as a scholar, not
only in the Netherlands, but also in France and England.
But in spite of the moderation of his views and his abstention
from controversy, he came under suspicion of heresy, and
escaped expulsion from his office only by resignation (1619).
The year before he had published his valuable history of
Pelagian controversies, which his enemies considered favoured
the views of the Arminians or Remonstrants. In 1622, however,
he was appointed professor of rhetoric and chronology, and
subsequently of Greek, in the university. He declined invita-
tions from Cambridge, but accepted from Archbishop Laud a
prebend in. Canterbury cathedral without residence, and went
to England to be installed in 1629, when he was made LL.D. at
Oxford. In 1632 he left Leiden to take the post of professor
of history in the newly founded Athenaeum at Amsterdam,
which he held till his death on the igth of March 1649.
His son ISAAK (1618-1689), after a brilliant career of scholar-
ship in Sweden, became residentiary canon at Windsor in 1673.
He was the author of De septuaginta inter prctibus (1661), De
poematum canlu et viribus rhythmi (1673), and Variarum
obsenationum liber (1685).
Vossius was amongst the first to treat theological dogmas and the
heathen religions from the historical point of view. His principal
works are Hisloria Pelagiana sine Historiae de controversiis guas
Pclagius ejusque reliquiae movcrunt (1618); Aristarchus, site de arte
grammatica (1635 and 1695; new ed. in 2 vols., 1833-35); Etymo-
logifum linguae Latinae (1662; new ed. in two vols., 1762-63);
2l6
VOTE
Commentariorum Rhetoricorum oratoriarum institutionum Libri VI.
(1606 and often); De Historicis Graecis Libri III. (1624.); De
Historicis Latinis Libri III. (1627); De Theologia Gentili (1642);
Dissertationes Tres de Tribus Symbolis, Apostolico, Athanasiano et
Constantinopolitano (1642). Collected works published at Amster-
dam (6 vols., 1695-1701).
See P. Niceron, Memoires pour sernr a Ihistmre des hommes
illustres, vol. xiii. (Paris, 1730); Herzog's Realencyklopadie, art.
" Vossius"; and the article in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic.
VOTE and VOTING. The Latin votum, derived from vovere,
to vow, meant a solemn promise, hence a wish, desire or prayer,
in whic.h senses the doublet " vow," derived through French,
is used now chiefly. " Vote " is specially employed in the sense
of a registering of one's choice in elections or on matters of
debate, and the political meaning is the only one which requires
comment.
Ancient. In ancient Greece and Italy the institution of
suffrage already existed in a rudimentary form at the outset
of the historical period. In the primitive monarchies it was
customary for the king to invite pronouncements of his folk
on matters in which it was prudent to secure its assent before-
hand. In these assemblies the people recorded their opinion
by clamouring (a method which survived in Sparta as late as
the 4th century B.C.), or by the clashing of spears on shields.
This latter practice may be inferred to have obtained originally
in Rome, the word su/ragium meaning literally a responsive
crash. Owing to the lack of routine in the early monarchies
and aristocracies of Greece and Italy the vote as yet lacked
importance as an instrument of government. But in the days
of their full political development the communities of these
countries had firmly established the principle of government
according to the will of majorities, and their constitutions
required almost every important act to be directed by a formal
vote. This rule applied equally to the decisions of general
assemblies, administrative councils and law courts, and obtained
alike in states where suffrage was universal and where it was
restricted.
In every case the taking of votes was effected in the form of
a poll. The practice of the Athenians, which is shown by
inscriptions to have been widely followed in the other states
of Greece, was to hold a show of hands (xttporovla), except
on questions affecting the status of individuals: these latter,
which included all lawsuits and proposals of ostracism (?..),
were determined by secret ballot (^<w/wi, so called from the
\frt)(f>oL or pebbles with which the votes were cast). At Rome
the method which prevailed up to the and century B.C. was
that of division (discessio). But the economic and social depend-
ence of many voters on the nobility caused the system of open
suffrage to be vitiated by intimidation and corruption. Hence
'a series of laws enacted between 139 and 107 B.C. prescribed
the use of the ballot (" tabella," a slip of wood coated with wax)
for all business done in the assemblies of the people.
For the purpose of carrying resolutions a simple majority of
votes was deemed sufficient. Regulations about a quorum
seem to have been unusual, though a notable exception occurs
in the case of motions for ostracism at Athens. As a general
rule equal value was made to attach to each vote; but hi the
popular assemblies at Rome a system of voting by groups was
in force until the middle of the 3rd century B.C. by which the
richer classes secured a decisive preponderance (see COMITIA).
As compared with modern practice the function of voting was
restricted in some notable ways, (i) In the democracies of Greece
the use of the lot largely supplanted polling for the election o
magistrates: at Athens voting was limited to the choice of officers
with special technical qualifications. (2) In accordance with the
theory which required residence at the seat of government as i
condition of franchise, the suffrage could as a rule only be exerciset
in the capital town. The only known exception under a centralizet
government was a short-lived experiment under the empero
Augustus, who arranged for polling stations to be opened at election
time in the country towns of Italy. In federal governments thi
election of deputies to a central legislature seems to be attestec
by the practice of the Achaean League, where the federal Counci
was probably elected in the several constituent towns. But littlt
is known as to ancient methods of electing delegates to representa
tive institutions, and in general it may be said that the function
f suffrage in Greece and Italy throws no light upon contemporary
.iroblems, such as the use of single-area constituencies and pro-
wrtional representation.
Modern. The modern method of obtaining a collective
expression of opinion of any body of persons may be either
' open " or secret. An open expression of opinion may be by
some word of assent or negation, or by some visible sign, as the
lolding up of a hand. Indeed any method of voting which does
not expressly make provision for concealing the identity of the
>erson registering the vote is " open." Some methods of
voting still employed (as- in the case of parliamentary elections
'or some of the English universities, where votes may be sent
sy post) must necessarily reveal the manner in which the elector
las recorded his vote. It is in connexion with the election
of members of representative bodies especially legislative
jodies that the qualifications for and methods of voting
jecome especially important. Practically every civilized
country has accepted and put in force some form of representa-
ion, which may be denned as the theory and principles on
which, the obtaining of a vote is founded. These are dealt
with in the article REPRESENTATION, and it will be sufficient
to give here the various qualifications which are considered by
different countries as sufficient to give effect to the principle
of representation and the methods of recording votes. In
detail these are given for the United Kingdom and the United
States in the articles REGISTRATION of Voters and ELECTIONS,
and for other countries under their respective titles in the
sections dealing with the Constitution.
The first consideration is the age at which a person should
be qualified for a vote. This in a large number of countries
is fixed at the age of manhood, namely, twenty-one years of age,
but in Hungary the age is fixed at twenty years, in Austria
twenty-four years, while in Belgium, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse,
Prussia, Saxony, Japan, the Netherlands and Norway the age
is twenty-five years, and in Denmark thirty years. Some
countries (e.g. Austria, Germany, France) have adopted the
principle of what is often termed " manhood or universal
suffrage," i.e. every male adult, not a criminal or a lunatic, being
entitled to a vote, but in all cases some further qualifications
than mere manhood are required, as in Austria a year's residence
in the place of election, or in France a six months' residence.
A common qualification is that the elector should be able to
read and write. This is required in Italy and Portugal and
some of the smaller European states, in some states of the
United States (see ELECTIONS) and in many of the South
American republics. But the most universal qualification of
all is some outward visible sign of a substantial interest in the
state. The word " substantial " is used here in a comparative
sense, as opposed to that form of suffrage which requires nothing
more for its exercise than attainment of manhood and perhaps
a certain qualifying period of residence. This tangible sign
of interest in the state may take the form of possession of
property, however small in amount, or the payment of some
amount of direct taxation, indeed in some cases, as will be
seen, this is rewarded by the conferring of extra votes.
In the United Kingdom possession of freehold or leasehold
property of a certain value or occupation of premises of a certain
annual value gives a vote. This qualification of property may
be said to be included in what is termed the " lodger " vote,
given to the occupier of lodgings of the yearly value unfur-
nished of not less than 10. In Hungary, the payment of a
small direct tax on house property or land or on an income
varying with occupation is necessary. So in Prussia, Saxony,
Bavaria, Hesse, Italy (unless a certain standard in elementary
education has been reached), Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal
(unless the elector is able to read and write) and Russia. Some
of the states in the United States also require the payment of
a poll tax. On the other hand, in Russia, students, soldiers,
governors of provinces and police officers are disqualified from
voting; in Portugal, bankrupts, beggars, domestic servants,
workmen in government service and non-commissioned officers
are not electors; it must be noted, however, that the government
N
VOTING MACHINES
217
of the new Portuguese republic promised in 1910 a drastic
revision of the existing franchise. Italy disfranchises non-
commissioned officers and men in the army while under arms,
as do France and Brazil. The United Kingdom and Denmark
disqualify those in actual receipt of parish relief, while in
Norway, apparently, receipt of parish relief at any time is a
disqualification, which, however, may be removed by the
>ient paying back the sums so received. In some countries,
e.g. Brazil, the suffrage is refused to members of monastic
orders, &c., under vows of obedience. Apart from those
countries where a modicum of education is necessary as a test
of right to the franchise, there are others where education is
specially favoured in granting the franchise. In the United
Kingdom the members of eight universities (Oxford, Cambridge,
London, Dublin University, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen
and St Andrews) send nine members to parliament; in
Hungary members of the professional, scientific, learned and
other classes (over 80,000) are entitled to vote without any
other qualification; in Brunswick the scientific classes elect
three members to the legislative chamber; iu Saxony, members
of scientific or artistic professions have extra votes; in Italy,
members of academies and professors are qualified to vote
by their position; while in the Netherlands legal qualifications
for any profession or employment give a vote.
Many objections have been urged of late years to the prin-
ciple of according a plurality of votes to one individual on
account of superior qualifications over others which he may
be considered to possess. In the United Kingdom, where,
roughly speaking, the principle of representation is that of
taxation, the possession of qualifying property in any number
of electoral districts will give a vote in each of those districts.
Whether those votes can be actually registered will of course
depend on certain circumstances, such as the distance of the
districts apart and whether the elections are held on the same
day or not. The Radical party in the United Kingdom have
of late years been hostile to any system of plurality of votes
(whether gained by educational, property or other qualifications),
though it may be said that the tendency of some recent electoral
systems has been to introduce a steadying principle of this
nature. In 1906 a bill was introduced for reducing the system
of plural voting in the United Kingdom; it passed through the
House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords.
The most remarkable system of plural voting was that intro-
duced in Belgium by the electoral law of 1894. Under it, every
citizen over thirty-five years of age with legitimate issue, and
paying at least 5 francs a year in house tax, has a supple-
mental vote, as has every citizen over twenty-five owning
immovable property to the value of 2000 francs, or having a
corresponding income from such property, or who for two
years has derived at least 100 francs a year from Belgian funds
either directly or through the savings bank. Two supple-
mentary votes are given to citizens over twenty-five who have
received a diploma of higher instruction, or a certificate of
higher secondary instruction, or who fill or have filled offices,
or engaged in private professional instruction, implying at
least average higher instruction. Three votes is the highest
number allowed, while failure to vote Is punishable as a mis-
demeanour. In 1008-9 the number of electors in Belgium
was 1,651,647, of whom 981,866 had one vote, 378,264 two
votes and 291,517 three votes. In some other countries weight
is given to special qualifications. In the town of Bremen the
government is in the hands of a senate of 16 members and a
Convent of Burgesses (Biirgerschaft) of 150 members. These
latter are elected by the votes of all the citizens divided into
classes. University men return 14 members, merchants
40 members, mechanics and manufacturers 20 members,
and the other inhabitants the remainder. So in Brunswick
and in Hamburg legislators are returned by voters representing
various interests. In Prussia, representatives are chosen by
direct electors who in their turn are elected by indirect electors.
One direct elector is elected from every complete number of
250 souls. The indirect electors are divided into three classes,
the first class comprising those who pay the highest taxes to
the amount of one-third of the whole; the second, of those who
pay the next highest amount down to the limits of the second
third; the third, of all the lowest taxed. In Italy electors
must either have attained a certain standard of elementary
education, or pay a certain amount of direct taxation, or if
peasant farmers pay a certain amount of rent, or if occupants
of lodgings, shops, &c., in towns, pay an annual rent according
to the population of the commune. In Japan, voters must pay
either land tax of a certain amount for not less than a year
or direct taxes other than land tax for more than two years.
In the Netherlands, householders, or those who have paid the
rent of houses or lodgings for a certain period, are qualified for
the franchise, as are owners or tenants of boats of not less than
24 tons capacity, as well as those who have been for a certain
period in employment with an annual wage of not less than
22, 183. 4d., have a certificate of state interest of not less than
TOO florins or a savings bank deposit of not less than 50 florins.
The method now adopted in most countries of recording
votes is that of secret voting or ballot (q.v.). This is carried
out sometimes by a machine (see VOTING MACHINES). The
method of determining the successful candidate varies greatly
in different countries. In the United Kingdom the candidate
who obtains a relative majority is elected, i.e. it is necessary
only to obtain more votes than any other candidate (see
REPRESENTATION) .
VOTING MACHINES. The complications in the voting at
American elections have resulted in the invention of various
machines for registering and counting the ballots. These
machines are in fact mechanical Australian ballots. The
necessity for them has been emphasized by election practice
in many parts of the United States, where in a single election
there have been from five to ten parties on the ballot, with
an aggregate of four hundred or five hundred candidates, making
the paper ballots large and difficult to handle. The objections
to the paper ballot are further emphasized in the results ob-
tained. The number of void and blank ballots is seldom less
than 5% of the number of voters voting, and is often as high
as 40%. This lost vote is often greater than the majority of
the successful candidate. In close elections there is an endless
dispute as to whether the disputed ballots do or do not comply
with the law. The election contest and recount expenses
frequently exceed the cost of holding the election, and the title
of the candidates to the office is frequently held in abeyance
by a protracted contest until after the term of office has expired.
A number of ways have been devised for marking the Australian
ballot for identification without destroying its legality. The
X is a very simple and well-known mark, yet in the case of
Coulehan v. White, before the Supreme Court of Maryland,
twenty-seven different ways of making the mark " X " were
shown in the ballots in controversy, and all of them were a
subject for judicial consideration, on which the judges pf even
the highest court could, find room for disagreement. Wigmore
in his book on the Australian ballot system points out thirteen
ways of wrongly placing the mark, and forty-four errors in
the style of the mark, besides many other errors tending to
invalidate the ballot, all of them having frequently occurred
in actual practice. These errors are not confined to the illiter-
ates, but are just as common among the best-educated people.
The ballots can and have frequently been altered or miscounted
by unscrupulous election officers, and the detection of the
fraud is frequently difficult and always expensive.
Voting machines were devised first by English, and later
with more success by American inventors. The earlier machines
of Vassie, Chamberlain, Sydserff (1869) and Davie (1870) were
practically all directed toward voting for the candidates of
a single office by a ball, the ball going into one compart-
ment or the other according to the choice of the voter. The
use of the ball is in accordance with the original idea of ballot,
which means " a little ball "; and because of the requirement
of many of the constitutions of the states of the United States,
that " elections shall be by ballot," many American inventors
2l8
VOTING MACHINES
follow this idea of using balls to indicate their votes. Others,
however, maintaining that secrecy was the essential idea of
voting by ballot, and that the form of the ballot was immaterial,
worked on the idea of using a key and a counter for each candi-
date, the counter registering the successive impulses given to
it by the key, the machine preventing the voter from giving
the key more than one impulse, and preventing the voter from
operating more keys than he is entitled to vote. The highest
courts of four different American states have ruled that any
form of voting machine that secured secrecy would be con-
stitutional.
The first voting machine used in an election was the Myers
Ballot Machine used at Lockport, New York, in 1892. This machine
had a vertical keyboard with columns of push keys thereon, each
column representing a party, and each key belonging to a candidate
of that party, the keys of each horizontal line belonging to the candi-
dates of the various parties for a particular office. The voter pushed
one of the knobs in each office line, which knob operated its counter
and locked all other possible votes for the same office until the voter
left the booth. The operated keys were released by the operation
of the second booth door as the voter left the machine, and they
were then reset by springs. The doors were so arranged that the
voter must first pass through one and lock it behind him before he
could open the second one to get out. This both preserved secrecy
and prevented repeating. Some sixty-five or more of these machines
were used in the election in the city of Rochester. N.Y., in November
1896, and with marked success.
The McTammany Machine, operated by keys which punched holes
in a web of paper. On this web the votes of each candidate were
all punched in a single column, each separate column representing
a separate candidate. The voter does not see the web, which is
removed from the machine by the election officers after the election
is over, and the vote thereon is canvassed by passing the web through
a pneumatic counting machine. The paper web makes a separate
record of each man's ballot that can be identified by a person skilled
in the use of the machine. The machine is also slow in giving
returns, due to the fact that the vote has to be counted after the
election.
In other types of machines each candidate had a separate recep-
tacle, into which the machine dropped a ball for each vote that
was cast for the candidate. These machines have so far not been
successful. The whole development of practical voting machines
has been limited to those machines in which a separate counter
is provided for each candidate, the counter being operated either
directly or indirectly by the voter. Of this type is the Myers
machine, as well as the other machines mentioned here.
The Bardwell Votometer had a separate counter for each candi-
date, with a single key for operating all the counters on the machine.
A keyhole was provided in each counter, in which the key could
be inserted, and by turning it 180 the counter was operated and
the key could be removed for use in another counter. The voter
could operate but one counter at a time, and could not operate the
counters in very rapid succession. The limited use of this machine
can be attributed principally to the slowness with which it can be
worked. The voter enters this machine by raising a bar at one end,
which unlocks the counters for voting operation. Raising a similar
bar at the other end as the voter passes out resets the machine for
the next voter and locks it.
The Abbott Machine has attained considerable use in the state of
Michigan. In this machine the counters for each office are carried
on a separate slide, and the voter moves these slides for the various
offices from left to right, until the counter carrying the name of the
candidate of his choice in each office row is lined up with the operat-
ing bar. The vertical movement of the operating bar counts the
vote on each of these slides, rings a bell, which notifies the election
officer that a vote has been cast, and locks the machine against
further voting. The election officer then moves a slide which resets
the machine for the next voter. The machine is limited in its
application because two or more candidates on the same office line
cannot be voted for by the same voter, although the voter may be
entitled to vote for more than one candidate.
The U.S. Standard Voting Machine has had the most extensive
use of any. A separate key is provided for each candidate, which
keys are arranged on the keyboard of the machine in horizontal
party rows and vertical office lines. Each key is shaped like a
small pointer, which extends to the right from its pivot, and passes
through the keyboard. The key swings downward from horizontal
position and points to the name of the candidate below it. I he
keys are lettered consecutively by party rows, and numbered by
office rows, so that each key bears a number and a letter distinguish-
ing it from all others. At the left of each party row is a party lever,
by the movement of which all of the keys in that party row are
simultaneously placed in voted position. In states that do not have
party circles on the ballot these levers are omitted. Extending
outward from the top of the machine is a rail, from which is suspended
a curtain. Pivoted in the middle of the top of the machine is a lever,
which extends outwardly and has a loose connexion with a curtain.
The operation of the lever by a convenient handle enables the voter
to close the curtain and unlock the machine for voting, after which
the voter cannot retire from the machine until he has voted on
the machine to a certain extent. The operation of any one of the
party levers rings a bell to show that he has voted, and permits the
reverse movement of the curtain lever, which counts the vote, resets
the machine for the next voter and opens the curtain. Before
opening the curtain the vote is not counted, and the voter can take
back or change his vote. Repeating is prevented by a knob on the
end of the machine, which locks the curtain lever against a second
movement until it is released by the election officer. At the top of
the machine is a paper roll on which the voter can write the names of
candidates whose names dp not appear on the machine in con-
nexion with keys. This roll is concealed by slides, one for each
office line of keys, which slides must be lifted to expose the paper.
An interlocking mechanism controls all the voting devices so that
the voter cannot vote more than he is entitled to vote. These
machines have been built large enough to provide for seven parties
of sixty candidates each, and for thirty questions and amendments,
a machine of such size carrying 480 counters, besides the total vote
and protective counters.
Ths Dean Machine has its keyboard placed horizontally, the keys
being push buttons, which are arranged in party columns and
transverse office rows. Party levers are provided by which the
keys of the party are moved to voted position. Considerable strc-s
is laid on the small keyboard of this machine, the peculiar type of
counter used on it, and the separate card ballot for voting for
unnominated candidates.
Each state that adopts voting machines first enacts a law
specifying the requirements that must be met in the construc-
tion of the machines. These requirements are substantially
the same in all the states, the laws being copied largely from
the New York Voting Machine Law. The laws require in
general that the machine shall give the voter all the facilities
for expressing his choice which the Australian ballot gives
him, and further require that the machine shall prevent those
mistakes or frauds, which if made on an Australian ballot would
invalidate it.
Many of the states have special requirements, to meet which
many ingenious features have been provided on the various machines.
Among these is the group of 1 8 supervisors in San Francisco, for
which office as many as 108 candidates have appeared upon one
ballot, out of which the machine must permit the voter to vote any
1 8 and no more, regardless of the sequence in which they are selected,
or the position in which they occur.
Another of these local features is the primary election feature
required by Minnesota, in which state the various parties must hold
their primary election at the same time and on the same machine.
The voter announcing the party of his preference finds the voting
devices on the machine of all other parties locked against him, but
the voting devices of his own party are open to his use.
Still another is the lockout, by which the voter of limited voting
franchises is prevented from voting for the candidates of certain
offices. Another is the endorsed candidate in a group. Here the
same candidate's name is provided with two or more voting devices
in a group wherein the voter is allowed to vote for two or more
candidates. Special provision must then be made to keep voters
from voting twice for the same candidate.
As to the important benefits attending the use of machines,
there can be mentioned accuracy both in the casting and the
counting of the vote, speed in getting in returns, and economy
in holding elections. The improvement in accuracy is shown
by the fact that the vote for each office usually runs 99% or
more of the highest possible vote that could be registered by
the number of voters that have voted. Speed is shown by
the fact that in the city of Buffalo, with 60,000 voters voting on
election day, the complete returns, including the vote on over
100 candidates for the whole city, have been collected, tabulated
and announced within 75 minutes from the closing of the polls,
Economy is shown by the fact that although these machines
are used but one or two days in each year, election expenses
are reduced to such an extent that the machines pay for them-
selves in five or six elections. This is partly due to the smaller
number of precincts necessary and the smaller number of election
officers in each precinct and the shorter hours that they must
work. The city of Buffalo has a dozen or more precincts, in
each of which 800 voters or more are voted in an election day
of ten hours, and in that city as many as 1041 voters have
voted in one election day on one machine (F. KE.)
VOTKINSK VOW
219
VOTKINSK, a town and iron-works, in the Russian govern-
ment of Vyatka, 40 m. N. of Sarapul and 8 m. W. from the
Kama, founded in 1756. Pop. 21,000. Votkinsk was formerly
one of the chief government establishments for the construc-
tion of steamers for the Caspian, as well as of locomotives
ihe Siberian railway, and it has long been renowned for
its excellent tarantasses (driving vehicles) and other smaller
iron-wares, as well as for its knitted goods. Its agricultural
machinery is known throughout Russia.
VOUCHER (from " to vouch," to warrant, answer for, O. Fr.
her, to cite, call in aid, Lat. vocare, to call, summon), any
document in writing which confirms the truth of accounts or estab-
lishes other facts, more particularly a receipt or other evidence
in writing which establishes the fact of the payment of money.
VOUET, SIMON (1590-1649), French painter, was born at
Paris on the gth of January 1500. He passed many years in
Italy, where he married, and established himself at Rome,
\ing there a high reputation as a portrait painter. Louis
XIII. recalled him to France and lodged him in the Louvre
with the title of First Painter to the Crown. All royal work
for the palaces of the Louvre and the Luxembourg was placed
in his hands; the king became his pupil; he formed a large
.I, and renewed the traditions of that of Fcntainebleau.
Among his scholars was the famous Le Brun. Vouet was an
exceedingly skilful painter, especially in decoration, and executed
important works of this class for Cardinal Richelieu (Rueil
and Palais Royal) and other great nobles. His better easel
pictures bear a curious resemblance to those of Sassoferrato.
Almost everything he did was engraved by his sons-in-law
Tortebat and Dorigny.
VOUSSOIR (Ger. Wolbeslein), the French term used by
architects for the wedge-shaped stones or other material with
which the arch (q.v.) is constructed; the lowest stone on each
side is termed, the springer (Fr. coussinet sommier) and the
upper one at the crown of the arch the keystone (Fr. daveau).
VOW (Lat. votum, vow, promise: cf. VOTE), a transaction
between a man and a god. whereby the former undertakes in
the future to render some service or gift to the god or devotes
something valuable now and here to his use. The god on his
part is reckoned to be going to grant or to have granted already
some special favour to his votary in return for the promise
made or service declared. Different formalities and ceremonies
may in different religions attend the taking of a vow, but
in all the wrath of heaven or of hell is visited upon one who
breaks it. A vow has to be distinguished, firstly, from other
and lower ways of persuading or constraining supernatural
powers to give what man desires and to help him in time of
need; and secondly, from the ordered ritual and regularly
recurring ceremonies of religion. These two distinctions must
be examined a little more at length.
It would be an abuse of language to apply the term vow
to the uses of imitative magic, e.g. to the action of a barren
woman among the Battas of Sumatra, who in order to become
a mother makes a wooden image of a child and holds it in her
Up. For in such rites no prominence is given to the idea
even if it exists of a personal relation between the petitioner
and the supernatural power. The latter is, so to speak,
mechanically constrained to act by the spell or magical rite;
the forces liberated in fulfilment, not of a petition, but of a
are not those of a conscious will, and therefore no thanks
arc due from the wisher in case he is successful. The deities,
however, to whom vows are made or discharged are already
personal beings, capable of entering into contracts or covenants
with man, of understanding the claims which his vow establishes
on their benevolence, and of valuing his gratitude; conversely,
in the taking of a vow the petitioner's piety and spiritual
attitude have begun to outweigh those merely ritual details of
the ceremony which in magical rites are all-important.
Sometimes the old magical usage survives side by side with the
more developed idea of a personal power to be approached in
prayer. For example, in the Maghrib (in North Africa), in time
of drought the maidens of Mazouna carry every evening in pro-
cession through the streets a doll called gkonja, really a dressed-
up wooden spoon, symbolizing a pre-Islamic rain-spirit. Often
one of the girls carries on her shoulders a sheep, and her com-
panions sing the following words:
" Rain, fall, and I will give you my kid.
He has a black head; he neither bleats
Nor complains; he says not, ' I am cold.'
Rain, who fillest the skins,
Wet our raiment.
Rain, who feedest the rivers,
Overturn the doors of our houses."
Here we have a sympathetic rain charm, combined with a
prayer to the rain viewed as a personal goddess and with a
promise or vow to give her the animal. The point of the promise
lies of course in the fact that water is in that country stored and
carried in sheep-skins. 1
Secondly, the vow is quite apart from established cults, and is
not provided for in the religious calendar. The Roman vow
(votum), as W. W. Fowler observes in his work The Roman
Festivals (London, 1899), p. 346, " was the exception, not the
rule; it was a promise made by an individual at some critical
moment, not the ordered and recurring ritual of the family or the
State." The vow, however, contained so large an element of
ordinary prayer that in the Greek language one and the same
word (evxij) expressed both. The characteristic mark of the vow,
as Suidas in his lexicon and the Greek Church fathers remark,
was that it was a promise either of things to be offered to God
in the future and at once consecrated to Him in view of their
being so offered, or of austerities to be undergone. For offering
and austerity, sacrifice and suffering, are equally calculated to
appease an offended deity's wrath or win his goodwill.
The Bible affords many examples of vows. Thus in Judges xi.
Jephthah " vowed a vow unto the Lord, and said, If thou wilt
indeed deliver the children of Ammon into my hand, then it shall
be that whosoever cometh forth out of the doors of my house to
meet me, when I return in peace from the children of Ammon, it
shall be the Lord's, and I will offer it up for a burnt-offering."
In the sequel it is his own daughter who so meets him, and he
sacrifices her after a respite of two months granted her in order
to " bewail her virginity upon the mountains." A thing or
person thus vowed to the deity became holy or taboo; and for
it, as the above story indicates, nothing could be substituted.
It belonged to once to the sanctuary or to the priests who re-
presented the god. In the Jewish religion, the latter, under
certain conditions, denned in Leviticus xxvii., could permit it to
be redeemed. But to substitute an unclean for a clean beast
which had been vowed, or an imperfect victim for a flawless one,
was to court with certainty the divine displeasure.
It is often difficult to distinguish a vow from an oath. Thus in
Acts xxiii. 21, over forty Jews, enemies of Paul, bound themselves,
under a curse, neither to eat nor to drink till they had slain him.
In the Christian Fathers we hear of vows to abstain from flesh
diet and wine. But of the abstentions observed by votaries,
those which had relation to the barber's art were the commonest.
Wherever individuals were concerned to create or confirm a
tie connecting them with a god, a shrine or a particular religious
circle, a hair-offering was in some form or other imperative.
They began by polling their locks at the shrine and left them as a
soul-token in charge of the god, and never polled them afresh until
the vow was fulfilled. So Achilles consecrated his hair to the river
Spercheus and vowed not to cut it till he should return safe from
Troy; and the Hebrew Nazarite, whose strength resided in his
flowing locks, only cut them off and burned them on the altar
when the days of his vow were ended, and he could return to
ordinary life, having achieved his mission. So in Acts xviii. 18
Paul " had shorn his head in Cenchreae, for he had a vow." In
Acts xxi. 23 we hear of four Jews who, having a vow on them,
had their heads shaved at Paul's expense. Among the ancient
Chatti, as Tacitus relates (Germanic, 31) , young men allowed their
hair and beards to grow, and vowed to court danger in that guise
1 Professor A. Be\ in paper Quflque riles pour obtenir la pluie, in xrr*
Congrts des Orienlaiistes (Alger, 1905).
220
VOZNESENSK VRIENDT
until they each had slain an enemy. Robertson Smith (Religion
of the Semites, ed. 1001, p. 483) with much probability explains
such usages from the widespread primitive belief that a man's
life lurks in his hair, so that the devotee being consecrated or
taboo to a god, his hair must be retained during the period of
taboo or purification (as it is called in Acts xxi. 26) lest it be
dissipated and profaned. The hair being part and parcel of the
votary, its profanation would profane him and break the taboo.
The same author remarks that this is why, when the hair of a
Maori chief was cut, it was, being like the rest of his person
sacred or taboo, collected and buried in a sacred place or hung
on a tree. And we meet with the same scruple in the initiation
rite, called axJJMa, of Eastern monks. First, the novice is care-
fully denuded of the clothes, shoes and headgear, which he wore
in the world, and which, being profane or unclean, would violate
the taboo about to be set on him. His hair is then polled cross-
wise by way of consecrating it; and in some forms of the rite
the presiding monk, called " the father of the hair," collects the
shorn locks and deposits them under the altar or in some other
safe and sacred place. Greek nuns used to keep the hair thus
shorn off, weave it into girdles, and wear it for the rest of their
lives round their waists, where close to their holy persons there
was no risk of its being defiled by alien contact. The rest of this
rite of <rxTJna, especially as it is preserved in the old Armenian
versions, smacks no less of the most primitive taboo. For the
novice, after being thus tonsured, advances to the altar holding
a taper in either hand, just as tapers were tied to the horns of an
animal victim; the new and sacred garb which is to demarcate
him henceforth from the unclean world is put upon him, and the
presiding father laying his right hand upon him devotes him
with a prayer which begins thus:
" To thee, O Lord, as a rational whole burnt-offering, as mystic
frankincense, as voluntary homage and worship, we offer up this
thy servant N. or M."
From the same point of view is to be explained the prohibition
to one under a vow of flesh diet and fermented drinks; for it was
believed that by partaking of these a man might introduce into
his body the unclean spirits which inhabited them the brute
soul which infested meat, especially when the animal was
strangled, and the cardiac demon, as the Rabbis called it, which
harboured in wine.
The same considerations help to explain the custom of
votive offerings. Any popular shrine in Latin countries is
hung with wax models of limbs that have been healed, of ships
saved from wreck, or with pictures representing the votary's
escape from perils by land and sea. So Cicero (de Deorum
Natura, iii. 37) relates how a friend remarked to Diagoras the
Atheist when they reached Samothrace: " You who say that
the gods neglect men's affairs, do you not perceive from the
many pictures how many have escaped the force of the tempest
and reached harbour safely." Diagoras's answer, that the
many more who had suffered shipwreck and perished had no
pictures to record their fate does not concern us here. It is
only pertinent to remark that these wtivae tabellae and offerings
may have had originally another significance than that of
merely recording the votary's salvation and of marking his
gratitude. The model ship may be a substitute for the entire
ship which is become sacred to the god, but cannot be deposited
in the shrine; the miniature limbs of wax are substitutes for
the real limbs which now belong to the god. In other cases
the very objects which are taboo are given to the god as when
a sailor deposits his salt-stained suit before the idol.
The general idea, then, involved in vows, whether ancient
or modern, is that to express which the modern anthropologist
borrows the Polynesian word taboo. The votary desirous to
" antedate his future act of service and make its efficacy begin
at once," l formally dedicates through spoken formula and ritual
act a lifeless object such as a ring, an animal, his hair or his
entire person to the god. He so either makes sure of future
blessings, or shows gratitude for those already conferred. Most
of the ritual prescriptions that accompany vows are intended
1 Religion of the Semites, Lect. ix.
to guard inviolate the sanctity or taboo, the atmosphere of
holiness or ritual purity, which envelops the persons or objects
vowed or reserved to the god, and thereby separated from
ordinary secular use.
The consideration of the moral effect of vows upon those who
take them belongs rather to the history of Christian asceticism.
It may, however, be remarked here that monkish vows, while
they may lend to a man's life a certain fixity of aim and moral
intensity, nevertheless tend to narrow his interests, and
paralyse his wider activities and sympathies. In particular
a monk binds himself to a lifelong and often morbid struggle
against the order of nature; and motives become for him not
good or bad according to the place they occupy in the living
context of social life, but according as they bear upon an
abstract and useless ideal. (F. C. C.)
VOZNESENSK, a town of Russia, in the government of
Kherson, on the left bank of the river Bug, at the head of
navigation, 55 m. N.W. from Nikolayev, to which steamers
ply regularly. Pop. 14,178. It is a river port of some im-
portance, and holds four large fairs annually. It contains a
cathedral, a public garden and distilleries and breweries.
VRANCX, SEBASTIAN, born about 1572, was a painter of
the Antwerp school, of very moderate ability. Most of his
pictures represent scenes of war, such as the sack of towns,
cavalry combats and the like. Though occasionally vigorous
in drawing, his paintings are dull and heavy in tone. The
date of his death is uncertain.
VRANYA, or VRANYE, the most southerly town of the
kingdom of Servia, 7^ m. from the Macedonian frontier, on a
slope descending from Mount Placevitza to the plain of the
Upper Morava, in a picturesque and fertile country. Pop.
(1900) 11,921. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 it was
captured by the Servian army from the Turks, and subsequently
was incorporated in the kingdom. It is the capital of a depart-
ment of the same name, and is an important station on the
railway from Nish to Salonica, with a custom house, prin-
cipally for merchandise imported into Servia via Salonica.
Its inhabitants are employed chiefly in the cultivation of flax
and hemp, and in the making of ropes. There is a much
frequented summer resort 45 m. E., called Vranyska Banya,
with baths of hot sulphurous mineral water.
VRATZA, the capital of the department of Vratza, Bulgaria,
on the northern slope of the Stara Planina and on a small
subtributary of the Danube. Pop. (1906) 14,832. Vratza
is an archiepiscopal see and the headquarters of a military
division. Wine, leather and gold and silver filigree are manu-
factured, and there is a school of sericulture.
VRIENDT, JDLIAEN JOSEPH DE (1842- ), and AL-
BRECHT FRANCOIS LIEVEN DE (1843-1900), Belgian painters,
both born at Ghent, sons of a decorative painter. The two
brothers were close friends, and their works show marked signs of
resemblance. Having received their early training from their
father at Ghent, they removed to Antwerp, where they soon
yielded to the influence of the painter Baron Henri Leys.
Albrecht became director of the Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp
and was succeeded by his brother. Albrecht's principal works are
" Jacqueline of Bavaria imploring Philip the Good to pardon
her Husband " (1871, Liege Gallery), " The Excommunication
of Bouchard d'Avesnes " (1877, Brussels Gallery), " The
Angelus " (1877, acquired by Leopold II., king of the
Belgians), " Pope Paul HI. before Luther's Portrait " (1883,
Antwerp Gallery), " The Citizens of Ghent paying homage
to the child Charles V." (1885, Brussels Gallery), " Philip the
Handsome swearing fidelity to the privileges of the Town of
Fumes " (1893, Furnes town hall), " The Virgin of St Luc "
(1894, triptych in Antwerp Cathedral), and the decoration of
the municipal hall at Bruges, which was completed by his brother.
Among Juliaen's more natable works are " The Citizens of
Eisenach driving out St Elizabeth of Hungary " (1871, Liege
Gallery), " Jairus's Daughter " (1888, Antwerp Gallery), mural
paintings in the Palais de Justice at Antwerp (1893),
" The Christmas Carol " (1894, Brussels Gallery).
i
VRYHEID VULTURE
221
VRYHEID, a town of northern Natal, 291 m. by rail N. by
W. of Durban. Pop. (1904) 2287, of whom 1344 were whites.
It is the chief town of a district, of the same name, rich in
mineral wealth, including copper, coal and gold. The coal-
fields of Hlobane are S.E. of the town. Originally part of
Zululand the district of Vryheid was ceded by Dinizulu to a
party of Boers under Lucas Meyer, who aided him to crush his
opponents, and was proclaimed an independent state under
the title of the New Republic in 1884. In 1888 it was incor-
porated with the Transvaal and in 1903 annexed to Natal (see
TRANSVAAL, History; and ZULULAND, History).
V-SHAPED DEPRESSION, in meteorology, a narrow area
of low pressure usually occurring between two adjacent anti-
mes, and taking the form of a V or tongue, as do the
trs representing it on a weather-chart. Such a depression
may be regarded as a projection from a cyclonic system lying
to one side of the two anticyclones. A similar depression,
however, is frequently formed within a larger area of depression,
i.e. an ordinary cyclone, and sometimes develops so far as
to have a complete circulation of its own; it is then known
as a " secondary." The line of lowest depression following the
axis of the V brings with it heavy squalls and a sudden change
of wind from one direction almost to the opposite. It is pre-
ceded by signs of break in the weather such as usually herald
the approach of an ordinary cyclone, and is followed by the
usual signs of clearance. The occurrence of a V-depression
or secondary within an ordinary cyclonic system intensifies,
often to a dangerous degree, the usual disturbances in the
weather accompanying that system. Conditions exactly opposite
to those accompanying a V-shaped depression are provided
by a " wedge " (q.v.).
VULCAN (Volcanus), the Roman god of fire, and more especi-
ally of devouring flame (Virg. Ann. 5. 662). Whether he was
also, like Hephaestus, the deity of smiths, is very doubtful;
his surname Mulciber may rather be referred to his power to
allay conflagrations. In the Cornitium was an " area Volcani,"
also called " Volcanal "; and here on the 23rd of August
(Volcanalia) the Flamen Volcanalis sacrificed, and the heads
of Roman families threw into the fire small fish, which the
Tiber fishermen sold on the spot. This flamen also sacrificed
on the ist of May to Maia, who in an old prayer formula (Gellius
13. 23) was coupled with Volcanus as Maia Volcani. It is not
easy to explain these survivals of an old cult. But in historical
times the association of this god with conflagrations becomes
very apparent; when Augustus organized the city in regiones
and vici to check the constant danger from fires, the magistri
vicorum (officers of administrative districts) worshipped him as
Volcanus quietus auguslus (C.I.L. vi. 801 and 802) and on the
23rd of August there was a sacrifice to him together with Ops
Opifera and the Nymphae, which suggests the need of water
in quenching the flames. At Ostia, where much of the corn
was stored which fed the Roman population, the cult of this
god became famous; and it is probable that the fixing of his
festival in August by the early Romans had some reference
to the danger to the newly harvested corn from fire in that
month. (W. W. F.*)
VULGATE (from Lat. vulgus, the common people), a Latin
version of the Bible prepared in the 4th century by St Jerome,
and so called from its common use in the Roman Catholic
Church (see BIBLE: Texts and Versions). Pius X. in 1008 en-
trusted to the Benedictine Order the task of revising the text,
beginning with the Old Testament.
VULPECULA ET ANSER ("THE Fox AND GOOSE"), in astro-
nomy, a modern constellation of the northern hemisphere,
introduced by Hevelius, who catalogued twenty-seven stars.
Interest is attached to Nova Vulpeculae, a " new " star dis-
covered by Anthelm in 1670; T Vulpeculae, a short period
variable; and the famous " Dumb-bell " nebula.
VULPIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1762-1827), German author,
was born at Weimar on the 23rd of January 1762, and was
educated at Jena and Erlangen. In 1 790 he returned to Weimar,
where Goethe, who had entered into relations with Vulpius's
sister Christine (1765-1816), whom he afterwards married, ob-
tained employment for him. Here Vulpius began, in imita-
tion of Christian Heinrich Spiess, to write a series of romantic
narratives. Of these (about sixty in number) his Rinaldo
Rinaldini (1797), the scene of which is laid in Italy during the
middle ages, is the best. In 1797 Vulpius was given an appoint-
ment on the Weimar library, of which he became chief librarian
in 1806. He died at Weimar on the 2Sth of June 1827.
VULTURE, the name of certain birds whose best-known
characteristic is that of feeding upon carcases. The genus
Vultur, as instituted by Linnaeus, is now restricted by ornith-
ologists to a single species, V. monachus. The other species
included therein by him, or thereto referred by succeeding
systematists, being elsewhere relegated (see LAMMERGEYER).
A most important taxonomic change was introduced by T. H.
Huxley (Proc. Zool. Society, 1867, pp. 462-64), who pointed
out the complete structural difference between the vultures
of the New World and those of the Old, regarding the former
as constituting a distinct family, Cathartidae (which, however,
would be more properly named Sarcorhamphidae), while he
united the latter with the ordinary diurnal birds of prey as
Gypaetidae.
The American vulture may be said to include four genera:
(i) Sarcorhamphus, the gigantic condor, the male distinguished
by a large fleshy comb and wattle; (2) Gypagus, the king-
vulture, with its gaudily "coloured head and nasal caruncle;
5s.
King-Vulture (Gypagus papa).
(3) Catharista, containing the so-called turkey-buzzard with
its allies; and (4) Pseudogryphus, the great Calif ornian vulture
of very limited range on the western slopes of North America.
Though all these birds are structurally different from the true
vultures of the Old World, in habits the Vulturidae and Sarco-
rhamphidae are much alike.
The true vultures of the Old World, Vulturidae in the re-
stricted sense, are generally divided into five or six genera,
of which Neophron has been separated as forming a distinct
subfamily, Neophroninae its members, of comparatively
small size, differing both in structure and habit considerably
from the rest. One of them is the so-called Egyptian vulture
or Pharaoh's hen, N. percnoplerus, a remarkably foul-feeding
species, living much on ordure. It is a well-known species
in some parts of India, 1 and thence westward to Africa, where
1 In the eastern part of the Indian peninsula it is replaced by a
smaller race or (according to some authorities) species, N. gingtniamts,
which has a yellow instead of a black bill.
222
VURJEEVANDAS VYSHNIY-VOLOCHOK
it has an extensive range. It also occurs on the northern
shores of the Mediterranean, and has strayed to such a distance
as to have suffered capture in England and even in Norway.
Of the genera composing the other subfamily, Vulturinae,
Gyps numbers seven or eight local species and races, on more
than one of which the English name griffon has been fastened.
The best known is G. fulvus, which by some authors is accounted
" British " from an example having been taken in Ireland,
though under circumstances which suggest its appearance so
far from its nearest home in Spain to be due to man's inter-
vention. The species, however, has a wider distribution on
the European continent (especially towards the north-east)
than the Egyptian vulture, and in Africa nearly reaches the
Equator, extending also in Asia to the Himalaya; but both
in the Ethiopian and Indian regions its range inosculates
with that of several allied forms or species. Pseudo%yps with
two forms one Indian, the other African differs from Gyps
by having 12 instead of 14 rectrices. Of the genera Otogyps
and Lophogyps nothing here need be said; and then we have
Vidtur, with, as mentioned before, its sole representative,
V. monachus, commonly known as the cinereous vulture, a
bird which is found from the Straits of Gibraltar to the sea-
coast of China. Almost all these birds inhabit rocky cliffs,
on the ledges of which they build their nests.
The question whether vultures in their search for food are
guided by sight of the object or by'its scent has excited much
interest. It seems to be now generally admitted that the
sense of sight is in almost every case sufficient to account for
the observed facts. (A. N.)
VURJEEVANDAS MADHOWDAS (1817-1896), Hindu mer-
chant of Bombay, of the Kapole Bania caste, was born on the 28th
of January 1817 at Gogla, in Kathiawar, whence his father came
to Bombay with Sheth Manoredas for trading purposes. Vur-
jeevandas was educated in Bombay, started a new firm under
the name of Vurjeevandas & Sons, and soon became one of the
wealthiest merchants in Bombay. He was appointed a justice of
the peace and a member of the Bombay Port Trust. He took
a keen interest in the Royal Asiatic Society and the Bombay
university, where a prize has been established to commemorate
his name. He constructed the Madhow Bang in memory of his
father, and gave it to the use of poor Hindus, endowing it with
nearly five lakhs of rupees. He built a rest-house in Bombay in
memory of his brother Mooljibhoy, and another one at Nasik.
The sanatorium which he built in memory of his youngest son
Rumhoredas at Sion Hill is a great boon to the poor people of his
community. He also established a dispensary at Matoonga and
a fund for the relief of indigent Hindus. He died on the i2th
of January 1896.
VYATKA, or VIATKA, a government of N.E. Russia, with
the government of Vologda on the N., Perm on the E., Ufa and
Kazan on the S. and Nizhniy-Novgorod and Kostroma on the
W., having an area of 59,100 sq. m. It has on its northern
boundary the flat water-parting which separates the basins of
the Northern Dvina and the Volga, and its surface is an undulat-
ing plateau 800 to 1400 ft. above sea-level, deeply grooved by
rivers and assuming a hilly aspect on their banks. The Kama
rises in the N.E., and, after making a wide sweep through Perm,
flows along its S.E. boundary, while the rest of the government
is drained by the Vyatka and its numerous tributaries. Both
the Kama and the Vyatka are navigable, as also are several
tributaries; the Izh and Votka, which flow into the Vyatka,
have important ironworks on their banks. The only railway
is one from Perm to Archangel, through the town of Vyatka;
the government is traversed by the great highway to Siberia,
and by two other roads by which goods from the south are
transported to loading-places on the Vychegda and the Yug to
be shipped to Archangel. Lakes are numerous, and vast marshes
exist everywhere, especially in the north. The climate is very
severe, the average yearly temperature being 36 F. at Vyatka
(January, 8-2; July, 67-0) and 35 at Slobodsk (January, 3-5;
July, 65-3).
The estimated pop. in 1906 was 3,532,600. The bulk of
the inhabitants (78 %) are Russians; Votyaks make 12-2 %>
Cheremisses 5 %, and Tatars 31 %, the remainder being Bashkirs,
Teptyars and Permyaks. The Votyaks (Otyaks), a Finnish
tribe, call themselves Ot, Ut or Ud, and the Tatars call them
Ar, so that they may possibly be akin to the Ars of the Yenisei.
They are middle-sized, with fair hair and eyes, often red-haired;
and the general structure of the face and skull is Finnish. By
their dialect they belong to the same branch as the Permyaks.
The government is divided into eleven districts, the chief towns
of which are Vyatka, Elabuga, Glazov, Kotelnich, Malmyzh, Nolinsk,
Orlov, Sarapul, Slobodsk, Urzhum and Yaransk. Izhevsk and
Votkinsk, or Kamsko-Votkinsk, have important ironworks. Some
55% of the surface is covered with forests, two-thirds of which
belong to the crown, and hunting (especially squirrel-hunting) and
fishing are of commercial importance. The peasants, who form
89% cf the population, own 44% of the whole government, the
crown 53 % and private persons 2 %. The soil is fertile, especially
in the valleys of the south. Vyatka is one of the chief grain-
producing governments of Russia. The principal crops are rye,
wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. Flax and hemp are extensively
cultivated, and large numbers of cattle are kept, but they are
mostly of inferior breed. The government has a race of good
ponies that are widely exported. Domestic industries occupy
large numbers of the inhabitants. The principal manufacturing
establishments are tanneries, distilleries, ironworks, chemical
works, glass factories, cotton and steam flour-mills, and hardware,
machinery, paper and fur-dressing works. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
VYATKA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, on the Vyatka river, 304 m. by rail W.N.W. of
Perm. Pop. 24,782. It is built on the steep hills which rise
above the river and at their base. Its old walls have been
demolished, and its old churches built anew. It is an episcopal
see and has a fine cathedral. Its manufactures include silver
and copper wares, and ecclesiastical ornaments, and it has an
important trade in corn, leather, tallow, candles, soap, wax,
paper and furs (exported), and in manufactured and grocery
wares (imported). Vyatka was founded in 1181 by the
Novgorodians, as Khlynov. In 1391 it was plundered by the
Tatars, and again in 1477. . Moscow annexed Khlynov in
1489. It received the name of Vyatka in 1 780.
VYAZMA, a town of Russia, in the government of Smolensk,
109 m. by rail E.N.E. of the town of Smolensk. Pop. 15,676.
It was a populous place as early as the nth century, and carried
on a lively trade with Narva on the Gulf of Finland. In the isth
century it fell under the dominion of Lithuania, but was retaken
by the Russians. The Poles took it again in 1611, and kept it
till the peace of 1634. It is now an important centre for trade.
It has a cathedral, dating from 1596.
VYERNYI (formerly ALMATY), a town and fort of Asiatic
Russia, capital of the province of Semiryechensk, 50 m. N. of
Lake Issyk-kul, at the northern foot of the Trans-Hi Ala-tau
Mountains, at an altitude of 2440 ft. Pop. 24,798. Founded
in 1854, it is well-built, provided with boulevards and sur-
rounded by luxuriant gardens. It has a cathedral, being an
archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, a school of
gardening and sericulture, a public library, and a few distilleries,
tanneries and oil works. Situated at the intersection of
two roads from Kulja to Tashkent, and from Semipalatinsk
to Kashgar Vyernyi carries on an active trade in wheat, rice,
corn, tea, oil and tobacco. It was the centre of a remarkable
earthquake on the 9th of June 1887.
VYRNWY (Fyrnuiy), an artificial lake or reservoir in the north-
west of Montgomeryshire, N. Wales, constructed for the Liver-
pool water-supply. It was formed by damming the river
Vyrnwy, which runs through Montgomeryshire and joins the
Severn above Shrewsbury (see WATER-SUPPLY).
VYSHNIY-VOLOCHOK, a town of Russia, in the government
of Tver, 74 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tver. Pop. 16,722.
The place owes its importance to its situation in the centre of the
Vyshne-Volotsk navigation system (540 m. long, constructed by
Peter the Great in 1703-9), which connects the upper Volga with
the Neva. The portage (volok) is less than 17 m. between the
Tvertsa, a tributary of the Volga, and the Tsna, which flows into
the Msta and the Volkhov (Lake Ladoga) ; but boats now prefer
the Mariinsk system.
W WAAGEN, G. F.
223
Wthe twenty-third letter of the English alphabet,
shows its origin in its name; it is but VV, and,
as the name shows, V had the vowel value of
u, while the " double u " was employed for the
consonant value. In German the same symbol w is called Vey,
because in that language it has the value of the English ,
while the German v ( Vau, fow in pronunciation) is used with
the same value as/. In the English of the gth century the MM of
the old texts (and the u of the Northern) was found not to repre-
sent the English w satisfactorily, and a symbol / was adopted
from the Runic alphabet. This survived sporadically as late as
the end of the 1 3th century, but long before that had been generally
again replaced by MM (w only in Early Middle English) and by w.
For to the earliest English printers had a type, but French printers
had not; hence a book like the Roman Catholic version of the
\ew Testament printed at Rheims in 1582 prints w with two 's
ide by side. Throughout the history of English the sound
s to have remained the same the consonantal u. For this
value as well as for u Latin always used only V; in Greek,
except in a few dialects, the consonant value was early lost (see
under F). W is produced by leaving a very small opening
between the slightly protruded lips while the back of the tongue
is raised towards the soft palate and the nasal passage closed.
The ordinary w is voiced, but according to some authorities the
w in the combination wh (really hw) is not, in -when, what, &c.,
even when the h is no longer audible. The combination VVH
(hw) represents the Indo-European q* when changed according
to Grimm's law from a stop to a spirant. Thus what corresponds
philologically to the Latin quod and the first syllable of the Greek
jro$-cnr6s. In Southern English the h sound has now been
generally dropped. In Scotland, along the line of former contact
with Gaelic, it changes into /: fite=white, forl= whorl; but
before i (ee) it remains in wheel. In Early English w appeared
not only before r as in write, but also before / in wlisp (lisp).
In write, wring, &c., the w is now silent, though dialectically, e.g.
in Aberdcenshire, it has changed to v and is still pronounced,
vreei, vring, &c. In English and in other languages there is
considerable difficulty in pronouncing w before long sounds:
hence it has disappeared in pronunciation in two (lu) , but survives
in Scotch two, though otherwise the difficulty is more noticeable
in Scottish dialects than in literary English, as in " oo " =wool
and in the Scottish pronunciation of English words like wood
as 'ood. (P. Gi.)
WA, a wild tribe inhabiting the north-east frontier of Upper
Burma. Their country lies to the east of the Northern Shan
States, between the Salween river and the state of Keng-Tflng,
extending for about 100 m. along the Salween and for consider-
ably less than half that distance inland to the watershed between
that river and the Mekong. The boundaries may be roughly said
to be the Salween on the W., the ridge over the Namting valley
on the N., the hills E. of the Nam Hka on the eastern and southern
sides, while the country ends in a point formed by the junction
of the Nam Hka with the Salween. The Was claim to have
inhabited the country where they now are since the beginning of
time; but it appears more probable that they were the aborigines
of the greater part of northern Siam at least, if not of Indo-China,
since old records and travellers (e.g. Captain McLeod in 1837)
speak of their having been the original inhabitants with small
communities left behind from Kfng Tung down to Chiengmai;
while the state of Keng Tung, just S.E. of the Wa country, has
still scattered villages of Was and traditions that they were once
spread all over the country. Their fortified village sites too
are still to be found covered over with jungle. The people are
short and dark-featured, with negritic features, and some believe
that they are allied to the Andamanese and the Selungs inhabiting
the islands of the Mergui archipelago, who have been driven back,
or retreated, northwards to tbe wild country they now inhabit;
but their language proves them to belong to the M&n-Khmer
family. They are popularly divided into Wild Was and Tame
Was. The Wild Was are remarkable as the best authenticated
instance of head-hunters in the British Empire. They were
formerly supposed to be also cannibals; but it is now known
that they are not habitual cannibals, though it is possible that
human flesh may be eaten as a religious function at the annual
harvest feast. Their head-hunting habits have an animistic
basis. In the opinion of the Wa the ghost of a dead man goes
with his skull and hangs about its neighbourhood, and so many
skulls posted up outside his village gate mean so many watch-
dog umbrae attached to the village, jealous of their own preserves
and intolerant of interlopers from the invisible world. Thus
every addition to the collection of skulls is an additional safe-
guard against ill-affected demons, and a head-hunting expedition
is not undertaken, as was once thought, from motives of cannibal-
ism or revenge, but solely to secure the very latest thing in
charms as a protection against the powers of darkness. Outside
every village is an avenue of human skulls, amid groves con-
spicuous from long distances. These consist of strips of the
primeval jungle, huge forest trees left standing where all the
remaining country is cleared for cultivation. The undergrowth
is usually cut away, and these avenues are commonly but not
always in deep shade. Along one side (which side apparently
does not matter) is a line of posts with skulls fitted into niches
facing towards the path. The niche is cut sometimes in front,
sometimes in the back of the post. In the latter case there is a
round hole in front, through which sometimes only the teeth
and empty eye-sockets, sometimes the whole skull, grins a
ghastly smile. Most villages count their heads by tens or
twenties, but some of them have hundreds, especially when the
grove lies between several large villages, who combine or run
their collections into one another. The largest known avenue is
that between Hsiing Ramang and Hsan Htung. Here there
must be a couple of hundred or more skulls; but it is not certain
that even this is the largest. It is thought necessary to add some
skulls to this pathway every year if the crops are to be good.
The heads of distinguished and pious men and of strangers are
the most efficacious. The head-hunting season lasts through
March and April, and it is when the Wa hill fields are being got
ready for planting that the roads in the vicinity become dangerous
to the neighbouring Shans. The little that is known of the
practice seems to hint at the fact that the victim selected was
primarily a harvest victim. A Wild Wa village is a very formid-
able place to attack, except for civilized weapons of offence.
All the villages are perched high up on the slope of the hills,
usually on a knoll or spine-like spur, or on a narrow ravine near
the crest of the ridge. The only entrance is through a long tunnel.
There is sometimes only one, though usually there are two, at
opposite sides of the village. This tunnelled way is a few inches
over 5 ft. high and not quite so wide, so that two persons cannot
pass freely in it, and it sometimes winds slightly, so that a gun
cannot be fired up it; moreover, the path is frequently studded
with pegs in a sort of dice arrangement, to prevent a rush.
None of the tunnels is less than 30 yds. long, and some are as
much as 100 yds. Round each village is carried an earthen
rampart, 6 to 8 ft. high and as many thick, and this is overgrown
with a dense covering of shrubs, thin bushes and cactuses, so as
to be quite impenetrable. Outside this is a deep ditch which
would effectually stop a rush. These preparations indicate the
character of the inhabitants, which is so savage and suspicious
that the Wa country is still unadministered and naturally does
not appear in the 1901 census returns. The total number of
the Wa race is estimated at more than 50,000. 0- G. Sc.)
WAAOEN, GUSTAV FRIEDRICH (1794-1868), German art
historian, was born in Hamburg, the son of a painter and nephew
of the poet Ludwig Tieck. Having passed through the college
224
WAAGEN, W. H. WACHSMUTH
of Hirschberg, he volunteered for service in the Napoleonic
campaign of 1813-1814, and on his return attended the lectures
at Breslau University. He devoted himself to the study pf art,
which he pursued in the great European galleries, first in Ger-
many, then in Holland and Italy. A pamphlet on the brothers
Van Eyck led to his appointment to the directorship of the newly
founded Berlin Museum in 1832. The result of a journey to
London and Paris was an important publication in three volumes,
Kunstwerke und Kiinstler in England und Paris (Berlin, 1837-
1839), which became the basis for his more important The
Treasures of Art in Great Britain (London, 1854 and 1857). In
1844 he was appointed professor of art history at the Berlin
University, and in 1 86 1 he was called to St Petersburg as adviser
in the arranging and naming of the pictures in the imperial
collection. On his return he published a book on the Hermitage
collection (Munich, 1864). Among his other publications are
some essays on Rubens, Mantegna and Signorelli; Kunstwerke
und Kiinstler in Deutschland and Die vornehmsten Kunstdenkmaler
in Wien. He died on a visit to Copenhagen in 1868. In the light
of more recent research his writings are not of much value
as regards trustworthy criticism, though they are useful as
catalogues of art treasures in private collections at the time
when they were compiled. His opinions were greatly respected
in England, where he was invited to give evidence before the
royal commission inquiring into the condition and future of the
National Gallery.
WAAGEN, WILHELM HEINRICH (1841-1900), German
palaeontologist, was born at Munich on the 23rd of June 1841.
He was educated at Munich and Zurich, and through the influence
of A. Oppel he commenced to study the rocks and fossils of the
Jurassic system, and published an essay in 1865, Versuch einer
Attgemeinen Classification der Schichten des oberen Jura. In 1870
he joined the staff of the Geological Survey of India, and was
appointed palaeontologist in 1874, but was obliged to retire
through ill-health in 1 87 5. He published important monographs
in the Palaeontologia Indica on the palaeontology of Cutch (1873-
1876) and the Salt Range (1879-1883), dealing in the last-named
work -vjth fossils from the Lower Cambrian to the Trias. In
1879 he was appointed professor of mineralogy and geology
in the German technical high school at Prague, and he
became a contributor to the continuation of Barrande's great
work on the Systeme Silurien de Boheme. In 1890 he became
professor of palaeontology at the university of Vienna, and
in 1898 the LyeU medal was awarded to him by the Geological
Society of London. He died in Vienna on the 24th of March
1900.
WABASK, a city and the county-seat of Wabash county,
Indiana, U.S.A., about 42 m. S.W. of Fort Wayne. Pop. (1890)
5105, (1900) 8618, of whom 498 were foreign-born and 134
negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 8687. It is served by the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railway (which has extensive
shops here), by the Wabash railway, and by interurban electric
lines. It has a public library, a Memorial Hall (1897), erected
to the memory of Federal soldiers in the Civil War and occupied
by the local " camp " of the Grand Army of the Republic, a
Masonic temple, a county hospital and two parks. The city is
in a fertile agricultural region, and has a considerable trade
in grain and produce. Among its manufactures are furniture,
agricultural implements and foundry and machine-shop products.
In 1905 the factory products were valued at $2,202,932 (31-2 %
more than in 1900). Wabash was settled about 1834, in-
corporated as a village in 1854, and first chartered as a city
in 1866. It was one of the first cities in the world to be
lighted with electricity, a lighting plant being established hi
February r88o.
WAGE, HENRY (1836- ), English divine, was born in
London on the loth of December 1836, and educated at Marl-
borough, Rugby, King's College, London, and Brasenose College,
Oxford. He was ordained in the Church of England in 1861,
and held various curacies in London, being chaplain at Lincoln's
Inn in 1872 and preacher in 1880. From 1875 to 1896 he was
prominently connected with King's College, London, where he
was professor of ecclesiastical history, and subsequently (1883)
principal. Both as preacher and writer Dr Wace, who took his
D.D. degree in 1883, became conspicuous in the theological
world. He was Boyle lecturer in 1874 and 1875, and Bampton
lecturer in 1879; and besides publishing several volumes of
sermons, he was co-editor of the Dictionary of Christian Biography
(1877-1887), and editor of The Speaker's Commentary on the
Apocrypha. He took a leading part as the champion of historic
orthodoxy in the controversies with contemporary Rationalism
in all its forms, and firmly upheld the importance of denomi-
national education and of the religious test at King's College;
and when the test was abolished in 1902 be resigned his seat on
the council. In 1881 he was given a prebendal stall at St Paul's,
and in 1889 was appointed a chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen
Victoria. When he resigned the principalship of King's College
in 1896 he was made rector of St Michael's, Cornhill;
and in 1903 he became dean of Canterbury, in succession to
Dr Farrar.
WACE, (?) ROBERT (noo?-ii7S?), Anglo-Norman chronicler,
was born in Jersey. He studied at Caen ; he became personally
known to Henry I., Henry II., and the latter's eldest son, Prince
Henry; from Henry II. he received a prebend at Bayeux and
other gifts. Except for these facts he is known to us only as the
author of two metrical chronicles in the Norman-French lan-
guage. Of these the earlier in date is the Roman de Brut, com-
pleted hi 1155, which is said to have been dedicated to Eleanor
of Aquitaine (ed. A. J. V. Le Roux de Lincy, 2 vols., Rouen,
1836-1838). This is a free version of the Latin Historia Britonum
by Geoffrey of Monmouth, in rhyming octosyllables; it was
rendered into English, shortly after 1 200, by Layamon, a mass-
priest of Worcestershire, and is also largely used in the rhymed
English chronicle of Robert Mannyng. Wace's second work, the
Roman de Rou, written between 1160 and 1174, has a less fabulous
character than the Brut, being a chronicle of the Norman dukes
from Rollo to Robert Curthose. It has been ably dissected by
Gustav Korting (Uber die Quetten des Roman de Rou, Leipzig,
1867), who shows that it is mainly based upon Dudo and William
of Jumieges. There is also reason for thinking that Wace used
the Gesta regum of William of Malmesbury. Where Wace follows
no ascertainable source he must be used with caution. Un-
doubtedly he used oral tradition; but he also seems to have
given free play to his imagination.
The Roman de Rou is written in rhyming octosyllables, varied by
assonanced alexandrines. It has been edited by F. Pluquet (2 vols.
and supplement, Rouen, 1827-1829) and more completely by H.
Andresen (2 vols., Heilbronn, 1877-1879). (H. W. C. D.)
WACHSMUTH, CHARLES (1820-1896), American palaeonto-
logist, was born in Hanover, Germany, on the I3th of September
1829. Educated as a lawyer hi his native city, he abandoned
the profession on account of ill-health, and in 1852 went to New
York as agent for a Hamburg shipping house. Two years later,
for reasons of health, he removed to Burlington, Iowa, U.S.A.,
where he settled. Here he was attracted by the fossils, and
especially the crinoids, of the Burlington Limestone, and in a
few years possessed a fine collection. In 1864 he made acquaint-
ance with L. Agassiz, and in the following year paid a visit to
Europe, where he studied the crinoids in the British Museum
and other famous collections. He now decided to devote all his
energies to the elucidation of the crinoidea, and with signal success.
He made further extensive collections, and supplied specimens
to the Agassiz museum at Cambridge, U.S.A., and the British
Museum. Becoming acquainted with Frank Springer ( 1 848- ) ,
a lawyer at Burlington, he stirred up his enthusiasm in the subject,
and together they continued the study of crinoids and published
a series of important papers. These include " Discovery of the
Ventral Structure of Taxocrinus and Haplocrinus, and Conse-
quent Modifications in the Classification of the Crinoidea " (Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1889); " The Perisomic Plates of
the Crinoids " (Ibid., 1891); and a monograph on " The North
American Crinoidea Camerata," published, after the death of
Wachsmuth, in the Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative
Zoology at Harvard (1897). Of this last-named work a detailed
WACO WADAI
225
review and analysis was published by F. A. Bather, of the British
Museum, in the Geol. Mag. for 1898-1899. Wachsmuth died on
the 7th of February 1896.
Obituary (with portrait) by F. A. Bather, Geol. Mag. (April 1896).
WACO, a city and the county-seat of McLennan county,
Texas, nearly in the centre of the state, on both sides of the
Brazos river, about 100 m. S. by W. of Dallas. Pop. (1890)
14,445; (1900) 20,686, of whom 5826 were negroes; (1910
census) 26,425. Waco is served by the Missouri, Kansas &
Texas, and by other railways. Waco is the seat of Baylor
University (co-educational) and of the Texas Christian University
(Christian; co-educational). Baylor University was founded at
Independence, Texas, by the Texas Union Baptist Association,
in 1845, and was consolidated in 1886 with Waco University
(Baptist, 1861, founded by Dr Rufus C. Burleson, a former
president of Baylor University). It was named in honour of
Robert E. B. Baylor (1793-1874), a representative in Congress
from Alabama in 1830-1831, and one of its founders. In 1908-
1909 it had 40 instructors and 1296 students (664 women), of
whom 647 were in the college. The Texas Christian University
was founded in 1873 at Thorp's Springs as a private school,
chartered as Add Ran College, transferred to the Christian
Churches of Texas in 1889, and removed to Waco in 1895. Its
present name was adopted in 1902, the name Add Ran College
being retained for the college of arts and sciences. In 1908-1909
the university had 26 instructors and 379 students (279 in the
college of arts and sciences). Waco is situated in a fertile
farming region. In 1905 the factory products were valued
at $2,979,800. The city was named after the Waco (or Hueco)
Indians (Caddoan stock), who had a large village here until 1830,
when they were nearly exterminated by the Cherokees; in 1855
they removed to a reservation, and after 1859 became incor-
porated with the Wichita. The first white settlement was made
in 1849. Waco was incorporated as a town in 1856; in 1909 the
administration was entrusted to a mayor and four commissioners.
WAD, a black, earthy mineral consisting mainly of hydrated
manganese dioxide; of importance as an ore. Being an amor-
phous substance, it varies considerably in chemical composi-
tion, and contains different impurities often in large amount.
A variety containing much cobalt oxide is called " asbolite,"
while " lampadite " is a cupriferous variety. It is very soft,
readily soiling the fingers, and may be considered as an earthy
form of psilomelane (q.v.). It results from the decomposition
of other manganese minerals, and is often deposited in marshes
(" bog mangan-ese ") or by springs. The name wad is of uncertain
origin, and has been applied also to graphite. (L. J. S.)
WADAI, a country of north central Africa, bounded N. by
Borku and Enndi, S. by the Ubangi sultanates, W. and S.W. by
Kanem and Bagirmi, and E. by Darfur. Formerly an independent
Mahommedan sultanate, it was in 1909 annexed to French
Equatorial Africa (French Congo). Wadai has an area estimated
at 150,000 sq. m., and a population of 3,000,000 to 4,000,000.
The general level of the country is about isooft. North, north-east,
south-west and in the centre are ranges of hills rising another 1000 ft.
West and north-west the fall to the Sahara is gradual. Here occur
remarkable sand-ridges of fantastic shape^ hollow mounds, pyra-
mids, crosses, &c. which are characteristic of the Libyan desert.
There are also sandstone rocks of varying colours red, blue, white,
black, &c. presenting the aspect of ruined castles, ramparts and
churches. North-west is a wide district of dreary plain part of
the clay zone which stretches from the middle Niger to the Nile
covered with thorn bush and dum palms. The central and eastern
regions are the most fertile, and contain large forest areas. The
country belongs to the Chad drainage area, though it is possible
that the Bahr-el-Ghazal (of the Chad system) may afford a
connexion with the Nile (see SHARI). The streams which rise in
the north-eastern districts, of which the Batha (over 300 m. long) is
the largest, flow west, the Batha ending in a depression, some 200 m.
E. of Lake Chad, called Fittri. Another stream, the Wadi Rime,
with a more northerly course than the Batha, goes in the direction
of Chad, but ends in swamps in the clayey soil. These rivers are
intermittent, and after seasons of drought Fittri is completely dry.
In the dry season water is obtained from wells 250 to 300 ft. deep.
The rivers of Dar Runga flow westward towards the Shari, but, save
the Bahr Salamat, none reaches it. They only contain water in the
rainy season. About loo m. above the' Salamat-Shari confluence
is Lake Iro, joined to the Salamat by a short channel. In the forests
xxvm. 8
are large herds of elephants, and hippopotami abound along the
river-beds. In the north are the camel and the ostrich. Among
the trees is a species of wild coffee which reaches 50 to 60 ft. and
yields berries of excellent quality. The cotton plant is indigenous.
Inhabitants and Trade. The inhabitants consist of negroid
and negro tribes, Arabs, Fula, Tibbu and half-castes. The Maba,
the dominant race, are said to be of Nubian origin; they are
believed not to number more than 750,000, and live chiefly in
the north-eastern district. They are in political alliance with the
Arab tribes, known in Wadai as Zoruk (dark) and Homr (red).
The Maba have a reputation for pride, valour, cruelty, drunken-
ness and barbaric splendour.
The capital, Abeshr, is in the N.E., in about 21 E., 13 50' N.
Thence a caravan route crosses the Sahara via the Kufra oases
to Benghazi in Barca. Another trade route goes east through
Darfur to Khartum. The people possess large numbers of horses,
cattle, sheep and goats. Maize, durra, cotton and indigo are
cultivated, and cloth is woven. Ivory and ostrich feathers, the
chief articles of export, are taken to Tripoli by the desert route,
together with small quantities of coffee and other produce.
There is a trade in cattle, horses and coffee with the countries
to the south. Until the French conquest Wadai was a great
centre of the slave trade. Slaves were obtained by raiding and
in the form of tribute from Bagirmi, Kanem and other countries
once dependent on Wadai. The slaves were sent chiefly to
Barca. ' Wadai was also notorious for its traffic in eunuchs.
History. Situated between the Sahara and the dense forest
lands of equatorial Africa, Wadai early became a meeting ground
of negro and Arab culture. Eastern influences and the Mahom-
medan religion ultimately obtained predominance, though the
sovereignty of the country reverted to the negro race. It was
sometimes tributary to and sometimes the overlord of the neigh-
bouring countries, such as Bagirmi and Kanem. It was made
known to Europe by the writings of the Arab geographers,
but it was not until Nachtigal's visit in 1873 that accurate
knowledge of the land and people was obtained. About 1640 a
Maba chieftain named Abd-el-Kerim conquered the country,
driving out the Tunjur, a dynasty of Arabian origin. Thereafter
Wadai, notorious as a great slave-raiding state, suffered from
many civil and foreign wars. Mahommed Sherif, sultan from
1838 to 1858, introduced Senussiism into the country.
In the last decade of the igth century the French advancing
from the Congo and from the Niger made their influence felt in
Wadai, and by the Anglo-French declaration of the 2ist of
March 1899 Wadai was recognized as within the French sphere.
That state was then torn by civil wars. The Sultan Ibrahim
(see SENUSSI) was murdered in 1900, and Ahmed Ghazili became
sultan. He was warned by the Sheikh Senussi el Mahdi of the
danger arising from the approach of the Christians (i.e. the
French), but he had to meet the opposition of the princes
Doud Murra (a brother of Ibrahim) and Acyl. Ahmed Ghazili
and Doud Murra, though of the royal family, had non-Maba
mothers; Acyl, a grandson of the Sultan Mahommed Sherif,
was of pure Maba descent. Acyl, ordered to be blinded by
Ahmed Ghazili, fled to Kelkel6, west of Lake Fittri, and entered
into friendly relations with the French. A few months later
(Dec. 1901) Ahmed was dethroned. With Doud Murra, who then
became sultan, the French endeavoured to come to an under-
standing, and in November 1003 the Wadaians agreed to recog-
nize the possession of Bagirmi, Kanem, &c., by France. How-
ever, in the spring of 1904, acting, it is believed, at the instigation
of the Senussites, the Wadaians attacked French posts in the
Shari region and carried off many slaves. At Tomba (i3th of
May 1904) they suffered a severe defeat, but they renewed their
raids, and there was continual fighting on the west and south-
west borders of Wadai during 1905-1907. The fighting resulted
in strengthening the position of the French and of their ally Acyl,
and in 1908 Doud Murra, again, it is stated, at the instigation of
the Senussites, proclaimed the jihad. His army was split up
under aguids (feudal lords), and was beaten in detail by the
French. At Joue in the Batha valley (June 16, 1008) Comman-
dant Julien inflicted enormous losses on the enemy. In May
226
WADDING WADE, B. F.
1909 Captain Fiegenschuh, with a small force of tirailleurs,
and Acyl's contingents, advanced up the Batha to a place
within 15 m. of Abeshr, where, on the ist of June, the enemy
were defeated. The next day another fight took place close to
Abeshr. The Wadaians were again put to flight and the town
bombarded with cannon. Doud Murra with a small following
fled north, and Abeshr was occupied by the French. The
prince Acyl was subsequently placed on the throne, and, under
French guidance, governed Wadai proper, Dar Sila, Dar Runga
and other tributary states being directly governed by French
residents.
The war was not, however, ended by the occupation of
Abeshr. Captain Fiegenschuh's column, operating south-east
of Abeshr, was cut off by the Massalit Arabs near the Darfur
frontier, but a punitive force retrieved this disaster in April
following. While these operations were in progress, Lieut. Boyd
Alexander (b. 1873), who had previously crossed from the Niger
to the Nile, the first British explorer to enter Wadai, passed
through Abeshr on his way to Darfur. At the station of Nyeri,
in Dar Tama, on the Darfur border, he was murdered on the
and of April 1910.
In November ic,io a French column, 300 strong, under
Colonel Moll, while operating in the Massalit country was at-
tacked by 5000 men under Doud Murra and the sultan of the
Massalit. The enemy was beaten off, but the French had over
too casualties, including Colonel Moll killed.
See G. Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan (3 vols., Berlin, 1879-1889);
Captain Julien, " Le Dar Ouadai," Renseign. colon, comite.de I'Afrique
fran^aise (1904); J. van Vollenhoven, " Le Voyage de Nachtigal au
Ouadai," Renseign. colon. (1903) ; Captain Repoux, " Le Ouadai,"
B.S.G. Com. Bordeaux (1909) ; Commandant Bordeaux, " Deux
Contre-rezzous dans 1'Ouaddai," La Geog. B.S.G. Paris (1908); A.
Ferrier, " La Prise d'Abecher," L'Afrique francaise (1909); A. H.
Keane. "Wadai," Travel and Exploration (July 1910); Sir H. H.
Johnston, " Lieutenant Boyd Alexander," Geog. Jour. (July 1910) ;
The Times, July 2ist, 1910 (details of Boyd Alexander's murder).
See also SENUSSI.
WADDING, LUKE (1588-1657), Irish Franciscan friar and
historian, was born in Waterford in 1588 and went to study at
Lisbon. He became a Franciscan in 1607, and in 1617 he was
made president of the Irish College at Salamanca. The next year
he went to Rome and stayed there till his death. He collected
the funds for the establishment of the Irish College of St Isidore
in Rome, for the education of Irish priests, opened 1625, and for
fifteen years he was the rector. A voluminous writer, his chief
work was the Annales Minorum in 8 folic vols. (1625-1654), re-
edited in the i8th century and continued up to the year 1622;
it is the classical work on Franciscan history. He published also
a Bibliotheca of Franciscan writers, an edition of the works of
Duns Scotus, and the first collection of the writings of St Francis
of Assisi. (E. C. B.)
WADDINGTON, WILLIAM HENRY (1826-1894), French
statesman, was born at St Remi-sur-FAvre (Eure-et-Loir) on
the nth of December 1826. He was the son of a wealthy
Englishman who had established a large spinning factory in
France and had been naturalized as a French subject. After
receiving his early education in Paris, he was sent to Rugby,
and thence proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
was second classic and chancellor's medallist, and rowed for the
university in the winning boat against Oxford. Returning to
France, he devoted himself for some years to archaeological
research. He undertook travels in Asia Minor, Greece and Syria,
the fruits of which were published in two Memoires, crowned by
the Institute, and in his Melanges de numismatique et de philologie
(1861). Except his essay on " The Protestant Church in France,"
oublished in 1856 in Cambridge Essays, his remaining works are
likewise archaeological. They include the Pastes de I' empire
remain, and editions of Diocletian's edict and of Philippe Lebas's
Voyage archtologique (1868-1877). He was elected in 1865 a
member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.
After standing unsuccessfully for the department of the Aisne
in 1865 and 1869, Waddington was returned by that constituency
at the election of 1871. He was minister of public instruction
in the short-lived cabinet of the igth of May 1873, and in 1876,
having been elected senator for the Aisne, he was again entrusted
by Dufaure with the ministry of public instruction, with which,
as a Protestant, he was not permitted to combine the ministry
of public worship. His most important project, a bill transferring
the conferment of degrees to the state, passed the Chamber, but
was thrown out by the Senate. He continued to hold his office
under Jules Simon, with whom he was overthrown on the famous
seize mai 1877. The triumph of the republicans at the general
election brought him back to power in the following December
as minister of foreign affairs under Dufaure. He was one of the
French plenipotentiaries at the Berlin Congress. The cession of
Cyprus to Great Britain was at first denounced by the French
newspapers as a great blow to his diplomacy, but he obtained,
in a conversation with Lord Salisbury, a promise that Great
Britain in return would allow France a free hand in Tunis.
Early in 1879 Waddington succeeded Dufaure as prime
minister. Holding office by sufferance of Gambetta, he halted
in an undetermined attitude between the radicals and the re-
actionaries till the delay of urgent reforms lost him the support
of all parties. He was forced on the 27th of December to retire
from office. He refused the offer of the London embassy, and
in 1880 was reporter of the committee on the adoption of
the scrutin de lisle at elections, on which he delivered an
adverse judgment. In 1883 he accepted the London embassy,
which he continued to hold till 1893, showing an exceptional
tenacity in defence of his country's interests. He died on
the I3th of January 1894. His wife, an American lady, whose
maiden name was Mary A. King, wrote some interesting recol-
lections of their diplomatic experiences Letters of a Diplomatist's
Wife, 1883-1900 (New York, 1903), and Italian Letters (London,
WADE, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1800-1878), American states-
man, was born near Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 27th of
October 1800, of Puritan ancestry. He was reared on a farm,
receiving little systematic education, and in 1821 he removed
with his family to Andover, in the Western Reserve of Ohio.
Here he spent two more years on a farm, and then, securing
employment as a drover, worked his way to Philadelphia and
finally to Albany, New York, where for two years he taught
school, studied medicine, and was a labourer on the Erie Canal.
Returning to Ohio in 1825, he studied law at Canfield, was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1827, and began practice at Jefferson,
Ashtabula county, where from 1831 to 1837 he was a law partner
of Joshua R. Giddings, the anti-slavery leader. During 1837-
1839 and 1841-1843 he was a Whig member of the Ohio State
Senate. From 1847 until 1851 he was a state district judge, and
from 1851 until 1869 was a member of the United States Senate,
first as an anti-slavery Whig and later as a Republican. In the
Senate Wade was from the first an uncompromising opponent
of slavery, his bitter denunciations of that institution and of the
slaveholders receiving added force from his rugged honesty and
sincerity. His blunt, direct style of oratory and his somewhat
rough manners were characteristic. After the outbreak of the
Civil War he was one of the most vigorous critics of the
Lincoln administration, whose Ohio member, Salmon P. Chase.
had long been a political rival. He advocated the immediate
emancipation and arming of the slaves, the execution of
prominent Southern leaders, and the wholesale confiscation of
Confederate property. During 1861-1862 he was chairman of
the important joint-committee on the conduct cf the war, and
in 1862, as chairman of the Senate Committee on Territories,
was instrumental in abolishing slavery in the Federal Territories.
In 1864, with H. W. Davis (q.v.), he secured the passage of the
Wade-Davis Bill (for the reconstruction of the Southern States),
the fundamental principle of which was that reconstruction was a
legislative, not an executive, problem. This bill was passed by
both houses of Congress, just before their adjournment, but
President Lincoln withheld his signature, and on the 8th of July
issued a proclamation explaining his course and defining his
position. Soon afterward (Aug. 5) Wade and Davis published
hi the New York Tribune the famous " Wade-Davis Manifesto,"
a vituperative document impugning the President's honesty of
WADE, G. WADE, SIR T. F.
227
purpose and attacking his leadership. As long as President
Johnson promised severe treatment of the conquered South,
\Vucle supported him, but when the President definitively
adopted the more lenient policy of his predecessor, Wade became
one of his most bitter and uncompromising opponents. In 1867
he was elected president pro tern, of the Senate, thus becoming
acting vice-president. He voted for Johnson's conviction on his
trial for impeachment, and for this was severely criticized, since,
in the event of conviction, he would have become president;
but Wade's whole course before and after the trial would seem
to belie the charge that he was actuated by any such motive.
After leaving the Senate he resumed his law practice, becoming
attorney for the Northern Pacific railway, and in 1871 he was a
member of President Grant's Santo Domingo Commission. He
died at Jefferson, Ohio, on the 2nd of March 1878. His son,
JAMES FRANKLIN WADE (b. 1843), was colonel of the 6th United
States (coloured) cavalry during the Civil War, and attained the
rank of major-general in the regular army in 1903, commanding
the army in the Philippines in 1903-1904
See A. G. Riddle, Life of Benjamin F. Wode (Cleveland, Ohio, 1886).
WADE, GEORGE (1673-1748), British field marshal, was the
son of Jerome Wade of Kilavally, Westmeath, and entered the
British army in 1690. He was present at Steiniirk in 1692, and
in 1695 he became captain. In 1702 he served in Marlborough's
army, earning particular distinction at the assault on the citadel
of Liege, and in 1 703 he became successively major and lieutenant-
colonel in his regiment (later the loth Foot). In 1704, with the
temporary rank of colonel, he served on Lord Galway's staff
in Portugal. Wade distinguished himself at the siege of
Alcantara in 1706, in a rearguard action at Villa Nova in the
same autumn (in which, according to Galway, his two battalions
repulsed twenty-two allied squadrons), and at the disastrous
battle of Almanza on the 25th of April 1707. He had now risen
to the command of a brigade, and on the following ist of January
(1707/8) he was promoted brigadier-general in the British army.
His next service was as second in command to James (ist earl)
Stanhope in the expedition to Minorca in 1708. In 1710 he was
again with the main Anglo-allied army in Spain, and took part
in the great battle of Saragossa on the 2oth of August, after
which he was promoted major-general and given a command at
home. The Jacobite outbreak of 1715 brought him into promin-
ence in the new role of military governor. He twice detected
important Jacobite conspiracies, and on the second occasion
procured the arrest of the Swedish ambassador in London,
Count Gyllenborg. In 1719 he was second in command of the
land forces in the successful " conjunct " military and naval
expedition to Vigo. In 1724 he was sent to the Highlands to
make a thorough investigation of the country and its people,
and two years later, having meantime been appointed com-
mander-in-chief to give effect to his own recommendations, he
began the system of metalled roads which is his chief title to
fame, and is commemorated in the lines
" Had you seen these roads before they were made.
You would lift up your hands and bless General Wade."
In the course of this engineering work Wade superintended the
construction of no less than 40 stone bridges. At the same
time, slowly and with the tact that came of long experience, he
disarmed the clans. In 1742 he was made a privy councillor and
lieutenant-general of the ordnance, and in 1743 field marshal.
In this year he commanded the British contingent in Flanders,
and was associated in the supreme command with the duke
d'Aremberg, the leader of the Austrian contingent. The cam-
paign, as was to be expected when the enemy was of one nation,
superior in numbers and led by Saxe, was a failure, and Wade,
who was seventy years of age and in bad health, resigned the
command in March 1744. George II. promptly made him
commander-in-chief in England, and in that capacity Field
Marshal Wade had to deal with the Jacobite insurrection of
1745, >n which he was utterly baffled by the perplexing rapidity
of Prince Charles Edward's marches. On the appointment of the
duke of Cumberland as commander-in-chief of the forces, Wade
retired. He died on the I4th Df March 1748.
WADE, THOMAS (1805-1875), English poet and dramatist,
was born at Woodbridge, Suffolk, in 1805. He early went to
London, where he began to publish verse of considerable merit
under the inspiration of Byron, Keats and especially Shelley.
He wrote some plays that were produced on the London stage
with a certain measure of success, owing more perhaps to the
acting of Charles and Fanny Kemble than to the merits of the
dramatist. Wade frequently contributed verses to the maga-
zines, and for some years he was editor as well as part-pro-
prietor of Bell's Weekly Messenger. This venture proving
financially unsuccessful, he retired to Jersey, where he edited
the British Press, continuing to publish poetry from time to
time until 1871. He died in Jersey on the igth of September
1875. His wife was Lucy Eager, a musician of some repute.
The most notable of Wade's publications were: Tasso and the
Sisters (1825), a volume of poems, among which " The Nuptials of
Juno " in particular showed rare gifts of imagination, though like
all Wade's work deficient in sense of melody and feeling for artistic
form; Woman's Love (1828), a play produced at Covent Garden;
The Phrenologists, a farce produced at Covent Garden in 1830; The
Jew of Arragon, a play that was " howled from the stage " at Covent
Garden in 1830 owing to its exaltation of the Jew; Mimdi el cordis
carmina (1835), a volume of poems, many of which had previously
appeared in the Monthly Repository; The Contention of Death and
Love, Helena and The Shadow Seeker these three being published
in the form of pamphlets in 1837; Prothanasia and other Poems
(1839). Wade also wrote a drama entitled King Henry II., and a
translation of Dante's " Inferno " in the metre of the original, both
of which remain in manuscript ; and a series of sonnets inspired by
his wife, some of which have been published.
See Alfred H. Mills, The Poets and Poetry o) the Century, vol. iii.
(10 vols., London, 1891-1897); Literary Anecdotes of the iftth
Century, edited by Sir W. Robertson Nicoll and T. J. Wise (2 vols.,
London, 1895-1896), containing a number of Wade's sonnets, a
specimen of his Dante translation and a reprint of two of his verse
pamphlets.
WADE, SIR THOMAS FRANCIS (1818-1895), British diplo-
matist, born in London on the 25th of August 1818, was the son
of Major Wade of the Black Watch, by his wife Anne, daughter
of William Smythe of Barbavilla, Westmeath. In 1838 his
father purchased for him a commission in the 8ist Regiment.
Exchanging (1839) into the 42nd Highlanders, he served with
his regiment in the Ionian Islands, devoting his leisure to the
congenial study of Italian and modern Greek. On receiving his
commission as lieutenant in 1841 he exchanged into the 98th
Regiment, then under orders for China, and landed in Hong-Kong
in June 1842. The scene of the war had at that time been trans-
ferred to the Yangtze-kiang, and thither Wade was ordered with
his regiment. There he took part in the attack on Chin-kiang-fu
and in the advance on Nanking. In 1845 he was appointed
interpreter in Cantonese to the Supreme Court of Hong-Kong,
and in 1846 assistant Chinese secretary to the superintendent of
trade, Sir John Davis. In 1852 he was appointed vice-consul
at Shanghai. The Tai-ping rebellion had so disorganized the
administration in the neighbourhood of Shanghai that it was
considered advisable to put the collection of the foreign customs
duties into commission, a committee of three, of whom Wade
was the chief, being entrusted with the administration of the
customs. This formed the beginning of the imperial maritime
customs service. In 1855 Wade was appointed Chinese secretary
to Sir John Bowring, who had succeeded Sir J. Davis at Hong-
Kong. On the declaration of the second Chinese War in 1857,
he was attached to Lord Elgin's staff as Chinese secretary,
and with the assistance of H. N. Ley he conducted the negotia-
tions which led up to the treaty of Tientsin (1858). In the
following year he accompanied Sir Frederick Bruce in his attempt
to exchange the ratification of the treaty, and was present at
Taku when the force attending the mission was treacherously
attacked and driven back from the Peiho. On Lord Elgin's
return to China in 1860 he resumed his former post of Chinese
secretary, and was mainly instrumental in arranging for the
advance of the special envoys and the British and French forces
to Tientsin, and subsequently towards Peking. For the purpose
of arranging for a camping ground in the neighbourhood of
Tungchow he accompanied Mr (afterwards Sir) Harry Parkes on
his first visit to that city, where on the next day Parkes with
228
WADE, SIR W. WAFER
Mr Loch and others was by an act of shameless treachery made
prisoner. In the succeeding negotiations Wade took a leading
part, and on the establishment of the legation at Peking he took
up the post of Chinese secretary of legation. In 1862 he was
made a Companion of the Bath. On the return of Sir Frederick
Bruce to England in 1864 he remained as charge d'affaires, and
again from 1869 to 1871, when he was appointed minister, he
filled the acting post. The Tientsin massacre in 1870 entailed
long and difficult negotiations, which were admirably conducted
by Wade. On the assumption of power by the emperor T'ung-
chih he, in common with his colleagues, requested an audience
in accordance with the treaties, which was for the first time
granted as a right. The murder of A. R. Margary near Man-
wyne in Yunnan in 1875 threatened at one time to cause a rupture
with the Chinese government, and as a matter of fact Wade did
leave Peking. But the Chinese, finding that he was in earnest,
despatched Li Hung-Chang after him to Chefoo, where the two
diplomatists arranged the penalties which were to be paid for
the crime, and concluded a convention which, after a considerable
interval, was ratified by the governments. Wade was then made
K.C.B., and in 1883 retired from the service. On his return to
England the attractions of his old university induced him to
take up his residence at Cambridge, where he was appointed the
first professor cf Chinese. He died there on the 3ist of July 1895.
In 1889 he was made G.C.M.G. In 1868 he had married Amelia,
daughter of Sir John Herschel. (R. K. D.)
WADE (or WAAD), SIR WILLIAM (1546-1623), English states-
man and diplomatist, was the eldest son of Armagil Wade
(d. 1568), the traveller, who sailed with a party of adventurers for
North America in 1536, and later became (1547) one of the clerks
of the privy council in London and a member of parliament.
William Wade obtained his entrance into official life by serving
William Cecil, Lord Burghley, sending information to this
statesman from Paris and from Italy. He also passed some
time in Strassburg; then in 1581 he became secretary to Sir
Francis Walsingham and in 1583 a clerk of the privy council.
He visited Vienna, Copenhagen and Madrid on public business,
and in 1585 he went to Paris, being waylaid and maltreated on
his return near Amiens by influential personages who disliked
the object of his mission. In 1 586 he went to Chartley and took
possession of Mary Stuart's papers, and in 1587 was again in
France. During the remainder of Elizabeth's reign Wade was
much occupied in searching for Jesuits and in discovering plots
against the life of the queen. James I., who knighted him in
1603, employed him in similar ways, and he was fully occupied in
unravelling the plots which marked the early years of the new
reign. For some time Wade was a member of parliament. He
retired from public life in 1613, and died on the 2ist of October
1623. Sir William was a shareholder in the Virginia company,
and the Wades of Virginia claim descent from his father.
WADEBRID6E, a market town and seaport in the St Austell
parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the Great
Western and London & South- Western railways, 38 m. W.N.W.
of Plymouth. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2186. It is pic-
turesquely situated at the head of the estuary of the river
Camel, 7 m. from its mouth in Padstow Bay on the north coast.
A stone bridge, consisting of seventeen arches, was built in 1485
over the river, and made a county bridge under James I. The
parish church of Egloshayle, nearly 2 m. from the town, is in the
main Perpendicular, with a beautiful tower; but part of the
fabric is Early English. The neighbouring church of St Breock
is Decorated and Perpendicular, with a fine font of the earlier
period. An ancient round-headed cross stands near the town.
There is considerable agricultural trade, and iron founding is
carried on; while in the neighbourhood some copper, lead,
granite and slate are worked and exported in small vessels;
coal, timber and general merchandise being imported.
WADELAI, a station on the east bank of the Upper Nile in the
British protectorate of Uganda, in 2 50' N., 31 35' E., 200 m.
in a direct line N.N.W. of Entebbe on Victoria Nyanza, and 72 m.
by river below Butiaba on Albert Nyanza. The government
station was built on a hill 160 to 200 ft. above the Nile at a spot
where the river narrows to 482 ft. and attains a depth of 30 ft.
At this place was a gauge for measuring the discharge of the river.
Wadelai was first visited by a European, Lieut. H. Chippendall,
in 1875, an d was named after a chieftain who, when visited by
Gessi Pasha (on the occasion of that officer's circumnavigation
of Albert Nyanza), ruled the surrounding district as a vassal of
Kabarega, king of Unyoro. The region was annexed to the
Egyptian Sudan and Wadelai's village chosen as a government
post. This post was on the western bank of the Nile, ij m.
below the existing station. Here for some time Emin Pasha had
his headquarters, evacuating the place in December 1888.
Thereafter, for some years, the district was held by the Mahdists.
In 1894 the British flag was hoisted at Wadelai, on both banks
of the Nile, by Major E. R. Owen. Some twelve years later
the government post was withdrawn. There is a native village
at the foot of the hill.
WADHWAN, a town of India, in Kathiawar, Bombay, the
capital of a petty state of the same name, and the junction of
the Kathiawar railway system with the Bombay and Baroda
line, 389 m. N. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 16,223. It has con-
siderable trade and manufactures. There is a school for girasias
or subordinate chiefs. The civil station, under British ad-
ministration, had a population in 1901 of 11,255. The state
of Wadhwan has an area of 236 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 34,851;
revenue, 25,000. Cotton trade and stone-quarrying are im-
portant, and there are manufactures of soap and saddlery.
WADI, also written wady, in some dialects wad; Arabic for a
" valley," hence a stream or river flowing through a valley, as
well as the valley itself. It is a common term in place names.
WADI HAIFA, or HALFA, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, in 21 55' N., 31 19' E., on the right bank of the Nile,
5 m. S. of the northern frontier of the Sudan. It is the chief town
of the Haifa mudiria, is 770 m. S. of Cairo by rail and steamer,
and 575 m. N.N.W. of Khartum by rail. Some 6 m. above the
town is the second cataract, and on the west bank of the Nile
opposite Haifa are the ruins of the ancient Egyptian city of
Buhen (Bohon). Haifa is the northern terminus of the Sudan
railway and the southern terminus of a steamboat service on
the Nile, which, running to Shellal (Assuan), connects there with
the Egyptian railways.
Wadi Haifa is a general designation including the native village
of that name, the camp, founded by the British in 1884 as their
base in the operations for the relief of General Gordon, and the
civil cantonment established at the same time. This cantonment
occupies the site of a Nubian village, and round it has grown a
thriving town, at first named Taufikia, but now called Haifa.
It has a population (1907) of about 3000. The camp is i\ m. S.
of Haifa. Here are the barracks, officers' quarters, railway
works, and an esplanade along the river front. The village of
Wadi Haifa is 3 m. S. of the camp.
WAD MEDANI, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, capital
of the Blue Nile mudiria, in 14 24' N., 33 31' E., on the left
bank of the Blue Nile, no m. by rail and 147 m. by river, S.E.
of Khartum. Pop. about 20,000. It is the chief depot for grain
raised in the Gezira, has oil and soap works, and is a thriving
commercial centre, being on the main trade route between
Khartum and Abyssinia. The town, which is of considerable
antiquity, contains some fine buildings, the chief mosque having
a conspicuous tower. Wad Medani was almost destroyed during
the Mahdia, but its return to prosperity under Anglo-Egyptian
rule was rapid. In 1909 it was connected by railway with
Khartum, and thus the hindrance to trade through the Blue Nile
being scarcely navigable between January and June was over-
come. In 1910 railway communication between the town and
Kordofan was established. (See SUDAN, Anglo-Egyptian.)
WAFER, a thin flat cake or sheet of paste, usually circular in
shape. The derivation of the word, which is the same as
" waffle," a batter-cake cooked in waffle-irons and served hot,
is given under " Goffer," which is adapted from the French form
of the Teutonic original. As articles of stationery, wafers consist
of thin brittle, adhesive disks, used for securing papers together,
and for forming a basis for impressed official seals. They are
WAGER WAGES
229
made of a thin paste of very fine flour, baked between " wafer
irons " over a charcoal fire till the thin stratum of paste becomes
dry and brittle and the flour starch is partly transformed into
glutinous adhesive dextrin. The cake is cut into round disks
with suitable steel punches. Bright non-poisonous colouring
matter is added to the paste for making coloured wafers. They
are also made of gelatin. Wafers of dry paste are used in medical
practice to enclose powders or other forms of drugs, thus rendering
them easy to swallow.
In ecclesiastical usage the term " wafer " is applied to the thin
circular disk of unleavened bread, stamped with a cross, the
letters I.H.S. or the Agnus Dei, which is the form of the conse-
crated bread as used in the service of the Eucharist by the Roman
Catholic Church.
WAGER (derived, through Fr. wagier, gagier, from Lat.
indium, a pledge), a bet orstake. Wagers in theordinary sense
of the term are dealt with under the headings GAMING and
BETTING; but the method of wagering in principle the putting
of a decision to the hazard has had extended employment in
various cases which may be noticed here. The determination of
cases, civil and criminal, by means of wager or analogous forms
of procedure, was a characteristic feature of ancient law. The
legis aclio sacramenli at Rome at first a real, then a fictitious,
wager and the wagers " of battle " and " of law " in England,
of the highest antiquity in their origin, survived up to a com-
paratively late period in the history of both legal systems. The
form of the wager survived long after its reason had been for-
gotten. The general prevalence of the wager form of proceeding
is perhaps to be attributed to the early conception of a judge as
a mere referee who decided the dispute submitted to him, not as
an executive officer of the state, but as an arbitrator casually
called in (see Maine, Ancient Law, c. x.).
" Wager of battle " in England was a mode of trial allowed in
certain cases, viz. on a civil writ of right for recovery of land
(see WRIT), and on criminal appeals of treason and felony (see
APPEAL). Trial by battle, or single combat, was a common
Teutonic custom in days when criminal " appeal " was really a
prosecution by a private individual; and it remained in vogue
on the continent of Europe (where hired champions were allowed)
to a much greater extent than in England, where after the Con-
quest it was to some extent substituted for trial by ordeal (<?..).
It was an institution suited to the days of chivalry, and may be
regarded as the parent of the duel (?.'.). In England the " ap-
pellant " first formulated his charge, which was proclaimed at
five successive county courts. If the " appellee " did not appear
he was outlawed; if he did he could plead various exemptions;
and unless the court upheld them he was obliged to offer battle
by throwing down his glove as gage. When an ordinary court
ordered the battle, it was fought on foot with staves and leather
shields; but when a court of chivalry 1 ordered it, on horse with
spear and sword. If defeated, the appellee was liable to sentence
of death by hanging, and an undecided fight still left him liable,
though acquitted on the appeal, to trial by indictment; if the
appellant yielded, the appellee was free. The right of " wager of
battle " was claimed as late as 1818 by a man named Thornton,
who had been acquitted at assizes of a charge of murdering a girl
named Ashford ; her brother brought an " appeal," and the
judges upheld Thornton's claim, but the appellant then with-
drew. Next year appeals for felony or treason were abolished by
statute. 1
" Wager of law " (vadialio legis) was a right of a defendant in
actions of simple contract, debt and detinue. It superseded the
ordeal (itself called lex in the Assize of Clarendon and other
\The medieval court of chivalry had both civil and criminal
jurisdiction, and was held jointly by the lord high constable and the
earl marshal. The lest sitting of a court of chivalry for criminal
business in England was in 1631 ; and as a civil court (for cases of
honour and questions of precedence) it gradually decayed through
want of power to enforce its decisions. There is an interesting
account of the rules of battle ordered by a court of chivalry in
Ashmolean MSS. 856 of the Bodleian Library (transcribed in Illus-
trations of Ancient State and Chivalry, Roxburghe Club, 1840).
1 See G. Neilson, Trial by Combat (Glasgow, 1891).
ancient constitutional records). The procedure in a wager of
law is traced by Blackstone to the Mosaic law, Ex. xxii. 10;
but it seems historically to have been derived from the system
of compurgation, introduced into England from Normandy, a
system which is new thought to have had an appreciable effect
on the development of the English jury (q.v.). It also has some
points of resemblance, perhaps some historical connexion, with
the sponsio and the decisory oath of Roman law, and the reference
to oath of Scots law (see OATH). The use of the oath instead of
the real or feigned combat real in English law, feigned in Roman
law no doubt represents an advance in legal development.
The technical term sacramentum is the bond of union between
the two stages of law. In the wager of law the defendant, with
eleven compurgators, appeared in court, and the defendant
swore that he did not owe the debt, or (in detinue) that he did
not detain the plaintiff's chattel; while the compurgators swore
that they believed that he spoke the truth. It was an eminently
unsatisfactory way of arriving at the merits of a claim, and it is
therefore not surprising to find that the policy of the law was in
favour of its restriction rather than of its extension. Thus it
was not permitted where the defendant was not a person of good
character, where the king sued, where the defendant was the
executor or administrator of the person alleged to have owed
the debt, or in any form of action other than those named,
even though the cause of action were the same. No wager of
law was allowed in assumpsit, even though the cause of action
were a simple debt. This led to the general adoption of assumpsit
proceeding originally upon a fictitious averment of a promise
by the defendant as a means of recovering debts. Where a
penalty was created by statute, it became a common form to
insert a proviso that no wager of law was to be allowed in an
action for the penalty. Wager of law was finally abolished in
1833 (3 & 4 William IV. c. 42).
Another form of judicial wager in use up to 1845 was the feigned
issue, by which questions arising in the course of chancery pro-
ceedings were sent for trial by jury in a common law court. The
plaintiff averred the laying of a wager of 5 with the defendant
that a certain event was as he alleged ; the defendant admitted
the wager, but disputed the allegation ; on this issue was
joined. This procedure was abolished by s. 19 of the Gaming
Act 1845. (W.F.C.)
WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a
pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier). Wages, although one of the most
common and familiar terms in economic science, is at the same
time one of the most difficult to define accurately. The natural
definition is that wages is the " reward for labour," but then
we are at once confronted with the difficulty so well stated by
Adam Smith: " The greater part of people understand better
what is meant by a quantity of a particular commodity than by
a quantity of labour; the one is a plain palpable object, the other
an abstract notion, which, though it can be made sufficiently
intelligible, is not altogether so natural and obvious." If we
regard wages as the reward for a quantity of labour, it is clear
that to make the meaning precise we must give a precise meaning
to this abstract notion of Adam Smith. From the point of view
of the labourer the quantity of labour refers not so much to the
work accomplished (e.g. raising so many foot-pounds) as to " all
the feelings of a disagreeable kind, all the bodily inconvenience
or mental annoyance, connected with the employment of one's
thoughts or muscles or both in a particular occupation " (J. S.
Mill). But this analysis seems only to make the task of definition
more difficult, for the class of labourers, in this wide sense of
the term labour, would include the capitalist who racks his
brains in making plans just as much as the navvy who digs with
the sweat of his brow. Thus " profits," in the ordinary sense of
the term, instead of being contrasted, would to a large extent
be classified with wages, and in fact the wages of superintendence
or of management is one of the recognized elements in the classical
analysis of profits. It is only when we refer to the list of " occu-
pations " in any civilized country that we can really form an
adequate idea of the variety of classes to which the term labour,
as defined by Mill, may be extended.
230
WAGES
It may be granted that in certain economic inquiries it is
extremely useful to bring out the points of resemblance between
" workers " at the various stages of the social scale, and it is
especially serviceable in showing that the opposition between
" employer " and the " employed," and the " classes " and the
" masses," is often exaggerated. At the same time the differ-
ences, if not in kind at any rate in degree, are so great that if the
analogy is carried very far it becomes misleading. Accordingly it
seems natural to adopt as the preliminary definition of " wages "
something equivalent to that of Francis Walker in his standard
work on the Wages Question, viz. " the reward of those who
are employed in production with a view to the profit of their
employers and are paid at stipulated rates."
It may be observed that by extending the meaning of pro-
duction, as is now done by most economists, to include all kinds
of labour, and by substituting benefit for profit, this definition
will include all grades of wages.
Having thus limited the class of those who earn " wages," the
next point is to consider the way in which the wages ought to be
measured. The most obvious method is to take as the
Nominal rate o f time-wages the amount of money earned in a
"wages? certain time, and as the rate of task-wages the amount of
money obtained for a given amount of work of a given
quality: and in many inquiries this rough mode of measurement
is sufficient. But the introduction of money as the measure at
once makes it necessary to assume that for purposes of comparison
the value of the money to tke wage-earners may be considered
constant. This supposition does not hold good even between
different places in the same country at the same time, and still
less with variations in time as well as place. To the labourers,
however, the amount of money they obtain is only a means to
an end, and accordingly economists have drawn a sharp dis-
tinction between nominal and real wages. " Labour, like com-
modities," says Adam Smith, " may be said to have a real and
a nominal price. Its real price may be said to consist in the
quantity of the necessaries and conveniences of life which are
given for it; its nominal price in the quantity of money. The
labourer is rich or poor, is well or ill rewarded, in proportion to
the real not to the nominal price of his labour."
Walker (op. cit. pp. 12 sqq.) has given a full analysis of the
principal elements which ought to be taken into account in
estimating the real wages of labour. They may be classi-
Variatioas ec j as f o U O ws. ( i ) Variations in the purchasing power
wages. f monev m &y be due in the first place to causes
affecting the general level of prices in a country.
Such, for instance, is a debasement of the coinage, of which a
good example is furnished in English history in the reigns of
Henry VIII. and Edward VI. Thorold Rogers has ascribed
much of the degradation of labour which ensued to this fact;
and Macaulay has given a graphic account of the evils suffered
by the labouring classes prior to the recoinage of 1696. The
issues of inconvertible paper notes in excess have frequently
caused a disturbance of real wages, and it is generally asserted
that in this case wages as a rule do not rise so quickly as com-
modities. A general rise in prices due to great discoveries of
the precious metals would, if nominal wages remained the same,
of course cause a fall in real wages. There are, however, good
grounds for supposing that the stimulus given to trade in this case
would raise wages at least in proportion; and certainly the great
gold discoveries in Australia and California raised wages in
England, as is shown in Tooke's History of Prices, vol. v. p. 284.
Similarly it is possible that a general fall in prices, owing to a
relative scarcity of the precious metals, may lower the prices of
commodities before it lowers the price of labour, in which case
there is a rise in real wages. In the controversy as to the possible
advantages of bimetallism this was one of the points most fre-
quently discussed. It is impossible to say a priori whether a rise
or fall in general prices, or a change in the value of money, will
raise or lower real wages, since the result is effected principally
by indirect influences. But, apart from these general movements
in prices, we must, in order to find the real value of nominal
wages, consider variations in local prices, and in making this
estimate we must notice the principal items in the expenditure
of the labourers. Much attention has been given recently by
statisticians to this subject, with the view of finding a good
" index number " for real wages. (2) Varieties in the form of
payment require careful attention. Sometimes the payment is
only partly in money, especially in agriculture in some places.
In many parts of Scotland the labourers receive meal, peats,
potatoes, &c. (3) Opportunities for extra earnings are sometimes
of much importance, especially if we take as the wage-earning
unit the family and not the individual. At the end of the i8th
century Arthur Young, in his celebrated tours, often calls
attention to this fact. In Northumberland and other counties a
" hind " (i.e. agricultural labourer) is more valued if he has a large
working family, and the family earnings are relatively large.
(4) Regularity of employment is always, especially in modem
times, one of the most important points to be considered. Apart
from such obvious causes of fluctuation as the nature of the
employment, e.g. in the case of fishermen, guides, &c., there are
various social and industrial causes (for a particular and able
investigation of which the reader may consult Professor Foxwell's
essay on the subject). Under the system of production on a large
scale for foreign markets, with widely extended division of labour,
it seems impossible to adjust accurately the supply to the
demand, and there are in consequence constant fluctuations in
the employment of labour. A striking example, happily rare, is
furnished by the cotton famine during the American Civil War.
(5) In forming a scientific conception of real wages we ought to
take into account the longer or the shorter duration of the power
to labour: the man whose employment is healthy and who lives
more comfortably and longer at the same nominal rate of wages
may be held to obtain a higher real wage than his less fortunate
competitor. It is worth noting, in this respect, that in nearly
every special industry there is a liability to some specia. form of
disease: e.g. lace- workers often suffer from diseases of th,> eyes,
miners from diseases of the lungs, &c. Thus, in attempting to
estimate real wages, we have to consider all the various dis-
comforts involved in the " quantity of labour " as well as all the
conveniences which the nominal wages will purchase and all the
supplements in kind.
In a systematic treatment of the wages question it would
be natural to examine next the causes which determine the
general rate of wages in any country at any time.
This is a prob.lem to which economists have given
much attention, and is one of great complexity. It wages
is difficult, when we consider the immense variety i*>
of " occupations " in any civilized country and the
constant changes which are taking place, even to form
an adequate conception of the general rate of wages. There are
thousands of occupations of various kinds, and at first sight it
may seem impossible to determine, in a manner sufficiently
accurate for any useful purpose, an average or general rate of
wages, especially if we attempt to take real and not merely
nominal wages. At the same time, in estimating the progress of
the working-classes, or in comparing their relative positions in
different countries, it is necessary to use this conception of a
general rate of wages in a practical manner. The difficulties
presented are of the same kind as those met with in the deter-
mination of the value of money or the general level of prices,
and may be overcome to some extent by the same methods.
An " index number " may be formed by taking various kinds of
labour as fair samples, and the nominal wages thus obtained may
be corrected by a consideration of the elements in the real wages
to which they correspond. Care must be taken, however, that
the quantity and quality of labour taken at different times and
places are the same, just as in the case of commodities similar
precautions are necessary. Practically, for example, errors are
constantly made by taking the rate of wages for a short time
(say an hour), and then, without regard to regularity of employ-
ment, constructing the annual rate on this basis; and again,
insufficient attention is paid to Adam Smith's pithy caution that
" there may be more labour in an hour's hard work than in two
hours' easy business." But, however difficult it may be to obtain
WAGES
231
an accurate measure of the general rate of wages for practical
purposes, there can be no doubt as to the value and necessity
of the conception in economic theory. For, as soon as it is
assumed that industrial competition is the principal economic
force in the distribution of the wealth of a community and this
is in reality the fundamental assumption of modern economic
M ience, a distinction must be drawn between the most general
causes which affect all wages and the particular causes which
lead to differences of wages in different employments. In other
words, the actual rate of wages obtained in any particular occu-
pation depends partly on causes affecting that group compared
with others, and partly on the general conditions which determine
the relations between labour, capital and production over the
whole area in which the industrial competition is effective.
(See A. L. Bowley's Wages in the United Kingdom in the Nineteenth
Century (1900), 3, for an account of the meaning and use of the
average wage.)
Thus the theory of the wages question consists of two parts, or
gives the answers to two questions: (i) What are the
causes which determine the general rate of wages?
theory. (2) Why are wages in some occupations and at some
times and places above or below this general rate ?
With regard to the first question, Adam Smith, as in almost
every important economic theory, gives an answer which com-
bines two views which were subsequently differentiated into
antagonism. " The produce of labour constitutes the natural
recompense or wages of labour," is the opening sentence of his
chapter on wages. But then he goes on to say that " this original
state of things, in which the labourer enjoyed the whole produce
of his own labour, could not last beyond the first introduction
of the appropriation of land and the accumulation of stock."
And he thus arrives at the conclusion that " the demand for
those who live by wages, it is evident, cannot increase but in
proportion to the increase of the funds which are destined to the
payment of wages." This is the germ of the celebrated wages-
fund theory which was carried to an extreme by J. S. Mill and
others; and, although Mill abandoned the theory some time
before his death, he was unable to eradicate it from his systematic
treatise and to reduce it to its proper dimensions. It is im-
portant to observe that in the hands of Mill this theory was by no
means, as was afterwards maintained by Elliot Cairnes, a mere
statement of the problem to be solved. According to Cairnes
(Leading Principles of Political Economy, bk. ii.), the wages-fund
theory, as given in Mill's Principles (bk. ii. ch. xi. i), embraces
the following statements: (i) the wages-fund is a general term
used to express the aggregate of all wages at any given time in
possession of the labouring population; (2) the average wage
depends on the proportion of this fund to the number of people;
(3) the amount of the fund is determined by the amount of
general wealth applied to the direct purchase of labour. These
propositions Cairnes easily reduces to mere verbal statements,
and he then states that the real difficulty is to determine the
causes which govern the demand and supply of labour. But the
most superficial glance, as well as the most careful survey, will
convince the reader of Mill's chapters on wages that he regarded
the theory not as the statement but as the solution of the problem.
For he applies it directly to the explanation of movements in
wages, to the criticism of popular remedies for low wages, and
to the discovery of what he considers to be legitimate and possible
remedies. In fact, it was principally on account of the applica-
tion of the theory to concrete facts that it aroused so muqh
opposition, which would have been impossible if it had been a
mere statement of the problem.
The wages-fund theory as a real attempt to solve the wages
question may be resolved into three propositions, which are very
different from the verbal truisms of Cairnes. (i) In any country
at any time there is a determinate amount of capital uncon-
ditionally destined for the payment of labour. This is the wages-
fund. (2) There is also a determinate number of labourers who
must work independently of the rate of wages that is, whether
the rate is high or low. (3) The wages-fund is distributed
amongst the labourers solely by means of competition, masters
competing with one another for labour, and labourers with one
another for work, and thus the average rate of wages depends
on the proportion between wage-capital and population. It
follows then, according to this view, that wages can only rise
either owing to an increase of capital or a diminution of popu-
lation, and this accounts for the exaggerated importance attached
by Mill to the Malthusian theory of population. It also follows
from the theory that any restraint of competition in one direction
can only cause a rise of wages by a corresponding fall in another
quarter, and in this form it was the argument most frequently
urged against the action of trade unions. It is worth noting, as
showing the vital connexion of the theory with Mill's principles,
that it is practically the foundation of his propositions on capital
in his first book, and is also the basis of the exposition in his fourth
book of the effects of the progress of society on the condition of
the working-classes.
It has often been remarked that, in economics as in other
sciences, what eventually assumes the form of the development
of or supplement to an old theory at first appears as if in direct
antagonism to it, and there is reason to think that the criticism
of the wages-fund theory was carried to an extreme, and that the
essential elements of truth which it contains were overlooked.
In many respects the theory may be regarded as a good first
approximation to the complete solution of the problem. The
plan favoured by some modern economists of regarding wages
simply as the price of labour determined as in the case of other
prices simply by demand and supply, though of advantage from
some points of view, is apt to lead to a maladjustment of emption
in other directions. The supply of labour, for example, is in
many ways on a different footing from the supply of commodities.
The causes which the wages-fund theory emphasizes too ex-
clusively are after all verae causae, and must always be taken into
account. There can be no doubt, for example, that under certain
conditions a rapid increase in the labouring population may
cause wages to fall, just as a rapid decline may make them rise.
The most striking example of a great improvement in the con-
dition of the labouring classes in English economic history is
found immediately after the occurrence of the Black Death in
the middle of the I4th century. The sudden and extensive
thinning of the ranks of labour was manifestly the principal
cause of the great improvement in the condition of the
survivors.
Again, as regards the amount of capital competing for labour,
the reality of the cause admits of no dispute, at any rate in any
modern society. The force of this element is perhaps best seen
by taking a particular case and assuming that the general wages-
fund of the country is divided into a number of smaller wages-
funds. Take, for example, the wages of domestic servants
when the payment of wages is made simply for the service
rendered. We may fairly assume that the richer classes of the
community practically put aside so much of their revenue for
the payment of the wages of their servants. The aggregate of
these sums is the domestic wages-fund. Now, if owing to any
cause the amount available for this purpose falls off, whilst the
number of those seeking that class of employment remains the
same, the natural result would be a fall in wages. It may of course
happen in this as in other cases that the result is not so much a
direct fall in the rate of wages as a diminution of employment
but even in this case, if people employ fewer servants, they must
do more work. Again, if we were to seek for the reason why the
wages of governesses are so low, the essence of the answer would
be found in the excessive supply of that kind of labour compared
with the funds destined for its support. And similarly through
the whole range of employments in which the labour is employed
in perishable services and not in material products, the wages-
fund theory brings into prominence the principal causes governing
the rate of wages, namely, the number of people competing, the
amount of the fund competed for, and the effectiveness of the
competition. This view also is in harmony with the general
principles of demand and supply. If we regard labour as a
commodity and wages as the price paid for it, then we may say
that the price will be so adjusted that the quantity demanded
232
WAGES
will be made equal to the quantity offered at that price, the
agency by which the equation is reached being competition.
But when we turn to other facts for the verification of the
theory we easily discover apparent if not real contradictions.
The case of Ireland after the potato famine affords an instance
of a rapidly declining population without any corresponding
rise in wages, whilst in new countries we often find a very rapid
increase of population accompanied by an increase in wages.
In a similar manner we find that the capital of a country may
increase rapidly without wages rising in proportion as, for
example, seems to have been the case in England after the great
mechanical improvements at the end of the i8th century up to
the repeal of the Corn Laws whilst in new countries where
wages are the highest there are generally complaints of the scarcity
of capital. But perhaps the most striking conflict of the theory
with facts is found in the periodical inflations and depressions of
trade. After a commercial crisis, when the shock is over and the
necessary liquidation has taken place, we generally find that
there is a period during which there is a glut of capital and yet
wages are low. The abundance of capital is shown by the low
rate of interest and the difficulty of obtaining remunerative
investments. Accordingly this apparent failure of the theory,
at least partially, makes it necessary to examine the propositions
into which it was resolved more carefully, in order to discover,
in the classical economic phraseology, the " disturbing causes."
As regards the first of these propositions that there is always a
certain amount of capital destined for the employment of labour
it is plain that this destination is not really unconditional.
In a modern society whether or not a capitalist will supply
capital to labour depends on the rate of profit expected, and this
again depends proximately on the course of prices. But the
theory as stated can only consider profits and prices as acting
in an indirect roundabout manner upon wages. If profits are
high then more capital can be accumulated and there is a larger
wages-fund, and if prices are high there may be some stimulus
to trade, but the effect on real wages is considered to be very
small. In fact Mill writes it down as a popular delusion that
high prices make high wages. And if the high prices are due
purely to currency causes the criticism is in the main correct,
and in some cases, as was shown above, high prices may mean
real low wages. If, however, we turn to the great classes of
employments in which the labour is embodied in a material
product, we find on examination that wages vary with prices
in a real and not merely in an illusory sense. Suppose, for
example, that, owing to a great increase in the foreign demand
for British produce, a rise in prices takes place, there will be a
corresponding rise in nominal wages, and in all probability a rise
in real wages. Such was undoubtedly the case in Great Britain
on the conclusion of the Franco-German War.
On the other hand, if prices fall and profits are low, there will
so far be a tendency to contract the employment of labour.
At the same time, however, to some extent the capital is applied
unconditionally in other words, without obtaining what is
considered adequate remuneration, or even at a positive loss.
The existence of a certain amount of fixed capital practically
implies the constant employment of a certain amount of
labour.
Nor is the second proposition perfectly true, namely, that there
are always a certain number of labourers who must work inde-
pendently of the rate of wages. For the returns of pauperism
and other statistics show that there is always a proportion of
" floating " labour sometimes employed and sometimes not.
Again, although, as Adam Smith says, man is of all luggage the
most difficult to be transported, still labour as well as capital
may be attracted to foreign fields. The constant succession of
strikes resorted to in order to prevent a fall in wages shows that
in practice the labourers do not at once accept the "natural"
market rate. Still, on the whole, this second proposition is a
much more adequate expression of the truth than the first; for
labour cannot afford to lie idle or to emigrate so easily as capital.
The third proposition, that the wages-fund is distributed solely
by competition, is also found to conflict with facts. Competition
'
may be held to imply in its positive meaning that every indi-
vidual strives to attain his own economic interests regardless
of the interests of others. But in some cases this end may be
attained most effectively by means of combination, as, for
example, when a number of people combine to create a practical
monopoly. Again, the end may be attained by leaving the
control to government, or by obeying the unwritten rules of
long-established custom. But these methods of satisfying
economic interests are opposed to competition in the usual sense
of the term, and certainly as used in reference to labour. Thus
on the negative side competition implies that the economic
interests of the persons concerned are attained neither by
combination, nor by law, nor by custom. Again, it is also
assumed, in making competition the principal distributing force
of the national income, that every person knows what his real
interests are, and that there is perfect mobility of labour both
from employment to employment and from place to place.
Without these assumptions the wages-fund would not be evenly
distributed according to the quantity of labour. It is, however,
obvious that, even in the present industrial system, competition
is modified considerably by these disturbing agencies; and in
fact the tendency seems to be more and more for combinations
of masters on one side and of men on the other to take the place
of the competition of individuals.
The attempted verification of the wages-fund theory leads
to so many important modifications that it is not surprising
to find that in recent times the tendency has been to
reject it altogether. And thus we arrive at the develop-
ment of Adam Smith's introductory statement, namely, from the
that the produce of labour constitutes the natural
recompense or wages of labour. The most important
omission of the wages-fund theory is that it fails to take account
of the quantity produced and of the price obtained for the pro-
duct. If we bring in these elements, we find that there are
several other causes to be considered besides capital, population
and competition. There are, for example, the various factors in
the efficiency of labour and capital, in the organization of industry,
and in the general condition of trade. To some extent these
elements may be introduced into the old theory, but in reality
the point of view is quite different. This is made abundantly
clear by considering Mill's treatment of the remedies for low
wages. His main contention is that population must be rigidly
restrained in order that the average rate of wages may be kept
up. But, as several American economists have pointed out, in
new countries especially every increase in the number of labourers
may be accompanied by a more than proportionate increase in
the produce and thus in the wages of labour. Again, the older
view was that capital must be first accumulated in order after-
wards to be divided up into wages, as if apparently agriculture
was the normal type of industry, and the workers must have a
store to live on until the new crop was grown and secured.
But the " produce " theory of wages considers that wages aie
paid continuously out of a continuous product, although in some
cases they may be advanced out of capital or accumulated stores.
According to this view wages are paid out of the annual produce
of the land, capital and labour, and not out of the savings of
previous years. There is a danger, however, of pushing this
theory to an untenable extreme, and overlooking altogether the
function of capital in determining wages; and the true solution
seems to be found in a combination of the " produce " theory with
the " fund " theory.
An industrial society may be regarded, in the first place, as a
great productive machine turning out a vast variety of products
for the consumption of the members of the society. The
distribution of these products, so far as it is not modified by
other social and moral conditions, depends upon the principle of
" reciprocal demand." In a preliminary rough classification we
may make three groups the owners of land and natural agents,
the owners of capital or reserved products and instruments, and
the owners of labour. To obtain the produce requisite even
for the necessary wants of the community a combination of these
three groups must take place, and the relative reward obtained
WAGES
233
Relative
wages.
by each will vary in general according to the demands of the
others for its services. Thus, if capital, both fixed and circulating,
is scanty, whilst labour and land are both abundant, the reward
of capital will be high relatively to rent and wages. This is well
illustrated in the high rate of profits obtained in early societies.
According to this view of the question the aggregate amount
paid in wages depends partly on the general productiveness of
ail the productive agents and partly on the relative power of
the labourers as compared with the owners of land and capital
(the amount taken by government and individuals for taxes,
charity, &c., being omitted) . Under a system of perfect industrial
competition the general rate of wages would be so adjusted that
the demand for labour would be just equal to the supply at
that rate. (Compare Marshall's Principles of Economics, bk. vi.
ch. ii.)
If all labour and capital were perfectly uniform it would not
be necessary to carry the analysis further, but as a matter of fact,
instead of two great groups of labourers and capitalists,
we have a multitude of subdivisions all under the in-
fluence of reciprocal demand. Every subgroup tries to
obtain as much as possible of the general product, which is
practically always measured in money. The determination of
relative wages depends on the constitution of these groups and
their relations to one another. Under any given social conditions
there must be differences of wages in different employments,
which may be regarded as permanent until some change occurs in
the conditions; in other words, certain differences of wages are
stable or normal, whilst others depend simply on temporary
fluctuations in demand and supply. A celebrated chapter in the
Wealth of Nations (bk. i. ch. x.) is still the best basis for the
investigation of these normal differences which, as stated above,
is the second principal problem of the wages question. First of
all, a broad distinction may be drawn between the natural and
artificial causes of difference, or, in Adam Smith's phraseology,
between those due to the nature of the employments and those
due to the policy of Europe. In the former division
*' . we have (i) the agreeableness or disagreeableness of
difference, the employment, illustrated by two classical examples
" honour makes a great part of the reward of all
honourable professions," and " the most detestable of all em-
ployments that of public executioner is, in proportion to the
work done, better paid than any common trade whatever."
There is, however, much truth in Mill's criticism, that in many
cases the worst paid of all employments are at the same time the
most disagreeable, simply because those engaged in them have
practically no other choice. (2) The easiness and cheapness or
the reverse of learning the business. This factor operates in two
ways. A difficult business implies to some extent peculiar natural
qualifications, and it also involves the command of a certain
amount of capital to subsist on during the process of learning,
and thus in both respects the natural supply of labour is limited.
(3) The constancy or inconstancy in the employment a point
already noticed under real wages. (4) The great or small trust
reposed in the workmen, an important consideration in all the
higher grades of labour, e.g. bankers, lawyers, doctors, &c.
(5) The chance of success or the reverse. Here it is to be observed
that, owing to the hopefulness of human nature and its influence
on the gambling spirit, the chance of success is generally over-
estimated, and therefore that the wages in employments where
the chance of success is really small are lower than they ought to
be. The most striking instance is furnished by the labour in gold
mines, diamond fields, and the like, and the same cause also
operates in many of the professions.
All these causes of differences of wages in different employ-
ments may be explained by showing the way in which they
operate on the demand and supply of labour in the particular
group. If the " net advantages," to adopt Marshall's phrase-
ology, of any group are relatively high, then labour will be
directly attracted to that group, and the children born in it will
be brought up to the same occupation, and thus in both ways the
supply of labour will be increased. But the " net advantages "
embrace the conditions just enumerated. Again, if the other
members of the community require certain forms of labour to a
greater extent, there is an increase in the demand and a rise in
their price.
In addition to these so-called natural causes of difference,
there are those arising from law, custom, or other so-called
artificial causes. They may be classified under four
headings. (i) Certain causes artificially restrain in- ^ rti ^ cM
dustrial competition by limiting the number of any difference.
particular group. Up to the close of the i8th century,
and in many instances to a much later date, the regulations of
gilds and corporations limited the numbers in each trade (cf.
Brentano, Gilds and Trade Unions). This they did by making a
long apprenticeship compulsory on those wishing to learn the
craft, by restricting the number of apprentices to be taken by
any master, by exacting certain qualifications as to birth or
wealth, by imposing heavy entrance fees, either in money or in
the shape of a useless but expensive masterpiece. Some of these
regulations were originally passed in the interests of the general
public and of those employed in the craft, but in the course of
time their effect was, as is stated by Adam Smith, simply to
unduly restrain competition. The history of the craft-gilds is
full of instructive examples of the principles governing wages.
No doubt the regulations tended to raise wages above the natural
rate, but as a natural consequence industry migrated to places
where the oppressive regulations did not exist. In the time of the
Tudors the decay of many towns during a period of rapid national
progress was largely due to those " fraternities in evil," as Bacon
called the gilds. At present one of the best examples of the
survival of this species of artificial restriction is the limitation of
the number of teachers qualifying for degrees in certain univer-
sities. (2) In some employments, however, law and custom tend
unduly to increase the amount of competition. This was to a
great extent the case in the church and the scholastic professions
owing to the large amount of charitable education. Adam
Smith points out that even in his day a curate was " passing rich
on forty pounds a year," whilst many only obtained 20 below
the wages earned by a journeyman shoemaker. In the same way
state-aided education of a commercial and technical kind may
result in lowering the rates (relatively) of the educated business
classes. It is said that one reason why the Germans replace
Englishmen in many branches is that, having obtained their
education at a low rate, there are more of them qualified, and
consequently they accept lower wages. The customary idea
that the position of a clerk is more genteel than that of an artisan
accounts largely for the excessive competition in the former class,
especially now that education is practically universal. (3) In
some cases law and custom may impede or promote the circula
tion of labour. At the time Adam Smith wrote the laws of
settlement were still in full operation. " There is not a man of
forty who has not felt most cruelly oppressed by this ill-contrived
law of settlement." Differences in wages in different parts of
the same country and in different occupations are still largely
due to impediments in the way of the "Wtevement of labour,
which might be removed or lessened by the government making
provisions for migration or emigration. (4) On many occasions
in the past the law often directly interfered to regulate wages.
The Statute of Labourers, passed immediately after the Black
Death, was an attempt in this direction, but it appears to have
failed, according to the investigations of Thorold Rogers. The
same writer, however, ascribes to the celebrated Statute of
Apprentices (gth of Elizabeth) the degradation of the English
labourer for nearly three centuries (Agriculture and Prices,
vol. v.). This, he asserts, was due to the wages being fixed by
the justices of the peace. It is, however, worth noting that
Brentano, who is equally sympathetic with the claims of labour,
asserts that so long as this statute was actually enforced, or the
customs founded upon it were observed, the condition of the
labourers was prosperous, and that the degradation only began
when the statute fell into disuse (Origin of Gilds and Trade
Unions. For a full account of the effect of the Statute of
Apprentices see W. Cunningham's Growth cf English Industry
and Commerce, vol. ii.).
234
WAGES
state
Something must be said as to the power of .the state to regulate
wages. As far as any direct regulation is concerned, it seems to
be only possible within narrow limits. The state might
of course institute certain complex sliding-scales for
different classes of labour and make them compulsory,
but this would rather be an official declaration of the
natural market rate than a direct regulation. Any rate which
the state of trade and prices would not bear could not be en-
forced: masters could not be compelled to work at a loss or to
keep their capital employed when it might be more advantage-
ously transferred to another place or occupation. Thus the legal
rate could not exceed to any considerable extent the market rate.
Nor, on the other hand, could a lower rate in general be enforced,
especially when the labourers have the right of combination and
possess powerful organizations. And even apart from this the
competition of capitalists for labour would tend to raise wages
above the legal rate, and evasion would be extremely easy.
The best illustration of the failure to raise the rate of wages
directly by authority is found in the English poor law system
between 1796 and 1834. " In the former year (1796)
Poorniiet tne decisively fatal step of legalizing out-relief to the
wages" able-bodied, and in aid of wages, was taken," and " in
February 1834 was published perhaps the most
remarkable and startling document to be found in the whole
range of English, perhaps indeed of all social history " (Fowle's
Poor Law). The essence of the system was in the justices
determining a natural rate of wages, regard being paid to the
price of necessaries and the size of the labourer's family, and an
amount was given from the rates sufficient to make up the wages
received to this natural level. The method of administration
was certainly bad, but the best administration possible could
only have kept the system in existence a few years longer. In
one parish the poor-rate had swallowed up the whole value of the
land, which was going out of cultivation, a fact which has an
obvious bearing on land nationalization as a remedy for low wages
The labourers became careless, inefficient and improvident.
Those who were in regular receipt of relief were often better off
(in money) than independent labourers. But the most important
consequence was that the real wages obtained were, in spite of
the relief, lower than otherwise they would have been, and a
striking proof was given that wages are paid out of the produce
of labour. The Report of the Poor Law Commissioners (1834)
states emphatically (p. 48) that " the severest sufferers are those
for whose benefit the system is supposed to have been introduced
and to be perpetuated, the labourers and their families." The
independent labourers suffered directly through the unfair
competition of the pauper labour, but, as one of the sub-reporters
stated, in every district the general condition of the independent
labourer was strikingly distinguishable from that of the pauper
and superior to it, though the independent labourers were
commonly maintained upon less money. In New Zealand anc
Australia in recent years a great extension has been made o:
the principle of state intervention in the regulation of wages.
But, although the direct intervention of the state, with the
view of raising the nominal rates of wages, is, according to theory
and experience, of doubtful advantage, still, when we
Factory cons ider real wages in the evident sense of the term
there seems to be an almost indefinite scope for state
interference. The effect of the Factory Acts anc
similar legislation has been undoubtedly to raise the real wages
of the working-classes as a whole, although at first the same argu
ments were used in opposition to these proposals as in the case
of direct relief from the poor-rates. But there is a vital differeno
in the two cases, because in the former the tendency is to increase
whilst in the latter it is to diminish the energy and self-relianci
of the workers. An excellent summary of the results of thi
species of industrial legislation is given by John Morley (Life oj
Cobden, vol. i. p. 303):
" We have to-day a complete, minute, and voluminous code fo
the protection of labour : buildings must be kept pure of effluvia
dangerous machinery must be fenced ; children and young person
must not clean it while in motion ; their hours are not only limitec
but fixed ; continuous employment must not exceed a given numbe
legisla-
tion.
if hours, varying with the trade but prescribed by the law in given
:ases; a statutable number of holidays is imposed; the children
must go to school, and the employer must have every week a certi-
icate to that effect ; if an accident happens notice must be sent
:o the proper authorities; special provisions are made for bake-
louses, for lace-making, for collieries, and for a whole schedule
)f other special callings; for the due enforcement and vigilant
upervision of this immense host of minute prescriptions there is
.in immense host of inspectors, certifying surgeons, and other
authorities whose business it is to ' speed and post o'er land and
ocean ' on sullen guardianship of every kind of labour, from that
of the woman who plaits straw at her cottage door to the miner
who descends into the bowels of the earth and the seaman who
conveys the fruits and materials of universal industry to and fro
>etween the remotest parts of the globe."
The analysis previously given of real wages shows that logically
.11 these improvements in the conditions of labour, by diminishing
the " quantity of labour " involved in work, are equivalent to a
real rise in wages. Experience has also shown that the state
may advantageously interfere in regulating the methods of
paying wages. A curious poem, written about the time of
Edward IV., on England's commercial policy (Political Soxgs
and Poems, Rolls Series, ii. 282), Shows that even in the
15th century the " truck " system was in full operation, to the
disadvantage of the labourers. The cloth-makers, in particular,
compelled the workers to take half of their wages in merchandise
which they estimated at higher than its real value. The writer
proposes that the " wyrk folk be paid in good mone," and that a
sufficient ordinance be passed for the purpose, and a law to this
effect was enacted in the 4th year .of Edward IV. The Truck
Acts have since been much further extended. Again, the legis-
lation directed against the adulteration of all kinds of goods,
which also finds its prototypes in the middle ages, is in its effects
equivalent to a rise in real wages. 1
The power of trade unions in regulating wages is in most
respects analogous in principle to that of legislation just noticed.
Nominal wages can only be affected within compara-
lively narrow limits, depending on the condition of ^
trade and the state of prices, whilst in many cases a ^4 wages.
rise in the rate in some trades or places can only be
accomplished by a corresponding depression elsewhere. At the
same time, however, it can hardly be questioned that through
the unions nominal wages have on the whole risen at the expense
of profits that is to say, that combinations of labourers can
make better bargains than individuals. But the debatable
margin which may make either extra profits or extra wages is
itself small, and the principal direct effect of trade unions is to
make wages fluctuate with prices, a rise at one time being com-
pensated by a fall at another. The unions can, however, look
after the interests of their members in many ways which improve
their general condition or raise the real rate of wages, and when
nominal wages have attained a natural maximum, and some
method of arbitration or sliding-scale is in force, this indirect
action seems the principal function of trade unions. The effects
of industrial partnership (cf . Sedley Taylor's Profit Sharing) and
of productive co-operation (cf . Holyoake's History of Co-operation)
are small in amount (cpmpared with the total industry of any
country) though excellent in kind, and there seem to be no signs
of the decay of the entrepreneur system.
The industrial revolution which took place about the end of the
i8th century, involving radical changes in production, destroyed
the old relations between capital and labour, and per- ecfg of
haps the most interesting part of the history of wages is mach s , ery
that covered by the igth century. For fifty years after oa wages .
the introduction of production on a large scale, the
condition of the working-classes was on the whole deplorable, but
great progress has since been made. The principal results may
be summed up under the effects of machinery on wages taking
both words in their widest sense. Machinery affects the condition
of the working-classes in many ways. The most obvious mode is
the direct substitution of machinery for labour. It is clear that
any sudden and extensive adoption of labour-saving machinery
1 On this subject compare Jevons, The State in Relation to Labour,
new edition by F. A. Hirst.
WAGGA-WAGGA WAGNER, R.
235
may, bj' throwing the labourers out of employment, lower the
rate of wages, and it is easy to understand how riots arose
repeatedly owing to this cause. But as a rule the effect of labour-
saving machinery in diminishing employment has been greatly
exaggerated, because two important practical considerations
have been overlooked. In the first place, any radical change
made in the methods of production will be only gradually and
continuously adopted throughout the industrial world: and in
the second place these radical changes, these discontinuous leaps,
tend to give place to advances by small increments of invention.
We have an instance of a great radical change in the steam-engine.
Watt's patent for " a method of lessening " the consumption of
steam and fuel in fire-engines was published on January 5, 1769,
and the movement for utilizing steam-power still found room for
extension for a century or more afterwards. The history of the
power-loom again shows that the adoption of an invention is
comparatively slow. In 1813 there were not more than 2400
power-looms at work in England. In 1820 they increased to
14,150. In 1853 there were 100,000, but the curious thing is
that during this time the number of hand-looms had actually
increased to some extent (Porter's Progress of the Nation, p. 186).
The power-loom also illustrates the gradual continuous growth
of improvements. This is clearly shown by Porter. A very
good hand-weaver, twenty-five or thirty years of age, could
weave two pieces of shirting per week. In 1823 a steam-loom
weaver, about fifteen years of age, attending two looms, could
weave nine similar pieces in a week. In 1826 a steam-loom
weaver, about fifteen, attending to four looms, could weave
twelve similar pieces a week. In 1833 a steam-loom weaver,
from fifteen to twenty, assisted by a girl of twelve, attending to
four looms, could weave eighteen pieces. This is only one ex-
ample, for, as Porter remarks, it would fill many large volumes
to describe the numerous inventions which during the ipth
century imparted facility to manufacturing processes, and in
every case we find a continuity in the improvements. This two-
fold progressive character of invention operates in favour of
the labourer in the first place, because in most cases the
increased cheapness of the commodity consequent on the use
of machinery causes a corresponding extension of the market
and the amount produced, and thus there may be no actual
diminution of employment even temporarily; and secondly, if
the improvement takes place slowly, there is time for the absorp-
tion of the redundant, labour in other employments. It is quite
clear that on balance the great increase in population in the igth
century was largely caused, or rather rendered possible, by the
increased use of labour-saving machinery. The way in which
the working-classes were at first injured by the adoption of
machinery was not so much by a diminution in the number of
hands required as by a change in the nature of the employment.
Skilled labour of a certain kind lost its peculiar value, and children
and women were able to do work formerly only done by men.
But the principal evils resulted from the wretched conditions
under which, before the factory legislation, the work was per-
formed; and there is good reason to believe that a deterioration
of the type of labourer, both moral and physical, was effected.
It is, however, a mistake to suppose that on the whole the use of
machinery tends to dispense with skill. On the contrary,
everything goes to prove that under the present system of pro-
Process ^ uc t' on on a large scale there is on the whole far
of the more skill required than formerly a fact well brought
working- out by Sir Robert Giffen in his essay on the progress
classes. ^ ^ ne wor iy n g. c i asses (Essays on Finance, vol. ii.
p. 365), and expressed by the official reports on wages in different
countries. (J. S. N.)
WAGGA-WAGGA, a town of Wynyard county, New South
Wales, Australia, on the left bank of the river Murrumbidgce,
309 m. by rail W.S.W. of Sydney and 267 m. N.E. of Melbourne.
Pop. (1901) 51 14. The Murrumbidgee is here spanned by a steel
viaduct, the approaches of which are formed by heavy embank-
ments. Wagga- Wagga has a school of art with a library attached,
a fine convent picturesquely situated on Mount Erin, a good
racecourse and agricultural show-grounds. There is a consider-
able amount of gold-mining in the district, which, however, is
chiefly pastoral, although cereals, tobacco and wine are produced
in considerable quantities.
WAGNER, ADOLF (1835- ), German economist, was born
at Erlangen on the 2$th of March 1835. Educated at Gottingen
and Heidelberg, he was professor of political science at Dorpat
and Freiburg, and after 1870 at Berlin. A prolific writer on
economic problems, he brought out in his study of the subject
the close relation which necessarily exists between economics
and jurisprudence. He ranks without doubt as one of the most
eminent German economists and a distinguished leader of the
historical school. His leanings towards Christian socialism
made him one of those to whom the appellation of " Katheder-
Socialisten " or " socialists of the (professional) chair " was
applied, and he was one of the founders of the Verein fUr Social-
politik. In 1871 he undertook, in conjunction with Professor
E. Nasse (1829-1890), a new edition of Rau's Lehrbuch der
politischen Okonomie, and his own special contributions, the
Grundlegung and Finanzwissenschaft, afterwards published separ-
ately, are probably his most important works. He approaches
economic studies from the point of view that the doctrine of the
jus naturae, on which the physiocrats reared their economic
structure, has lost its hold on belief, and that the old a priori
and absolute conceptions of personal freedom and property have
given way with it. He lays down that the economic position
of the individual, instead of depending merely on so-called
natural rights or even on his natural powers, is conditioned by
the contemporary juristic system, which is itself an historical
product. These conceptions, therefore, of freedom and property,
half economic, half juristic, require a fresh examination.
Wagner accordingly investigates, before anything else, the
conditions of the economic life of the community, and in sub-
ordination to this, determines the sphere of the economic freedom
of the individual. Among his works are Beitriige zur Lehre Ton
den Banken (1857), System der deutschen Zetlelbankgcselzgebung
(1870-1873) and Agrar- und Induslriestaat (1902).
His brother, HERMANN WAGNER (1840- ), a distinguished
geographer, joined the Geographical Institute of Justus Perthes
in 1868, and was editor of the statistical section of the Gothaer
Almanack up to 1876. In 1872 he founded Die Bevolkerung der
Erde, a critical review of area and population, and in 1880 he
was appointed professor of geography at GSttingen. He was
editor of the Geographisches Jahrbuch from 1880 to 1908. His
publications include Lehrbuch der Geographic (7th ed., 1903) and
Methodischer Schulatlas (i2th ed., 1907).
WAGNER, RUDOLPH (1805-1864), German anatomist and
physiologist, was born on the 3Oth of June 1805 at Bayreuth,
where his father was a professor in the gymnasium. He began
the study of medicine at Erlangen in 1822, and finished his
curriculum in 1826 at Wiirzburg, where he had attached himself
mostly to J. L. Schonlein in medicine and to K. F. Heusinger in
comparative anatomy. Aided by a public stipendium, he spent
a year or more studying in the Jardin des Plantes, under the
friendly eye of Cuvier, and in making zoological discoveries at
Cagliari and other places on the Mediterranean. On his return
he set up in medical practice at Augsburg, whither his father had
been transferred; but in a few months he found an opening for
an academical career, on being appointed prosector at Erlangen.
In 1832 he became full professor of zoology and comparative
anatomy there, and held that office until 1840, when he was
called to succeed J. F. Blumenbach at Gottingen. At the Hano-
verian university he remained till his death, being much occupied
with administrative work as pro-rector for a number of years,
and for nearly the whole of his residence troubled by ill-health
(phthisis). In 1860 he gave over the physiological part of his
teaching to a new chair, retaining the zoological, with which
his career had begun. While at Frankfurt, on his way to examine
the Neanderthal skull at Bonn, he was struck with paralysis,
and died at Gottingen a few months later on the i3th of May 1864.
Wagner's activity as a writer and worker was enormous, and his
range extensive, most of his hard work having been done at Erlangen
while his health was good. His graduation thesis was on the
236
WAGNER
ambitious subject of " the historical development of epidemic and
contagious diseases all over the world, with the laws of their diffusion ,"
which showed the influence of Schonlein. His first treatise was
Die Naturgeschichte des Menschen (in 2 vols., Kempten, 1831).
Frequent journeys to the Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the
North Sea gave him abundant materials for research on invertebrate
anatomy and physiology, which he communicated first to the
Munich academy of sciences, and republished in his Beitriige zur
vergleichenden Physiologic des Blutes (Leipzig, 1832-1833), with
additions in 1838). In 1834-1835 he brought out a text-book on
the subject of his chair (Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomic,
Leipzig), which recommended itself to students by its clear and
concise style. A new edition of it appeared in 1843 under the title
of Lehrbuch der Zootomie, of which only the vertebrate section was
corrected by himself. The precision of his earlier work is evidenced
by his Micrometric Measurements of the Elementary Parts of Man
and Animals (Leipzig, 1834). His zoological labours may be said
to conclude with the atlas Icones zootomicae (Leipzig, 1841). In
1835 he communicated to the Munich academy of sciences his
researches on the physiology of generation and development, in-
cluding the famous discovery of the germinal vesicle of the human
ovum. These were republished under the title Prodromus historiae
generationis hominis atque animalium (Leipzig, 1836). As in
zoology, his original researches in physiology were followed by a
students' text-book, Lehrbuch der speciellen Physiologic (Leipzig,
1838), which soon reached a third edition, and was translated into
French and English. This was supplemented by an atlas, Icones
physiologicae (Leipzig, 1839). To the same period belongs a very
interesting but now little known work on medicine proper, of a
historical and synthetic scope, Grundriss der Encyklopadie und
Methodologie der medicinischen Wissenschaften nach geschichtlicher
Ansicht (Erlangen, 1838), which was translated into Danish. About
the same time he worked at a translation of J. C. Prichard's Natural
History of Man, and edited various writings of S. T. Sommerring,
with a biography of that anatomist (1844), which he himself fancied
most of all his writings. In 1843, after his removal to Gottingen, he
began his great Handworterbuch der Physiologic, mil Rucksicht auf
physiologische Pathologie, and brought out the fifth (supplementary)
volume in 1852; the only contributions of his own in it were on the
sympathetic nerve, nerve-ganglia and nerve-endings, and he
modestly disclaimed all merit except as being the organizer. While
resident in Italy for his health from 1845 to 1847, he occupied himself
with researches on the electrical organ of the torpedo and on nervous
organization generally; these he published in 1853-1854 (Neurolo-
gische Untersuchungen, Gottingen), and therewith his physiological
period may be said to end. His next period was stormy and con-
trqversial. He entered the lists boldly against the materialism of
" Stoff und Kraft," and avowed himself a Christian believer, where-
upon he lost the countenance of a number of his old friends and
pupils, and was unfeelingly told that he was suffering from an
atrophy of the brain." His quarrel with the materialists began
with his oration at the Gottingen meeting of the Naturforscher-
Versammlung in 1854, on "Menschenschopfungund Seelensubstanz."
This was followed by a series of " Physiological Letters" in the
Allgemeine Zeitung, by an essay on " Glauben und Wissen," and by
the most important piece of this series, " Der Kampf urn die Seele
(Gottingen, 1857). Having come to the consideration of these
philosophical problems late in life, he was at some disadvantage ;
but he endeavoured to join as he best could in the current of con-
temporary German thought. He had an exact knowledge of classical
German writings, more especially of Goethe's, and of the literature
connected with him. In what may be called his fourth and last
period, Wagner became anthropologist and archaeologist, occupied
himself with the cabinet of skulls in the Gottingen museum collected
by Blumenbach and with the excavation of prehistoric remains,
corresponded actively with the anthropological societies of Paris and
London, and organized, in co-operation with the veteran K. E. von
Baer, a successful congress of anthropologists at Gottingen in 1861.
His last writings were memoirs on the convolutions of the human
brain, on the weight of brains, and on the brains of idiots (1860-
1862).
See memoir by his eldest son in the Gottinger gelchrte Anzeigen,
" Nachrichten " for 1864.
WAGNER, WILHELM RICHARD (1813-1883), German
dramatic composer, poet and essay-writer, was born at Leipzig
on the 2 2nd of May 1813. In 1822 he was sent to the Kreuzschule
at Dresden, where he did so well that, four years later, he trans-
lated the first twelve books of the Odyssey for amusement. In
1828 he was removed to the Nicolaischule at Leipzig, where he
was less successful. His first music master was Gottlieb Miiller,
who thought him self-willed and eccentric; and his first pro-
duction as a composer was an overture, performed at the Leipzig
theatre in 1830. In that year he matriculated at the university,
and took lessons in composition from-Theodor Weinlig, cantor at
the Thomasschule. A symphony was produced at the Gewand-
haus concerts in 1833, and in the following year he was appointed
conductor of the opera at Magdeburg. The post was unprofitable,
and Wagner's life at this period was very unsettled. He had
composed an opera called Die Feen adapted by himself from
Gozzi's La Donna Serpenle, and another, Das Liebesverbot,
founded on Shakespeare's Measure .for Measure, but only Das
Liebesverbot obtained a single performance in 1836.
In that year Wagner married Wilhelmina Planer, an actress
at the theatre at Konigsberg. He had accepted an engagement
there as conductor; but, the lessee becoming bankrupt, the
scheme was abandoned in favour of a better appointment at
Riga. Accepting this, he remained actively employed until
1839, when he made his first visit to Paris, taking with him an
unfinished opera based on Bulwer Lytton's Rienzi, and, like his
earlier attempts, on his own libretto. The venture proved most
unfortunate. Wagner failed to gain a footing, and Rienzi,
destined for the Grand Opera, was rejected. He completed it,
however, and in 1842 it was produced at Dresden, where, with
Madame Schroeder Devrient and Herr Tichatschek in the principal
parts, it achieved a success which went far to make him famous.
But though in Rienzi Wagner had shown energy and ambition,
that work was far from representing his preconceived ideal.
This he now endeavoured to embody in Der fliegende Hollander,
for which he designed a libretto quite independent of any other
treatment of the legend. The piece was warmly received at
Dresden on the 2nd of January 1843; but its success was by
no means equal to that of Rienzi. Spohr, however, promptly
discovered its merits, and produced it at Cassel some months
later, with very favourable results.
On the 2nd of February 1843 Wagner was formally installed
as Hofkapellmeister at the Dresden theatre, and he soon set to
work on a new opera. He chose the legend of Tannhauser,
collecting his materials from the ancient Tannhauser-Lied, the
Volksbuch, Tieck's poetical Erziihlung, Hoffmann's story of Der
Sangerkrieg, and the medieval poem on Der Wattburgkrieg.
This last-named legend introduces the incidental poem of
" Loherangrin," and so led Wagner to the study of Wolfram
von Eschenbach's Parziiial and Tilurel, with great results later
on. But for the present he confined himself to the subject in
hand; and on the igth of October 1845 he produced his Tann-
hauser, with Schroeder Devrient, Johanna Wagner, 1 Tichatschek
and Mitterwurzer in the principal parts. Notwithstanding this
powerful cast, the success of the new work was not brilliant, for
it carried still further the principles embodied in Der fliegende
Hollander, and the time was not ripe for them. But Wagner
boldly fought for them, and might have prevailed earlier had he
not taken part in the political agitations of 1849, after which his
position in Dresden became untenable. In fact, after the flight
of the king and the subsequent suppression of the riots, a warrant
was issued for his arrest; and he had barely time to escape to
Weimar, where Liszt was at that moment engaged in preparing
Tannhauser for performance, before the storm burst upon him
with alarming violence. In all haste Liszt procured a passport
and escorted his guest as far as Eisenach. Wagner fled to Paris
and thence to Zurich, where he lived in almost unbroken retire-
ment until the autumn of 1859. During this period most of his
prose works including Oper und Drama, Uber das Dirigieren,
Das Judcntum in der Musik were given to the world.
The medieval studies which Wagner had begun for his work at
the libretto of Tannhauser bore rich fruit in his next opera
Lohengrin, in which he also developed his principles on a larger
scale and with a riper technique than hitherto. He had com-
pleted the work before he fled from Dresden, but could not get
it produced. But he took the score with him to Paris, and, as
he himself tells us, " when ill, miserable and despairing, I sat
brooding over my fate, my eye fell on the score of my Lohengrin,
which I had totally forgotten. Suddenly I felt something like
compassion that the music should never sound from off the
death-pale paper. Two words I wrote to Liszt; his answer
was the news that preparations were being made for the perform-
ance of the work, on the grandest scale that the limited means
of Weimar would permit. Everything that care and accessories
1 The composer's niece.
WAGNER
237
could do was done to make the design of the piece understood.
Liszt saw what was wanted at once, and did it. Success was his
reward; and with this success he now approaches me, saying
" See, we have come thus far; now create us a new work, that
we may go further."
Lohengrin was, in fact, produced at Weimar under Liszt's
direction on the 28th of August 1850. It was a severe trial to
Wagner not to hear his own work, but he knew that it was in
good hands, and he responded to Liszt's appeal for a new creation
by studying the N ibelungenlicd and gradually shaping it into a
gigantic tetralogy. At this time also he first began to lay out
the plan of Tristan und Isolde, and to think over the possibilities
of Parsifal.
During his exile Wagner matured his plans and perfected his
musical style; but it was not until some considerable time after
his return that any of the works he then meditated were placed
upon the stage. In 1855 he accepted an invitation to London,
where he conducted the concerts of the Philharmonic Society
with great success. In 1857 he completed the libretto of Tristan
und Isolde at Venice, adopting the Celtic legend modified by
Gottfried of Strasburg's medieval version. But the music was
delayed until the strange incident of a message from] the emperor
of Brazil encouraged Wagner to complete it in 1859. In that
year Wagner visited Paris for the third time; and after much
negotiation, in which he was nobly supported by the Prince
and Princess Metternich, Tannhauser was accepted at the Grand
Opera. Magnificent preparations were made; it was rehearsed
164 times, 14 times with the full orchestra; and the scenery and
dresses were placed entirely under the composer's direction.
More than 8000 was expended upon the venture; and the work
was performed for the first time in the French language and with
the new Venusberg music on the I3th of March 1861. But, for
political reasons, a powerful clique was determined to suppress
Wagner. A scandalous riot was inaugurated by the members
of the Parisian Jockey Club, who interrupted the performance
with howls and dog- whistles; and after the third representation
the opera was withdrawn. Wagner was broken-hearted. But
the Princess Metternich continued to befriend him, and by 1861
she had obtained a pardon for his political offences, with permis-
sion to settle in any part of Germany except Saxony. Even this
restriction was removed in 1862.
Wagner now settled for a time in Vienna, where Tristan und
Isolde was accepted, but abandoned after fifty-seven rehearsals,
through the incompetence of the tenor. Lohengrin was, however,
produced on the isth of May 1861, when Wagner heard it for
the first time. His circumstances were now extremely straitened ;
it was the darkness before dawn. In 1863 he published the
libretto of Der Ring des Nibelungen. King Ludwig of Bavaria
was much struck with it, and in 1864 invited Wagner, who was
then at Stuttgart, to come to Munich and finish his work there.
Wagner accepted with rapture. The king gave him an annual
grant of 1200 gulden (120), considerably enlarging it before the
end of the year, and placing a comfortable house in the outskirts
of the city at his disposal. The master expressed his gratitude
in a " Huldigungsmarsch." In the autumn he was formally
commissioned to proceed with the tetralogy and to furnish
proposals for the building of a theatre and the foundation of
a Bavarian music school. All promised well, but no sooner did
his position seem assured than a miserable court intrigue was
formed against him. His political indiscretions at Dresden were
made the excuse for bitter persecutions: scandalmongers made
his friendship with the ill-fated king a danger to both; and
Wagner was obliged to retire to Triebschen near Lucerne for the
next six years.
On the loth of June 1865 at Munich, Tristan und Isolde was
produced for the first time, with Herr and Frau Schnorr in the
principal parts. Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg, first sketched
in 1845, was completed in 1867 and first performed at Munich
under the direction of Hans von Billow on the aist of June 1868.
The story, though an original one, is founded on the character
of Hans Sachs, the poet-shoemaker of Nuremberg. The success
of the opera was very great; but the production of the Nibelung-
tetralogy as a whole still remained impracticable, though Das
Rheingold and Die Walkiire were performed, the one on the
22nd of September 1869 and the other on the 26th of June 1870.
The scheme for building a new theatre at Munich having been
abandoned, there was no opera-house in Germany fit for so
colossal a work. A project was therefore started for the erection
of a suitable building at Bayreuth (q.v.). Wagner laid the first
stone of this in 1872, and the edifice was completed, after almost
insuperable difficulties, in 1876.
After this Wagner resided permanently at Bayreuth, in a house
named Wahnfried, in the garden of which he built his tomb.
His first wife, from whom he had parted since 1861, died in 1865;
and in 1870 he was united to Liszt's daughter Cosima, who had
previously been the wife of von Billow. Meantime Der Ring des
Nibelungen was rapidly approaching completion, and on the I3th
of August 1876 the introductory portion, Das Rheingold, was
performed at Bayreuth for the first time as part of the great
whole, followed on the i4th by Die Walkiire, on the i6th by
Siegfried and on the 1 7th by GoUerddmmerung. The performance,
directed by Hans Richter, excited extraordinary attention; but
the expenses were enormous, and burdened the management with
a debt of 7500. A small portion of this was raised (at great
risk) by performances at the Albert Hall in London, conducted
by Wagner and Richter, in 1877. The remainder was met by
the profits upon performances of the tetralogy at Munich.
Wagner's next and last work was Parsifal, based upon the
legend of the Holy Grail, as set forth, not in the legend of the
Morle d' Arthur, but in the versions of Chrestien de Troyes and
Wolfram von Eschenbach and other less-known works. The
libretto was complete before his visit to London in 1877. The
music was begun in the following year, and completed at Palermo
on the I3th of January 1882. The first sixteen performances
took place at Bayreuth, in July and August 1882, under Wagner's
own directing, and fully realized all expectations.
Unhappily the exertion of directing so many consecutive
performances seems to have been too much for the veteran
master's strength, for towards the close of 1882 his health
began to decline rapidly. He spent the autumn at Venice, and
was well enough on Christmas Eve to conduct his early symphony
(composed in 1833) at a private performance given at the Liceo
Marcello. But late in the afternoon of the i3th of February
1883 his friends were shocked by his sudden death from heart-
failure.
Wagner was buried at Wahnfried in the tomb he had himself
prepared, on the i8th of February; and a few days afterwards
King Ludwig rode to Bayreuth alone, and at dead of night, to
pay his last tribute to the master of his world of dreams.
(W.S.R.;D.F.T.)
In the articles on Music and OPERA, Wagner's task in music-
drama is described, and it remains here to discuss his progress
in the operas themselves. This progress has perhaps no parallel
in any art, and certainly none in music, for even Beethoven's
progress was purely an increase in range and power. Beethoven,
we know, lost sympathy with his early works as he grew older;
but that was because his later works absorbed his interest, not
because his early works misrepresented his ideals. Wagner's
earlier works have too long been treated as if they represented
the pure and healthy childhood of his later ideal; as if Lohengrin
stood to Parsifal as Haydn, Mozart and early Beethoven stand
to Beethoven's last quartets. But Wagner never thus represented
the childhood of an ideal, though he attained the manhood of
the most comprehensive ideal yet known in art. To change the
metaphor the ideal was always in sight, and Wagner never
swerved from his path towards it; but that path began in a'
blaze of garish false lights, and it had become very tortuous
before the light of day prevailed. Beethoven was trained in the
greatest and most advanced musical tradition of his lime. For
all his Wagnerian impatience, his progress was no struggle from
out of a squalid environment; on the contrary, one of his latest
discoveries was the greatness of his master Haydn. Now
Wagner's excellent teacher Weinlig did certainly, as Wagner
himself testifies, teach him more of good music than Beethoven,
WAGNER
Haydn and Mozart could have seen in their youth; for he
showed him Beethoven. But this would not help Wagner to
feel that contemporary music was really a great art; indeed it
could only show him that he was growing up in a pseudo-classical
time, in which the approval of persons of " good taste " was
seldom directed to things of vital promise. Again, he began
with far greater facility in literature than in music, if only
because a play can be copied ten times faster than a full score.
Wagner was always an omnivorous reader, and books were then,
as now, both cheaper than music and easier to read. Moreover,
the higher problems of rhythmic movement in the classical
sonata forms are far beyond the scope of academic teaching,
which is compelled to be contented with a practical plausibility
of musical design; and the instrumental music which was con-
sidered the highest style of art in 1830 was as far beyond Wagner's
early command of such plausibility as it was obviously already
becoming a mere academic game. Lastly, the rules of that game
were useless on the stage, and Wagner soon found hi Meyerbeer
a master of grand opera who was dazzling the world by means
which merely disgusted the more serious academic musicians
of the day.
In Rienzi Wagner would already have been Meyerbeer's rival,
but that his sincerity, and his initial lack of that musical savoir
faire which is prior to the individual handling of ideas, put
him at a disadvantage. Though Meyerbeer wrote much that is
intrinsically more dull and vulgar than the overture to Rienzi,
he never combined such serious efforts with a technique so like
that of a military bandmaster. The step from Rienzi to Der
fliegende Hollander is without parallel in the history of music,
and would be inexplicable if Rienzi contained nothing good and
if Der fliegende Hollander did not contain many reminiscences
of the decline of Italian opera; but it is noticeable that in this
case the lapses into vulgar music have a distinct dramatic value.
Though Wagner cannot as yet be confidently credited with a
satiric intention in his bathos, the fact remains that all the
Rossinian passages are associated with the character of Daland,
so as to express his vulgar delight at the prospect of finding a
rich son-in-law in the mysterious Dutch seaman. Meanwhile the
rest of the work (except in the prettily scored " Spinning Song,"
and other harmless and vigorous tunes) has more affinity with
Wagner's mature style than the bulk of its much more ambitious
successors, Tannhauser and Lohengrin. The wonderful overture
is more highly organized and less unequal than that of Tann-
hauser; and although Wagner uses less Leit-motif than Weber
(see OPERA, ad fin.) and divides the piece into " numbers "
of classical size, the effect is so continuous that the divisions
could hardly be guessed by ear. Moreover, the work was
intended to be in one act, and is now so performed at
Bayreuth; and, although it is very long for a one-act opera,
this is certainly the only form which does justice to Wagner's
conception. 1
Spohr's appreciation of Der fliegende Hollander is a remarkable
point in musical history; and his criticism that Wagner's style
(in Tannhauser) " lacked rounded periods " shows the best effect
of that style on a well-disposed contemporary mind. Of course,
from Wagner's mature point of view his early style is far too
much cut up by periods and full closes; and its prophetic traits
are so incomparably more striking than its resemblance to any
earlier art that we often feel that only the full closes stand
between it and the true Wagner. But Spohr would feel Wagner's
works to be an advance upon contemporary romantic opera
rather than a foreshadowing of an unknown future. When we
listen to the free declamation of the singers at the outset of Der
fliegende Hollander a declamation which is accompanied by
1 The subsequent division into three acts, as given in all the
published editions, has been effected in the crudest way by inserting
a full close in the orchestral interludes at the changes of scene, and
then beginning the next scene by taking up the interludes again.
The true version can be recovered from the published score as
follows: In act I skip from the last bar but four to the 41 st bar
of the introduction to the 2nd act; and at the end of the 2nd act
skip from the last bar but five to the 8th bar of the entr'acte to the
3rd act.
an orchestral and thematic texture as far removed from that of
mere recitative as it is from the forms of the classical aria the
repetition of a whole sentence in order to form a firm musical
close has almost as quaint a ring as a Shakespearean rhymed tag
would have in a prose drama of Ibsen. To Spohr the frequency of
these incidents must have produced the impression that Wagner
was perpetually beginning arias and breaking them off at once.
With all its defects, Der fliegende Hollander is the most masterly
and the least unequal of Wagner's early works. As drama it
stood immeasurably above any opera since Cherub ini's Medee.
As a complete fusion between dramatic and musical movement,
its very crudities point to its immense advance towards the
solution of the problem, propounded chaotically at the beginning
of the 1 7th century by Monteverde, and solved in a simple form
by Gluck. And as the twofold musical and dramatic achieve-
ment of one mind, it already places Wagner beyond parallel in
the history of art.
Tannhauser is on a grander scale, but its musical execution is
disappointing. The weakest passages in Der fliegende Hollander
are not so helpless as the original recitatives of Venus in the first
act ; or Tannhauser's song, which was too far involved in the whole
scheme to be ousted by the mature " New Venusberg music "
with which Wagner fifteen years later got rid both of the end
of the overture and what he called his " Palais-Royal " Venus.
It is really very difficult to understand Schumann's impression
that the musical technique of Tannhauser shows a remarkable
improvement. Not until the third act does the great Wagner
arbitrate in the struggle between amateurishness and theatricality
in the music, though at all points his epoch-making stagecraft
asserts itself with a force that tempts us to treat the whole work
as if it were on the Wagnerian plane of Tannhauser's account of
his pilgrimage in the third act. But the history of mid-igth-
century music is unintelligible until we face the fact that, when
the anti- Wagnerian storm was already at its height, Wagner was
still fighting for the recognition of music which was most definite
just where it realized with ultra-Meyerbeerian brilliance all that
Wagner had already begun to detest. No contemporary, un-
aided by personal knowledge, could be expected to trust in
Wagner's purity of ideal on the strength of Tannhauser, which
actually achieved popularity by such coarse methods of climax
as the revivalistic end of the overture, by such maudlin pathos
as O du mein holder Abendstern, and by the amiably childish
grand-opera skill with which half the action is achieved by
processions and a considerable fraction of the music is repre-
sented by fanfares. These features established the work in a
position which it will always maintain by its unprecedented
dramatic qualities and by the glory reflected from Wagner's
later achievements; but we shall not appreciate the marvel of
its nobler features if we continue at this time of day to regard
the bulk of the music as worthy of a great composer.
After even the finest things in Tannhauser, the Vorspiel to
Lohengrin comes as a revelation, with its quiet solemnity and
breadth of design, its ethereal purity of tone-colour, and its
complete emancipation from earlier operatic forms. The sus-
pense and climax in the first act is so intense, and the whole
drama is so well designed, that we must have a very vivid idea
of the later Wagner before we can see how far the quality of
musical thought still falls short of his ideals. The elaborate
choral writing sometimes rises to almost Hellenic regions of
dramatic art; and there is no crudeness in the passages that
carry on the story quietly in reaction from the climaxes a
test far too severe for Tannhauser and rather severe for even
the mature works of Gluck and Weber. The orchestration is
already almost classically Wagnerian; though there remains
an excessive amount of tremolo, besides a few lapses into comic
violence, as in the yelpings which accompany Ortrud's rage
in the night-scene in the second act. But the mere tone-colours
of that scene are enough to make a casual listener imagine that
he is dealing with the true Wagner: the variety of tone never
fails, and depends on no immoderate paraphernalia; for, far-
reaching as are the results of the systematic increase of the
classical pairs of wind-instruments to groups of three, this is
WAGNER
239
a very modest reform compared to the banausic " extra attrac-
tions " of every new production of Meyerbeer's.
But there is another side to the picture. With the growing
certainty of touch a stiff ness of movement appears which gradually
disturbs the listener who can appreciate freedom, whether in
the classical forms which Wagner has now abolished, or in the
majestic flow of Wagner's later style. Full closes and repeated
sentences no longer confuse the issue, but in their absence we
begin to notice the incessant squareness of the ostensibly free
rhythms. The immense amount of pageantry, though (as in
Tannhauser) good in dramatic motive and executed with splendid
stage-craft, goes far to stultify Wagner's already vigorous attitude
of protest against grand-opera methods; by way of preparation
for the ethereally poetic end he gives us a disinfected present
from Meyerbeer at the beginning of the last scene, where mounted
trumpeters career round the stage in full blast for three long
minutes; and the prelude to the third act is an outburst of
sheer gratuitous vulgarity. Again, the anti-Wagnerians were
entirely justified in penetrating below the splendidly simple
and original orchestration of the night-scene between Ortrud
and Telramund, and pointing out how feebly its music drifts
among a dozen vague keys by means of the diminished 7th;
a device which teachers have tried to weed out of every high-
flown exercise since that otiose chord was first discovered in
the i;th century. The mature Wagner would not have carried
out twenty bars in his flattest scenes with so little musical in-
vention. We must not forget that these boyish demerits belong
to the work of a man of thirty-five whose claims and aspirations
already purported to dwarf the whole record of the classics.
And the defects are in all respects commonplace; they have no
resemblance to that uncanny discomfort which often warns
the wise critic that he is dealing with an immortal.
The crowning complication in the effect of Der fliegende
Hollander, Tannh&user and Lohengrin on the musical thought
of the iQth century was that the unprecedented fusion of their
musical with their dramatic contents revealed some of the meaning
of serious music to ears that had been deaf to the classics.
Wagnerism was henceforth proclaimed out of the mouths of
babes and sucklings; learned musicians felt that it had an
unfair advantage; and by the time Wagner's popularity began
to thrive as a persecuted heresy he had left it in the lurch.
Wagner had hardly finished the score of Lohengrin before
he was at work upon the poem of Der Ring des Nibelungen.
And with this he suddenly became a mature artist. On a super-
ficial view this is a paradox, for there are many more violations
of probability and much graver faults of structure in the later
works than in the earlier. Every critic could recognize the
structural merits of the earlier plays, for their operatic con-
ventionalities and abruptness of motive are always intelligible
as stage devices. Jealousy might prompt a doubt whether
these plays were within the scope of "legitimate" music;
but they were obviously stories of exceptional musical and
romantic beauty, presented with literary resources unprecedented
in operatic libretti. Now the later dramas are often notoriously
awkward and redundant; while the removal of those convenient
operatic devices which symbolize situations instead of developing
them, does not readily appear to be compensated for by any
superior artistic resource. But there is a higher point of view
than that of story-telling. In the development of characters and
intellectual ideas Wagner's later works show a power before which
his earlier stagecraft shrinks into insignificance. It would not
have sufficed even to indicate his later ideas. To handle these
so successfully that we can discriminate defects from qualities
at all, is proof of the technique of a master, even though the
faults extend to whole categories of literature. The faults
make analysis exceptionally difficult, for they are no longer
commonplace; indeed, the gravest dangers of modern Wagnerism
arise from the fact that there is hardly any non-musical aspect
in which Wagner's later work is not important enough to produce
a school of essentially non-musical critics who have no notion
how far Wagner's mature music transcends the rest of his thought,
nor how often it rises where his philosophy falls. Thus the
prominent school of criticism which appraised Wagner in the
ipth century by his approximation to Darwin and Herbert
Spencer, appraises him in the 2oth by his approximation to
Bernard Shaw; with the absurd result that Gotlerdammerung
is ruled out as a reactionary failure. It is true that its only
conceivable moral is flatly the opposite of that " redemption
by love " which Wagner strenuously preaches in a passage at
the end which remained unset because, he considered it already
expressed by the music. Indeed, though Wagner's later treat-
ment of love is perhaps the main source of his present popularity
it seldom rises to his loftiest regions except where it is thwarted.
The love that is disguised in the deadly feud between Isolde
and Tristan, before the drinking of the fatal potion, rises even
above the music; the love-duet in the second act depends for
its greatness on its introduction, before the lovers have met,
and its wonderful slow movement (shortly before the catastrophe)
where they are almost silent and leave everything to the music :
the intervening twenty minutes is an exhausting storm in which
the words are the sophisticated rhetoric of a 19th-century novel
of passion, translated into terribly turgid verse and set to music
that is more interesting as an intellectual ferment than effective
as a representation of emotions which previous dramatists
have wisely left to the imagination. But so long as we treat
Wagner like a prose philosopher, a librettist, a poet, a mere
musician, or anything short of the complex and many-sided
artist he really is, we shall find insuperable obstacles to under-
standing or enjoying his works. A true work of art is incompar-
ably greater than the sum of its ideas; apart from the fact that,
if its ideas are innumerable and various, prose philosophers
are apt to complain that it has none. And every additional
idea that does not merely derange an art enlarges it as it were
by a new dimension in space. Wagner added all the arts to
each other, and in one of them he attained so consummate
a mastery that we can confidently turn to it when his words
and doctrines fail us. Even when we treat him merely as a
dramatist our enjoyment of his later works gains enormously
if we take them as organic wholes, and not as mere plots dressed
up in verse and action. It matters little that Parsifal requires
two nameless attendant characters in a long opening scene,
for the sole purpose of telling the antecedents of the story,
when a situation is thereby revealed which for subtlety and power
has hardly a parallel since Greek tragedy. The vast myth of
the Ring is related in full several times in each of the three main
dramas, with ruthless disregard for the otherwise magnificent
dramatic effect of the whole; hosts of original dramatic and
ethical ideas, with which Wagner's brain was even more fertile
than his voluminous prose works would indicate, assert them-
selves at all points, only to be thwarted by repeated attempts
to allegorize the philosophy of Schopenhauer; all efforts to read
a consistent scheme, ethical or philosophical, into the result
are doomed to failure; but all this matters little, so long as we
have Wagner's unfailing later resources in those higher dramatic
verities which present to us emotions and actions, human and
divine, as things essentially complex and conflicting, inevitable
as natural laws, incalculable as natural phenomena.
Wagner's choice of subjects had from the outset shown an
imagination far above that of any earlier librettist; yet he had
begun with stories which could attract ordinary minds, as he
dismally realized when the libretto of Der fliegcnde Hollander
so pleased the Parisian wire-pullers that it was promptly set to
music by one of their friends. But with Der Ring des Nibclungen
Wagner devoted himself to a story which any ordinary dramatist
would find as unwieldy as, for instance, most of Shakespeare's
subjects; a story in which ordinary canons of taste and prob-
ability were violated as they are in real life and in great art..
Wagner's first inspiration was for an opera (Siegfried's Tod,
projected in 1848) on the death of Germany's mythical hero;
but he found that the story needed a preliminary drama to
convey its antecedents. This preliminary drama soon proved
to need another to explain it, which again finally needed a short
introductory drama. Thus the plan of the Ring was sketched
in reverse order; and it has been remarked that Gstlerdammcrung
240
WAGNER
shows traces of the fact that Wagner had begun his scheme in the
days when French grand opera, with its ballets and pageantry,
still influenced him. There is little doubt that some redundant
narratives in the Ring were of earlier conception than the four
complete dramas, and that their survival is due partly to Wagner's
natural affection for work on which he had spent pains, and partly
to a dim notion that (like Browning's method in The Ring and.
the Book) they might serve to reveal the story afresh in the light
of each character. Be this as it may, we may confidently date
the purification of Wagner's music at the moment when he set
to work on a story which carried him finally away from that
world of stereotyped operatic passions into which he had already
breathed so much disturbing life.
The disturbing life already appears in Der fllegende Hollander,
at the point where Senta's father enters with the Dutchman,
and Senta (who is already in an advanced state of Schwarmerei
over the legend of the Flying Dutchman) stands rooted to the
spot, comparing the living Dutchman with his portrait which
hangs over the door. The conflict between her passionate fascina-
tion and her disgust at her father's vulgarity is finely realized
both in music and drama; but, if we are able to appreciate it,
then the operatic convention by which Senta avows her passion
becomes crude. Ethical and operatic points of view are similarly
confused when it is asserted that the Flying Dutchman can be
saved by a faithful woman, though it appears from the relations
between Senta and Erik that so long as the woman is faithful
to the Dutchman it does not matter that she jilts some one else.
Erik would not have been a sufficiently pathetic operatic tenor
if his claim on Senta had been less complete. In Tannhiiuser
and Lohengrin Wagner's intellectual power develops far more
rapidly in the drama than in the music. The Sdngerkrieg, with
its disastrous conflict between the sincere but unnatural asceticism
of the orthodox Minnesingers and the irrepressible human passion
of Tannhauser, is a conception the vitality of which would
reduce Tannhauser's repentance to the level of Robert le Diable,
were it not that the music of the Siingerkrieg has no structural
power, and little distinction beyond a certain poetic value in the
tones of violas which had long ago been fully exploited by
Mozart and Mehul, while the music of Tannhauser's pilgrimage
ranks with the Vorspiel to Lohengrin as a wonderful foreshadow-
ing of Wagner's mature style. Again, the appeal to " God's
judgment " in the trial by battle in Lohengrin is a subject of
which no earlier librettist could have made more than a plausible
mess which is the best that can be said for the music as music.
But as dramatist Wagner compels our respect for the power that
without gloss or apology brings before us the king, a model of
royal fair-mindedness and good-nature, acquiescing in Tel-
ramund's monstrous claim to accuse Elsa without evidence,
simply because it is a hard and self-evident fact that the persons
of the drama live in an age in which such claims seemed reason-
able. Telramund, again, is no ordinary operatic villain; there
is genuine tragedy in his moral ruin; and even the melodramatic
Ortrud is a much more life-like intrigante than might be inferred
from Wagner's hyperbolical stage-directions, which almost
always show his manner at its worst.
In Lohengrin we take leave of the early music that obscured
Wagner's ideals, and in the Ring we come to the music which
transcends all other aspects of Wagnerism. Had Wagner been
a man of more urbane literary intellect he might have been less
ambitious of expressing a world-philosophy in music-drama;
and it is just conceivable that the result might have been a less
intermittent dramatic movement in his later works, and a balance
of ethical ideas at once more subtle and more orthodox. But
it is much more likely that Wagner would then have found his
artistic difficulties too formidable to let the ideas descend to us
from Walhalla and the Hall of the Grail at all. More than a
modicum of rusticity is needed as a protection to a man who
attempts such colossal reforms. This necessity had its conse-
quences in the disquieting inequalities of Wagner's early work,
and the undeniable egotism that embittered his fiery nature
throughout his life; while the cut-and-dried system of culture
of later Wagnerian discipleship has revenged him in a specially
sacerdotal type of tradition, which makes progress even in the
study of his works impossible except through revolt. Such are
the penalties exacted by the irony of fate for the world's
persecution of its prorJhets.
Genuinely dramatic music, even if it seem as purely musical
as Mozart's, must always be approached through its drama; and
Wagner's masterpieces demand that we shall use this approach ;
but, as with Mozart, we must not stop on the threshold. With
Mozart there is no temptation to do so. But with Wagner, just
as there are people who have never tried to follow a sonata but
who have been awakened by his music-dramas to a sense of the
possibilities of serious music, so there are lovers of music who
avow that they owe to Wagner their appreciation of poetry.
But people whose love of literature is more independent find it
hard to take Wagner's poetry and prose seriously, unless they
have already measured him by his music. He effected no reform
in literature; his meticulous adherence to the archaic alliteration
of the N ' ibelungenlied is not allied with any sense of beauty in
verbal sound or verse-rhythm; and his ways of expressing
emotion in language consist chiefly in the piling-up of super-
latives. Yet he was too full of dramatic inspiration to remain
perpetually victimized by the conscientious affectations of the
amateur author; and, where dramatic situations are not only
poetical but (as in the first act of DieWalkure and the Waldweben
scene in Siegfried) too elemental for strained language, Wagner
is often supremely eloquent simply because he has no occasion
to try to write poetry. Sometimes, too, when a great dramatic
climax has given place to a lyrical anticlimax, retrospective
moods, subtleties of emotion and crowning musical thoughts
press in upon Wagner's mind with a closeness that determines
every word; and thus not only is the whole third act of Tristan,
as Wagner said when he was working at it, of " overwhelming
tragic power," but Isolde's dying utterances (which occupy the
last five minutes and are, of course, totally without action or
dramatic tension) were not unlike fine poetry even before the
music was written. But, as a rule, Wagner's poetic diction must
simply be tolerated by the critic who would submit himself to
Wagner's ideas.
If we wish to know what Wagner means, we must fight our
way through his drama to his music; and we must not expect
to find that each phrase in the mouth of the actor corresponds
word for note with the music. That sort of correspondence
Wagner leaves to his imitators; and his views on " Leit-motif-
hunting," as expressed in his prose writings and conversation,
are contemptuously tolerant. We shall indeed find that his
orchestra interprets the dramatic situations which his poetry
roughly outlines. But we shall also find that, even if we could
conceive the poetry to be a perfect expression of all that can be
given in words and actions, the orchestra will express something
greater; it will not run parallel with the poetry; the Leitmotif
system will not be a collection of labels; the musical expression
of singer and orchestra will not be a mere heightened resource of
dramatic declamation. All that kind of pre-established harmony
Wagner left behind him the moment he deserted the heroes and
villains of romantic opera for the visionary and true tragedy of
gods and demi-gods, giants and gnomes, with beauty, nobility
and love in the wrong, and the forces of destruction and hate
set free by blind justice.
Let us illustrate Wagner's mature use of Leitmotif by the theme
which happens to be associated with Alberich's ring. The fact
that this theme is commonly called the " Ring-motif " is a glaring
instance of what Wagner has had to endure from his friends.
Important as the ring is throughout the tetralogy, Wagner would
no more think of associating a theme with it for its own sake
than he would think of associating a theme with Wotan's hat.
Why should a Ring-motif be transformed into the theme repre-
senting Walhalla? Are we to guess that the connexion of ideas
is that Wotan had eventually to pay for Walhalla by the ring?
But if we attend to the circumstances under which this theme
arises, its purport and development become deep and natural.
The Rhine-daughters have been teasing the Nibelung Alberich,
and are rejoicing in the light of the Rhine-gold which shines at
WAGNER
241
the top of a rock as the sun strikes it through the water. Alberich
does not think much of the gold if its only use is for these water-
children's games. But one of the Rhine-daughters tells him that
" he who could make the gold into a ring would become master
of the world," and to these words the so-called Ring-motif is
first sung (see MELODY, Example u). The Rhine-daughter sings
it in a childlike, indolently graceful way which well expresses
the kind of toy the ring or the world itself would be to her.
One of her sisters bids her be careful, but they reassure them-
selves with the thought that the Rhine-gold is safe, since no one
can win it who does not renounce love. Alberich broods over
what he hears, and already the theme changes its character as
he thinks of such mastery of the world as he might gain by it
(MELODY, Ex. 12). He curses love and grasps the gold. The
theme of world-mastery grows dark with the darkness of the
Nibelung's mind. The waters of the Rhine change into black
mists which grow grey and thin, while the now sinister theme
becomes softer and smoother. Then it breaks gently forth in a
noble, swinging rhythm and massively soft brazen tones, as
Wotan awakes on a mountain height and gazes upon Walhalla,
his newly finished palace which he has bid the giants build, so
that from it he may rule the world (MELODY, Ex. 13). The theme
thus shows no trivial connexion with a stage-property, mechanic-
ally important in the plot; but it represents the desire for
power, and what that desire means to each different type of mind.
The gods, as the giants plaintively admit, " rule by beauty";
hence the " Walhalla-motif ." What it becomes in the mind of
the Nibelung is grimly evident when Alberich uses his ring in
Nibelheim. The Rhine-daughters' exultant cry of " Rhine-gold "
is there tortured in an extremely remote modulation at the end
of a very sinister transformation of the theme; and the orchestra-
tion, wi(h its lurid but smothered brass instruments, its penetrat-
ing low reed tones and its weird drum-roll beaten on a suspended
cymbal, is more awe-inspiring than anything dreamed of by the
cleverest of those composers who do not create intellectual causes
for their effects.
A famous and typical instance of Wagner's use of Leitmotif in
tragic irony is the passage where Hagen gives Siegfried friendly
welcome, to the melody of the curse which Alberich pronounced
on the ring and all who approached it. The more subtle examples
are inexhaustible in variety and resource; and perhaps the
climax of subtlety is the almost entire absence of Leitmotif in the
first scene of the third act of Gotterdiimmerung, when Siegfried
throws away his last chance of averting his doom. The Rhine-
daughters appear to him, and ask him to give them the ring that
is on his finger. Siegfried refuses. They laugh at his stinginess
and disappear. Siegfried is piqued, and calls them back to offer
them the ring. Unfortunately they tell him of its curse, and
prophesy death to him if he keeps it. This arouses his spirit of
contradiction; and he tells them that they might have won
it from him by coaxing, but never by threats, and that he values
his life no more than the stone he tosses away as he speaks to
them. In spite of the necessary allusions to the ominous theme
of the curse, which would give any less great composer ample
excuse for succumbing to the listener's sense of impending. doom,
Wagner's music speaks to us through the child-minds of the
Rhine-daughters and terrifies us with the ruthless calm of Nature.
Almost as subtle, and much more directly impressive, is the
pathos of the death of Siegfried, which is heightened by an un-
precedented appeal to a sense of musical form on the scale of
the entire tetralogy. Siegfried's whole character and career is,
indeed, annihilated in the clumsy progress towards this con-
summation ; but Shakespeare might have condoned worse plots
for the sake of so noble a result; and indeed Wagner's awkward-
ness arises mainly from fear of committing oversights. Hagen,
the Nibelung's son, has managed to make Siegfried unwittingly
drink a love-potion with Gutrune, which causes him to forget his
own bride, Briinnhilde. Siegfried is then persuaded to transform
himself by his magic Tarnhelm into the likeness of his host,
Gutrune's brother Gunther, in order to bring Briinnhilde (whose
name is now quite new to him) from her fire-encircled rock, so
that Gunther may have her for his bride and Siegfried may wed
Gutrune. This is achieved; and Brunnhilde's horror and be-
wilderment at meeting Siegfried again as a stranger in his own
shape creates a situation which Siegfried cannot understand,
and which Hagen pretends to construe as damning evidence that
Siegfried has betrayed Gunther's honour as well as Brunnhilde's.
Hagen, Gunther and Briinnhilde therefore agree that Siegfried
must die. In order to spare Gutrune's feelings it is arranged
that his death shall appear as an accident in a hunting party.
While the hunting party is resting Siegfried tells stories of his
boyhood, thus recalling the antecedents of this drama with a
charming freshness and sense of dramatic and musical repose.
When he comes to the point where his memory has been clouded
by Hagen's spells, Hagen restores his memory with another
magic potion. Siegfried calmly continues to tell how he found
Briinnhilde asleep on the fiery mountain. Hagen affects to
construe this as a confession of guilt, and slays him as if in
righteous wrath. The dying Siegfried calls on Briinnhilde to
awaken, and asks "Who hath locked thee again in sleep?"
He believes that he is once more with Briinnhilde on the Val-
kyries' mountain height; and the harmonies of her awakening
move in untroubled splendour till the light of life fades with the
light of day and the slain hero is carried to the Gibichung's hall
through the moonlit mists, while the music of love and death
tells in terrible triumph more of his story than he ever knew.
The bare conception of such art as this shows how perfect is
the unity between the different elements in Wagner's later music-
drama. If the music of Tristan is more polyphonic than that of
Lohengrin, it is because it is hardly figurative to call its drama
polyphonic also. Compare the mere fairy-tale mystery of
Lohengrin's command that Elsa shall never ask to know his
name, with the profound fatalism of Isolde's love-potion. Apart
from the gain in tragic force resulting from Wagner's masterly
development of the character of Brangacne, the raw material
of the story was already suggestive of that astounding combina-
tion of the contrasted themes of love and death, the musical
execution of which involves a harmonic range almost as far
beyond that of its own day as the ordinary harmonic range of
the ipth century is beyond that of the i6th. In his next work,
Die Meister singer, Wagner ingeniously made poetry and drama
out of an explicit manifesto to musical critics, and proved the
depth of his music by developing its everyday resources and so
showing that its vitality does not depend on that extreme
emotional force that makes Tristan und Isolde almost unbearably
poignant. Few things are finer in music or literature than the
end of the second act of Die Meister singer, from the point where
Sachs's apprentice begins the riot, to the moment when the
watchman, frightened at the silence of the moonlit streets so
soon after he has heard all that noise, announces eleven o'clock
and bids the folk pray for protection against evil spirits, while
the orchestra tells us of the dreams of Walther and Eva and ends
by putting poetry even into the pedantic ineptitudes of the
malicious Beckmesser. Die Meister singer is perhaps Wagner's
most nearly perfect work of art; and it is a striking proof of its
purity and greatness that, while the whole work is in the happiest
comic vein, no one ever thinks of it as in any way slighter than
Wagner's tragic works. The overwhelming love-tragedy of
Tristan und Isolde is hardly less perfect, though the simplicity
of its action exposes its longueurs to greater notoriety than those
which may be found in Die Meistetsinger.
These two works interrupted the execution of the Ring and
formed the stepping-stones to Parsifal, a work which may
perhaps be said to mark a further advance in that subtlety of
poetic conception which, as we have seen, gave the determining
impulse to Wagner's true musical style. But in music he had
no more to learn, and Parsifal, while the most solemn and
concentrated of all Wagner's dramas, is musically not always
unsuggestive of old age. Its harmonic style is, except in the
Grail music, even more abstruse than in Tristan; and the
intense quiet of the action is far removed from the forces which
in that tumultuous tragedy carry the listener through every
difficulty. Again, while the Eucharistic features in Parsifal
attract some listeners, the material effect of their presentation
242
WAGNER
on the stage has been known to repel others who are beyond
suspicion of prejudice. But the greatness of the art is, like its
subject, worlds away from material impressions; and a wide
consensus regards Wagner's last work as his loftiest, both in
music and poetry. Certainly no poet would venture to despise
Wagner's imaginative conception of Kundry. In his letters to
his, friend Mathilde Wesendonck, it appears that while he was
composing Tristan he already had the inspiration of working
out the identification of Kundry, the messenger of the Grail,
with the temptress who, under the spell of Klingsor, seduces the
knights of the Grail; and he had, moreover, thought out the
impressively obscure suggestion that she was Herodias, con-
demned like the wandering Jew to live till the Saviour's second
coming. The quiet expression of these startling ideas is more
remarkable than their adoption; for smaller artists live on
still more startling ideas; but most remarkable of all is the
presentation of Parsifal, both in his foolishness and in the widsom
which comes to him through pity. The chief excuse for doubting
whether Wagner's last work is really his greatest is that most
of its dramatic subtleties are beyond musical expression, since
they do not lead to definite conflicts and blendings of emotion.
Where the orchestra shows that Parsifal is becoming half-con-
scious of his quest while Kundry is beguiling him with memories
of his mother, and also during the two changes of scene to the
Hall of the Grail, where the orchestra mingles the agony of
Amfortas and the sorrow of the knights with the tolling of the
great bells, the polyphony is almost as dramatic as in Tristan',
while the prelude and the Charfreitagszauber are among the
clearest examples of the sublime since Beethoven. But else-
where there are few passages in which the extremely recondite
harmonic style can be with certainty traced to anything but
habit. This style originated, indeed, in a long experience of the
profoundest dramatic impulses; but as a habit it does not seem,
like the greatest things in art, the one inevitable treatment of
the matter in hand. But, whatever our doubts, we may safely
regard Parsifal as a work which, like Beethoven's last fugues,
invites attack rather from those critics who demand what flatters
their own vanity than from those who wish to be inspired by
what they could never have foreseen for themselves.
In Wagner's harmonic style we encounter the entire problem
of modern musical texture. Wagner effected vast changes in
almost every branch of his all-embracing art, from theatre-
building and stage-lighting to the musical declamation of words.
Most of his reforms have since been intelligently carried out as
normal principles in more arts than one; but, shocking as the
statement may seem to 20th-century orthodoxy, Wagnerian
harmony is a universe as yet unexplored, except by the few
composers who are so independent of its bewildering effect on
the generation that grew up with it, that they can use Wagner's
resources as discreetly as he used them himself. The last two
examples at the end of the article on HARMONY show almost all
that is new in Wagner's harmonic principles. The peculiar art
therein is that while the discords owe their intelligibility and
softness to the smooth melodic lines by which in " resolving "
they prove themselves but transient rainbow-hues on or below
the surface, they owe their strangeness to the intense vividness
with which at the moment of impact they suggest a mysteriously
remote foreign key. Wagner's orthodox contemporaries regarded
such mixtures of key as sheer nonsense; and it would seem that
the rank and file of his imitators agree with that view, since they
either plagiarize Wagner's actual progressions or else produce
such mixtures with no vividness of key-colour and little attempt
to follow those melodic trains of thought by which Wagner
makes sense of them. There is far more of truly Wagnerian
harmony to be found before his time than since. It was so early
recognized as characteristic of Chopin that a magnificent example
may be seen at the end of Schumann's little tone-portrait of
him in the Carnaval: a very advanced Wagnerian passage on
another principle constitutes the bulk of the development in the
first movement of Beethoven's sonata Les Adieux; while even
in the " Golden Age " of music, and within the limits of pure
diatonic concord, the unexpectedness of many of Palestrina's
chords is hardly less Wagnerian than the perfect smoothness of
the melodic lines which combine to produce them.
Wagnerian harmony is, then, neither aside-issue nor a progress
per saltum, but a leading current in the stream of musical evolu-
tion. That stream is sure sooner or later to carry with it every
reality that has been reached by side-issues and leaps; and of
such things we have important cases in the works of Strauss and
Debussy. Strauss makes a steadily increasing use of avowedly
irrational discords, in order to produce an emotionally apt
physical sensation. Debussy has this in common with Strauss,
that he too regards harmonies as pure physical sensations; but
he differs from Strauss firstly in systematically refusing to regard
them as anything else, and secondly in his extreme sensibility
to harshness. We have seen (in the articles on HARMONY and
Music) how harmonic music originated in just this habit of
regarding combinations of sound as mere sensations, and how
for centuries the habit opposed itself to the intellectual principles
of contrapuntal harmony. These intellectual principles are, of
course, not without their own ground in physical sensation;
but it is evident that Debussy appeals beyond them to a more
primitive instinct; and on it he bases an almost perfectly
coherent system of which the laws are, like those of 12th-century
music, precisely the opposite of those of classical harmony.
The only illogical point in his system is that the beauty of his
dreamlike chords depends not only on his artful choice of a timbre
that minimizes their harshness, but also on the fact that they
enter the ear with the meaning they have acquired through
centuries of harmonic evolution on classical lines. There is a
special pleasure in the subsidence of that meaning beneath a
soothing sensation; but a system based thereon cannot be
universal. Its phenomena are, however, perfectly real, and can
be observed wherever artistic conditions make the tone of a
mass of harmony more important than the interior threads of
its texture. This is of constant occurrence in classical pianoforte
music, in which thick chords are subjected to polyphonic laws
only in their top and bottom notes, while the inner notes make a
solid mass of sound in which numerous consecutive fifths and
octaves are not only harmless but essential to the balance ol tone.
In Debussy's art the top ancl bottom are also involved in the
antipolyphonic laws of such masses of sound, thus making ihese
laws paramount.
The irrational discords of Strauss are also real phenomena in
musical aesthetics. They are an extension of the principle on
which gongs and cymbals and all instruments without notes of
determinate pitch, are employed in otherwise polyphonic music.
But it is important to realize that both these types of modern
harmony are radically non-Wagnerian. Haydn uses a true
Straussian discord in The Seasons, in order to imitate the chirping
of a cricket; but the harshest realism in Gotterdiimmerung (the
discord produced by the horns of Hagen and his churls in the
mustering-scene in the second act) has a harmonic logic which
would have convinced Corelli. And of Debussy's antipolyphonic
art there is less in Wagner than in Beethoven. The present in-
fluence of Wagnerian harmony is, then, somewhat indefinite,
since the most important real phenomena of later music indicate
a revolt both from it and from earlier classical methods. It has
had, however, a marked effect on weaker musical individualities.
Musical public opinion now puts an extraordinary pressure on
the young composer, urging him at all costs to abandon " out-
of-date "styles however stimulating they maybe to his invention.
It is no exaggeration to say that a parallel condition in literature
would be produced by a strong public opinion to the effect that
any English style was hopelessly out of date unless it consisted
exclusively of the most difficult types of phrase to be found in
the works of Browning and Meredith. The brilliant success of
Humperdinck's Hansel und Gretel, in which Wagnerian technique
is applied to the diatonic style of nursery songs with a humorous
accuracy undreamed of by Wagner's imitators, points a moral
which would have charmed Wagner himself; but until the
revival of some rudiments of musical common sense becomes
widespread, there is little prospect of the influence of Wagner's
harmonic style being productive of anything better than nonsense.
WAGON WAGRAM
243
The very sense of dramatic fitness has temporarily vanished
from public musical opinion, together with the sense of musical
form, in consequence of another prevalent habit, that of present-
ing shapeless extracts from Wagner's operas as orchestral pieces
without voices or textbooks or any hint that such adjuncts are
desirable. But this vandalism, which Wagner condoned with a
very bad grace, now happily begins to give way to the practice
of presenting long scenes or entire acts, with the singers, on
the concert-platform. This has the merit of bringing the real
Wagner to ears which may have no other means of hearing
him, and it fosters no delusion as to what is missing in such a
presentation. The guidance of Hans Richter has given us a
sure bulwark against the misrepresentation of Wagner; and so
there is hope that Wagner may yet be saved from such an
oblivion in fetish-worship as has lost Handel to us for so long.
As with Shakespeare and Beethoven, the day will never come
when we can measure the influence of so vast a mind upon the
history of art. Smaller artists can make history; the greatest
absorb it into that daylight which is its final cause.
LIST OF WAGNER'S WORKS
The following are Wagner's operas and music-dramas, apart
from the unpublished Die Hpchzeil (three numbers only), Die Feen,
and Das Lieoesverbot (Das Liebesverbot was disinterred in 1910).
1. Rienzi, der letzte der Tribunen: grosse tragische Oper; 5 acts
(1838-1840).
2. Der fliegende Hollander: romantische Oper; I act, afterwards
cut into 3 (1841).
3. Tannhduser und der Sdngerkrieg auf Wartburg: romantische
Oper; 3 acts (libretto, 1843; music, 1844-1845; new Venusberg
music, 1860-1861).
4. Lohengrin: romantische Oper; 3 acts (libretto, 1845; music,
1846-1848). This is the last work Wagner calls by the title of Opera.
5. Das Rheingold, prologue in 4 scenes to Der Ring des Nibelungen;
ein Buhnenfestspiet (poem written last of the series, which was begun
in 1848 and finished in 1851-1852; music, 1853-1854).
6. Die Walkilre: der Ring des Nibelungen, enter Tag; 3 acts
(score finished, 1856).
7. Tristan und Isolde; 3 acts (poem written in 1857; music,
1857-1859).
8. Siegfried: der Ring des Nibelungen, zweiler Tag; 3 acts, the first
two nearly finished before Tristan, the rest between 1865 and 1869.
9. Die Meistersinger von Number g; 3 acts (sketch of play, 1845;
poem, 1861-1862; music, 1862-1867).
10. Gotterddmmerung: der Ring des Nibelungen, driller Tag;
introduction and 3 acts (Siegfried's Tod already sketched dramati-
cally in 1848; music, 1870-1874).
11. Parsifal: ein Buhnenwcthfestspiel (a solemn stage festival
play). 3 acts (poem, 1876-1877; music, 1877-1882, Cltarfreiiags-
zauber already sketched in 1857).
As regards other compositions, the early unpublished works in-
clude a symphony, a cantata, some incidental music to a pantomime,
and several overtures, four of which have recently been discovered
and produced. The important small published works are Eine
Faust Overture (1839-1840; rewritten, 1855); the Siegfried Idylle
(an exquisite serenade lor small orchestra on themes from the
finale of Siegfried, written as a surprise for Frau Wagner in 1870);
the Kaisermarsch (1871), the Huldigungsmarsch (1864) for military
band (the scoring of the concert-version finished by Raff); Fiinf
Gedichte (1862), a set of songs containing two studies for Tristan;
and the early quasi-oratorio scene for male-voice chorus and full
orchestra. Das Liebesmahl der Apostel (1843). Wagner's retouching
of Cluck's Iphigenie en Aulide and his edition of Palestrina's Stabat
Mater demand mention as important services to music, by no means
to be classified (as in some catalogues) with the hack-work with
which he kept off starvation in Paris.
The collected literary works of Wagner in German fill ten volumes,
and include political speeches, sketches for dramas that did not
become operas, autobiographical chapters, aesthetic musical
treatises and polemics of vitriolic violence. Their importance will
never be comparable to that of his music; but, just as the reaction
against Ruskin's ascendancy as an art-critic has coincided with an
increased respect for his ethical and sociological thought, so the
rebellious forces that are compelling Wagnensm to grant music a
constitution coincide with a growing admiration of his general
mental powers. The prose works have been translated into English
by W. A. Ellis (8 vols., 1892-1899). The translation by F. Jameson
(1897) f the text of the Ring (first published in the pocket edition
of the full scores) is the most wonderful tour deforce yet achieved in
its line. A careful reading of the score to this English text reveals
not a single false emphasis or loss of rhetorical point in the fitting of
words to notes, nor a single extra note or halt in the music; and
wherever the language seems stilted or absurd the original will be
found to be at least equally so, while the spirit of Wagner's poetry
is faithfully reflected. Such work deserves more recognition than
it is ever likely to get. Rapidly as the standard of musical transla-
tions was improving before this work appeared, no one could have
foreseen what has now been abundantly verified, that the Ring can
be performed in English without any appreciable loss to Wagner's art.
The same translator has also published a close, purely literary version.
LITERATURE. The Wagner literature is too enormous to be dealt
with here. The standard biography is that of Glasenapp (6 vols.,
of which five appeared between 1894 and 1909). Of readable
English books we may cite Ernest Newman, A Study of Wagner
(1899); H. E. Krehbiel, Studies in the Wagnerian Drama (1891);
Jessie L. Weston, Legends of the Wagner Dramas (1906). The
Perfect Wagnerite, by G. Bernard Shaw, though concerned mainly
with the social philosophy of the Ring, gives a luminous account of
Wagner's mastery of musical movement. The highest English
authority on Wagner is his friend Dannreuther, whose article in
Grove's Dictionary is classical.
See also ARIA, HARMONY, INSTRUMENTATION, Music, OPERA, and
OVERTURE. (D.F.T.)
WAGON, or WAGGON, a large four-wheeled vehicle for the
carriage of heavy loads, and drawn by two or more horses.
This is the general English use of the term, where it is more
particularly confined to the large vehicles employed in the
carrying of agricultural produce. It is also used of the uncovered
heavy rolling stock for goods on railways. In America the term
is applied also to lighter vehicles, such as are used for express
delivery, police work, &c., and to various forms of four-wheeled
vehicles used for driving, to which the English term " cart "
would be given. The word " wagon " appears to be a direct
adaptation of Du. Wagen (cf. Ger. Wagen, Swed. Vagn, &c.).
Skeat finds the earliest use of the word in Lord Berner's transla-
tion of Froissart (1523-1525), so that it is by no means an early
word. The O.E. cognate word was w&gn, later w<zn, by dropping
of g (cf. regn, ren, rain), modern " wain." The root of all these
cognate words, meaning to carry, is seen in Lat. vehere. The
term " wagon " or " waggon " is applied technically in book-
binding to a frame of cane used for trimming the edges of gold
leaf. In architecture a " wagon-ceiling " is a boarded roof of
the Tudor time, either of semicircular or polygonal section.
It is boarded with thin panels of oak or other wood ornamented
with mouldings and with loops at the intersections.
WAGRAM (DETJTSCH- WAGRAM), a village of Austria situated
in the plain of the Marchfeld, n| m. N.E. of Vienna. It gives
its name to the battle of the 5th and 6th of July 1809, in which
the French army under Napoleon defeated the Austrians com-
manded by the archduke Charles. On the failure of his previous
attempt to pass his whole army across the Danube at Aspern
(see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS and ASPERN), Napoleon set himself
to accumulate, around Vienna and the island of Lobau, not only
his own field forces, but also every man, horse and gun available
from Italy and South Germany for a final effort. Every detach-
ment was drawn in within forty-eight hours' call, his rearward
communications being practically denuded of their covering
troops. The island of Lobau itself was converted practically into
a fortress, and 150 heavy guns were mounted on its banks to
command the Austrian side of the stream. Giving up, in face
of this artillery, the direct defence of the river-side, the Austrians
drew up in a great arc of about 6 m. radius extending from the
Bisamberg, overlooking the Danube, in the west, to Markgraf-
neusiedl on the east. From this point to the Danube below Lobau
a gap was left for the deployment of the archduke Johann's
army from Pressburg. This army, however, arrived too late.
Their total front, therefore, was about 12 m. for 120,000 men,
which by a forward march of a couple of hours could be reduced
to about 6 m. giving a density of occupation of about 20,000
men to the mile.
Meanwhile Napoleon reconstructed the bridge over the main
stream (see ASPERN) more solidly, protecting it by palisades of
piles and floating booms, and organized an armed flotilla to
command the waterway. On the island itself preparations were
made to throw three bridges across the Lobau arm of the stream
opposite Aspern and Essling, and seven more on the right, facing
east between Gross Enzersdorf and the main river.
For several days previous to the great battle the French had
sent across small detachments, and hence when, on the afternoon
of the 4th of July, an advanced guard was put over near Gross
244
WAGRAM
Enzersdorf, the attention of the Austrians was not particularly
attracted and tkey did not interfere. The emperor, however,
had now men available for the battle, and under cover of this
detachment his pontoniers made the seven bridges. Long before
daylight on the 6th the troops began to stream across, and about
9 A.M. the three corps destined for the first line (Davout, Oudinot
and Massena) had completed their deployment on a front of
WAGRAM
Scale. 1:160.000
English Miles
some 6000 yds. and were moving forward to make way for the
second line (Eugene and Bernadotte) and the third line (Bessieres
and the guard). About noon the general advance began, the
French opening outwards like a fan to obtain space for manoeuvre,
Davout direct on Markgrafneusiedl and the Austrian left,
Massena (slightly refused to cover the French left) byBreitenlee
on Siissenbrunn.
The Austrians held a strong position along the line of the
Russbach from Deutsch-Wagram to Markgrafneusiedl with their
left, whilst their right was held ready for a counter-attack
intended to roll up the French attack from left to right when the
proper moment should come. The movements of the great
French masses in the confined space were slow, and the attack on
the line of the Russbach did not declare itself till 8 P.M.; the
corps did not attack simultaneously, and failed altogether to
make any serious impression on the Austrian position. Massena
on the left was scarcely engaged.
But, hearing of the success of his left wing on the Russbach,
the archduke determined to anticipate the French next morning
on that side, and four corps were directed upon Massena, who
had bivouacked his troops overnight on the line Leopoldsau-
Siissenbrunn-Aderklaa, the latter, a strongly built village,
forming, as it were, a bridge-head to the passages of the Russbach
at Deutsch-Wagram. Another corps with a strong cavalry force
was also directed to pivot round Markgrafneusiedl and to attack
Davout on his right ; on this flank also the arrival of the archduke
Johann was expected later in the day.
The Austrian movements were somewhat ill-connected;
nevertheless, by n A.M. Massena's left had been driven back
almost to Aspern, and his right, though aided by Bernadotte,
had failed to recapture Aderklaa, from which the Austrians had
driven his advanced posts early in the morning. The situation
for the French looked very serious, for their troops were not
fighting with the dash and spirit of former years. But Napoleon
was a master in the psychology of the battlefield, and knew that
I on the other side things were much the same. He therefore sent
orders along the whole line
for a gigantic counter-stroke.
Davout on the right was to
attack Markgrafneusiedl
again. Massena was to
move against the troops
immediately to his front;
Bernadotte and Marmont
to advance respectively
against Breitenlee and
Aderklaa, whilst in the gap
which would thus open
between them marched the
5th corps (Macdonald) on
Siissenbrunn, covered by a
battery of 104 guns and
followed by the guard and
reserve cavalry.
Macdonald formed his
30,000 men in a gigantic
hollow square on a front
of one battalion, fourteen
battalions deployed at six
paces distance leading, whilst
the remainder of the in-
fantry marched in column
of sections on either flank,
and cavalry closed the rear.
The idea was to compel even
the weakest to go on, on pain
of being trampled to death
under the feet of the follow-
ing men and horses, but the
terror caused by the Aus-
trian round-shot tearing
huge gaps through the
mass proved enough to counteract even this danger, and
the men in the advance threw themselves down whole-
sale. It is admitted by French authors (Ardant du Picq)
that of the 30,000 only 3000 actually delivered the attack, about
3000 were killed or wounded, but 24-,ooo evaded their duty
somehow, and the trail of the column appeared one mass of dead
and dying, creating a terrible impression on all who saw it.
Nevertheless, Macdonald leached his destination, for the guns
had literally torn a gap in the opposing line, and the guards and
cavalry then followed intact. At the same time Davout also had
made progress, and, learning that the archduke Johann could
not be counted on for that day, the archduke Charles issued
orders for a retreat. The whole Austrian army was gradually
withdrawn, unbeaten and still available for a renewed offensive
if necessary the following day.
The French, however, were in no condition to follow up their
advantage. They had seen more of the slaughter than their
adversaries, and except the emperor and Davout all seem to
have been completely shaken. Even in Davout's command,
always the steadiest in danger, the limit of endurance had been
passed, for when about 5 p. M. the advanced patrols of the
archduke Johann's force appeared on their flank, panic on a scale
hitherto unknown in the Grande Armee seized the whole right
wing, and Napoleon had to confess that no further advance was
possible with these men for several days.
Berndt (Zahl im Kriege) gives the following figures. French,
181,700 (including 29,000 cavalry) and 430 guns engaged, of
whom 23,000 men were killed and wounded, 7000 missing
(16%); it guns and 12 eagles and colours were lost. Austrians,
WAGTAIL WAILLY
245
128,600 (including 14,600 cavalry) men and 410 guns engaged;
losses, 19,110 killed and wounded, and 6740 missing (20%);
9 guns and one colour were lost. The casualties in general officers
were unusually severe, 21 French and 15 Austrians being killed
and wounded.
WAGTAIL (Wagsterd and Wagslyrt, isth century fide T.
Wright, Vol. Vocabularies, ii. 221, 253; Uuagtale, Turner,
1544, p. 53), the popular name for birds of the subfamily
Motacillinae, which, together with the Anthinae (see PIPIT),
form the passerine family Motacillidae.
The pied wagtail Motacttla lugubris is a common and generally
distributed species in the British Islands, and common through-
out northern Europe, but migrating southwards over a relatively
narrow range in winter. The white wagtail, M. alba of Linnaeus,
has a wide range in Europe, Asia and Africa, visiting England
almost yearly, and chiefly differing from the ordinary British
in its lighter-coloured tints the cock especially having a clear
grey instead of a black back. Three other species occur in
England, but the subfamily with several genera and very many
species ranges over the Old World, except Australia and Poly-
nesia, whilst the Asiatic species reach North- West America.
Wagtails are generally parti-coloured birds, frequenting
streams and stagnant water, and feeding on seeds, insects,
worms, small molluscs and crustaceans. The bill is thin and
elongated, and the tail is very long. The nests are made of moss,
grass and roots, with a lining of hair and feathers; four to six
eggs are laid, bluish white or brown, or yellowish with spots and
markings.
The genus Motacitta (an exact rendering of the English
" wagtail," the Dutch Kwikstaart, the Italian Codatremola and
other similar words), which, as originally founded by Linnaeus,
contained nearly all the " soft-billed " birds of early English
ornithologists, was restricted by various authors in succession,
following the example set by Scopoli in 1769, until none but the
wagtails remained in it. (A. N.)
WAHHABIS, a Mahommedan sect, the followers of Ibn 'Abd
ul-Wahhab, who instituted a great reform in the religion of
Islam in Arabia in the i8th century. Mahommed ibn 'Abd ul-
Wahhab was born in 1691 (or 1703) at al-Haua of the Nejd in
central Arabia, and was of the tribe of the Bani Tamlm. He
studied literature and jurisprudence of the Hanifite school.
After making the pilgrimage with his father, he spent some
further time in the study of law at Medina, and resided for a
while at Isfahan, whence he returned to the Nejd to undertake
the work of a teacher. Aroused by his studies and his obser-
vation of the luxury in dress and habits, the superstitious
pilgrimages to shrines, the use of omens and the worship given
to Mahomet and Mahommedan saints rather than to God, he
began a mission to proclaim the simplicity of the early religion
founded on the Koran and Sunna (i.e. the manner of life of
Mahomet). His mission in his own district was not attended
by success, and for long he wandered with his family through
Arabia, until at last he settled in Dara'Iyya, or Deraiya (in the
Nejd), where he succeeded in converting the greatest notable,
Mahommed ibn Sa'ud, who married his daugther, and so became
the founder of an hereditary Wahhabite dynasty. This gave the
missionary the opportunity of following the example of Mahomet
himself in extending his religious teaching by force. His
instructions in this matter were strict. All unbelievers (i.e.
Moslems who did not accept his teaching, as well as Christians,
&c.) were to be put to death. Immediate entrance into Paradise
was promised to his soldiers who fell in battle, and it is said that
each soldier was provided with a written order from Ibn 'Abd
ul-Wahhab to the gate-keeper of heaven to admit him forthwith.
In this way the new teaching was established in the greater part
of Arabia until its power was broken by Mehemet Ali (see
ARABIA: History). Ibn 'Abd ul-Wahhab is said to have died in
1791.
The teaching of ul-Wahhab was founded on that of Ibn
Taimlyya (1263-1328), who was of the school of Ahmad ibn
Hanbal (q.v.). Copies of some of Ibn Taimlyya's works made
by ul-Wahhab are now extant in Europe, and show a close
study of the writer. Ibn Taimlyya, although a Hanbalite by
training, refused to be bound by any of the four schools, and
claimed the power of a mujlahid, i.e. of one who can give inde-
pendent decisions. These decisions were based on the Koran,
which, like Ibn Hazm (q.v.), he accepted in a literal sense, on
the Sunna and Qiyds (analogy). He protested strongly against
all the innovations of later times, and denounced as idolatry the
visiting of the sacred shrines and the invocation of the saints
or of Mahomet himself. He was also a bitter opponent of the
Sufis of his day. The Wahhabites also believe in the literal sense
of the Koran and the necessity of deducing one's duty from
it apart from the decisions of the four schools. They also pointed
to the abuses current in their times as a reason for rejecting the
doctrines and practices founded on Ijmd', i.e. the universal
consent of the believer or their teachers (see MAHOMMEDAN
RELIGION). They forbid the pilgrimage to tombs and the in-
vocation of saints. The severe simplicity of the Wahhabis has
been remarked by travellers in central Arabia. They attack all
luxury, loose administration of justice, all laxity against infidels,
addiction to wine, impurity and treachery. Under 'Abd ul-
Aziz they instituted a form of Bedouin (Bedawi) commonwealth,
insisting on the observance of law, the payment of tribute,
military conscription for war against the infidel, internal peace
and the rigid administration of justice in courts established for
the purpose.
It is clear that the claim of the Wahhabis to have returned
to the earliest form of Islam is largely justified; Burckhardt
(vol. ii. p. 112) says, " The only difference between his (i.e. ul-
Wahhab's) sect and orthodox Turks, however improperly so
termed, is that the Wahabys rigidly follow the same laws which
the others neglect or have ceased altogether to observe." Even
orthodox doctors of Islam have confessed that in Ibn 'Abd
ul-Wahhab's writings there is nothing but what they themselves
hold. At the same time the fact that so many of his followers
were rough and unthinking Bedouins has led to the over-emphasis
of minor points of practice, so that they often appear to observers
to be characterized chiefly by a strictness (real or feigned) in such
matters as the prohibition of silk for dress, or the use of tobacco,
or of the rosary in prayer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and
Wahabys (2 yols., London, 1831); A. Chodzko, " Le De'isme des
Wahhabis" in the Journal asiatique, series iv. vol. xi. pp. 168 ff;
I. Goldziher in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen
Gesellschaft, vol. Hi. pp. 156-157 (1898); D. B. Macdonald, Muslim
Theology (London, 1903). (G. W. T.)
WAI, a town in Satara district, Bombay, ou the Kistna river.
Pop. (IOPI) 13,989. It is a place of Hindu pilgrimage, with a
large Brahman population, the river being lined with temples
and bathing ghats. In the neighbourhood are Buddhist caves.
WAIBLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirt-
temberg, in the centre of a fruitful vine-growing district on the
Rems, 10 m. N.E. from Stuttgart by the main line of railway to
Nuremberg via Nordlingen and at the junction of a branch to
Hessenthal. Pop. (1905) 5997. It has two Evangelical churches,
one of which is a fine Gothic structure of the ijth century,
restored in 1866, a Roman Catholic church and a modem town
hall. Its industries, which include the making of pottery and
silk and the cultivation of fruit and vines, are considerable.
Waiblingen is mentioned in the 9th century, when it had a
palace of the Carolingian sovereigns. Subsequently it belonged
to the dukes of Franconia, and gave a surname to the emperor
Conrad II. It was in this way that the Hohenstaufen family,
which was descended in the female line from Conrad, received
the name of Waiblingen, corrupted by the Italians into Ghibelline.
WAILLY, NOfiL FRANCOIS DE (17:4-1801), French gram-
marian and lexicographer, was born at Amiens on the 3ist of
July 1724. His life was spent in Paris, where for many years he
carried on a school which was extensively patronized by foreigners
who wished to leam French. In 1754 he published Principes
glniraux de la langue franfaise, which revolutionized the teaching
of grammar in France. The book was adopted as a textbook
by the university of Paris and generally used throughout France,
an abstract of it being prepared for primary educational purposes.
246
WAINEWRIGHT WAITS
In 1771 de Wailly published May ens simples et raisonnls de
diminver les imperfections de notre orthographe, in which he advo-
cated phonetic spelling. He was a member of the Institute from
its foundation (1795), and took an active part in the preparation
of the Dictionnaire de I'Academie. His works, in addition to those
cited, include L'Orthographe des dames (1782) and Le Nowieau
Vocatndaire franc.ais, ou abrige du dictionnaire de I' Academic
(1801). He died in Paris on the 7th of April 1801.
WAINEWRIGHT, THOMAS GRIFFITHS (1794-1852), English
journalist and subject-painter, was born at Chiswick in October
1794. He was educated by his distant relative Dr Charles
Burney, and served as an orderly officer in the guards, and as
cornet in a yeomanry regiment. In 1819 he entered on a literary
life, and began to write for The Literary Pocket-Book, Black-
wood's Magazine and The Foreign Quarterly Review. He is,
however, most definitely identified with The London Magazine,
to which, from 1820 to 1823, he contributed some smart but
flippant art and other criticisms, under the signatures of " Janus
Weathercock," " Egomet Bonmot " and " Herr Vinkbooms."
He was a friend of Charles Lamb who thought well of his
literary productions, and in a letter to Bernard Barton, styles
him the " kind, light-hearted Wainewright " and of the other
brilliant contributors to the journal. He also practised as an
artist, designing illustrations to Chamberlayne's poems, and from
1821 to 1825 exhibiting in the Royal Academy figure pictures,
including a " Romance from Undine," " Paris in the Chamber of
Helen " and the " Milkmaid's Song." Owing to his extravagant
habits, Wainewright's affairs became deeply involved. In 1830
he insured the life of his sister-in-law in various offices for a
sum of 18,000, and when she died, in the December of the same
year, payment was refused by the companies on the ground of
misrepresentation. Wainewright retired to France, was seized
by the authorities as a suspected person, and imprisoned for six
months. He had in his possession a quantity of strychnine, and
it vras afterwards found that he had destroyed, not only his
sister-in-law, but also his uncle, his mother-in-law and a Norfolk-
shire friend, by this poison. He returned to London in 1837, but
was at once arrested on a charge of forging, thirteen years before,
a transfer of stock, and was sentenced to transportation for life.
He died of apoplexy in Hobart Town hospital in 1852.
The Essays and Criticisms of Wainewright were published in 1880,
with an account of his life, by W. Carew Hazlitt; and the history
of his crimes suggested to Dickens his story of Hunted Down
and to Bulwer Lytton his novel of Lucreiia. His personality, as
artist and poisoner, has interested latter-day writers, notably Oscar
Wilde in " Pen, Pencil and Poison " (Fortnightly Review, Jan. 1889),
and A. G. Allen, in T. Seccombe's Twelve Bad Men (1894).
WAINGANGA, a river of India, flowing through the Central
Provinces in a very winding course of about 360 m. After
joining the Wardha the united stream, known as the Pranhita,
ultimately falls into the Godavari.
WAINSCOT, properly a superior quality of oak, used for fine
panel work, hence such panel- work as used for the lining or
covering of the interior walls of an apartment. The word appears
to be Dutch and came into use in English in the i6th century,
and occurs in lists of imported timber. The Dutch word wagen-
schot, adapted in English as waynskott, weynskoU (Hakluyt,
Voyages, i. 173, has " boords called waghenscol "), was applied to
the best kind of oak, well-grained, not liable to warp and free
from knots. The form shows that it was, in popular etymology,
formed from wagen (i.e. wain, wagon) and schoi, a term which
has a large number of meanings, such as shot, cast, partition, an
enclosure of boards, cf. " sheet," and was applied to the fine wood
panelling used in coach-building. This is, however, doubted,
and relations have been suggested with Dutch weeg, wall, cognate
with O. Eng. waft, wall, or with M. Dutch waeghe, Ger. Wage,
wave, the reference being to the grain of the wood when cut.
The term " wainscot " is sometimes wrongly applied to a " dado,"
the b'ning, whether of paper, paint or wooden panelling, of the
lower portion of the walls of a room. A " dado " (Ital. dado, die,
cube; Lat. datum, something given, a die for casting lots; cf.
O. Fr. del, mod. de, Eng. " die ") meant originally the plane-faced
cube on the base of a pedestal between the mouldings of the base
and the cornice, hence the flat surface between the plinth and
the capping of the wooden lining of the lower part of a wall,
representing a continuous pedestal.
WAIST, the middle part of the human body, the portion lying
between the ribs and the hip-bones, comprising the compressible
parts of the trunk. The word is also applied to the central portion
of other objects, particularly to the narrowest portion of musical
instruments of the violin type and to the centre of a ship. The
word appears in the M. Eng. as waste, " waste of a mannys'
myddel " (Prompt, pan. c. 1440), and is developed from the
O. Eng. wcestm, growth, the " waist " being the part where the
growth of a man is shown and developed; cf. IceL voxtr, stature,
shape; Dan. vaext, size, growth, &c. It is thus to be derived
from the O. Eng. weaxan, to grow, wax.
WAITE, MORRISON REMICK (1816-1888), American jurist,
was born at Lyme, Connecticut, on the 29th of November 1816,
the son of Henry Matson Waite (1787-1869), who was judge of
the superior court and associate judge of the supreme court of
Connecticut in 1834-1854 and chief justice of the latter in 1854-
1857. He graduated at Yale in 1837, and soon afterwards
removed to Maumee City, Ohio, where he studied law in the office
of Samuel L. Young and was admitted to the bar in 1839. In
1850 he removed to Toledo, and he soon came to be recognized
as a leader of the state bar. In politics he was first a Whig and
later a Republican, and in 1849-1850 he was a member of the
state senate. In 1871, with William M. Evarts and Caleb
Gushing, he represented the United States as counsel before the
" Alabama " Tribunal at Geneva, and in 1874 he presided over
the Ohio constitutional convention. In the same year he was
appointed by President U. S. Grant to succeed Judge Salmon
P. Chase as chief-justice of the United States Supreme Court,
and he held this position until his death at Washington, D.C.,
on the 23rd of March 1888. In the cases which grew out of the
Civil War and Reconstruction, and especially in those which
involved the interpretation of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth and
Fifteenth amendments, he sympathized with the general tendency
of the court to restrict the further extension of the powers of the
Federal government. He concurred with the majority in the
Head Money Cases (1884), the Ku-Klux Case (United States v.
Harris, 1882), the Civil Rights Cases (1883) and the Juittard v.
Greenman (legal tender) Case (1883). Among his own most
important decisions were those in the Enforcement Act Cases
(1875), the Sinking Fund Case (1878), the Railroad Commission
Cases (1886) and the Telephone Cases (1887).
WAITHMAN, ROBERT (1764-1833), Lord Mayor of London,
was born at Wrexham in 1 764. After being employed for some
time in a London linen draper's, he opened, about 1 786, a draper's
shop of his own, and made a considerable fortune. In 1818 he
was returned to parliament, as a liberal, for the city of London.
He lost his seat at the election of 1820, but regained it in 1826,
and retained it till his death, taking part vigorously in the parlia-
mentary debates, and strenuously supporting reform. In 1823
he was Lord Mayor of London. Waithman died in London
on the 6th of February 1833. An obeh'sk erected by his friends
in Ludgate Circus, London, adjoining the site of his first shop,
commemorates his memory.
WAITS (A.S. wacan, to " wake " or " watcb,"), the carol-
singers and itinerant musicians who parade the streets at night
at Christmas time. The earliest waits (those of the i4th and
I5th centuries) were simply watchmen who sounded horns
or even played a tune on a flute or flageolet to mark the hours.
This appears to have been known as " piping the watch." The
black book of the royal household expenses of Edward IV.,
under date 1478, provides for " a wayte, that nyghtely from
Mychelmas to Shreve Thorsdaye pipe the watch within this
courte fowere tymes; in the somere nightes three tymes and
maketh bon gayte at every chambre doare and offyce, as well
as for feare of pyckeres and pilfers." Elaborate orders as to
his housing occur. Thus he was to eat in the hall with the
minstrels and was to sup off half a loaf and half a gallon of ale.
During his actual attendance at court he was to receive fourpence
halfpenny a day or less in the discretion of the steward of the
WAITZ, G. WAKE, W.
247
household. He had a livery given him and during illness an
extra allowance of food. Besides " piping the watch " and
guarding the palace against thieves and fire, this wait had to
attend at the installation of knights of the Bath. London and
all the chief boroughs had their corporation waits certainly
from the early i6th century, for in the privy purse accounts
of Henry VIII. occurs (1532) the entry "Item, the XI daye
(of October) paied to the waytes of Canterbery in rewarde . . .
vijs. vjd." In 1582 Dudley, earl of Leicester, writes to the
corporation of London asking that a servant of his should be
admitted to the city waits. These borough waits appear, how-
ever, to have been more nearly akin to the medieval troubadours
or minstrels who played to kings and nobles at and after the
evening meal. The duties of the London waits, which included
playing before the mayor during his annual progress through
the streets and at city dinners, seem to have been typical of
all i6th- and 17th-century city waits. The London waits had
a special uniform of blue gowns with red sleeves and caps, and
wore a silver collar or chain round the neck. In the i8th and
early igth century the ordinary street watchmen appear to have
arrogated to themselves the right to serenade householders
at Christmas time, calling round on Boxing Day to receive a
gratuity for their tunefulness as well as their watchfulness.
When in 1829 their place as guardians of the city's safety was
taken by police, it was left for private individuals to keep up the
custom.
WAITZ, GEORQ (1813-1886), German historian, was born
at Flensburg, in the duchy of Schleswig, on the 9th of October
1813. He was educated at the Flensburg gymnasium and the
universities of Kiel and Berlin. The influence of Ranke early
diverted him from his original purpose of studying law, and while
still a student he began that series of researches in German
medieval history which was to be his life's work. On graduating
at Berlin in August 1836, Waitz went to Hanover to assist Pertz
in the great national work of publishing the Monumenta Ger-
maniae hislorica; and the energy and learning he displayed
in that position won him a summons to the chair of history
at Kiel in 1842. The young professor soon began to take an
interest in politics, and in 1846 entered the provincial diet as
representative of his university. His leanings were strongly
German, so that he became somewhat obnoxious to the Danish
government, a fact which made an invitation in 1847 to become
professor of history at Gottingen peculiarly acceptable. The
political events of 1848-1849, however, delayed his appearance
in his new chair. When the German party in the northern
duchies rose against the Danish government, Waitz hastened
to place himself at the service of the provisional government.
He was sent to Berlin to represent the interests of the duchies
there, and during his absence he was elected by Kiel as a delegate
to the national parliament at Frankfort. Waitz was an adherent
of the party who were eager to bring about a union of the German
states under a German emperor; and when the king of Prussia
declined the imperial crown the professor withdrew from the
assembly in disappointment, and ended his active share in public
life. In the autumn of 1849 Waitz began his lectures at Gottingen.
His style of speaking was dry and uninteresting; but the matter
of his lectures was so practical and his teaching so sound that
students were attracted in crowds to his lecture-room, and the
reputation of the Gottingen historical school spread far and wide.
At the same time Waitz's pen was not idle, and his industry is
to be traced in the list of his works and in the Proceedings of
the different historical societies to which he belonged. In 1875
\Vaitz removed to Berlin to succeed Pertz as principal editor
of the Monumenta Germaniae hislorica. In spite of advancing
years the new editor threw himself into the work with all his
former vigour, and took journeys to England, France and Italy
to collate works preserved in these countries. He died at Berlin
on the 24th of May 1886. He was twice married in 1842 to a
daughter of Schelling the philosopher, and in 1858 to a daughter
of General von Hartmann.
Waitz is often spoken of as the chief disciple of Ranke,
though perhaps in general characteristics and mental attitude
he has more affinity with Pertz or Dahlmann. His special
domain was medieval German history, and he rarely travelled
beyond it.
Waitz's chief works, apart from his contributions to the Monumenta,
are: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (8 vols., Kiel, 1844-1878;
2nd ed., 2 vpls. only, 1865-1870); Schleswig-Holsteins Geschichte
(2 vols., Gottingen, 1851-1854; the 3rd vol. was never published);
Lubeck unter Jurgen Wullenwever und die europaische Politik (3 vols. ;
Berlin, 1855-1856) ; and Grundziige der Politik (Kiel, 1862). Among
his smaller works, which, however, indicate the line of his researches,
are the following: Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich I.
(Berlin, 1837, 3rd ed., 1885); Ober das Leben und die Lehre des UlJUa
(Hanover, 1840); Das alte Recht der salischen Franken (Kiel, 1846);
and Deutsche Kaiser von Karl dem Grossen bis Maximilian (Berlin,
1872). In conjunction with other scholars Waitz took a leading part
in the publication of the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte
(Munich, 1862 seq.), and in the Nordalbingische Studien, published in
the Proceedings of the Schleswig-Holstein Historical Society (Kiel,
1844-1851). A Bibliographische Obersicht tZfter Waitz's Werke was
published by E. Steindorft at Gottingen in 1886.
Obituary notices of Waitz are to be found in the Historische
Zeitschrift, new series, vol. xx. ; in the publications for 1886 of the
Berlin Akademie der Wissenschaften, the Gottingen Gesellschaft
der Wissenschaften, and the Hansischer Geschichtsverein ; in the
Historisches Jahrbuch der Gorres Gesellschaft, vol. viii. ; and in the
Revue historique, vol. xxxi.
WAITZ, THEODOR (1821-1864), German psychologist and
anthropologist, was born at Gotha on the i7th of March 1821.
Educated at Leipzig and Jena, he made philosophy, philology
and mathematics his chief studies, and in 1848 he was appointed
professor of philosophy in the university of Marburg. He was
a severe critic of the philosophy of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel,
and considered psychology to be the basis of all philosophy.
His researches brought him into touch with anthropology, and
he will be best remembered by his monumental work in six
volumes, Die Anthropologie der Natunolker. He died on the 2ist
of May 1864 at Marburg.
In addition to his Anthropologie, the first four volumes of which
appeared at Leipzig, 1859-1864, the last two posthumously, he
published Grundlegung der Psychohgie (1846); Lehrbuch der Psycho-
logie als Naiurwissenschaft (1849); AUgemeine Pddagogik (1852);
and a critical edition of the Organon of Aristotle (1844).
WAKE, THOMAS (1297-1349), English baron, belonged to
a Lincolnshire family which had lands also in Cumberland,
being the son of John Wake (d. 1300), who was summoned to
parliament as a baron in 1295, and the grandson of Baldwin
Wake (d. 1282), both barons and warriors of repute. Among
Thomas Wake's guardians were Piers Gaveston and Henry, earl
of Lincoln, whose daughter Blanche (d. 1337) he married before
1317. This lady was the niece of Thomas, earl of Lancaster,
and her husband was thus attached to the Lancastrian party,
but he did not follow Earl Thomas in the proceedings which
led to his death in 1322. Hating the favourites of Edward II.
Wake joined Queen Isabella in 1326 and was a member of the
small council which advised the young king, Edward III.; soon,
however, he broke away from the queen and her ally, Roger
Mortimer, and in conjunction with his father-in-law, now earl
of Lancaster, he joined the malcontent barons. He was possibly
implicated in the plot which cost his brother-in-law, Edmund,
earl of Kent, his life in 1330, and he fled to France, returning
to England after the overthrow of Isabella and Mortimer.
Edward III. made him governor of the Channel Islands and he
assisted Edward Bruce to invade Scotland, being afterwards
sent on an errand to France. In 1341 he incurred the displeasure
of the king and was imprisoned, but he had been restored and
had been employed in Brittany and elsewhere when he died
childless on the 3ist of May 1349. His estates passed to his
sister Margaret (d. 1349), widow of Edmund, earl of Kent,
and her son John (d. 1352), and later to the Holand family.
Wake established a house for the Austin canons at Newton near
Hull; this was afterwards transferred to Haltemprice in the
same neighbourhood.
WAKE, WILLIAM (1657-1737), English archbishop, was bom
at Blandford, Dorset, on the 26th of January 1657, and educated
at Christ Church, Oxford. He took orders, and in 1682 went to
Paris as chaplain to the ambassador Richard Graham, Viscount
Preston (1648-1695). Here he became acquainted with many of
248
WAKE WAKEFIELD, E. G.
the savants of the capital, and was much interested in French
clerical affairs. He also collated some Paris manuscripts of the
Greek Testament for John Fell, bishop of Oxford. He returned
to England in 1685; in 1688 he became preacher at Gray's Inn,
and in 1689 he received a canonry of Christ Church, Oxford.
In 1693 he was appointed rector of St James's, Westminster.
Ten years later he became dean of Exeter, and in 1705 he was
consecrated bishop of Lincoln. He was translated to the see
of Canterbury in 1716 on the death of Thomas Tenison. During
1718 he negotiated with leading French churchmen about a pro-
jected union of the Gallican and English churches to resist the
claims of Rome (see J. H. Lupton, Archbishop Wake and the
Project of Union, 1896). In dealing with nonconformity he was
tolerant, and even advocated a revision of the Prayer Book if
that would allay the scruples of dissenters. His writings are
numerous, the chief being his State of the Church and Clergy of
England . . , historically deduced (London, 1703). He died at
Lambeth on the 24th of January 1 736/7.
Sir Isaac Wake (c. 1580-1632), the diplomatist, was a kinsman of
the archbishop. He commenced his diplomatic career in Venice,
and then he represented his county for sixteen years at Turin ; he
was knighted in 1619, and after being sent on various special missions
by James I. he was British ambassador in Paris from 1630 until his
death in June 1632. Among Sir Isaac's writings is Rex platonicus,
a description of the entertainment of James I. at Oxford in 1605;
this was published in 1607 and has often been reprinted.
WAKE (A.S. wacan, to " wake " or " watch "), a term now
restricted to the Irish custom of an all-night " waking " or
watching round a corpse before burial, but anciently used in the
wider sense of a vigil kept as an annual church celebration in
commemoration of the completion or dedication of the parish
church. This strictly religious wake consisted in an all-night
service of prayer and meditation in the church. These services,
popularly known as " wakes," were officially termed Vigdiae
by the church, and appear to have existed from the earliest days
of Anglo-Saxon Christianity. Tents and booths were set up in
the churchyard before the dawn which heralded in a day devoted
to feasting, dancing and sports, each parish keeping the morrow
of its vigil as a holiday. Wakes soon degenerated into fairs;
people from neighbouring parishes journeyed over to join in
the merry-making, and as early as Edgar's reign (958-975) the
revelry and drunkenness had become a scandal. The vigiliae
usually fell on Sundays or saints' days, those being the days
oftenest chosen for church dedications, and thus the abuse was
the more scandalous. In 1445 Henry VI. attempted to suppress
markets and fairs on Sundays and holy days. In 1536 an Act
of Convocation ordered that the yearly " wake " should be held
in every parish on the same day, viz. the first Sunday in October,
but this regulation was disregarded. Wakes are specially men-
tioned in the Book of Sports of James I. and Charles I. among the
feasts which should be observed.
Side by side with these church wakes there existed from the
earliest times the custom of " waking " a corpse. The custom,
as far as England was concerned, seems to have been older than
Christianity, and to have been at first essentially Celtic. Doubt-
less it had a superstitious origin, the fear of evil spirits hurting
or even removing the body, aided perhaps by the practical
desire to keep away rats and other vermin. The Anglo-Saxons
called the custom lich-wake or like- wake (A.S. lie, a corpse).
With the introduction of Christianity the offering of prayer was
added to the mere vigil, which until then had been characterized
by formal mourning chants and recitals of the life story of the
dead. As a rule the corpse, with a plate of salt on its breast, was
placed under the table, on which was liquor for the watchers.
These private wakes soon tended to become drinking orgies, and
during the reign of Edward III. the provincial synod held in
London proclaimed by its loth canon the object of wakes to be
the offering of prayer for the dead, and ordered that in future
none but near relatives and friends of the deceased should attend.
The penalty for disobedience was excommunication. With the
Reformation and the consequent disuse of prayers for the dead
the custom of " waking " in England became obsolete and died
out. Many countries and peoples have been found to have a
custom equivalent to " waking," which, however, must be
distinguished from the funeral feasts pure and simple.
For detailed accounts of Irish wakes see Brand's Antiquities of
Great Britain (W. C. Hazlitt's edition, 1905) under " Irish Wakes."
WAKEFIELD, EDWARD GIBBON (1796-1862), British
colonial statesman, was bom in London on the zoth of March
1796, of an originally Quaker family. His father, Edward Wake-
field (1774-1854), author of Ireland, Statistical and Political
(1812). was a surveyor and land agent in extensive practice; his
grandmother, Priscilla Wakefield (1751-1832), was a popular
author for the young, and one of the introducers of savings banks.
Wakefield was for a short time at Westminster School, and was
brought up to his father's profession, which he relinquished on
occasion of his elopement at the age of twenty with Miss Pattle,
the orphan daughter of an Indian civil servant. The young lady's
relatives ultimately became reconciled to the match, and pro-
cured him an appointment as attache to the British legation at
Turin. He resigned this post in 1820, upon the death of his
wife, to whom he was fondly attached, and, though making
some efforts to connect himself with journalism, spent the years
immediately succeeding in idleness, residing for the most part in
Paris. In 1826 he appeared before the public as the hero of a
most extraordinary adventure, the abduction of Miss Ellen
Turner, daughter of William Turner, of Shrigley Park, Cheshire.
Miss Turner was decoyed from school by means of a forged letter,
and made to believe that she could only save her father from
ruin by marrying Wakefield, whom she accordingly accompanied
to Gretna Green. This time the family refused to condone his
proceedings; he was tried with his confederates at Lancaster
assizes, March 1827, convicted, and sentenced to three years'
imprisonment in Newgate. The marriage, which had not been
consummated, was dissolved by a special act of parliament.
A disgrace which would have blasted the career of most men
made Wakefield a practical statesman and a benefactor to his
country. Meditating, it is probable, emigration upon his release,
he turned his attention while in prison to colonial subjects,
and acutely detected the main causes of the slow progress of
the Australian colonies in the enormous size of the landed
estates, the reckless manner in which land was given away, the
absence of all systematic effort at colonization, and the conse-
quent discouragement of immigration and dearth of labour. He
proposed to remedy this state of things by the sale of land in
small quantities at a sufficient price, and the employment of the
proceeds as a fund for promoting immigration. These views were
expressed with extraordinary vigour and incisiveness in his Letter
from Sydney (1829), published while he was still in prison, but
composed with such graphic power that it has been continually
quoted as if written on the spot. After his release Wakefield
seemed disposed for a while to turn hfs attention to social
questions at home, and produced a tract on the Punishment of
Death, with a terribly graphic picture of the condemned sermon
in Newgate, and another on incendiarism in the rural districts,
with an equally powerful exhibition of the degraded condition
of the agricultural labourer. He soon, however, became entirely
engrossed with colonial affairs, and, having impressed John
Stuart Mill, Colonel Torrens and other leading economists with
the value of his ideas, became a leading though not a conspicuous
manager of the South Australian Company, by which the colony
of South Australia was ultimately founded. In 1833 he published
anonymously England and America, a work primarily intended
to develop his own colonial theory, which is done in the appendix
entitled " The Art of Colonization." The body of the work,
however, is fruitful in seminal ideas, though some statements
may be rash and some conclusions extravagant. It contains the
distinct proposal that the transport of letters should be wholly
gratuitous the precursor of subsequent reform and the
prophecy that, under given circumstances, " the Americans
would raise cheaper corn than has ever been raised." In 1836
Wakefield published the first volume of an edition of Adam
Smith, which he did not complete. In 1837 the New Zealand
Association was established, and he became its managing
director. Scarcely, however, was this great undertaking fairly
WAKEFIELD, G. WAKEFIELD
commenced when he accepted the post of private secretary to
Lord Durham on the latter's appointment as special commissioner
to Canada. The Durham Report, the charter of constitutional
government in the colonies, though drawn up by Charles Buller,
embodied the ideas of Wakefield, and the latter was the means
of its being given prematurely to the public through The Times,
to prevent its being tampered with by the government. He
acted in the same spirit a few months later, when (about July
1839), understanding that the authorities intended to prevent
the despatch of emigrants to New Zealand, he hurried them
off on his own responsibility, thus compelling the government to
annex the country just in time to anticipate a similar step on the
part of France. For several years Wakefield continued to direct
the New Zealand Company, fighting its battles with the colonial
office and the missionary interest, and secretly inspiring and
guiding many parliamentary committees on colonial subjects,
especially on the abolition of transportation. The company was
by no means a financial success, and many of its proceedings
were wholly unscrupulous and indefensible; its 'great object,
however, was attained, and New Zealand became the Britain of
the south. In 1846 Wakefield, exhausted with labour, was
struck down by apoplexy, and spent more than a year in com-
plete retirement, writing during his gradual recovery his Art of
Colonization. The management of the company had meanwhile
passed into the hands of others, whose sole object was to settle
accounts with the government, and wind up the undertaking.
Wakefield seceded, and joined Lord Lyttelton and John Robert
Godley in establishing the Canterbury settlement as a Church of
England colony. A portion of his correspondence on this subject
was published by his son as The Founders of Canterbury (Christ-
church, 1868). As usual with him, however, he failed to retain
the confidence of his coadjutors to the end. In 1853, after the
grant of a constitution to New Zealand, he took up his residence
in the colony, and immediately began to act a leading part in
colonial politics. In 1854 he appeared in the first New Zealand
parliament as extra-official adviser of the acting governor, a
position which excited great jealousy, and as the mover of a
resolution demanding the appointment of a responsible ministry.
It was carried unanimously, but difficulties, which will be found
detailed in W. Swainson's New Zealand and its Colonization (ch.
12), prevented its being made effective until after the mover's
retirement from political life. In December 1854, after a
fatiguing address to a public meeting, followed by prolonged ex-
posure to a south-east gale, his constitution entirely broke down.
He spent the rest of his life in retirement, dying at Wellington
on the i6th of May 1862. His only son, Edward Jerningham
Wakefield (1820-1879), was a New Zealand politician. Three
of Wakefield's brothers were also interested in New Zealand.
After serving in the Spanish army William Hayward Wakefield
(1803-1848) emigrated to New Zealand in 1839. As an agent of
the New Zealand Land Company he was engaged in purchasing
enormous tracts of land from the natives, but the company's
title to the greater part of this was later declared invalid. He
remained in New Zealand until his death on the I9th of September
1848. Arthur Wakefield (1799-1843), who was associated with
his brother in these transactions about land, was killed during a
fight with some natives at Wairau on the i7th of June 1843. The
third brother was Felix Wakefield (1807-1875), an engineer.
Wakefield was a man of large views and lofty aims, and in
private life displayed the warmth of heart which commonly
accompanies these qualities. His main defect was unscrupulous-
ness: he hesitated at nothing necessary to accomplish an object,
and the conviction of his untrustworthiness gradually alienated
his associates, and left him politically powerless. Excluded from
parliament by the fatal error of his youth, he was compelled to
resort to indirect means of working out his plans by influencing
public men. But for a tendency to paradox, his intellectual
powers were of the highest order, and as a master of nervous
idiomatic English he is second to Cobbett alone. After every
deduction it remains true that no contemporary showed equal
genius as a colonial statesman, or in this department rendered
equal service to his country.
249
For an impartial examination of the Wakefield system, see Leroy-
Beaulieu, De la colonisation chez Us peuples modernes (3rd ed. pp.
562-575 and 696-700). See also R. Garnett's Life of Wakefield
(1898). (R- G.)
WAKEFIELD, GILBERT (1756-1801), English classical scholar
and politician, was born at Nottingham on the 22nd of February
1756. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge (fellow,
1776). In 1778 he took orders, but in the following year quitted
the church and accepted the post of classical tutor at the Non-
conformist academy at Warrington, which he held till the dis-
solution of the establishment in 1783. After leaving Warrington,
he took private pupils at Nottingham and other places, and
also occupied himself with literary work. His most important
production at this period was the first part of the Silva critics,
the design of which was the " illustration of the Scriptures by
light borrowed from the philology of Greece and Rome." In
1790 he was appointed professor of classics at the newly-founded
Unitarian college at Hackney, but his proposed reforms and his
objection to religious observances led to unpleasantness and to
his resignation in the following year. From this time he sup-
ported himself by his pen. His edition of Lucretius, a work
of high pretensions and little solid performance, appeared in
1796-1799, and gained for the editor a very exaggerated reputa-
tion (see Munro's Lucretius, i. pp. 19, 20). His light-hearted
criticism of Person's edition of the Hecuba was avenged by the
latter's famous toast: " Gilbert Wakefield; what's Hecuba to
him or he to Hecuba ? " About this time Wakefield, who hated
Pitt and condemned war as utterly unchristian, abandoned
literature for political and religious controversy. After assailing
with equal bitterness writers so entirely opposed as William
Wilberforce and Thomas Paine, in January 1798 he "employed
a few hours " in drawing up a reply to Bishop Watson's Address
to the People of Great Britain, written in defence of Pitt and the
war and the new " tax upon income." He was charged with
having published a seditious libel, convicted in spite of an
eloquent defence, and imprisoned for two years in Dorchester
gaol. A considerable sum of money was subscribed by the
public, sufficient to provide for his family upon his death, which
took place on the 9th of September 1801. While in prison he
corresponded on classical subjects with Charles James Fox, the
letters being subsequently published.
See the second edition of his Memoirs (1804). The first volume is
autobiographical; the second, compiled by J. T. Rutt and A.
Wainewright, includes several estimates of his character and per-
formances from various sources, the most remarkable being one
by Dr Parr; see also Gtntleman's Magazine (September 1801);
Henry Crabb Robinson's Diary (3rd ed., 1872); John Aikin in
Aikin's General Biography (1799-1815).
WAKEFIELD. a city and municipal and parliamentary
borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 175! m.
N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 4M'3- It is served by the
Great Northern, Midland and Great Central railways (Westgate
station), and the Lancashire and Yorkshire and North-Eastern
railways (Kirkgate station), the Great Northern Company using
both stations. It lies on the river Calder, mainly on the north
bank, in a pleasant undulating country, towards the eastern
outskirts of the great industrial district of the West Riding.
The river is crossed by a fine bridge of eight arches on which
stands the chapel of St Mary, a beautiful structure 50 ft. long
by 25 wide, of the richest Decorated character. Its endowment
is attributed to Edward IV., in memory of his father Richard,
duke of York, who fell at the battle of Wakefield (1460)- It was
completely restored in 1847. In 1888 the bishopric of Wakefield
was formed, almost entirely from that of Ripon, having been
sanctioned in 1878. The diocese includes about one-seventh of
the parishes of Yorkshire, and also covers a very small portion of
Lancashire. The cathedral church of All Saints occupies a very
ancient site, but only slight traces of buildings previous to the
1 4th century can be seen. In the early part of that century the
church was almost rebuilt, and was consecrated by Archbishop
William de Melton in 1329. Further great alterations took place
in the 1 5th century, and the general effect of the building as it
stands is Perpendicular. The church consists of a clerestoried
nave and choir, with a western tower; the eastward extension
250
WAKEFIELD WAKLEY
of the choir, the construction of the retrochoir and other works
were undertaken in 1900 and consecrated in 1905 as a memorial
to Dr Walsham How, the first bishop. During restoration of the
spire (the height of which is 247 ft.) in 1905, records of previous
work upon it were discovered in a sealed receptacle in the
weather-vane. Among the principal public buildings are the
town hall (1880), in the French Renaissance style; the county
hall (1898), a handsome Structure with octagonal tower and dome
over the principal entrance; the large corn exchange (1837,
enlarged 1862), including a concert-room; the market house,
the sessions house, the county offices (1896) and the prison for
the West Riding; the mechanics' institution with large library,
church institute and library, and the fine art institution. A
free library was founded in 1905, and a statue of Queen Victoria
unveiled in the Bull Ring at the same time. Benevolent
institutions include the Clayton hospital (1879), on the pavilion
system, and the West Riding pauper lunatic asylum with
its branches. The Elizabethan grammar school, founded in
1592, is the principal educational establishment. Among
several picturesque old houses remaining, that known as the
Six Chimneys, an Elizabethan structure, is the most striking.
Formerly Wakefield was the great emporium of the cloth manu-
facture in Yorkshire, but in the igth century it was superseded in
this respect by Leeds. Foreign weavers of cloth were established
at Wakefield by Henry VII.; and Leland, writing in the time of
Henry VIII., states that its " whola profit standeth by coarse
drapery." During the i8th century it became noted for the
manufacture of worsted yarn and woollen stuffs. Although its
manufacturing importance is now small in comparison with that
of several other Yorkshire towns, it possesses mills for spinning
worsted and carpet yarns, coco-nut fibre and China grass. It
has also rag-crushing mills, chemical works, soap-works and
iron- works; and there are a number of collieries in the neigh-
bourhood. Wakefield is the chief agricultural town in the West
Riding, and has one of the largest corn markets in the north of
England. It possesses agricultural implement and machine
works, grain and flour mills, malt-works and breweries. A large
trade in grain is carried on by means of the Calder, and the
building of boats for inland navigation is a considerable industry.
There are extensive market-gardens in the neighbourhood. In
the vicinity of Wakefield is Walton Hall, the residence of the
famous naturalist Charles Waterton (1782-1865). The parlia-
mentary borough returns one member. The municipal borough
is under a mayor, 9 aldermen and 27 councillors. Area, 4060
acres.
In the reign of Edward the Confessor, Wakefield (Wachefeld)
was the chief place in a large district belonging to the king and
was still a royal manor in 1086. Shortly afterwards it was granted
to William, Earl Warenne, and his heirs, under whom it formed
an extensive baronial liberty, extending to the confines of
Lancashire and Cheshire. It remained with the Warenne family
until the i4th century, when John Warenne, earl of Warenne and
Surrey, having no legitimate heir, settled it on his mistress,
Maud de Keirford and her two sons. They, however, pre-
deceased him, and after Maud's death in 1360 the manor fell to
the crown. Charles I. granted it to Henry, earl of Holland, and
after passing through the hands of Sir Gervase Clifton and Sir
Christopher Clapham, it was purchased about 1700 by the duke
of Leeds, ancestor of the present duke, who is now lord of the
manor. In 1203-1204 William Earl Warenne received a grant
of a fair at Wakefield on the vigil, day and morrow of All Saints'
day. As early as 1231 the town seems to have had some form of
burghal organization, since in that year a burgage there is
mentioned in a fine. In 1331, at the request of John de Warenne,
earl of Surrey, the king granted the " good men " of the town
pavage there for three years, and in the same year the earl
obtained a grant of another fair there on the vigil, day and
morrow of St Oswald. There is no other indication of a borough.
The battle of Wakefield was fought in 1460 on the banks of the
river Calder just outside the town.
Leland gives an interesting account of the town in the i6th
century, and while showing that the manufacture of clothing
was the chief industry, says also that Wakefield is " a very quik
market town and meatly large, well served of flesh and fish both
from sea and by rivers ... so that all vitaile is very good and
chepe there. A right honest man shall fare well for 2d. a meal.
. . . There be plenti of se coal in the quarters about Wakefield."
The corn market, held on Fridays, is of remote origin. A cattle
market is also held on alternate Wednesdays under charter of
1765. The town was enfranchised in 1832, and was incorporated
in 1848 under the title of the mayor, aldermen and councillors
of the borough of Wakefield. Before this date it was under the
superintendence of a constable appointed by the steward of the
lord of the manor.
See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; W. S. Banks, History of
Wakefield (1871); E. Parsons, History of Leeds, &c. (1834); T.
Taylor, History of Wakefield (1886).
WAKEFIELD, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about 10 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 6982; (1900)
9290, of whom 2347 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 11,404.
Wakefield is served by three branches of the Boston & Maine
railway and by electric interurban railway to neighbouring towns
and cities. It contains the outlying villages of Greenwcod,
Montrose and Boyntonville; and, larger than these, Wakefield,
near the centre of the township. In this village is the town hall,
the gift of Cyrus Wakefield (1811-1873), and the Beebe Town
Library, founded in 1856 as the Public Library of South Reading,
and later renamed in honour of Lucius Beebe, a generous patron.
The town park (about 25 acres), shaded by some fine old elms,
extends to the S. shore of Lake Quannapowitt and contains a
soldiers' monument; and in the S. part of the township are
Crystal Lake and Hart's Hill (30 acres), a public park. In the
township is the Wakefield Home for Aged Women, and a
Y.M.C.A. building. Manufacturing is the principal industry;
and among the manufactures are rattan goods, hosiery, stoves
and furnaces, boots and shoes, and pianos. The value of the
factory products increased from $2,647,130 in 1900 to $4,807,728
in 1905, or 81-6 %. The township owns and operates the electric
lighting and gas plants and the water-works.
Within the present limits of Wakefield the first settlement
was made, in 1639, in that part of the old township of Lynn
which in 1644 was incorporated as Reading. In 181 2 the southern
or " Old Parish " of Reading, which was strongly Democratic-
Republican while the other two parishes were strongly Federalist,
was set apart and incorporated as the town of South Reading.
In 1868 the present name was adopted in honour of Cyrus
Wakefield, who established the rattan works here. A portion
of Stoneham was annexed to Wakefield in 1889.
See C. W. Eaton, " Wakefield," in S. A. Drake's History of Middle-
sex County (Boston, 1880).
WAKKERSTROOM, a town and district of the Transvaal.
The district occupies part of the S.E. of the Transvaal, being
bounded S. by the Orange Free State and Natal. The frontier
line is in part the crest of the Drakensberg. The town of Wakker-
stroom, pop. (1904) 1402, lies 18 m. E. of Volksrust and 4 m. N.
of the Natal frontier. It is built on the high veld, at an elevation
of 5900 ft., and possesses a bracing climate. The neighbouring
hills rise over 7000 ft. The plain on which the town stands is
drained by the Slang and other tributaries of the Buffalo affluent
of the Tugela. The district, a fertile agricultural region, was
organized as one of the divisions of the Transvaal in 1859 by
President M. W. Pretorius, and after his Christian names the
town was called Marthinus-Wessel-Stroom, an unwieldy desig-
nation dropped in favour of Wakkerstroom. During the war of
1 880-8 1 the town was unsuccessfully besieged by the Boers.
In 1903 a small portion of the district was annexed to Natal.
WAKLEY, THOMAS (1795-1862), English medical and social
reformer, was born in Devonshire, and was early apprenticed to
a Taunton apothecary. He then went to London and qualified
as a surgeon, setting up in practice in Regent Street, and marrying
(1820) Miss Goodchild, whose father was a merchant and a
governor of St Thomas's Hospital. All through his career Wakley
proved to be a man of aggressive personality, and his experiences
in this respect had a sensational beginning. In August 1820 a
gang of men who had some grievance against him burnt down his
WALACHIA WALCH
251
house and severely wounded him in a murderous assault. The
whole affair was obscure, and Wakley was even suspected, un-
justly, of setting fire to his house himself; but he won his case
against the insurance company which contested his claim.
He became a friend of William Cobbett, with whose radicalism
he was in sympathy. In 1823 he started the well-known medical
weekly paper, the Lancet, and began a series of attacks on the
jobbery in vogue among the practitioners of the day, who were
accustomed to treat the medical profession as a close borough.
In opposition to the hospital doctors he insisted on publishing
reports of their lectures and exposing various malpractices, and
he had to fight a number of lawsuits, which, however, only
increased his influence. He attacked the whole constitution of
the Royal College of Surgeons, and obtained so much support
from among the general body of the profession, now roused to a
sense of the abuses he exposed, that in 1827 a petition to parlia-
ment resulted in a return being ordered of the public money
granted to it. But reform in the college was slow, and Wakley
now set himself to rouse the House of Commons from within.
He became a radical candidate for parliament, and in 1833 was
returned for Finsbury, retaining his seat till 1852. In this
capacity, and also as coroner for West Middlesex an appoint-
ment he secured in 1839 he was indefatigable in upholding the
interests of the working classes and advocating humanitarian
reforms, as well as in pursuing his campaign against medical
restrictions and abuses; and he made the Lancet not only a
professional organ but a powerful engine of social reform. He
died on the i6th of May 1862, leaving three sons, the proprietor-
ship of the Lancet remaining in the family.
See Samuel Squire Sprigge, Life and Times of Thomas Wakley
(1897).
WALACHIA, or WAIXACHIA, a former principality of south-
eastern Europe, constituting, after its union with Moldavia on
the Qth of November 1859, a part of Rumania (q.v.).
WALAFRID 1 STRABO (or Strabus, i.e. "squint-eyed")
(d. 849), German monk and theological writer, was born about
808 in Swabia. He was educated at the monastery of Reichenau,
near Constance, where he had for his teachers Tatto and Wettin,
to whose visions he devotes one of his poems. Then he went on
to Fulda, where he studied for some time under Hrabanus Maurus
before returning to Reichenau, of which monastery he was made
abbot in 838. There is a story based, however, on no good
evidence that Walafrid devoted himself so closely to letters as
to neglect the duties of his office, owing to which he was expelled
from his house; but, from his own verses, it seems that the real
cause of his flight to Spires was that, notwithstanding the fact
that he had been tutor to Charles the Bald, he espoused the side
of his elder brother Lothair on the death cf Louis the Pious in
840. He was, however, restored to his monastery in 842, and
died on the i8th of August 849, on an embassy to his former
pupil. His epitaph was written by Hrabanus Maurus, whose
elegiacs praise him for being the faithful guardian of his
monastery.
Walafrid Strabo's works are theological, historical and poetical.
Of his theological works the most famous is the great exegetical
compilation which, under the name of Glosa ordinaria or the Glosa,
mained for some 500 years the most widespread and important
quarry of medieval biblical science, and even survived the Re-
formation, passing into numerous editions as late as the I7th century
(see Hist, litteraire de la France, t. y. p. 59 ff-). The oldest known
copy, in four folio volumes, of which the date and origin are un-
known, but which is certainly almost entirely Walaf rid s work,
gives us his method. In the middle of the pages is the Latin text
of the Bible; in the margins are the " glosses," consisting of a very
full collection of patristic excerpts in illustration and explanation
of the text. There is also an exposition of the first twenty psalms
(published by Fez in Anecdota nova, iv.) and an epitome of Hrabanus
Maurus' s commentary on Leviticus. An Expositio quatuor Evange-
liorum is also ascribed to Walafrid. Of singular interest also is his
De exordiis et incrementis rerun ecclesiaslicarum, written between
840 and 842 and dedicated to Regenbert the librarian. It deals in
32 chapters with ecclesiastical usages, churches, altars, _ prayers
bells, pictures, baptism and the Holy Communion. Incidentally
he introduces into his explanations the current German expressions
for the things he is treating of, with the apology that Solomon hac
1 In the oldest MSS. this is always spelt " Walahfrid."
set him the example by keeping monkeys as well as peacocks at his
ourt. Of special interest is the fact that Walafrid, in his exposition
of the Mass, shows no trace of any belief in the doctrine of transub-
stantiation as taught by his famous contemporary Radbertus (q.v.) ;
according to him, Christ gave to his disciples the sacraments of his
Jody and Blood in the substance of bread and wine, and taught
hem to celebrate them as a memorial of his Passion.
Walafrid's chief historical works are the rhymed Vita sancli
Galli, which, though written nearly two centuries after this saint s
death, is still the primary authority for his life, and a much shorter
ife of St Othmar, abbot of St Gall (d. 759).* A critical edition of
hem by E. Dummler is in the Monumenta Germaniae hist. Poetae
Latini, ii. (1884), p. 259 ff. Walafrid's poetical works also include
a short life of St Blaithmaic, a high-boih monk of lona, murdered
3y the Danes in the first half of the gth century ; a life of St Mammas ;
and a Liber de vlsionibus Wettini. This last poem, like the two
^receding ones written in hexameters, was composed at the com-
mand of " Father " Adalgisus, and based upon the prose narrative
of Heto, abbot of Reichenau from 806 to 822. It is dedicated to
Wettin's brother Grimald. At the time he sent it to Grimald
Walafrid had, as he himself tells us, hardly passed his eighteenth
year, and he begs his correspondent to revise his verses, because,
as it is not lawful for a monk to hide anything from his abbot,"
fie fears he may be beaten with deserved stripes. In this curious
vision Wettin saw Charles the Great suffering purgatorial tortures
because of his incontinence. The name of the ruler alluded to is not
indeed introduced into the actual text, but " Carolus Imperator "
Form the initial letters of the passage dealing with this subject.
Many of Walafrid's other poems are, or include, short addresses to
kings and queens (Lothair, Charles, Louis, Pippin, Judith, &c.)
and to friends (Einhard, Grimald, Hrabanus Maurus, Tatto, Ebbo,
archbishop of Reims, Drogp, bishop of Metz, &c.). His most famous
poem is tne Hortulus, dedicated to Grimald. It is an account of a
little garden that he used to tend with his own hands, and is largely
made up of descriptions of the various herbs he grows there and
their medicinal and other uses. Sage holds the place of honour;
then comes rue, the antidote of poisons; and so on through melons,
fennel, lilies, poppies, and many other plants, to wind up with the
rose, " which in virtue and scent surpasses all other herbs, and may
rightly be called the flower of flowers." The curious poem >-
Imagine Tetrici takes the form of a dialogue; it was inspired by an
equestrian statue of Theodoric the Great which stood in front of
Charlemagne's palace at Aix-la-Chapelle.
For a bibliography of Walafrid's historical works, and of writings
dealing with them, see Potthast, Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi (Berlin,
1894), p. 1 102 ff. Walafrid's works are published in Migne's Palro-
logia Latino, vols. cxiii. and cxiv. For further references see the
article by Eduard Reuss and A. Hauck in Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopddie (Leipzig, 1908), xx. 790.
WALCH, JOHANN GEORG (1693-1775). German theologian,
was born on the I7th of June 1693 at Meiningen, where his
father, Georg Walch, was general superintendent. He studied
at Leipzig and Jena, amongst his teachers being J. F. Buddeus
(1667-1729), whose only daughter he married. He published in
1716 a work, Historia critica Latinae linguae, which soon came
into wide use. Two years later he became professor extra-
ordinarius of philosophy at Jena. In 1719 he was appointed
professor ordinarius of rhetoric, in 1721 of poetry, and in 1724
professor extraordinarius of theology. In 1728 he became
professor ordinarius of theology, and in 1750 professor primarius.
His theological position was that of a very moderate orthodoxy,
which had been influenced greatly by the philosophy and
controversies of the Deistic period. His university lectures
and published works ranged over the wide fields of church
history in its various branches, particularly the literature and
the controversies of the church, dogmatics, ethics and pastoral
theology. He died on the i3th of January 1775.
Of his works the most valuable were Bibliotheca Oteologica (i757-
1765); Bibliotheca patristica (1770, new ed. 1834); his edition of
Luther's works in 24 vois. (1740-1752); Historische and theologtsche
Einleittmg in die religiosen Streitigkeiten, lueiche sonderltch ausser der
ev -luthenschen Kirche entstanden (5 vols., 1733 ff.); the companion
work to this, Einleitung in die Religionsstrettigkeiten dsr evangel,
luth. Kirche (1730-1739), and Philosophises Lexikon (1726, 4th
ed 1775). His life, with a complete list of his writings, which
amounted to 287, Leben und Charakter des Kirchenraths J. G. Walch,
was published anonymously by his son C. W. F. Walch (Jena, 1777)-
Cf. Wilhelm Gass, Protestantische Dogmatik, iii. p. 205 sq.
His son, JOHANN ERNST IMMANUEL (1725-1778), studied
Semitic languages at Jena, and also natural science and mathe-
matics. In 1749 he published Einleitung in die Harmonic der
' Walafrid also edited Thetmar's Life of Louis the Pious, prefixing
a preface and making a few additions, and divided Einhard s Vtla
Caroli into chapters, adding an introduction.
252
WALCOTT WALDECK-PYRMONT
Evangelisten, and in 1730 was appointed professor extraordi-
narius of theology. Five years later he became professor
ordinarius of logic and metaphysics; in 1759 he exchanged this
for a professorship of rhetoric and poetry. Amongst other
theological works he published Dissertationes in Ada Aposlolorum
(1756-1761); Antlquitales symbolicae (1772); and after his death
appeared Obseroationes in Matthaeum ex Graecis inscriptionibus
(1779). He also published a periodical Der Naturforscher (1774-
1778), and during the years 1749-1756 took an active part in
editing the Zeitungen von gelehrten Sachen.
See article in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic; also Lebens-
geschichte J. E. I. Walch (Jena, 1880), and J. G. Meusel's Lexikon
der verstorbenen teutschen Schriftsteller, vol. xiv.
Another son, CHRISTIAN WILHELM FRANZ (1726-1784), was
educated at Jena under his father's direction, and as early as
1745-1747 lectured in the university in branches of exegesis,
philosophy and history. He then travelled with his brother,
J. E. I. Walch, for a year in Holland, France, Switzerland and
Italy. On his return he was in 1750 made professor extra-
ordinarius of philosophy in Jena, but in 1753 he accepted an
invitation to become professor ordinarius at Gottingen. Here in
1754 he became professor extraordinarius of theology, and three
years later received an ordinary professorship. He lectured on
dogmatics, church history, ethics, polemics, natural theology,
symbolics, the epistles of Paul, Christian antiquities, historical
theological literature, ecclesiastical law and the fathers, and took
an active interest in the work of the Goltinger Societal der Wissen-
schaften. In 1766 he was appointed professor primarius. His
permanent place amongst learned theologians rests on his works
on church history. Semler was much his superior in originality
and boldness, and Mosheim in clearness, method and elegance.
But to his wide, deep and accurate learning, to his conscientious
and impartial examination of the facts and the authorities at
first hand, and to " his exact quotation of the sources and works
illustrating them, and careful discussion of the most minute
details," all succeeding historians are indebted. His method is
critical and pragmatic, " pursuing everywhere the exact facts
and the supposed causes of the outward changes of history,"
leaving wholly out of sight the deeper moving principles and
ideas which influence its course. He died on the loth of March
1784.
His principal work was his Entwurf einer vollstandigen Historic
der Ketzereien, Spaltungen, und Religionsstreiligkeiten, bis auf die
Zeit der Reformation (n vols., Leipzig, 1762-1785). Of his other
valuable works may be mentioned Geschichle der evangelisch-lutheri-
schen Religion, als ein Beweis, dass sie die wahre sei (1753), Entwurf
einer vollstandigen Historic der romischen Papste (1756, 2nd eel.
1758; Eng. trans. 1759), Entwurf einer vollstandigen Historic der
Kirchenversammlungen (1759), Grundsdtze der Kirchengeschichte des
Neuen Testaments (1761, 2nd ed. 1773, 3rd ed. 1792), Bibliotheca
symbolica vetus (1770), Kritische Untersuchung vom Gcbrauch der
hettigen Schrijt unter den alien Christen (1779), occasioned by the
controversy between G. E. Lessing and J. M. Goeze, and to which
Lessing began an elaborate reply just before his death.
On C. W. F. Walch as historian see F. Baur, Epochen der kirch-
lichen Geschichtsschreibung (1852), p. 145 sq., and Dogmengeschichte,
p. 38 sq. (1867, 3rd ed.); W. Gass, Geschichte der protestantischen
Dogmatik, iii. p. 267 sq. ; J. G. Meusel, Lexicon verstorbener teutschen
Schriftsteller, vol. xiv. For his life, see the article in the Allgemeine
deutsche Biographic.
A third son, KARL FRIEDRICH (1734-1799), devoted himself to
the study of law, and became professor of law at Jena in 1759.
His most important works were Introduclio in controversias juris
civilis recentioris (Jena, 1771) and Geschichle der in Deutschland
geltenden Rechie (Jena, 1780). He died on the 2oth of July 1799.
WALCOTT, CHARLES DOOLITTLE (1850- ), American
geologist, was born at the village of New York Mills, New York,
on the 3ist of March 1850. He received a school education at
Utica. In 1876 he was appointed assistant on the New York
State Survey, and in 1879 assistant geologist on the United
States Geological Survey; in 1888 he became one of the palae-
ontologists in charge of the invertebrata, in 1893 chief palae-
ontologist, and in 1894 director of the Geological Survey. In
1907 he was appointed Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
As president of the Geological Society of Washington he
delivered in 1894 an important address on The United States
Geological Survey. He added largely to contemporary know-
ledge of the fauna of the Older Palaeozoic rocks of North
America, especially with reference to the Crustacea and
brachiopoda; he dealt also with questions of ancient physical
geography and with mountain structure.
His more important works include " Palaeontology of the Eureka
district " (Man. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1884) ; " Cambrian faunas of North
America" (Butt. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1884); Fauna of the Lower
Cambrian or Olenellus Zone (1890, issued 1891), and Fossil Medusae
(Man. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1898).
WALDECK-PYRMQNT, a principality of Germany and a
constituent state of the German empire, consisting of two
separate portions lying about 30 m. apart, viz. the county of
Waldeck, embedded in Prussian territory between the provinces
of Westphalia and Hesse-Nassau, and the principality of Pyr-
mont, farther to the north, between Lippe, Brunswick,
Westphalia and Hanover. Waldeck comprises an area of 407
sq. m., covered for the most part with hills, which culminate in
the Hegekopf (2775 ft.). The centre is occupied by the plateau
of Corbach. The chief rivers are the Eder and the Diemel, both
of which eventually find their way into the Weser. Pyrmont,
only 26 sq. m. in extent, is also mountainous. The Emmer,
also belonging to the Weser system, is its chief stream. The
united area is thus 433 sq. m., or about half the size of Cambridge-
shire in England, and the united population in 1905 was 59,127,
showing a density of 138 to the square mile. The population is
almost wholly Protestant. In consequence of the comparatively
high elevation of the country the lowest part being 540 ft.
above the sea-level the climate is on the whole inclement.
Agriculture and cattle-rearing are the main resources of the in-
habitants in both parts of the principality, but the soil is nowhere
very fertile. Only 57% of the area is occupied by arable land
and pasture; forests, one-tenth of which are coniferous, occupy
38 %. Oats is the principal crop, but rye, potatoes and flax are
also grown in considerable quantities. Fruit is also cultivated
in the principality. Iron mines, slate and stone quarries are
worked at various points, and, with live stock, poultry, wool and
timber form the chief exports. A few insignificant manufactures
are carried en in some of the little towns, but both trade and
manufactures are much retarded by the comparative isolation
of the country from railways. Wildungen, in the extreme south
of Waldeck, is the terminus of a branch line from Wabern, and
a light railway runs from Warburg to Marburg; Pyrmont is
intersected by the trunk line running from Cologne,viaPaderborn,
to Brunswick and Berlin.
The capital and the residence of the prince is Arolsen (pop.
2811 in 1905) in Waldeck; twelve smaller townships and about
one hundred villages are also situated in the county. The only
town in Pyrmont is Bad Pyrmont, with about 1500 inhabitants,
a highly fashionable watering-place with chalybeate and saline
springs. The annual number of- visitors is about 23,000. Wil-
dungen is also a spa of repute. The inhabitants to the north of
the Eder are of Saxon stock, to the south of Franconian, a
difference which is distinctly marked in dialect, costumes and
manners.
Waldeck-Pyrmont has one vote in the federal council
(Bundesrat) and one in the Reichstag. The constitution,
dating from 1852, is a reactionary modification of one carried
in 1849, which had been a considerable advance upon one
granted in 1816. The Landtag of one chamber consists of
fifteen members, three of whom represent Prymont, elected
indirectly for three years. In the event of the male line of the
present ruling family becoming extinct, the female line will
succeed in Waldeck, but Pyrmont will fall to Prussia. In terms
of a treaty concluded in 1867 for ten years, renewed in 1877 for a
similar period, and continued in 1887 with the proviso that it
should be terminable on two years' notice, the finances and
the entire government of Waldeck-Pyrmont are managed by
Prussia, the little country having found itself unable to support
unassisted the military and other burdens involved by its share in
the North German Confederation of 1867-1871 and subsequently
as a constituent state of the German empire. The govern-
ment is conducted in the name of the prince by a Prussian
WALDECK-ROUSSEAU
253
" Landesdirector," while the state officials take the oath of
allegiance to the king of Prussia. The prince of Waldeck reserves
his whole rights as head of the church, and also the right of
granting pardons, and in certain circumstances may exercise a
veto on proposals to alter or enact laws. Education and similar
matters are thus all conducted on the Prussian model; a previous
convention had already handed over military affairs to Prussia.
The budget for 1910 showed a revenue of 57,000 and a like
expenditure. The public debt was 79.710, paying interest at
3J%. The prince is supported by the income derived from
crown lands. As regards the administration of justice, Waldeck
and Pyrmont belong to the districts of Cassel and Hanover
respectively.
The princes of Waldeck-Pyrmont are descendants of the
counts of Schwalenberg, the earliest of whom known to history
was one Widukind (d. 1137). His son Volkwin (d. 1178) acquired
by marriage the county of VValdeck, and his line was divided into
two branches, Waldeck and Landau, in 1397. In 1438 the land-
grave of Hesse obtained rights of suzerainty over Waldeck, and
the claims arising from this action were not finally disposed of
until 1847, when it was decided that the rights of Hesse over
Waldeck had ceased with the dissolution of the Holy _ Roman
Empire. The Landau branch of the family became extinct in
1495, an d i n I ^3i Waldeck inherited the county of Pyrmont,
which had originally belonged to a branch of the Schwalenberg
family. For a few years Waldeck was divided into Wildungen
and Eisenberg, but in 1692, when the Wildungen branch died
out with George Frederick, the imperial field-marshal, the whole
principality was united under the rule of Christian Louis of
Eisenberg. From 1692 the land has been undivided with the
exception of a brief period from 1805 to 1812, when Waldeck
and Pyrmont were ruled by two brothers. Frederick Anthony
Ulrich (d. 1728), who succeeded his father, Christian Louis, in
1 706, was made a prince of the empire in 1 7 1 2. In 1807 Waldeck
joined the confederation of the Rhine, and in 1815 entered the
German confederation. Its first constitution was granted in
1816 by Prince George II. (d. 1845). Prince Frederick (b. 1865)
succeeded his father, George Victor (1831-1893), as ruler on the
izth of May 1893. The most important fact in the recent history
of the principality is its connexion with Prussia, to which
reference has already been made.
See Curtze, Geschichte und Beschreibung des Ftirstentums Waldeck
(Arolsen, 1850) ; Lowe, Heimatskunde von Waldeck (Arolsen, 1887) ;
J. C. C. Hoffmeister, Historisch-genealogisches Handbuch iiber alle
Graf en und Fiirsten von Waldeck seit 1228 (Cassel, 1883); Bottcher,
Das Staatsrecht des Ftirstentums Waldeck (Freiburg, 1884); A.
Wagner, Die Geschichte Waldecks und Pyrmonts (Wildungen, 1888),
and the Geschicktsblatterfiir Waldeck und Pyrmont (Mengennghausen,
1901, fol.).
WALDECK-ROUSSEAU, PIERRE MARIE RENE ERNEST
(1846-1904), French statesman, was born at Nantes on the 2nd
of December 1846. His father, Ren6 Valdec-Rousseau (1809-
1882), a barrister at Nantes and a leader of the local republican
party, figured in the revolution of 1848 as one of the deputies
returned to the Constituent Assembly for Loire Inferieure. With
Jules Simon, Louis Blanc and others he sat on the commission
appointed to inquire into the labour question, making many im-
portant proposals, one of which, for the establishment of national
banks, was partially realized in 1850. After the election of Louis
Napoleon to the presidency he returned to his practice at the bar,
and for some time after the coup d'etat was in biding to escape
arrest. He came back to political life in the crisis of 1870, when
he became mayor of Nantes in August and proclaimed the third
republic there on the 4th of September. He shortly afterwards
resigned municipal office in consequence of differences with his
colleagues on the education question.
The son was a delicate child whose defective eyesight forbade
him the use of books, and his early education was therefore
entirely oral. He studied law at Poitiers and in Paris, where he
took his licentiate in January 1869. His father's record ensured
his reception in high republican circles. Jules Gr6vy stood
sponsor for him at the Parisian bar, and he was a regular visitor
at the houses of Stanislas Dufaure and of Jules Simon. After
six months of waiting for briefs in Paris, he decided to return
home and to join the bar of St Nazaire, where he inscribed his
name early in 1870. In September he became, in spite of his
youth, secretary to the municipal commission temporarily
appointed to carry on the town business. He organized the
National Defence at St Nazaire, and himself marched out with
the contingent, though no part of the force saw active service
owing to lack of ammunition, their private store having been
commandeered by the state. In 1873 he removed to the bar of
Rennes, and six years later was returned to the Chamber of
Deputies. In his electoral programme he had stated that he
was prepared to respect all liberties except those of conspiracy
against the institutions of the country and of educating the young
in hatred of the modern social order. In the Chamber he sup-
ported the policy of Gambetta. The Waldeck-Rousseau family
was strictly Catholic in spite of its republican principles; never-
theless Waldeck-Rousseau supported the anti-clerical education
law submitted by Jules Ferry as minister of education in the
Waddington cabinet. He further voted for the abrogation of the
law of 1814 forbidding work on Sundays and fte days, for
compulsory service of one year for seminarists and for the re-
establishment of divorce. He made his reputation in the Chamber
by a report which he drew up in 1880 on behalf of the committee
appointed to inquire into the French judicial system. But then
as later he was chiefly occupied with the relations between capital
and labour. He had a large share in 1884 in securing the recog-
nition of trade unions. In 1881 he became minister of the
interior in Gambetta's grand minislere, and he held the same
portfolio in the Jules Ferry cabinet of 1883-1885, when he gave
proof of great administrative powers. He sought to put down
the system by which civil posts were obtained through the local
deputy, and he made it clear that the central authority could not
be defied by local officials. He had begun to practise at the Paris
bar in 1886, and in 1889 he did not seek re-election to the
Chamber,_ but devoted himself to his legal work. The most
famous of" the many noteworthy cases in which his cold and
penetrating intellect and his pcwer of clear exposition were
retained was the defence of M. de Lesseps in 1893. In 1894 he
returned to political life as senator for the department of the
Loire, and next year stood for the presidency of the republic
against Felix Faure and Henri Brisson, being supported by the
Conservatives, wLo were soon to be his bitter enemies. He
received 184 votes, but retired before the second ballot to allow
Faure to receive an absolute majority. During the political
anarchy of the next few years he was recognized by the moderate
republicans as the successor of Jules Ferry and Gambetta, and
at the crisis of 1899 on the fall of the Dupuy cabinet he was
asked by President Loubet to form a government. After an initial
failure he succeeded in forming a coalition cabinet which included
such widely different politicians as M. Millerand and General de
Galliffet. He himself returned to his former post at the ministry
of the interior, and set to work to quell the discontent with
which the country was seething, to put an end to the various
agitations which under specious pretences were directed against
republican institutions, and to restore independence to the judicial
authority. His appeal to all republicans to sink their differences
before the common peril met with some degree of success, and
enabled the government to leave the second court-martial of
Captain Dreyfus at Rennes an absolutely free hand, and then
to compromise the affair by granting a pardon to Dreyfus.
Waldeck-Rousseau won a great personal success in October by
his successful intervention in the strikes at Le Creusot. With
the condemnation in January 1900 of Paul De>oulede and his
monarchist and nationalist followers by the High Court the worst
of the danger was past, and Waldeck-Rousseau kept order in
Paris without having recourse to irritating displays of force.
The Senate was staunch in support of M. Waldeck-Rousseau,
and in the Chamber he displayed remarkable astuteness in
winning support from various groups. The Amnesty Bill, passed
on igth December, chiefly through his unwearied advocacy,
went far to smooth down the acerbity of the preceding years.
With the object of aiding the industry of wine-producing, and of
254
WALDEGRAVE FAMILY WALDENBURG
discouraging the consumption of spirits and other deleterious
liquors, the government passed a bill suppressing the octroi
duties on the three " hygienic " drinks wine, cider and beer.
The act came into force at the beginning of 1901. But the most
important measure of his later administration was the Associa-
tions Bill of 1001. Like many of his predecessors, he was con-
vinced that the stability of the republic demanded some restraint
on the intrigues of the wealthy religious bodies. All previous
attempts in this direction had failed. In his speech in the
Chamber M. Waldeck-Rousseau recalled the fact that he had
endeavoured to pass an Associations Bill in 1882, and again in
1883. He declared that the religious associations were now
being subjected for the first time to the regulations common to
all others, and that the object of the bill was to ensure the
supremacy of the civil power. The royalist bias given to the
pupils in the religious seminaries was undoubtedly a principal
cause of the passing of this bill; and the government further
took strong measures to secure the presence of officers of un-
doubted fidelity to the republic in the higher positions on the
staff. His speeches on the religious question were published in
1901 under the title of Associations et congregations, following a
volume of speeches on Questions sociales (1900). As the general
election of 1902 approached all sections of the Opposition united
their efforts, and M. Waldeck-Rousseau 's name served as a
battle-cry for one side, and on the other as a target for the
foulest abuse. The result was a decisive victory for republican
stability. With the defeat of the machinations against the
republic M. Waldeck-Rousseau considered his task ended, and
on the 3rd of June 1902 he resigned office, having proved himself
the " strongest personality in French politics since the death of
Gambetta. " He emerged from his retirement to protest in the
Senate against the construction put on his Associations Bill by
M. Combes, who refused in mass the applications of the teaching
and preaching congregations for official recognition. His health
had long been failing when he died on the loth of August 1004.
His speeches were published as Discours parlementaires (1889) ;
Pour la republique, 1883-1^03 (1904), edited by H. Leyret; L'Etat
et la liberte (1906); and his Plaidoyers (1906, &c.) were edited by
H. Barboux. See also H. Leyret, Waldeck-Rousseau et la troisieme
republique (1908), and the article FRANCE: History.
WALDEGRAVE, the name of an English family, taken from
its early residence, Walgrave in Northamptonshire. Its founder
was SIR RICHARD WALDEGRAVE, or WALGRAVE, who was member
of parliament for Lincolnshire in 1335; his son, Sir Richard
Waldegrave (d. 1402), was speaker of the House of Commons in
1402. One of Sir Richard's descendants was Sir Edward Walde-
grave (c. 1517-1561) of Borley, Essex, who was imprisoned
during the reign of Edward VI. for his loyalty to the princess,
afterwards Queen Mary. By Mary he was knighted, and he
received from her the manor of Chewton in Somerset, now the
residence of Earl Waldegrave. He was a member of parliament
and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. After Mary's decease
he suffered a reverse of fortune, and he was a prisoner in the
Tower of London when he died on the ist of September 1561.
Sir Edward's descendant, another Sir Edward Waldegrave, was
created a baronet in 1643 for his services to Charles I.; and his
descendant, Sir Henry Waldegrave, Bart. (1660-1689), was
created Baron Waldegrave of Chewton in 1686. Sir Henry
married Henrietta (d. 1730), daughter of King James II. and
Arabella Churchill, and their son was James, ist Earl Waldegrave
(1684-1741).
Educated in France, James Waldegrave soon crossed over to
England, and under George I. he declared himself a Protestant
and took his seat as Baron Waldegrave in the House of Lords.
Having become friendly with Sir Robert Walpole, he was sent
to Paris as ambassador extraordinary in 1725, and from 1727
to 1730 he was British ambassador at Vienna. In 1729 he was
created Viscount Chewton and Earl Waldegrave, and in 1730
he succeeded Sir Horatio Walpole as ambassador in Paris, filling
this post during ten very difficult years. He died on the nth of
April 1741. Much of his diplomatic correspondence is in the
British Museum.
His son JAMES, the 2nd earl (1715-1763), was perhaps the most
intimate friend of George II., and was for a time governor of
his grandson, the future king George III. He was very much in
evidence during the critical years 1755-1757, when the king
employed him to negotiate in turn with Newcastle, Devonshire,
Pitt and Fox about the formation of a ministry. Eventually, in
consequence of a deadlock, Waldegrave himself was first lord of
the treasury for five days in June 1757. He died on the 28th of
April 1763, leaving some valuable and interesting Memoirs,
which were published in 1821.
His brother JOHN, the 3rd earl (1718-1784), was a soldier, who
distinguished himself especially at the battle of Minden and
became a general in 1772. He was a member of parliament from
1747 to 1763. His younger son, William Waldegrave (1753-
1825), entered the British navy in 1766, and after many years of
service was third in command at the battle of Cape St Vincent
in 1797. In 1800 he was created an Irish peer as Baron Rad-
stock, and in 1802 he became an admiral. His son, George
Granville, and Baron Radstock (1786-1857), followed in his
father's footsteps, and was made a vice-admiral in 1851. In
1857 his son, Granville Augustus William (b. 1833), became 3rd
Baron Radstock.
GEORGE, 4th Earl Waldegrave (1751-1789), the eldest son of
the 3rd earl, was a soldier and a member of parliament. His
sons, GEORGE (1784-1794) and JOHN JAMES (1785-1835), were
the 5th and 6th earls. In 1797 the 6th earl inherited from Horace
Walpole his famous residence, Strawberry Hill, Twickenham,
but his son, GEORGE EDWARD, the 7th earl (1816-1846), was
obliged in 1842 to sell the valuable treasures collected there.
His wife, Frances, Countess Waldegrave (1821-1879), a daughter
of the singer John Braham, was a prominent figure in society.
He was her second husband, and after his death she married
George Granville Vernon Harcourt of Nuneham Park, Oxford-
shire, and later Chichester Fortescue, Baron Carlingford.
The 7th earl was succeeded by his uncle William (1788-1859),
a son of the 4th earl, and in 1859 William.'s grandson, WILLIAM
FREDERICK (b. 1851), became the 9th earl.
WALDEN, ROGER (d. 1406), English prelate, was a man of
obscure birth, little or nothing, moreover, being known of his
early years. He had some connexion with the Channel Islands,
and resided for some time in Jersey; and he held livings in
Yorkshire and in Leicestershire before he became archdeacon of
Winchester in 1387. His days, however, were by no means
fully occupied with his ecclesiastical duties, and in 1387 also he
was appointed treasurer of Calais, holding about the same time
other positions in this neighbourhood. In 1395, after having
served Richard II. as secretary, Walden became treasurer of
England, adding the deanery of York to his numerous other
benefices. In 1397 he was chosen archbishop of Canterbury in
succession to Thomas Arundel, who had just been banished from
the realm, but he lost this position when the new king Henry IV.
restored Arundel in 1399, and after a short imprisonment he
passed into retirement, being, as he himself says, " in the dust
and under feet of men. " In 1405, through Arundel's influence,
he was elected bishop of London, and he died at Much Hadham
in Hertfordshire on the 6th of January 1406. An Historia
Mundi, the manuscript of which is in the British Museum, is
sometimes regarded as the work of Walden; but this was
doubtless written by an earlier writer.
See J. H. Wylie, History of England under Henry IV. vol. iii.
(1896).
WALDENBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, 39 m. S.W. of Breslau by the line to Hirschberg and
Gorlitz Pop. (1905) 16,435. It contains a handsome town hall,
three Protestant and two Roman Catholic churches. Walden-
burg lies in the centre of the productive coal district of the
Waldenburger Gebirge, a branch of the Sudetic chain, and its
inhabitants are largely occupied in the mining industry. Among
other industrial establishments are a large porcelain and earthen-
ware factory, extensive fireclay works, glassworks and a china-
painting establishment; there are also numerous flax-spinneries
and linen-factories in the neighbourhood. Adjoining the town
on the south is the village of Oberwaldenburg, pop. (1905)
WALDENSES
255
4758, with a chateau and some coal mines. Waldenburg became
a town in 1426.
WALDENSES. The Waldensian valleys lie to the south-west
of Turin, in the direction of Monte Viso, but include no high
or snowy mountains, while the glens themselves are (with one
or two exceptions) fertile and well wooded. The principal town
near the valleys is Pinerolo (Pignerol). Just to its south-west
there opens the chief Waldensian valley, the Val Pellice, watered
by the stream of that name, but sometimes called inaccurately
the Luserna valley, Luserna being simply a village opposite
the capital, Torre Pellice; near Torre Pellice the side glens of
Angrogna and Rora join the Pellice valley. To the north-west
of Pinerolo. up the Chisone valley, there opens at Perosa Argen-
tina the valley of St Martin, another important Waldensian
valley, which is watered by the Germanasca torrent, and at
Perrero splits into two branches, of which the Prali glen is far
more fertile than that of Massello, the latter being the wildest
and most savage of all the Waldensian valleys.
The name Waldenses was given to the members of an heretical
Christian sect which arose in the south of France about 1170.
The history of the sects of the middle ages is obscure, because
the earliest accounts of them come from those who were con-
cerned in their suppression, and were therefore eager to lay
upon each of them the worst enormities which could be attri-
buted to any. In later times the apologists of each sect reversed
the process, and cleared that in which they were interested at
the expense of others. In early times these sectaries produced
little literature of their own; when they produced a literature
at the beginning of the I5th century they attempted to claim
for it a much earlier origin. Hence there is confusion on every
side; it is difficult to distinguish between various sects and
to determine their exact opinions or the circumstances under
which they came into being. The polemical conception which has
done much to perpetuate this confusion is that of the historical
continuity of Protestantism from the earliest times. According
to this view the church was pure and uncorrupt till the time
of Constantine, when Pope Sylvester gained the first temporal
possession for the papacy, and so began the system of a rich,
powerful and worldly church, with Rome for its capital. Against
this secularized church a body of witnesses silently protested;
they were always persecuted but always survived, till in the
1 3th century a desperate attempt was made by Innocent III.
to root them out from their stronghold in southern France.
Persecution gave new vitality to their doctrines, which passed
on to Wycliffe and Huss, and through these leaders produced
the Reformation in Germany and England.
This view rests upon a series of suppositions, and is entirely
unhistorical. So far as can be discovered the heretical sects
of the middle ages rested upon a system of Manichaeism which
was imported into Europe from the East (see MANICHAEISM).
The Manichaean system of dualism, with its severe asceticism,
and its individualism, which early passed into antinomianism,
was attractive to many minds in the awakening of the nth
century. Its presence in Europe can be traced in Bulgaria soon
after its conversion in 862,* where the struggle between the
Eastern and Western churches for the new converts opened a
way for the more hardy speculations of a system which had
never entirely disappeared, and found a home amongst the
Paulicians (q.v.) in Armenia. The name of Cathari (see CATHARS) ,
taken by the adherents of this new teaching, sufficiently shows
the Oriental origin of their opinions, which spread from Bulgaria
amongst the Slavs, and followed the routes of commerce into
central Europe. The earliest record of their presence there is
the condemnation of ten canonsof Orleans as Manichees in 1023,
and soon after this we find complaints of the prevalence of
heresy in northern Italy and in Germany. The strongholds of
these heretical opinions were the great towns, the centres of
civilization, because there the growing sentiment of municipal
independence, and the rise of a burgher class through commerce,
created a spirit of criticism which was dissatisfied with the
worldly lives of the clergy and their undue influence in affairs.
1 Schmidt, Histoire des Cathares, i. 7.
The system of Catharism recognized two classes of adherents,
credentes and perfecti. The perfecti only were admitted to its
esoteric doctrines and to its superstitious practices. To the
ordinary men it seemed to be a reforming agency, insisting on a
high moral standard, and upholding the words of Scripture
against the traditions of an overgrown and worldly church. Its
popular aim and its rationalistic method made men overlook
its real contents, which were not put clearly before them. It
may be said generally that Catharism formed the abiding
background of medieval heresy. Its dualistic system and its
anti-social principles were known only to a few, but its anti-
ecclesiastical organization formed a permanent nucleus round
which gathered a great deal of political and ecclesiastical dis-
content. When this discontent took any independent form of
expression, zeal, which was not always accompanied by dis-
cretion, brought the movement into collision with the ecclesi-
astical authorities, by whom it was condemned as heretical.
When once it was in conflict with authority it was driven to
strengthen its basis by a more pronounced hostility against the
system of the church, and generally ended by borrowing some-
thing from Catharism. The result was that in the beginning
of the 1 3th century there was a tendency to class all bodies of
heretics together: partly their opinions had coalesced; partly
they were assumed to be identical.
Most of these sects were stamped out before the period of the
middle ages came to a close. The Waldenses, under their more
modern name of the Vaudois, have survived to the present
day in the valleys of Piedmont, and have been regarded as at
once the most ancient and the most evangelical of the medieval
sects. It is, however, by no means easy to determine their
original tenets, as in the i3th and i4th centuries they were a
body of obscure and unlettered peasants, hiding themselves
in a corner, while in the i6th century they were absorbed into
the general movement of the Reformation. As regards their
antiquity, the attempts to claim for them an earlier origin than
the end of the I2th century can no longer be sustained. They
rested upon the supposed antiquity of a body of Waldensian
literature, which modern criticism has shown to have been
tampered with. The most important of these documents, a
poem in Provencal, " La Nobla Leyczon," contains two lines
which claimed for it the date of noo:
Ben ha mil e cent anez compli entierament
Que fo scripta 1' ora, car sen al derier temp.
But it was pointed out 1 that in the oldest MS. existing in the
Cambridge university library the figure 4 had been imperfectly
erased before the word " cent," a discovery which harmonized
with the results of a criticism of the contents of the poem itself.
This discovery did away with the ingenious attempts to account
for the name of Waldenses from some other source than from
the historical founder of the sect, Peter Waldo or Valdez. To
get rid of Waldo, whose date was known, the name Waldenses
or Vallenses was derived from Vallis, because they dwelt in the
valleys, or from a supposed Provencal word Vaudes, which
meant a sorcerer.
Putting these views aside as unsubstantial, we will consider
the relation of the Waldenses as they appear in actual history
with the sects which preceded them. Already in the 9th century
there were several protests against the rigidity and want of
spirituality of a purely sacerdotal church. Thus Berengar of
Tours (990-1088) upheld the symbolic character of the Eucharist
and the superiority of the Bible over tradition. The Paterines
in Milan (1045) raised a protest against simony and other abuses
of the clergy, and Pope Gregory VII. did not hesitate to enlist
their Puritanism on the side of the papacy and make them his
allies in imposing clerical celibacy. In mo an apostate monk
in Zeeland, Tanchelm, carried their views still farther, and
asserted that the sacraments were only valid through the merits
and sanctity of the ministers. In France, at Embrun, Peter de
Bruys founded a sect known as Petrobrusians, who denied infant
baptism, the need of consecrated churches, 'transubstantiation,
1 Bradshaw, in Transactions of Cambridge Antiquarian Society
(1842). The text edited by Montet, 410 (1887).
256
WALDENSES
and masses for the dead. A follower of his, a monk, Henry,
gave the name to another body known as Henricians, who
centred in Tours. The teachers of these new opinions were men
of high character and holy lives, who in spite of persecution
wandered from place to place, and made many converts from
those who were dissatisfied at the want of clerical discipline
which followed upon the struggle for temporal supremacy into
which the reforming projects of Gregory VII. had carried the
church.
It was at this time (1170) that a rich merchant of Lyons,
Peter Waldo, sold his goods and gave them to the poor; then
he went forth as a preacher of voluntary poverty. His followers,
the Waldenses, or poor men of Lyons, were moved by a religious
feeling which could find no satisfaction within the actual system
of the church, as they saw it before them. Like St Francis,
Waldo adopted a life of poverty that he might be free to preach,
but with this difference that the Waldenses preached the doctrine
of Christ while the Franciscans preached the person of Christ,
Waldo reformed teaching while Francis kindled love; hence
the one awakened antagonisms which the other escaped. For
Waldo had a translation of the New Testament made into
Provencal, and his preachers not only stirred up men to more
holy lives but explained the Scriptures at their will. Such an
interference with the ecclesiastical authorities led to difficulties.
Pope Alexander III., who had approved of the poverty of the
Waldensians, prohibited them from preaching without the per-
mission of the bishops (1179). Waldo answered that he must
obey God rather than man. The result of this disobedience was
excommunication by Lucius III. in 1184. Thus a reforming
movement became heresy through disobedience to authority,
and after being condemned embarked on a course of polemical
investigation how to justify its own position. Some were re-
admitted into the Catholic Church, and one, Durandus de Osca
(1210), attempted to found an order of Pauperes Catholici,
which was the forerunner of the order of St Dominic. Many
were swept away in the crusade against the Albigenses (<?..).
Others made an appeal to Innocent III., protesting their ortho-
doxy. Their appeal was not successful, for they were formally
condemned by the Lateran council of 1215.
The earliest definite account given of the Waldensian opinion
is that of the inquisitor Sacconi about 12 so. 1 He divides them
into two classes: those north of the Alps and those of Lombardy.
The first class hold (i) that oaths are forbidden by the gospel,
(2) that capital punishment is not allowed to the civil power,
(3) that any layman may consecrate the sacrament of the altar,
and (4) that the Roman Church is not the Church of Christ.
The Lombard sect went farther in (3) and (4), holding that no
one in mortal sin could consecrate the sacrament, and that the
Roman Church was the scarlet woman of the Apocalypse, whose
precepts ought not to be obeyed, especially those appointing
fast-days. This account sufficiently shows the difference of the
Waldenses from the Cathari: they were opposed to asceticism,
and had no official priesthood; at the same time their
objection to oaths and to capital punishment are closely
related to the principles of the Cathari. Their other opinions
were forced upon them by their conflict with the authority of
the Church. When forbidden to preach without the permission
of the bishop, they were driven to assert the right of all to preach,
without distinction of age or sex. This led to the further step of
setting up personal merit rather than ecclesiastical ordination
as the ground of the priestly office. From this followed again
the conclusion that obedience was not due to an unworthy priest,
and that his ministrations were invalid.
These opinions were subversive of the system of the medieval
church, and were naturally viewed with great disfavour by its
officials; but it cannot fairly be said that they have much in
common with the opinions of the Reformers of the i6th century.
The medieval church set forth Christ as present in the orderly
community of the faithful; Protestantism aimed at setting the
individual in immediate communion with Christ, without the
mechanical intervention of the officers of the community; the
1 D'Argentrfi, Collectio judiciorum de novis erroribus, i. 50, &c.
Waldenses merely set forward a new criterion of the orderly
arrangement of the church, according to which each member
was to sit in judgment on the works of the ministers, and conse-
quently on the validity of their ministerial acts. It was a rude
way of expressing a desire for a more spiritual community. The
earliest known document proceeding from the Waldensians is an
account of a conference held at Bergamo in 1218 between the
Ultramontane and the Lombard divisions, in which the Lom-
bards showed a greater opposition to the recognized priesthood
than did their northern brethren. 2
As these opinions became more pronounced persecution became
more severe, and the breach between the Waldenses and the
church widened. The Waldenses withdrew altogether from the
ministrations of the church, and chose ministers for themselves
whose merits were recognized by the body of the faithful.
Election took the place of ordination, but even here the Lom-
bards showed their difference from the Ultramontanes, and
recognized only two orders, like the Cathari, while the northern
body kept the old three orders of bishops, priests and deacons.
Gradually the separation from the church became more complete:
the sacraments were regarded as merely symbolical; the priests
became helpers of the faithful; ceremonies disappeared; and
a new religious society arose equally unlike the medieval church
and the Protestantism of the i6th century.
The spread of these heretical sects led to resolute attempts at
their suppression. The crusade against the Albigensians could
destroy prosperous cities and hand over lands from a heedless
lord to one who was obedient to the church; but it could not
get rid of heresy. The revival of preaching, which was the work
of the order of St Dominic, did more to combat heresy, especially
where its persuasions were enforced by law. The work of in-
quisition into cases of heresy proceeded slowly in the hands of
the bishops, who were too busy with other matters to find much
time for sitting in judgment on theological points about which
they were imperfectly informed. The greatest blow struck
against heresy was the transference of the duty of inquiry into
heresy from the bishops to Dominican inquisitors. The secular
power, which shared in the proceeds of the confiscation of those
who were found guilty of heresy, was ready to help in carrying
out the judgments of the spiritual courts. Everywhere, and
especially in the district round Toulouse, heretics were keenly
prosecuted, and before the continued zeal of persecution the
Waldenses slowly disappeared from the chief centres of population
and tcok refuge in the retired valleys of the Alps. There, in the
recesses of Piedmont, where the streams of the Felice, the An-
grogne, the Clusone and others cleave the sides of the Alps into
valleys which converge at Susa, a settlement of the Waldensians
was made who gave their name to these valleys of the Vaudois.
In the more accessible regions north and south heresy was
exposed to a steady process of persecution, and tended to assume
shifting forms. Among the valleys it was less easily reached,
and retained its old organization and its old contents. Little
settlements of heretics dispersed throughout Italy and Provence
looked to the valleys as a place of refuge, and tacitly regarded
them as the centre of their faith. At times attempts were made
to suppress the sect of the Vaudois, but the nature of the country
which they inhabited, their obscurity and their isolation made
the difficulties of their suppression greater than the advantages
to be gained from it. However, in 1487 Innocent VIII. issued a
bull for their extermination, and Alberto de' Capitanei, arch-
deacon of Cremona, put himself at the head of a crusade against
them. Attacked in Dauphine and Piedmont at the same time,
the Vaudois were hard pressed; but luckily their enemies were
encircled by a fog when marching upon their chief refuge in the
valley of the Angrogne, and were repulsed with great loss.
After this Charles II., duke of Piedmont, interfered to save his
territories from further confusion, and promised the Vaudois
peace. They were, however, sorely reduced by the onslaught
which had been made upon them, and lost their ancient spirit of
independence. When the Lutheran movement began they were
feady to sympathize with it, and ultimately to adapt their old
' Preger, Beitrage zur Gcsckichte der Waldesier.
WALDENSES
257
beliefs to those of the rising Protestantism. Already there were
scattered bodies of Waldenses in Germany who had influenced,
and afterwards joined, the Hussites and the Bohemian Brethren.
The last step in the development of the Waldensian body was
take.n in 1530, when two deputies of the Vaudois in Uauphinc
and Provence, Georges Morel and Pierre Masson, were sent to
confer with the German and Swiss Reformers. A letter addressed
to Oecolompadius * gives an account of their practices and
beliefs at that time, and shows us a simple and unlettered
community, which was the survival of an attempt to form an
esoteric religious society within the medieval church. It would
appear that its members received the sacraments of baptism
and the holy communion from the regular priesthood, at all
events sometimes, but maintained a discipline of their own and
held services for their own edification. Their ministers were
called barba, a Provencal word meaning guide. They were
chosen from among labouring men, who at the age of twenty-
five might ask the body of ministers to be admitted as candidates.
If their character was approved they were taught during the
winter months, when work was slack, for a space of three or
four years; after that they were sent for two years to serve as
menial assistants at a nunnery for women, which curiously enough
existed in a recess of the valleys. Then they were admitted to
office, after receiving the communion, by the imposition of hands
of all ministers present. They went out to preach two by two,
and the junior was bound absolutely to obey the senior. Clerical
celibacy was their rule, but they admit that it created grave
disorders. The ministers received food and clothing from the
contributions of the people, but also worked with their hands;
the result of this was that they were very ignorant, and also
were grasping after bequests from the dying. The affairs of the
church were managed by a general synod held every year.
The duties of the barbas were to visit all within their district
once a year, hear their confessions, advise and admonish them;
in all services the two ministers sat side by side, and one spoke
after the other. In point of doctrine they acknowledged the
seven sacraments, but gave them a symbolical meaning; they
prayed to the Virgin and saints, and admitted auricular con-
fession, but they denied purgatory and the sacrifice of the mass,
and did not observe fasts or festivals. After giving this account
of themselves they ask for information about several points in a
way which shows the exigencies of a rude and isolated society;
and finally they say that they have been much disturbed by the
Lutheran teaching about freewill and predestination, for they
had held that men did good works through natural virtue
stimulated by God's grace, and they thought of predestination in
no other way than as a part of God's foreknowledge.
Oecolampadius gave them further instruction, especially
emphasizing the wrongfulness of their outward submission to
the ordinances of the church: " God," he said, " is a jealous
God, and does not permit His elect to put themselves under the
yoke of Antichrist." The result of this intercourse was an alliance
between the Vaudois and the Swiss and German Reformers.
A synod was held in 1532 at Chanforans in the valley of the
Angrogne, where a new confession of faith was adopted, which
recognized the doctrine of election, assimilated the practices of
the Vaudois to those of the Swiss congregations, renounced for
the future all recognition of the Roman communion, and estab-
lished their own worship no longer as secret meetings of a
faithful few but as public assemblies for the glory of God.
Thus the Vaudois ceased to be relics of the past, and became
absorbed in the general movement of Protestantism. This was
not, however, a source of quiet or security. In France and Italy
alike they were marked out as special objects of persecution,
and the Vaudois church has many records of martyrdom. The
most severe trial to which the Vaudois of Piedmont were sub-
jected occurred in 1655. The Congregation de Propaganda Fide
established, in 1650, a local council in Turin, which exercised a
powerful influence on Duke Charles Emmanuel II., who ordered
that the Vaudois should be reduced within the limits of their
ancient territory. Fanaticism took advantage of this order;
1 Scultctus, Annales, ii. 294, &c.
xxvm. 9
and an army, composed partly of French troops of Louis XIV.,
partly of Irish soldiers who had fled before Cromwell, entered the
Vaudois valleys and spread destruction on every side. They
treated the people with horrible barbarity, so that the conscience
of Europe was aroused, and England under Cromwell called on
the Protestant powers to join in remonstrance to the duke of
Savoy and the French king. The pen of Milton was employed
for this purpose, and his famous sonnet is but the condensation
of his state papers. Sir Samuel Morland was sent on a special
mission to Turin, and to him were confided by the Vaudois
leaders copies of their religious books, which he brought back
to England, and ultimately gave to the university library at
Cambridge. Large sums of money were contributed in England
and elsewhere, and were sent to the suffering Vaudois.
By this demonstration of opinion peace was made for a
time between the Vaudois and their persecutors; but it was a
treacherous peace, and left the Vaudois with a hostile garrison
established among them. Their worship was prohibited, and
their chief pastor, Leger, was obliged to flee, and in his exile at
Leiden wrote his Histoire generate des tglises vaudoises (1684).
The revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 began a new period
of persecution, which aimed at entire extermination. This was
found so difficult that the remnant of the Vaudois, to the number
of 2600, were at last allowed to withdraw to Geneva. But the
love of their native valleys was strong among the exiles, and in
1689 one of their pastors, Henri Arnaud, led a band of 800 men
to the reconquest of their country. His first attempts against
the French were successful; and the rupture between Victor
Amadeus, duke of Savoy, and Louis XIV. brought a sudden
change of fortune to the Vaudois. They were recognized once
more as citizens of Savoy, and in the war against France which
broke out in 1696 the Vaudois regiment did good service for its
duke. The peace of Utrecht saw the greater part of the French
territory occupied by the Vaudois annexed to Savoy, and,
though there were frequent threatenings of persecution, the
idea of toleration slowly prevailed in the policy of the house of
Savoy. The Vaudois, who had undergone all these vicissitudes,
were naturally reduced to poverty, and their ministers were
partially maintained by a subsidy from England, which was
granted by Queen Anne. The i8th century, however, was a time
of religious decadence even among the Alpine valleys, and the
outbreak of the French Revolution saw the Vaudois made sub-
jects of France. This led to a loss of the English subsidy, and
they applied to Napoleon for an equivalent. This was granted,
and their church was organized by the state. On the restoration
of the house of Savoy in 1816 English influence was used on
behalf of the Vaudois, who received a limited toleration. From
that time onwards the Vaudois became the objects of much
interest in Protestant countries. Large sums of money were
collected to build hospitals and churches among their valleys,
and they were looked upon as the possible centre of a Protestant
church in Italy. Especially from England did they receive
sympathy and help. An English clergyman, Dr Gilly, visited
the valleys in 1823, and by his writings on the Vaudois church
attracted considerable attention, so that he was enabled to build
a college at La Torre. Moreover, Dr Gilly's book (A Visit
to the Valleys of Piedmont), chancing to fall into the hands of an
officer who had lost his leg at Waterloo, Colonel Beckwith,
suggested an object for the energies of one who was loth at the
age of twenty-six to sink into enforced idleness. Beckwith
visited the valleys, and was painfully struck by the squalor and
ignorance of a people who had so glorious a past. He settled
among them, and for thirty-five years devoted himself to pro-
mote their welfare. During this period he established no fewer
than 1 20 schools; moreover he brought back the Italian language
which had been displaced by the French in the services of the
Vaudois church, and in 1849 built a church for them in Turin.
He lived in La Torre till his death in 1862, and the name of the
English benefactor is still revered by the simple folk of the
valleys. (M. C.)
The parent church in the valleys is ecclesiastically governed
by a court for internal affairs called the " Table," after the old
25 8
WALDERSEE WALES
stone table round which the ancient barbas used to sit, and a
mission board, with an annual synod to which both the home and
mission boards are subject. The total population of the Wal-
densian valleys (for they also contain Roman Catholics in no
small number) amounts to about 20,000 all told. In 1900 there
were 16 parishes, with 18 pasteurs and 22 temples, and also 2
Sunday schools (3017 children) and 194 day schools (with 4218
children); the full members (i.e. communicants) of the Wal-
densian faith amounted to 12,695. There were, besides, branches
at Turin (i temple, 2 pasteurs and 750 members), in other parts
of Italy, including Sicily (46 temples and as many pasteurs, while
the number of members was 5613, of day scholars 2704, and of
Sunday school scholars 3707). It is also reckoned that in
Uruguay and the Argentine Republic there are about 6000
Waldensians; of these 1253 were in 1900 full members, while
the day scholars numbered 364 and the Sunday school children
670.
The literature on the subject of the Waldensian and other sects is
copious. For their rise the most important authorities are to be
found in Moneta, Adversus Catharos et Waldenses; D'Argentr6,
Cottectio judiciorum de novis erroribus; Alanus, Adversus haereticos;
D'Achery, Spicilegia, vol. i. ; Gretser, Opera, vol. x. ; Limborch,
Historia Inquisilionis, at the end of which is^the Liber sententiarum
of the Inquisition of Toulouse from 1307-1322. Of modern books
may be mentioned Schmidt, Histoire des Cathares; Hahn, Geschichte
der neumanichdischen Ketzer; Dieckhoff, Die Waldenser im Mittel-
alter; Preger, Beilrdge zur Geschichte der Waldesier; Cantu, Gli
Eretici in Italia ; Comba, Storia della Riforma in Italia, and Histoire
des Vaudois d'ltalie; Tocco, L'Eresia nel media evo; Mpntet,
Histoire litteraire des Vaudois; Lea, History of the Inquisition of
the Middle Ages. Amongst books dealing with the more modern
history of the Vaudois specially are L6ger, Histoire des eglises
vaudoises; Arnaud, Histoire de la rentree des Vaudois; Perrin,
Histoire des Vaudois; Monastier, Histoire de I'eglise vaudoise;
Muston, L'Israel des Alpes; Gilly, Excursion to the Valleys of Pied-
mont, and Researches on the Waldensians; Todd, The Waldensian
Manuscripts; Melia, Origin, Persecution and Doctrines of the
Waldensians; Jules Chevalier, Memoires sur les heresies en Dauphine
avanl le X VI' siecle, accompagnes de documents inedits sur les sorciers
et les Vaudois (Valence, 1890) ; J. A. Chabrand, Vaudois et Protestants
des Alpes: recherches historiques (Grenoble, 1886); H. Haupt,
article in Von Sybel's Historische Zeitschnft (1889), pp. 39-68;
W. A. B. Coolidge, articles in the Guardian for i8th August 1886 and
4th December 1889.
WALDERSEE, ALFRED, COUNT (1832-1904), Prussian
general field marshal, came of a soldier family. Entering the
Guard Artillery of the Prussian army in 1850, he soon attracted
the favourable notice of his official superiors, and he made his
first campaign (that of 1866) as aide-de-camp to General of
Artillery Prince Charles of Prussia, with whom he was present at
Koniggratz. In the course of this campaign Count Waldersee
was promoted major and placed on the general staff, and after
the conclusion of peace he served on the staff of the X. Army
Corps (newly formed from the conquered kingdom of Hanover).
In January 1870 he became military attache at Paris and aide-
de-camp to King William. In the Franco-German War Lieut.-
Colonel Count Waldersee, on account of both his admitted
military talents and his recent experience of the enemy's army,
proved a most useful assistant to the " supreme War-Lord."
He was present at the great battles around Metz, in which he
played more than an orderly officer's part, and in the war against
the republic he was specially sent to the staff of the grand duke
of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, who was operating against Chanzy's
army on the Loir. The grand duke was a good soldier, but not
a brilliant strategist, and the fortunate outcome of the western
campaign was largely due to his adviser. At the end of the war
Waldersee received the First Class of the Iron Cross, and was
entrusted with the exceedingly delicate and difficult post of
German representative at Paris, in which his tact and courtesy
were very marked. At the end of 1871 Waldersee took over the
command of the i3th Uhlans at Hanover, and two years later
he became chief of the staff of the Hanoverian army corps, in
which he had served before 1870. In 1881 he became Moltke's
principal assistant on the great general staff at Berlin, and for
seven years was intimately connected with the great field
marshal's work, so that, when Moltke retired in 1888, Waldersee's
appointment to succeed him was a foregone conclusion. Three
years later the chief of the general staff was sent to command
the IX. Corps at Altona, an appointment which was interpreted
as indicating that his close and intimate friendship with Bis-
marck had made him, at this time of the chancellor's dismissal,
a persona non grata to the young emperor. In 1898, however,
he was appointed inspector-general of the III. " Army In-
spection " at Hanover, the order being accompanied by the
most eulogistic expressions of the kaiser's goodwill. On the
despatch of European troops to quell the Boxer insurrection in
China in 1900, it was agreed that Count Waldersee should have
the supreme command of the joint forces. The preparations for
his departure from Germany caused a good deal of satirical
comment on what was known as the " Waldersee Rummel " or
" theatricals." He arrived at the front, however, too late to
direct his troops in the fighting before Peking. At the end of the
war he returned to Europe. He resumed at Hanover his duties
of inspector-general, which he performed almost to his death,
which took place on the 5th of March 1904.
WALDO, SAMUEL LOVETT (1783-1861), American artist,
was born in Windham, Connecticut, on the 6th of April 1783.
He had a studio in Charleston, South Carolina. In 1806 he went
to London, where he painted portraits for some years with
success. In 1809 he returned to New York, and was a con-
spicuous figure in the city's art life until his death there on the
i6th of February 1861. He became an associate of the National
Academy in 1847. Among his works are a series of portraits of
the early mayors of New York, now in the New York City Hall,
a portrait of Peter Remsen, in possession of the New York
Historical Society, and two portraits of John Trumbull.
WALENSEE, also called the LAKE OF WALENSTADT, a Swiss
lake between the basins of the Rhine and the Linth (Limmat),
lying S.E. of the Lake of Zurich. It is formed by the Seez river
(descending from the Weisstannen glen), which once certainly
sent its waters to the Rhine, but now enters the lake at its
eastern end. Near its western end the Linth has been diverted
through the Escher canal (completed in 1811) into the lake,
from which it soon again issues in order, by means of the Linth
canal (completed in 1816), to flow into the Lake of Zurich.
The Walensee has an area of 9 sq. m., is about 9 m. in length,
ij m. wide and 495 ft. deep, while its surface is 1388 ft. above
sea-level. It forms part of the Canton of St Gall, save if sq. m.
towards its west end, which are in that of Glarus. It lies in a
deep trench between two comparatively lofty ranges of moun-
tains, so that its scenery is more gloomy than is usual with
Swiss lakes. On the north shore there is but a single village of
any size (Quinten), while above it rise the cliffs of the seven-
peaked range of the Kurfursten (7576 ft.), at the west end of
which the village of Amden nestles in a hollow high above the
lake. On the south side the hills rise less steeply from the shore
(on which are Muhlehorn and Murg) towards the fine terrace of
the Kerenzenberg, on which are the frequented summer resorts
of Obstalden and Filzbach, backed on the south by the singularly
imposing crags of the Murtschenstock (8012 ft.). The small
towns of Weesen and Walenstadt are situated respectively at
the western and the eastern extremities of the lake, a railway
along the south shore of which connects them with each other
(n m.). Since the construction of this line no steamers ply on
the lake. (W. A. B. C.)
WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria), a Principality occupying
the extreme middle-west of the southern part of the island of
Great Britain, bounded E. by the English counties of Cheshire,
Shropshire, Herefordshire and Monmouthshire; S. by the
Bristol Channel; W. by St George's Channel; and N. by the
Irish Sea. (For map see ENGLAND, V.) Its area is 7467 sq. m.
Its greatest length from N. to S. (from the Point of Air in Flint
to Barry Island on the Glamorgan coast) is 136 m., while its
breadth varies from 92 m. (from St Davids Head to the English
border beyond Crickhowell) to 37 m. (the distance between
Aberystwyth and the Shropshire boundary at Clun Forest).
Its total circuit is about 540 m., of which 390 consist of coast-
line. The principal headlands are Great Ormes Head : in
Carnarvonshire; Braich-y-Pwll, the most westerly point of
WALES
259
Carnarvonshire; St Davids Head, the most westerly point of
South Wales; Worms Head, the western extremity of Gower;
and Lavernock Point to the W. of Cardiff. The principal islands
arc Holy Island, off the W. coast of Anglesea; Bardsey (Ynys
Enlli), near Braich-y-Pwll; and the islands of Ramsey, Grass-
holm, Skomer, Skokholm and Caldy (Ynys Pyr) off the Pembroke-
shire coast. The chief inlets are the mouth of the Dee, dividing
Flint from Cheshire; the Menai Straits, separating Anglesea
from the mainland; Carnarvon Bay; Cardigan Bay, stretching
from Braich-y-Pwll to St Davids Head; St Brides Bay;
Milford Haven; Carmarthen Bay; and Swansea Bay.
In common parlance, as well as for judicial purposes of circuits,
the Principality is divided into North Wales and South Wales, each
of which consists of six counties.
North Wales.
Anglesea (Ynys F6n) .
Carnarvon (Sir Arfon) .
Denbigh (Sir Dinbych).
Flint (Sir Fflint) .
Merioneth (Sir Feirionydd)
Montgomery (Sir Drefaldwyn)
Acreage.
Population
(1901).
176,630
361,156
423-499
164,744
427,810
510,111
50,606
126,883
129,942
81,700
49.149
54.901
South Wales.
Brecon or Brecknock (Sir Fry
cheiniog) ....
Cardigan (Sir Aberteifi)
Carmarthen (Sir Gaerfyrddin)
Glamorgan (Sir Forganwg) .
Pembroke (Sir Benfro).
Radnor (Sir Faesyfed) .
Acreage.
Population
(1901).
475-224
440,630
587-816
518,863
395-151
301,1^4
59.907
60,240
135.328
859.931
88,732
23,281
Mountains. Almost the whole surface of Wales is mountainous
or undulating. The most important hill system is that of the North
Wales mountains, covering the county of Carnarvon and parts of
Merioneth and Denbigh, wherein the Snowdonian range reaches the
height of 3571 ft. in Snowdon itself; of 3484 ft. in Carnedd Llywelyn ;
and of 3426 ft. in Carnedd Dafydd. South of this system, and
separated from it by the upper valley of the Dee, the Benvyn range
extends from N.E. to S.E., and is itself adjacent to Aran-fawddy
(2970 ft.), the highest point in the Cader Idris group. The system of
Mid- Wales or Powys stretches from Cardigan Bay to the English
border, and contains Plinlimmon (2462 ft.) in north Cardigan;
Drygarn Fawr (2115 ft.) in north Brecon; and Radnor Forest
(2163 ft.) in mid-Radnor. From Plinlimmon a range of hills runs in
a south-westerly direction towards St Davids, terminating in the
Preseily range of north Pembroke (1760 ft.) and dividing the broad
valleys of the Teifi and Towy. The three combined ranges of the
Black Mountains, the Brecknock Beacons and the Black Forest
sweep across south Brecon from W. to E., the chief elevations being
the Carmarthen Van (2632 ft.), the Brecon Beacon (2862 ft.) and
Pen-y-gader fawr (2660 ft.) near the English border.
Lakes and Rivers. Small lakes, such as Llyn Ogwen, Llyn Safaddan
(Llangorse Lake), Talyllyn, the Teifi Pools, &c., are fairly numerous
in the mountainous districts, but the only natural lake of importance
is Bala Lake, or Llyn Tegid, in Merionethshire, 4 m. long and about
i m. wide. But the great reservoir known as Lake Vyrnwy, which
supplies Liverpool with water, is equal in size to Bala; and the
chain of four artificial lakes constructed by the Birmingham cor-
poration in the valleys of the Elan and Claerwen covers a large area
in west Radnorshire. The longest river in Wales is the Severn
(180 m..), in Welsh Hafren, which rises in Plinlimmon, and takes a
north-easterly direction through Montgomeryshire before reaching
the English border. The Wye (130 m.) also rises in Plinlimmon,
and forms for some 30 m. the boundary between the counties of
Radnor and Brecon before encountering English soil near Hay.
The Usk (56 m.) flows through Breconshire, and joins the Bristol
Channel at Newport in Monmouthshire. The Dee (70 m.) traverses
Bala Lake, and drains parts of the counties of Merioneth, Denbigh
and Flint. The Towy (68 m.) flows through Carmarthenshire,
entering Carmarthen Bay at Llanstephan; the Teifi (50 m.) rises
near Tregaron and falls into Cardigan Bay below the town of Cardi-
gan. The Taff (40 m.), rising amongst the Brecon Beacons, enters
the Bristol Channel at Cardiff. Other rivers are the Dovey (30 m.),
falling into Cardigan Bay at Aberdovey; the Taf (25 m.), entering
Carmarthen Bay at Laugharne; and the broad navigable Conway
(24 m.), dividing the counties of Carnarvon and Denbigh.
Welsh Place-N antes. The place-names throughout the
Principality may be said to group themselves roughly into four
divisions: (i.) Pure and unaltered Celtic names; (ii.) Corrupted
or abbreviated Celtic names; (iii.) English names; (iv.) Scan-
dinavian and foreign names. To the first division belong the
vast majority of place-names throughout the whole of Wales
and Monmouthshire. Except in some districts of the Marches
and in certain tracts lying along the South Wales coast, nearly all
parishes, villages, hamlets, farms, houses, woods, fields, streams
and valleys possess native appellations, which in most cases are
descriptive of natural situation, e.g. Nanlyffin, the boundary
brook; Aberporth, mouth of the harbour; Talybont, end of the
bridge; Troedyrhiw, foot of the hill; Dyffryn, a valley, &c.
Other place-names imply a personal connexion in addition to
natural features, e.g. Nantygdj, the blacksmith's brook; Trefecca,
the house of Rebecca; Llwyn Madoc, Madoc's grove; Pant-
saeson, the Saxons' glen, &c. An historical origin is frequently
commemorated, notably in the many foundations of the Celtic
missionaries of the sth, 6th and 7th centuries, wherein the word
llan (church) precedes a proper name; thus every Llanddewi
recalls the early labours of Dewi Sant (St David); every LJan-
deilo, those of St Teilo; and such names as LJandudno, Liana/an,
Uanbadarn and the like commemorate SS. Tudno, Afan,
Padarn, &c. To the second division those place-names which
have been corrupted by English usage belong most of the older
historic towns, in striking contrast with the rural villages and
parishes, which in nearly all cases have retained unaltered their
original Celtic names. Anglicized in spelling and even to some
extent changed in sound are Carmarthen (Caerfyrddin) ; Pem-
broke (Penfro); Kidwelly (Cydweli); Cardiff (Caerdydd);
Uandovery (Llanymddyfri) ; while Lampeter, in Welsh Llanbedr-
pont-Stephan, affords an example of a Celtic place-name both
Anglicized and abbreviated. In not a few instances modern
English nomenclature has supplanted the old Welsh place-
names in popular usage, although the town's original appellation
is retained in Welsh literature and conversation, e.g. Holyhead
is Caergybi (fort of Cybi, a Celtic missionary of the 6th century);
Presteign is Llanandras (church of St Andrew, or Andras);
St Asaph is Llanelwy; the English name commemorating the
reputed founder of the see, and the Welsh nam^ recalling the
church's original foundation on the banks of the Elwy. Cardigan,
in Welsh Aberteifi, from its situation near the mouth of the
Teifi, and Brecon, in Welsh Aberhonddu, from its site near the
confluence of the Usk and Honddu, are examples of corrupted
Welsh names in common use Ceredigion, Brychan which
possess in addition pure Celtic forms. In the third division,
English place-names are tolerably frequent everywhere and pre-
dominate in the Marches and on the South Wales coast. Even in
so thoroughly Welsh a county as Cardiganshire, English place-
names are often to be encountered, e.g. New Quay, High Mead,
Oakford, &c. ; but many of such names are of modern invention,
dating chiefly from the i8th and igth centuries. Of the many
English names occurring in south Pembroke and south Glamor-
gan, some are exact or fanciful translations of the original Welsh,
e.g. Cowbridge (Pontyfon) and Ludchurch (Eglwys Llwyd) , others
are of direct external origin, as Bishopstone, Flemingstone,
Butter Hill, Briton Ferry, Manselfield, &c. Names derived
straight from an Anglo-Norman source are rare; Beaupre,
Beaumaris, Beaufort, Fleur-de-Lis, Roche, may be cited as ex-
amples of such. Scandinavian influence can easily be traced
at various points of the coast-line, but particularly in south
Pembrokeshire, wherein occur such place-names as Caldy, Tenby,
Goodwick, Dale, Skokholm, Hakin and Milford Haven. Speci-
mens of Latinized names in connexion with ecclesiastical founda-
tions are preserved in Strata Florida and Valle Crucis Abbeys.
Hybrid place-names are occasionally to be met with in the
colonized portions of Wales, as in Gelliswick (a combination
of the Celtic gelli, a hazel grove, and the Norse wick, a haven),
and in Fletherhill, where the English suffix hill is practically a
translation of the Celtic prefix. A striking peculiarity of the
Principality is the prevalence of Scriptural place-names; a
circumstance due undoubtedly to the popular religious move-
ments of the iQth century. Not only are such names as Horeb,
Zion, Penuel, Siloh, &c., bestowed on Nonconformist chapels,
26o
WALES
but these Biblical terms have likewise been applied to their sur-
rounding houses, and in not a few instances to growing towns
and villages. A notable example of this curious nomenclature
occurs in Bethesda, Carnarvonshire, where the name of the
Congregational chapel erected early in the ipth century has
altogether supplanted the original Celtic place-name of Cilfoden.
But although English and foreign place-names are fairly numer-
ous throughout Wales, yet the vast majority remain Celtic either
in a pure or in a corrupted form, so that some knowledge of the
Celtic language is essential to interpret their meaning.
A small glossary of some of the more common component words is
appended below.
Aber, the mouth or estuary of a river Aberystwyth, Abergwili.
Ach, water Clydach, Clarach.
Afon, a river a word which retains its primitive meaning in
Wales, whilst it has become a proper name in England Glanafon-.
Manorafon.
Bettws, a corrupt form of the English " bead-house," or possibly
of the Latin " beatus " Bettws-y-coed, Bettws Ifan.
Blaen, the top Blaendyffryn, Blaencwm.
Bod, house or abode Bodfuan, Hafod.
Brow, the human breast, hence breast of hill Brongest, Cil-
bronnau.
Bryn, a hill Brynmawr, Penbryn.
Bwlch, a gap Bwlchbychan, Tanybwlch.
Cae, a field Caeglas, Tynycae.
Caer, a fortress or fortified camp Caerlleon, Caersws.
Capel, a corrupt form of the Latin " capella " applied to chapels,
ancient and recent Capel Dewi, Capel-issaf, Parc-y-capel.
Cam, a cairn or heap of stones Moel-trigarn.
Carnedd, a tumulus Carnedd Llywelyn.
Cefn, a ridge Ccfn-Mably, Cefn-y-bedd.
Cil, a retreat, said to be akin to the Goidelic kil Ciliau-Aeron,
Cilcennin.
Cnwc, a knoll or mound Cnwcglas (Anglicized into Knucklas, in
Radnorshire).
Coed, a wood Coedmawr, Penycoed.
Craig, a rock or crag Pen-y-graig.
Cr&g, a heap or barrow Crug Mawr, Trichrflg.
Cwm, a low valley, Anglicized into " coomb " Cwm Gwendraeth,
Blaencwm.
Din, a fortified hill, hence Dinas, a fortified town Dinefawr, Pen
Dinas.
Dot, a meadow Dolwilym, Dolau.
Dwr, Dwfr, water Glyndwrdu, the patrimony of the celebrated
Owen Glendower, of which his Anglicized name is a corruption.
Eglwys, a corruption of the Latin " ecclesia," a church Eglwyswrw,
Tanyreglwys.
Gallt, in North Wales a steep slope; in South Wales a hanging
wood-^Galltyfyrddin, Penyrallt.
Gelli, a grove Gellideg, Pengelly Forest.
Glan, a bank Glanym&r, Glandofan.
Glyn, a glen or narrow valley Glyncothi, Tyglyn.
Llan, a sacred enclosure, hence a church a most interesting and
important Celtic prefix Llandeilo, Llansaint.
Llech, a stone Llechryd, Trellech.
Llwyn, a grove Penllwyn, Llwynybran.
Llys, a court or palace Henllys, Llysowen.
Maes, open land, or battlefield Maesyfed (the Welsh name for
Radnorshire), Maesllwch.
Moel, bald, hence a bare hill-top Moelfre.
Mor, the sea Brynm6r, Glanymor.
Mynydd, mountain Llanfynydd, Mynydd Dfl.
Nant, a ravine, hence also a brook -Nantgwyllt, Nannau, Nant-
garedig.
Pant, a glen or hollow Pantycelyn, Blaenpant.
Pare, an enclosed field -Parc-y-Marw, Penparc.
Pen, a summit Penmaenmawr, Penmark.
Pont, a bridge, a corruption of the Latin "pons" Pont-
hirwen, Talybont.
Forth, a gate or harbour perhaps a corrupt form of the Latin
" porta " Aberporth, Pump Forth (" the Five Gates ").
Rhiw, ascent or slope Troedyrhiw, Rhiwlas.
Rhos, a moor Rhosllyn, Tyr hos.
Rhyd, a ford Rhydyfuwch, Glanrhyd.
Sarn, a causeway, generally descriptive of the old Roman paved
roads Talsarn, Sarnau, Sarn Badrig.
Tal, an end, also head Taliaris, Talyllyn.
Tref, a homestead, hence cantref, a hundred Hendref, Cantref-y-
gwaelod.
Troed, a base Troed-y-bryn.
Ty, a house, a cottage Tynewydd, Mynachty.
Wy, or gwy, an obsolete Celtic word for water, preserved in the
names of many Welsh rivers Elwy, Gwili, Wye or Gwy.
Ynys, an island, or hill in the midst of a bog Ynys Enlli (the
Welsh name for Bardsey Islands), Ynyshir, Clynrynys.
Yspytty, spite, a corrupt form of the Latin " hospitium," often
used of the guest-house of an abbey Yspytty Ystwyth, Tafarn
Spite.
Ystrad, a meadow or rich lowland Ystrad Mynach, Llanfihaneel
Ystrad.
Population. The total population of the twelve counties
of the Principality was: 1,360,513 (1881), 1,519,035 (1891),
1,720,600 (1901). These figures prove a steady upward tendency,
but the increase itself is confined entirely to the industrial
districts of the Principality, and in a special degree to Glamorgan-
shire; while the agricultural counties, such as Pembroke,
Merioneth, Cardigan or Montgomery, present a continuous
though slight decrease owing to local emigration to the centres
of industry. The whole population of Wales in Tudor, Stuart
and early Georgian times can scarcely have exceeded 500,000
souls, and was probably less. But with the systematic develop-
ment of the vast mineral resources of the South Wales coalfield,
the population of Glamorganshire has increased at a more rapid
rate than that of any other county of the United Kingdom, so
that at present this county contains about half the population
of all Wales. It will be noted, therefore, that the vast mass of the
inhabitants of Wales are settled in the industrial area which
covers the northern districts of Glamorganshire and the south-
eastern corner of Carmarthenshire; whilst central Wales, com-
prising the four counties of Cardigan, Radnor, Merioneth and
Montgomery, forms the least populous portion of the Principality.
The following towns had each in 1901 a population exceeding
10,000: Cardiff, Ystradyfodwg, Swansea, Merthyr Tydfil,
Aberdare, Pontypridd, Llanelly, Ogmore and Garw, Pembroke,
Caerphilly, Maesteg, Wrexham, Penarth, Neath, Festiniog,
Bangor, Holyhead, Carmarthen. Only four towns in North
Wales are included in these eighteen, and the combined popula-
tions of these four Wrexham (14,966), Festiniog (11,435),
Bangor (11,269) ar >d Holyhead (10,079) fall far below that of
Merthyr Tydfil (69,228), the fourth largest town in Glamorgan-
shire.
Industries. The chief mineral product of the Principality is coal,
of which the output amounts to over 23,000,000 tons annually.
The great South Wales coalfield, one of the largest in the kingdom,
covers the greater part of Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, the
south-eastern corner of Carmarthenshire, and a small portion of
south Pembrokeshire, and the quality of its coal is especially suitable
for smelting purposes and for use in steamships. The supply of
limestone and ironstone in Glamorganshire is said to be practically
unlimited. About 400,000 tons of pig iron are produced yearly, and
some of the largest iron-works in the world are situated at Merthyr
Tydfil and Dowlais. Copper, tin and lead works are everywhere
numerous in the busy valleys of north Glamorgan and in the neigh-
bourhoods of Swansea, Neath, Cardiff and Llanelly. In North
Wales, Wrexham, Ruabon and Chirk are centres of coal-mining in-
dustry. There are valuable copper mines in Anglesea, and lead
mines in Flint and in north Cardiganshire, which also yield a certain
deposit of silver ore. Gold has been discovered and worked, though
only to a small extent, in Merionethshire and Carmarthenshire.
Slate quarries are very numerous throughout the Principality, the
finest quality of slate being obtained in the neighbourhood of Bangor
and Carnarvon, where the Penrhyn and Bethesda quarries give
employment to many thousands of workmen.
By far the larger portion of Wales is purely agricultural in char-
acter, and much of the valley land is particularly fertile, notably
the Vale of Glamorgan, the Vale of Clwyd and the valleys of the
Towy, the Teifi, the Usk and the Wye, which have long been cele-
brated for their rich pastures. The holdings throughout Wales are
for the most part smaller in extent than the average farms of England.
Stock-raising is generally preferred to the growing of cereals, and
in western Wales the oat crops exceed in size those of wheat and
barley. The extensive tracts of unenclosed and often unimprovable
land, which still cover a large area in the Principality, especially in
the five counties of Cardigan, Radnor, Brecon, Montgomery and
Merioneth, support numerous flocks of the small mountain sheep,
the flesh of which supplies the highly prized Welsh mutton. The
wool of the sheep is manufactured into flannel at numberless factories
in the various country towns, and the supply meets an important
local demand. The upland tracts also afford good pasturage for a
number of cobs and ponies, which obtain high prices at the local
fairs, and Pembrokeshire and Cardiganshire have long been famous
for their breed of horses and ponies. The cattle of Wales present all
varieties of race, the Hereford breed prevailing in the eastern
counties, and Shorthorns and the black Castlemartins in the south-
western parts. The great herds of goats, which in medieval times
subsisted on the Welsh hills, have entirely disappeared since the
general adoption of the sheep-farming industry.
WALES
261
The deep-sea fisheries on the south-western coasts are of some
importance; the Mumbles, Tenby and Milford Haven being the
i-hii-f centres of this industry. Lobsters and crabs are caught in
t '.inligan Bay, and oysters are found at various points of the Pem-
brokeshire coast. The large rivers produce salmon, which are
usually sent to the great towns for sale. The Wye, the Usk, the Dee,
the Dovey, the Teifi, the Towy and most of the Welsh rivers and
lakes are frequented by anglers for salmon and trout.
Communications. The two principal railways serving the Princi-
pality are the London & North-Western, which passes along the
North Wales coast-line by way of Conway and Bangor, crosses the
Menai Strait and has its terminus at Holyhead ; and the Great
Western, which traverses South Wales by way of Cardiff, Landore,
Llanelly and Carmarthen, and has its principal terminal station at
Fishguard Harbour. The lines of the Cambrian railway serve North
and Mid-Wales, and branches of the London & North-Western and
the Midland penetrate into South Wales as far as Swansea. A net-
wi irk of lines connects the great industrial districts of Glamorganshire
with the main line of the Great Western railway. There are steam-
ship services between Holyhead and Dublin in connexion with the
trains of the London & North-Western railway; and an important
traffic for dairy produce, live-stock and passengers between Fish-
guard and Rosslare on the Irish coast was opened in 1906 in con-
nexion with the Great Western railway. There is also a boat service
between Holyhead and Greenore on the Ulster coast. Steamboats
likewise ply between Milford, Tenby, Swansea and Cardiff and
Bristol; also between Swansea and Cardiff and Dublin; and there
is a regular service between Swansea and Ilfracombe. The principal
canals are the Swansea, the Neath, the Aberdare & Glamorgan,
and the Brecon & Abergavenny, all worked in connexion with the
industrial districts of north Glamorganshire.
Government. In all acts of parliament Wales is invariably
included under the term of " England and Wales," and whenever
an act, or any section of an act, is intended to apply to the
Principality alone, then Wales is always coupled with Monmouth-
shire. The extinction of the Welsh Court of Great Sessions in
1830 served to remove the last relic of separate jurisdiction in
Wales itself, but in 1881 special legislation was once more
inaugurated by the Welsh Sunday Closing Act (46 Victoria),
forbidding the sale of spirituous liquors by all inn-keepers on
Sundays to any but bona fide travellers throughout Wales and
Monmouthshire. A separate act on behalf of Welsh education
was likewise passed in 1889, when the Welsh Intermediate Educa-
tion Act made special provision for intermediate and technical
education throughout the Principality and Monmouthshire.
Except for the administration of these two special acts, the
system of government in Wales is identical in every respect with
that of England (see ENGLAND and UNITED KINGDOM). Royal
commissions dealing with questions peculiar to Wales have
been issued from time to time, notably of recent years, in the
Welsh Land Tenure Commission of 1893, and the Welsh Church
Commission of 1906 (see History).
Religion. Ecclesiastically, the whole of Wales lies within
the province of Canterbury. The four Welsh sees, however,
extend beyond the borders of the twelve counties, for they
include the whole of Monmouthshire and some portions of the
English border shires; on the other hand, the sees of Hereford
and Chester encroach upon the existing Welsh counties. The
diocese of St Davids (Tyddewi), the largest, oldest and poorest
of the four Cambrian sees, consists of the counties of Pembroke,
Carmarthen and Cardigan, almost the whole of Brecon, the
greater part of Radnor, and west Glamorgan with Swansea and
Gower. The cathedral church of St Davids is situated near
the remote headland of St Davids in Pembrokeshire, but the
episcopal residence has been fixed ever since the Reformation
at Abergwili near Carmarthen, the most central spot in this
vast diocese. The see of Llandaff comprises Monmouthshire,
all Glamorganshire as far west as the Tawe, and some parishes
in Brecon and Hereford. The diocese of Bangor consists of the
counties of Anglesea, Carnarvon and large portions of Merioneth
and Montgomery. The diocese of St Asaph (Llanelwy) consists
of the county of Denbigh, nearly the whole of Flint, with
portions of Montgomery, Merioneth and Shropshire.
Since the beginning of the igth century dissent has been
strongly represented in the Principality, the combined numbers
of the various Nonconformist bodies far outstripping the ad-
herents of the Church. Universally accepted statistics as to
the various religious bodies it has been found impossible to
obtain, but the Report (1910) of the Welsh Church Commission
stated that, exclusive of Roman Catholics, there were 743,361
communicants or fully admitted members of some denomination,
of whom 193,081 were Churchmen and 550,280 Nonconformists.
The gentry and landowners are all, broadly speaking, members
of the established Church, but it is impossible to name any
other class of society as belonging definitely either to " Church "
or " Chapel." According to the above Report, the three most
powerful dissenting bodies in Wales are the Congregationalists
or Independents, whose members number 175,147 throughout
Wales and Monmouthshire; the Calvinistic Methodists a direct
offshoot of the Church since the schism of 1811 with a mem-
bership of 170,617; and the Baptists, 143,835. Wesleyan and
Presbyterian chapels are likewise numerous, and the Unitarian
or Socinian body has long been powerful in the valley of the
Teifi. Nearly every existing sect is represented in Wales, in-
cluding Swedenborgians and Moravians. The Roman Catholic
Church has many followers amongst the labouring population of
Irish descent in the industrial districts. The diocese of Newport
(known till 189635 Newport and Menevia) consists of the counties
of Monmouth, Glamorgan and Hereford; whilst the remaining
eleven counties were in 1895 formed into the Vicariate of Wales,
which in 1898 was erected into a diocese under a bishop with
the title of Menevia. Since the expulsion of the religious orders
from France in 1903 several communities of French monks and
nuns have taken up their abode in the Principality.
History. At the time of the Roman invasion of Britain,
55 B.C., four distinct dominant tribes, or families, are enumerated
west of the Severn, viz. the Decangi, owning the island of
Anglesea (Ynys F6n) and the Snowdonian district; the Or-
dovices, inhabiting the modern counties of Denbigh, Flint and
Montgomery; the Dimetae, in the counties of Cardigan, Car-
marthen and Pembroke; and the Silures, occupying the counties
of Glamorgan, Brecknock, Radnor and Monmouth. It is
interesting to note that the existing four Welsh sees of Bangor,
St Asaph, St Davids and Llandaff correspond in the main with
the limits of these four tribal divisions. On the advance of
Ostorius into western Britain, he met with considerable resist-
ance from Caractacus (Caradog), king of the Silures, but after
some encounters this prince was eventually captured and sent
in chains to Rome. The partial conquest by Ostorius was
completed under Julius Frontinus by the year 78, after which
the Romans set to work in order to pacify and develop their
newly annexed territory. At this period the copper mines of
Mona or Anglesea, the silver mines near Plinlimmon and the gold
mines in the valley of the Cothi in Carmarthenshire were ex-
ploited and worked with some success by the conquerors. In
spite of the mountainous and boggy character of the country,
roads were now constructed in all directions. Of these the most
important are the military road leading S. from Deva (Chester)
by way of Uriconium (Wroxeter) andGobannium (Abergavenny)
to Isca Silurum (Caerleon-on-Usk) and Venta Silurum (Caer-
went); another from Deva to Conovium (Conway), whence a
road, the Sarn Helen, extended due S. to Carmarthen (Mari-
dunum), by way of Loventium (Pont Llanio), which was also
connected with Gobannium; from Maridunum a road led E.
through the modern county of Glamorgan by way of Leucarum
(Loughor) and Nidum (Neath) to Venta Silurum. With the
accession of Constantine. Christianity was introduced by the
Romans into the parts of Wales already colonized, and the
efforts of the Roman priests were later supplemented during
the sth, 6th and 7th centuries by the devoted labours of Celtic
missionaries, of whom nearly five hundred names still remain
on record. Foremost in the work of preaching and educating
were SS. David, Teilo, Ultyd and Cadoc in Dyfed, Morganwg,
Gwent and Brycheiniog, comprising South Wales; Cynllo, Afan
and Padarn in Ceredigion and Maesyfed, or Mid-Wales; and
Deiniol, Dunawd, Beuno, Kentigern and Asaph in North Wales.
To this period succeeding the fall of the Roman power is also
ascribed the foundation of the many great Celtic monasteries, of
which Bangor-Iscoed on the Dee, Bardsey Island, Llancarvan
and Llantwit Major in the Vale of Glamorgan, Caerleon-on-Usk
262
WALES
and St Davids are amongst the most celebrated in early
Welsh ecclesiastical annals. With the withdrawal of the Roman
legions, the recognized powers of the Dux Britanniarum, the
Roman official who governed the upper province of Britain,
were in the sth century assumed by the Celtic prince Cunedda
under the title of Gwledig (the Supreme), who fixed his court
and residence at Deganwy, near the modern Llandudno. During
the 6th century the battle of Deorham gained by the West
Saxons in 577 cut off communication with Cornwall, and in
613 the great battle of Chester, won by King Ethelfrith, pre-
vented the descendants of Cunedda from ever again asserting
their sovereignty over Strathclyde; the joint effect, therefore,
of these two important Saxon victories was to isolate Wales
and at the same time to put an end to all pretensions of its
rulers as the inheritors of the ancient political claims of the
Roman governors of the northern province of Britain. The Sth
century saw a further curtailment of the Welsh territories under
Offa, king of Mercia, who annexed Shrewsbury (Amwythig) and
Hereford (Henfordd) with their surrounding districts, and
constructed the artificial boundary known as Offa's Dyke running
due N. and S. from the mouth of the Dee to that of the Wye.
It was during these disastrous Mercian wars that there first
appeared on the Welsh coasts the Norse and Danish pirates,
who harried and burnt the small towns and flourishing
monasteries on the shores of Cardigan Bay and the Bristol
Channel. In the gth century, however, the Welsh, attacked by
land and sea, by Saxons and by Danes, at length obtained a
prince capable of bringing the turbulent chieftains of his country
into obedience, and of opposing the two sets of invaders of his
realm. This was Rhodri Mawr, or Roderick the Great, a name
always cherished in Cymric annals. Like Alfred of Wessex,
Rhodri also built a fleet in order to protect Anglesea, " the
mother of Wales," so called on account of its extensive corn-
fields which supplied barren Gwynedd with provisions. In 877
Rhodri, after many vicissitudes, was slain in battle, and his
dominions of Gwynedd (North Wales), Deheubarth (South
Wales) and Powys (Mid Wales) were divided amongst his three
sons, Anarawd, Cadell and Mervyn. Consolidation of Cambro-
British territory was found impossible; there was no settled
capital; and the three princes fixed their courts respectively
at Aberffraw in Anglesea, at Dynevor (Dinefawr) near Llandilo
in Deheubarth, and at Mathrafal in Powys. Howel, son of
Cadell, commonly known as Howel Dda the Good, is ever
celebrated in Welsh history as the framer, or rather the codifier,
of the ancient laws of his country, which were promulgated to
the people at his hunting lodge, Ty Gwyn ar Taf, near the
modern Whitland. In Howel's code the prince of Gwynedd
with his court at Aberffraw is recognized as the leading monarch
in Wales; next to him ranks the prince of Deheubarth, and
third in estimation is the prince of Powys. The laws of Howel
Dda throw a flood of interesting light upon the ancient customs
and ideas of early medieval Wales, but as their standard of
justice is founded on a tribal and not a territorial system of
society, it is easy to understand the antipathy with which the
Normans subsequently came to regard this famous code. The
dissensions of the turbulent princes of Gwynedd, Powys and
Deheubarth, and of their no less quarrelsome chieftains, now
rent the country, which was continually also a prey to Saxon
incursions by land and to Scandinavian attacks by sea. Some
degree of peace was, however, given to the distracted country
during the reign of Llewelyn ap Seissyllt, the husband of Ang-
harad, heiress of Gwynedd, who at length secured the over-
lordship or sovereignty of all Wales, and reigned till 1022. His
son, Griffith ap Llewelyn, who, after having been driven into
exile, recovered his father's realm in the battle of Pencader,
Carmarthenshire, in 1041, for many years waged a war of
varying success against Harold, earl of Wessex, but in 1062 he
was treacherously slain, and Harold placed Wales under the old
king's half-brothers, Bleddyn and Rhiwallon.
With the advent of the Normans, William the Conqueror, with
the object of placing a firm feudal barrier between Wales and the
earldom of Mercia, erected three palatine counties along the
Cymric frontier. Thus Hugh the Wolf was placed in Chester
(Caer), Roger de Montgomery at Shrewsbury and William Fitz-
Osbern at Hereford. In 1081 William himself visited the Princi-
pality", and even penetrated as far west as St Davids. But the
most important result of this first Norman invasion was to be
found in the marvellous and rapid success of Robert Fitz-Hamon,
earl of Gloucester, who, accompanied by a number of knightly
adventurers, quickly overran South Wales, and erected a chain of
castles stretching from the Wye to Milford Haven. The rich
low-lying lands of Morganwg and Gwent were thus firmly
occupied, nor were they ever permanently recovered by the
Welsh princes; and such natives as remained were kept in
subjection by the almost impregnable fortresses of stone erected
at Caerphilly, Cardiff, Cowbridge, Neath, Kidwelly and other
places. The important castles of Carmarthen and Pembroke
were likewise built at this period. At the accession of William
Rufus the domain of Gwynedd had been reduced to Anglesea
and the Snowdonian district, and that of South Wales, or
Deheubarth, to the lands contained in the basins of the rivers Towy
and Teifi, known as Ystrad Tywi and Ceredigion. Griffith ap
Cynan, of the royal house of Gwynedd, who had been first an
exile in Ireland, and later a prisoner at Chester, once more
returned to his native land, and defied the Norman barons with
success, whilst Henry I. vainly endeavoured to make his liege
and follower, Owen of Powys, ruling prince in Wales. Meanwhile
the house of Dynevor once more rose to some degree of power
under Griffith ap Rhys, whose father, Rhys ap Tudor, had been
slain in 1093. The confused reign of Stephen was naturally
favourable to the development of Cymric liberty, and with such
strong princes as Owen, son of Griffith ap Cynan, heir to the
throne of Gwynedd, and with Griffith ap Rhys ruling at Dynevor,
the prospects of the Cymry grew brighter. In 1136 the army of
Griffith ap Rhys met with a large English force near Cardigan,
composed of the denizens of the South Wales castles and of the
hated Flemish colonists, who had been lately planted by Henry I.
in Dyfed. A fierce engagement took place wherein the Norman
and Flemish troops were utterly routed, and the victorious
Cymry slew thousands of their fugitives at the fords of the Teifi
close to the town of Cardigan. The following year (1137) saw
the deaths of the two powerful princes, Griffith ap Cynan, " the
sovereign and protector and peacemaker of all Wales," and
Griffith ap Rhys, " the light and the strength and the gentleness
of the men of the south." With the accession of Henry II.
peace was made with Owen of Gwynedd, the successor of Griffith
ap Cynan, and with Rhys ap Griffith of South Wales. In 1169
Owen Gwynedd died and was buried in Bangor cathedral after
a reign of 33 years, wherein he had successfully defended his own
realm and had done much to bring about that union of all Wales
which his grandson was destined to complete. On the other
hand, " The Lord Rhys," as he is usually termed, did homage
to Henry II. at Pembroke in 1171, and was appointed the royal
justiciar of all South Wales. At the castle of Cardigan in 1176,
Prince Rhys held a historic bardic entertainment, or eisteddfod,
wherein the poets and harpists of Gwynedd and Deheubarth
contended in amicable rivalry. This enlightened prince died in
1196, and as at his death the house of Dynevor ceased to be of
any further political importance, the overlordship of all Wales
became vested indisputably in the house of Gwynedd, which
from this point onwards may be considered as representing in
itself alone the independent principality of Wales. The prince
of Gwynedd henceforth considered himself as a sovereign,
independent, but owing a personal allegiance to the king of
England, and it was to obtain a recognition of his rights as such
that Llewelyn ap lorwerth, " the Great," consistently strove
under three English kings, and though his resources were small,
it seemed for a time as though he might be able by uniting his
countrymen to place the recognized autonomy of Gwynedd on
a firm and enduring basis. By first connecting himself with John
through his marriage with the English king's daughter Joan, by
straining every nerve to repress dissensions and enforce obedience
amongst the Welsh chieftains, and later by allying himself with
the English barons against his suzerain, this prince during a
WALES
263
reign of 44 years was enabled to give a considerable amount of
peace and prosperity to his country, which he persistently sought
to rule as an independent sovereign, although acknowledging a
personal vassalage to the king of England.
The close of the iath century saw the final and complete
subjection of the ancient Cambro-British Church to the supre-
macy of Canterbury. As part of the Roman Upper Province of
Britain, Wales would naturally have fallen under the primacy
of York, but the Welsh sees had continued practically inde-
pendent of outside control during Saxon times. The bishops
of St Davids had from time to time claimed metropolitan rights
over the remaining sees, but in 1115 St Anselme's appointment
of the monk Bernard (d. 1147) to St Davids, in spite of the
opposition of the native clergy, definitely marked the end of
former Welsh ecclesiastical independence. In 1188 Archbishop
Baldwin with a distinguished train, whilst preaching the Third
Crusade, made an itinerary of the Welsh sees and visited the four
cathedral churches, thereby formally asserting the supremacy
of Canterbury throughout all Wales. But in 1199 the celebrated
Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis), archdeacon of Brecon and
a member of the famous Norman baronial house of de Barri, and
also through his grandmother Nesta a great-grandson of Prince
Rhys ap Tudor of Deheubarth, was elected bishop by the chapter
of St Davids. This enthusiastic priest at once began to re-assert
the ancient metropolitan claims of the historic Welsh see, and
between the years 1199-1203 paid three visits to Rome in order
to obtain the support of Pope Innocent III. against John and
Archbishop Hubert, who firmly refused to recognize Gerald's
late election. Innocent was inclined to temporize, whilst the
Welsh chieftains, and especially Gwenwynwyn of Powys, loudly
applauded Gerald's action, but Llewelyn ap lorwerth himself
prudently held aloof from the controversy. Finally, in 1203,
Gerald was compelled to make complete submission to the king
and archbishop at Westminster, and henceforth Canterbury
remained in undisputed possession of the Welsh sees, a circum-
stance that undoubtedly tended towards the later union of the
two countries.
In 1238 Llewelyn, growing aged and infirm, summoned all his
vassals to a conference at the famous Cistercian abbey of Strata
Florida, whereat David, his son by the Princess Joan of England,
was acknowledged his heir by all present. Two years later
Llewelyn, the ablest and most successful qf all the Welsh princes,
expired and was buried in the monastery of his own foundation
at Aberconway. He was succeeded by David II., at whose death
without children in' 1246 the sovereignty of Gwynedd, and con-
sequently of Wales, reverted to his three nephews, sons of his
half-brother Griffith, who had perished in 1244 whilst trying to
escape from the Tower of London, where Henry III. was holding
him as hostage for the good behaviour of Prince David. Of
Griffith's three sons, Owen, Llewelyn and David, the most
popular and influential was undoubtedly Llewelyn, whose deeds
and qualities were celebrated in extravagant terms by the bards
of his own day, and whose evil fate has ever been a favourite
theme of Welsh poets. Though to this, the last prince of Wales,
political sagacity and a firm desire for peace have often been
ascribed, it must be admitted that he showed himself both
turbulent and rash at a time when the most cautious diplomacy
on his part was essential for his country's existence. For
Edward, Henry III.'s son and heir, who had been created earl of
Chester by his father and put in possession of all the royal
claims in Wales, was generally credited with a strong determin-
ation to crush for ever Welsh independence, should a fitting oppor-
tunity to do so present itself. Nevertheless, the hostile policy
of Llewelyn, who had closely associated himself with the cause
of Simon de Montfort and the barons, was at first successful.
For after the battle of Evesham a treaty was concluded between
the English king and the Welsh prince at Montgomery, whereby
the latter was confirmed in his principality of Gwynedd and was
permitted to receive the homage of all the Welsh barons, save
that of the head of the house of Dynevor, which the king reserved
to himself; whilst the four fertile cantrefs of Perfeddwlad, lying
between Gwynedd and the earldom of Chester, were granted to
the prince. Llewelyn was, however, foolish enough to lose the
results of this very favourable treaty by intriguing with the de
Montfort family, and in 1273 he became betrothed to Eleanor
de Montfort, the old Earl's only daughter, a piece of political
folly which may possibly in some degree account for Edward's
harsh treatment of the Welsh prince. In 1274 Llewelyn refused
to attend at Edward's coronation, although the Scottish king
was present. In 1276 Edward entered Wales from Chester, and
after a short campaign brought his obstinate vassal to submit
to the ignominious treaty of Conway, whereby Llewelyn lost
almost all the benefits conferred on him by the compact of
Montgomery ten years before. Llewelyn, utterly humbled, now
behaved with such prudence that Edward at last sanctioned his
marriage with Eleanor de Montfort (although such an alliance
must originally have been highly distasteful to the English king),
and the ceremony was performed with much pomp in Worcester
Cathedral in 1278. In 1281 discontent with the king and his
system of justice had again become rife in Wales, and at this
point the treacherous Prince David, who had hitherto supported
the king against his own brother, was the first to proclaim a
national revolt. On Palm Sunday 1282, in a time of peace,
David suddenly attacked and burnt Hawarden Castle, whereupon
all Wales was up in arms. Edward, greatly angered and now
bent on putting an end for ever to the independence of the
Principality, hastened into Wales; but whilst the king was
campaigning in Gwynedd, Prince Llewelyn himself was slain
in an obscure skirmish on the nth of December 1282 at Cefn-y-
bedd, near Builth on the Wye, whither he had gone to rouse the
people of Brycheiniog. Llewelyn's head was brought to Ed ward
at Conway Castle, who ordered it to be exhibited in the capital,
surrounded by a wreath of ivy, in mocking allusion to an ancient
Cymric prophecy concerning a Welsh prince being crowned in
London. His body is said, on doubtful authority, to have been
buried honourably by the monks of Abbey Cwm Hir, near
Rhayader. Llewelyn's brother, now David III., designated by
the English " the last survivor of that race of traitors," for a
few months defied the English forces amongst the fastnesses of
Snowdon, but ere long he was captured, tried as a disloyal English
baron by a parliament at Shrewsbury, and finally executed under
circumstances of great barbarity on the 3rd of October 1283.
With David's capture practically all serious Welsh resistance to
the English arms ceased, if we except the unsuccessful attempt
made to rouse the crushed nation in 1293 by Llewelyn's natural
son, Madoc, who ended his days as a prisoner in the Tower of
London.
Having suppressed the independence of Wales, Edward now
took steps to keep Gwynedd itself in permanent subjection by
building the castles of Conway, Carnarvon, Criccieth and
Harlech within the ancient patrimony of the princes of North
Wales, whose legitimate race was now extinct save for Llewelyn's
daughter Gwenllian, who had entered the convent of Sempring-
ham. In April 1 284 Queen Eleanor, who had meanwhile joined
her husband in Wales, gave birth to a son in the newly built
castle of Carnarvon, and this infant the victorious king, half
in earnest and half in jest, presented to the Welsh people for a
prince who could speak no word of English. On the 7th of
February 1301, Edward of Carnarvon was formally created
" prince of Wales " by his father, and henceforward the title
and honours of Prince of Wales became associated with the
recognized heir of the English crown.
By the Statute, or rather Ordinance of Rhuddlan, promulgated
in 1284, many important changes were effected in the civil
administration of Wales. Glamorgan and the county palatine
of Pembroke had hitherto been the only portions of the country
subject to English shire law, but now Edward parcelled out the
ancient territory of the princes of Gwynedd and of Deheubarth
into six new counties, with sheriffs, coroners and bailiffs. Thus
Anglesea, Carnarvon, Merioneth and Flint were erected in North
Wales; whilst out of the districts of Ystrad Tywi and Ceredigion
in South Wales, the old dominions of the house of Dynevor, the
counties of Carmarthen and Cardigan were formed. The old
Welsh land tenure by gavelkind was, however, still permitted
264
WALES
to remain in force amongst the natives of all Wales, whilst it was
henceforth arranged to administer justice in the eight counties
by special royal judges, and in the Marches by the officers
appointed by the various lords-marchers according to the terms
of their tenure. Another distinguishing mark of Edward's policy
towards Wales is to be found in the commercial and administra-
tive powers given to the fortified towns, inhabited solely by people
of English birth and by Welshmen who acquiesced in English
rule. Municipal charters and market privileges were now granted
to such towns as Cardiff, Carmarthen, Builth, Cardigan, Mont-
gomery, Aberystwith, Newborough, &c., and this wise policy
was continued under Edward II. and Edward III. Many of the
turbulent Welsh warriors having now become mercenaries on the
continent or else enlisted under the English king, and the whole
of the land west of Severn at last enjoying internal peace, the
commercial resources of Wales were developed in a manner that
had hitherto not been possible. Coal, copper, timber, iron, and
especially wool, were exported from the Principality, and by the
Statute Staple of 1353 Carmarthen was declared the sole staple
for the whole Welsh wool trade, every bale of wool having first
to be sealed or " cocketed " at this important town, which during
the I4th century may almost be accounted as the English
capital of the Principality, so greatly was it favoured by the
Plantagenet monarchs. A natural result of this partial treatment
of the towns by the king and his vassals was that the English
tongue and also English customs became prevalent if not universal
in all the towns of Wales, whilst the rural districts remained
strongly Cymric in character, language and sympathy.
After more than a century of enforced repose in the land and
of prosperity in the towns, all Wales was suddenly convulsed by
a wide-spread revolt against the English crown, which reads more
like a tale of romance than a piece of sane history. The deposi-
tion of Richard II. and the usurpation of Henry IV., combined
with the jealousy of the rural inhabitants of Wales against the
privileged dwellers of the towns, 'seem to have rendered the
country ripe for rebellion. Upon this troubled scene now
appeared Owen Glendower (Owain Glyndwfrdwy: died ? 1415), a
descendant of the former princes of Powys and a favourite courtier
of the late King Richard, smarting under the effect of personal
wrongs received from Henry of Lancaster. With a success and
speed that contemporary writers deemed miraculous, Owen
stirred up his countrymen against the king, and by their aid
succeeded in destroying castle after castle, and burning town
after town throughout the whole length and breadth of the land
between the years 1401 and 1406. In r4O2 he routed the forces
of the Mortimers at Bryn Glas near Knighton in Maesyfed, where
he captured Sir Edmund Mortimer, the uncle and guardian of the
legitimate heir to the English throne, the young earl of March.
The aims of Owen were described by himself in a letter addressed
to Charles VI., king of France, who had hastened to acknowledge
the upstart as Prince of Wales and had sent 12,000 troops on his
behalf to Milford Haven. In this letter Owen, who was holding
his court in Llanbadarn near Aberystwith, demands his own
acknowledgment as sovereign of Wales; the calling of a free
Welsh parliament on the English model; the independence of
the Welsh Church from the control of Canterbury; and the
founding of national colleges in Wales itself. An assembly of
Welsh nobles was actually summoned to meet in 1406 at Machyn-
lleth in an ancient building still standing and known to this day
as " Owen Glendower's Parliament House." In vain did Henry
and his lords-marchers endeavour to suppress the rebellion, and
to capture, by fair means or foul, the person of Glendower
himself; the princely adventurer seemed to bear a charmed
existence, and for a few years Owen was practically master of all
Wales. Nevertheless, his rule and power gradually declined, and
by the year 1408 Owen himself had disappeared as suddenly and
mysteriously as he had arisen, and the land once more fell into
undisputed possession of the king and his chosen vassals. For
Owen's brilliant but brief career and ruthless treatment of
English settlers and Anglophil Welshmen, his countrymen had
not unnaturally to pay a heavy penalty in the severe statutes
which the affrighted parliaments of Henry IV. framed for the
protection of the English dwellers in Wales and the border
counties, and which were not repealed until the days of the
Tudors. Of the part played by the Cymry during the wars of
the Roses it is needless to speak, since the period forms a part of
English rather than of Welsh history. The Yorkist faction
seems to have been strongest in the eastern portion of the
Principality, where the Mortimers were all-powerful, but later
the close connexion of the house of Lancaster with Owen Tudor,
a gentleman of Anglesea (beheaded in 1461) who had married
Catherine of France, widow of Henry V., did much to invite
Welsh sympathy on behalf of the claims of Henry Tudor his
grandson, who claimed the English throne by right of his grand-
mother. Through the instrumentality of the celebrated Sir
Rhys ap Thomas (1451-1527), the wealthiest and the most
powerful personage in South Wales, Henry Tudor, earl of Rich-
mond, on his landing at Milford Haven in 1485 found the Welsh
ready to rise in his behalf against the usurper Richard III. With
an army largely composed of Sir Rhys's adherents, Henry was
enabled to face Richard III. at Bosworth, and consequently to
obtain the crown of England. Thus did a Welshman revenge
the ignominious deaths of Prince Llewelyn and Prince David by
becoming two centuries later king of England and prince of
Wales.
With the Tudor dynasty firmly seated on the throne, a number
of constitutional changes intended to place Welsh subjects on a
complete social and political equality with Englishmen have to be
recorded. The all-important Act of Union 1536 (27 Henry VIII.),
converted the whfle of the Marches of Wales into shire ground,
and created five new counties: Denbigh, Montgomery, Radnor,
Brecknock, or Brecon and Monmouth. At the same time the
remaining lordships were added to the English border counties
of Gloucester, Shropshire and Hereford, and also to the existing
Welsh shires of Cardigan, Carmarthen, Glamorgan and Pembroke,
all of which found their boundaries considerably enlarged "under
this statute. Clause 26 of the same act likewise enacted that the
12 Welsh counties should return 24 members to the English
parliament: one for each county, one for the boroughs in each
county (except Merioneth), and one for the town and county of
Haverfordwest. It is probable that Welsh members attended
the parliaments of 1536 and 1539, and certain it is that they were
present at the parliament of 1541 and every parliament subse-
quently held. This act of union was followed in 1542 by an
" Act for certain Ordinances in the King's Majesty's Dominion
and Principality of Wales " (34 & 35 Henry VIII.), which
placed the court of the president and council of Wales and the
Marches on a legal footing. This court, with a jurisdiction some-
what similar to that of the Star Chamber, had originally been
called into being under Edward IV. with the object of suppressing
private feuds and other illegalities amongst the lords-marchers
and their retainers. This council of Wales, the headquarters of
which had been fixed at Ludlow, undoubtedly did good service
on behalf of law and order under such capable presidents as
Bishop Rowland Lee and William Herbert, earl of Pembroke;
but it had long ceased to be of any practical use, and had in
fact become an engine of oppression by the time of the Common-
wealth, although it was not definitely abolished till the revolution
of 1688. The act of 1542 also enacted that courts of justice under
the name of " The King's Great Sessions in Wales " should sit
twice a year in every one of the counties of Wales, except Mon-
mouth, which was thus formally declared an English shire.
For this purpose four circuits, two for North and two for South
Wales, each circuit containing a convenient group of three
counties, were created; whilst justices of the peace and custodes
rotulorum for each shire were likewise appointed. At the same
time all ancient Welsh laws and customs, which were at variance
with the recognized law of England, were now declared illegal, and
Cymric land tenure by gavelkind, which had been respected
by Edward I., was expressly abolished and its place taken by
the ordinary practice of primogeniture. It was also particularly
stated that all legal procedure must henceforth be conducted in
the English tongue, an arrangement which fell very heavily on
poor monoglot Welshmen and appears an especially harsh and
WALES
265
ungracious enactment when coming from a sovereign who was
himself a genuine Welshman by birth. Under the system of the
Great Sessions justice was administered throughout the twelve
counties of Wales for nearly three hundred years, and it was
not until 1830 that this system of jurisdiction was abolished
(not without some protest from Welsh members at Westminster),
and the existing North and- South Wales circuits were brought
into being.
With the peaceful absorption of the Principality into the
realm of the Tudor sovereigns, the subsequent course of Welsh
history assumes mainly a religious and educational character.
The influence of the Renaissance seems to have been tardy in
penetrating into Wales itself, nor did the numerous ecclesiastical
changes during the period of the Reformation cause any marked
signs either of resentment or approval amongst the mass of the
Welsh people, although some of the ancient Catholic customs
lingered on obstinately. As early as the reign of Henry VIII.
there were, however, to be found at court and in the universities
a number of ardent and talented young Welshmen, adherents
mostly of the reforming party in Church and State, who were
destined to bring about a brilliant literary revival in their native
land during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. Of this dis-
tinguished band the most memorable names are those of Bishop
Richard Davies (c. 1501-1581) and of William Salesbury, the
squire-scholar of Llanrwst (c. 1520-6. 1600) in Denbighshire, who
is commonly credited with the honour of having produced the
first printed book in the Welsh language, a small volume of pro-
verbs published in London about the year 1 545. With the acces-
sion of Elizabeth a novel and vigorous ecclesiastical policy on
truly national lines was now inaugurated in Wales itself, chiefly
through the instrumentality of Richard Davies, nominated
bishop of St Asaph in 1559 and translated thence to St Davids in
1561, who was mainly responsible for the act of parliament of
1563, commanding the bishops of St Davids, Llandaff, Bangor,
St Asaph and Hereford to prepare with all speed for public use
Welsh translations of the Scriptures and the Book of Common
Prayer. Of the five prelates thus named, Davies alone was
competent to undertake the task, and for assistance in the
work of translation he called upon his old friend and former neigh-
bour, William Salesbury, who like the bishop was an excellent
Greek and Hebrew scholar. The pair laboured with such
diligence that before the close of the year 1567 the required
translations of the Liturgy and the New Testament were pub-
lished in London; the former being the exclusive work of the
bishop, whilst the latter was principally the product of Salesbury's
pen, although some portions of it were contributed by Bishop
Davies and by Thomas Huet, or Hewett, precentor of St Davids
(d. 1591). Having accomplished so much in so small a space of
time, the two friends were next engaged upon a translation of
the Old Testament, but owing to a quarrel, the cause of which
remains obscure, this interesting literary partnership was brought
to an abrupt ending about 1570. The honour of presenting his
countrymen with a complete Welsh version of the Bible was
reserved for William Morgan (c. 1547-1604), vicar of Llanr-
hayader, in Denbighshire, and afterwards bishop successively of
Llandaff and of St Asaph. For eight years Morgan was busied
with his self-imposed task, being greatly encouraged thereto
by Archbishop Whitgift, by Bishop William Hughes (d. 1600) of
St Asaph, and by other leading dignitaries of the Church both in.
England and in Wales. In December 1588 the first complete
Welsh Bible, commonly known as " Bishop Morgan's Bible,"
was issued from the royal press at Westminster under the patron-
age of queen and primate, about 800 copies being supplied for
distribution amongst the parish churches of Wales. This famous
editio princeps of the Welsh Bible, first and foremost of Welsh
classics, was further supplemented under James I. by the
Authorized Version, produced by Richard Parry (1560-1623),
bishop of St Asaph, with the help of Dr John Davies of Mallwyd
(1570-1644), the first great Welsh lexicographer. At the ter-
centenary of " Bishop Morgan's Bible " in 1888 a national move-
ment of appreciation was set on foot amongst Welshmen of all
denominations both at home and abroad, with the result that
a memorial cross was erected in the cathedral close of St Asaph
in order to perpetuate the names and national services of the
eight leading Welsh translators of the Scriptures: Bishops
Davies, Morgan and Parry; William Salesbury; Thomas Huet;
Dr Davies of Mallwyd; Archdeacon Edmund Prys (1541-1624),
author of a popular Welsh metrical version of the Psalter; and
Gabriel Goodman, dean of Westminster (1528-1601), a native
of Ruthin, who greatly assisted Bishop Morgan in his task. Two
circumstances attending the production of these Welsh transla-
tions should be noted: (i) That the leaders of this remarkable
religious, literary and educational revival within the Principality
were chiefly natives of North Wales, where for many years St
Asaph was regarded as the chief centre of Cambro-British
intellectual life; and (2) that all these important works in the
Welsh tongue were published of necessity in London, owing
to the absence of an acknowledged capital, or any central
city of importance in Wales itself.
It would be well-nigh impossible to exaggerate the services
rendered to the ancient British tongue, and consequently to
the national spirit of Wales, by these Elizabethan and Jacobean
translations, issued in 1567, 1588 and 1620, which were able
definitely to fix the standard of classical Welsh, and to embody
the contending dialects of Gwynedd, Dyfed and Gwent for all
time in one literary storehouse. But for this sudden revival
of Cymric literature under the patronage of Elizabeth (for the
obtaining of which Wales must ever owe a deep debt of gratitude
to Bishop Richard Davies, " her second St David "), there is
every reason to believe that the ancient language of the Princi-
pality must either have drifted into a number of corrupt dialects,
as it then showed symptoms of doing, or else have tended to
ultimate extinction, much as the Cornish tongue perished in
the 1 7th century.
The growth of Puritanism in Wales was neither strong nor
speedy, although the year 1588, which witnessed the appear-
ance of Bishop Morgan's Bible, also gave birth to two fierce
appeals to the parliament, urging a drastic Puritanical policy
in Wales, from the pen of the celebrated John Penry, a native
of Brecknockshire (1550-1593). Far more influential than
Penry amongst the Welsh were Rhys Prichard (? 1570-1644),
the famous vicar of Llandovery, 1 Carmarthenshire, and William
Wroth (d. 1642), rector of LJanfaches, Monmouthshire. Of
these two Puritan divines, Vicar Prichard, who was essentially
orthodox in his behaviour, forms an interesting connecting
link between the learned Elizabethan translators of the Bible
and the great revivalists of the i8th century, and his moral
rhymes in the vernacular, collected and printed after his death
under the title of The Welshman's Candle (Canwyll y Cvmry),
still retain some degree of popularity amongst his countrymen.
Although a strong opponent of Laud's and Charles's ecclesi-
astical policy, Prichard lived unmolested, and even rose to be
chancellor of St Davids; but the indiscreet Wroth, " the founder
and father of nonconformity in Wales," being suspended in
1638 by Bishop Murray of Llandaff, founded a small community
of Independents at Llanfaches, which is thus commonly ac-
counted the first Nonconformist chapel in Wales. Daring the
years prior to the Great Rebellion, however, in spite of the
preaching and writings of Vicar Prichard, Wroth and others,
the vast mass of Welshmen of all classes remained friendly to
the High Church policy of Laud and staunch supporters of the
king's prerogative. Nor were the effects of the great literary
revival in Elizabeth's reign by any means exhausted, for at
this time Wales undoubtedly possessed a large number of native
divines that were at once active parish priests and excellent
scholars, many of whom had been educated at Jesus College,
Oxford, the Welsh college endowed by Dr Hugh Price (d. 1574)
and founded under Elizabeth's patronage in 1573. So striking
was the devotion shown throughout the Principality to the king,
who fought his last disastrous campaign in the friendly counties
of Wales and the Marches, that on the final victory of the
parliament there was passed within a month of Charles's execution
'Sometimes known as vicar of Llandingat, his church being in
that parish.
266
WALES
in 1649 (perhaps as a special measure of punishment) an
" Act for the better Propagation and Preaching of the Gospel
in Wales," by the terms of which a packed body of seventy
commissioners was presented with powers that were practically
unlimited to deal with all matters ecclesiastical in Wales. To
assist these commissioners in their task of inquiry and eject-
ment, a body of twenty-five " Approvers " was likewise con-
stituted, with the object of selecting itinerant preachers to
replace the dismissed incumbents; and amongst the Approvers
are conspicuous the names of Walter Cradock (d. 1659), a sus-
pended curate of St Mary's, Cardiff, and a follower of Wroth's;
and of Vavasor Powell (1617-1670), an honest but injudicious
zealot. Some 330 out of a possible total of 520 incumbents
were now ejected in South Wales and Monmouthshire, and
there is every reason to suppose that the beneficed clergy of
North Wales suffered equally under the new system. The
greed and tyranny of several of the commissioners, and the
bigotry and mismanagement of well-meaning fanatics such as
Cradock and Powell, soon wrought dire confusion throughout
the whole Principality, so that a monster petition, signed alike
by moderate Puritans and by High Churchmen, was prepared
for presentation to parliament in 1652 by Colonel Edward
Freeman, attorney-general for South Wales. Despite the fierce
efforts of Vavasor Powell and his brother itinerant preachers to
thwart the reception of this South Wales petition at Westminster,
Colonel Freeman was able to urge the claims of the petitioners,
or " Anti-Propagators " as they were termed, at the bar of the
House of Commons, openly declaring that by the late policy
of ejectment and destruction " the light of the Gospel was
almost extinguished in Wales." A new commission was now
appointed to inquire into alleged abuses in Wales, and the
existing evidence clearly shows how harsh and unfair was the
treatment meted out to the clergy under the act of 1649, and also
how utterly subversive of all ancient custom and established
order were the reforms suggested by the commissioners and
approvers. At the Restoration all the ejected clergy who sur-
vived were reinstated in their old benefices under the Act of
Uniformity of 1662, whilst certain Puritan incumbents were in
their turn dismissed for refusing to comply with various re-
quirements of that act. Amongst these Stephen Hughes of
Carmarthen (1623-1688), a devoted follower of Vicar Prichard
and an editor of his works, was ejected from the living of Mydrim
in Carmarthenshire, whereby the valuable services of this eminent
divine were lost to the Church and gained by the Nonconformists,
who had increased considerably in numbers since the Civil Wars.
The old ecclesiastical policy of Elizabeth, which had hitherto
borne such good fruit in Wales, was now gradually relaxed under
the later Stuarts and definitely abandoned under Anne, during
whose reign only Englishmen were appointed to the vacant
Welsh sees. From 1702 to 1870, a period of nearly 170 years, no
Welsh-speaking native bishop was nominated (with the solitary
exception of John Wynne, consecrated to St Asaph in 1715),
and it is needless to point out that this selfish and unjust policy
was largely responsible for the neglect and misrule which dis-
tinguished the latter half of the i8th and the early part of the
I9th centuries. The Church, which had so long played a
prominent and valuable part in the moral and literary education
of the Welsh people, was now gradually forced out of touch with
the nation through the action of alien and unsympathetic Whig
prelates in Wales itself, which still remained mainly High
Church and Jacobite in feeling.
All writers agree in stating that the mass of the Welsh
people at the close of the i7th century were illiterate, and many
divines of Cymric nationality charge their countrymen also with
immorality and religious apathy. English was little spoken or
understood amongst the peasant population, and there was a
great dearth of Welsh educational works. Some efforts to remedy
this dark condition of things had already been made by Thomas
Gouge, with the assistance of Stephen Hughes, and also by the
newly founded " Society for the Promotion of Christian Know-
ledge "; but it was Griffith Jones (1683-1761), rector of Lland-
dowror in south Carmarthenshire, who was destined to become
the true pioneer of Welsh education, religious and secular.
Early in the reign of George I. this excellent man, whose name
and memory will ever be treasured so long as the Welsh tongue
survives, began a system of catechizing in the vernacular amongst
the children and adults of his own parish. With the cordial
help of Sir John Philipps (d. 1736) of Picton Castle, the head
of an ancient family in Dyfed, and of Mrs Bridget Bevan of
Laugharne (d. 1779), who is still affectionately remembered in
Wales as the donor of " Madam Sevan's Charity," Griffith Jones
was enabled to extend his scheme of educating the people
throughout South Wales, where numerous " circulating charity
schools," as they were called, were set up in many parishes with
the approval of their incumbents. The results obtained by the
growth of these schools were speedy and successful beyond the
wildest hopes of their founder. This educational system, in-
vented by Griffith Jones and supported by the purse of Mrs
Bevan, in 1760 numbered 215 schools, with a total number of
8687 contemporary scholars; and by the date of Jones's death
in 1761 it has been proved that over 150,000 Welsh persons of
every age and of either sex, nearly a third of the whole population
of Wales at that time, were taught to read the Scriptures in
their own language by means of these schools. With this newly
acquired ability to read the Bible in their own tongue, the many
persons so taught were not slow to express a general demand for
Cymric literature, which was met by a supply from local presses
in the small country towns; the marvellous success of the Welsh
circulating charity schools caused in fact the birth of the Welsh
vernacular press. In spite, however, of the marked improve-
ment in the conditions and behaviour of the Welsh people, owing
to this strictly orthodox revival within the pale of the Church,
Griffith Jones and his system of education were regarded with
indifference by the English prelates in Wales, who offered no
preferment and gave little encouragement to the founder of
the circulating schools. Meanwhile the writings and personal
example of the pious rector of Llanddowror were stirring other
Welshmen in the work of revival, chief amongst them being
Howell Harris of Trevecca (1713-1773), a layman of brilliant
abilities but erratic temperament; and Daniel Rowland (1713-
1790), curate of Llangeitho in Mid- Cardiganshire, who became
in time the most eloquent and popular preacher throughout all
Wales. Two other clergymen, who figure prominently in the
Methodist movement, and whose influence has proved lasting,
were Peter Williams of Carmarthen (1722-1796), the Welsh
Bible commentator, and William Williams of Pantycelyn (1717-
1791), the celebrated Welsh hymn-writer. Incidentally, it will
be noticed that this important Methodist revival had its origin
and found its chief supporters and exponents in a restricted
corner of South Wales, of which Carmarthen was the centre, in
curious contrast with the literary movement in Elizabeth's
reign, which was largely confined to the district round St
Asaph.
During the lifetime of Griffith Jones the course of Welsh
Methodism had run in orthodox channels and had been generally
supported by the Welsh clergy and gentry; but after his death
the tendency to exceed the bounds of conventional Church
discipline grew so marked as to excite the alarm of the English
bishops in Wales. Nevertheless, the bulk of the Methodists
continued to attend the services of the Church, and to receive
the sacraments from regularly ordained parish priests, although
a schism was becoming inevitable. Towards the close of the
i8th century the Methodist revival spread to North Wales
under the influence of the celebrated Thomas Charles, commonly
called Charles of Bala (1755-1814), formerly curate of Llany-
mowddwy and the founder of Welsh Sunday schools. So strained
had the relations between the English rulers of the Church and
the Methodists themselves now grown, that in 1811 the long-
expected schism took place, much to the regret of Charles of
Bala himself, who had ever been a devoted disciple of Griffith
Jones. The great bulk of the farming and labouring members
of the Church now definitely abandoned their " Ancient Mother,"
to whom, however, the Welsh gentry still adhered. The Great
Schism of 1811 marks in fact the lowest point to which the
WALES
267
fortunes of the once powerful and popular Church in Wales had
sunk; in 1811 there were only English-speaking prelates to be
found, whilst the abuses of non-residence, pluralities and even
nepotism were rampant everywhere. As instances of this clerical
corruption then prevailing in Wales, mention may be made of
the cases of Richard Watson (d. 1816), the non-resident bishop
of Llandaff, who rarely visited his diocese during an episcopate
of thirty years; and of another English divine who held the
deanery, the chancellorship and nine livings in a North Welsh
see, his curates-in-charge being paid out of Queen Anne's Bounty,
a fund expressly intended for the benefit of impoverished livings.
An honourable exception to the indolent and rapacious divines
of this stamp was Thomas Burgess (bishop of St Davids), to
whose exertions is mainly due the foundation of St David's
College at Lampeter in 1822, an institution erected to provide
a better and cheaper education for intending Welsh clergymen.
The foundation of Lampeter College was one of the earliest signs
of a new era of revived vigour and better government within the
Church, although it was not till 1870 that, by Mr Gladstone's
appointment of Dr Joshua Hughes to the see of St Asaph, the
special claims of the Welsh Church were officially recognized,
and the old Elizabethan policy was one more reverted to after
a lapse of nearly two hundred years. After 1870 Welsh ecclesi-
astical appointments were made in a more truly national spirit,
and this official acknowledgment of the peculiar duties and claims
of the Church in Wales largely helped to win back no small
amount of the strength and popularity that had been lost during
Georgian times.
With the old national Church enthralled by English political
prelates, and consequently hindered from ministering to the
special needs of the people, the progress of dissent throughout the
Principality was naturally rapid. Although primary education
was largely supplied by the many Church schools in all parts
of Wales, yet it was in the three most important denomina-
tionsthe Congregationalists, the Baptists and the Calvinistic
Methodists (that new-born sect of which the Church herself
was the unwilling parent) that almost all Welsh spiritual
development was to be found during the first half of the igth
century. Thus between the year 181 1 (the date of the Methodist
secession) and 1832 (the year of the great Reform Bill), the
number of dissenting chapels had risen from 945 to 1428: a
truly marvellous increase even allowing for the speedy growth
of population, since every chapel so built had of necessity to be
well attended in order to render it self-supporting. From this
religious guidance of the people by the well-organized forces of
dissent, it was but a step to political ascendancy, and as the
various constitutional changes from the Reform Bill onward
began to lower the elective franchise, and thus to throw more
and more power into the hands of the working classes, that
spirit of radicalism, which is peculiarly associated with political
dissent, began to assert itself powerfully throughout the country.
As early as the reign of William IV. there appeared the weekly
Times of Wales (Amserau Cymry), founded and edited by the
able William Rees, who may be styled the father of the Welsh
political press; and the success of Rees's venture was so marked
that other journals, arranged to suit the special tenets of each
sect, speedily sprang into existence. In the year 1870 a date
that for many reasons marks the opening of an important era
in modern Welsh history the dissenting bodies of Wales were
supporting two quarterly, sixteen monthly and ten weekly
papers, all published in the vernacular and all read largely by
peasants, colliers and artisans. With so powerful a press behind
it, it is no wonder that Welsh political dissent was largely
responsible for the changed attitude of the Imperial government
in its treatment of the Principality as evinced in the Sunday
Closing Act of 1 88 1, a measure which was very dear to the strong
temperance party in Wales, and in the Welsh Intermediate
Education Act, granted by Lord Salisbury's government in
1889. It was certainly owing to the pressure of Welsh political
dissent that Lord Rosebery's cabinet issued the Welsh Land
Tenure Commission in 1893 an inquiry which did much to
exonerate the Welsh squirearchy from a number of vague
charges of extortion and sectarian oppression; and that Sir
H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet appointed the Welsh Church
Commission (2ist June 1906). This Commission was authorized
to " inquire into the origin, nature, amount and application of
the temporalities, endowments and other properties of the
Church of England in Wales and Monmouthshire; and into the
provision made and the work done by the Churches of all de-
nominations in Wales and Monmouthshire for the spiritual
welfare of the people, and the extent to which the people avail
themselves of such provision." The Report and Memoranda
of the Commission were published on the 2nd of December
1910.
Mention must be made of the Rebecca riots in 1843-1844 in
South Wales, wherein many toll gates were destroyed by mobs
of countrymen dressed in female garb, " as the daughters of
Rebecca about to possess the gates of their enemies "; and the
Anti-Tithe agitation of 1885-1886 largely traceable to the
inflammatory language used concerning clerical tithe by certain
organs of the vernacular press which led to some disorderly
scenes between distraining parties of police and crowds of excited
peasants in the more remote rural districts. There have been
occasional strikes accompanied by acts of lawlessness in the
industrial and mining districts of Glamorganshire, and also
amongst the workmen employed in the quarries of Gwynedd.
The University College of Wales was founded at Aberystwyth
in 1872; that of South Wales at Cardiff in 1883; and of North
Wales at Bangor in 1884. In 1889 the system of intermediate
schools, arranged to form an educational link between the primary
schools and the colleges, was inaugurated. In November 1893
the University of Wales was incorpcrated by royal charter, with
Lord Aberdare (d. 1895) as its first chancellor. All the religious
bodies, including the Church, have been extremely active in
educational and pastoral work; whilst the peculiar religious
movement known as a revival (Diwygiad) has occurred from time
to time throughout the Principality, notably in the years 1859
and 1904.
But the most remarkable phenomenon in modern Wales has
been the evident growth of a strong national sentiment, the
evolution of a new Welsh Renaissance, which demanded special
recognition of the Principality's claims by the Imperial parlia-
ment. This revived spirit of nationalism was by outsiders some-
times associated, quite erroneously, with the aims and actions
of the Welsh parliamentary party, the spokesmen of political
dissent in Wales; yet in reality this sentiment was shared equally
by the clergy of the Established Church, and by a large number
of the laity within its fold. Nor is the question of the vernacular
itself of necessity bound up with this new movement, for Wales
is essentially a bi-lingual country, wherein every educated
Cymro speaks and writes English with ease, and where also large
towns and whole districts such as Cardiff, south Monmouth,
the Vale of Glamorgan, Gower, south Glamorgan, south Pem-
broke, east Flint, Radnorshire and Breconshire remain practi-
cally monoglot English-speaking. Nor are the Welsh landowners
and gentry devoid of this new spirit of nationalism, and although
some generations ago they ceased as a body to speak the native
tongue, they have shown a strong disposition to study once more
the ancient language and literature of their country. It is true
that a Young Wales party has arisen, which seeks to narrow this
movement to the exclusion of English ideas and influences; and
it is also true that there is a party which is abnormally suspicious
of and hostile to this Welsh Renaissance; but in the main it is
correct to say that the bulk of the Welsh nation remains content
to assert its views and requirements in a reasonable manner.
How wide-spread and enthusiastic is this true spirit of national-
ism amongst all classes and sects of Welsh society to-day may
be observed at the great meetings of the National Eisteddfod,
which is held on alternate years in North and South Wales at
some important centre, and at which the immense crowds col-
lected and the interest displayed make a deep impression on the
Anglo-Saxon or foreign visitors. The sincere, if somewhat
narrow-minded religious feelings; the devotion manifested by
all classes towards the land of their fathers; the extraordinary
268
WALES
vitality of the Cambro-British tongue these are the main char-
acteristics of modern Wales, and they seem to verify the terms
of Taliesin's ancient prophecy concerning the early dwellers of
Gwalia:
" Their Lord they shall praise;
Their Tongue they shall keep ;
Their Land they shall lose
Except Wild Wales." (H. M. V.)
Welsh Literature. The Welsh language possesses an ex-
tensive literature, ranging from the 9th century to the present
day. A detailed account of it will be found in the article CELT:
Celtic Literature, iv.
Welsh Language. Welsh, the Celtic language spoken by the
ancient Britons (see CELT: Language), is the domestic tongue
of the majority of the inhabitants of the Principality. With
the final destruction of Welsh independence under Edward I.
the Cambro-British language, in spite of the disappearance of a
court, continued to be spoken by Welshmen of all classes residing
west of Severn, and the I4th and isth centuries are remarkable
for producing some of the finest Welsh bards and historians.
With the union of Wales with England by the Act of 27 Henry
VIII. (1536) the subsequent administration of all law and justice
in the English tongue throughout the Principality threatened for
a time the ancient language of the people with practical extinct-
tion. From such a fate it was largely preserved by the various
translations of the Scriptures, undertaken at the command of
Queen Elizabeth and performed by a number of native scholars
and divines, amongst whom appear prominent the names of
Bishops Davies, Morgan and Parry, and of William Salesbury
of Llanrwst. Although the assertion of the celebrated Rhys
Prichard of Llandovery that in his time (c. 1630) only i % of the
people of Wales could read the native language is probably an
exaggeration, yet the number of persons who could read and
write Welsh .must have been extremely small outside the ranks
of the clergy. During the earlier half of the i7th century the
number of Welsh Bibles distributed throughout the Principality
could hardly have exceeded 8000 in all, and except the Bible
there was scarcely any Welsh work of importance in circulation.
The system of the Welsh circulating charity schools, set up
by Griffith Jones, rector of Llanddowror, in the i8th century,
undoubtedly gave an immense impetus to the spread of popular
education in Wales, for it has been stated on good authority that
about one-third of the total population was taught to read and
write Welsh by means of this system. As a result of Griffith
Jones's efforts there quickly arose a vigorous demand for Welsh
books of a pious and educational character, which was largely
supplied by local Welsh printing-presses. The enthusiastic
course of the Methodist movement under Howell Harris, Daniel
Rowland and William Williams; the establishment of Welsh
Sunday Schools; the founding of the Bible Society under
Thomas Charles of Bala; and the revival early in the igth
century of the Eisteddfodau (the ancient bardic contests of music,
poetry and learning), have all contributed to extend the use of
the Welsh language and to strengthen its hold as a popular
medium of education throughout the Principality. In 1841
the Welsh-speaking population was computed at 67 % of the
total, and in 1893 Welsh was understood or spoken by over
60% of the inhabitants in the twelve Welsh counties with the
exception of the following districts, wherein English is the pre-
vailing or the sole language employed: viz. nearly the whole of
Radnorshire; east Flint, including the neighbouring districts
of Ruabon and Wrexham in Denbighshire; east Brecknock;
east Montgomery; south Pembroke, with the adjoining district
of Laugharne in Carmarthenshire; and the districts of Gower,
Vale of Glamorgan and Cardiff in south Glamorgan. In Mon-
mouth, the eastern portion of the county is purely English-
speaking, and in the western districts English also prevails
(J. E. Southall, Linguistic Map of Wales).
Before tracing the history of Welsh sounds, it will be convenient
to give the values of the letters in the modern alphabet:
Tenues: p; t; c (=Eng. k).
Mediae: b; d; g ( = Eng. hard g).
Voiceless spirants: / or ph ( = Eng. /); th ( = Eng. th in
tii ick) ; ch( = Scottish ch in loch).
Voiced spirants: / ( = Eng. v); dd ( = Eng. th in this); the
guttural voiced spirant (7) disappeared early in Welsh.
Voiceless nasals: mh; nh; ng/i.
Voiced nasals: m; n; ng.
Voiceless liquids: II (unilateral voiceless /); rh (voiceless r).
Voiced liquids: /; r.
Sibilant: j (Welsh has no z).
Aspirate: h.
Semi-vowels: i ( = Eng. y in yard); w ( = Eng. w).
The sounds of / and d are more dental than in English, though
they vary; the voiced spirants are very soft; the voiceless
nasals are aspirated, thus nh is similar to Eng. nh in inhale;
r is trilled as in Italian.
Vowels: a, e, i, o have the same values as in Italian; w as a
vowel = north Eng. oo in book or Italian ; y has two sounds
(i) the clear sound resembling the Eng. * in bit, but pronounced
farther back; (2) the obscure sound = Eng. * in fir; u in Med.
Welsh had the sound of French , but now has the clear sound of
y described above, which is similar to the ear, and has the same
pitch.
The Welsh language belongs to the Celtic branch of the Aryan
or Indo-European family of languages. Primitive Celtic split up, as
already shown, into two dialects, represented in modern times by
two groups of languages (i) the Goidelic group, comprising Irish,
Scottish, Gaelic and Manx. (2) The Brythonic or Brittonic ' group,
comprising Welsh, Breton and Cornish. In the Goidelic group qu
appears as c, thus Irish cethir, " four "; in the Brythonic group it is
changed into p, as in Welsh pea-war, " four." Gaulish, which was
supplanted in France by Latin, had p, as in peior-ritum, " four-
wheeled car," and is thus allied to the Brythonic group; but it is
believed that remains of a continental Celtic qu- dialect appear
in such names as Sequani, and in some recently discovered inscrip-
tions. The sounds of parent Aryan appeared in Primitive Celtic
with the following modifications : p disappeared, thus Aryan * peter,
which gave Latin pater, Eng. father, gave in Irish athir; correspond-
ing to Eng. floor, we have Irish lar, Welsh llator. The velar tenuis q,
when labialized, became qu, without labialization became k; the
velar media g became 6 or g. The aspirated mediae bh, dh, gh, gh
were treated as unaspirated b, d, g, g; probably also the rare aspir-
ated tenues fell together with the unaspirated. The other Aryan
consonants seem generally to have remained. Aryan a,t,u remained.
Aryan e became i, as in Irish fir, Welsh gwir, " true," cognate with
Latin ver-us. Aryan d became 6, as in Irish lar, cognate with Anglo-
Saxon flor, Eng. floor. The short vowels remained, except that
Aryan 3 became a, as in the other European branches.
In Brythonic, primitive Celtic qu became p, as above noted.
Probably also Celtic u was advancing or had advanced to a forward
position, for it appears in Welsh as I, as in din, " stronghold," from
Celtic *dun-on, cognate with Eng. town, while Latin u, borrowed in
the Brythonic period, gives u with its Welsh sound above described,
as in mur, " wall," from Latin mur-us.
The Aryan system of inflexion was preserved in Celtic, as may
be seen in Stokes's restoration of Celtic declension (Trans. Philol.
Soc., 1885-1886, pp. 97-201); and Brythonic was probably as
highly inflected as Latin. The development of Brythonic into
Welsh is analogous to that of Latin into French. Unfortunately,
the extant remains of Brythonic are scanty; but in the Roman
period it borrowed a large number of Latin words, which, as we
know their original forms, and as they underwent the same modi-
fications as other words in the language, enable us to trace the
phonetic changes by which Brythonic became Welsh.
These changes are briefly as follows :
1. Loss of Syllables. The last syllable of every word of more than
one syllable was dropped; thus Latin lermin-us gives in Welsh
terfyn; the name Sabrin-a * "Severn" became Hafren. The loss
extends to the stem-ending of the first element of a compound, thus
the personal name Maglo-cunos became Maelgwn; and generally
to unaccented syllables, thus episcopus became *epscop, whence
esgob; trlnitat-em gives trindod. The accusative is often the case
represented in Welsh; but we have also the nominative, and
sometimes both, as in ciwed from civit-as, and ciwdod from ctvittit-ent,
now two words, not two cases of the same word. Aryan declension
naturally disappeared with the loss of final syllables.
2. Consonant Changes. (i) Between two vowels, or a vowel
and a liquid, the seven consonants p, t, c, b, d, g, m, became re-
spectively 6, d, g, f, dd, -, f, where "-" represents the lost voiced
spirant y. Examples: Latin cupidus gave cybydd; Tacitus gave
'The Bretons call their language Brezonek; the Welsh bards
sometimes call Welsh Brythoneg: both forms imply an original
*Brittonica.
J The i was short: Sabrina would have given Hefrin in Welsh.
WALES
269
Tegyd; labdrem gave llafur; sagitta gave saeth; remus gave
rhwyf. This change is called the " soft mutation." (2) After nasals
p, t, c, b, d, g became respectively mh, nh, ngh, m, n, ng; thus
tmperator gave ymherawdr, and ambactos (evidently a Brythonicas well
as a Gaulish word) gave amaeth (m, though etymologically double,
is written single). This change is called the " nasal mutation."
(3) pf>, U, cc became respectively ph otf, th, ch; thus pecc&tum gave
fechawd, later pechod; and Brittones gave Brython. This change
is called the " spirant mutation." The tenuis becomes a spirant
also after r or /, as in corff from corpus, and Eljfin from Alpinus;
but U gives lit or //. The combinations act, ect, act, uct gave aeth, aith,
oeth, wyth, respectively; as in doeth, " wise," from Lat. doctus,
Jfrwyth from fructus. (4) Original s between vowels (but not Latin
j) became h, and disappeared; initially it generally appears as A,
as in halen, " salt," sometimes as s, as in saith, " seven." Initial
/ and r became II and rh, as seen in examples in (i) above; but
between vowels they remained. Similarly initial became gw, as
in gwin, from Latin rinum, remaining between vowels, though now
written w, as in ciwed from Anitas.
A consonant occurring medially is, generally speaking, invariable
in the present language; thus the p and d of cuptdus are b and dd in
cybydd; but with the initial consonant the case is different. In one
combination the initial may remain; thus *oinos cuptdus gave un
cybydd, " one mieer " ; in another combination it may nave originally
stood between vowels, and so is mutated, as in *duo cupido, which
gave dau eybydd, " two misers." Thus arose the system of " initial
mutation : an initial consonant may retain its original form, or
may undergo any of the changes to which it is subject. The names
given above to these changes are those by which they are known
when they occur initially, the unchanged form being called the
" radical." The liquids /and r were brought into the system, the
initial forms U and rh being regarded as " radical." The initial
mutations, then, are as follows:
Radical .
P
t
c
b
d
m
U
rh
Soft . .
b
d
g
f
dd
f
I
r
Nasal .
mh
nh
ngh
m .
n
g
No change.
Spirant .
ph
th
ch
No change.
No change.
The initial mutation of any word depends upon its position in
the sentence, and is determined by a grammatical rule which can
ordinarily be traced to a generalization of the original phonetic
conditions. Thus the second element of a compound word, even
though written and accented as a separate word, has a soft initial,
because in Brythonic the first element of a compound generally
ended in a vowel, as in the name Maglo-cunos. The more important
rules for initial mutation are the following: the soft mutation occurs
in a feminine singular noun after the article, thus y fam, " the
mother" (radical mam); in an adjective following a feminine
singular noun, as in mam dda, " a good mother " (da, " good ") ; in
a noun following a positive adjective, as in hen ddyn, " old man,"
because this order represents what was originally a compound; in
a noun following dy, thy," and ei, " his," thus ay ben, " thy head,"
ei ben, " his head " (pen, " head ") ; in the object after a verb ; in a
noun after a simple preposition; in a verb after the relative a.
The nasal mutation occurs after fy, " my," and yn, " in "; thus
fy mhen, " my head " (pen, " heaa ), yn Nhalgarth, " at Talgarth."
The spirant mutation occurs after a, " and," " with," ei, " her ";
thus o p hen, " and a head," ei phen, " her head."
3. Vowel Changes. (i) Long o, whether from Aryan fi or d or
from Latin d, becomes aw in monosyllables, as in brawd, " brother "
from *brater; in the penult it is o, as in broder, " brothers," in the
ultima aw, later o, as m pechawd, now pechod, from pecc&tum. Long
i, whether from Aryan e or I, or from Latin i, remains as ', see ex-
amples above. Latin e was identified with a native diphthong ei,
and becomes wy, as in rhwyf from remus. Latin o and u appear as
. u; see examples above. A long vowel when unaccented counts
short, thus peccatorem treated as *peccdt6rem, gave pechadur. (2)
Short d, e, o remain; short I became y; and u became y (with its
obscure sound) in the penult, remaining in the ultima, though now
written w. But short vowels have been affected by vowels in suc-
ceeding syllables. These "affections" of vowels are as follows:
(a) I-affection, caused by i in a lost termination: a becomes at or
ei, and I, d, u became y, more rarely ai or ei. Thus *bardos gave
bardd, but pi. *bardi gave beirdd; episcopi gave esgyb, " bishops."
This change is also caused by -o, as in tleidr, " thief," from latro.
(ft) A-affection, caused by o in a lost ending: I becomes e (instead of
y); u becomes o. Thus civitas gave ciwed; columna gave colofn.
(y) Penultimate affection : t or y in the ultima causes several changes
in the penult, as arch, " order," erchi, " to bid " ; saer, " carpenter,"
pi. seiri; caer, " fort," pi. ceyrydd. (3) In the modern language other
vowel changes occur by a change of position; thus ai, au, aw in the
ultima become ei, eu, o respectively in the penult, as dail, " leaves,"
dstien, " leaf "; haul, " sun," heiilog, " sunny "; brawd, " brother,"
pi. broder or brodyr. The last is an old interchange of sounds, and
probably the others are older than their first appearance in writing
(i5th century) suggests.
Accidence. Welsh has a definite article yr, " the," which
becomes 'r after a vowel, and y before a consonant unless already
reduced to 'r. Thus yr oen, " the lamb," i'r ty, " into the house,
yn y ty, " in the house."
The noun has two numbers, and two genders, masculine and
feminine. A plural noun is formed from the singular by -affection:
thus bardd, " bard," pi. beirdd; ffon, " stick," p\.Jfyn; or by adding
a termination as ffenestr, " window," pi. ffenestrt, with any conse-
quent vowel change, as brawd, " brother," pi. brodyr; gwlad,
country," pi. gwledydd. The terminations chiefly used are -au,
-ion, -on, -i, -ydd, -oedd. These are old stem endings left after the
loss of the original -es; thus latro gives lleidr, latrones gives lladron;
the forms having dd represent jj stems, j. becoming dd in certain
positions.
In some cases the singular is formed from the plural by the ad-
dition of -yn or -en; thus ser, " stars," seren, " star."
Feminine names of living things are formed from the masculine
by the addition of -es, as brenin, " king," brenhines, " queen " ; lleic,
" lion," llewes, " lioness." It is difficult to lay down rules for the
determination of the gender of names of inanimate objects.
Adjectives are inflected for number and gender. Plural ad-
jectives are formed from the singular by -affection or by adding
the termination -ion or -on; thus hardd, " beautiful," pi. heirda;
glas, " blue," pi. gleision.
Adjectives having y or w are made feminine by o-affection, due
to the lost feminine ending -a; thus gwyn, " white," fern, gwen;
truim, " heavy," fern. trom.
The adjective has four degrees 01 comparison positive, equative,
comparative, superlative; as gMn, " clean," glaned, " as clean (as),"
glanach, " cleaner," glanaf, " cleanest." A few adjectives are
compared irregularly.
The personal pronouns are: simple sing. i. mi, 2. ti, 3. masc. ef,
fern, hi; pi. I. ni, 2. chwi, 3. hwy, hwynt; reduplicated, myfi, tydi,
&c. ; conjunctive, minnau, tithau, &c. Prefixed genitive: sing,
i./y, " my," 2. dy, 3. i, ei; pi. I. yn, ein, 2. ych, etch, 3. eu. Infixed
genitive and accusative: sine, i- 'm, 2. 'th, 3. ''; pi. i. 'n, 2. 'ch,
3. '. Affixed: sing. I. *, 2, di, 3. ef, &c., like the simple forms.
The demonstrative pronouns are hwn, " this," hwnnw, " that,"
fern. hon. honno, pi. hyn, hynny.
The relative pronouns are nominative and accusative a, oblique
cases ydd.yr, y. The expressions yr hwn, y neb, " the one," are
mistaken Tor relatives by the old grammarians ; the true relative
follows: yr hwn a = " the one who.
The interrogative pronouns are substantival pwy ? = "who ?
adjectival pa? Substantival "what?" is expressed by pa betkf
" what thing ? " or shortly beth?
The verb has four tenses in the indicative, one in the subjunctive,
and one in the imperative. The old passive voice has become an
impersonal active, each tense having one form only. The regular
verb caraf, " I love," is conjugated thus:
Indicative Pres. (and fut.) sing. i. caraf, 2. ceri, 3. c&r; pi. I.
carwn, 2. cerwch, 3. carant; impers. cerir. Imperfect sing. I.
carwn, 2. carit, 3. carai; pi. I. carem, 2. carech, 3. cerynt, carent;
impers. cerid. Aorist sing. I. cerais, 2. ceraist, 3. carodd; pi.
1. carasom, 2. carasoch, 3. carasant; impers. carwyd. Pluperfect
sing. I. caraswn, 2. carasit, 3. carasai; pi. I. carasem, 2. caraseck,
3. caresynt, -asent; impers. caresid.
Subjunctive Pres. sing. i. carwyf, 2. cerych, 3. caro; pi. I. carom,
2. caroch, 3. caront; impers. carer.
Imperative Pres. sing. 2. car, 3. cared; pi. I. carwn, 2. cerwch,
3. carent; impers. carer.
Verbal noun, caru, " to love." Verbal adjectives, caredig, " loved,"
caradwy, " lovable."
As in other languages the verb " to be " and its compounds are
irregular; the number of other irregular verbs is comparatively
small.
Prepositions also are " conjugated " in Welsh, their objects, if
pronominal, being expressed by endings. Thus or, " on," arnaf,
on me," arnat, " on thee," arno, " on him," ami, " on her,"
arnom, "on us," arnoch, "on you," arnynt, " on them." The second
conjugation has for endings -of, -ot, -ddo, -ddi; -om, -och, -ddynt; the
third -y/, -yt, -ddo. -ddi; -ym, -ych, -ddynt.
The negative adverbs are ni, nid, conjunctive na, nod. Inter-
rogative particles: a, ai. Affirmative particles: yr,fe.
The commoner conjunctions are o, ac, " and " ; and, eithr, " but " ;
o, os, " if " ; pan, " when " ; tra, " while."
Syntax^. A qualifying adjective follows its noun, and agrees
with it in gender and generally in number. It may, however,
precede its noun, and a compared adjective generally does so.
In a simple sentence the usual order of words is the following:
verb, subject, object, adverb ; as prynodd Dafydd lyfr yno, " David
bought a book there." The verb may be preceded by an affirmative,
a negative, or an interrogative particle.
When a noun comes first, it is followed by a relative pronoun, thus,
Dafydd a brynodd lyfr yno, which really means " (it is) David who
bought a book there," and is never used in any other sense in the
spoken language, though in literary Welsh it is used rhetorically
for the simple statement which is properly expressed by put-
ting the verb first. In negative and interrogative sentences this
rhetorical use does not occur.
270
WALEWSKI WALKER, F. A.
In a simple interrogative sentence the introductory particle before
the verb is a, and the positive answer consists in a repetition of the
verb ; a ddaw Dafydd r Daw. " Will David come ? Yes." If the
verb is aorist the answer is do for all verbs. In negative answers
na precedes the verb. In sentences in which a noun comes first, the
interrogative particle is at, and the answer is always, positive 'ie,
negative nage; as at Dafydd a ddaw? 'ie. " Is it David who will
come? Yes."
A relative pronoun immediately precedes its verb and can only
be separated from it by an infixed pronoun, thus Dafydd a'i prynodd,
" (it is) David who bought it," yno y'm gweli, " (it is) there that
thou wilt see me." If the relative is the object of a preposition, the
latter is put at the end of the clause, and has a personal ending, thus
y ty y bum ynddo, literally, " the house which I-was in-it."
The verb does not agree with its subject unless the latter is a
personal pronoun ; when the subject is a noun the verb is put in the
third person singular; thus carant, " they love," can take a pro-
nominal subject carant hwy, " they love "; but " the men love '
is car y dynion (not carant y dynion, which can only mean " they
love the men "). In relative clauses the verb is sometimes made to
agree ; but in the oldest poetry we generally find the singular verb,
as in the oft-repeated Gododin phrase Gwyr a aeth Gatraeth, " men
who went (to) Catraeth " (not Gwyr a aethant).
AUTHORITIES. J. D. Rhys, Cambrobrytannicae Cymraecaeve
lingvae institvtiones (1592); John Davies, Antiqae lingvae Britan-
nicae . . . rvdimenta (1621); Antiauae linguae Britannicae
. . . dictionarium duplex (1632); Edward Lhuyd, Archaeo-
logia Britannica (1707); W. O. Pughe, Grammar and Dictionary*
(1832), vitiated by absurd etymological theories; J. C. Zeuss,
Grammatica Celtica (2nd ed. by H. Ebel, 1871) an index to the
O. Welsh glosses cited in this work was compiled by V. Tourneur in
Archivfur celt. Lexikographie, iii. 109-137; T. Rowland, Grammar of
the Welsh Language * (1876), containing a large collection of facts
about the modern language, badly arranged and wholly undigested;
Rhys, Lectures on Welsh Philology 2 (1879); J. Strachan, An In-
troduction to Early Welsh, with a Reader (Manchester, 1909);
Stokes, " Urkeltischer Sprachschatz," in Pick's Vergleichendes
Worterbuch der idg. Sprachen 4 , ii. (1894) ; E. Anwyl, Welsh Grammar
for Schools, i. (1898), ii. (1899); J. Morris Jones, Historical Welsh
Grammar, i. (1911); W. Spurrek, Welsh-English and English-Welsh
Dictionary (Carmarthen 6 , 1904) ; D. Silvan Evans, Welsh Dictionary,
A-E (1888-1906). The last-named received a subsidy from the
British government. Some corrections and additions to the early
volumes, by J. Loth, will be found in Arch. f. celt. Lex. vol. i. See also
H. Sweet, " Spoken N. Welsh," in Trans, of the London Phil. Soc.,
1882-1884; T. Darlington, "Some Dialectal Boundaries in Mid-
Wales," in Trans, of the Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion, 1900-1901;
and M. Nettlau, Beitrdge zur cymrischen Grammatik (Leipzig, 1887),
also in Rev. celt. vol. ix. (J. M. J.)
WALEWSKI, ALEXANDRE FLORIAN JOSEPH COLONNA,
COMTE (1810-1868), French politician and diplomatist, was born
at Walewice near Warsaw on the 4th of May 1810, the son of
Napoleon I. and his mistress Marie, Countess Walewska. At
fourteen Walewski refused to enter the Russian army, escaping
to London and thence to Paris, where the French government
refused his extradition to the Russian authorities. Louis Philippe
sent him to Poland in 1830, and he was then entrusted by the
leaders of the Polish revolution with a mission to London. After
the fall of Warsaw he took out letters of naturalization in France
and entered the French army, seeing some service in Algeria.
In 183-7 ne resigned his commission and began to write for the
stage and for the press. He is said to have collaborated with
the elder Dumas in Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle, and a comedy of
his, L'Ecole du monde, was produced at the Theatre Franoais in
1840. In that year his paper, Le Messager des chambres, was
taken over by Thiers, who sent him on a mission to Egypt, and
under the Guizot ministry he was sent to Buenos Aires to
co-operate with the British minister Lord Howden (Sir J.
Caradoc). The accession of Louis Napoleon to the supreme power
in France guaranteed his career. He was sent as envoy extra-
ordinary to Florence, to Naples and then to London, where he
announced the coup d'etat to Palmerston (?..). In 1855 Walewski
succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as minister of foreign affairs, and
acted as French plenipotentiary at the Congress of Paris next
year. When he left the Foreign Office in 1860 it was to become
minister of state, an office which he held until 1863. Senator
from 1855 to 1865, he entered the Corps Lfigislatif in 1865, and
was installed, by the emperor's interest, as president of the
Chamber. A revolt against his authority two years later sent
him back to the Senate. He died at Strassburg on the 27th of
October 1868. He had been created a duke in 1866, was a
member of the Academy of Fine Arts and a grand cross of the
Legion of Honour.
WALFISH BAY, a harbour of South-West Africa with a
coast-line of 20 m. terminated southward by Pelican Point in
22 54' S., 14 27' E. It belongs to Great Britain, together with
a strip of territory extending 15 m. along the coast south of
Pelican Point and with a depth inland from 10 to 15 m. The
total area is 430 sq. m. Except seaward Walfish Bay is sur-
rounded by German South-West Africa. The northern boundary
is the Swakop river; east and south there are no natural frontiers.
The coast district, composed of sand dunes, is succeeded by a
plateau covered in part with sparse vegetation. The river
Kuisip, usually dry, has its mouth in the bay which forms the
finest harbour along a coast-line of over 1000 m. The harbour is
provided with a pier 200 yds. long and is safe in all weathers.
It was formerly frequented by whaling vessels (hence its name).
The town has a small trade with the Hereros of the adjoining
German protectorate. A tramway, n m. long, runs inland to
Rooikop on the German frontier. Pop. (1904), 997, including
144 whites.
Walfish Bay forms a detached portion of the Cape province
of the Union of South Africa. It was proclaimed British territory
on the I2th of March 1878, and was annexed to Cape Colony on
the 7th of August 1884 (see AFRICA, 5). The delimitation of
the southern frontier was in 1909 referred to the king of Spain
as arbitrator between Great Britain and Germany.
WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897), American soldier
and economist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of
July 1840. His father, Amasa Walker (1799-1875), was also
a distinguished economist, who, retiring from commercial life
in 1840, lectured on political economy in Oberlin College from
1842 to 1848, was examiner in the same subject at Harvard from
1853 to 1860, and lecturer at Amherst from 1859 to 1869. He was
a delegate to the first international peace congress in London
1843, and in 1849 to the peace congress in Paris. He was
secretary of state of Massachusetts from 1851 to 1853 and
a representative in Congress 1862-1863. His principal work,
The Science of Wealth, attained great popularity as a textbook.
Francis Walker graduated at Amherst College in 1860, studied
law, and fought in the Northern army during the whole of the
Civil War of 1861-65, rising from the rank of sergeant-major to
that of brevet brigadier-general of volunteers awarded him at
the request of General Winfield S. Hancock. As a soldier he
excelled in analysis of the position and strength of the enemy.
In 1864 he was captured and detained for a time in the famous
Libby Prison, Richmond. After the war he became editorial
writer on the Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, and in 1869
was made chief of the government bureau of statistics. He was
superintendent of the ninth and tenth censuses (those of 1870 and
1880), and (1871-72) commissioner of Indian affairs. From 1873
to his death his work was educational, first as professor (1873
1881) of political economy in the Sheffield Scientific School at
Yale, and then as president of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Boston. While superintendent of the census he
increased the scope and accuracy of the records; and at the
Institute of Technology he enlarged the resources and numbers
of the institution, which had 302 students when he assumed the
presidency and 1 198 at his death. In other fields he promoted
common-school education (especially in manual training), the
Boston park system, and the work of the public library, and took
an active part in the discussion of monetary, economic, statistical
and other public questions, holding many offices of honour and
responsibility. As an author he wrote on governmental treatment
of the Indians, The Wages Question (1876), Money (1878), Land
and its Rent (1883) and general political economy (1883 and 1884),
besides producing monographs on the life of General Hancock
(1884) and the history of his own Second Army Corps (1886).
As an economist, from the time of the appearance of his book
on the subject, he so effectively combated the old theory of the
" wage-fund " as to lead to its abandonment or material modifica-
tion by American, students; while in his writings on finance,
from 1878 to the end of his life, he advocated international
WALKER, F. WALKER, G.
271
bimelallistn, without, however, seeking to justify any one nation
in ihe attempt to maintain parity between gold and silver. A
collection of posthumously published Discussions in Education
(1899) was made up of essays and addresses prepared after his
taking the presidency of the Institute of Technology: their
most noteworthy argument is that chemistry, physics and the
other sciences promote a more exact and more serviceable mental
training than metaphysics or rhetoric. Walker's general tendency
was towards a rational conservatism. On the question of rent
he called himself a " Ricardian of the Ricardians." To his
Wages Question is due in great part the conception formed by
English students of the place and functions of the employer in
modern industrial economics. A remarkable feature of his
writings is his treatment of economic tendencies not as mere
abstractions, but as facts making for the happiness or misery
of living men. General Walker died in Boston on the sth of
January 1897.
WALKER, FREDERICK (1840-1875), English subject painter,
the son of a designer of jewelry, was born in Marylebone, London,
on the 24th of May 1840. When very young he began to draw
from the antique in the British Museum, and at the age of sixteen
he was placed in the office of an architect named Baker. _ The
occupation proved uncongenial; at the end of eighteen months
he resumed his work from the Elgin marbles at the British
Museum, and attended Leigh's life school in Newman Street.
In March 1858 he was admitted a student of the Royal Academy.
But his study in the academy schools was disconnected, and
ceased before he reached the life class, as he was anxious to
begin earning his own living. As a means to this end, he turned
his attention to designing for the wood-engravers, and worked
three days a week for about two years in the studio of J. W.
Whymper, under whose tuition he quickly mastered the tech-
nicalities of drawing on wood. His earliest book illustrations
appeared in 1860 in Once a Week, a periodical to which he was
a prolific contributor, as also to the Cornhill Magazine, where
his admirable designs appeared to the works of Thackeray and
those of his daughter. These woodcuts, especially his illustra-
tions to Thackeray's Adventures of Philip and Denis Duval, are
among the most spirited and artistic works of their class, and
entitle Walker to rank with Millais at the very head of the
draughtsmen who have dealt with scenes of contemporary life.
Indeed, by his contributions to Once a Week alone he made an
immediate reputation as an artist of rare accomplishment, and
although he was associated on that periodical with such men as
Millais, Holman Hunt, Leech, Sandys, Charles Keene, Tenniel,
and Du Maurier, he more than held his own against all com-
petitors. In the intervals of work as a book illustrator he
practised painting in water-colours, his subjects being frequently
more considered and refined repetitions in colour of his black-
and-white designs. Among the more notable of his productions
in water-colour are " Spring," " A Fishmonger's Shop," " The
Ferry," and " Philip in Church," which gained a medal in the
Paris International Exhibition of 1867. He was elected an
associate of the Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1864
and a full member in 1866; and in 1871 he became an associate
of the Royal Academy. In this same year he was made an
honorary member of the Belgian Society of Painters in Water
Colours. His first oil picture, " The Lost Path," was exhibited
in the Royal Academy in 1863, where it was followed in 1867
by " The Bathers," one of the artist's finest works, in 1868 by
" The Vagrants," now in the National Gallery of British Art, in
1869 by " The Old Gate," and in 1870 by " The Plough," a
powerful and impressive rendering of ruddy evening light, of
which the landscape was studied in Somerset. In 1871 he ex-
hibited his tragic life-sized figure of " A Female Prisoner at the
Bar," a subject which now exists only in a finished oil study,
for the painter afterwards effaced the head, with which he was
dissatisfied, but was prevented by death from again completing
the picture. The last of his fully successful works was
" A Harbour of Refuge," shown in 1872 (also in the National
Gallery of British Art); for " The Right of Way," exhibited in
'875, bears evident signs of the artist's failing strength. He
had suffered indeed for some years from a consumptive tendency;
in 1868 he made a sea voyage, for his health's sake, to Venice,
where he stayed with Orchardson and Birket Foster, and at the
end of 1873 he went for a while to Algiers with J. W. North, in
the hope that he might derive benefit from a change of climate.
But, returning in the bitter English spring, he was again pros-
trated; and on the sth of June 1875 he died of consumption at
St Fillan's, Perthshire.
The works of Frederick Walker are thoroughly original and
individual, both in the quality of their colour and handling and
in their view of nature and humanity. His colour, especially in
his water-colours, is distinctive, powerful and full of delicate
gradations. He had an admirable sense of design, and the
figures of his peasants at their daily toil show a grace and sweep-
ing largeness of line in which can be plainly traced the effect
produced upon his taste by his early study of the antique; at
the same time the sentiment of his subjects is unfailingly
refined and poetic. His vigour of design may be seen in his
poster for Wilkie Collins's The Woman in White, now in the
National Gallery of British Art.
See Life and Letters of Frederick Walker, A.R.A., by John George
Marks (1896), a full biography of a personal rather than a critical
kind. Frederick Walker and his Works, by Claude Phillips (1897),
should be consulted as an excellent critical supplement to the larger
volume. See also Essays on Art, by J. Comyns Carr, which includes
a judicious essay on Walker.
WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-1690), hero of the siege of
Londonderry, was the son of George Walker, rector of Kilmore
and chancellor of Armagh (d. 1677), and of Ursula, daughter of
Sir John Stanhope of Melwood, and is said to have been born
in 1618 in Tyrone. He was educated at Glasgow University,
and appointed to the livings of Lessan and Desertlyn, in the
diocese of Armagh, near Londonderry, in 1669. In 1674 he
obtained that of Donaghmore, which he held with Lessan. At
the outbreak of the Civil War in Ireland towards the close of
1688, Walker, though in Holy Orders and advanced in years,
raised a regiment and endeavoured to concert measures with
Robert Lundy, the acting governor of Londonderry, for the
defence of Dungannon. But Lundy, after having sent some
troops to his support, ordered their withdrawal and the abandon-
ment of the place on the I4th of March 1689. On the I7th of
March Walker marched with his men to Strabane, and subse-
quently was ordered by Lundy to move to Rash and then to
St Johnstown, 5 m. from Londonderry. On the approach of the
enemy (April I3th) Walker rode hastily to Londonderry to
inform Lundy, but was unable to convince him of his danger.
He returned to his men at Lifford, where, on the I4th, he took
part in a brush with the enemy, afterwards following the retreat
of the army to Londonderry. The town was in great confusion,
and Walker found the gates shut against him and his regiment.
He was forced to pass the night outside, and only entered the
next day " with much difficulty and some violence upon the
Gentry." Immediately on his arrival he urged Lundy to take
the field and refused the demand to disband his own soldiers.
On the 1 7th of April Lundy determined to give up the town to
James, and called a council from which Walker and others were
especially excluded; but the next day the king and his troops,
who had advanced to receive the surrender, were fired upon
from the walls contrary to Lundy 's orders, and the arrival of
Captain Adam Murray with a troop of horse saved the situation.
Lundy was deprived of all power, and was allowed to escape in
disguise from the town. On the igth of April Walker and Baker
were chosen joint-governors. Walker commanded fifteen com-
panies, amounting to 900 men, and to him was also entrusted
the supervision of the commissariat. He showed great energy,
courage and resource throughout the siege, and led several
successful sallies. Meanwhile his duties as a clergyman were
not neglected. The Nonconformists were allowed the use of
the cathedral on Sunday afternoons, but in the morning Walker
preached. Those few of his sermons which remain, though simple
in their language, are eloquent and inspiring. Meanwhile he had
to contend with jealousies and suspicions within the town; but
he succeeded in dispelling all misgivings and in reaffirming his
272
WALKER, H. O. WALKER, O.
credit with the garrison. At the close of the siege, which
lasted 150 days, the town was at the last extremity; but
at length, on the soth of July, Walker preached the last of the
sermons by which he had helped to inspire its defence. An
hour afterwards the ships were seen approaching, and the town
was relieved.
As regards the general course of the war the importance of the
successful resistance at Londonderry can hardly be exaggerated
It was the first open act of hostility in Ireland against James
and the disaster to his arms not only embarrassed his campaign
in Ireland but prevented the expeditions to Scotland and
England, and Walker's share in it was abundantly recognized.
He sailed for Scotland and England on the pth of August, and
was everywhere welcomed with immense public enthusiasm.
On the zgth of August he was graciously received at Hampton
Court by William and Mary, before whom he had with good sense
refused to appear in his military costume, and delivered to them
the petition from Londonderry. William presented him with
5000, part of which he appears to have given to the widow of
Baker, his fellow-governor, who died during the siege. Shortly
afterwards he was nominated bishop of Londonderry, but as
Bishop Hopkins, whom it was determined to remove, only died
three weeks before Walker, the latter was never consecrated.
Walker succeeded in obtaining a grant of 1200 for Londonderry
from the city companies, and on the i8th of November his
petition to the House of Commons for relief for the widows,
orphans, clergy and dissenting ministers was read, and the king
was asked to distribute 10,000 among them (House of Commons
Journals, vol. x. p. 288). On the following day Walker was called
in, received the thanks of the House, and made a short and
dignified reply. On the 8th of October he had been granted the
degree of D.D. at Cambridge in his absence, and on his return
journey to Ireland he received the same diploma at Oxford
(Feb. 1690). Walker met William on his arrival in Ireland on
the 1 4th of June 1690 at Belfast, and followed his army. He
was present at the battle of the Boyne on the ist of July, but in
what capacity, whether as spectator, as combatant or as minister
to tend the wounded, is uncertain. 1 He was shot through the
body at the passage of the river, according to one account, while
he was going to the aid of the wounded Schomberg (G. Story,
A True . . . History of the A fairs in Ireland, p. 82), and died
almost immediately. His remains, or what were supposed to be
such, were afterwards transferred from the battlefield and buried
in his own church at Donaghmore, where a monument and
inscription were placed to his memory. A more conspicuous
memorial was erected in Londonderry itself.
Walker married Isabella Maxwell of Finnebrogue, and left
several sons, four of whom during his lifetime were in the king's
service, and from one of whom at least there are descendants at
the present day.
While in London Walker had published A True Account of the
Siege of Londonderry (1689), dedicated to the king, which went
through several editions and was translated for perusal abroad.
This pamphlet, and the ovations received by Walker in London,
excited fierce jealousies, which had been subdued in the hour of peril,
but which were now formulated in the Narrative (1698) of John
Mackenzie, a dissenting minister who had been present during the
siege. Walker was charged with having taken too much credit to
himself, and of having passed over the services and names of the
nonconformists. Base insinuations were added and it was declared
that Walker had never even held the post of governor. These
accusations fall by the weight of their own exaggeration. On the
other hand, Walker's Account, though doubtless incomplete, is
written with candour and simplicity and is free from any touch of
egotistical self-consciousness; and both this tract and his subse-
quent Vindication (1689) are greatly superior, in their dignity and
restraint, to the pamphlets of his opponents. His character was
proof against the perils which attend a sudden rise to fame and
popularity, and his " modesty " is especially observed by several
1 Luttrell writes in his diary, vol. 2, p. 17 (Feb. 20, 1689-1690),
" Mr Walker of Londonderry has taken his leave of the king to go
to Ireland on some special command," and again, vol. 2, p. 44
(May 19, 1690), " Letters from Ireland say that Dr Walker, late
governor of Londonderry, had a regiment of foot given him," but
there appears to be no official record of his having received a
commission at this time.
of his contemporaries. There exists also too much positive and
independent evidence to permit any doubt whatever as to the
greatness of Walker's services. Burnet, in a passage which was
not included in his published history perhaps because of the con-
troversy, says: "There was a minister in the place, Dr Walker,
who acted a very noble part in the government and defence of the
town; he was but a man of ordinary parts, but they were suited to
his work, for he did wonders in this siege " (Harleian MSS., 65847,
292 b, printed by H. C. Foxcroft. Supplement to Burnet's Hist, of
His, Own Times, 1902, p. 321).
In the Siege of Derry (1893) the Rev. Philip Dwyer has collected
the most essential facts and materials relating to Walker and the
siege, and has reprinted in his volume Walker's True Account and
Vindication, together with Walker's sermons, various other docu-
ments and valuable notes.
WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843- ), American artist,
was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the I4th of May 1843.
He was a pupil of Leon Bonnat, Paris, and painted the figure and
occasional portraits, but later devoted himself almost exclusively
to mural decoration. His paintings symbolizing lyric poetry,
for the Congressional Library, Washington; and his decorations
for the Appellate Court House, New York; Bowdoin College,
Maine; the enlarged State House, Boston; the Court House,
Newark, New Jersey, and the Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota,
are among his most important works. He became a member of
the National Academy of Design, New York, in 1902.
WALKER, HORATIO (1858- ), American artist, was born
at Listowel, Ontario, Canada, on the I2th of May 1858. When
he was a child his family settled at Rochester, New York.
Although entirely self-taught, he became a distinguished painter
of animals, the figure and landscape. His pictures, principally
of Canadian peasant life and scenes, show the influence of
Troyon and Millet, mainly in their feeling for largeness of com-
position, in solidity of painting and in the choice of theme.
He became a member of the National Academy of Design, New
York, in 1891; of the American Water Color Society and of the
Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, London. Fe
received a medal and a diploma at Chicago, 1893; and medals at
Buffalo, 1901; Charleston, 1902; and St Louis, 1904. In 1888
he won the Evans prize of the American Water Color Society,
New York.
WALKER, JOHN (1732-1807), English actor, philologist
and lexicographer, was born at Colney Hatch. Middlesex, on
the i8th of March 1732. Early in life he became an actor, his
theatrical engagements including one with Garrick at Drury Lane,
and a long season in Dublin. In 1768 he left the stage. After
some experience in conducting a school at Kensington he com-
menced to teach elocution, and in this found his principal
employment for the rest of his life. In 1775 he published his
Rhyming Dictionary, which achieved a great success and has
been repeatedly reprinted, and in 1791 his Critical Pronouncing
Dictionary, which achieved an even greater reputation, and has
run into some forty editions. He was the friend of the leading
iterary men of his time, including Johnson and Burke. He died
n London on the ist of August 1807.
WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699), master of University
College, Oxford, was born at Darfield near Barnsley, Yorkshire,
and was educated at University College, Oxford, becoming a
r ellow and tutor of this society and a prominent figure in uni-
versity circles. In July 1648 the action of parliament deprived
lim of his academic appointments, and he passed some years
n teaching, studying and travelling, returning to Oxford at the
restoration of 1660, and beginning a few years later to take a
eading part in the work of University College. In June 1676
ic was elected to the headship of this foundation, and in this
capacity he collected money for some rebuilding, and forwarded
he preparation of a Latin edition of Sir John Spelman's Life of
Alfred the Great, published by the college. This was the time
of Titus Gates and the popish plots, and some of Walker's
writings made him suspect; however, no serious steps were
aken against him, although Oxford booksellers were forbidden
to sell his book, The benefits of our Saviour Jesus Christ to man-
kind, and he remained a Protestant, in name at least, until the
accession of James II. Soon after this event he came forward as
WALKER, R. WALKER, T.
273
a Roman Catholic, and he advised the new king with regard to
affairs in Oxford, being partly responsible for the tactless conduct
of James in forcing a quarrel with the fellows of Magdalen College.
Mass was said in his residence, and later a chapel was opened
in the college for the worship of the Roman Church; he and
others received a royal licence to absent themselves from the
services of the English Church, and he obtained another to super-
vise the printing of Roman Catholic books. In spite of growing
unpopularity he remained loyal to James, and when the king
fled from England Walker left Oxford, doubtless intending to
join his master abroad. But in December 1688 he was arrested
at Sittingbourne and was imprisoned; then, having lost his
mastership, he was charged at the bar of the House of Commons
with changing his religion and with other offences. Early in 1 690
he was released from his confinement, and after subsisting for
some years largely on the charity of his friend and former pupil,
Dr John Radcliffe, he died on the 2ist of January 1699.
Walker's principal writings are: Of education, especially of young
gentlemen (Oxford, 1673, and six other editions); Ars rattonis ad
mentem nominalium libri tres (Oxford, 1673) ; and Greek and Roman
History illustrated by Coins and Medals (London, 1692).
WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658), British painter, was a
contemporary and to a slight extent a follower of Van Dyck.
The date of his birth is uncertain, and no details are known of
his early life. Although influenced by Van Dyck's art, he had
still a considerable degree of individuality and developed a sound
style of his own which was more severe and restrained than that
of the greater master. His greatest vogue was at the time of the
Commonwealth, for in addition to several portraits of Cromwell
he painted other portraits of Lambert, Ireton, Fleetwood, and
many more members of the Parliamentarian party. In 1652 he
was given rooms in Arundel House in the Strand, London,
where he resided for the rest of his life. He died either in 1658
or in 1660, the authority for the earlier date being an inscription
on an engraved portrait by Lombart. His work had much
merit ; it was vigorous and showed sound study of character.
Several of his paintings, among them the portrait of William
Faithorne the elder, are in the National Portrait Gallery, and
there are others of notable importance at Hampton Court and
in the University Galleries at Oxford. One of his portraits of
Cromwell is in the Pitti Palace, where it is ascribed to Lely;
it was bought in the artist's lifetime, but after the Protector's
death, by the grand duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany. Another
is at Warwick Castle.
Walker painted also Robert Cromwell and his wife Elizabeth
Steward, parents of the Protector. The portrait of the latter,
attended by a page who is fastening his sash at the waist (now in
the National Portrait Gallery, transferred from the British Museum,
to which it was bequeathed by Sir Robert Rich, Bart., descendant
of Cromwell's friend, Nathaniel Rich) was called by Walpole " Crom-
well and Lambert " ; but it is now certain that the page represents
Cromwell's son Richard. Elizabeth Cromwell, afterwards Mrs
Claypole, the Protector's daughter, also sat to him. As no complete
account of Walker's work is in existence (that of Walpole being very
incomplete, while Cunningham passes him over entirely), it may be
added that the artist twice painted John Evelyn, in different sizes,
as well as Bradshaw, John Hampden, Colonel Thomas Sanders,
Cornet Joyce, and Speaker Lenthall, as well as Sir William and
Lady Waller, Mrs Thomas Knight, and General George Monk,
duke of Albemarle, and Sir Thomas Fairfax (engraved by Faithorne).
A portrait of Secretary Thurlow, which was in the Lord Northwick
Collection, was attributed to him. As Walker was in the camp of
the Parliamentarians and Dobson was the court painter at Oxford,
few aristocratic persons sat to the former. Exceptions are Mary
Capel, duchess of Beaufort (engraved by J. Nutting), Aubrey, last
earl of Oxford, and James Graham, marquess of Montrose;even
a portrait of Charles I. in armour, with his hand on his helmet, is
credited to Walker. Two versions, of a like size, of his own portrait
exist, one at the National Portrait Gallery and the other at Oxford,
engraved by Peter Lombart, and again, later, by T. Chambars.
The Cromwell in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery- is a copy.
Walker's copy of Titian's famous " Venus at her Toilet," highly
esteemed by Charles I., is considered a work of great merit.
WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869), American political
leader and economist, was born in Northumberland, Pennsylvania,
on the 23rd of July 1801. He graduated from the University of
Pennsylvania in 1819 and practised law in Pittsburg from 1822
to 1826, when he removed to Mississippi. Though living in a
slave state he was consistently opposed to slavery, but he
favoured gradual rather than immediate emancipation, and in
1838 he freed his own slaves. He became prominent, politically,
during the nullification excitement of 1832-1833, as a vigorous
opponent of nullification, and from 1836 to 1845 he sat in the
United States Senate as a Unionist Democrat. Being an ardent
expansionist, he voted for the recognition of the independence
of Texas in 1837 and for the joint annexation resolution of 1845,
and advocated the nomination and election of James K. Polk in
1844. He was secretary of the treasury throughout the Polk
administration (1845-1849) and was generally recognized as the
most influential member of the cabinet. He financed the war
with Mexico and drafted the bill (1849) for the establishment of
the department of the interior, but his greatest work was the
preparation of the famous treasury report of the 3rd of December
1845. Although inferior in intellectual quality to Alexander
Hamilton's Report on Manufactures, presenting the case against
free trade, it is regarded as the most powerful attack upon the
protection system which has ever been made in an American
state paper. The " Walker Tariff " of 1846 was based upon its
principles and was in fact largely the secretary's own work.
Walker at first opposed the Compromise of 1850, but was won
over later by the arguments of Stephen A. Douglas. He was
appointed territorial governor of Kansas in the spring of 1857
by President Buchanan, but in November of the same year
resigned in disgust, owing to his opposition to the Lecompton
Constitution. He did not, however, break with his party
immediately, and favoured the so-called English Bill (see
KANSAS) ; in fact it was partly due to his influence that a sufficient
number of anti-Lecompton Democrats were induced to vote for
that measure to secure its passage. He adhered to the Union
cause during the Civil War and in 1863-1864 as financial agent
of the United States did much to create confidence in Europe in
the financial resources of the United States, and was instrumental
in securing a loan of $250,000,000 ha Germany. He practised
law in Washington, D.C., from 1864 until his death there on the
nth of November 1869. Both during and after the Civil War
he was a contributor to the Continental Monthly, which for a
short time he also, with James R. Gilmore, conducted.
For the tariff report see F. W. Taussig, Slate Papers and Speeches
on the Tariff (Cambridge, Mass., 1892).
WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805-1853), American astronomer,
was born at Wilmington, Massachusetts, on the 28th of March
1805. Graduating at Harvard in 1825, he was a teacher till 1835,
was an actuary in 1835-1845, and then became assistant at the
Washington observatory. In 1847 he took charge of the longi-
tude department of the United States Coast Survey, where he
was among the first to make use of the electric telegraph for the
purpose of determining the difference of longitude between two
stations, and he introduced the method of registering transit
observations electrically by means of a chronograph. He also
investigated the orbit of the newly discovered planet Neptune.
He died near Cincinnati on the 3Oth of January 1853. His
brother Timothy (1802-1856) was a leader of the Ohio bar.
See Memoirs of the Roy. Astr. Soc. vol. xxiii.
WALKER, THOMAS (1784-1836), English police magistrate,
best known as author of The Original, was born on the loth of
October 1784 at Charlton-cum-Hardy, near Manchester, where
his father was a prosperous cotton merchant and an active Whig
politician. He was educated at Cambridge and called to the bar,
and after devoting some years mainly to the study of the Poor
Law was made police magistrate in Lambeth in 1829. In 1835
he started his weekly publication The Original, containing his
reflections on various social subjects and especially on eating and
drinking; and it is in the history of gastronomy, and the art
of dining, that this curious and amusing work is famous. The
weekly numbers continued for six months, and subsequently
were republished, after Walker's death on the 2oth of January
1836, in an American selection (1837), in editions by W. B.
Jerrold (with memoir) (1874), W. A. Guy (1875), and Henry
Morley (1887), and in another selection of Sir Henry Cole
(" Felix Summerley"), called Aristology (1881).
274
WALKER, W. WALL, R.
WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860), American
adventurer, was born in Nashville, Tennessee, on the
' 8th of May 1824. After graduating from the univer-
sity of Nashville in 1838, he studied law, was admitted
to the bar, and subsequently spent a year in the study
of medicine at Edinburgh and Heidelberg. He prac-
tised medicine for a few months in Philadelphia and
then removed to New Orleans, where he engaged in
journalism. In 1850 he migrated to California and
engaged in newspaper work at San Francisco and later
at Marysville, where he also practised law. On the
iSth of October 1853 he sailed from San Francisco
with a filibustering force for the conquest of
Mexican territory. He landed in Lower California,
and on the i8th of January 1854 he proclaimed
this and the neighbouring State of Sonora an independent
republic. Starvation and Mexican attacks led to the abandon-
ment of this enterprise, and Walker resumed his journalistic
work in California. On the 4th of May 1855, with fifty-
six followers, Walker again sailed from San Francisco,
this time for Nicaragua, where he had been invited by
one of the belligerent factions to come to its aid. In October
Walker seized a steamer on Lake Nicaragua belonging to the
Accessory Transit Company, a corporation of Americans engaged
in transporting freight and passengers across the isthmus,
and was thus enabled to surprise and capture Granada, the
capital and the stronghold of his opponents, and to make himself
master of Nicaragua. Peace was then made; Patricio Rivas,
who had been neutral, was made provisional president, and
Walker secured the real power as commander of the troops.
At this time two officials of the Transit Company determined to
use Walker as their tool to get control of that corporation, then
dominated by Cornelius Vanderbilt, and they advanced him
funds and transported his recruits from the United States free
of charge. In return for these favours, Walker seized the
property of the company, on the pretext of a violation of its
charter, and turned over its equipment to the men who had
befriended him. On the 2oth of May 1856 the new government
was formally recognized at Washington by President Pierce,
and on the 3rd of June the Democratic national convention
expressed its sympathy with the efforts being made to " re-
generate " Nicaragua. In June Walker was chosen president
of Nicaragua, and on the 22nd of September, from alleged
economic necessity, and also to gain the sympathy and support
of the slave states in America, he repealed the laws prohibiting
slavery.
Walker managed to maintain himself against a coalition of
Central American states, led by Costa Rica, which was aided and
abetted by agents of Cornelius Vanderbilt, until the ist of May
1857, when, to avoid capture by the natives, he surrendered to
Commander Charles Henry Davis, of the United States navy,
and returned to the United States. In November 1857 he sailed
from Mobile with another expedition, but soon after landing at
Punta Arenas he was arrested by Commodore Hiram Paulding
of the American navy, and was compelled to return to the
United States as a paroled prisoner. On his arrival he was
released by order of President Buchanan. After several un-
successful attempts to return to Central America, Walker finally
sailed from Mobile in August 1860 and landed in Honduras.
Here he was taken prisoner by Captain Salmon, of the British
navy, and was surrendered to the Honduran authorities, by
whom he was tried and condemned to be shot. He was executed
on the 1 2th of September 1860.
See Walker's own narrative, accurate as to details, The War in
Nicaragua (Mobile, 1860) ; William V. Wells, Walker's Expedition to
Nicaragua (New York, 1856) ; Charles William Doubleday, Reminis-
cences of the " Filibuster " War in Nicaragua (New York, 1886), and
James Jeffrey Roche, The Story of the Filibusters (London, 1 891), revised
and reprinted as Byways of War (Boston, 1901). (W. O. S.)
WALKING RACES, a form of athletic sports, either on road
or track. Road walking is the older form of the sport. The
records for the chief walking distances were as follows in 1910:
Distance.
Name.
Time.
Date.
Place.
hr. min. sec.
I mile
A. T. Yeomans.
6 19!
1906
Bath
2 miles
A. T. Yeomans.
12 53i
1906
Swansea
3
J. W. Raby (profes-
sional)
20 2l|
1883
Lillie Bridge
4 .,
5
G. E. Lamer .
I. W. Raby .
27 14
35 10
1905
1883
Brighton
Lillie Bridge
10
J. W. Raby .
1 H 45
1883
Lillie Bridge
15 -,
J. W. Raby .
i 55 56
1883
Lillie Bridge
20 ,,
W. Perkins
2 39 57
1877
Lillie Bridge
3 ,.
J. Butler . .
4 29 52
1905
Putney
4 --
50
IOO
J. Butler . .
J. Butler . .
T. E. Hammond
6 ii 17
7 52 27
17 25 22
1905
1905
1907
Putney
Putney
London to Brighton
and back
The record distance walked in I hour was 8 m. 339 yds. by the
English amateur G. E. Larner in 1905; in 8 hours, 50 m. 1190 yds.
by another English amateur, J. Butler, in 1905; in 24 hours, 131 m.
58o| yds. by T. E. Hammond in 1908.
About the year 1875 there was a revival of interest in pro-
fessional walking, which took the form of " go-as-you-please "
competitions, extending over several days, usually six. These
may be classed as walking contests, for, although running was
allowed, it was seldom practised, excepting for a few moments
at a time, for the purpose of relief from cramped muscles. The
great difficulty in competitive walking is to keep within the
rules. A " fair gait " is one in which one foot touches the ground
before the other leaves it, only one leg being bent in stepping,
namely, that which is being put forward.
WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778), diplomatist and minister in
the Spanish service, belonged to a family settled in Waterford.
As he was a Roman Catholic he was debarred from public
service at home, and like many of his countrymen he sought his
fortune in Spain. He served, probably as a soldier in one of
the Irish regiments of the Spanish army, during the expedition
to Sicily in 1718, and was present at the sea fight off Cape
Passaro. During the following years he continued to be em-
ployed as an officer, but in 1727 he was appointed secretary to
the duke of Liria, son of the duke of Berwick, and Spanish
ambassador at St Petersburg. Wall's knowledge of languages,
his adaptability, his quick Irish wit and ready self-confidence
made him a* great favourite, not only with the duke of Liria,
but with other Spanish authorities. Spain was at that time
much dependent on the ability of foreigners, and for a man of
Wall's parts and character there were ample openings for an
important and interesting career. The climate of St Petersburg
seems to have been too much for him, and he soon returned to
military service in Italy. It is said that when he was presented
to the duke of Montemar, the Spanish general, and was asked
who he was, he replied, " The most important person in the
army after your excellency, for you are the head of the serpent,
and I am the tail." He became known to Don Jose Patifio,
the most capable minister of King Philip V., and was sent by
him on a mission to Spanish America a very rare proof of
confidence towards a man of foreign origin. He is also said to
have laid a plan for retaking Jamaica from the English. In
1747 he was employed in the negotiations for the peace of Aix-
la-Chapelle, and in 1748 was named minister in London. In
England he made himself very popular. Though an exile
through the operation of the Penal Laws, and though he proved
loyal to his adopted country, he was a constant partisan of an
English alliance. His views recommended him to the favour
of King Ferdinand VI. (1746-1759), whose policy was resolutely
peaceful. In 1752 Wall was recalled from London to assist in
completing a treaty of commerce with England, which was then
being negotiated in Madrid. Wall now became the candidate
of the English party in the Spanish court for the post of Minister
of Foreign Affairs, in opposition to the leader of the French
party, the marquis de la Ensenada. He obtained the place
in 1752, and in 1754 he had a large share in driving Ensenada
from office. He retained his position till 1 764. The despatches
of the English minister, Sir Benjamin Keene, and of his
WALL WALLACE, A. R.
275
successor, Lord Bristol, contain many references to Wall. They
are creditable to him. Though a constant partisan of peace and
good relations with England, Wall was firm in asserting the
rights of the government he served. During the early stages of
the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) he insisted on claiming
compensation for the excesses of English privateers in Spanish
waters. He frequently complained to the English ministers of
the difficulties which the violence of these adventurers put in
his way. As a foreigner he was suspected of undue favour to
England, and was the object of incessant attacks by the French
party. The new king, Charles III. (1759-1788), continued
Wall in office. When war was declared by Spain in 1761 the
minister carried out the policy of the king, but he confessed to
the English ambassador, Lord Bristol, that he saw the failure
of his efforts to preserve peace with grief. The close relations
of Charles III. with the French branch of the House of Bourbon
made Wall's position as foreign minister very trying. Yet the
king, who detested changing his ministers, refused all his re-
quests to be allowed to retire, till Wall extorted leave in 1764
by elaborately affecting a disease of the eyes which was in fact
imaginary. The king gave him handsome allowances, and a
grant for life of the crown land known as the Soto de Roma,
near Granada, which was afterwards conferred on Godoy, and
finally given to the duke of Wellington. Wall lived almost
wholly at or near Granada, exercising a plentiful hospitality to
all visitors, and particularly to English travellers, till his death
in 1778. He left the reputation of an able minister and a very
witty talker.
A full account will be found in volume iv. of Coxe's Memoirs of
the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon (London, 1815). Further
details of his early career can be gathered from the Diario del viaje
a Moscoyia, 1727-1730, of the duke of Liria (vol. xciii. of the Docu-
mentos ineditos para la historia de Esparto), (Madrid, 1842, et seq.).
WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, walk, adapted from
Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was
wag or wdh}, a solid structure of stone, brick or other material,
used as a defensive, protecting, enclosing or dividing fence,
or as the enclosing and supporting sides of a building, house or
room. The Roman vallum was an earth rampart with stakes
or palisades (vallus, stake; Gr. ^Xos, nail) and the Old English
word was particularly applied to such earth walls; for the
remains of the Roman walls in Britain see BRITAIN. The word,
however, was also applied to stone defensive walls, for which
the Latin word was murus. The history of the wall as a means
of defence will be found in the article FORTIFICATION AND
SIEGECRAFT, the architectural and constructional side under
the headings ARCHITECTURE, MASONRY and BRICKWORK. In
anatomy and zoology the term " wall," and also the Latin
term paries, is used for an investing or enclosing structure, as
in " cell-walls," walls of the abdomen, &c. In the days when
footpaths were narrow and ill-paved or non-existent in the
streets of towns and when the gutters were often overflowing
with water and filth, the side nearest to the wall of the bordering
houses was safest and cleanest, and hence to walk on that side
was a privilege, hence the expressions " to take " or " to give
the wall." The term " wall-rib " is given in architecture to a
half-rib bedded in the wall, to carry the web or shell of the vault.
In Roman and in early Romanesque work the web was laid on
the top of the stone courses of the wall, which had been cut to
the arched form, but as this was often irregularly done, and
as sometimes the courses had sunk owing to the drying of the
mortar, it was found better to provide an independent rib to
carry the web; half of this rib was sunk in the wall and the
other half moulded like the transverse and diagonal ribs, so that
if the wall sank, or 'if it had to be taken down from any cause,
the vault would still retain its position.
The word " wall eye " or " wall-eyed " is applied to a con-
dition of the eye, particularly of a horse, in which there is a
large amount of white showing or there is absence of colour in
the iris, or there is leucoma of the cornea. It is also applied to
the white staring eyes of certain fishes. The word has no con-
nexion with "wall " as above, but is from the Icelandic vagl-
eygr, vagi, a beam, sty in the eye, and eygr, eyed.
WALLABY, a native name, used in literature for any member
of a section of the zoological genus Macropus, with naked muffle,
frequenting forests and dense scrubs. With respect to their size
they are distinguished as large wallabies and small wallabies,
some of the latter being no bigger than a rabbit. From the
localities in which they are found they are also called brush
kangaroos. See KANGAROO.
WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823- ), British natural-
ist, was born at Usk, in Monmouthshire, on the 8th of January
1823. After leaving school he assisted an elder brother in his
work as a land surveyor and architect, visiting various parts of
England and Wales. Living in South Wales, about 1840 he began
to take an interest in botany, and began the formation of a
herbarium. In 1847 he took his first journey out of England,
spending a week in Paris with his brother and sister. In 1844-
1845, while an English master in the Collegiate School at Leicester,
he made the acquaintance of H. W. Bates, through whose in-
fluence he became a beetle collector, and with whom he started
in 1848 on an expedition to the Amazon. In about a year the
two naturalists separated, and each wrote an account of his
travels and observations. Wallace's Travels on the Amazon and
Rio Negro was published in 1853, a year in which he went for a
fortnight's walking tour in Switzerland with an old school-fellow.
On his voyage home from South America the ship was burnt and
all his collections lost, except those which he had despatched
beforehand. After spending a year and a half in England,
during which time, besides his book on the Amazon, he published
a small volume on the Palm Trees of the Amazon, he started for
the Malay Archipelago, exploring, observing and collecting from
1854 to 1862. He visited Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, the
Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea and the Aru and Ke Islands. His
deeply interesting narrative, The Malay Archipelago, appeared
in 1869, and he also published many important papers through
the London scientific societies. The chief parts of his vast insect
collections became the property of the late W. W. Saunders,
but subsequently some of the most important groups passed into
the Hope Collection of the university of Oxford and the British
Museum. He discovered that the Malay Archipelago was divided
into a western group of islands, which in their zoological affinities
are Oriental, and an eastern, which are Australian. The Oriental
Borneo and Bali are respectively divided from Celebes and
Lombok by a narrow belt of sea known as " Wallace's Line,"
on the opposite sides of which the indigenous mammalia are as
widely divergent as in any two parts of the world. Wallace
became convinced of the truth of evolution, and originated the
theory of natural selection during these travels. In February
1855, staying at Sarawak, in Borneo, he wrote an essay " On the
Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species "
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1855, p. 184). He states the law
as follows: " Every species has come into existence coincident
both in time and space with a pre-existing closely allied
species." He justly claims that such a law connected and
explained a vast number of independent facts. It was, in
fact, a cautious statement of a belief in evolution, and for three
years from the time that he wrote the essay he tells us that
" the question of how changes of species could have been brought
about was rarely out of my mind." Finally, in February 1858,
when he was lying muffled in blankets in the cold fit of a severe
attack of intermittent fever at Ternate, in the Moluccas, he began
to think of Malthus's Essay on Population, and, to use his own
words, " there suddenly flashed upon me the idea of the survival
of the fittest." The theory was thought out during the rest of the
ague fit, drafted the same evening, written out in full in the two
succeeding evenings, and sent to Darwin b,y the next post. Dar-
win in England at once recognized his own theory in the manu-
script essay sent by the young and almost unknown naturalist
in the tropics, then a stranger to him. " I never saw a more
striking coincidence," he wrote to Lyell on the very day, on the
i8th of June, when he received the paper: " if Wallace had
my MS. sketch written out in 1842, he could not have made a
better short abstract I Even his terms now stand as heads
of my chapters." Under the advice of Sir Charles Lyell
276
WALLACE, L.
and Sir Joseph Hooker, the essay was read, together with an
abstract of Darwin's own views, as a joint paper at the Linnean
Society on the ist of July 1858. The title of Wallace's section
was " On the Tendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from
the Original Type." The " struggle for existence," the rate of
multiplication of animals, and the dependence of their average
numbers upon food supply are very clearly demonstrated, and
the following conclusion was reached: " Those that prolong their
existence can only be the most perfect in health and vigour; . . .
the weakest and least perfectly organized must always succumb."
The difference between Lamarck's theory and natural selection
is very clearly pointed out. " The powerful retractile talons of
the falcon and the cat tribes have not been produced or increased
by the volition of those animals; but among the different varieties
which occurred in the earlier and less highly organized forms of
these groups, those always survived longest which had the greatest
facilities for seizing their prey. Neither did the giraffe acquire its
long neck by desiring to reach the foliage of more lofty shrubs,
and constantly stretching its neck for the purpose, but because
any varieties which occurred among its antitypes with a longer
neck than usual at once sensed a fresh range of pasture over the
same ground as their shorter-necked companions, and on the first
scarcity of food were thereby enabled to outlive them." With such
clear statements as these in the paper of the ist of July 1858, it
is remarkable that even well-known naturalists should have
failed to comprehend the difference between Lamarck's and the
Darwin- Wallace theory. Wallace also alluded to the resemblance
of animals, and more especially of insects, to their surroundings,
and points out that " those races having colours best adapted to
concealment from their enemies would inevitably survive the
longest." In 1871 Wallace's two essays, written at Sarawak
and Ternate, were published with others as a volume, Contribu-
tions to the Theory of Natural Selection. Probably, next to the
Origin of Species, no single work has done so much to promote
clear understanding of natural selection and confidence in its
truth; for in addition to these two historic essays, there are
others in which the new theory is applied to the interpretation
of certain classes of facts. Thus one treats of " Mimicry " in
animals, another on " Instinct," another on " Birds' Nests."
Each of these served as an example of what might be achieved
in the light of the new doctrine, which, taught in this way and in
an admirably lucid style, was easily absorbed by many who iound
the more complete exposition in the Origin very hard to absorb.
In this work, and in many of his subsequent publications, Wallace
differs from Darwin on certain points. Thus the two concluding
essays contend that man has not, like the other animals, been
produced by the unaided operation of natural selection, but that
other forces have also been in operation. We here see the in-
fluence of his convictions on the subject of " spiritualism."
More recently he expressed his dissatisfaction with the hypothesis
of " sexual selection " by which Darwin sought to explain the
conspicuous characters which are displayed during the courtship
of animals. The expression of his opinion on both these points
of divergence from Darwin will be found in Darwinism (1889), a
most valuable and lucid exposition of natural selection, as suited
to the later period at which it appeared as the Essays were to the
ealier. Darwin died some years before the controversy upon the
possibility of the hereditary transmission of acquired characters
arose over the writings of Weismann, but Wallace has freely
accepted the general results of the German zoologist's teaching,
and in Darwinism has presented a complete theory of the causes of
evolution unmixed with any trace of Lamarck's use or disuse of
inheritance, or Button's hereditary effect of the direct influence
of surroundings. Tropical Nature and other Essays appeared in
1878, since republished combined with the 1871 Essays, of which
it formed the natural continuation. One of the greatest of his
publications was the Geographical Distribution of Animals
(1876), a monumental work, which every student will main-
tain fully justifies its author's hope that it may bear " a similar
relation to the eleventh and twelfth chapters of the Origin
of Species as Mr Darwin's Animals and Plants under Domesti-
cation bears to the first." Island Life, which may be regarded
as a valuable supplement to the last-named work, appeared in
1880.
Turning to his other writings, Wallace published Miracles
and Modern Spiritualism in 1881. Here is given an account
of the reasons which induced him to accept beliefs which are
shared by so small a proportion of scientific men. These reasons
are purely experimental, and in no way connected with Christi-
anity, for he had long before given up all belief in revealed
religion. In 1882 he published Land Nationalization, in which
he argued the necessity of state ownership of land, a principle
which he had originated long before the appearance of Henry
George's work. In Forty-five Years of Registration Statistics
(1885) he maintained that vaccination is useless and dangerous.
Wallace also published an account of what he held to be the
greatest discoveries as well as the failures of the igth century,
The Wonderful Century (1899). His later works include Studies,
Scientific and Social (1900), Man's Place in the Universe (1903)
and his Autobiography (1905). Possessed of a bold and intensely
original mind, his activities radiated in many directions, ap-
parently rather attracted than repelled by the unpopularity of
a subject. A non-theological Athanasius contra mundum, he
has the truest missionary spirit, an intense faith which would
seek to move the mountains of apathy and active opposition.
Whatever may be the future history of his other views, he \\ill
always be remembered as an originator of a principle more
illuminating than any which has appeared since the days of
Newton, as one of its two discoverers whose scientific rivalry
was only the beginning of a warm and unbroken friendship.
Wallace was married in 1866 to the eldest daughter of the
botanist, Mr William Mitten, of Hurstpierpoint, Sussex. In
1871 he built a house at Grays, Essex, in an old chalk-pit, and
after living there four years, moved successively to Dorking
(two years) and Croydon (three years). In 1880 he built a
cottage at Godalming near the Charterhouse school, and grew
nearly 1000 species of plants in the garden which he made. In
1889 he moved to Dorsetshire. After his return to England in
1862 Wallace visited the continent, especially Switzerland, for
rest and change (1866, 1896) and the study of botany and
glacial phenomena (August 1895). He also visited Spa, in
Belgium, about 1870, and in October 1887 went for a lecturing
tour in the United States. He delivered a course of six Lowell
lectures in Boston, and visited New York, New Haven, Balti-
more, &c., spending the winter at Washington. The following
March he went to Canada and Niagara, and then made his
way westwards. He saw the Yosemite Valley, the Big Trees,
and botanized in the Sierra Nevada and at Gray's Peak.
In July he returned to Liverpool by way of Chicago and the
St Lawrence.
The first Darwin medal of the Royal Society was awarded
to A. R. Wallace in 1890, and he had received the Royal medal
in 1868. A pension was awarded him by Mr Gladstone at the
beginning of 1881. He received the degree of D.C.L. from
Oxford in 1889, and of LL.D. from the university of Dublin in
1882. He was president of the Entomological Society of London
in 1870-1871.
Apart from Wallace's own Autobiography, a good deal of useful
information is given in the biographical introduction to Wallace's
Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro by the editor, Mr
G. T. Bettany.
WALLACE, LEWIS [LEW] (1827-1905), American soldier and
author, was born at Brookville, Indiana, on the loth of April
1827, and received an academic education. He abandoned
temporarily the study of law in Indianapolis to recruit a com-
pany of volunteers (of which he was made' second lieutenant)
for the Mexican War, and served in 1846-1847 in the First
Indiana Battery. He returned to the law, but at the begin-
ning of the Civil War became colonel of the Eleventh Indiana
Infantry, served in the West Virginia campaign, and on the 3rd
of September 1861 was appointed brigadier-general. After the
capture of Fort Donelson (February 16, 1862) he was promoted
to major-general (March 21, 1862), was engaged at Shiloh
(April 7, 1862), and afterwards commanded the Eighth Corps
WALLACE, SIR R. WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM
277
with headquarters at Baltimore. By delaying the Confederate
general J. A. Early at Monocacy (July 9, 1864) he saved Washing-
ton from almost certain capture. General Wallace served as
president of the court of inquiry (November 1862) which in-
vestigated the conduct of General D. C. Buell, and of the court
which in 1865 tried and condemned Henry Wirz, commander
of the Confederate prison at Andersonville, Ga. He was also a
member of the court which tried the alleged conspirators against
President Lincoln. He resigned from the army in 1865 to
return to the bar. He served as governor of New Mexico Terri-
tory (1878-1881) and as minister to Turkey (1881-1885). Though
exceedingly popular as a lecturer, his literary reputation rests
upon three historical romances: The Fair God (1873), a story
of the conquest of Mexico; Ben Hur (1880), a tale of the coming
of Christ, which was translated into several languages and
dramatized; and The Prince of India (1893), dealing with the
Wandering Jew and the Byzantine empire.
WALLACE, SIR RICHARD, Bart. (1818-1890), English
art collector and philanthropist, was born in London on the
26th of July 1818. According to Sir Walter Armstrong (see
Diet, of National Biography, art. " Wallace "), he was a natural
son of Maria, marchioness of Hertford (wife of the third marquess) ,
under whose auspices the boy was educated, mainly at Paris;
but it was generally supposed in his lifetime that he was a son
of the fourth marquess (his elder by only eighteen years), and
therefore her grandson. At Paris he was well known in society,
and became an assiduous collector of all sorts of valuable objets
d'art, but in 1857 these were sold and Wallace devoted himself
to assisting the fourth marquess, who left London to reside
entirely in Paris, to acquire a magnificent collection of the
finest examples of painting, armour, furniture and bric-a-brac.
In 1870 the marquess of Hertford died unmarried, bequeathing
to Wallace an enormous property, including Hertford House
and its contents, the house in Paris, and large Irish estates.
Pending the reopening of Hertford House, which had been shut
up since the marquess had gone to live in Paris, Wallace sent some
of the finest of his pictures and other treasures to the Bethnal
Green Museum for exhibition; they were then transferred to
Hertford House, which had been largely transformed in order
to receive them. In 187 1 he was created a baronet for his services
during the siege of Paris, when he equipped several ambulances,
founded the Hertford British hospital, and spent money lavishly
in relief. This munificence endeared Sir Richard Wallace to
the French people. From 1873 to 1885 he had a seat in parlia-
ment for Lisburn, but he lived mostly in Paris, where, in the
Rue Laffitte and in his villa in the Bois de Boulogne, he dwelt
among art treasures not inferior to those at Hertford House.
In 1878 he was made one of the British commissioners at the
Paris Exhibition, and he was also a trustee of the National
Gallery and a governor of the National Gallery of Ireland. He
died in Paris on the zoth of July 1890. He had married in 1871
the daughter of a French officer, by whom he had a son, who,
however, died in 1887; and Lady Wallace, who died in 1897,
bequeathed his great art collection to the British nation. It is
now housed in Hertford House, Manchester Square, which was
acquired and adapted by the government for the purpose.
WALLACE. SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305), the popular
national hero of Scotland, is believed to have been the second son
of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie and Auchinbothie, in Ren-
frewshire. The date of his birth is not certainly ascertained,
but is usually given as 1270. The only authority for the events
of his early life is the metrical history of Blind Harry. That
authority cannot be implicitly relied on, though we need not
conclude that the minstrel invented the stories he relates. He
lived about two centuries later than Wallace, during which a
considerable body of legend had probably gathered round the
name, and these popular " gestis " he incorporates in his narra-
tive. At the same time he professes to follow as his " autour "
an account that had been written in Latin by John Blair, the
personal friend and chaplain of Wallace himself. As Blair's
account has perished, we cannot tell how far the minstrel has
faithfully followed his authority, but some comparatively recent
discoveries have confirmed the truth of portions of the narrative
which had previously been doubted. At best, however, his
authority must be Regarded with suspicion, except when it is
confirmed by other and more trustworthy evidence.
Only for a period of less than two years in his life from the
beginning of the insurrection in 1297 to the battle of Falkirk
does Wallace come before us in the clearest historical light.
With the exception of one or two glimpses of him that we obtain
from authentic historical documents, the recorded events of his
later as of his earlier life rest on no more certain authority than
that of Blind Harry.
In his boyhood, according to the usual accounts, he resided
for some time at Dunipace, in Stirlingshire, with an uncle, who
is styled " parson " of the place. By this uncle he was partially
educated, and from him he imbibed an enthusiastic love of
liberty. His education was continued at Dundee, where he made
the acquaintance of John Blair. On account of an incident that
happened at Dundee his slaughter of a young Englishman
named Selby, for an insult offered to him he is said to have
been outlawed, and so driven into rebellion against the English.
Betaking himself to the wilds of the country, he gradually
gathered round him a body of desperate men whom he led in
various attacks upon the English. In consequence of the success
of these early enterprises his following largely increased, several
of the more patriotic nobles including the steward of Scotland,
Sir Andrew Moray, Sir John de Graham, Douglas the Hardy,
Wishart, bishop of Glasgow, and others having joined him.
His insurrection now became more open and pronounced, and
his enterprises of greater importance. An attack was made
upon the English justiciar, Ormsby, who was holding his court at
Scone. The justiciar himself escaped, but many of his followers
were captured or slain. The burning of the Bams of Ayr, the
quarters of English soldiers, in revenge for the treacherous
slaughter of his uncle, Sir Ronald Crawford, and other Scottish
noblemen, followed. The success of these exploits induced the
English king to take measures for staying the insurrection. A
large army, under the command of Sir Henry Percy and Sir
Robert Clifford, was sent against the insurgents, and came up
with them at Irvine. Dissensions broke out among the Scottish
leaders, and all Wallace's titled friends left him and made sub-
mission to Edward, except the ever faithful Sir Andrew Moray.
The treaty of Irvine, by which these Scottish nobles agreed to
acknowledge Edward as their sovereign lord, is printed in
Rymer's Feeder a. It is dated the pth of July 1297, and is the
first public document in which the name of Sir William Wallace
occurs. Wallace retired to the north, and although deserted by
the barons was soon at the head of a large army. The vigour
and success of his operations was such that in a short time he
succeeded in recovering almost all the fortresses held by the
English to the north of the Forth. * He had begun the siege of
Dundee when he received information that an English army, led
by the earl of Surrey and Cressingham the treasurer, was on its
march northward. Leaving the citizens of Dundee to continue
the siege of the castle, he made a rapid march to Stirling. En-
camping in the neighbourhood of the Abbey Craig on which
now stands the national monument to his memory he watched
the passage of the Forth. After an unsuccessful attempt to bring
Wallace to terms, the English commander, on the morning of
the nth of September 1297, began to cross the bridge. When
about one half of his army had crossed, and while they were still
in disorder, they were attacked with such fury by Wallace, that
almost all Cressingham among the number were slain, or
driven into the river and drowned. Those on the south side of
the river were seized with panic and fled tumultuously, having
first set fire to the bridge. The Scots, however, crossed by a ford ,
and continued the pursuit of the enemy as far as Berwick. Sir
Andrew Moray fell in this battle. The results of it were im-
portant. The English were everywhere driven from Scotland.
To increase the alarm of the English, as well as to relieve the
famine which then prevailed, Wallace organized a great raid into
the north of England, in the course of which he devastated the
country to the gates of Newcastle. On his return he was elected
278
WALLACE, W. WALLACE, W. V.
guardian of the kingdom. In this office he set himself to re-
organize the army and to regulate the affairs of the country.
His measures were marked by much wisdom and vigour, and for
a short time Succeeded in securing order, even in the face of the
jealousy and opposition of the nobles. Edward was in Flanders
when the news of this successful revolt reached him. He hastened
home, and at the head of a great army entered Scotland in July
1298. Wallace was obliged to adopt the only plan of campaign
which could give any hope of success. He slowly retired before
the English monarch, driving off all supplies and wasting the
country. The nobles as usual for the most part deserted his
standard. Those that remained thwarted his councils by their
jealousies. His plan, however, came very near being successful.
Edward, compelled by famine, had already given orders for a
retreat when he received information of Wallace's position and
intentions. The army, then at Kirkliston, was immediately set
i in motion, and next morning (July 22, 1298) Wallace was
brought to battle in the vicinity of Falkirk. After an obstinate
fight the Scots were overpowered and defeated with great loss.
Among the slain was Sir John de Graham, the bosom friend of
Wallace, whose death, as Blind Harry tells, threw the hero into
a frenzy of rage and grief. The account of his distress is one of
the finest and most touching passages in the poem. With the
remains of his army Wallace found refuge for the night in the
Torwood known to him from his boyish life at Dunipace. He
then retreated to the north, burning the town and castle of
Stirh'ng on his way. He resigned the office of guardian, and
betook himself again to a wandering life and a desultory and
predatory warfare against the English. At this point his history
again becomes obscure. He is known to have paid a visit to
France, with the purpose of obtaining aid for his country from
the French king. This visit is narrated with many untrustworthy
details by Blind Harry; but the fact is established by other
and indisputable evidence. When in the winter of 1303-1304
Edward received the submission of the Scottish nobles, Wallace
was expressly excepted from all terms. And after the capture
of Stirling Castle and Sir William Oliphant, and the submission
of Sir Simon Fraser, he was left alone, but resolute as ever in
refusing allegiance to the English king. A price was set upon
his head, and the English governors and captains in Scotland had
orders to use every means for his capture. On the 5th of August
1305 he was taken as is generally alleged, through treachery
at Robroyston, near Glasgow, by Sir John Menteith, carried to
the castle of Dumbarton, and thence conveyed in fetters and
strongly guarded to London. He reached London on the 22nd
of August, and next day was taken to Westminster Hall, where
he was impeached as a traitor by Sir Peter Mallorie, the king's
justice. To the accusation Wallace made the simple reply that
he could not be a traitor to the king of England, for he never
was his subject, and never swore fealty to him. He was found
guilty and condemned to death. The sentence was executed the
same day with circumstances of unusual cruelty.
The cause of national independence was not lost with the life of
Wallace. Notwithstanding the cruelty and indignity amid which
it terminated, that life was not a failure. It has been an inspira-
tion to his countrymen ever since. The popular ideas regarding
his stature, strength, bodily prowess and undaunted courage are
confirmed by the writers nearest his own time Wyntoun and
Fordun. And indeed no man could in that age have secured the
personal ascendancy which he did without the possession of these
qualities. The little we know of his statesmanship during the
short period he was in power gives proof of political wisdom.
His patriotism was conspicuous and disinterested. He was well
skilled in the modes of warfare that suited the country and the
times. That he failed in freeing his country from the yoke of
England was due chiefly to the jealousy with which he was
regarded by the men of rank and power. But he had a nobler
success in inspiring his countrymen with a spirit which made their
ultimate conquest impossible.
For bibliography see the article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. The
principal modern lives are James Moir's (1886), and A. F. Murison's
(1898). (A. F. H.)
WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843), Scottish mathematician,
was born on the 230! of September 1768 at Dysart in Fifeshire,
where he received his school education. In 1784 his family
removed to Edinburgh, where he himself was set to learn the
trade of a bookbinder; but his taste for mathematics had
already developed itself, and he made such use of his leisure
hours that before the completion of his apprenticeship he had
made considerable acquirements in geometry, algebra and
astronomy. He was further assisted in his studies by John
Robison (1739-1805) and John Playfair, to whom his abilities
had become known. After various changes of situation, dictated
mainly by a desire to gain time for study, he became assistant
teacher of mathematics in the academy of Perth in 1794, and
this post he exchanged in 1803 for a mathematical mastership
in the Royal Military College at Great Marlow (afterwards at
Sandhurst). In 1819 he was chosen to succeed John Leslie in the
chair of mathematics at Edinburgh, and in 1838, when compelled
by ill-health to retire, he received a government pension for life.
He died in Edinburgh on the 28th of April 1843.
In his earlier years Wallace was an occasional contributor to
Leybourne's Malltematical Repository and the Gentleman's Mathe-
matical Companion. Between 1801 and 1810 he contributed articles
on " Algebra," " Conic Sections," " Trigonometry," and several
others in mathematical and physical science to the fourth edition of
the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and some of these were retained in
subsequent editions from the fifth to the eighth inclusive. He was
also the author of the principal mathematical articles in the Edin-
burgh Encyclopaedia, edited by David Brewster (1808-1830). He
also contributed many important papers to the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh.
See Transactions of the Roy. Ast. Soc., 1844.
WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897), Scottish philosopher, was
born at Cupar-Fife on the nth of May 1844, the son of a house-
builder. Between the ages of sixteen and twenty-two he was
educated at St Andrews, whence he proceeded as an exhibitioner
in 1864 to Balliol College, Oxford. He took a first class in
Moderations, and in Lit. Hum. (1867), was Gaisford prizeman in
1867 (Greek prose) and Craven Scholar in 1869. Three years
later he was appointed fellow, and in 1871 librarian, of Merton
College. In 1882 he was elected Whyte's professor of moral
philosophy in succession to T. H. Green, and retained the position
until his death. He died on the i8th of February 1897 from the
effects of a bicycle accident near Oxford. His manner was some-
what brusque and sarcastic, and on this account, in his under-
graduate days at Balliol, he was known as " The Dorian." But
he was greatly respected both as a man and as a lecturer. His
philosophical works are almost entirely devoted to German, and
especially to Hegelian, doctrines, which he expounded and
criticized with great clearness and literary skill. In dealing with
Hegel he was, unlike many other writers, successful in express-
ing himself in a lucid literary manner, without artificial and
incomprehensible terminology.
His principal works were The Logic of Hegel (1873), which contains
a translation of the Encyklopddie with an introduction, a second
edition of which, with a volume entitled Prolegomena, appeared in
1892; Epicureanism (1880); Kant (Blackwood's Philosophical
Classics, 1882); Life of Arthur Schopenhauer (1890); Hegel's Philo-
sophy of Mind (translated from the Encyklopddie, with five intro-
ductory essays) ; Lectures and Essays on Natural Theology and
Ethics, being a selection from his papers edited with a biographical
introduction by Edward Caird. He wrote several important
articles for the gth edition of the Ency. Brit., which, with some re-
vision, have been repeated in the present work.
WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1814-1865), British com-
poser, was born at Waterford, Ireland, his father, of Scottish
family, being a regimental bandmaster. Vincent Wallace learnt
as a boy to play several instruments, and became a leading
violinist in Dublin. But in 1835 he married and went off to
Australia, sheep farming. A concert in Sydney revived his
musical passion; and having separated from his wife, he began
a roving career, which had many romantic episodes, in Australia,
the South Seas, India and South America. He returned to
London in 1845 and made various appearances as a pianist;
and in November of that year his opera Maritana was per-
formed at Drury Lane with great success. This was followed
by Matilda of Hungary (1847), Lurline (1860), The Amber Witch
WALLACK WALL-COVERINGS
279
(1861), Love's Triumph (1862) and The Desert Flower (1863).
He also published a number of compositions for the piano, &c.
Vincent Wallace was a cultivated man and an accomplished
musician, whose Maritana still holds the stage, and whose work
as an English operatic composer, at a period by no means
encouraging to English music, has a distinct historical value.
Like Balfe, he was born an Irishman, and his reputation as one
of the few composers known beyond the British Isles at that
time is naturally coupled with Balfe's. But he was a finer artist
and a more original musician. In later years he became almost
blind; and he died in poor circumstances on the I2th of October
1865, leaving a widow and two children.
WALLACK, JAMES WILLIAM (c. 1794-1864), Anglo-
American actor and manager, was born in London, his parents
being actors. He made his first stage appearance at Drury
Lane in 1807. After three years in Dublin he was again at
Drury Lane until he went to America in 1818. He settled in
New York permanently in 1852, the first Wallack's theatre being
an old one renamed at the corner of Broome Street and Broad-
way. The second, at I3th Street and Broadway, he built him-
self. Wallack was an actor of the old school. Thackeray praises
his Shylock, Joseph Jefferson his Don Caesar de Bazan. He
married the daughter (d. 1851) of John Henry Johnstone (1740-
1828), a popular tenor and stage Irishman. Their son, JOHN
LESTER WALLACK (1820-1888), was born in New York on the
ist of January 1820. At one time in the English army, then on
the Dublin and London stage, he made his first stage appearance
in New York in 1847 under the name of John Lester as Sir Charles
Coldstream, in Boucicault's adaptation of Used Up. He was
manager, using the name Wallack, of the second Wallack's
theatre from 1861, and in 1882 he opened the third at 3oth
Street and Broadway. His greatest successes were as Charles
Surface, as Benedick, and especially as Elliot Grey in his own
play Rosedale, and similar light comedy and romantic parts, for
which his fascinating manners and handsome person well fitted
him. He married a sister (d. 1909) of Sir John Millais. He wrote
his own Memories of Fifty Years.
WALLAROO, a seaport of Daly county, South Australia,
situated in Wallaroo Bay, on the Spencer Gulf, 123 m. by rail
N.W. by N. of Adelaide. It is connected by rail with the cele-
brated Wallaroo copper mines (near Kadina, at a distance of
6 m. from the port). At Wallaroo Bay are the largest smelting
works in the state, ranking among the largest in the world.
Gold, silver and concentrated ores are received from other
parts of the continent and from Tasmania for smelting at these
works, which have ample facilities for shipment. Population of
town (1901) 2920; of town and mines, 4866.
WALLASEY, an urban district in the Wirral parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England, 2 m. N.W. of Birkenhead, of
which it forms a suburb. Pop. (1001) 53,579- The former
marshy estuary called Wallasey Pool is occupied by the Great
Float, forming an immense dock (see BIRKENHEAD). The church
of St Hilary, to which is assigned a foundation in the loth
century, was rebuilt in the i8th century, with the exception of
the tower bearing the date 1536. It was gutted by fire in 1857,
and the whole was again rebuilt in the Early English style.
On the shore of the Irish Sea is Leasowe Castle, once known as
Mock-Beggar Hall, and supposed to have been erected by the
earls of Derby in the reign of Elizabeth, in order to witness the
horse-races held here. Under Wallasey Pool are remains of a
submerged forest, in which various animal skeletons have been
found.
At the Conquest Wallasey formed part of the possessions of
Robert de Rhuddlan, and on his decease became part of the fee of
Halton. In the reign of Elizabeth it had a small port, to which
there belonged three barques and fourteen men. In 1668 the
manor was possessed by the earl of Derby, but various parts after-
wards became alienated. For a considerable time the horse-races
held on what was then a common had considerable reputation,
but they were discontinued in 1760. At these races the duke of
Monmouth, son of Charles II., once rode his own horse and won
the plate.
WALLA WALLA, a city and the county-seat of Walla Walla
county, Washington, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, on
Mill Creek, about 200 m. S. by W. of Spokane. Pop. (1880)
3588; (1800) 4709; (1900) 10,049, f whom 1522 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 19,364. Walla Walla is served by the
Northern Pacific and the Oregon Railroad & Navigation Co.'s
(Union Pacific) railways, and by an inlet urban electric line.
In the city are a state penitentiary, Fort Walla Walla (a U.S.
cavalry post), a Federal Land Office, a Young Men's Christian
Association building, a Carnegie library, the State Odd Fellows'
Home, and the Stubblefield Home for Widows and Orphans.
Sessions of Federal District and Circuit courts are held here.
Walla Walla is the seat of Whitman College (chartered, 1859;
opened, 1866; rechartered, 1883), originally Congregational, but
now non-sectarian, which was founded by the Rev. Gushing
Eells and was named in honour of Marcus Whitman, and includes
a college, a conservatory of music and a preparatory academy,
and occupies a campus of 30 acres; and of Walla Walla College
(Adventist). Here are also St Paul's School (Protestant Episco-
pal) for girls, and St Vincent's Academy for girls and De La Salle
Academy for boys (both Roman Catholic). The city is situated
in a farming (especially wheat -growing), stock-raising and fruit-
growing region, is a distributing centre for the adjacent territory
in Washington, Oregon and Idaho, and has a large wholesale
business. Among its manufactures are flour and grist-mill
products, agricultural implements, lumber, foundry and machine-
shop products, leather and malted liquors. The value of the
factory product in 1905 was $1,485,791, 54-1% more than in
1900. The municipality owns its waterworks. In 1836 the
famous missionary, Marcus Whitman, established at Waiilatpu,
about 5 m. W. of the present Walla Walla, a mission of the
American Board (Congregational), which in 1847 was broken up
by an Indian attack, Whitman, his wife and twelve others
being massacred, and the other residents being carried off as
prisoners. In 1857 Fort Walla Walla was built by the United
States government on the site of the present city, and about it
a settlement grew up in 1857-1858. Walla Walla was laid out
and organized as a town, and became the county seat in 1859;
in 1862 it was chartered as a city. The name " Walla Walla "
is said to be a Nez Perce Indian term meaning " a rapid stream."
See W. D. Lyman, An Illustrated History of Walla. Walla County,
State of Washington (1901).
WALL-COVERINGS. The present article deals with this
subject (see MURAL DECORATION for art and archaeology) from
the practical point of view in connexion with house-furnishing.
In selecting a wall-covering, the chief factors to be borne in mind
are the conditions of the room, viz. the use to which it is to be put,
and its lighting, aspect and outlook.
Marble is one of the most beautiful materials that can be chosen for
covering a wall. The variety of its natural markings and colour
gives a wide choice that enables it to be employed in practically
any scheme of colouring and for rooms of any aspect and
of any description. The working up of the marble is done
mostly by machinery ; the saws used are flat strips of steel ^*r
set in the frame of a machine and worked to ana fro, sand ning-
and water being constantly supplied to assist in the work of cutting.
Mouldings are worked to the desired profile by rapidly revolving
carborundum wheels, and are afterwards polished by hand. Marble
wall-slabbing needs very careful fixing, and should be well supported
by a sufficient number of cramps at a little distance from the wall,
leaving a space of about half an inch at the back of the slab. Non-
rusting cramps should be used, such as those made of copper or
bronze. A cement made of plaster of Paris and marble dust mixed in
the proportion of two parts to one should be used for fixing, as pure
plaster, especially if new, is liable to swell and cause the marble to
crack. Marezso and Scagliola are imitation marbles and are described
in PLASTERWORK.
Well-designed and properly executed mosaic is a very beautiful
decorative medium, and ranks among the most permanent as well
as most pleasing wall-coverings. With glass mosaic great ..*
ranges both of colour and of texture of surface can be
obtained, different methods of preparing the glass giving a brilliant
granular or quite dull surface as desired to suit the particular
position of the work. Marble mosaic is used more for floors and
pavings than for vertical surfaces. Most mosaic is now put together
in the studio and pasted upon sheets of tough paper to which the
design has previously been transferred. The whole section can thus
be bedded on the prepared wall-surface with the least amount of
280
WALLENSTEIN, A. E.
Metal
sheeting.
trouble and without any danger of its sagging. When the cement has
properly set, the paper is washed off from the face of the work.
Much improvement has been effected in the design and manu-
facture of wall-tiles. Especially has the design of tiles reached a very
_.. high level of excellence, and as a material which combines
the qualities of being hard in wear, durable, damp-resist-
ing and easily washable, with beauty of design, colouring and surface,
tiling may perhaps be placed next in order of merit as a wall-covering
to mosaic. A thin, opaque glass material, manufactured under
various trade names, is now much used, especially for tiling existing
walls. It has all the sanitary qualities of tiles, but is perhaps
somewhat more fragile and liable to be damaged under hard wear.
It is made in opal and other colours and is usually fixed with a
special cement or mastic which allows for slight movements of
expansion and contraction. The thickness of the material varies
with different makers from J to f in.
Metal sheeting, though somewhat inartistic in appearance, is useful
where a durable, waterproof and sanitary wall protection is needed,
and is therefore often used for sculleries, wash-houses and
lavatories. Thin sheets of zinc with slightly embossed
patterns and enamelled in colours can be hung upon the
wall with a composition of white lead (one part) and whiting (two
parts) mixed to a thick paste with varnish or gold size. Sheets
of iron or steel can be more elaborately embossed and fixed to
the wall with nails or screws; they are either previously enamelled
or are painted after being fixed. They are used more for ceilings than
for wall-coverings, but are adapted for use in either position.
Tapestry of good design and workmanship is a really beautiful
wall-covering. It is usually hung upon frames fitted to the wall,
_ . and may either cover the entire wall surface or be fixed
in the form of panels, friezes, dados or fillings. It is not
at all a sanitary covering, for it harbours a very large quantity of
dust and dirt. The same remark applies, but perhaps in a less degree,
to brocades of silk and damask. These materials are of a delicate
nature and become easily soiled by the fumes of gas or oil lamps.
Substitutes for these materials on stout paper and on cotton are made
with a prepared back to facilitate pasting and hanging, and are a very
good imitation of the better material.
A coarse canvas, specially prepared with a smooth back forpasting,
and stained in several plain colours, can now be purchased. Having
a rough surface it naturally holds the dust, but this can easily be
brushed off without damaging the material. It is a pleasing wall-
covering, which will stand hard wear, and it forms a good back-
ground for pictures and furniture.
The term " wall-paper " embraces a very large variety of materials
of many kinds, designs and qualities, ranging from the cheapest
machine-printed papers of the most flimsy description and
often hideous design, to the Japanese and similar leather
papers, skilfully modelled in relief and richlydecorated in
gold and colours. The design of the paper, of whatever description
it may be, should preferably be of a conventional pattern, unob-
trusive and restful to the eye, and presenting no strong contrasts of
colour. The wall must be treated as a background, consisting of a
plane surface, and no attempt made to introduce a pictorial element
into the decoration. The wall surface, regarded from the paper-
hanger's point of view, is often divided into three sections, the dado
or base, the field or filling, and the frieze at the top immediately
beneath the cornice. This subdivision is not always adhered to, and
a wall may be papered uniformly all over its surface, or may consist
of dado and filling without the frieze, or frieze and filling without the
dado. The division between the sections is usually formed, in the
case of the frieze and filling, with a wood picture rail, and between the
filling and dado with a moulded dado or chair rail.
Wall-papers may be printed either in distemper colours or oil
colours, and the patterns upon them are printed either by hand or
by machine. There are also self-coloured papers which have different
kinds of surface finish, and with some of these a pattern is formed
by contrasting a smooth with a rough or granulated surface or vice
versa. Typical of such papers are the ingrain papers, which have the
colour penetrating through their substance. Plain filling papers are
often used in conjunction with a boldly designed and strongly
coloured frieze of considerable depth. The dado is either of similar
plain paper or of an unobtrusive pattern. Often the filling is taken
down to the skirting without the intervention of a dado rail. Papers
printed in oil colours can be sized and varnished, and when treated
in this way can be washed repeatedly and are very durable. This
treatment gives an unpleasant glazed surface to the wall, but in
spite of this it is often adopted for bathrooms, kitchens and in similar
positions, because it is economical.
The best papers are printed from blocks manipulated by hand.
The pattern, or as much of it as is to be printed in one colour, is
carved upon a pear-wood board, small and delicate members being
represented by strips and dots of copper inserted in the block.
With large blocks a treadle and pulley arrangement gives the work-
man assistance in applying and removing the pattern, which is first
fed with colour by being pressed on a felt blanket soaked in pigment
and then applied to the surface of the paper to be decorated. One
tint is applied at a time, and this when dry is followed by others
necessary to complete the design. This drying of the previous colour
ensures sharpness of outline and accuracy of colour. Designs are
papers
sometimes worked on the paper with stencil patterns cut out of zinc
sheets. These are laid upon the paper and thick- colour applied
through the perforations with a stiff brush.
The cheaper wall-papers are printed by machinery. The paper is
made to travel round a large drum around which are grouped the
printing cylinders, each with its separate inking roller to supply the
special colour for its use. On each of the wooden printing rollers is
set copper " type," representing as much of the pattern as is to be
printed in one colour. It is a difficult and tedious matter to get all
the rollers to work together to form one perfect pattern, and when
printing in several colours it may take a skilled workman a week or
more to " set " his machine, a very large quantity of paper being
spoilt during the process.
The colours used for hand-printed work, whether applied with
blocks or stencil plates, are much thicker in consistency than those
for machine' work. One advantage of hand-worked paper is the
comparative ease with which a paper can be matched even after it
has gone out of stock. At a slight extra cost the manufacturer will
print a few pieces for his customer from the blocks he has retained.
With machine-printed paper this, from a practical point of view,
is impossible, for it would necessitate the printer's going through the
long and costly process of " setting " the machine.
Wall-papers are sold in rolls called " pieces." In England the
standard size for a piece of paper is 12 yds. long and 21 in. wide.
The printed surface is only 20 in. in width, as a margin of half an inch
is left on each edge. One or both of these plain margins must be
removed prior to hanging. French wall-papers are 9 yds. long and
1 8 in. wide and only contain 40 J sq. ft. compared with 63 ft. in a
piece of English paper. To ascertain the number of pieces required
for a room take the superficies in feet of the surface to be covered
(deduction being made for the doors, windows, &c.) and divide by 60.
This gives the net amount required; an allowance of about one-
seventh must be added to allow for wasf: in matching patterns and of
odd lengths. If French papers are to be used the division should be
38 instead of 60, these figures representing in feet the area of the
printed surface in each roll. The surface of the wall should before
papering be carefully prepared so as to be quite smooth and regular.
If the wall has been previously papered it should be stripped, and
any irregularities filled in with stopping. To remove varnished paper
use hot water to which borax has been added in the proportions of
2 oz. to each pint of water. In selecting a paper for a newly plastered
wall the colour chosen should be capable of withstanding the bleaching
action of the lime in the plaster. Greens, blues and pinks especially
are affected in this manner. For heavy papers glue paste should be
used. Papering which has become dirty may be effectually cleaned
with new bread or stiff dough ; when gently rubbed over the surface
in one direction this speedily removes the dirt. When the wall is
damp, tinfoil, pitch-coated paper or Willesden waterproofed paper
is used behind the paper to prevent the paper from becoming damaged
by the wet. 0- B T -)
WALLENSTEIN (properly WALDSTEIN), ALBRECHT
WENZEL EUSEBIUS VON, duke of Friedland, Sagan and
Mecklenburg (1583-1634), German soldier and statesman,
was born of a noble but by no means wealthy or influential
family at Herrmanic, Bohemia, on the isth of September 1583.
His parents were Lutherans, and in early youth he attended the
school of the Brothers of the Common Life at Koschumberg.
After the death of his parents he was sent by his uncle, Slawata,
to the Jesuit college of nobles at Olmiitz, after which he pro-
fessed, but hardly accepted, the Roman Catholic faith. In
1599 he went to the university of Altdorf, which he had to leave
in consequence of some boyish follies. Afterwards he studied at
Bologna and Padua, and visited many places in southern and
western Europe. While in Padua he gave much attention to
astrology, and during the rest of his life he never wavered in
the conviction that he might trust to the stars for indications as
to his destiny. For some time Wallenstein served in the army
of the emperor Rudolph II. in Hungary, which was commanded
by a methodical professional soldier, Giorgio Basta. His personal
gallantry at the siege of Gran won for him a company without
purchase. In 1606 he returned to Bohemia, and soon afterwards
he married an elderly widow, Lucretia Nikossie von Landeck,
whose great estates in Moravia he inherited after her death in
1614. His new wealth enabled him to offer two hundred horse,
splendidly equipped, to the archduke Ferdinand for his war with
Venice in 1617. Wallenstein commanded them in person, and
from that time he enjoyed both favour at court and popularity
in the army. His wealth and influence were further increased
by his marriage with Isabella Katharina, daughter of Count
Harrach, a confidential adviser of the emperor Matthias.
In the disturbances which broke out in Bohemia in 1618 and
proved to be the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, advances
WALLENSTEIN, A. E.
281
were made to Wallenstein by the revolutionary party; but he
preferred to associate himself with the imperial cause, and he
carried off the treasure-chest of the Moravian estates to Vienna,
part of its contents being given him for the equipment of a regi-
ment of cuirassiers. At the head of this regiment Wallenstein
won great distinction under Buquoy in the war against Mansfeld.
He was not present at the battle of the Weisser Berg, but he did
brilliant service as second-in-command of the army which opposed
Gabriel Bethlen in Moravia, and recovered his estates which the
nationalists had seized. The battle of the Weisser Berg placed
Bohemia at the mercy of the emperor Ferdinand, and Wallenstein
turned the prevailing confusion to his own advantage. He
secured the great estates belonging to his mother's family, and
the emperor sold to him on easy terms vast tracts of confiscated
lands. His possessions he was allowed to form into a territory
called Friedland, and he was raised in 1622 to the rank of an
imperial count palatine, in 1623 to that of a prince. In 1625
he was made duke of Friedland. Meantime he fought with
skill and success against Gabriel Bethlen, and so enhanced his
reputation at the dark moment when Vienna was in peril and the
emperor's general Buquoy dead on the field of battle. At this
stage in his life the enigma of his personality is complicated by
the fact that he was not only the cold, detached visionary with
vast ambitions and dreams, but also the model ruler of his
principality. In everyday matters of administration he displayed
vigour and foresight. He not only placed the administration of
justice on a firm basis and founded schools, but by many wise
measures developed agriculture and mining and manufacturing
industries. At the same time he enlisted in the service of his
ambition and his authority a pomp and refinement in his court
which contrasted forcibly with the way of life of the smaller
established rulers.
When the war against the Bohemians had become a wide-
spread conflagration, Ferdinand found he had no forces to oppose
to the Danes and the Northern Protestants other than the Army
of the League, which was not his, but the powerful and inde-
pendent Maximilian's, instrument. Wallenstein saw his oppor-
tunity and early in 1626 he offered to raise not a regiment or two,
but a whole army for the imperial service. After some negotia-
tions the offer was accepted, the understanding being that the
troops were to be maintained at the cost of the countries they
might occupy. Wallenstein's popularity soon brought great
numbers of recruits to his standard. He soon found himself
at the head of 30,000 (not long afterwards of 50,000) men. The
campaigns of this army in 1625, 1626 and 1627, against Mansfeld,
the Northern Protestants and Gabriel Bethlen, are described
under THIRTY YEARS' WAR.
Having established peace in Hungary, Wallenstein proceeded,
in 1627, to clear Silesia of some remnants of Mansfeld's army;
and at this time he bought from the emperor the duchy of Sagan,
his outlay in the conduct of the war being taken into account in
the conclusion of the bargain. He then joined Tilly in the
struggle with Christian IV., and afterwards took possession of the
duchy of Mecklenburg, which was granted to him in reward for his
services, the hereditary dukes being displaced on the ground that
they had helped the Danish king. He failed to capture Stralsund,
which he besieged for several months in 1628. This important
reverse caused him bitter disappointment, for he had hoped
that by obtaining free access to the Baltic he might be able to
make the emperor as supreme at sea as he seemed to be on land.
It was a part of Wallenstein's scheme of German unity that he
should obtain possession of the Hanseatic towns, and through
them destroy or at least defy the naval power of the Scandinavian
kingdom, the Netherlands and England. This plan was com-
pletely frustrated by the resistance of Stralsund, and even
more by the emperor's " Edict of Restitution " that not only
rallied against him all the Protestants but brought in a great
soldier and a model army, Gustavus and the Swedes.
At the same time the victory of the principles of the League
involved the fall of Wallenstein's influence. By his ambitions, his
high dreams of unity and the incessant exactions of his army, he
had made for himself a host of enemies. He was reported to have
spoken of the arrogance of the princes, and it appeared probable
that he would try to bring them, Catholics and Protestants
alike, into rigid subjection to the crown. Again and again
the emperor was advised to dismiss him. Ferdinand was very
unwilling to part with one who had served him so well; but the
demand was pressed so urgently in 1630 that he had no alter-
native, and in September of that year envoys were sent to
Wallenstein to announce his removal. Had the emperor declined
to take this course, the princes would probably have combined
against him; and the result would have been a civil war even
more serious than that which had already brought so many
disasters upon the country. Wallenstein perfectly understood
this, and he therefore accepted the emperor's decision calmly,
gave over his army to Tilly, and retired to Gitschin, the capital
of his duchy of Friedland. There, and at his palace in Prague,
he lived in an atmosphere of mysterious magnificence, the rumours
of which penetrated all Germany. The enigma of his projects
was intensified, and the princes who had secured his disgrace
became more suspicious than ever. But ere long the emperor was
forced by events to call him into the field pgain.
Shortly before the dismissal of Wallenstein, Gustavus Adolphus
had landed in Germany, and it soon became obvious that he was
far more formidable than the enemies with whom the emperor
had yet had to contend. Tilly was defeated at Breitenfeld and on
the Lech, where he received a mortal wound, and Gustavus
advanced to Munich, while Bohemia was occupied by his allies
the Saxons. The emperor entreated Wallenstein to come once
more to his aid. Wallenstein at first declined; he had, indeed,
been secretly negotiating with Gustavus Adolphus, in the hope
of destroying the League and its projects and of building his
new Germany without French assistance. However, he accepted
Ferdinand's offers, and in the spring of 1632 he raised a fresh
army as strong as the first within a few weeks and took the field.
This army was placed absolutely under his control, so that he
assumed the position of an independent prince rather than of a
subject. His first aim was to drive the Saxons from Bohemia
an object which he accomplished without serious difficulty.
Then he advanced against Gustavus Adolphus, whpm he opposed
near Nuremberg and after the battle of the Alte Veste dislodged.
In November came the great battle of Liitzen (q.v.), in which
the imperialists were defeated, but Gustavus Adolphus was
killed.
To the dismay of Ferdinand, Wallenstein made no use of the
opportunity provided for him by the death of the Swedish king,
but withdrew to winter quarters in Bohemia. In the campaign
of 1633 much astonishment was caused by his apparent unwilling-
ness to attack the enemy. He was in fact preparing to desert the
emperor. In the war against the Saxons he had offered them as
terms of peace the revocation of the Edict. Religious toleration
and the destruction of the separatist regime, as well as not
inconsiderable aggrandisements for his own power, formed his
programme, so far as historians have been able to reconstruct it,
and becoming convinced from Ferdinand's obstinacy that the
Edict would never be rescinded, he began to prepare to " force
a just peace on the emperor in the interests of united Germany."
With this object he entered into negotiations with Saxony,
Brandenburg, Sweden and France. He had vast and vague
schemes for the reorganization of the entire constitutional system
of the empire, and he himself was to have supieme authority
in determining the political destinies of his country. But as the
mere commander of mercenaries he was trusted by no one, and
could only play the part of Cassandra to the end.
Irritated by the distrust excited by his proposals, and anxious
to make his power felt, he at last assumed the offensive against
the Swedes and Saxons, winning his last victory at Steinau on
the Oder in October. He then resumed the negotiations. In
December he retired with his army to Bohemia, fixing his head-
quarters at Pilsen. It had soon been suspected in Vienna that
Wallenstein was playing a double part, and the emperor, en-
couraged by the Spaniards at his court, anxiously sought for
means of getting rid of him. Wallenstein was well aware of the
designs formed against him, but displayed little energy in his
282
WALLER, EDMUND
attempts to thwart them. This was due in part, no doubt, to ill-
health, m part to the fact that he trusted to the assurances of his
astrologer, Battista Seni. He also felt confident that when the
time came for his army to decide between him and the emperor
the decision would be in his own favour.
His principal officers assembled around him at a banquet on
the 1 2th January 1634, when he submitted to them a declaration
to the effect that they would remain true to him. This declara-
tion they signed. More than a month later a second paper was
signed; but on this occasion the officers' expression of loyalty to
their general was associated with an equally emphatic expression
of loyalty to their emperor. By this time Wallenstein had learned
that he must act warily. On the 24th of January the emperor
had signed a secret patent removing him from his command,
and imperial agents had been labouring to undermine Wallen-
stein's influence. On the 7th two of his officers, Piccolomini and
Aldringer, had intended to seize him at Pilsen; but finding the
troops there loyal to their general, they had kept quiet. But
a patent charging Wallenstein and two of his officers with high
treason, and naming the generals who were to assume the supreme
command of the army, was signed on the i8th of February, and
published in Prague.
When Wallenstein heard of the publication of this patent
and of the refusal of the garrison of Prague to take his orders,
he realized the full extent of his danger, and on the 23rd of
February, accompanied by his most intimate friends, and
guarded by about 1000 men, he went from Pilsen to Eger, hoping
to meet the Swedes under Duke Bernhard, who, at last convinced
of his sincerity, were marching to join him. After the arrival of
the party at Eger, Colonel Gordon, the commandant, and
Colonels Butler and Leslie agreed to rid the emperor of his
enemy. On the evening of the 25th of February Wallenstein's
supporters Illo, Kinsky, Terzky and Neumann were received at
a banquet by the three colonels, and then murdered. Butler,
Captain Devereux and a number of soldiers hurried to the
house where Wallenstein was staying, and broke into his room.
He was instantly killed by a thrust of Devereux's partisan.
Wallenstein was buried at Gitschin, but in 1732 the remains were
removed to the castle chapel of Miinchengratz.
No direct orders for the murder had been issued, but it was well
understood that tidings of his death would be welcome at court.
The murderers were handsomely rewarded, and their deed was
commended as an act of justice.
Wallenstein was tall, thin and pale, with reddish hair, and eyes
of remarkable brilliancy. He was of a proud and imperious temper,
and was seldom seen to laugh. He worked hard and silently. In
times of supreme difficulty he listened carefully to the advice of
his counsellors, but the final decision was always his own, and he
rarely revealed his thoughts until the moment lor action arrived.
Few generals have surpassed him in the power of quickly organizing
great masses of men and of inspiring them with confidence and
enthusiasm. But it is as a statesman that Wallenstein is immortal.
However much or little motives of personal aggrandisement in-
fluenced his schemes and his conduct, " Germany turns ever to
Wallenstein as she turns to no other amongst the leaders of the
Thirty Years' War. . . . Such faithfulness is not without reason. . . .
Wallenstein's wildest schemes, impossible of execution by military
violence, were always built upon the foundation of German unity.
In the way in which he walked that unity was doubtless unobtain-
able. . . . But during the long dreary years of confusion which
were to follow it was something to think of the last supremely able
man whose life had been spent in battling against the great evils
of the land, against the spirit of religious intolerance and the spirit
of division."
See Forster, Albrecht von Wallenstein (1834); Aretin, Wallenstein
(1846); Helbig, Wallenstein ttnd Arnim, 1632-1634 (1850), and
Kaiser Ferdinand und der Herzogvon Friedland, 1633-1634 (1853);
Hurter, Zur Geschichte Wallensteins (1855); Fiedler, Zur Geschichte
Wallensteins (1860); L. yon Ranke, Geschichte Wallensteins (3rd ed.,
1872); Gindely, Geschichte des dreissigjiihrigen Kriegs (1869);
J. Mitchell, Wallenstein (1840); S. R. Gardiner, Thirty Years' War.
WALLER, EDMUND (1606-1687), English poet, was the
eldest son of Robert Waller of Coleshill (then in Herts, now in
Buckinghamshire) and Anne Hampden, his wife. He was first
cousin to the celebrated patriot John Hampden. He was born
on the Qth of March 1606, and baptized in the parish church of
Amersham. Early in his childhood his father sold his house
at Coleshill and migrated to Beaconsfield. Of Waller's early
education all we know is his own account that he " was bred
under several ill, dull and ignorant schoolmasters, till he went to
Mr Dobson at Wickham, who was a good schoolmaster and had
been an Eton scholar." His father died in 1616, and the future
poet's mother, a lady of rare force of character, sent him to Eton
and to Cambridge. He was admitted a fellow-commoner of
King's College on the 22nd of March 1620. He left without a
degree, and it is believed that in 1621, at the age of only sixteen,
he sat as member for Agmondesham (Amersham) in the last
parliament of James I. Clarendon says that Waller was " nursed
in parliaments." In that of 1624 he represented Ilchester, and
in the first of Charles I. Chipping Wycombe. The first act by
which Waller distinguished himself, however, was his surreptitious
marriage with a wealthy ward of the Court of Aldermen, in 1631.
He was brought before the Star Chamber for this offence, and
heavily fined. But his own fortune was large, and all his life
Waller was a wealthy man. After bearing him a son and a
daughter at Beaconsfield, Mrs Waller died in 1634. It was about
this time that the poet was elected into Falkland's " Club."
It is supposed that about 1635 he met Lady Dorothy Sidney,
eldest daughter of the earl of Leicester, who was then eighteen
years of age. He formed a romantic passion for this girl, whom
he celebrated under the name of Sacharissa. She rejected
him, and married Lord Spencer in 1639. Disappointment, it is
said, rendered Waller for a time insane, but this may well be
doubted. He wrote, at all events, a long, graceful and eminently
sober letter on the occasion of the wedding to the bride's sister.
In 1640 Waller was once more M.P. for Amersham, and made
certain speeches which attracted wide attention; later, in the
Long Parliament, he represented St Ives. Waller had hitherto
supported the party of Pym, but he now left him for the group
of Falkland and Hyde. His speeches were much admired, and
were separately printed; they are academic exercises very
carefully prepared. Clarendon says that Waller spoke " upon all
occasions with great sharpness and freedom." An extraordinary
and obscure conspiracy against Parliament, in favour of the king,
which is known as " Waller's Plot," occupied the spring of 1643,
but on the 3oth of May he and his friends were arrested. In
the terror of discovery, Waller was accused of displaying a very
mean poltroonery, and of confessing " whatever he had said,
heard, thought or seen, and all that he knew . . or suspected
of others." He certainly cut a poor figure by the side of those of
his companions who died for their opinions. Waller was called
before the bar of the House in July, and made an abject speech
of recantation. His life was spared and he was committed to the
Tower, whence, on paying a fine of 10,000, he was released and
banished the realm in November 1643. He married a second wife,
Mary Bracey of Thame, and went over to Calais, afterwards
taking up his residence at Rouen. In 1645 the Poems of Waller
were first published in London, in three different editions; there
has been much discussion of the order and respective authority of
these issues, but nothing is decidedly known. Many of the lyrics
were already set to music by Henry Lawes. In 1646 Waller
travelled with Evelyn in Switzerland and Italy. During the
worst period of the exile Waller managed to " keep a table "
for the Royalists in Paris, although in order to do so he was
obliged to sell his wife's jewels. At the close of 1651 the House
of Commons revoked Waller's sentence of banishment, and he
was allowed to return to Beaconsfield, where he lived very
quietly until the Restoration.
In. 1655 he published A Panegyric to my Lord Protector, and
was made a Commissioner for Trade a month or two later. He
followed this up, in 1660, by a poem To the King, upon his
Majesty's Happy Return. Being challenged by Charles II. to
explain why this latter piece was inferior to the eulogy of Crom-
well, the poet smartly replied, " Sir, we poets never succeed
so well in writing truth as in fiction." He entered the House of
Commons again in 1661, as M.P. for Hastings, and Burnet has
recorded that for the next quarter of a century " it was no House
if Waller was not there." His sympathies were tolerant and
kindly, and he constantly defended the Nonconformists. One
WALLER, LEWIS WALLER, SIR WILLIAM
283
famous speech of Waller's was: " Let us look to our Govern-
ment, fleet and trade, 'tis the best advice the oldest Parliament
man among you can give you, and so God bless you." After
the death of his second wife, in 1677, Waller retired to his house
called Hall Barn at Beaconsfield, and though he returned to
London, he became more and more attached to the retirement of
his woods, " where, " he said, " he found the trees as bare and
withered as himself." In 1661 he had published his poem,
St James' Park; in 1664 he had collected his poetical works;
in 1666 appeared his Instructions to a Painter; and in 1685 his
Divine Poems. The final collection of his works is dated 1686,
but there were further posthumous additions made in 1690.
Waller Bought a cottage at Coleshill, where he was born, meaning
to die there; " a stag," he said, " when he is hunted, and near
spent, always returns home." He actually died, however, at
Hall Barn, with his children and his grandchildren about him,
on the 2ist of October 1687, and was buried in woollen (in spite
of his expressed wish), in the churchyard of Beaconsfield.
Waller's lyrics were at one time admired to excess, but
with the exception of " Go, lovely Rose " and one or two
others, they have greatly lost their charm. He was almost
destitute of imaginative invention, and his fancy was plain and
trite. But he resolutely placed himself in the forefront of
reaction against the violence and " conceit " into which the
baser kind of English poetry was descending. A great deal of
discussion, some of it absurdly violent in tone, has been expended
on the question how far Waller was or was not the pioneer in
introducing the classical couplet into English verse. It is, of
course, obvious that Waller could not " introduce " what had
been invented, and admirably exemplified, by Chaucer. But
those who have pointed to smooth distichs employed by poets
earlier than Waller have not given sufficient attention to the fact
(exaggerated, doubtless, by critics arguing in the opposite camp)
that it was he who earliest made writing in the serried couplet
the habit and the fashion. Waller was writing in the regular
heroic measure, afterwards carried to so high a perfection
by Dryden and Pope, as early as 1623 (if not, as has been
supposed, even in 1621).
The only critical edition of Waller's Poetical Works is that edited,
with a careful biography, by G. Thorn- Drury, in 1893. (E. G.)
WALLER, LEWIS (1860- ), English actor, was born in
Spain, his father being a civil engineer. He first appeared on
the London stage in 1883, at Toole's, and for some years added
to his reputation as a capable actor in London and the provinces.
He came more particularly to the front by a fine performance as
Buckingham in The Three Musketeers under Mr Beerbohm Tree's
management at His Majesty's in 1895, and soon afterwards
organized a company of his own, first at the Haymarket and
afterwards at the Shaftesbury, Imperial, Apollo and other
theatres. His fine voice and vigorous acting were well suited
in his memorable production of Henry V., and he had a great
success with Monsieur Beaucaire and similar plays. His wife,
Mrs Lewis Waller (Florence West), also became well known as
a powerful and accomplished actress.
WALLER, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1597-1668), English soldier,
was the son of Sir Thomas Waller, lieutenant of Dover, and was
born about 1597. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford,
and served in the Venetian army and in the Thirty Years' War.
He was knighted in 1622 after taking part in Vere's expedition
to the Palatinate. Little is known of his life up to 1640, when
he became member of parliament for Andover. Being a strict
Presbyterian by religion, and a member of the opposition in
politics, he naturally threw himself with the greatest ardour into
the cause of the parliament when the Civil War broke out in 1642.
He was at once made a colonel, and conducted to a speedy and
successful issue the siege of Portsmouth in September; and
later in the year captured Farnham, Winchester and other
places in the south-west. At the beginning of 1643 Waller was
made a major-general and placed in charge of operations in the
region of Gloucester and Bristol (see GREAT REBELLION), and
he concluded his first campaign with a victory at Highnam and
the capture of Hereford. He was then called upon to oppose the
advance of Sir Ralph Hopton and the Royalist western army,
and though more or less defeated in the hard-fought battle of
Lansdown (near Bath) he shut up the enemy in Devizes. How-
ever, Hopton and a relieving force from Oxford inflicted a crush-
ing defeat upon Waller's army at Roundway Down. Hopton
was Waller's intimate personal friend, and some correspondence
passed between the opposing generals, a quotation from which
(Gardiner, Civil War, i. 168) is given as illustrative of " the
temper in which the nobler spirits on either side had entered
on the war." " That great God," wrote Waller, " who is the
searcher of my heart knows with what a sad sense I go upon this
service, and with what a perfect hatred I detest this war without
an enemy; but I look upon it as sent from God . . . God. . .
in his good time send us the blessing of peace and in the meantime
assist us to receive it ! We are both upon the stage and must
act such parts as are assigned us in this tragedy, let us do it in
a way of honour and without personal animosities."
The destruction of his army at Roundway scarcely affected
Waller's military reputation, many reproaching Essex, the
commander-in-chief, for allowing the Oxford royalists to turn
against Waller. The Londoners, who had called him " William
the Conqueror," recognized his skill and energy so far as willingly
to raise a new army for him in London and the south-eastern
counties. But from this point Waller's career is one of gradual
disillusionment. His new forces were distinctively local, and,
like other local troops on both sides, resented long marches and
hard work far from their own counties. Only at moments of
imminent danger could they be trusted to do their duty. At
ordinary times, e.g. at the first siege of Basing House, they
mutinied in face of the enemy, deserted and even marched home
in formed bodies under their own officers, and their gallantry
at critical moments, such as the surprise of Alton in December
1643 and the recapture of Arundel in January 1644, but partially
redeemed their general bad conduct. Waller himself, a general
of the highest skill, " the best shifter and chooser of ground "
on either side, was, like Turenne, at his best at the head of a
small and highly-disciplined regular army. Only a Ccnde or a
Cromwell could have enforced discipline and soldierly spirit in
such men, ill-clad and unpaid as they were, and the only military
quality lacking to Waller was precisely this supreme personal
magnetism. In these circumstances affairs went from bad to
worse. Though successful in stopping Hopton's second advance
at Cheriton (March 1644), he was defeated by Charles I. in the war
of manoeuvre which ended with the action of Cropredy Bridge
(June), and in the second battle of Newbury in October his
tactical success at the village of Speen led to nothing. His last
expeditions were made into the west for the relief of Taunton,
and in these he had Cromwell as his lieutenant-general. By this
time the confusion in all the armed forces of the parliament had
reached such a height that reforms were at last taken in hand.
The original suggestion of the celebrated " New Model " army
came from Waller, who wrote to the Committee of Both King-
doms (July 2, 1644) to the effect that " an army compounded
of these men will never go through with your service, and till
you have an army merely your own that you may command,
it is in a manner impossible to do anything of importance."
Simultaneously with the New Model came the Self-Denying
Ordinance, which required all members of parliament to lay down
their military commands. Waller did so gladly the more as he
had already requested to be relieved and his active military
career came to an end. But the events of 1643-1644 had done
more than embitter him. They had combined with his Pres-
byterianism to make him intolerant of all that he conceived
to be licence in church, state or army, and after he ceased to
exercise command himself he was constantly engaged, in and
out of parliament, in opposing the Independents and the army
politicians, and supporting the cause of his own religious system,
and later that of the Presbyterian-Royalist opposition to the
Commonwealth and Protectorate regime. He was several times
imprisoned between 1648 and 1639. In the latter year he was
active in promoting the final negotiations for the restoration of
Charles II. and reappeared in the House of Commons. He sat
284
WALLINGFORD WALLIS, J.
in the Convention Parliament, but soon retired from political
life, and he died on the ipth of September 1668.
See Wood's Aihenae Oxonienses, ed. Bliss, iii. 812; and two partial
autobiographies, " Recollections by General Sir William Waller "
(printed in The Poetry of Anna Matilda, 1788), and Vindication of
the Character, &c. (1797).
Sir William Waller's cousin, SIR HARDRESS WALLER (c. 1604-
1666) was also a parliamentarian of note. Knighted by Charles
I. in 1629, he gained military experience in serving against the
rebels in Ireland; then from 1645 to the conclusion of the Civil
War he was in England commanding a regiment in the new
model army. He was Colonel Pride's chief assistant when the
latter " purged " the House of Commons in 1648, and he was
one of the king's judges and one of those who signed the death
warrant. During the next few years Waller served in Ireland,
finally returning to England in 1660. After the restoration he
fled to France, but soon surrendered himself to the authorities
as a regicide, his life being spared owing to the efforts of his
friends. He was, however, kept in prison and was still a captive
when he died.
See M. Noble, Lives of the Regicides (1798).
WALLINGFORD, a township of New Haven county, Con-
necticut, U.S.A., S.W. of the centre of the state, in the valley of
the Quinnipiac river. It contains the villages of East Walling-
ford, Tracy and Yalesville, and the borough of Wallingford.
Pop. of the township (1900) 9001, (1910) 11,155; of the borough
(1900) 6737, of whom 1796 were foreign-born and 21 were negroes,
(1910) 8690. Area of the township, about 38 sq. m. The
borough is 12 m. N.E. of New Haven, on a hill about ij m, long,
and is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway
(which has stations also at East Wallingford and Yalesville) and
by an interurban electric line connecting with Meriden and New
Haven. The borough has a public library (1881), a Masonic
Home, the Gaylord Farm Sanatorium of the New Haven County
Anti-Tuberculosis Association, the Phelps School (for girls) and
the Choate School (1896, for boys). Among the manufactures
of the borough are sterling silver articles, plated and britannia
ware, brass ware, rubber goods, cutlery and edge tools. The
township of Wallingford was settled in 1670. At a meeting held
in January 1766, in protest against the Stamp Act, it was
declared, that " Whereas it appears from ancient Records and
other Memorials of Incontestible Validity that our Ancestors
with a great Sum Purchased said township, with great Peril
possessed and Defended the Same, we are Born free (having
never been in bondage to any), an inheritance of Inestimable
Value," and a penalty of 205. was imposed upon any one who
should introduce or use stamped paper or parchment. During
the War of Independence patriotic sentiment here was strong
and Loyalists were sometimes exiled to Wallingford, where they
could have no effective influence. The borough of Wallingford
was incorporated in 1853 and re-incorporated in 1868. From
1851 to 1880 there was a communistic settlement, a branch of
the Oneida Community, here; its property was bought by the
Masonic Order and made into the Masonic Home.
See C. H. S. Davis's History of Wallingford (Meriden, 1870).
WALLINGFORD, a market town and municipal borough in the
Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 51 m.
W. by N. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901)
2808. It is pleasantly situated in the flat valley of the Thames,
on the west (right) bank. The railway station is the terminus
of a branch line from Cholsey. Of the churches only St Leonard's,
retaining some Norman work and rebuilt approximately on its
original plan, with an eastern apse, is of interest. The ancient
castle has left only its mound and earthworks, and other works
may be traced surrounding the town on the landward side. The
town hall, raised on arches, dates from 1670. The large grammar
school was founded in 1659. The trade of the town is principally
agricultural; and malting is carried on. The borough is under
a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area, 380 acres.
The site of Wallingford (Warengeford, Walynford, Walyngforth)
was occupied by a Romano-British settlement, though the im-
posing earthworks are of uncertain date they may be of post-
Roman British origin. Wallingford was a fortified town before
the Conquest, and, though burned by Sweyn in 1006, was much
the largest and most important borough in Berkshire at the time
of the Domesday Survey. The new castle was so extensive that
eight houses had been demolished to make room for it; the
market was already in existence, and perhaps also the gild
merchant, which in a charter of Henry II. is said to date back
to the reign of the Confessor. In the reign of Henry I. the be-
ginning of decay is marked by the inability of the town " through
poverty " to pay its aid. It is said to have suffered greatly from
the Black Death, and its decline was accelerated by the building,
in the early isth century, of two bridges near Abingdon, which
diverted the main road between London and Gloucester from
Wallingford. Periodical reductions in the fee farm show the
gradual impoverishment of the town, and in 1636 its assessment
for ship-money was only 20, while that of Reading was 220.
Wallingford was a royal borough held in the reign of Henry III.
by Richard, king of the Romans. Edward III. granted the fee
farm to the Black Prince and his successors in the duchy of
Cornwall. The earliest charters were given by Henry I. and
Henry II., the latter confirming the ancient privileges of the
borough, which were to be held as the citizens of Winchester held
theirs, and granting to the burgesses freedom from toll through-
out his dominions. These charters were confirmed and enlarged
by Henry III. in 1267 and by Philip and Mary in 1557-1558.
In 1648 the corporation consisted of a mayor, three aldermen,
a chamberlain and sixteen burgesses. This constitution was
remodelled in 1650 by a charter from Cromwell, but the governing
charter until the passing of the Municipal Corporations Act of
1835 was that given by Charles II. in 1663, incorporating the
town under the style of a mayor, recorder, town clerk, six
aldermen, two burgesses, a chamberlain and eighteen assistants
of the better sort of the inhabitants. In 1571 Elizabeth issued
letters patent empowering the burgesses of Wallingford to take
toll of all carts passing over their bridge, in order to provide for
its repair and maintenance. Wallingford sent two members to
parliament from 1295 to 1832, and one from 1832 to 1885, when
its representation was merged in that of the county: before 1832
the franchise was vested in the inhabitants paying scot and lot.
The empress Maud took refuge at Wallingford after her escape
from Oxford Castle (1142), and here peace was made between her
and Stephen (1153). Wallingford Castle was one of the last fort-
resses to hold out for Charles I., and during the Commonwealth
it was demolished by order of the government. In 1 205 the king
commanded the sheriff of Oxford to cause a fair to be held at
Wallingford at Whitsun for four days, to be continued for three
years. In 1227 Swyncombe fair was transferred from theleastof
St Botolph to the feast of St Mark in order not to interfere with
Wallingford fair. Fairs on the days of St Nicholas and of St John
the Baptist were granted by Henry VII. in 1500, and the charter
of 1663 provided for two markets and four annual fairs. All the
latter have fallen into disuse except the Michaelmas fair, which is
principally for hiring servants. During the 1 8th century the town
was fairly prosperous and had a good trade in grain and malt.
See Victoria County History, Berks; T. K. Hedges, The History
of Wallingford (London, 1881).
WALLIS, JOHN (1616-1703), English mathematician,
logician and grammarian, was born on the 23rd of November
1616 at Ashford, in Kent, of which parish his father, Rev. John
Wallis (1567-1622), was incumbent. After being at school at
Ashford, Tenterden and Felsted, and being instructed in Latin,
Greek and Hebrew, he was in 1632 sent to Emmanuel College,
Cambridge, and afterwards was chosen fellow of Queens' College.
Having been admitted to holy orders, he left the university in
1641 to act as chaplain to Sir William Darley, and in the following
year accepted a similar appointment from the widow of Sir
Horatio Vere. It was about this period that he displayed
surprising talents in deciphering the intercepted letters and
papers of the Royalists. His adherence to the parliamentary
party was in 1643 rewarded by the living of St Gabriel, Fen-
church Street, London. In 1644 he was appointed one of the
scribes or secretaries of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster.
During the same year he married Susanna Clyde, and thus
WALLIS ARCHIPELAGO WALLON
285
vacated his fellowship; but the death of his mother had left
him in possession of a handsome fortune. In 1645 he attended
those scientific meetings which led to the establishment of the
1 Society. When the Independents obtained the superiority
Wallis adhered to the Solemn League and Covenant. The
living of St Gabriel he exchanged for that of St Martin, Iron-
monger Lane; and, as rector of that parish, he in 1648 sub-
scribed the Remonstrance against putting Charles I. to death.
No! withstanding this act of opposition, he was in June 1649
appointed Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford. In 1654
he there took the degree of D.D., and four years later succeeded
Gerard Langbaine (1600-1658) as keeper of the archives. After
the restoration he was named one of the king's chaplains in
ordinary. While complying with the terms of the Act of Uni-
formity, Wallis seems always to have retained moderate and
rational notions of ecclesiastical polity. He died at Oxford on
the 28th of October 1703.
The works of Wallis are numerous, and relate to a multiplicity
of subjects. His Institutio logicae, published in 1687, was very
popular, and in his Grammatics, linguae Anglicanae we find indica-
tions of an acute and philosophic intellect. The mathematical works
are published, some of them in a small 410 volume (Oxford, 1657)
and a complete collection in three thick folio volumes (Oxford,
1693-1699). The third volume includes, however, some theo-
logical treatises, and the first part of it is occupied with editions of
treatises on harmonics and other works of Greek geometers, some of
them first editions from the MSS., and in general with Latin versions
and notes (Ptolemy, Porphyrius, Brienmus, Archimedes, Eutocius,
Aristarchus and Pappus). The second and third volumes include
also his correspondence with his contemporaries; and there is a tract
on trigonometry by Caswell. Excluding all these, the mathe-
matical works contained in the first and second volumes occupy
about 1800 pages. The titles in the order adopted, bu^with date
of publication, are as follows: " Oratio inauguralis," on his
appointment (1649) as Savilian professor (1657); "Mathesis uni-
versalis, seu opus arithmeticum philologice et mathematice tradi-
tum, arithmeticam numerosam et speciosam aliaque continens "
(1657); " Adversus Meibomium, de proportionibus dialogus "
(1657); " De sectionibus conicis nova methodo expositis " (1655);
" Arithmetica infinitorum, sive nova methodus inquirendi in
curvilineorum quadraturam aliaque difficiliora matheseos pro-
blemata " (1655); " Eclipsis Solaris observatio Oxonii habita 2
Aug. 1654" (1655); " Tractatus duo, prior de cycloide, posterior
de cissoide et de curvarum turn linearum tWvvati turn super-
ficierum ir\a.TvanC>" (1659); " Mechanica, sive de motu tractatus
geometricus " (three parts, 1669-1670-1671); " De algebra
tractatus historicus et practicus, ejusdem origir.em et progressus
varios ostendens " (English, 1685); " De combinationibus alterna-
tionibus et partibus aliquotis tractatus " (English, 1685) " De
sectionibus angularibus tractatus" (English, 1685); " De angulo
contactus et semicirculi tractatus" (1656); "Ejusdem tractatus
defensio " . (1685); " De postulate quinto, et quinta definitione,
lib. VI. Euclidis, disceptatio geometrica " (f 1663) ; " cuno-
cuneus, seu corpus partim conum partim cuneum representans
geometrice consideratum " (English, 1685); " De gravitate et
gravitatione disquisitio geometrica" (1662; English, 1674); " De
aestu maris hypothesis nova " (16661669).
The Arithmetica infinitorum relates chiefly to the quadrature of
curves by the so-called method of indivisibles established by Bona-
ventura Cavalieri in 1629 (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). He
extended the " law of continuity " as stated by Johannes Kepler;
regarded the denominators of fractions as powers with negative
exponents; and deduced from the quadrature of the parabola y =x m ,
where m is a positive integer, the area of the curves when m is negative
or fractional. He attempted the quadrature of the circle by inter-
polation, and arrived at the remarkable expression known as Wallis' s
Theorem (see CIRCLE, SQUARING OF). In the same work Wallis
obtained an expression for the length of the element of a curve, which
reduced the problem of rectification to that of quadrature.
The Mathesis universalis, a more elementary work, contains
copious dissertations on fundamental points of algebra, arithmetic
and geometry, and critical remarks.
The De algebra tractatus contains (chapters Jxvi.-lxix.) the idea
of the interpretation of imaginary quantities in geometry. This
is given somewhat as follows: the distance represented by the
square root of a negative quantity cannot be measured in the line
backwards or forwards, but can be measured in the same plane
above the line, or (as appears elsewhere) at right angles to the line
either in the plane, or in the plane at right angles thereto. Con-
sidered as a history of algebra, this work is strongly objected to by
Jean Etienne Montucla on the ground of its unfairness as against the
early Italian algebraists and also Franciscus Vieta and Rend Descartes
and in favour of Harriot; but Augustus De Morgan, while admitting
this, attributes to it considerable merit. The symbol for infinity, oo,
was invented by him.
The two treatises on the cycloid and on the cissoid, &c., and the
Mechanica contain many results which were then new and valuable.
The latter work contains elaborate investigations in regard to the
centre of gravity, and it is remarkable also for the employment of
the principle of virtual velocities.
Among the letters in volume iii., we have one to the editor of
the Acta Leipsica, giving the decipherment of two letters in secret
characters. The ciphers are different, but on the same principle:
the characters in each are either single digits or combinations of
two or three digits, standing some of them lor letters, others for
syllables or words, the number of distinct, characters which had
to be deciphered being thus very considerable.
For the prolonged conflict between Hobbes and Wallis, see HOBBES,
THOMAS.
WALLIS ARCHIPELAGO, UVEA, or UEA, a gioup of islands
in the Pacific Ocean, N.E. of Fiji, about 13 S., 176 W., with
a land atea of 40 sq. m., belonging to France. It was placed
under the French protectorate on the 5th of April 1887, and
connected for administrative purposes with New Caledonia
by decree of the 2 7th of November 1888. There is a French
Resident in the islands, which are connected by a regular service
with Noumea, New Caledonia. The principal islands are Uvea,
of volcanic formation and surrounded with coral, and Nukuatea.
The islands were discovered by Samuel Wallis in 1767, and it
was a missionary, Father Bataillon. who in 1837 first brought
the influence of France to bear on the natives. These, about
4500 in number, are of Polynesian race, gentle and industrious.
The trade of the islands is mainly with Samoa, whence cottons
and iron goods are imported, and to which copra and roots are
exported. The Home Islands (Fotuna and Alofa), S.W. of the
Wallis Islands, were discovered by Jacob Lemaire and Willem
Cornells Schouten in 1616, and placed under the French pro-
tectorate by decree of the i6th of February 1888. They have
1 500 inhabitants.
WALLON, HENRI ALEXANDRE (1812-1004), French
historian and statesman, was born at Valenciennes on the 23rd
of December 1812. Devoting himself to a literary career, he
became in 1840 professor at the Ecole Normale Superieure under
the patronage of Guizot, whom he succeeded as professor at the
Faculte des Lettres in 1846. His works on slavery in the French
colonies (1847) and on slavery in antiquity (1848; new edition
in 3 vols., 1879) led to his being placed, after the Revolution
of 1848, on a commission for the regulation of labour in the
French colonial possessions, and in November 1849 he was
elected to the Legislative Assembly by the department of the
Nord. He resigned in 1850, disapproving of the measure for
the restriction of the suffrage adopted by the majority. In the
same year he was elected a member of the Academic des In-
scriptions, of which he became perpetual secretary in 1873.
Under the empire he withdrew altogether from political life,
and occupied himself entirely with his duties as a professor of
history and with historical writings, the most original of which
is a biography, Richard II, tpisode de la rivaliit de la France
et de I'Angleterre (2 vols., 1864). Although remaining a re-
publican, he exhibited decided clerical leanings in his Jeanne
d'Arc (2 vols., 1860; 2nd ed., 1875); La Vie de Noire Seigneur
Jesus (1865) a reply to the Vie deJfsusofE. Renan; and Sain/
Louis el son temps (1871; 4th ed., 1802), which still ranks among
hagiographical works. Returning to politics after the Franco-
German War, Wallon was re-elected by the department of the
Nord in 1871, took an active part in the proceedings of the
Assembly, and finally immortalized himself by carrying his
proposition for the establishment of the Republic with a presi-
dent elected for seven years, and then eligible for re-election,
which, after violent debates, was adopted by the Assembly
on the 30th of January 1875. " Ma proposition," he declared,
" ne proclame pas la Republique, elle la fait." Upon the defini-
tive establishment of the Republic, Wallon became Minister of
Public Instruction, and effected many useful reforms, but his
views were too conservative for the majority of the Assembly,
and he retired in May 1876. He had been chosen a life senator
in December 1875. Returning to his historical studies, Wallon
produced four works of great importance, though less from
his part in them as author than from the documents which
accompanied them: La Terreur (1873); Histoire du tribunal
286
WALLOONS
revolutionnaire de Paris avec le journal de ses actes (6 vols.,
1880-1882); La Revolution du 31 mai et le fedfralisme en j/pj
(2 vols., 1886); Les Representants du peuple en mission et la
justice revolutionnaire dans les deparlements (5 vols., 1880-1890).
Besides these he published a number of articles in the Journal
des savants; for many years he wrote the history of the Aca-
demic des Inscriptions in the collection of Memoirs of this
Academy, and he composed obituary notices of his colleagues,
which were inserted in the Bulletin. He died at Paris on the
I3th of November 1904.
WALLOONS (Wallons, from a common Teut. word meaning
" foreign," cf. Ger. welsch, Du. waalsch, Eng. Welsh), a people
akin to the French, but forming a separate branch of the Romance
race, inhabiting the Belgian provinces of Hainaut, Namur,
Liege, parts of Luxemburg and southern Brabant, parts of the
French departments of Nord and Ardennes, and a few villages
in the neighbourhood of Malmedy in Rhenish Prussia. The
Walloons are descended from the ancient Gallic Belgi, with an
admixture of Roman elements. They are in general charac-
terized by greater vivacity and adaptability than their Flemish
neighbours, while they excel their French neighbours in en-
durance and industry. Their numbers are reckoned in Belgium
at between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000. The Walloon dialect is
a distinct branch of the Romance languages, with some ad-
mixture of Flemish and Low German. It was used as a literary
language until the 1 5th century, when it began to be assimilated
to French, by which it was ultimately superseded.
Grandgagnage, De I'origine des Wallons (Liege, 1852), Vocabulaire
des notns wallons, &c. (2nd ed., 1855;), and Diet, etymol. de la langue
uiallonne (t. i. and ii., 1845-1851 ; t. hi., byScheler, 1880) ; T. Dejardin,
Diet, des "spots" ou proverbes wallons (1863); Van der Kmdere,
Recherches surf elhnologie de la Belgique (Brussels, 1872) ; Demarteau,
Le Flamand, le Wallon, Sfc. (Liege, 1889); M. Wilmotte, Le Wallon,
Histoire et litterature (Brussels, 1893) ; Monseur, Le Folklore wallon
(Brussels, 1892). IX.]
WALLOON LITERATURE. In medieval times various local
documents in prose and verse were written by inhabitants of
Liege and its diocese in a dialect of French which contained many
Walloon words and phrases. It is supposed that as early as the
1 2th century the idiom of the people may have been used in
songs which are now lost, unless echoes of them are preserved in
the curious Noels, partly in French, partly in patois, which were
orally collected by M. Doutrepont and published in 1888. Several
Flemish works in old French, containing Walloon expressions,
and in particular the so-called Poeme moral of the I3th century,
have been claimed as precursors of a local literature, but they
are really to be considered as composed in French with a certain
admixture of Liegeois phrases. The earliest existing specimen of
pure Walloon literature is the Ode in praise of Liege, dated 1620,
and attributed to Mathias Navaeus; this was first printed in
1857 in the transactions of the Societe Liegeoise. Except a few
very flat popular songs, there is nothing more until the end of
the 1 7th century, when we find Lis Aiwesdi Tongue (The Waters
of Tongres), an amusing lyrical satire on the pretensions of that
town to be considered a Roman spa. Fifty years later the
opening of a popular theatre at Liege led to the creation of a
class of farces, written in Walloon; of these Li Voege di Chaud-
fontaine (The Journey to Chaudfontaine) (1757), by Jean Noel
Hamal, has considerable humour and vigour in its rhymed
dialogue. Other successful comedies were Li Fiesse di Ho&le s'i
plou, Li Ligeois 6gagi, and, above all, Lis Hypocondes, the
liveliest specimen of old Walloon literature which has survived.
This diverting farce describes the adventures of a party of mock-
invalids, who pursue a series of intrigues at a spa. This class of
dramatic literature closed with Li Malignant in 1789. In these
early songs and plays the Walloon humour is displayed with
great crudity; anything like sentiment or elevated feeling is
unknown.
The Revolution of 1789 inspired numerous Liegeois patriots
with popular songs; of these pasqueyes, as they are styled,
Albin Body collected more than 250, but they are almost entirely
devoid of literary merit. Under their new government, Liege
and Namur allowed the national patois to withdraw into the
background, and it was not until the middle of the igth century
that Walloon literature began seriously to be cultivated. Its only
expression, for a long time, was in lyrical poetry in the form of
satires and the humorous songs, called pasqueyes and cramignons.
The earliest of the modern Walloon writers was Charles Nicolas
Simonon (1774-1847), who celebrated in Li Coparey the ancient
clock-tower of the cathedral of St Lambert, an object of reverence
to the inhabitants of Liege. His poems were collected in 1845.
Henri Joseph Forir (1784-1862) was the first president of the
Societe Liegeoise, and one of the protagonists of Walloon litera-
ture. He published a valuable dictionary of the patois. The
Cure C. E. E. Du Vivier de Streel (1790-1863) was the author of
Li Panlalon traive (The Torn Trowsers), a pasqudye which still
enjoys an enormous popularity among the Walloon population.
The first Walloon writer of high merit, however, was Nicolas
Defrecheux (1825-1874), who is the most distinguished poet
whom the patois has hitherto produced. His Leyiz-m' plorer
(Let me cry), when it appeared in 1854, made a wide sensation,
and was the earliest expression of what is serious and tender in
the Walloon nature. His Chansons wallonnes appeared in 1860.
Defrecheux stands almost alone among the Walloon poets as
an artist and not merely an improvisatore. His poetical works
were posthumously collected in 1877.
For many years, in spite of the efforts of such scholars as
MM. Alphonse Le Roy and H. Gaidoz, a taste for Walloon
literature remained strictly circumscribed, and was limited to a
small circle of enthusiasts in Liege and Namur. In 1872 a literary
club was formed, entitled the Caveau Liegeois, and this gave a
very great stimulus to the cultivation of the Walloon letters.
The national drama, which had been entirely neglected for more
than a century, once more was called into existence through the
exertions of the theatrical club, called Les Wallons. The
comedies of A. M. J. Delchef (b. 1835) were acted with success,
and led the way for the most important patois dramatist that
Liege has produced, Edouard Remouchamps (b. 1836), who is
the author of Tail I'Perriqul (1884), perhaps the most enter-
taining farce in Walloon, and certainly the most popular. Remou-
champs was for thirty years a prolific writer of short pieces for
the stage, sentimental and farcical. After the success of this
play, according to an enthusiastic chronicler, " the writers of
Wallonia became legion." Their style, however, was not greatly
varied, and they have mainly confined themselves to songs,
satirical lampoons and farces. The founder of the Societe
Liegeoise was J. F. E. Bailleux (1817-1860), to whom the revival
of an interest in early Walloon literature is mainly due; in con-
junction with J. V. F. J. Dehin (1800-1871) he published a
translation of Lafontaine into patois. Among writers of the
younger generation, special credit must be given to Henri Simon
(b. 1856), for his humoristic tales and sketches; to Julien Delaite
(b. 1868), for his amusing lyrics; and to Zephir Henin (b. 1866),
for his prose, prose being much rarer than verse in Walloon.
It would be possible to add very largely to this list, but the most
notable names have been mentioned. A certain monotonous
fluency is the fault of Walloon literature, which repeats its effects
too constantly, and is confined within too narrow limits. A few
writers, among whom Isidore Dory (b. 1833) is prominent, have
endeavoured to enlarge the scope of the patois writers, but their
suggestions have met with little response. When the Walloon
writer desires to impart serious information or deep feeling, he
resorts to the use of French. The pasqueye, which is the char-
acteristic form of Walloon verse, is a kind of semi-comic and
extremely familiar lyric, humorous and extravagant, a survival
of the influence of Beranger on taste three-quarters of a century
ago; the facility with which these songs are composed is
betrayed by the enormous number of them which exist in
Liege and Namur. The difficulties of Walloon literature are
increased by the unfixed character of its phonetic and often
extravagant orthography.
AUTHORITIES. H. Gaidoz, La Societeliegeoisedelitteraturewallonne
(Liege, 1890); Alphonse Le Roy, Litterature wallonne (Brussels,
1875); Charles Defrecheux, Joseph Defrecheux et Charles Gothier,
Ar.lhologie des poetes wallons (Liege, 1895); Maurice Wilmotte, Le
Wallon (Brussels, 1894). (E.G.)
WALLOP, SIR H. WALMER
287
WALLOP, SIR HENRY (c. 1540-1399), English statesman, was
the eldest son of Sir Oliver Wallop (d. 1566), of Farleigh Wallop,
Hampshire. Having inherited the estates of his father and of
his uncle, Sir John Wallop (q.v.), he was knighted in 1569 and
was chosen member of parliament for Southampton in 1572.
His connexion with Ireland, where the quarter part of his public
lift- was passed, began in 1579, when he was appointed vice-
treasurer of that country; this position was a very thankless
and difficult one, and Wallop appears to have undertaken it
very unwillingly. However, he reached Dublin and was soon
immersed in the troubles caused by the rebellion of Gerald
Fitzgerald, earl of Desmond, finding, in his own words, it was
" easier to talk at home of Irish wars than to be in them." In
July 1582 he and Adam Loftus, archbishop of Dublin, were
appointed lords justices, and they were responsible for the
government of Ireland for just two years, after which they were
succeeded by Sir John Perrot. Sir Henry continued to fill the
office of vice-treasurer, and at Enniscorthy, where he had secured
a lease of lands, he set up a colony of Englishmen and opened up
a trade with Madeira. As a member of the Irish council he
quarrelled with Perrot, and then from 1589 to 1595 he was in
England, entertaining the queen at Farleigh Wallop in 1591.
Having returned to Ireland he was sent to Dundalk to attempt
to make peace with Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, but this
proved a vain errand. At length, after many entreaties, he was
allowed to resign the treasurership, but before he could arrange
to leave Ireland he died on the I4th of April 1599.
\Vallop's eldest son, Sir Henry Wallop (1568-1642), who acted
as his father's deputy in Ireland, left an only son, Robert Wallop
(1601-1667). A member of parliament for nearly forty years,
and a supporter of the parliamentary party, Robert was one of
the judges of Charles I., although he did not sign the death
warrant. He was active under the Commonwealth, being a
member of nearly all the councils of state. At the restoration
lie was deprived of his estates and was imprisoned, and he died
in the Tower of London on the igth of November 1667. Robert's
son Henry (d. 1673) was the grandfather of John Wallop, ist
earl of Portsmouth.
WALLOP, SIR JOHN (c. 1400-1551), English soldier and
diplomatist, belonged to an old Hampshire family. Adopting
the profession of arms, he commanded ships which took part in
the war between England and France in 1513 and 1514; later
he served the king of Portugal against the Moors, and then he
fought for his own sovereign in Ireland and in France. In
1526 Wallop began his diplomatic career, being sent on an errand
to Germany by Henry VIII., and from 1532 to 1541 he passed
much of his time in Paris and elsewhere in France as the repre-
sentative of the English king. He filled several other public
positions, including that of lieutenant of Calais, before January
1541, when he was suddenly arrested on a charge of treason; his
offence, however, was not serious and in the same year he was
made captain of Guines. In 1 543 he led a small force to help the
emperor Charles V. in his invasion of France, and he remained
at his post at Guic.es until his death there on the I3th of July
WALLQVIST, OLAF (1755-1800), Swedish statesman and
ecclesiastic, was ordained in 1776, became doctor of philosophy in
1779, court preacher to Queen Louisa Ulrica in 1780, and bishop
of Vexio in 1787. He attracted the attention of Gustavus III.
by his eloquent preaching at the fashionable St Clara church
at Stockholm. Gustavus at once took the young priest by the
hand, appointed him, at twenty-five, one of his chaplains; made
him a canon before he was thirty and a bishop at thirty-two,
and finally placed him at the head of the newly appointed com-
mission for reforming the ecclesiastical administration of the
country. Thus at thirty-four Wallqvist had nothing more to
hope for but the primacy, which would infallibly have been his
also had the archbishop died during the king's lifetime. Wall-
qvist was, however, much more of a politician than a churchman.
His knowledge of human nature, inexhaustible energy, dauntless
self-confidence and diplomatic finesse made him indispensable
to Gustavus III. His seductive manners too often won over
those whom his commanding eloquence failed to convince. His
political career began during the mutinous riksdag of 1786, when
he came boldly forward as one of the royalist leaders. But it
was at the stormy riksdag of 1789 that Wallqvist put forth all his
powers. The retirement of the timid primate left him without an
equal in the Estate of Clergy, and it was very largely due to his
co-operation that the king was able to carry through the famous
' Act of Unity and Security " which converted Sweden from a
constitutional into a semi-absolute monarchy. Nevertheless,
even the combative Wallqvist was appalled when on the i6th of
February 1789 the king privately informed him that he meant
on the following day soundly to trounce the Estate of Nobles in
the presence of the three other estates and bend them to his
royal will. A friend of compromise, like most of the men of his
cloth, Wallqvist dissuaded all revolutionary expedients at the
outset, though when the king proved immovable the bishop
materially smoothed the way before him. At this memorable
riksdag Wallqvist exhibited, moreover, financial ability of the
highest order, and, as president of the ecclesiastical commission,
assisted to equilibrate the budget and find the funds necessary
for resuming the war with Russia. During the brief riksdag
of 1792, as a member of the secret committee, Wallqvist was
at the very centre of affairs and rendered the king essential
services. Indeed it may be safely said that Gustavus III.,
during the last six years of his reign, mainly depended upon
Wallqvist and his clerical colleague, Carl Gustaf Nordin (?..),
who were patriotic enough to subordinate even their private
enmity to the royal service. During the Reuterholm (q.v.)
administration, Wallqvist, like the rest of the Gustavians,
was kept remote from court. In 1800 he was recalled to the
political arena. But his old rivalry with Nordin was resumed at
the same time, and when the latter defeated a motion of the
bishop's in the Estate of Clergy, at the diet of Norrkoping,
Wallqvist from sheer vexation had a stroke of apoplexy and
died the same day (30th of April 1800).
As bishop of Vexio, Wallqvist was remarkable for his extra-
ordinary administrative ability. He did much for education and
for the poorer clergy, and endowed the library of the gymnasium
with 6000 volumes. As an author also he was more than dis-
tinguished. His Ecclesiastica Samlingar testify to his skill and
diligence as a collector of MSS., while his Minnen och Bref, ed.
E. V. Montan (Stockholm, 1878), is one of the most trustworthy
and circumstantial documents relating to the Gustavian era of
Swedish history.
See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London,
1895, vol. ii.) ; O. Wallqvists Sjdlfiografiska anteckningar (Upsala,
1850); and J. Rosengren, Om O. WaUqvist sdsom Bishop och Eforus
(Vexio, 1901). (R. N. B.)
WALLSEND, a municipal borough in the Tyneside parlia-
mentary division of Northumberland, England, on the north bank
of the Tyne, 3} m. E.N.E. of Newcastle by a branch of the
North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 11,257; (1901) 20,918.
The church of St Peter dates from 1 809. There are remains of the
church of the Holy Cross in transitional Norman style. At an
early period Wallsend was famous for its coal, but the name has
now a general application to coal that does not go through a sieve
with meshes five-eighths of an inch in size. The colliery, which
was opened in 1807, has frequently been the scene of dreadful
accidents, notably on the 23rd of October 1821, when 52 lives
were lost. There are ship and boat building yards, engineering
works, lead and copper smelting works, cement works and brick
and tile works. In the river are two pontoon docks and an
immense dry dock. Wallsend was incorporated in 1901, and the
corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 1202 acres.
Wallsend derives its modern name from its position at the
eastern extremity of the Roman Hadrian's Wall; and there was a
Roman fort here. It had a quay, of which remains have been
discovered, and possessed a magazine of corn and other pro-
visions for the supply of the stations in the interior.
WALKER, a watering-place, and member of the Cinque Port
of Sandwich, in the St Augustine's parliamentary division of
WALMISLEY- -WALPOLE, H.
Kent, England, 2 m. S. of Deal, on the South-Eastern & Chatham
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5248. Lower Walmer,
the portion most frequented by visitors, extends northward
along the coast, so as to be contiguous with Deal. Upper Walmer
is a short distance inland, and below it Walmer Castle lies close
to the sea. This was a blockhouse built for coast defence by
Henry VIII., but became the official residence of the Lords
Warden of the Cinque Ports, and was in consequence much altered
from its original condition. It ceased to be the official residence
in 1905, when the prince of Wales (afterwards George V.) was
appointed Lord Warden, and the public was given access to
those rooms which possess historical associations with former
holders of the office, such as the duke of Wellington, who died
here in 1852, William Pitt and others. Kingsdown, i m. south,
is a decayed member of the Cinque Port of Dover.
WALMISLEY, THOMAS ATTWOOD (1814-1856), English
musician, was born in London, his father Thomas Forbes Wal-
misley (1783-1866) being a well-known organist and composer of
church music and glees. Thomas Attwood (q.v.) was his god-
father, and the boy was educated in music under their tuition.
He became organist at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1833, and
there he soon became prominent by his anthems and other
compositions. He not only took the degrees of Mus.Bac. and
Mus.Doc., but also graduated at Jesus College as B.A. and M.A.
In 1836 he was made professdr of music. His Cathedral Music
was edited after his death by his father.
WALNUT (Juglans), a botanical genus of about ten species
(nat. ord. J uglandaceae) , natives of the temperate regions of the
northern hemisphere, extending into Mexico, the West Indies
and tropical South America. They are all trees, usually of large
size, with alternate stalked, unequally pinnate leaves, and
abounding in an aromatic resinous juice. The scars left by the
fallen leaves are unusually large and prominent. The buds
are not unlike those of the ash ; and it frequently happens that
in the axils of the leaves, instead of one, several buds may be
formed. The utility of this is seen in seasons when the shoot
produced from the first bud is killed by frost; then one of the
supplementary buds starts into growth, and thus replaces the
injured shoot. The flowers are unisexual and monoecious, the
numerous males borne in thick catkins proceeding from the side
of last year's shoot. The female flowers are solitary or few in
number, and borne on short terminal spikes of the present
season's growth. In the male flower the receptacle is " con-
crescent " or inseparate from the bract in whose axil it originates.
The receptacle is, in consequence, extended more or less horizon-
tally so that the flowers appear to be placed on the upper surface
of horizontally spreading stalks. The perianth consists of five
or six oblong greenish lobes, within which is found a tuft, con-
sisting of a large number of stamens, each of which has a very
short filament and an oblong two-lobed anther bursting longi-
tudinally, and surmounted by an oblong lobe, which is the pro-
jecting end of the connective. There is usually no trace of ovary
in the male flowers, though by exception one may occasionally
be formed.
The female flower consists of a cup-like receptacle, inseparate
from the ovary, and bearing at its upper part a bract and two
bracteoles. From the margin springs a perianth of four short
lobes. The one-celled ovary is immersed within the recep-
tacular tube, and is surmounted by a short style with two
short ribbon-like stigmatic branches. The solitary ovule springs
erect from the base of the ovarian cavity. The fruit is a kind of
drupe, the fleshy husk of which is the dilated receptacular tube,
while the two-valved stone represents the two carpels. The
solitary seed has no perisperm or albumen, but has two large
and curiously crumpled cotyledons concealing the plumule,
the leaves of which, even at this early stage, show traces of
pinnae.
The species best known is /. regia, the common walnut, a
native of the mountains of Greece, of Armenia, of Afghanistan
and the north-west Himalayas. Traces of the former existence
of this or of a very closely allied species are found in the Post-
Tertiary deposits of Provence and elsewhere, proving the former
much wider extension of the species. At the present day the
tree is largely cultivated in most temperate countries for the sake
of its timber or for its edible nuts. The timber is specially
valued for furniture and cabinet work and for gunstocks, the
beauty of its markings rendering it desirable for the first-named
purpose, while its strength and elasticity fit it for the second.
The leaves and husk of the fruit are resinous and astringent,
and are sometimes used medicinally as well as for dyeing pur-
poses. A Spiritus Nucis Juglandis is given as an antispasmodic.
It doubtless owes its properties to the alcohol which it contains.
Sugar is also prepared from the sap in a similar manner to that
obtained from the maple. The young fruits are used for pick-
ling. When ripe the seeds are much esteemed as a delicacy,
while in France much oil of fine quality is extracted from them
by pressure. There are several varieties in cultivation, varying
in the degree of hardihood, time of ripening, thickness of shell,
size and other particulars. In the climate of Great Britain a
late variety is preferable, as securing the young shoots against
injury from frost, to which otherwise they are very subject.
The kernel of the large-fruited variety is of very indifferent
quality, but its large shells are made use of by the French as
trinket cases.
The walnut is mentioned in the earliest British botanical writings,
and is supposed to have been introduced by the Romans. It grows
well, and ripens its fruit in the southern and midland counties of
England; but large trees may be seen as far north as Ross-shire in
sheltered places. The tree succeeds in deep, sandy or calcareous
loams, and in stiff loams resting on a gravelly bottom. It requires
free exposure to air and light. It is propagated by seeds, and oc-
casionally by budding, grafting or inarching for the perpetuation of
special varieties. Seedlings should be protected from frost during the
first winter. The trees form their heads naturally, and therefore
little pruning is required, it being merely necessary to cut off strag-
ling growths, and to prevent the branches from interlacing. The
est time for performing this is in the autumn, just after the fall of
the leaf. Plants raised from the seed seldom become productive till
they are twenty years old. The fruit is produced at the extremities
of the shoots of the preceding year; and therefore, in gathering the
crop, care should be taken not to injure the young wood. In some
parts of England the trees are thrashed with rods or poles to obtain
the nuts, but this is not a commendable mode of collecting them.
Among the American species J. nigra, the black walnut, is especi-
ally noteworthy as a very handsome tree, whose timber is of great
value for furniture purposes, but which is now becoming scarce. In
Britain it forms a magnificent tree. The white walnut or butternut,
J. cinerea, is a smaller tree, though it sometimes reaches 100 ft. in
height ; its inner bark yields an extractive, juglandin, given as an
hepatic stimulant and cathartic in doses of 2-5 grains.
Closely allied to the walnuts, and sometimes confounded with
them, are the hickories.
WALPOLE, HORATIO or HORACE (1717-1797), English
politician and man of letters, 4th earl of Orford a title to
which he only succeeded at the eud of his life, and by which
he is little known was born in Arlington Street, London, on
the 24th of September 1717. He was the youngest of the five
children of the ist earl of Orford (Sir Robert Walpole) by
Catherine Shorter, but by some of the scandal-mongers of a
later age, Carr, Lord Hervey, half-brother of John, Lord Hervey,
afterwards second earl of Bristol, has been called his father.
If this rumour be correct, no such suspicion ever entered into
the mind of Horace Walpole. To his mother he erected a
monument, with an inscription couched in terms of sincere
affection, in the chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey,
and from the beginning to the end of his public life his sarcasms
never spared the Newcastles and the Hardwickes, who had shown,
as he thought, lukewarmness in support of his father's ministry.
On the 26th of April 1727 he was sent to Eton, where he formed
what was known as the " Quadruple Alliance " with Thomas
Gray, Richard West and Thomas Ashton, and became very
intimate with Henry Seymour Conway, George Augustus
Selwyn and the two Montagus, and in 1735 matriculated at
King's College, Cambridge. Two years (1739-1741) were spent
in Gray's company in the recognized grand tour of France and
Italy. They stopped a few weeks in Paris, and lingered for
three months at Rheims, on the pretence of learning the French
language. Henry Seymour Conway, whose mother was a sister
of Lady Walpole, shared their society in the French city. The
WALPOLE, H.
289
other two members of this little circle next proceeded to Florence,
where Walpole rested for more than a year in the villa of Horace
Mann, the British envoy-extraordinary for forty-six years to
the court of Tuscany. Mann's family had long been on terms
of the closest intimacy with his guests, and they continued
correspondents until 1786. As they never met again, their
friendship, unlike most of Walpole's attachments, remained
unbroken. After a short visit to Rome (March-June 1740),
and after a further sojourn at Florence, Walpole and Gray
parted in resentment at Reggio. Walpole in after years took
the blame of this quarrel on himself, and it is generally believed
that it arose from his laying too much stress on his superiority
in position. In 1744 the two friends were nominally reconciled,
but the breach was not cemented.
Walpole came back to England on the I2th of September
1741. He had been returned to parliament on the I4thof May
1741 for the Cornish borough of Callington, over which his
elder brother, through his marriage with the heiress of the
Rolles, exercised supreme influence. He represented three
constituencies in succession, Callington 1741-1754, the family
borough of Castle Rising from 1754 to 1757, and the more
important constituency of King's Lynn, for which his father
had long sat in parliament, from the latter date until 1768. In
that year he retired, probably because his success in political
life had not equalled his expectations, but he continued until
the end of his days to follow and to chronicle the acts and the
speeches of both houses of parliament. Through his father's
influence he had obtained three lucrative sinecures in the ex-
chequer, and for many years (1745-1784) he enjoyed a share,
estimated at about 1500 a year, of a second family perquisite,
the collectorship of customs. These resources, with a house in
Arlington Street, which was left to him by his father, enabled
him, a bachelor all his days, to gratify his tastes. He acquired
in 1747 the lease and in the next year purchased the reversion
of the charmingly situated villa of Strawberry Hill, near Twicken-
ham, on the banks of the Thames. Six years later he began a
series of alterations in the Gothic style, not completed for nearly
a quarter of a century later, under which the original cottage
became transformed into a building without parallel in Europe.
On the zsth of June 1757 he established a printing-press there,
which he called " Officina Arbuteana," and many of the first
editions of his own works were struck off within its walls.
Through Walpole's influence Dodsley published in 1753 the
clever, if eccentric, designs of Richard Bentley (the youngest
child of the great scholar, and for some time a protige of Horace
Walpole) for the poems of Gray. The first work printed at
Strawberry Hill was two odes of Gray (8th of August 1757),
and among the reprints were the Life of Lord Herbert of Cherbury,
Memoirs of Grammont, Hentzner's Journey into England, and
Lord Whitworth's Account of Russia. The rooms of this whimsi-
cal edifice were crowded with curiosities of every description,
and the house and its contents were shown, by tickets to admit
four persons, between 12 and 3 from May to October, but only
one party was admitted on each day, and the owner, although
enamoured of notoriety, simulated discontent at this limited
intrusion into his privacy. Walpole paid several visits to Paris,
where he made the acquaintance of Madame du Deffand (q.v.)
in 1765, and they corresponded until her death in 1780. His
nephew, the reckless 3rd earl, died on the 5th of December 1791,
and Horace succeeded to the peerage, but he never took his
place in the House of Lords, and sometimes signed his name as
" the uncle of the late earl of Orford." All his life long he was a
victim of the gout, but he lived to extreme old age, and died
unmarried, in Berkeley Square, London, to which he had re-
moved in October 1779, on the 2nd of March 1797. He was
buried privately at Houghton. The family estate descended
to the earl of Cholmondeley, whose ancestor had married Horace
Walpole's younger sister. All Walpole's printed books and
manuscripts were left to Robert Berry (d. igth of May 1817)
and his two daughters, Mary (1763-^852) and Agnes (1764-
1852), and Mary Berry edited the five volumes of Walpole's
works which were published in 1798. Their friendship had been
XXVIII. IO
very dear to the declining days of Walpole, who, it has even
been said, wished to marry Mary Berry. By his will each of the
ladies obtained a pecuniary legacy of 4000, and for their lives
the house and garden, formerly the abode of his friend Kitty
Clive, which adjoined Strawberry Hill. Strawberry Hill went
to Mrs Anne Darner, daughter of his lifelong friend General
Conway, for her life, but it was entailed on his niece the countess
dowager of Waldegrave and her heirs. The collections of Straw-
berry Hill, which he had spent nearly fifty years in amassing,
were dispersed under the hammer of George Robins in 1842.
They are described in a catalogue of that date, and in a series
of articles in the Gentleman's Magazine for that year.
The pen was ever in Horace Walpole's hands, and his entire
compositions would fill many volumes. His two works of
imagination, the romance of the Castle of Olranto (1764) and the
tragedy of the Mysterious Mother (1768), are now all but for-
gotten. The Castle of Otranto, purporting to be a story translated
by William Marshal, gent., from the original Italian of Onuphrio
Muralto, canon of the church of St Nicholas at Otranto, was
often reprinted in England, and was translated into both French
and Italian. By Sir Walter Scott it was lauded to the skies for
its power in raising the passions of fear and pity, but from
Hazlitt it met with intense condemnation; its real importance,
however, lies in the fact that it started the romantic revival.
The Mysterious Mother, a tragedy too horrible for representation
on any stage, was never intended for performance in public, and
only fifty copies of it were printed at Strawberry Hill. By
Byron, who, like Horace Walpole, affected extreme liberalism,
and like him never forgot that he was born within the purple,
this tragedy was pronounced " of the highest order." Several of
Walpole's antiquarian works merit high praise. The volume of
Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard the Third
(1760), one of the earliest attempts to rehabib'tate a character
previously stamped with infamy, showed acuteness and research.
These doubts provoked several answers, which are criticized in
a supplement edited by Dr E. C. Hawtrey for the Philobiblon
Society (1854). A work of more lasting reputation, which has
retained its vitality for more than a century, is entitled Anecdotes
of Painting in England, with some Account of the Principal
Artists; collected by George Vertue, and now digested and published
from his original manuscripts by Horace Walpole (4 vols., 1762
1771). Its value to art students and to admirers of biographical
literature demanded its frequent reproduction, and it was re-
edited with additions by the Rev. James Dallaway in five
volumes (1826-1828), and then again was revised and edited by
R. N. Wornum in 1849. A cognate volume, also based on the
materials of Vertue, is entitled the Catalogue of Engravers Born
and Resident in England (1763), which, like its more famous
predecessor, often passed through the press. On the Catalogue
of Royal and Noble Authors of England (1758) Walpole spent
many hours of toilsome research. The best edition is that
which appeared in five volumes, in 1806, under the competent
editorship of Thomas Park, who carefully verified and diligently
augmented the labours of the original author. As a senator
himself, or as a private person following at a distance the combats
of St Stephen's, Walpole recorded in a diary the chief incidents
in English politics. For twenty-seven years he studied, a silent
spectator for the most part, the characters of the chief personages
who trod the stage of politics, and when he quitted the scene he
retained the acquaintance of many of the chief actors. If he was
sometimes prejudiced, he rarely distorted the acts of those whom
he disliked; and his prejudices, which lie on the surface, were
mainly against those whom he considered traitors to his father.
These diaries extend from 1750 to 1783, and cover a period of
momentous importance in the annals of the national history.
The Memoirs of the Last Ten Years of the Reign of George II. was
edited by Lord Holland (1846); its successor, Memoirs of the
Reign of King George III., was published under the editorial
care of Sir Denis Le Marchant (4 vols., 1845), and re-edited in
1894 by Mr G. F. Russell Barker; the last volumes of the series,
Journal of the Reign of George III. from 1771 to 1783, were
edited and illustrated by John Doran (2 vols., 1859), and were
WALPOLE, SIR S. WALPURGIS
edited with an introduction by A. F. Steuart (London, 1909).
To these works should be added the Reminiscences (2 vols.,
1819), which Walpole wrote in 1788 for the gratification of the
Misses Berry. These labours would in themselves have rendered
the name of Ho/ace Walpole famous for all time, but his de-
lightful Letters are the crowning glory of his life. His corre-
spondents were numerous and widespread, but the chief of them
were William Cole (1714-1782), the clerical antiquary of Milton;
Robert Jephson, the dramatist; William Mason, the poet; Lord
Hertford during his embassy in Paris; the countess of Ossory;
Lord Harcourt; George Montagu, his friend at Eton; Henry
Seymour Conway (1721-1795) and Sir Horace Mann. With
most of these friends he quarrelled, but the friendship of the
last two, in the former case through genuine liking, and in the
latter through his fortunate absence from England, was never
interrupted. The Letters were published at different dates, but
the standard collection is that by Mrs Paget Toynbee (1903-
1905), and to it should be added the volumes of the letters
addressed to Walpole by His old friend Madame du Deffand
(4 vols., 1810). Dr Doran's publication, Mann and Manners at
the Court of Florence (1876), is founded on the epistles sent in
return to Walpole by the envoy-extraordinary. Other works
relating to him are Horace Walpole and his World, by L. B.
Seeley (1884); Horace Walpole, a memoir by Austin Dobson
(1890 and 1893); Horace Walpole and the Strawberry Hill Press,
by M. A. Havens (1901). Walpole has been called " the best
letter-writer in the English language "; and few indeed are the
names which can compare with his. In these compositions his
very foibles are penned for our amusement, and his love of trifles
for, in the words of another Horace, he was ever " nescio quid
meditans nugarum et totus in illis " ministers to our instruction.
To these friends he communicated every fashionable scandal,
every social event, and the details of every political struggle in
English life. The politicians and the courtiers of his day were
more akin to his character than were the chief authors of his age,
and the weakness of his intellectual perceptions stands out most
prominently in his estimates of such writers as Johnson and
Goldsmith, Gibbon and Hume. On many occasions he displayed
great liberality of disposition, and he bitterly deplored for the
rest of his days his neglect of the unhappy Chatterton. Chatter-
ton wrote to Walpole in 1769, sending some prose and verse
fragments and offering to place information on English art in
Walpole's hands. Encouraged by a kindly reply, Chatterton
appealed for help. Walpole made inquiries and came to the
conclusion that he was an imposter. He finally returned the
manuscripts in his possession, and took no notice of subsequent
letters from Chatterton.
Abundant information about Horace Walpole will be found in the
Memoirs of him and of his contemporaries edited by Eliot Warburton
(1851), J. H. Jasse's George Selwyn and his Contemporaries (4 vols.,
1843-1844) and the extracts from the journals and correspondence
of Miss Berry (3 vols., 1866); and it would be unpardonable to omit
mention of Macaulay's sketch of Walpole's life and character.
(W. P. C.)
WALPOLE, SIR SPENCER (1839-1907), English historian and
civil servant, was born on the 6th of February 1839. He came
of the younger branch of the family of the famous Whig prime
minister, being descended from his brother, the ist lord Walpole
of Wolterton. He was the son of the latter's great-grandson,
the Right Hon. Spencer Horatio Walpole (1807-1898), thrice
home secretary under Lord Derby, and through his mother was
grandson of Spencer Perceval, the Tory prime minister who was
murdered in the House of Commons. He was educated at Eton,
and from 1858 to 1867 was a clerk in the War Office, then be-
coming'an inspector of fisheries. In 1882 he was made lieutenant-
governor of the Isle of Man, and from 1893 to 1899 he was
secretary to the Post Office. In 1898 he was created K.C.B.
Although well known as a most efficient public servant, and in
private life as the most amiable of men, Sir Spencer Walpole's
real title to remembrance is as an historian. His family con-
nexions gave him a natural bent to the study of public affairs,
and their mingling of Whig and Tory in politics contributed, no
doubt, to that quality of judicious balance inclining, however,
to the Whig or moderate Liberal side which, together with his
sanity and accuracy, is so characteristic of his writings. His
principal work, the History of England from 1815 (1878-1886),
in six volumes, was carried down to 1858, and was continued
in his History of Twenty-Five Years (1904). Among his other
publications come his lives of Spencer Perceval (1894) and Lord
John Russell (1889), and a volume of valuable Studies in Bio-
graphy (1906); and he wrote the section of the article ENGLISH
HISTORY, dealing in detail with the reign of Queen Victoria, for
the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He died on the 7th of July 1907.
WALPOLE OF WOLTERTON, HORATIO, IST BARON (1678-
1757), English diplomatist, was a son of Robert Walpole of
Houghton, Norfolk, and a younger brother of the great Sir
Robert Walpole. The Walpoles owned land in Norfolk in the
1 2th century and took their name from Walpole, a village in the
county. An early member of the family was Ralph de Walpole,
bishop of Norwich from 1288 to 1299, and bishop of Ely from
1299 until his death on the 2oth of March 1302. Among its later
members were three brothers, Edward (1560-1637), Richard
(1564-1607) and Michael (i57o-c. 1624), all members of the
Society of Jesus. Another Jesuit in the family was Henry
Walpole (1558-1595), who wrote An Epitaph of the life and death
of the most famous dcrk and virtuous priest Edmund Campion.
After an adventurous and courageous career in the service of
the order, he was arrested on landing in England, was tortured
and then put to death on the I7th of April 1595.*
Born at Houghton on the 8th of December 1678 and educated
at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, Horatio Walpole became
a fellow of King's and entered parliament in 1702, remaining
a member for fifty-four years. In 1715, when his brother, Sir
Robert, became first lord of the treasury, he was made secretary
to the treasury, and in 1716, having already had some experience
of the kind, he went on a diplomatic mission to The Hague. He
left office with his brother in 1717, but he was soon in harness
again, becoming secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland in
1720 and secretary to the treasury a second time in 1721. In
1722 he was again at The Hague, and in 1723 he went to Paris,
where in the following year he was appointed envoy extraordinary
and minister plenipotentiary. He got on intimate terms with
Fleury and seconded his brother in his efforts to maintain friendly
relations with France; he represented Great Britain at the
congress of Soissons and helped to conclude the treaty of Seville
(November 1729). He left Paris in 1730 and in 1734 went to
represent his country at The Hague, where he remained until
1740, using all his influence in the cause of European peace.
After the fall of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742 Horatio defended his
conduct in the House of Commons and also in a pamphlet, The
Interest of Great Britain steadily pursued. Later he wrote an
Apology, dealing with his own conduct from 1715 to 1739, and an
Answer to the latter part of Lord Bolingbroke' s letters on the study of
history (printed 1763). In 1756 he was created Baron Walpole of
Wolterton, this being his Norfolk seat, and he died on the sth of
February 1757. His eldest son, Horatio, the 2nd baron (1723-
1809), was created earl of Orford in 1806, and one of his sons
was Major-General George Walpole (1758-1835), under-secretary
for* foreign affairs in 1806.
See W. Coxe, Memoirs of Horatio, Lord Walpole (2nd ed., 1808);
the same writer, Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole (1816) ; and Charles,
comte de Baillon, Lord Walpole a la cour de France (1867).
WALPURGIS (WALPURGA or WALBTJRGA),* ST (d. c. 780),
English missionary to Germany, was born in Sussex at the
beginning of the Sth century. She was the sister of Willibald,
the first bishop of Eichstatt in Bavaria, and Wunnibald, first
abbot of Heidenheim. Her father, Richard, is thought to have
been a son of Hlothere, gth king of Kent; her mother, Winna
or Wuna, a sister of St Boniface. At the instance of Boniface
and Willibald she went about 750 with some other nuns to found
1 The Letters of Henry Walpole, S.J., from the original manuscripts
at Stonyhurst College, were edited by the Rev. Augustus Jessopp for
private circulation (1873). See the Rev. A. Jessopp, One Generation
of a Norfolk House (1878).
1 French forms of the name are Gualbourg, Falbourg, Vaubourg
and Avougourg.
WALRAS WALRUS
291
religious houses in Germany. Her first settlement was at
Bischofsheim in the diocese of Mainz, and two years later (754)
she became abbess of the Benedictine nunnery at Heidenheim in
the diocese of Eichstatt. On the death of Wunnibald in 760 she
succeeded him in his charge also, retaining the superintendence
of both houses until her death. Her relics were translated to
Eichstatt, where she was laid in a hollow rock, trom which
exuded a kind of bituminous oil afterwards known as Walpurgis
oil, and regarded as of miraculous efficacy against disease. It
is still said to exude from the saint's bones (especially from
October to February) and was chosen by Cardinal Newman as
an example of a credible miracle. The cave became a place of
pilgrimage, and a fine church was built over the spot. Walpurgis
is commemorated at various times, but principally on the ist of
May, her day taking the place of an earlier heathen festival
which was characterized by various rites marking the beginning
of summer. She is regarded as the protectress against magic arts
(cf. the Walpurgis- Nacht dance in Goethe's Faust). In art she
is represented with a crozier, and bearing in her hand a flask of
balsam.
Her life was written by the presbyter Wolfhard and dedicated to
Erkenbald, bishop of Eichstatt (884-916). See the BoUandist Ada
sanctorum, vol. lii. February 25. On Walpurgis, Willibald and
Wunnibald see G. F. Browne, Boniface of Creation and his Com-
panions (London, 1910), vii.
WALRAS, MARIE ESPRIT LEON (1834-1910), French
economist, was born at Evreux in 1834. From 1866 to 1868
he edited a journal called Le Travail, to which he contributed
many valuable sociological articles. In 1870 he was appointed
professor of political economy at Lausanne, a post which he
retained until his retirement in 1892. He died on the 4th of
January 1910. Walras is best known for his mathematical
treatment of economics, and the extreme care he has shown in
his works in distinguishing theory and practice. His most
important works are Elements d 'economic politique pure (1874-
1877) and Theorie mathematique de la richesse sociale (1883).
Of his many valuable papers contributed to various periodicals a
good bibliography will be found in the Diet. Pol. Econ. iii. 654.
See biographical notice in Economic Journal (March, 1910) by
Vilfredo Pareto, his successor in the chair of political economy at
Lausanne.
WALRUS, or MORSE (Odobaenus rosmarus), a large marine
mammal allied to the seals, representing a family by itself.
The former word is a modification of the Scandinavian vallross
or hvalros (" whale-horse "), the latter an adaptation of the
Russian name for the animal. A full-grown male walrus measures
from 10 to ii ft. from the nose to the end of the short tail, and is
a heavy, bulky animal, especially thick about the shoulders.
The head is rounded, the eyes are rather small, and there are no
external ears. The muzzle is short and broad, with, on each side,
a group of stiff, bristly whiskers, which become stouter and
shorter in old animals. The tail scarcely projects beyond the
skin. The fore-limbs are free only from the elbow; the fore-
flipper is broad, flat and webbed, the five digits being of nearly
equal length, but the first slightly the longest. Each digit has
a small flattened nail, situated on the inner surface at a con-
siderable distance from the end. The hind-limbs are enclosed
in the skin of the body, almost to the heel. The free portion
when expanded is fan-shaped, the two outer toes (first and fifth)
being the longest, especially the latter. Flaps of skin project
considerably beyond the bones of the toes. The nails of the first
and fifth toes are minute and flattened; those of the second,
third and fourth elongated, sub-compressed and pointed. The
soles of both fore and hind feet are bare, rough and warty. The
surface of the skin generally is covered with short, adpressed hair
of a light yellowish-brown colour, which, on the under parts of
the body and base of the flippers, passes into dark reddish-brown
or chestnut. In old animals the hair becomes more scanty,
sometimes almost disappearing, and the skin shows evidence of
the rough life and pugnacious habits of the animal in the scars
with which it is usually covered. It is everywhere more or less
wrinkled, especially over the shoulders, where it is thrown into
deep and heavy folds.
One of the most striking characteristics of the walrus is the
pair of tusks which descend almost directly downwards from the
upper jaw, sometimes attaining a length of 20 in. or more.
In the female they are as long or sometimes longer than in the
male, but less massive. In the young of the first year they are
not visible. These tusks correspond to the canine teeth of other
mammals. All the other teeth, including the lower canines, are
much alike small, simple and one-rooted, and with crowns,
rounded at first, but wearing to a flat or concave surface. Many
of the teeth are lost early, or remain through life in a rudimentary
state concealed beneath the gum. The tusks are formidable
weapons of defence, but their principal use seems to be scraping
and digging among sand and shingle for the molluscs and crus-
taceans on which the walrus feeds. They are said also to aid in
climbing up the slippery rocks and ledges of ice on which so much
of the animal's lite is passed.
Walruses are more or less gregarious in their habits, being met
with generally in companies or herds of various sizes. They are
only found near the coast or on large masses of floating ice, and
rarely far out in the open sea; and, though often moving from
one part of their feeding-ground to another, have no regular
migrations. Their young are bora between April and June,
The Atlantic Walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus).
usually but one at a time, never more than two. Their strong
affection for their young, and their sympathy for each other in
danger, have been noticed by all who have had the opportunity of
observing them in their haunts. When one is wounded the
whole herd usually join in defence. Although harmless and in-
offensive when not molested, they exhibit considerable fierceness
when attacked, using their tusks with tremendous effect either
on human enemies who come into too close quarters or on polar
bears, the only other adversary they can meet with in their own
natural territory. The voice, a loud roaring, which can be heard
at a great distance, is described by Dr Kane as " something
between the mooing of a cow and the deepest baying of a mastiff,
very round and full, with its bark or detached notes repeated
rather quickly seven or nine times in succession."
The principal food of the walrus consists of bivalve molluscs,
especially Mya truncaia and Saxicava rugosa, two species very
abundant in the Arctic regions, which it digs up from the mud
and sand in which they lie buried at the bottom of the sea by
means of its tusks. It crushes and removes the shells by the aid
of its grinding teeth and tongue, and swallows only the soft parts
of the animal. It also feeds on other molluscs, sand-worms, star-
fishes and shrimps. Portions of various kinds of seaweed have
been found in its stomach, but whether swallowed intentionally
or not is doubtful.
The commercial products of the walrus are its oil, hide (used
to manufacture harness and sole-leather and twisted into tiller-
ropes) and tusks. The ivory of the latter is, however, inferior
in quality to that of the elephant. Its flesh forms an important
article of food to the Eskimo and Chukchi. Of the coast tribes
of the last-named people the walrus formed the chief means of
support.
292
WALSALL WALSH, PETER
Walruses are confined to the northern circumpolar regions,
extending apparently as far north as explorers have penetrated.
On the Atlantic coast of America the Atlantic species was
met with in the i6th century as low as the southern coast of
Nova Scotia, and in the last century was common in the Gulf
of St Lawrence and on the shores of Labrador. It still inhabits
the coast round Hudson's Bay, Davis Strait and Greenland,
where, however, its numbers are decreasing. It is not found on
the Arctic coast of America between the 97th and 1 58th meridians.
In Europe, occasional stragglers have reached the British Isles;
and it was formerly abundant on the coasts of Finmark. It is
rare in Iceland, but Spitzbergen, Novaia Zemblia and the western
part of the north coast of Siberia are constant places of resort.
The North Pacific, including both sides of Bering Strait, northern
Kamchatka, Alaska and the Pribyloff Islands are also the
haunts of numerous walruses, which are isolated from those
of the North Atlantic by long stretches of coast in Siberia and
North America where they do not occur. The Pacific walrus
appears to be as large as, if not larger than, that of the Atlantic;
its tusks are longer and more slender, and curved inwards; and
the whiskers are smaller, and the muzzle relatively deeper and
broader. These and certain other differences have led to its
being considered specifically distinct, under the name of Odo-
baenus obesus. Its habits appear to be similar to those of the
Atlantic form. Though formerly found in immense herds, it is
becoming scarce, as the methods of destruction used by American
whalers are more certain than those of the Chukchi, to whom
the walrus long afforded the principal means of subsistence.
Fossil remains of walruses and closely allied animals have been
found in the United States, and in England, Belgium and France,
in deposits of late Tertiary age. (W. H. F.; R. L.*)
WALSALL, a market town and municipal, county and parlia-
mentary borough of Staffordshire, England, on the northern
edge of the Black Country, and on a tributary stream of the Tame.
Pop. (1891) 71,789; (1901) 86,430. It is 120^ m. N.W. from
London by the London & North-Western railway, on which
system it is a centre of several branches, and is served by the
Birmingham-Wolverhampton branch of the Midland railway and
by canals. The town, though of ancient foundation, is modern
in appearance. The central part stands high on a ridge at
the northward termination of which is the church of St
Matthew, dating in part from the isth century, but almost
wholly rebuilt. The council house and town hall was completed
in 1905; there are two theatres, a free library and museum,
and an institute of science and art. Recreation grounds include
a picturesque arboretum, Reed's Wood and Palpey Park.
Queen Mary's Schools are a foundation of 1554; here are be-
lieved to have been educated John Hough (1651-1743), the presi-
dent of Magdalen College, Oxford, whom James II. sought to eject
from office, afterwards bishop of Oxford, Lichfield, and Worce-
ster; and John, Lord Somers (1651-1716), Lord Keeper and
Lord Chancellor of England. There are large charities, and
Walsall was the scene of the charitable work of Sister Dora (Miss
Pattison) whom a statue commemorates. Coal, limestone and
ironstone are mined in the neighbourhood. The most important
products are saddlery and leather-work, horses' bits and all
metal harness fittings; there are iron and brass foundries, and
locks, keys, bolts and other hardware are made, both in Walsall
and at Bloxwich, a large industrial suburb. Three annual fairs
are held. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors.
Area, 7480 acres.
Walsall (Waleshales, Wahha.ll, Walsaler) is included in the list
of lands given in 996 to the church of Wolverhampton, which,
however, did not retain it long. It was granted by Henry II.
to Herbert Ruffus, and Henry III. confirmed it to his grandson
(1227). Later the manor passed to the Bassets and the Beau-
champs, and Warwick the King-maker held it in right of his wife.
Henry VIII. granted it (1538) to Dudley, afterwards duke of
Northumberland. William Ruffus in the reign of John granted
to the burgesses, in consideration of a fine of 1 2 marks silver and
of a rent of i2<L for every burgage, all services, customs and
secular demands belonging to him and his heirs, except tallage.
Henry IV. confirmed to the burgesses a grant of freedom from
toll on the ground that Walsall was ancient demesne of the
Crown. A mayor and twenty-four brethren who formed the
council of the borough are mentioned in 1440, but the earliest
charter of incorporation is that of Charles I. (1627), confirmed
in 1661, incorporating it under the title of " the Mayor and
Commonalty of the Borough and Foreign of Walsall": under
the act of 1835 the town was governed by a mayor, six aldermen
and eighteen town councillors. It was not represented in parlia-
ment till 1832. Walsall had a merchant gild in 1300; in the
1 7th century it was already known for its manufacture of iron
goods and nail-making. In the i8th century the staple industry
was the making of chapes and shoe-buckles, and the town suffered
when the latter went out of fashion. Two fairs, on Michaelmas
day and September 21, were granted in 1399. The Tuesday
market, which is still held, and two fairs on October 28 and May 6.
were granted in 1417 to Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick.
See Victoria County History, Stafford; E. L. Glew, History of the
Borough and Foreign of Walsall (1856).
WALSH, JOHN HENRY (1810-1888), English writer on sport
under the pseudonym of " Stonehenge," was born at Hackney,
London, on the 2ist of October 1810. He was educated at
private schools, and became a fellow of the Royal College of
Surgeons in 1844. For several years he followed his profession
of surgeon, but gradually abandoned it on account of the success
of his works on the subject of sport. He removed from the
country to London in 1852, and the following year brought out
his first important book, The Greyhound (3rd ed. 1875), a collec-
tion of papers originally contributed to " Bell's Life." In 1856
appeared his Manual of British Rural Sports, which enjoyed
many editions. During the same year he joined the staff of The
Field, and became its editor at the close of 1857. Among his
numerous books published under the name of " Stonehenge " are
The S hot-Gun and Sporting Rifle (1859), The Dog in Health and
Disease (1859; 4th ed. 1887), The Horse in the Stable and in the
Field (1861; I3th ed. 1890), Dogs of the British Isles (1867;
3rd ed. 1885), The Modern Sportsman's Gun and Rifle (1882-
1884). While editor of The Field Walsh instituted a series of
trials of guns, rifles and sporting powders extending over a period
of many years, which greatly tended to the development of
sporting firearms; and his influence upon all branches of sport
was stimulating and beneficial. He died at Putney on the i2th'
of February 1888.
WALSH, PETER [VALESIUS] (c. 1618-1688), Irish politician
and controversialist, was born at Mooretown, co. Kildare, and
studied at Louvain, where he joined the Franciscans and acquired
Jansenist sympathies. In 1646 he went to Kilkenny, then in
the hands of the rebel " confederate Catholics," and, in opposition
to the papal nuncio Rinuccini, urged, and in 1649 helped to
secure, peace with the viceroy Ormonde. Persecuted from this
time by the irreconcilable supporters of the papal claims, and
even in danger of death, after Cromwell's conquest of Ireland
he lived obscurely in London and abroad. On the restoration
he urged his patron Ormonde to support the Irish Roman
Catholics as the natural friends of royalty against the sectaries,
and endeavoured to mitigate their lot and efface the impression
made by their successive rebellions by a loyal remonstrance to
Charles II., boldly repudiating papal infallibility and interference
in public affairs, and affirming undivided allegiance to the crown.
For eight years he canvassed for signatures to this address, but
in spite of considerable support the strenuous opposition of the
Jesuits and Dominicans deterred the clergy and nearly wrecked
the scheme. From 1669 until his death he lived in London,
much respected for his honesty, loyalty and learning. Ex-
communicated by the Franciscan chapter-general in 1670, he
remained a devout adherent of his church, although he main-
tained friendly relations with the Anglicans, accepting their
orders and attending their churches. He made a full submission
to Rome before his death, though the fact has been questioned.
He wrote (1672-1684) a series of controversial letters against
Pope Gregory VII. 's doctrine of papal supremacy over princes;
WALSH, WILLIAM WALSINGHAM, SIR FRANCIS 293
a voluminous History of the Remonstrance (1674); Hibernica
(1682), a worthless history of Ireland; in 1686 a reply to the
Popery of Thomas Barlow (1607-1691), bishop of Lincoln; and
other works. In these writings he consistently upheld the
doctrine of civil liberty against the pretensions of the papacy.
See S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War; G. Burnet,
History of his own Times, i. 195 ; T. Carte, Life of Ormonde (new ed.
1851); Diet. Nat. Biog. lix.
WALSH, WILLIAM (1663-1708), English poet and critic, son
of Joseph Walsh of Abberley, Worcestershire, was born in 1663.
He entered Wadham College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner
in 1678. Leaving the university without a degree, he settled
in his native county, and was returned M.P. for Worcester in
1698, 1701 and 1702. In 1705 he sat for Richmond, Yorkshire.
On the accession of Queen Anne he was made "gentleman of the
horse," a post which he held till his death, noted by Narcissus
Luttrell on the i8th of March 1708. He wrote a Dialogue con-
cerning Women, being a Defence of the Sex (1691), addressed to
" Eugenia "; and Letters and Poems, Amorous and Gallant
(preface dated 1692, printed in Jonson's Miscellany, 1716, and
separately, 1736); love lyrics designed, says the author, to impart
to the world " the faithful image of an amorous heart." It is
not as a poet, however, but as the friend and correspondent of
Pope that Walsh is remembered. Pope's Pastorals were sub-
mitted for his criticism by Wycherley in 1705, and Walsh then
entered on a direct correspondence with the young poet. The
letters are printed in Pope's Works (ed. Elwin and Courthope,
vi. 49-60). Pope, who visited him at Abberley in 1707, set
great value upon his opinion. " Mr Walsh used to tell me," he
says, " that there was one way left of excelling; for though we
had several great poets, we never had anyone great poet that
was correct, and he desired me to make that my study and my
aim." The excessive eulogy accorded both by Dryden and
Pope to Walsh must be accounted for partly on the ground of
personal friendship. The life of Virgil prefixed to Dryden's
translation, and a " Preface to the Pastorals with a short defence
of Virgil, against some of the reflections of Monsieur Fontenella,"
both ascribed at one time to Walsh, were the work of Dr Knightly
Chetwood (1650-1720). In 1704 Walsh collaborated with Sir
John Vanbrugh and William Congreve in Monsieur de Pour-
ceaugnac, or Squire Trelooby, an adaptation of Moliere's farce.
Walsh's Poems are included in Anderson's and other collections of
the British poets. See The Lives of the Poets, vol. iii. pp. 151 et seq.,
published 1753 as by Theophilus Gibber.
WALSINGHAM, SIR FRANCIS (c. 1530-1590), English
statesman, was the only son of William Walsingham, common
sergeant of London (d. March 1534), by his wife Joyce, daughter
of Sir Edmund Denny of Cheshunt. The family is assumed to
have sprung from Walsingham in Norfolk, but the earliest
authentic traces of it are found in London in the first half of the
1 5th century; and it was one of the numerous families which,
having accumulated wealth in the city, planted themselves
out as landed gentry and provided the Tudor monarchy with
its justices of the peace and main support. To this connexion
may also be attributed much of the influence which London
exerted over English policy in the i6th century. Sir Francis's
great-great-great-grandfather, Alan, was a cordwainer of Grace-
church Street; Alan's son Thomas, a vintner, purchased Scad-
bury in Chislehurst, and Thomas's great-grandson William
bought Foot's Cray, where Francis may have been born. His
uncle Sir Edmund was lieutenant of the Tower, and his mother
was related to Sir Anthony Denny, a member of Henry VIII.'s
privy council who attended him on his death-bed.
Francis matriculated as a fellow-commoner of King's College,
Cambridge, of which Sir John Cheke was provost, in November
1548; and he continued studying there amid strongly Protest-
ant influences until Michaelmas 1550, when he appears, after
the fashion of the time, to have gone abroad to complete his
education (Stahlin, p. 79). Returning in 1552 he was admitted
at Gray's Inn on January 28, 1553, but Edward VI. 's death six
months later induced him to resume his foreign travels. In
'SSS-iSSfi he was at Padua, where he was admitted a " con-
siliarius " in the faculty of laws. Returning to England after
Elizabeth's accession he was elected M.P. for Banbury to her
first parliament, which sat from January to May 1559. He
married in January 1562 Anne, daughter of George Barnes,
Lord Mayor of London and widow of Alexander Carleill, whose
son-in-law Christopher Hoddesdon was closely associated with
maritime and commercial enterprise. He was elected to repre-
sent Lyme Regis in Elizabeth's second parliament of 1563 as
well as for Banbury, and preferred to sit for the former borough.
He may have owed his election to Cecil's influence, for to Cecil
he subsequently attributed his rise to power; but his brother-
in-law Sir Walter Mildmay was well known at court and in 1 566
became chancellor of the exchequer. In that year Walsingham
married a second time, his first wife having died in 1564; his
second was also a widow, Ursula, daughter of Henry St Barbe
and widow of Sir Richard Worsley of Appuldurcombe, captain
of the Isle of Wight. Her sister Edith married Robert Beale,
afterwards the chief of Walsingham's henchmen. By his second
wife Walsingham had a daughter who married firstly Sir Philip
Sidney, secondly Robert Devereux, second earl of Essex, and
thirdly Richard de Burgh, earl of Clanricarde.
Walsingham's earliest extant communications with the
government date from 1567; and in that and the following two
yeajrs he was supplying Cecil with information about the move-
ments of foreign spies in London. The Spanish ambassador
in Paris declared in 1570 that he had been for two years engaged
in collecting contributions from English churches for the assist-
ance of the Huguenots in France; and he drew up a memorial
depicting the dangers of Mary Stuart's presence in England and
of the project for her marriage with Norfolk. Ridolfi, the
conspirator, was committed to his custody in October 1569,
and seems to have deluded Walsingham as to his intentions;
but there is inadequate evidence for the statement (Diet. Nat.
Biog.) that Walsingham was already organizing the secret
police of London. In the summer of 1570 he was, in spite of his
protestations, designated to succeed Norris as ambassador at
Paris. La Mothe Fenelon, the French ambassador in England,
wrote that he was thought a very able man, devoted to the
new religion, and very much in Cecil's secrets. Cecil had in
1569 triumphed over the conservative and aristocratic party
in the council ; and .Walsingham was the ablest of the new men
whom he brought to the front to give play to the new forces
which were to carve out England's career.
An essential element in the new policy was the substitution
of an alliance with France for the old Burgundian friendship.
The affair of San Juan de Ulua and the seizure of the Spanish
treasure-ships in 1568 had been omens of the inevitable conflict
with Spain; Ridolfi 's plot and Philip II. 's approaches to Mary
Stuart indicated the lines upon which the struggle would be
fought; and it was Walsingham's business to reconcile the
Huguenots with the French government, and upon this reconcilia-
tion to base an Anglo-French alliance which might lead to a
grand attack on Spain, to the liberation of the Netherlands, to
the destruction of Spain's monopoly in the New World, and to
making Protestantism the dominant force in Europe. Walsing-
ham threw himself heart and soul into the movement. He was
the anxious fanatic of Elizabeth's advisers ; he lacked the
patience of Burghley and the cynical coolness of Elizabeth. His
devotion to Protestantism made him feverishly alive to the
perils which threatened the Reformation; and he took an
alarmist view of every situation. Ever dreading a blow, he was
always eager to strike the first; and alive to the perils of peace,
he was blind to the dangers of war. He supplied the momentum
which was necessary to counteract the caution of Burghley and
Elizabeth ; but it was probably fortunate that his headstrong
counsels were generally overruled by the circumspection of his
sovereign. He would have plunged England into war with
Spain in 1572, when the risks would have been infinitely greater
than in 1 588, and when the Huguenot influence over the French
government, on which he relied for support, would probably
have broken in his hands. His clear-cut, strenuous policy of
open hostilities has always had its admirers; but it is difficult
to see how England could have secured from it more than she
294
WALSINGHAM, SIR FRANCIS
actually did from Elizabeth's more Fabian tactics. War,
declared before England had gained the naval experience and
wealth of the next fifteen years, and before Spain had been
weakened by the struggle in the Netherlands and the depreda-
tions of the sea-rovers, would have been a desperate expedient;
and the ideas that any action on Elizabeth's part could have
made France Huguenot, or prevented the disruption of the
Netherlands, may be dismissed as the idle dreams of Protestant
enthusiasts.
Walsingham, however, was an accomplished diplomatist,
and he reserved these truculent opinions for the ears of his own
government, incurring frequent rebukes from Elizabeth. In his
professional capacity, his attitude was correct enough; and,
indeed, his anxiety for the French alliance and for the marriage
between Elizabeth and Anjou led him to suggest concessions to
Anjou's Catholic susceptibilities which came strangely from so
staunch a Puritan. Elizabeth did not mean to marry, and
although a defensive alliance was concluded between England
and France in April 1572, the French government perceived
that public opinion in France would not tolerate an open breach
with Spain in Protestant interests. Coligny's success in captivat-
ing the mind of Charles IX. infuriated Catherine de Medicis,
and the prospect of France being dragged at the heels of the
Huguenots infuriated the Catholics. The result was Catherine's
attempt on Coligny's life and then the massacre of St Bartholo-
mew, which placed Walsingham's person in jeopardy and
ruined for the time all hopes of the realization of his policy of
active French and English co-operation.
He was recalled in April IS73, but the queen recognized that
the failure had been due to no fault of his, and eight months
later he was admitted to the privy council and made joint
secretary of state with Sir Thomas Smith. He held this office
jointly or solely until his death; in 1577 when Smith died,
Dr Thomas Wilson was associated with Walsingham; after
Wilson's death in 1581 Walsingham was sole secretary until
July 1586, when Davison began his brief and ill-fated seven
months' tenure of the office. After Davison's disgrace in February
1587 Walsingham remained sole secretary, though Wolley as-
sisted him as Latin secretary from 1588 to 1590. He was also
returned to parliament at a by-election in 1576 as knight of the
shire for Surrey in succession to Charles Howard, who had become
Lord Howard of Effingham, and he was re-elected for Surrey
in 1584, 1586 and 1588. He was knighted on December i, 1577,
and made chancellor of the order of the Garter on April 22, 1578.
As secretary, Walsingham could pursue no independent policy;
he was rather in the position of permanent under-secretary of the
combined home and foreign departments, and he had to work
under the direction of the council, and particularly of Burghley
and the queen. He continued to urge the necessity of more
vigorous intervention on behalf of the Protestants abroad,
though now his clients were the Dutch rather than the Huguenots.
In June 1578 he was sent with Lord Cobham to the Netherlands,
mainly to glean reliable information on the complicated situation.
He had interviews with the prince of Orange, with Casimir who
was there in the interests of Protestant Germany, with Anjou
who came in his own interests or in those of France, and with
Don John, who nominally governed the country in Philip's name;
the story that he instigated a plot to kidnap or murder Don John
is without foundation. His letters betray discontent with Eliza-
beth's reluctance to assist the States; he could not understand
her antipathy to rebellious subjects, and he returned in October,
having accomplished little.
In August 1581 he was sent on a second and briefer mission to
Paris. Its object was to secure a solid Anglo-French alliance
against Spain without the condition upon which Henry III.
insisted, namely a marriage between Elizabeth and Anjou.
The French government would not yield, and Walsingham came
back, to be followed by Anjou who sought in personal interviews
to overcome Elizabeth's objections to matrimony. He, too,
was unsuccessful; and a few months later he was dismissed with
some English money and ostensible assurances of support.
But secretly Elizabeth countermined his plans; unlike Walsing-
ham, she would sooner have seen Philip remain master of the
Netherlands than see them fall into the hands of France. His
final embassy was to the court of James VI. in 1583, and here his
vehement and suspicious Protestantism led him astray and
provoked him into counterworking the designs of his own
government. He was convinced that James was as hostile to
Elizabeth as Mary herself, and failed to perceive that he was as
inimical to popery as he was to presbyterianism. Elizabeth and
Burghley were inclined to try an alliance with the Scottish king,
and the event justified their policy, which Walsingham did his
best to frustrate, although deserted on this occasion by his chief
regular supporter, Leicester.
For the rest of his life Walsingham was mainly occupied in
detecting and frustrating the various plots formed against
Elizabeth's life; and herein he achieved a success denied him
in his foreign poh'cy. He raised the English system of secret
intelligence to a high degree of efficiency. At one time he is
said to have had in his pay fifty-three agents at foreign courts,
besides eighteen persons whose functions were even more obscure.
Some of them were double spies, sold to both parties, whose real
sentiments are still conjectural; but Walsingham was more
successful in seducing Catholic spies than his antagonists were
in seducing Protestant spies, and most of his information came
from Catholics who betrayed one another. In his office in London
men were trained in the arts of deciphering correspondence,
feigning handwriting, and of breaking and repairing seals in such
a way as to avoid detection. His spies were naturally doubtful
characters, because the profession does not attract honest men;
morality of methods can no more be expected from counter-
plotters than from plotters; and the prevalence of political or
religious assassination made counterplot a necessity in the
interests of the state.
The most famous of the plots frustrated by Walsingham was
Anthony Babington's, which he detected in 1 586. Of the guilt
of the main conspirators there is no doubt, but the complicity of
Mary Stuart has been hotly disputed. Walsingham bad long
been convinced, like parliament and the majority of Englishmen,
of the necessity of removing Mary; but it was only the discovery
of Babington's plot that enabled him to bring pressure enough
to bear upon Elizabeth to ensure Mary's execution. This cir-
cumstance has naturally led to the theory that he concocted,
if not the plot, at least the proofs of Mary's connivance. Un-
doubtedly he facilitated her se/f-incrimination, but of her active
encouragement of the plot there can be little doubt after the
publication of her letters to Mendoza, in which she excuses her
complicity on the plea that no other means were left to secure her
liberation. Considering the part he played in this transaction,
Walsingham was fortunate to escape the fate which the queen
with calculated indignation inflicted upon Davison.
Walsingham died deeply in debt on April 6, 1590. Since 1579
he had lived mainly at Barn Elms, Barnes, maintaining an
adequate establishment; but his salary did not cover his
expenses, he was burdened with his son-in-law Sir Philip Sidney's
debts, and he obtained few of those perquisites which Elizabeth
lavished on her favourites. He had little of the courtier about
him; his sombre temperament and directness of speech irritated
the queen, and it says something for both of them that he
retained her confidence and his office until the end of his life.
Dr Karl Stahlin's elaborate and scholarly Sir Francis Walsingham
and seine Zeit (Heidelberg, vol. i., 1908) supersedes all previous
accounts of Walsingham so far as it goes (1573) ; Dr Stahlin has also
dealt with the early history of the family in his Die Walsingham bis
zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Heidelberg, 1905). Vast masses of
Walsingham's correspondence are preserved in the Record Office and
the British Museum; some have been epitomized in the Foreign
Calendar (as far as 1582) ; and his correspondence during his two
embassies to France was published in exlenso by Sir Dudley Digges in
1655 under the title The Compleat Ambassador, possibly, as has been
suggested by Dr Stahlin, to give a fillip to the similar policy then
being pursued by Oliver Cromwell. The ascription to Sir Francis of
Arcana Aulica: or Walsingham's Manual of Prudential Maxims for
the Statesman and the Courtier is erroneous; the book is really the
translation of a French treatise by one Edward Walsingham who
flourished c. 1643-1659. See also Webb, Miller and Beckwith's
History of Chislehurst (1899) and Diet. Nat. Biog. lix. 231-240.
WALSINGHAM, THOMAS WALTER, JOHN
Mr Conyers Read, who edited the Bardon Papers (" Camden " ser.
1909), relating to Mary's trial, was in 1910 engaged on an elaborate
life of Walsingham, part of which the present water was able to see
in MS. (A- F. P-)
WALSINGHAM, THOMAS (d. c. 1422), English chronicler,
was probably educated at the abbey of St Albans and at Oxford.
He became a monk at St Albans, where he appears to have
passed the whole of his monastic life except the six years between
1394 and 1400 during which he was prior of another Benedictine
house at Wymondham, Norfolk. At St Albans he was in charge
of the scriptorium, or writing room, and he died about 1422.
Walsingham's most important work is his Historia Anglir.ana,
a valuable piece of work covering the period between 1272 and
1422. Some authorities hold that Walsingham himself only
wrote the section between 1377 and 1392, but this view is con-
troverted by James Gairdner in his Early chroniclers of Europe
(1879).
The Historia, which from the beginning to 1377 is largely a com-
pilation from earlier chroniclers, was published by Matthew Parker in
1574 as Historia Angliae brevis. For the " Rolls " series it has been
edited in two volumes by H.T. Riley (1863-1864). Covering some of
the same ground Walsingham wrote a Chronicon Angliae; this deals
with English history from 1328 to 1388 and has been edited by Sir
E. M. Thompson for the " Rolls" series (1874). His other writings in-
clude the Gesta abbatum monasterii S. Albani and the Ypodigma
Neustriae. ThcGesta is a history of the abbots of St Albans trom the
foundation of the abbey to 1381. The original work of Walsingham
is the period between 1308 and 1381, the earlier part being merely a
compilation ; it has been edited for the " Rolls " series by H. T. Riley
(1867-1869). The Ypodigma purports to be a history of the dukes of
Normandy, but it also contains some English history and its value
is not great. Compiled about 1419, it was dedicated to Henry V.
and was written to justify this king's invasion of France. It was first
published by Matthew Parker in 1574, and has been edited for the
" Rolls " series by H . T. Riley ( 1 876) . Another history of England by
Walsingham dealing with the period between 1272 and 1393 is in
manuscript in the British Museum. This agrees in many particulars
with the Chronicon Angliae, but it is much less hostile to John of
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. Walsingham is the main authority for the
history of England during the reigns of Richard II., Henry IV. and
Henry V., including the rising under Wat Tyler in 1381. He shows
considerable animus against John Wycliffe and the Lollards.
WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205), chief justiciar of England and
archbishop of Canterbury, was a relative of Ranulf de Glanvill,
the great justiciar of Henry II., and rose under the eye of his
kinsman to an important position in the Curia Regis. In 1184
and in 1185 he appears as a baron of the exchequer. He was
employed, sometimes as a negotiator, sometimes as a justice,
sometimes as a royal secretary. He received no clerical pro-
motion from Henry II., but Richard I. appointed him bishop of
Salisbury, and by Richard's command he went with the third
crusade to the Holy Land. He gained the respect of all the
crusaders, and acted as Richard's principal agent in all negotia-
tions with Saladin, being given a place in the first band of pilgrims
that entered Jerusalem. He led the English army back to
England after Richard's departure from Palestine; but in
Sicily he heard of the king's captivity, and hurried to join him in
Germany. In 1193 he returned to England to raise the king's
ransom. Soon afterwards he was elected archbishop of Canter-
bury and made justiciar. He was very successful in the govern-
ment of the kingdom, and after Richard's last visit he was practic-
ally the ruler of England. He had no light task to keep pace
with the king's constant demand lor money. He was compelled
to work the administrative machinery to its utmost, and indeed
to invent new methods of extortion. To pay for Richard's
ransom, he had already been compelled to tax personal property,
the first instance of such taxation for secular purposes. The
main feature of all his measures was the novel and extended use
of representation and election for all the purposes of government.
His chief measures are contained in his instruction to the itinerant
justices of 1194 and 1198, in his ordinance of 1195 for the con-
servation of the peace, and in his scheme of 1198 for the assess-
ment of the carucage. The justices of 1194 were to order the
election of four coroners by the suitors of each county court.
These new officers were to " keep," i.e. to register, the pleas of
the crown, an important duty hitherto left to the sheriff. The
juries, both for answering the questions asked by the judges and
295
for trying cases under the grand assize, were to be chosen by a
committee of four knights, also elected by the suitors of each
county court for that purpose. In 1195 Hubert issued an
ordinance by which four knights were to be appointed in every
hundred to act as guardians of the peace, and from this humble
beginning eventually was evolved the office of justice of the
peace. His reliance upon the knights, or middle-class land-
owners, who now for the first time appear in the political fore-
ground, is all the more interesting because it is this class who,
either as members of parliament or justices of the peace, were to
have the effective rule of England in their hands for so many
centuries. In 1198, to satisfy the king's demand for money,
Hubert demanded a carucage or plough-tax of five shillings on
every plough-land (carucate) under cultivation. This was the
old tax, the Danegeld, in a new and heavier form and there
was great difficulty in levying it. To make it easier, the justiciar
ordered the assessment to be made by a sworn jury in every
hundred, and one may reasonably conjecture that these jurors
were also elected. Besides these important constitutional changes
Hubert negotiated a peace with Scotland in 1195, and in 1197
another with the Welsh. But Richard had grown dissatisfied
with him, for the carucage had not been a success, and Hubert
had failed to overcome the resistance of the Great Council when
its members refused to equip a force of knights to serve abroad.
In 1198 Hubert, who had inherited from his predecessors in the
primacy a fierce quarrel with the Canterbury monks, gave these
enemies an opportunity of complaining to the pope, for in
arresting the London demagogue, William Fitz Osbert, he had
committed an act of sacrilege in Bow Church, which belonged
to the monks. The pope asked Richard to free Hubert from all
secular duties, and he did so. thus making the demand an excuse
for dismissing Hubert from the justiciarship. On the zyth of
May 1199 Hubert crowned John, making a speech in which the
old theory of election by the people was enunciated for the last
time. He also took the office of chancellor and cheerfully worked
under Geoffrey Fitz Peter, one of bis former subordinates. In
1 201 he went on a diplomatic mission to Philip Augustus of
France, and in 1202 he returned to England to keep the kingdom
in peace while John was losing his continental possessions. In
1205 he died. Hubert was an ingenious, original and industrious
public servant, but he was grasping and perhaps dishonest.
See W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i. (1897); Miss K.
Norgate's England under the Angevin Kings, vol. ii. (1887); W.
Stubbs, preface to vol. iv. of Roger of Hoveden's Chronidt (" Rolls"
series, 1868-1871).
WALTER, JOHN (1738/9-1812), founder of The Times
newspaper, London, was bom in 1738/9, probably in London,
and from the death of his father, Richard Walter (about 1755/6),
until 1781 was engaged in a prosperous business as a coal
merchant. He played a leading part in establishing a Coal
Exchange in London; but shortly after 1781, when he began to
occupy himself solely as an underwriter and became a member
of Lloyd's, be over-speculated and failed. In 1782 he bought
from one Henry Johnson a patent for a new method of printing
from " logotypes " (i.e. founts of words or portions of words,
instead of letters), and made some improvements in it. In 1784
he acquired an old printing office in Blackfriars, which formed
the nucleus of the Printing-house Square of a later date, and
established there his " Logographic Office." At first he only
undertook the printing of books, but on ist January 1785
he started a small newspaper called The Daily Universal Register,
which on reaching its O4oth number on ist January 1788 was
renamed The Times. The printing business developed and
prospered, but the newspaper at first had a somewhat chequered
career. In 1789 Mr Walter was tried for a libel in it on the
duke of York, and was sentenced to a fine of 50, a year's
imprisonment in Newgate, to stand in the pillory for an hour
and to give surety for good behaviour for seven years; and for
further libels the fine was increased by 100, and the imprison-
ment by a second year. On 9th March 1791, however, he was
liberated and pardoned. In 1799 he was again convicted for
a technical libel, this time on Lord Cowper. He had then given
296
WALTER, LUCY
up the management of the business to his eldest son, William,
and had (1795) retired to Teddington, where he died, i6th
November 1812. In 1759 he had married Frances Landen
(died 1798), by whom he had six children. William Walter very
soon gave up the duties he undertook in 1795, and in 1803
transferred the sole management of the business to his younger
brother, John.
JOHN WALTER (2) (1776-1847), who really established the
great newspaper of which his father had sown the seed, was born
on the 23rd of February 1776, and was educated at Merchant
Taylors' School and Trinity College, Oxford. About 1798 he was
associated with his elder brother in the management of his
father's business, and in 1803 became not only sole manager but
also editor of The Times. The second John Walter was a very
remarkable man, the details of whose practice would be extremely
interesting if we could recover them. But the conditions of
newspaper work at that time, together with the natural reticence
of one born to do, not to talk about doing, drew over his opera-
tions a veil of secrecy which there are now no means of penetrat-
ing. His greatness must be measured by the work he did. He
found The Times one of a number of unconsidered journals whose
opinions counted for little, and whose intelligence lagged far
behind official reports, the accuracy of which they had no
independent means of checking. He found it unregarded by the
great except when a stringent law of libel enabled them to
inflict vindictive punishment in the pillory and in prison for what
in our days is ordinary political criticism. He left it in 1847 a
great organ of public opinion, deferred to and even feared
throughout Europe, consulted and courted by cabinet ministers
at home, and in intimate relations with the best sources of inde-
pendent information in every European capital. The man who,
alone among contemporaries of older standing and with better
opportunities, raised a struggling newspaper to a position such
as no other journal has ever attained or is likely to attain in
future, needs no further attestation of his exceptional ability
and character. The secret of an achievement of that unique
kind is incommunicable. Yet we may note some at least of the
elements of John Walter's monumental success. From his
father he inherited a fearless and perhaps slightly aggressive
independence, to which he joined a steady and tireless energy
and a concentration of purpose which are less conspicuous in his
father's career. He had been associated with his brother in the
management of the paper for five years before he took entire
control and became his own editor in 1803. In the same year
he signalized the new spirit of the direction by his opposition to
Pitt, which cost him the withdrawal of government advertise-
ments and the loss of his appointment as printer to the Customs,
besides exposing him to the not too scrupulous hostility of the
official world. These were undoubtedly serious discouragements
in the circumstances of that day. In John Walter's way of
meeting them we find a principle upon which he consistently
acted through life, and which goes far to explain his success.
He never allowed himself to be diverted from the pursuit of a
great though distant object by any petty calculation of immediate
gain or loss. He had set himself to build up a journal which all
the world should recognize as independent of government favour,
and which governments themselves should be compelled to
respect and reckon with. He was not going to barter that
splendid inheritance for to-day's mess of pottage, so he let the
government do its worst and held on his way. At times the way
must have been hard and the anxiety great, but great also was
the reward. For the public in ever-widening circles received
assurance, in an age of considerable literary and political servility,
of a man who could not be bought, and a newspaper that could
be neither hoodwinked nor terrorized. His determination to
avoid even the appearance of being amenable to influence was
forcibly illustrated when the king of Portugal sent him, through
the Portuguese ambassador, a service of gold plate. It was a
princely gift, and a flattering testimony to the European reputa-
tion and authority of his newspaper. Mr Walter promptly
returned it, courteously recognizing the honourable motives of the
giver, but stating that to accept the gift would place him under
a sense of obligation incompatible with the perfect independence
of thought and action which he desired to maintain. It was the
same jealous regard for the complete independence of The Times
that led him to insist, as he did with remarkable success, upon the
strict anonymity of the able men whom he selected with the eye
of a general to act as his coadjutors. From about 1810 he
delegated to others editorial" supervision (first to Sir John
Stoddart, then to Thomas Barnes, and in 1841 to J. T. Delane),
though never the supreme direction of policy. Their influence
was essentially due to the fact that they had a great newspaper
behind them, and behind the great newspaper was the remarkable
man who made it, and never ceased from giving it inspiration
and direction. To unassailable independence, inflexible integrity
and sure sagacity he added complete business knowledge of
details, a sound judgment of men and things, and untiring energy
in the pursuit of excellence in literary quality, in typography (see
PRINTING), in mechanical appliances, and in the organization
for the collection of news. These are the things that went to the
making of The Times, and the measure of the greatness of the
second John Walter is that he supplied them all. In 1832 Mr
Walter, who had purchased an estate called Bear Wood, in
Berkshire (where his son afterwards built the present house),
was elected to Parliament for that county, and retained his seat
till 1837. In 1841 he was returned to Parliament for Notting-
ham, but was unseated next year on petition. He was twice
married, and by his second wife, Mary Smythe, had a family.
He died in London on the 28th of July 1847.
JOHN WALTER (3) (1818-1894), his eldest son, was born at
Printing-house Square in 1818, and was educated at Eton and
Exeter College, Oxford, being called to the bar in 1847. On
leaving Oxford he took part in the business management of The
Times, and on his father's death became sole manager, though
he devolved part of the work on Mr Mowbray Morris. He was
a man of scholarly tastes and serious religious views, and his
conscientious character had a marked influence on the tone of
the paper. It was under him that the successive improvements
in the printing machinery, begun by his father in 1814, at last
reached the stage of the " Walter Press " in 1869, the pioneer
of modern newspaper printing-presses. In 1847 he was elected
to Parliament for Nottingham as a moderate Liberal, and was
re-elected in 1852 and in 1857. In 1859 he was returned for
Berkshire, and though defeated in 1865, was again elected in
1868, and held the seat till he retired in 1885. He died on the
3rd of November 1894. He was twice married, first in 1842 to
Emily Frances Court (d. 1858), and secondly in 1861 to Flora
Macnabb. His eldest son by the first marriage, John, was
accidentally drowned at Bear Wood in 1870; and he was
succeeded by Mr Arthur Fraser Walter (1846-1910), his second
son by the first .marriage. Mr A. F. Walter remained chief
proprietor of The Times till 1908, when it was converted into a
company. He then became chairman of the board of directors,
and on his death was succeeded in this position by his son John.
See NEWSPAPERS: Modern London Newspapers (The Times), for
the history of the paper. (H. CH.)
WALTER, LUCY (c. 1630-1658), mistress of the English king
Charles II. and reputed mother of the duke of Monmouth (?..),
is believed to have been born in 1630, or a little later, at Roch
Castle, near Haverfordwest. The Walters were a Welsh family
of good standing, who declared for the king during the Civil War.
Roch Castle having been captured and burned by the parlia-
mentary forces in 1644, Lucy Walter found shelter first in
London and then at the Hague. There, hi 1648, she met the
future king, possibly renewing an earlier acquaintance. There
is little reason for believing the story that she was his first
mistress; it is certain that he was not her first lover. The
intimacy between him and this " brown, beautiful, bold but
insipid creature," as John Evelyn calls her, who chose to be
known as Mrs Barlow (Barlo) lasted with intervals till the
autumn of 1651, and Charles claimed the paternity of a child
born in 1649, whom he subsequently created duke of Monmouth.
A daughter, Mary (b. 1651), of whom the reputed father was
Henry Bennet, earl of Arlington, married William Sarsfield,
WALTER OF COVENTRY WALTHAM ABBEY
297
brother of Patrick Sarsfield, earl of Lucan. On the termination
of her connexion with Charles II., Lucy Walter abandoned herself
to a life of promiscuous immorality, which resulted in her
premature death, at Paris, in 1658. Her name is often wrongly
written Walters or Waters.
See Steinmann, Althorp Memoirs (1869), pp. 77 seq. and Addenda
(1880); J. S. Clarke, Life of James II. (2 vols., 1816); Clarendon
State Papers, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1869-1876); and John Evelyn, Diary,
edited by W. Bray (1890).
WALTER OF COVENTRY (fl. 1290), English monk and
chronicler, who was apparently connected with a religious house
in the province of York, is known to us only through the historical
compilation which bears his name, the Memoriale fratris Walteri
de Coventria. The word Memoriale is usually taken to mean
" commonplace book." Some critics interpret it in the sense
of " a souvenir," and argue that Walter was not the author but
merely the donor of the book; but the weight of authority is
against this view. The author of the Memoriale lived in the
reign of Edward I., and mentions the homage done to Edward
as overlord of Scotland (1291). Since the main narrative
extends only to 1225, the Memoriale is emphatically a second-
hand production. But for the years 1201-1225 it is a faithful
transcript of a. contemporary chronicle, the work of a Barnwell
canon. A complete text of the Barnwell work is preserved in
the College of Arms (Heralds' College, MS. 10) but has never yet
been printed, though it was collated by Bishop Stubbs for his
edition of the Memoriale. The Barnwell annalist, living in
Cambridgeshire, was well situated to observe the events of the
barons' war, and is our most valuable authority for that import-
ant crisis. He is less hostile to John than are Ralph of Coggeshall,
Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris. He praises the king's
management of the Welsh and Scotch wars; he is critical in his
attitude towards the pope and the English opposition; he
regards the submission of John to Rome as a skilful stroke
of policy, although he notes the fact that some men called it
a humiliation. The constitutional agitation of 1215 does not
arouse his enthusiasm; he passes curtly over the Runnymede
conference, barely mentions Magna Carta, and blames the
barons for the resumption of war. It may be from timidity that
the annalist avoids attacking John, but it is more probable that
the middle classes, whom he represents, regarded the designs of
the feudal baronage with suspicion.
See W. Stubbs's edition of Walter of Coventry (" Rolls " series,
2 vols., 1872-1873); R. Pauli, in Geschichte von England (Hamburg,
1853), iii. 872. (H. W. C. D.)
WALTERSHAUSEN, WOLFGANG SARTORIUS, BARON VON
(1809-1876), German geologist, was born at Gottingen, on the
I7th of December 1809, and educated at the university in that
city. There he devoted his attention to physical and natural
science, and in particular to mineralogy. During a tour in 1834-
1835 he carried out a series of magnetic observations in various
parts of Europe. He then gave his attention to an exhaustive
investigation of Etna, and carried on the work with some inter-
ruptions until 1843. The chief result of this undertaking was his
great A tlas des Atna (1858-1861), in which he distinguished the lava
streams formed during the later centuries. After his return from
Etna he visited Iceland, and subsequently published Physisoh-
geographische Skizze von Island (1847), Vber die vulkanischen
Gesteine in Sicilien und Island (1853), and Geologischer Atlas von
Island (1853). Meanwhile he was appointed professor of miner-
alogy and geology at Gottingen, and held this post for about
thirty years, until his death. In 1866 he published an important
essay entitled Recherches sur les climats de I'ipoque actuelle et des
epoques anciennes; in this he expressed his belief that the Glacial
period was due to changes in the configuration of the earth's
surface. He died at Gottingen on the i6th of October 1876.
WALTHAM, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on both banks of the Charles river, about 10 m. W. of
Boston. Pop. (1800) 18,707; (1900) 23,481, of whom 6695
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 27,834. Waltham is served
by the Boston & Maine railway, and by electric interurban lines
connecting with Boston, Lowell, Lexington, Watertown and
Newton. It is situated on a series of rugged hills rising from the
river. Prospect Hill (482 ft.) commands a magnificent view. A
tract of 100 acres, comprising this hill and an adjoining elevation,
has been set aside as a public park by the city; and there are
four playgrounds (total area, 62 j acres) and, in the centre of the
city, a large common. In Waltham are some 43 acres of the
Beaver Brook Reservation and 40 acres of the Charles River
Reservation of the Metropolitan park system; in the former are
the famous " Waverley Oaks." The Gore Mansion, erected
towards the close of the i8th century by Christopher Gore
(1758-1829), a prominent lawyer and Federalist leader, governor
of Massachusetts in 1809-1810, and a member of the United
States- Senate in 1814-1817, is a stately country house surrounded
by extensive grounds in which are fine old oaks and elms.
Above the city the Charles, river is famous as a canoeing ground,
and there is an annual canoe carnival between Waltham and
Riverside, one of the most popular resorts in the neighbourhood
of Boston. The city has a good public library (about 35,000
volumes in 1910). Its principal buildings are a state armoury,
and the First Parish (Unitarian), Christ (Protestant Episcopal),
the Swedenborgian, the First Baptist and Beth Eden (Baptist)
churches. Waltham is the seat of the Massachusetts School
for the Feeble-minded (established in Boston in 1848), the first
institution of its sort in the country, and of the Waltham Train-
ing School for Nurses (1885), the first school to undertake the
training of nurses for " day nursing " (outside of hospital wards)
on the present plan, of the Convent of Notre Dame and the Notre
Dame Normal Training School (Roman Catholic), of the New
Church School (New Jerusalem Church), of two business schools,
and the Waltham Horological School (1870), a school for practical
watchmaking and repairing; here also are the Waltham Hospital
(1885), the Baby Hospital (1002) and the Leland Home (1879)
for aged women. In 1905 the city's factory product was valued
at $7,149,697 (21-4% more than in 1900). The largest single
establishment was that of the American Waltham Watch
Company, which has here the largest watch factory in the world,
with an annual production of about a million watches. Watch
and clock materials were valued at $123,885 in 1905. In 1905
cotton goods were second in value to watches; and third were
foundry and machine-shop products ($5 16,067) Other products
are automobiles, wagons and carriages, bicycles, canoes, organs
and enamelled work.
The first white settlement was made about 1640 and in 1691
became the Middle Precinct of Watertown. In 1 738 the township
of Waltham was separately organized. At various times it was
increased in area, part of Cambridge being added in 1755 and
part of Newton in 1849. ' In 1859 one of its precincts was set off
to form part of the new township of Belmont. In 1884 Waltham
was chartered as a city. The first power mill for the manufacture
of cotton cloth in the United States was established here in 1814
as an experiment by the company which built the mills and the
city of Lowell. Waltham became an important manufacturing
city in the decade before the American Civil War, when the
company which in 1853 made the first American machine-
made watches moved hither from Roxbury and established the
Waltham watch industry. This watch company, before the
establishment of the U.S. Observatory at Washington and the
transmission thence of true time throughout the country by
electric telegraph, had an elaborate observatory for testing and
setting its watches.
WALTHAH ABBEY, or WALTHAM HOLY CROSS, a market
town in the Epping parliamentary division of Essex, England,
on the Lea, and on the Cambridge branch of the Great Eastern
railway, 13 m. N. by E. from London. Pop. of urban district of
Waltham Holy Cross (1901) 6549. The neighbouring county of
the Lea valley is flat and unlovely, but to the E. and N.E. low
hills rise in the direction of Hainault and Epping Forests. Of
the former magnificent cruciform abbey church the only portion
of importance now remaining is the nave, forming the present
parish church, the two easternmost bays being converted into
the chancel. It is a very fine specimen of ornate Norman.
Only the western supports of the ancient tower now remain.
A tower corresponding with the present size of the church was
298
WALTHAMSTOW WALTHARIUS
erected in 1556 and restored in 1798. On the south side of the
church is a lady chapel dating from the end of the reign of
Edward II. or the beginning of that of Edward III., containing
some good Decorated work, with a crypt below. Of the monastic
buildings there remain only a bridge and gateway and ether
slight fragments. Bishop Hall became curate of Waltham in
1612, and Thomas Fuller was curate from 1648 to 1658. At
Waltham Cross, about i m. W. of Waltham in Hertfordshire,
is the beautiful cross erected (1291-1294) by Edward I. at one
of the resting-places of the corpse of Queen Eleanor on its way
to burial in Westminster Abbey. It is of Caen stone and is
supposed to have been designed by Pietro Cavallini, a Roman
sculptor. It is hexagonal in plan and consists of three stages,
decreasing towards the top, which is finished by a crocketed
spirelet and cross. The lower stage is divided into compartments
enclosing the arms of England, Castile and Leon, and'Ponthieu.
Its restoration has not been wholly satisfactory. The royal gun-
powder factory is in the immediate vicinity; government works
were built in 1890 at Quinton Hill, \ m. W. of the town, for
the manufacture of cordite; and the town possesses gun-cotton
and percussion-cap factories, flour-mills, malt kilns and breweries.
Watercresses are largely grown in the neighbourhood, and there
are extensive market gardens and nurseries.
The town probably grew up round the church, which was built
early in the nth century to contain a portion of the true cross.
The manor was held by the abbot and convent of the Holy Cross
from the reign of Henry I. to that of Henry VIII. The town was
never more than a market town until 1894. In 1845 a local
board of twelve members was formed to govern it; in 1894,
under the Local Government Act, it was brought under an urban
district council. The market of Waltham was granted to the
abbey by Richard I. and confirmed in 1227 by Henry III., who
also conceded two fairs in 1251: one for ten days following the
Invention of the Holy Cross, the other on the vigil of the Exalta-
tion of the Cross and for seven days after. The charter from
which the present market appears to be derived was granted by
Queen Elizabeth in 1 560, and gave a Tuesday market for miscel-
laneous stock. The fairs have died out, although as late as 1792
they were held on the i4th of May and the 2sth and 26th of
September. The fisheries in the river Lea appear in records
from 1086 onwards. At the end of the I7th century a fulling
mill is mentioned, and by the year 1721 three powder mills were
in existence.
WALTHAMSTOW, a suburb of London in the Walthamstow
parliamentary division of Essex, England, a short distance E.
of the river Lea, with several stations on a branch of the Great
Eastern railway, 6 -m. N. of Liverpool Street station. Pop. of
urban district (1891) 46,346; (1901) 95,131. It is sheltered on
the north and east by low hills formerly included in Epping
Forest. The church of St Mary existed at a very early period,
but the present building, chiefly of brick, was erected in 1535
by Robert Thorne, a merchant, and Sir George Monoux, lord
mayor of London, and has undergone frequent alteration.
Besides other old brasses it contains in the north aisle the
effigies in brass of Sir George Monoux (d. 1543) and Anne his wife.
There are a number of educational institutions, including a school
of art; Forest School, founded in 1834 in connexion with
King's College, now ranks as one of the well-known English
public schools. Brewing is extensively carried on.
In the reign of Edward the Confessor Walthamstow belonged
to Waltheof , son of Siward, earl of Northumberland, who married
Judith, niece of William the Conqueror, who betrayed him to his
death in 1075. The estate subsequently passed in 1309 to Guy
de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, and on the attainder of Earl
Thomas in 1396 reverted to the crown. Afterwards it came
into the possession of Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset; from
the Somersets it passed to Sir George Rodney, and in 1639 came
to the Maynard family. It is supposed to have been the birthplace
of George Gascoigne the poet (d. 1577). Sir William Batten,
commissioner of the navy (d. 1667), the friend of Pepys, had his
seat at Walthamstow, and was frequently visited here by
Pepys.
WALTHARIUS, a Latin poem founded on German popular
tradition, relates the exploits of the west Gothic hero Walter of
Aquitaine. Our knowledge of the author, Ekkehard, a monk
of St Gall, is due to a later Ekkehard, known as Ekkehard IV.
(d. 1060), who gives some account of him in the Casus Sancti
Galli (cap. 80). The poem was written by Ekkehard, generally
distinguished as Ekkehard I., for his master Geraldus in his
schooldays, probably therefore not later than 920, since he*was
probably no longer young when he became deacon (in charge of
ten monks) in 957. He died in 973. Waltharius was dedicated
by Geraldus to Erchanbald, bishop of Strassburg (fl. 965-991),
but MSS. of it were in circulation before that time. Ekkehard IV.
stated that he corrected the Latin of the poem, the Germanisms
of which offended his patron Aribo, archbishop of Mainz. The
poem was probably based on epic songs now lost, so that if the
author was still in his teens when he wrote it he must have
possessed considerable and precocious powers.
Walter was the son of Alphere, ruler of Aquitaine, which in the
5th century, when the legend developed, was a province of the west
Gothic Spanish kingdom. When Attila invaded the west the
western princes are represented as making no resistance. They
purchased peace by offering tribute and hostages. King Gibich,
here described as a Prankish king, gave Hagen as a hostage
(of Trojan race, but not, as in the Nibelungenlied, a kinsman of
the royal house) in place of his infant son Gunther; the Bur-
gundian king Heririh, his daughter Hiltegund; and Alphere, his
son Walter. Hagen and Walter became brotheis in arms,
fighting at the head of Attila's armies, while Hiltegund was put
in charge of the queen's treasure. Presently Gunther succeeded
his father and refused to pay tribute to the Huns, whereupon
Hagen fled from Attila's court. Walter and Hiltegund, who had
been betrothed in childhood, also madegood their escape during a
drunken feast of the Huns, taking with them a great treasure.
The story of their flight forms one of the most charming pictures
of old German story. They were recognized at Worms, however,
where the treasure excited the cupidity of Gunther. Taking
with him twelve knights, among them the reluctant Hagen,
he pursued them, and overtook them at the Wasgenstein in the
Vosges mountains. Walter engaged the Nibelungen knights
one at a time, until all were slain but Hagen, who held aloof
from the battle, and was only persuaded by Gunther to attack his
comrade in arms on the second day. He lured Walter from the
strong position of the day before, and both Gunther and Hagen
attacked at once. All three were incapacitated, but their wounds
were bound up by Hiltegund and they separated friends.
The essential part of this story is the series of single combats.
The occasional incoherences of the tale make it probable that
many changes have been introduced in the legend. The Thidreks
Saga (chaps. 241-244) makes the story more probable by repre-
senting the pursuers as Huns. There is reason to believe that
Hagen was originally the father of Hiltegund, and that the tale
was a variant of the saga of Hild as told in the Skaldskaparmdl.
Hild, daughter of King Hogni, was carried off by Hedinn, son of
Hjarrandi (A.S. Heorrenda). The fight between the forces of
father and lover only ceased at sundown, to be renewed on the
morrow, since each evening Hild raised the dead by her incanta-
tions. This is obviously a form of the old myth of the daily
recurring struggle between light and darkness. The songs sung
by Hiltegund in Waltharius during her night watches were
probably incantations, a view strengthened by the fact that in a
Polish version the glance of Helgunda is said to have inspired the
combatants with new strength. Hiltegund has retained nothing
of Hild's fierceness, but the fragment of the Anglo-Saxon Waldere
shows more of the original spirit. In Waltharius Hiltegund
advises Walter to fly; in Waldere she urges him to the combat.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Waltharius was first edited by Fischer (Leipzig,
1780). Later and more critical editions are by Jacob Grimm (Lai.
Gedichle des Mittelalters (Gottingen, 1838); R. Peiper (Berlin, 1873);
V. Scheffel and A. Holder (Stuttgart, 1874); there are German
translations by F. Linnig (Paderborn, 1885), and H. Althof (Leipzig.
1896). See also ScheffeT's novel of Eckehard (Stuttgart, 1887). The
A.S. fragments of Waldere were first edited by G. Stephens (1860),
afterwards by R. Wtilker in Bibl. der angel-sdchs. Poesie (vol. i.,
WALTHEOF WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE
299
Cassel, 1881); by F. Holthausen in Goteborgs Hogskolas Arsskrift
(vol. v., 1899), with autotype reproductions of the two leaves which
have been preserved. See also A. Ebert, Allg. Gesch. der Lit. des
Afiitelalters im Abendlande (Leipzig, 1874-1887); R. Koegel, Gesch.
der deutschen Literatur bis turn A usgange des Mittelalters (vol. i., pt. ii.,
Strassburg, 1897); M. D. Larned, The Saga of Walter of Aquitaine
(Baltimore, 1892) ; B. Symons, Deutsche Heldensage (Strassburg,
1905). With Waltharius compare the Scottish ballads of " Earl
Brand " and " Erlinton " (F. J. Child's English and Scottish Popular
Ballads, i. 88 seq.).
WALTHEOF. (d. 1076), earl of Northumbria, was a son cf Earl
Siward of Northumbria, and, although he was probably educated
for a monastic life, became earl of Huntingdon and Northampton
about 1065. After the battle of Hastings he submitted to William
the Conqueror; but when the Danes invaded the north of
England in 1069 he joined them and took part in the attack on
York, only, however, to make a fresh submission after their
departure in 1070. Then, restored to his earldom, he married
William's niece, Judith, and in 1072 was appointed earl of
Northumbria. In 1075 Waltheof joined the conspiracy against
the king arranged by the earls of Norfolk and Hereford; but soon
repenting of his action he confessed his guilt to Archbishop
Lanfranc, and then to William, who was in Normandy. Re-
turning to England with William he was arrested, and after being
brought twice before the king's court was sentenced to death.
On the 3ist of May 1076 he was beheaded on St Giles's Hill,
near Winchester. Weak and unreliable in character, Waltheof,
like his father, is said to have been a man of immense bodily
strength. Devout and charitable, he was regarded by the English
as a martyr, and miracles were said to have been worked at his
tomb at Crowland. The earl left three daughters, the eldest
of whom, Matilda, brought the earldom of Huntingdon to her
second husband, David I., king of Scotland. One of Waltheof 's
grandsons was Waltheof (d. 1159), abbot of Melrose.
See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. ii., iii. and iv.
(1870-1876).
WALTHER, BERNHARD (1430-1504), German astronomer,
was born at Nuremberg in 1430. He was a man of large means,
which he devoted to scientific pursuits. When Regiomontanus
(q.v.) settled at Nuremberg in 1471, Walther built for their
common use an observatory at which in 1484 clocks driven by
weights were first used in astronomical determinations. He
further brought into prominence the effects of refraction in alter-
ing the apparent places of the heavenly bodies, and substituted
Venus for the moon as a connecting-link between observations of
the sun and stars. Walther established a printing-press, from
which some of the earliest editions of astronomical works were
issued. His observations, begun in 1475 and continued until his
death in May 1504, were published by j. Schoner in 1544, and by
W. Snell in 1618, as an appendix to his Obsenationes Hassiaceae.
See J. G. Doppelmayr, Hist. Nachricht von den nurnbergischen
Mathematicis, p. 23 (1730); G. A. Will, Nurnbergisches Gelehrten-
Lexikon, vii. 381 (1806); J. F. Montucla, Hist, des mathematiques, i.
546; J. S. Bailly, Hist, de I'astr. moderne, i. 319; E. F. Apelt, Die
Reformation der Sternkunde, p. 54; J. P. von Wurzelbaur, Uranies
Noricae basis astronomica (1719); J. F. Weidler, Hist.astronomiae,
p. 322 ; A. G. Kastner, Geschichte der Mathematik, ii. 324 ; Mit-
teilungen des Vereins fur Gesch. der Stadt Numbers,, vii. zvi (1888)
(H. Petz); R. Wolf, Gesch. der Astr. p. 92, &c.
WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE (c. ii7o-c. 1230), the.
most celebrated of medieval German lyric poets. For all his
fame, Walther's name is not found in contemporary records,
with the exception of a solitary mention in the travelling ac-
counts of Bishop Wolfger of Passau " Walthero cantori de
Vogelweide pro pellicio V. solidos longos " " To Walther the
singer of the Vogelweide five shillings to buy a fur coat," and
the main sources of information about him are his own poems
and occasional references by contemporary Minnesingers. It is
clear from the title her (Herr, Sir) these give him, that he was
of noble birth; but it is equally clear from his name Vogelweide
(Lat. aviarium, a gathering place or preserve of birds) that he
belonged not to the higher nobility, who took their titles from
castles or villages, but to the nobility of service (Dienstadel) ,
humble retainers of the great lords, who in wealth and position
were little removed from -non-noble free cultivators. For a
long time the place of his birth was a matter of dispute, until
Professor Franz Pfeiffer established beyond reasonable doubt
that he was born in the Wipthal in Tirol, where, not far from
the little town of Sterzing on the Eisak, a wood called the
Vorder- und Hintervogelweide preserves at least the name
of his vanished home. This origin would account for what is
known of Walther's early life. Tirol was at this time the home
of several noted Minnesingers; and the court of Vienna, under
the enlightened duke Frederick I. of the house of Babenberg,
had become a centre of poetry and art. Here it was that the
young poet learned his craft under the renowned master Reinmar
the Old, whose death he afterwards lamented in two of his most
beautiful lyrics; and in the open handed duke he found his
first patron. This happy period of his life, during which he pro-
duced the most charming and spontaneous of his love-lyrics,
came to an end with the death of Duke Frederick in 1198.
Henceforward Walther was a wanderer from court to court,
singing for his lodging and his bread, and ever hoping that some
patron would arise to save him from this " juggler's life " (gougd-
fuore) and the shame of ever playing the guest. For material
success in this profession he was hardly calculated. His criti-
cism of men and manners was scathing; and even when this
did not touch his princely patrons, their underlings often took
measures to rid themselves of so uncomfortable a censor. Thus
he was forced to leave the court of the generous duke Bernhard
of Carinthia (1202-1256); after an experience of the tumultuous
household of the landgrave of Thuringia he warns those who
have weak ears to give it a wide berth; and after three years
at the court of Dietrich I. of Meissen (reigned 1195-1221) he
complains that he had received for his services neither money
nor praise. Walther was, in fact, a man of strong views; and
it is this which gives him his main significance in history, as
distinguished from his place in literature. From the moment
when the death of the emperor Henry VI. (1197) opened the
fateful struggle between empire and papacy, Walther threw
himself ardently into the fray on the side of German independ-
ence and unity. Though his religious poems sufficiently prove
the sincerity of his Catholicism, he remained to the end of his
days opposed to the extreme claims of the popes, whom he
attacks with a bitterness which can only be justified by the
strength of his patriotic feelings. His political poems begin
with an appeal to Germany, written in 1198 at Vienna, against
the disruptive ambitions of the princes:
" Crown Philip with the Kaiser's crown
And bid them vex thy peace no more."
He was present, on the 8th of September, at Philip's coronation
at Mainz, and supported him till his victory was assured. After
Philip's murder in 1209, he "said and sang" in support of
Otto of Brunswick against the papal candidate Frederick of
Staufen; and only when Otto's usefulness to Germany had
been shattered by the battle of Bouvines (1212) did he turn
to the rising star of Frederick II., now the sole representative
of German majesty against pope and princes. From the new
emperor his genius and his zeal for the empire at last received
recognition; and a small fief in Franconia was bestowed upon
him, which, though he complained that its value was little, gave
him the home and the fixed position he had so Jong desired.
That Frederick gave him an even more signal mark of his favour
by making him the tutor of his son Henry VII., is more than
doubtful. The fact, in itself highly improbable, rests only upon
the evidence of a single poem, which is capable of another
interpretation. Walther's restless spirit did not suffer him to
remain long on his new property. In 1217 we find him once
more at Vienna, and again in 1219 after the return of Duke
Leopold VI. from the crusade. About 1224 he seems to have
settled on his fief near Wiirzburg. He was active in urging the
German princes to take part in the crusade of 1228, and may
have accompanied the crusading army at least as far as his
native Tirol. In a beautiful and pathetic poem he paints the
change that had come over the scenes of his childhood and made
his life seem a thing dreamed. He died about 1230, and was
buried at Wurzburg, after leaving directions, according to the
300
WALTON, B. WALTON, IZAAK
story, that the birds were to be fed at his tomb daily. The
original gravestone with its Latin inscription has disappeared;
but in 1843 a new monument was erected over the spot. There
is also a fine statue of the poet at Bozen, unveiled in 1877.
Historically interesting as Walther's political verses are,
their merit has been not a little exaggerated by modern German
critics, who saw their own imperial aspirations and anti-papal
prejudices reflected in this patriotic poet of the middle ages.
Of more lasting value are the beautiful lyrics, mainly dealing
with love, which led his contemporaries to hail him as their
master in song (unsers sanges meister). He is of course unequal.
At his worst he does not rise above the tiresome conventionalities
of his school. At his best he shows a spontaneity, a charm and
a facility which his rivals sought in vain to emulate. His earlier
lyrics are full of the joy of life, of feeling for nature and of the
glory of love. Greatly daring, he even rescues love from the
convention which had made it the prerogative of the nobly
born, contrasts the titles " woman " (wtp) and " lady " (Jrofave)
to the disadvantage of the latter, and puts the most beautiful
of his lyrics Unter der linden into the mouth of a simple
girl. A certain seriousness, which is apparent under the joyous-
ness of his earlier work, grew on him with years. Religious and
didactic poems become more frequent; and his verses in praise
of love turn at times to a protest against the laxer standards
of an age demoralized by political unrest. Throughout his
attitude is healthy and sane. He preaches the crusade; but
at the same time he suggests the virtue of toleration, pointing out
that in the worship of God
" Christians, Jews and heathen all agree."
He fulminates against " false love "; but pours scorn on those
who maintain that " love is sin.-" In an age of monastic ideals
and loose morality there was nothing commonplace in the simple
lines in which he sums up the inspiring principle of chivalry at
its best:
" Swer guotes wtbes Hebe hat
Der schamt sich ieder missetat." l
Altogether Walther's poems give us the picture not only of a
great artistic genius, but of a Strenuous, passionate, very human
and very lovable character.
The Gedichte were edited by Karl Lachmann (1827). This edition
of the great scholar was re-edited by M. Haupt (3rd ed., 1853).
Walther v. d. Vogelweide, edited by Franz Pfeiffer, with introduction
and notes (4th edition, by Karl Bartsch, Leipzig, 1873). Glossarium
zu d. Gedichten Walther's, nebst e. Reimverzeichnis, by C. A. Hornig
(Quedlinburg, 1844). There are translations into modern German by
B. Obermann (1886), and into English verse Selected poems of Walter
von der Vogelweide by W. Alison Phillips, with introduction and notes
(London, 1896). The poem Unter der Linden, not included in the
latter, was freely translated by T. L. Beddoes (Works, 1890), more
closely by W. A. Phillips in the Nineteenth Century for July 1896
(ccxxxiii. p. 70). Leben u. Dichten Walther's von der Vogelweide, by
Wilhelm Wilmanns (Bonn, 1882), is a valuable critical study of
the poet's life and works. (W. A. P.)
WALTON, BRIAN (1600-1661), English divine and scholar,
was born at Seymour, in the district of Cleveland, Yorkshire, in
1600. He went to Cambridge as a sizar of Magdalene College in
1616, migrated to Peterhouse in 1618, was bachelor in 1619
and master of arts in 1623. After holding a school mastership
and two curacies, he was made rector of St Martin's Orgar
in London in 1628, where he took a leading part in the
contest between the London clergy and the citizens about the
city tithes, and compiled a treatise on the subject, which is
printed in Brewster's Collectanea (1752). His conduct in this
matter displayed his ability, but his zeal for the exaction of
ecclesiastical dues was remembered in 1641 in the articles
brought against him in parliament, which appear to have led
to the sequestration of his very considerable preferments. 2 He
was also charged with Popish practices, but on frivolous grounds,
and with aspersing the members of parliament for the city.
1 " He who has the love of a good woman
Is ashamed of every misdeed. "
8 He was from January 1635-1636 rector of Sandon, in Essex,
where his first wife, Anne Claxton, is buried. He appears to have
also been a prebendary of St Paul's, and for a very short time he had
held the rectory of St Giles in the Fields.
In 1642 he was ordered into custody as a delinquent; thereafter
lie took refuge in Oxford, and ultimately returned to London
to the house of William Fuller (i 5807-1659) , dean of Ely,
whose daughter Jane was his second wife. In this retirement
be gave himself to Oriental studies and carried through his great
work, a Polyglot Bible which should be completer, cheaper and
provided with a better critical apparatus than any previous
work of the kind (see POLYGLOT) . The proposals for the Polyglot
appeared in 1652, and the book itself came out in six great
folios in 1657, having been printing for five years. Nine lan-
guages are used: Hebrew, Chaldee, Samaritan, Syriac, Arabic,
Persian, Ethiopic, Greek and Latin. Among his collaborators
were James Ussher, John Lightfoot and Edward Pococke,
Edmund Castell, Abraham Wheelocke and Patrick Young.
Thomas Hyde and Thomas Greaves. The great undertaking
was supported by liberal subscriptions, and Walton's political
opinions did not deprive him of the help of the Commonwealth ;
the paper used was freed from duty, and the interest of Crom-
well in the work was acknowledged in the original preface, part
of which was afterwards cancelled to make way for more loyal
expressions towards that restored monarchy under which
Oriental studies in England immediately began to languish.
To Walton himself, however, the Reformation brought no dis-
appointment. He was consecrated bishop of Chester in December
1660. In the following spring he was one of the commissioners
at the Savoy Conference, but took little part in the business. In
the autumn of 1661 he paid a short visit to his diocese, and
returning to London he died on the 2Qth of November.
However much Walton was indebted to his helpers, the Polyglot
Bible is a great monument of industry and of capacity for directing
a vast undertaking, and the Prolegomena (separately reprinted by
Dathe, 1777, and by Francis Wranghan, 1825) show judgment as
well as learning. The same qualities appear in Walton's Considerator
Considered (1659), a reply to the Considerations of John Owen, who
thought that the accumulation of material for the revision of the
received text tended to atheism. Among Walton's works must also
be mentioned an Introductio ad lectionem linguarum orientalium
(1654; 2nd ed., 1655), meant to prepare the way for the Polyglot.
See Henry J. Todd, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Walton
(London, 1821), in 2 vols., of which the second contains a reprint
of Walton's answer to Owen.
WALTON, IZAAK (1593-1683), English writer, author of
The Compleat Angler, was born at Stafford on the 9th of August
1593; the register of his baptism gives his father's name as
Jervis, and nothing more is known of his parentage. He settled
in London as an ironmonger, and at first had one of the small
shops, 75 ft. by 5 ft., in the upper storey of Gresham's Royal
Burse or Exchange in Cornhill. In 1614 he had a shop in Fleet
Street, two doors west of Chancery Lane. Here, in the parish
of St Dunstan's, he gained the friendship of Dr John Donne,
then vicar of that church. His first wife, married in December
1626, was Rachel Floud, a great-great-niece of Archbishop
Cranmer. She died in 1640. He married again soon after, his
second wife being Anne Ken- the pastoral " Kenna " of The
Angler's Wish step-sister of Thomas Ken, afterwards bishop
of Bath and Wells. After the Royalist defeat at Marston Moor,
he retired from business. He had bought some land near his
birthplace, Stafford, and he went to live there; but, according to
Wood, spent most of his time " in the families of the eminent
clergymen of England, of whom he was much beloved " ; and
in 1650 he was again living in Clerkenwell. In 1653 came out
the first edition of his famous book, The Compleat Angler. His
second wife died in 1662, and was buried in Worcester cathedral
church, where there is a monument to her memory. One of his
daughters married Dr Hawkins, a prebendary of Winchester.
The last forty years of his long life seem to have been spent in
ideal leisure and occupation, tne old man travelling here and
there, visiting his " eminent clergymen " and other brethren of
the angle, compiling the biographies of congenial spirits, and
collecting here a little and there a little for the enlargement of
his famous treatise. After 1662 he found a home at Farnham
Castle with George Morley, bishop of Winchester, to whom he
dedicated his Life of George Herbert and also that of Richard
Hooker; and from time to time he visited Charles Cotton in
WALTON-LE-DALE WALTZING MOUSE
301
his fishing house on the Dove. He died in his daughter's house
at Winchester on the isth of December 1683, and was buried
in the cathedral. It is characteristic of his kindly nature that
he left his property at Shalford for the benefit of the poor of his
native town.
Walton hooked a much bigger fish than he angled for when he
offered his quaint treatise, The Compleat Angler, to the public.
There is hardly a name in English literature, even of the first
rank, whose immortality is more secure, or whose personality is
the subject of a more devoted cult. Not only is he the sacer
vales of a considerable sect in the religion of recreation, but
multitudes who have never put a worm on a hcok even on a
fly-hook have been caught and securely held by his picture
of the delights of the gentle craft and his easy leisurely transcript
of his own simple, peaceable, lovable and amusing character.
The Compleat Angler was published in 1653, but Walton con-
tinued to add to its completeness in his leisurely way for a
quarter of a century. It was dedicated to John Offley, his most
honoured friend. There was a second edition in 1655, a third
in 1661 (identical with that of 1664), a fourth in 1668 and a fifth
in 1676. In this last edition the thirteen chapters of the original
have grown to twenty-one, and a second part was added by his
loving friend and brother angler Charles Cotton, who took up
" Venator " where Walton had left him and completed his
instruction in fly-fishing and the making of flies. Walton did
not profess to be an expert with the fly; the fly-fishing in his
first edition was contributed by Thomas Barker, a retired cook
and humorist, who produced a treatise of his own in 1659; but
in the use of the live worm, the grasshopper and the frog " Pis-
cator " himself could speak as a master. The famous passage
about the frog often misquoted about the worm " use him as
though you loved him, that is, harm him as little as you may
possibly, that he may live the longer " appears in the original
edition. The additions made as the work grew were not merely
to the technical part; happy quotations, new turns of phrase,
songs, poems and anecdotes were introduced as if the leisurely
author, who wrote it as a recreation, had kept it constantly in
his mind and talked it over point by point with his numerous
brethren. There were originally only two interlocutors in the
opening scene, " Piscator " and " Viator "; but in the second
edition, as if in answer to an objection that " Piscator " had it
too much in his own way in praise of angling, he introduced the
falconer, " Auceps," changed " Viator " into " Venator " and
made the new companions each dilate on the joys of his favourite
sport.
Although The Compleat Angler was not Walton's first literary
work, his leisurely labours as a biographer seem to have grown
out of his devotion to angling. It was probably as an angler that
he made the acquaintance of Sir Henry Wotton, but it is clear
that Walton had more than a love of fishing and a humorous
temper to recommend him to the friendship of the accomplished
ambassador. At any rate, Wotton, who had intended to write
the life of John Donne, and had already corresponded with
Walton on the subject, left the task to him. Walton had already
contributed an Elegy to the 1633 edition of Donne's poems,
and he completed and published the life, much to the satis-
faction of the most learned critics, in 1640. Sir Henry Wotton
dying in 1639, Walton undertook his life also; it was finished in
1642 and published in 1651. His life of Hooker was published
in 1662, that of George Herbert in 1670 and that of Bishop
Sanderson in 1678. All these subjects were endeared to the
biographer by a certain gentleness of disposition and cheerful
piety; three of them at least Donne, Wotton and Herbert
were anglers. Their lives were evidently written with lovini?
pains, in the same leisurely fashion as his Angler, and like it
are of value less as exact knowledge than as harmonious and
complete pictures of character. Walton also rendered affection-
ate service to the memory of his friends Sir John Skeffington
and John Chalkhill, editing with prefatory notices Skeffington's
Hero of Lorenzo in 1652 and Chalkhill's Thealma and Clearchus a
few months before his own death in 1683. His poems and prose
fragments were collected in 1878 under the title of Waltoniana.
The best-known old edition of the Angler it J. Major's (2nd ed.,
1824). The book was edited by Andrew Lang in 1896, and various
modern editions have appeared. The standard biography is that by
Sir Harris Nicolas, prefixed to an edition of the Angler (1836). There
are notices also, with additional scraps of fact, annexed to two
American editions, Bethune's (1847) and Dowling's (1857). An
edition of Walton's Lives, by G. Sampson, appeared in 1903. See also
Izaak Walton and his Friends, by S. Martin (1903).
WALTON-LE-DALE, an urban district in the Darwen parlia-
mentary division of Lancashire, England, on the S. bank of the
Kibble, immediately above Preston. Pop. (1901) 11,271. The
church of St Leonard, situated on an eminence to the east of the
town, was originally erected in the nth century. The earliest
portions of the present building are the Perpendicular chancel
and tower, the nave having been rebuilt in 1798, while the
transepts were erected in 1816. There are a number of interest-
ing old brasses and monuments. Cotton-spinning is carried on,
and there are market-gardens in the vicinity. Roman remains
have been found here, and there was perhaps a roadside post
on the site. The manor of Walton was granted by Henry de
Lacy about 1 130 to Robert Banastre. It afterwards passed by
marriage to the Lang tons, and about 1592 to the Hoghtons of
Hoghton. Walton was the principal scene of the great battle
of Preston, fought on the i7th of August 1648 between Crom-
well and the duke of Hamilton. In 1701 the duke of Norfolk,
the earl of Derwentwater and other Jacobites incorporated the
town by the style of the " mayor and corporation of the ancient
borough of Walton." In 1715 the passage of the Ribble was
bravely defended against the Jacobites by Parson Woods and
his parishioners of Atherton (q.v.).
WALTON-ON-THAMES, an urban district in the Epsom
parliamentary division of Surrey, England, pleasantly situated
on the right bank of the Thames, 17 m. W.S.W. from London
by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 10,329.
The church of St Mary has late Norman portions, and contains
numerous memorials, including examples of the work of Chantrey
and Roubiliac. A verse inscribed upon a pillar is reputed to
be Queen Elizabeth's profession of faith as regards transubstantia-
tion. The queen was a frequent resident at Henry VIII. 's palace
of Oatlands Park, which was destroyed during the civil wars
of the 1 7th century. The property subsequently passed through
various hands, and the park is reduced in extent by the modern
growth of villas surrounding it. It contains, however, a remark-
able grotto built of mineral and stalactitic rock, shells and other
similar materials, by one of the earls of Lincoln when owner.
Ashley Park, a Tudor mansion (in the main modernized),
attributed to Cardinal Wolsey, was at times the residence of
Cromwell; while John Bradshaw, who, as lord president of the
court, sentenced Charles I. to death, occupied the old manor
house of Walton. Walton is a favourite resort of anglers and
boating parties.
WALTON-ON-THE-NAZE (or WALTON-LE-SOKEN), a watering-
place in the Harwich parliamentary division of Essex, England,
the terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway from
Colchester, 71 J m. E.N.E. from London. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 2014. This portion of the coast has suffered from en-
croachment of the sea, and a part of the old village of Walton,
with the church, was engulfed towards the end of the i8th
century. A prebendary stall at St Paul's Cathedral, London,
was endowed with the- lands thus consumed (praebenda
consumpta per mare). On the E. side of the town is the open
North Sea, with a fine stretch of sand and shingle, affording good
bathing. To the west is an irregular inlet studded with low
islands, known as Hanford Water. The Naze is a promontory
2 m. N. by E. of the town, and in the vicinity of Walton are
low cliffs exhibiting the fossiliferous red crag formation. The
church of All Saints is a brick building dating mainly from
1804. Walton has a public hall, several hotels and a small
theatre; and iron foundries and brick works. Services of
passenger steamers in connexion with Harwich, Clacton-on-
Sea, and London are maintained in the summer.
WALTZING MOUSE (or JAPANESE WALTZING MOUSE), a
pied race of the house mouse (M us musctdus) , or one of its allies,
302
WALWORTH WANAMAKER
originally bred in China, and known in Japan as the Nankin
mouse. The habit of these mice of spinning round and round
after their tails is highly developed, and continually exercised.
In Japan, where there were originally two breeds, a grey and
a white, these mice are kept in cages on account of their dancing
propensities. The dancing was at one time supposed to be due
to a disease of the labyrinth of the ear; but Dr K. Kishi, in a
paper in the Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Zoologie (vol.
xxi. pt. 3), concludes that it is the effect of confinement for
untold centuries in small cages.
WALWORTH, SIR WILLIAM (d. 1385), lord mayor of London,
belonged to a good Durham family. He was apprenticed to
John Lovekyn, a member of the Fishmongers' Gild, and
succeeded his master as alderman of Bridge ward in 1368, becom-
ing sheriff in 1370 and lord mayor in 1374. He is said to have
suppressed usury in the city during his term of office as mayor.
His name frequently figures as advancing loans to the king,
and he supported John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, in the
city, where there was a strong opposition to the king's uncle.
His most famous exploit was his encounter with Wat Tyler in
1381, during his second term of office as lord mayor. In June
of that year, when Tyler and his followers entered south London,
Walworth defended London Bridge against them; he was
with Richard II. when he met the insurgents at Smithfield,
and assisted in slaying their leader (see TYLER, WAT), after-
wards raising the city bodyguard in the king's defence; for
which service he was rewarded by knighthood and a pension.
He subsequently served on two commissions to restore the
peace in the county of Kent. He died in 1385, and was buried
in the church of St Michael, Crooked Lane, of which he was a
considerable benefactor. Sir William Walworth was the most
distinguished member of the Fishmongers' Gild, and he invariably
figured in the pageants prepared by them when one of their
members attained the mayoralty. He became a favourite
hero in popular tales, . and appeared in Richard Johnson's
Nine Worthies of London in 1592.
See William Herbert, The History . . . of St Michael, Crooked
Lane, London . . . (1831); W. and R. Woodcock, Lives of Illustrious
Lord Mayors (1846) ; an account of Wat Tyler's rebellion in a frag-
mentary chronicle printed by G. H. Trevelyan in the English
Historical Review (July 1898).
WAMPUM, or WAMPUM-PEAGE (Amer. Ind. wampam,
"white"; peag, "bead"), the shell-money of the North
American Indians. It consisted of beads made from shells, and,
unlike the cowry-money of India and Africa (which was the
shell in its natural state), required a considerable measure of
skill in its manufacture. Wampum was of two colours, dark
purple and white, of cylindrical form, averaging a quarter of
an inch in length, and about half that in diameter. Its colour
determined its value. The term wampum or wampum-peage
was apparently applied to the beads only when strung or woven
together. They were ground as smooth as glass and were
strung together by a hole drilled through the centre. Dark
wampum, which was made from a " hard shell " clam (Venus
mercenaria), popularly called quahang or quahog, a corruption
of the Indian name, was the most valuable. White wampum
was made from the shell of whelks, either from the common
whelk (Buccinum unda(um), or from that of Pyrula canali culala
and Pyrula carica. Wampum was employed most in New
England, but it was common elsewhere. By the Dutch settlers
of New York it was called seawan or zeewand, and roenoke in
Virginia, and perhaps farther south, for shell-money was also
known in the Carolinas, but whether the roenoke of the Virginian
Indians was made from the same species of shell as wampum
is not clear. Cylindrical shell-beads similar to the wampum of
the Atlantic coast Indians were made to some extent by the
Indians of the west coast. This was manufactured from the
Mytilus calif ornianus, a mussel which abounds there.
In the trading between whites and Indians, wampum so com-
pletely took the place of ordinary coin that its value was fixed
by legal enactment, three to a penny and five shillings a fathom.
The fathom was the name for a count, and the number of shells
varied according to the accepted standard of exchange. Thus
where six wampum went to the penny, the fathom consisted of
360 beads; but where four made a penny, as under the Massa-
chusetts standard of 1640, then the fathom counted 240. The
beads were at first worth more than five shillings per fathom, the
price at which they passed current in 1643. A few years before
the fathom had been worth nine or ten shillings. Connecticut
received wampum for taxes in 1637 at four a penny. In 1640
Massachusetts adopted the Connecticut standard, " white to
pass at four and bleuse at two a penny." There was no restric-
tion on the manufacture of wampum, and it was made by the
whites as well as the Indians. The market was soon flooded
with carelessly made and inferior wampum, but it continued to
be circulated in the remote districts of New England through the
1 7th century, and even into the beginning of the i8th. It was
current with silver in Connecticut in 1704.
Wampum was also used for personal adornment, and belts
were made by embroidering wampum upon strips of deerskin.
These belts or scarves were symbols of authority and power
and were surrendered on defeat in battle. Wampum also served
a mnemonic use as a tribal history or record. " The belts that
pass from one nation to another in all treaties, declarations and
important transactions are very carefully preserved in the chiefs'
cabins, and serve not only as a kind of record or history but
as a public treasury. According to the Indian conception, these
belts could tell by means of an interpreter the exact rule, pro-
vision or transaction talked into them at the time and of which
they were the exclusive record. A strand of wampum, consisting
of purple and white shell-beads or a belt woven with figures formed
by beads of different colours, operated on the principle of associat-
ing a particular fact with a particular string or figure, thus giving
a serial arrangement to the facts as well as fidelity to the memory.
These strands and belts were the only visible records of the
Iroquois, but they required the trained interpreters who could
draw from their strings and figures the acts and intentions
locked up in their remembrance" (Major Rogers, Account of
North America, London, 1765).
See Holmes, " Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans " in Annual
Report of Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, for 1880-1881 ; W. B.
Weeden, Indian Money as a Factor in New England Civilization
(Baltimore, 1884); E. Ingersoll, "Wampum and its History,"
in American Naturalist, vol. xvii. (1883); Horatio Hale, "On the
Origin and Nature of Wampum," in American Naturalist, vol. xviii.
(1884); C. L. Norton, "The Last Wampum Coinage," in American
Magazine for March 1888.
WANA, a valley and frontier outpost of Waziristan in the
North- West Frontier Province of India. It lies to the west of the
Mahsud country, and to the north of the Gomal river, and is in-
habited by the Waziri tribe. Lying on the border of Afghanistan,
it is conveniently pliced for dominating Waziristan on the north
and the Gomal Pass on the south, and occupies very much the
same strategic position as the Zhob valley holds in Baluchistan.
It forms the end of the chain of outposts extending from Quetta
to Waziristan, and can be supported either from India by the
Gomal Pass or from Quetta by the Zhob valley. In 1894, when
the Indo-Afghan boundary commission was delimiting the
Waziri border, the Mahsud Waziris, thinking their independence
to be threatened, made a night attack on the camp of the com-
mission at Wana. The result was the Waziristan Expedition of
the same year, and the occupation of Wana by British troops.
On the formation of the North- West Frontier Province in 1901
it was decided to replace the troops by militia, and Wana was
handed over to them in 1904. It is now the headquarters of the
political agency of Southern Waziristan.
WANAMAKER, JOHN (1838- ), American merchant,
was born, of Palatine-Huguenot stock, in Philadelphia, Penn-
sylvania, on the nth of July 1838. He attended a public school
in that city until he was fourteen, then became an errand boy for a
book store, and was a retail clothing salesman from 1856 until
1861, when he established with Nathan Brown (who afterward
became his brother-in-law) the clothing house of Wanamaker
& Brown, in Philadelphia, the partnership continuing until
the death of Brown in 1868. In 1869 Wanamaker founded the
house of John Wanamaker & Company; and in 1875 bought the
WANDERU WANGARA
303
Pennsylvania Railroad Company's freight depot at Thirteenth
and Market streets, and in the following year opened it as a
dry goods and clothing store, subsequently much enlarged. In
September 1896 he acquired from Hilton, Hughes & Company
the former New York store of A. T. Stewart, and thereafter
greatly enlarged it and added a new building; this, and the
Philadelphia store, are among the largest department stores
in the United States. Mr Wanamaker was postmaster-general in
President Benjamin Harrison's cabinet in 1880-1893, and
brought about the establishment of post-offices on ocean-going
vessels. He early identified himself with religious work in Phila-
delphia; was the first paid secretary, in 1857-1861, of that
city's Young Men's Christian Association, of which he was
president in 1870-1883, and in 1858 founded, and thereafter
served as superintendent of, the Bethany (Presbyterian) Sunday
School, one of the largest in the world. He took an active part
in the movement which resulted in the formation of the United
States Christian Commission in 1861.
WANDERU (WANDEROO), the native name for the species
of langur monkeys (Semnopithecus) inhabiting the island of
Ceylon; but in India commonly misapplied to the lion-tailed
macaque, Macacus silenus (see PRIMATES).
WANDESFORD, CHRISTOPHER (1592-1640), lord deputy of
Ireland, was the son of Sir George Wandesford (1573-1612) of
Kirklington, Yorkshire, and was born on the 24th of September
1592. Educated at Clare College, Cambridge, he entered parlia-
ment in 1621, and his rise to importance was due primarily to
his friendship with Sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards earl of
Strafford. Although at first hostile to Charles I., this being
evidenced by the active part he took in the impeachment of
Buckingham, Wandesford soon became a royalist partisan, and
in 1633 he accompanied Wentworth to Ireland, where he was
already master of the rolls. His services to his chief were fully
recognized by the latter, whom in 1640 he succeeded as lord
deputy, but he had only just begun to struggle with the diffi-
culties of his new position when he died on the 3rd of December
1640.
His son Christopher (1628-1687), created a baronet in 1662,
was the father of Sir Christopher Wandesford (d. 1707), who was
created an Irish peer as Viscount Castlecomer in 1707, Castlecomer
in Kilkenny having been acquired by his grandfather when in
Ireland. Christopher, the 2nd viscount (d. 1719), was secretary-
at-war in 1717-1718. In 1758 John, 5th viscount, was created
Earl Wandesford, but his titles became extinct when he died in
January 1784.
For Wandesford's life see Thomas Comber, Memoirs of the Life and
Death of the Lord Deputy Wandesford (Cambridge, 1778); T. D.
Whitaker, History of Richmondshire, vol. ii. (1823); and the Auto-
biography of his daughter, Alice Thornton, edited by Charles Jackson
for the Surtees Society (Durham, 1875).
WANDIWASH, a town in the North Arcot district of Madras,
India. Pop. (1901) 5971. It is notable as the scene of the victory
of Sir Eyre Coote in 1760, the most impcrtant ever won by the
British over the French in India.
WANDSBEK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, practically forming a populous suburb of
Hamburg, with which it is connected by a railway and an
electric tramway. Pop. (1905) 31,563. It is best known as the
place of residence of the poet Johann Heinrich Voss and of
Matthias Claudius, who here issued (1771-1775) the Wandsbecker
Boten. There is a monument to Claudius in the town. Its leading
manufactures are spirits, tobacco, beer, leather and confectionery;
other industries are machine building and gardening.
WANDSWORTH, a south-western metropolitan borough of
London, England, bounded N. by the river Thames and Batter-
sea, and E. by Lambeth, and extending S. and W. to the boundary
of the county of London. Pop. (1901) 232,034. The name,
which occurs in Domesday, indicates the position of the village
on the river Wandle, a small tributary of the Thames. Wands-
worth is the largest in area of the metropolitan boroughs, in-
cluding the districts of Putney by the river, part of Clapham
in the north-east, Streatham in the south-east, Balham and
Upper and Lower Tooting in the centre and south. These are
mainly residential districts, and the borough is not thickly
populated. Towards the west, along the Upper Richmond and
Kingston roads, there is considerable open country, undulating
and well wooded. It is to a great extent preserved in the public
grounds of Putney Heath, which adjoins Wimbledon Common,
outside the borough, on the north; and Richmond Park and
Barnes Common, parts of which are in the borough. Other
public grounds are parts of Wandsworth Common (193 acres)
and Clapham Common, both extending into Battersea, Tooting
Bee (147 acres) and Streatham Common (66 acres), and Wands-
worth Park bordering the Thames. The borough is connected
with Fulham across the Thames by Wandsworth and Putney
bridges. The annual Oxford and Cambridge boat-race starts
from above Putney Bridge, finishing at Mortlake; and the
club-houses of the principal rowing dubs of London are situated
on the Putney shore. Putney Heath was formerly notorious
as a resort of highwaymen and duellists. Among the institu-
tions of Wandsworth are the Royal Hospital for Incurables,
Putney; the Fountain and the Grove fever hospitals, Lower
Tooting; the Clapham School of Art, Wandsworth Technical
Institute; the Roman Catholic Training College for Women,
West Hill; and Wandsworth Prison, Heathfield Road. The
parliamentary borough of Wandsworth returns one member,
but the municipal borough also includes part of the Clapham
division of the parliamentary borough of Battersea and Clap-
ham, and part of the Wimbledon division of Surrey. The
borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 council-
lors. Area, 9129-7 acres.
WANGANUI, the principal port on the west coast of North
Island, New Zealand, in the Waitotara county, at the mouth
of the Wanganui river, 134 m. by rail N. of Wellington. Pop.
(1906) 8175. The town is laid out in rectangular blocks at the
foot of low hills, from the summit of which (as in Queen's
Gardens) a splendid panorama is seen, including the snow-clad
Mount Ruapehu to the north-east. The river bar obstructs
navigation, the depth not exceeding 14 ft., so that large vessels
must lie outside. The district is agricultural and pastoral, and
wool and grain are exported, as well as meat and dairy produce,
for which there are large refrigerating works. The Wanganui
Collegiate School (Church of England) is one of the largest
boarding schools in Australasia. The district was the scene of
conflicts with the natives in 1847, 1864 and 1868, and in the
beautiful Moutoa gardens a monument commemorates the
battle of that name (May I4th, 1864). The settlement was
founded in 1842.
WANGARA, the Hausa name for the Mandingo (q.v.), a people
of West Africa; used also as the name of districts in the western
and central Sudan. The Wangara are also known as Wan-
garawa, Wongara, Ungara, Wankore and Wakore. According
to Idrisi (writing in the I2th century), the Wangara country
was renowned for the quantity and the quality of the gold
which it .produces. The country formed an island about
300 m. long by 150 in breadth, which the Nile (i.e. Niger) sur-
rounded on all sides and at all seasons. This description corre-
sponds fairly accurately with the tract of country between the
Niger and its tributary the Bani. Idrisi's account of the annual
inundation of the land by the rising of the Niger agrees with
the facts. He states that on the fail of the waters natives from
all parts of the Sudan assembled to gather the gold which the
subsiding waters left behind. In the closing years of the i8th
and the opening years of the igth century the discoveries of
Hornemann, Mungo Park and others revived the stories of
Wangara and its richness in gold. Geographers of that period
(e.g. Major Rennell) shifted the Wangara country far to the east
and confused Idrisi's description with accounts which probably
referred to Lake Chad. Gradually, however, as knowledge
increased, the Wangara territory was again moved westward,
and was located within the Niger bend. The name has now
practically disappeared from the maps save that a town in the
hinterland of Dahomey is named Wangara (French spelling
Ouangara). Idrisi's account as to the richness in gold of the
upper Niger regions has basis in fact ; though the gold brought
WANGARATTA WAQIDI
in considerable quantities to the European trading stations
on the Gambia and Senegal in the i6th, lyth and i8th centuries
appears to have come largely from Bambuk.
WANGARATTA, a town of Victoria, Australia, in the counties
of Moira, Delatite and Bogong, at the junction of the Ovens
and King rivers, 1455 m. by rail N.E. of Melbourne. Pop.
(1901) 2621. It is a prosperous little town in an agricultural
district and is the see of an Anglican bishop. It has numerous
industries, including flour-milling, tanning, fellmongery, brewing,
coach-building, bacon-curing, and bicycle and butter making.
Important stock sales are held fortnightly, and there is an annual
agricultural exhibition.
WANSTEAD, an urban district in the Romford parliamentary
division of Essex, England, forming a residential suburb of
London, on a branch of the Great Eastern railway, 8 m. N.E.
of Liverpool Street station. Pop. (1901) 9179. Wanstead
Park, 184 acres in extent, was opened in 1882. Northward
extend the broken fragments of Epping Forest. Wanstead
Flats, adjoining the Park, form another open ground. At
Lake House Thomas Hood wrote the novel Tylney Hall. At
Snaresbrook in the parish of Wanstead are the Infant Orphan
Asylum, founded in 1827, and the Royal Merchant Seamen's
Orphan Asylum, established in London in 1817 and refounded
here in 1861. In Snaresbrook is Eagle Pond or Lake, io acres
in extent.
Wanstead is mentioned in Domesday, and the name is con-
sidered by some to be derived from Woden's stead or place,
indicating a spot dedicated to the worship of Woden. It be-
longed before the time of Edward the Confessor to the monks
of St Peter's, Westminster, and afterwards to the bishop of
London, of whom it was held at the time of the Domesday
Survey by Ralph Fitz Brien. In the reign of Henry VIII.
it came into the possession of the crown, and in 1549 it was
bestowed by Edward VI. on Lord Rich; whose son sold it in
J 577 to Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. The original manor
house was rebuilt by Lord Chancellor Rich, who was here visited
by Queen Elizabeth in 1.561, and for her entertainment Sir
Philip Sidney wrote a dramatic interlude which was played 1
before the queen at Wanstead garden, and is printed at the
end of the Arcadia. Sir Richard Child, afterwards earl of
Tylney, built the splendid mansion of Wanstead House in
1715 (demolished in 1822), in which the prince of Cond6 and
others of the Bourbon family resided during the reign of the
first Napoleon.
WANTAGE, a market town in the Abingdon parliamentary
division of Berkshire, England. Pop. of urban district (1901),
3766. It lies in the richly wooded Vale of White Horse, in a
hollow at the foot of the steep hills which border the Vale on
the south, 2 m. S. of Wantage Road station on the Great Western
railway, with which a steam tramway connects it. The church of
St Peter and St Paul is cruciform, and as a whole Perpendicular
in appearance, but retains a nave arcade and ornate tower-arches
of the Early English period. The font is a fine specimen of the
same style; and there is beautiful woodwork in the chancel.
An altar-tomb in alabaster of 1361, and a fine brass of 1414,
commemorate members of the family of Fitzwarren. There are
other brasses of the isth and i6th centuries. The neighbouring
building of the grammar school preserves a Norman door from
another church, which formerly stood in the same churchyard
with St Peter's. In the broad market-place is a great statue
of King Alfred, executed by Count Gleichen and unveiled in
1877 ; for Wantage is famous as the birthplace of the king in
849. The town has a large agricultural trade and ironworks.
The title of Baron Wantage of Lockinge was taken in 1885
by Sir Robert Loyd-Lindsay (b. 1832) on his elevation to the
peerage. He was the son of General James Lindsay of Balcarres,
but took the additional surname of Loyd in 1858 on marrying
the heiress of Lord Overstone, the banker; he fought with
his regiment the Scots Fusilier Guards in the Crimea and won
the V.C., retiring as lieutenant-colonel. He was M.P. for Berks
from 1865 to 1885, and was financial secretary to the War Office
in 1877-1880. The title became extinct at his death in 1900.
WAPENSHAW (M.E. for "weapon-show"), a periodical
muster or review of troops formerly held in every district in
Scotland, the object having been to satisfy the military chiefs
that the arms of their retainers were in good condition. Scott's
Old Mortality gives a description of one. The name is still
given to rifle meetings held annually at Aberdeen and other
places in Scotland.
WAPENTAKE, anciently the principal administrative division
of the counties of York, Lincoln, Leicester, Nottingham, Derby
and Rutland, corresponding to the hundred in the southern
counties of England. In many cases, however, ancient wapen-
takes are now called hundreds. North of the Tees, Sadberg in
Durham is the only district which was called a wapentake, and
the rest of the ancient administrative divisions of the three
northern counties were called wards. The word wapentake
seems to have been first applied to the periodical meetings of the
magnates of a district; and, if we may believe the I2th century
compilation known as the Leges Edwardi, it took its name from
the custom in accordance with which they touched the spear
of their newly-appointed magistrate with their own spears and
so confirmed his appointment. Probably it was also usual for
them to signify their approval of a proposal by the clash of their
arms, as was the practice among the Scandinavian peoples.
Wapentakes are not found outside the parts of England which
were settled by the Danes. They varied in size in different
counties ; those of Yorkshire, for instance, being very much
larger than those of Lincolnshire. As a general rule each wapen-
take had its own court, which had the same jurisdiction as the
hundred courts of the southern counties. In some cases, however,
a group of wapentakes had a single court. It should be noticed
that the court was styled wapentagium' simply, and not curia
wapentagii.
See Sir Henry Ellis, General Introduction to Domesday Book;
W. W. Skeat, Etymological English Dictionary; W. Stubbs, Constitu-
tional History; and H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon
Institutions (1905). (G. J. T.)
WAPPERS, EGIDE CHARLES GUSTAVE, BARON (1803-
1874), Belgian painter, was born at Antwerp on the 23rd of
August 1803. After studying at the Antwerp Academy he went
to Paris in 1826. The Romantic movement was then astir in
France, and in that vehement struggle towards a new ideal artists
and political men were thrown together. Wappers was the
first Belgian artist to take advantage of this state of affairs, and
his first exhibited picture, " The Devotion of the Burgomaster
of Leiden," appearing at the appropriate moment, had a mar-
vellous success in the Brussels Salon of 1830. The picture,
although political, was in fact a remarkable work, which revolu-
tionized the taste of Flemish painters. Wappers was invited
to the court of Brussels, and was favoured with commissions.
In 1832 the city of Antwerp appointed him professor of painting,
and his triumph was complete when he exhibited at the Antwerp
Salon of 1834 his masterpiece, " An Episode of the Belgian
Revolution of 1830" (Brussels Gallery). He was subsequently
appointed painter to the king of the Belgians, and at the death
of Matthieu van Bree he was made director of the Antwerp
Academy. Of his very numerous works we may name " Christ
Entombed," " Charles I. taking leave of his Children," " Charles
IX.," " Camoens," " Peter the Great at Saardam," and " Boc-
caccio at the Court of Joanna of Naples." Louis Philippe gave
him a commission to paint a large picture for the gallery at
Versailles, " The Defence of Rhodes by the Knights of St John of
Jerusalem," a work finished in 1844, when he received from the
king of the Belgians the title of baron. After retiring from the
post of director of the Antwerp Academy, he settled in 1853 in
Paris, where he died on the 6th of December 1874.
See J. du Jardin, L' Art flamand; Camille Lemonnier, Histoire des
beaux arts en Belgique; E. F6tis, " Notice sur Gustave Wappers,"
Annuaire de I'academie royale de Belgique (1884).
WAQIDI [Abu 'Abdallah Mahommed ibn 'Umar ul-Waqidl]
(747-823), Arabian historian, was born at Medina, where he
became a corn-dealer but was compelled to flee from his creditors
(owing largely to his generosity) to Bagdad. Here the Barmecide
vizier Yahya b. Khalid (see BARMECIDES) gave him means and
WAR
305
made him cadi in the western district of the city. In 819 he
was transferred to Rosafa (Rusafa) on the east side. His greatest
work is the Kitab ul-Maghazi, or history of Mahomet's campaigns.
The first third of the Kltab ul-Maghazi (one leaf missing) was
gublished by A. von Kremer from a Damascus MS. (Calcutta, 1856).
prenger in his Leben Muhammad's used a British Museum MS.
containing the first half, all but one leaf. J. Wellhausen published
an abridged German translation from another British Museum MS.
under the title Muhammad in Medina (Berlin, 1882).
Ascribed to WaqidI, but probably written at the time of 'the
Crusades to incite the Moslems against the Christians, are several
works on the conquests of Islam. One of the best known is the Fuluh
ush-Sham, edited by W. Nassau Lees (Calcutta, 1854-1862; Cairo,
1865). M. J. de Goeje, in his Memoires sur la conquete de la Syrie
(Leiden, 1900), holds that this work is founded on that of Abu
Hudhaifa ul-Bukhari, which in turn is an edition of the real WaqidI.
See ARABIA, Literature, section " History." (G. W. T.)
WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G.
werran, to confound), the armed conflict of states, in which each
seeks to impose its will upon the other by force. War is the
opposite of Peace (?..), and is the subject of the military art.
In separate sections below the general principles of the art of
war are discussed, and the laws which have gradually become
accepted among civilized peoples for the regulation of its con-
ditions. The details concerning the history of individual wars,
and the various weapons and instruments of war, are given in
separate articles.
See ARMY, NAVY, CONSCRIPTION, STRATEGY, TACTICS, INFANTRY,
CAVALRY, ARTILLERY, ENGINEERS, FORTIFICATION, COAST DE-
FENCE, OFFICERS, STAFF, GUARDS, SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, UNI-
FORMS, ARMS AND ARMOUR, GUN, RIFLE, PISTOL, SWORD, LANCE,
ORDNANCE, MACHINE GUNS, SUBMARINE MINES, TORPEDO, _&c.
The important wars are dealt with under the names commonly given
to them; e.g. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, AMERICAN WAR OF INDE-
PENDENCE, AMERICAN WAR OF 1812, CRIMEAN WAR, DUTCH WARS,
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR, FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS, GREAT
REBELLION, GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, ITALIAN WARS,
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, PELOPONNESIAN WAR, PENINSULAR WAR,
PUNIC WARS, RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR, RUSSO-TURKISH WARS,
SERVO-BULGARIAN WAR, SEVEN WEEKS' WAR, SEVEN YEARS'
WAR, SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR, THIRTY
YEARS' WAR. Important campaigns and battles are also separately
treated (e.g. WATERLOO, TRAFALGAR, SHENANDOAH VALLEY, WIL-
DERNESS, METZ, &c.).
I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
It is not easy to determine whether industrial progress, improved
organization, the spread of education or mechanical inventions
have wrought the greater change in the military art.
War ' K ^ Kt an< ^ foremost a matter of movement; and
as such it has been considerably affected by the multi-
plication of good roads, the introduction of steam transport, and
by the ease with which draught animals can be collected. In
the second place, war is a matter of supply; and the large area
of cultivation, the increase of live-stock, the vast trade in pro-
visions, pouring the food-stuffs of one continent into another,
have done much to lighten the inevitable difficulties of a cam-
paign. In the third place, war is a matter of destruction; and
while the weapons of armies have become more perfect and more
durable, the modern substitutes for gunpowder have added
largely to their destructive capacity. Fourthly, war is not
merely a blind struggle between mobs of individuals, without
guidance or coherence, but a conflict of well-organized masses,
moving with a view to intelligent co-operation, acting under the
impulse of a single will and directed against a definite objective.
These masses, however, are seldom so closely concentrated that
the impulse which sets them in motion can be promptly and easily
communicated to each, nor can the right objective be selected
without some knowledge of the enemy's strength and dispositions.
Means of intercommunication, therefore, as well as methods of
observation, are of great importance; and with the telegraph,
the telephone, visual signalling, balloons, airships and improved
field-glasses, the armies of to-day, so far as regards the mainten-
ance of connexion between different bodies of troops, and the
diffusion, if not the acquiring, of information, are at a great
advantage compared with those of the middle of the igth century.
War, then, in some respects has been made much simpler.
Armies are easier to mpve, to feed and to manoeuvre. But in
other respects this very simplicity has made the conduct of a
campaign more difficult. Not only is the weapon wielded by
the general less clumsy and more deadly than heretofore, less
fragile and better balanced, but.it acts with greater rapidity
and has a far wider scope. In a strong and skilful hand it may
be irresistible; in the grasp of a novice it is worse than useless.
In former times, when war was a much slower process, and armies
were less highly trained, mistakes at the outset were not neces-
sarily fatal. Under modern conditions, the inexperienced com-
mander will not be granted time in which to correct his deficiencies
and give himself and his troops the needful practice. The idea
of forging generals and soldiers under the hammer of war dis-
appeared with the advent of " the nation in arms." Military
organization has become a science, studied both by statesmen
and soldiers. The lessons of history have not been neglected.
Previous to 1870, in one kingdom only was it recognized that
intellect and education play a more prominent part in war
than stamina and courage. Taught by the disasters of 1806,
Prussia set herself to discover the surest means of escaping
humiliation for the future. The shrewdest of her sons undertook
the task. The nature of war was analysed until the secrets of
success and failure were laid bare; and on these investigations a
system of organization and of training was built up which, not
only from a military, but from a political, and even an economical
point of view, is the most striking product of the igth century.
The keynote of this system is that the best brains in the state
shall be at the service of the war lord. None, therefore, but
thoroughly competent soldiers are entrusted with the responsi-
bility of command; and the education of the officer is as
thorough, as systematic and as uniform as the education of the
lawyer, the diplomatist and the doctor. In all ages the power
of intellect has asserted itself in war. It was not courage and
experience only that made Hannibal, Alexander and Caesar
the greatest names of antiquity. Napoleon, Wellington and the
Archduke Charles were certainly the best-educated soldiers of
their time; while Lee, Jackson and Sherman probably knew
more of war, before they made it, than any one else in the United
States. But it was not until 1866 and 1870 that the preponderat-
ing influence of the trained mind was made manifest. Other
wars had shown the value of an educated general ; these showed
the value of an educated army. It is true that Moltke, in mental
power and in knowledge, was in no wise inferior to the great
captains who preceded him; but' the remarkable point of his
campaigns is that so many capable generals had never before
been gathered together under one flag. No campaigns have been
submitted to such searching criticism. Never have mistakes
been more sedulously sought for or more frankly exposed.
And yet, compared with the mistakes of other campaigns, even
with that of 1815, where hardly a superior officer on either side
had not seen more battles than Moltke and his comrades had
seen field-days, they were astonishingly few. It is not to be
denied that the foes of Prussia were hardly worthy of her steel.
Yet it may be doubted whether either Austria or France ever put
two finer armies into the field than the army of Bohemia in 1866
and the army of the Rhine in 1870. Even their generals of
divisions and brigades had more actual experience than those
who led the German army corps. Compared with the German
rank and file, a great part of their non-commissioned officers
and men were veterans, and veterans who had seen much service.
Their chief officers were practically familiar with the methods
of moving, supplying and manoeuvring large masses of troops;
their marshals were valiant and successful soldiers. And yet
the history of modern warfare records no defeats so swift and
so complete as those of Koniggratz and Sedan. The great host
of Austria was shattered to fragments in seven weeks; the French
Imperial army was destroyed in seven weeks and three days;
and to all intent and purpose the resistance they had offered
was not much more effective than that of a respectable militia.
But both the Austrian and the French armies were organized
and trained under the old system. Courage, experience and
professional pride they possessed in abundance. Man for man,
in all virile qualities, neither officers nor men were inferior to
306
WAR
[GENERAL PRINCIPLES
their foes. But one thing their generals lacked, and that was
education for war. Strategy was almost a sealed book to them ;
organization a matter of secondary importance. It was no part
of their duty, they declared, to train the judgment of their
subordinates; they were soldiers, and not pedagogues. Know-
ledge of foreign armies and their methods they considered useless;
and of war prepared and conducted on " business principles "
they had never even dreamt.
The popular idea that war is a mere matter of brute force,
redeemed only by valour and discipline, is responsible for a
greater evil than the complacency of the amateur.
Il blinds both the people and its representatives to
their bounden duties. War is something more than a
mere outgrowth of politics. It is a political act, initiated and
controlled by the government, and it is an act of which the issues
are far more momentous than any other. No branch of political
science requires more careful study. It is not pretended that if
military history were thoroughly studied all statesmen would
become Moltkes, or that every citizen would be competent to
set squadrons in the field. War is above all a practical art, and
the application of theory to practice is not to be taught at a
university or to be learned by those who have never rubbed
shoulders with the men in the ranks. But if war were more
generally and more thoroughly studied, the importance of
organization, of training, of education and of readiness would be
more generally appreciated; abuses would no longer be regarded
with lazy tolerance; efficiency would be something more than a
political catchword, and soldiers would be given ample oppor-
tunities of becoming masters of every detail of their profession.
Nor is this all. A nation that understood something about war
would hardly suffer the fantastic tricks which have been played
so often by the best-meaning statesmen. And statesmen them-
selves would realize that when, war is afoot their interference
is worse than useless; that preparation for defence, whether
by the multiplication of roads, the construction .of railways,
of arsenals, dockyards, fortresses, is not the smallest of their
duties; and lastly, that so far as possible diplomacy and strategy
should keep step. Each one of these is of far greater importance
than in the past. In the wars of the i8th century, English
cabinets and Dutch deputies could direct strategical operations
without bringing ruin on their respective countries. The armies
of Austria in 1792-1795, controlled as they were by the Aulic
Councils, were more formidable in the field than those of the
French Republic. In the campaigns of 1854 and 1859 the plans
of Newcastle and Napoleon III. worked out to a successful
issue; and if Lincoln and Stanton, his Secretary of War, im-
perilled the Union in 1862, they saw the downfall of the Southern
Confederacy in 1865. But in every case amateur was pitted
against amateur. The Dutch deputies were hardly less incapable
of planning or approving a sound plan of campaign than Louis
XIV. The Aulic Council was not more of a marplot than the
Committee of Public Safety. Newcastle was not a worse strategist
than the tsar Nicholas I. Napoleon III. and his advisers were
quite a match for the courtier generals at Vienna; while Lincoln
and Stanton were not much more ignorant than Jefferson Davis.
The amateur, however, can no longer expect the good fortune
to be pitted against foes of a capacity no higher than his own.
The operations of Continental armies will be directed by soldiers
of experience whose training for war has been incessant, and who
will have at their command troops in the highest state of efficiency
and preparation. It is not difficult to imagine, under such
conditions, with what condign punishment mistakes will be
visited. Napoleon III. in 1859 committed as many blunders
as he did in 1870. But the Austrians had no Moltke to direct
them; their army corps were commanded by men who knew
less of generalship than a Prussian major, and their armament
was inferior. Had they been the Austrians of to-day, it is
probable that the French and the allies would have been utterly
defeated. And to come to more recent campaigns, while
American officers have not hesitated to declare that if the
Spaniards at Santiago had been Germans or French, the invasion
would have ended^in disastrous failure, it is impossible to doubt
that had the Boers of 1899 possessed a staff of trained strategists,
they would have shaken the British Empire to its foundations.
The true test of direction of war is the number of mistakes.
If they were numerous, although the enemy may not have
been skilful enough to take advantage of them, the outlook
for the future under the same direction, but against a more
practised enemy, is anything but bright.
As regards preparation for defence, history supplies us with
numerous illustrations. The most conspicuous, perhaps, is
the elaborate series of fortifications which were
constructed by Vauban for the defence of France;
1 -IT- -.7-TT T tlO f r
and there can be no question that Louis XIV., in defence.
erecting this mighty barrier against invasion, gave
proof of statesmanlike foresight of no mean order. An instance
less familiar, perhaps, but even more creditable to the brain
which conceived it, was Wellington's preparation of Portugal in
1809-1811. Not only did the impregnable stronghold of Torres
Vedras, covering Lisbon, and securing for the sea-power an open
door to the continent of Europe, rise as if by magic from the
earth, but the whole theatre of war was so dealt with that the
defending army could operate wherever opportunity might
offer. No less than twenty supply depots were established
on different lines of the advance. Fortifications protected the
principal magazines. Bridges were restored and roads improved.
Waterways were opened up, and flotillas organized; and three
auxiliary bases were formed on the shores of the Atlantic.
Again, the famous " quadrilaterals " of Lombardy and Rumelia
have more than fulfilled the purpose for which they were con-
structed; and both Austria and Turkey owe much to the
fortresses which so long protected their vulnerable points.
Nor has the neglect of preparation failed to exert a powerful
effect. Moltke has told us that the railway system of Germany
before 1870 had been developed without regard to strategical
considerations. Yet the fact remains that it was far better
adapted both for offence and defence than those of Austria and
France; and, at the same time, it can hardly be denied that the
unprovided state of the great French fortresses exercised an
evU influence on French strategy. Both Metz and Strassburg
were so far from forming strong pivots of manoeuvres, and thus
aiding the operations of the field armies, that they required
those armies for their protection; and the retreat on Metz,
which removed Bazaine's army from the direct road to Paris
and placed it out of touch with its supports, was mainly due to
the unfinished outworks and deficient armament of the virgin
city. Since 1870 it has been recognized that preparation of the
theatre of war is one of the first duties of a government. Every
frontier of continental Europe is covered by a chain of entrenched
camps. The great arsenals are amply fortified and strongly
garrisoned. Strategy has as much to say to new railways as
trade; and the lines of communication, whether by water or
by land, are adequately protected from all hostile enterprises.
We now come to the importance of close concert between
strategy and diplomacy. On the continent of Europe they can
easily keep pace, for the theatre of war is always Coactrt
within easy reach. But when the ocean intervenes between
between two hostile states it is undoubtedly difficult diplomacy
to time an ultimatum so that a sufficient armed force
shall be at hand to enforce it, and it has been said
in high places that it is practically impossible. The expedition
to Copenhagen in 1807, when the British ultimatum was pre-
sented by an army of 27,000 men carried on 300 transports,
would appear to traverse this statement. But at the beginning
of the 20th century an army and a fleet of such magnitude could
neither be assembled nor despatched without the whole world
being cognizant. It is thus perfectly true that an appreciable
period of time must elapse between the breaking off of negotia-
tions and the appearance on the scene of an invading army.
Events may march so fast that the statesman's hand may be
forced before the army has embarked. But because a powerful
blow cannot at once be struck, it by no means follows that the
delivery or the receipt of an ultimatum should at once produce a
dangerous situation. Dewey's brilliant victory at Manila lost
strategy.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES]
WAR
307
the greater part of its effect because the United States Govern-
ment was unable to follow up the blow by landing a sufficient
force. Exactly the same thing occurred in Egypt in 1882. The
only results of the bombardment of Alexandria were the destruc-
tion of the city, the massacre of the Christian inhabitants, the
encouragement of the rebels, who, when the ships drew off,
came to the natural conclusion that Great Britain was powerless
on land. Again, in 1899 the invading Boers found the frontiers
unfortified and their march opposed by an inadequate force.
It is essential, then, that when hostilities across the sea are to
be apprehended, the most careful precautions should be taken
to ward off the chance of an initial disaster. And such pre-
cautions are always possible. It is hardly conceivable, for
instance, that a great maritime power, with Cyprus as a place
d'armes, could not have placed enough transports behind the
fleet to hold a sufficient garrison for Alexandria, and thus have
saved the city from destruction. Nor in the case of a distant
province being threatened is there the smallest reason that the
garrison of the province should be exposed to the risk of a
reverse before it is reinforced. It may even be necessary to
abandon territory. It will certainly be necessary to construct
strong places, to secure the lines of communication, to establish
ample magazines, to organize local forces, to assemble a fleet of
transports, and to keep a large body of troops ready to embark
at a moment's notice. But there is no reason, except expense,
that all this should not be done directly it becomes clear that
war is probable, and that it should not be done without attract-
ing public attention. In this way strategy may easily keep pace
with diplomacy; and all that is wanted is the exercise of ordinary
foresight, a careful study of the theatre of war, a knowledge of
the enemy's resources and a resolute determination, despite
some temporary inconvenience and the outcry of a thoughtless
public, to give the enemy no chance of claiming first blood. The
Franco-German War supplies a striking example. Moltke's
original intention was to assemble the German armies on the
western frontier. The French, he thought, inferior in numbers
and but half prepared, would probably assemble as far back as
the Moselle. But, as so often happens in war, the enemy did
what he was least expected to do. Hastily leaving their garri-
sons, the French regiments rushed forward to the Saar. The
excitement in Germany was great; and even soldiers of repute,
although the mobilization of the army was still unfinished,
demanded that such troops as were available should be hurried
forward to protect the rich provinces which lie between the Saar
and Rhine. But the chief of the staff became as deaf as he was
silent. Not a single company was despatched to reinforce the
slender garrisons of the frontier towns; and those garrisons
were ordered to retire, destroying railways and removing rolling-
stock, directly the enemy should cross the boundary. Moltke's
foresight had embraced every possible contingency. The
action of the French, improbable as it was deemed, had still
been provided against; and, in accordance with time-tables
drawn up long beforehand, the German army was disentrained
on the Rhine instead of on the Saar. Ninety miles of German
territory were thus laid open to the enemy; but the temporary
surrender of the border provinces, in the opinion of the great
strategist, was a very minor evil compared with the disasters,
military and political, that would have resulted from an attempt
to hold them.
It is hardly necessary to observe that no civilian minister,
however deeply he might have studied the art of war, could
be expected to solve for himself the strategic problems
Du "" <> ' which come before him. In default of practical
minister. knowledge, it would be as impossible for him to
decide where garrisons should be stationed, what
fortifications were necessary, what roads should be constructed,
or how the lines of communication should be protected, as to
frame a plan of campaign for the invasion of a hostile state. His
foresight, his prevision of the accidents inevitable in war, would
necessarily be far inferior to those of men who had spent their
lives in applying strategical principles to concrete cases; and
it is exceedingly unlikely that he would be as prolific of
strategical expedients as those familiar with their employment.
Nevertheless, a minister of war cannot divest himself of his
responsibility for the conduct of military operations. In the
first place, he is directly responsible that plans of campaign to
meet every possible contingency are worked out in time of peace.
In the second place, he is directly responsible that the advice
on which he acts should be the best procurable. It is essential,
therefore, that he should be capable of forming an independent
opinion on the merits of the military projects which may be
submitted to him, and also on the merits of those who have to
execute them. Pitt knew enough of war and men to select Wolfe
for the command in Canada. Canning and Castlereagh, in spite
of the opposition of the king, sent Wellington, one of the youngest
of the lieutenant-generals, to hold Portugal against the French.
The French Directory had sufficient sense to accept Napoleon's
project for the campaign of Italy in 1706. In the third place,
strategy cannot move altogether untrammelled by politics and
finance. But political and financial considerations may not
present themselves in quite the same light to the soldier as to the
statesman, and the latter is bound to make certain that they have
received due attention. If, however, modifications are necessary,
they should be made before the plan of campaign is finally
approved; and in any case the purely military considerations
should be most carefully weighed. It should be remembered
that an unfavourable political situation is best redeemed by a
decisive victory, while a reverse will do more to shake confidence
in the Government than even the temporary surrender of some
portion of the national domains. " Be sure before striking "
and Reculer pour mieux sauter are both admirable maxims;
but their practical application requires a thorough appreciation
of the true principles of war, and a very large degree of moral
courage, both in the soldier who suggests and in the statesman
who approves. If, however, the soldier and the statesman are
supported by an enlightened public, sufficiently acquainted with
war to realize that patience is to be preferred to precipitation,
that retreat, though inglorious, is not necessarily humiliating,
their task is very considerably lightened. Nothing is more
significant than a comparison between the Paris press in 1870
and the American Confederate press in 1864. In the one case,
even after the disastrous results of the first encounters had
proved the superior strength and readiness of the enemy, the
French people, with all the heat of presumptuous ignorance,
cried out for more battles, for an immediate offensive, for a
desperate defence of the frontier provinces. So fierce was their
clamour that both the generals and the government hesitated,
until it was too late, to advise the retreat of Bazainc's army;
and when that army had been cut off at Metz, the pressure
of public opinion was so great that the last reserve of France was
despatched to Sedan on one of the maddest enterprises ever
undertaken by a civilized state. In 1864, on the other hand,
while Lee in Virginia and Johnston in the west were retreating
from position to position, and the huge hosts of the Union were
gradually converging on the very heart of the Confederacy, the
Southern press, aware that every backward step made the
Federal task more difficult, had nothing but praise for the
caution which controlled the movements of their armies. But
the Southern press, in three crowded years of conflict, had learned
something of war. In 1866 and 1870 the German press was so
carefully muzzled that even had there been occasion it could
have done nothing to prejudice public opinion. Thus both the
sovereign and the generals were backed by the popular support
that they so richly merited; but it may be remarked that the
relations between the army and the government were char-
acterized by a harmony which has been seldom seen. The old
king, in his dual capacity as head of the state and commander-
in-chief, had the last word to say, not only in the selection of
the superior officers, but in approving every important operation.
With an adviser like Moltke at his elbow, it might appear that
these were mere matters of form. Moltke, however, assures us
that the king was by no means a figurehead. Although most
careful not to assert his authority in a way that would embarrass
his chief of staff, and always ready to yield,his own judgment
3 o8
WAR
[GENERAL PRINCIPLES
to sound reasons, he expressed, nevertheless, a perfectly inde-
pendent opinion on every proposal placed before him, and on
very many occasions made most useful suggestions. And at
the same time, while systematically refraining from all inter-
ference after military operations had once begun, he never
permitted military considerations to override the demands of
policy. In 1866, when it was manifestly of the first importance,
from a military point of view, that the Prussian army should be
concentrated in a position which would enable it to cross the
border immediately war was declared, the political situation was
so strained that it was even more important to prevent the
enemy from setting foot at any single point on Prussian territory.
The army, hi consequence, was dispersed instead of being con-
centrated, and the ultimate offensive became a difficult and
hazardous operation. It is true that the king was an able and
experienced soldier. Nevertheless, the wise restraint he displayed
in the course of two great campaigns, as well as the skill with
which he adjusted conflicting factors, are an admirable example
of judicious statesmanship.
The duration of a campaign is largely affected by the deadly
properties of modern firearms. It is true that the losses in
battle are relatively less that in the days of Brown
Bess and the smooth-bore cannon, and almost in-
significant when compared with the fearful carnage
wrought by sword and spear. The reason is simple.
A battlefield in the old days, except at close quarters, was a
comparatively safe locality, and the greater part of the troops
engaged were seldom exposed for a long time together to a hot
and continuous fire. To-day death has a far wider range, and
the strain on the nerves is consequently far more severe. De-
moralization, therefore, sets in at an earlier period, and it is
more complete. When troops once realize their inferiority, they
can no longer be depended on. It is not the losses they have
actually suffered, but those that they expect to suffer, that affect
them. Unless discipline and national spirit are of superior
quality, unless the soldier is animated by something higher than
the mere habit of mechanical obedience, panic, shirking and
wholesale surrender will be the ordinary features of a campaign.
These phenomena made themselves apparent, though in a less
degree, as long ago as the American Civil War, when the weapon
of the infantry was the muzzle-loading rifle, firing at most two
rounds a minute, and when the projectiles of the artillery were
hardly more destructive than the stone shot of Mons Meg.
With the magazine rifle, machine guns, shrapnel and high
explosives they have become more pronounced than even at
Vionvilie or Plevna. "The retreat of the 38th (Prussian)
Brigade," writes Captain Hoenig, an eye-witness of the former
battle, " forms the most awful drama of the great war. It had
lost 53 % of its strength, and the proportion of killed to wounded
was as 3 to 4. Strong men collapsed inanimate. ... I saw
men cry like children, others fell prone without a sound; in
most the need of water thrust forth all other instincts; the body
demanded its rights. ' Water, water,' was the only intelligible
cry that broke from those moving phantoms. The enemy's
lead poured like hail upon the wretched remnant of the brigade;
yet they moved only slowly to the rear, their head bent in utter
weariness; their features distorted under the thick dust that
had gathered on faces dripping with sweat. The strain was
beyond endurance. The soldier was no longer a receptive being;
he was oblivious of everything, great or small. His comrades
or his superiors he no longer recognized; and yet he was the
same man who but a short time before had marched across the
battlefield shouting his marching chorus. A few active squadrons,
and not a man would have escaped ! Only he who had seen men
in such circumstances, and observed their bearing, knows the
dreadful imprint that their features leave upon the memory.
Madness is there, the madness that arises from bodily exhaustion
combined with the most abject terror. . . . I do not shrink,"
he adds, "from confessing that the fire of Mars-la-Tour affected
my nerves for months."
If such are the results of ill-success, a whole army might
be reduced to the condition of the 38th Brigade in the first
month of the campaign, and it is thus perfectly clear that some
small mistake in conduct, some trifling deficiency in preparation,
an ill-conceived order or a few hours' delay in bringing up a
reinforcement may have the most terrible consequences.
The importance, nay the necessity, that the people, as a
governing body, should keep as watchful an eye on its armed
forces and the national defences as on diplomacy or legislation
is fully realized, naturally enough, only by those nations whose
instincts of self-preservation, by reason of the configuration of
their frontiers or their political situation, are strongly developed.
Yet even to maritime empires, to Great Britain or indeed to the
United States, an efficient army is of the first necessity.
Their land frontiers are vulnerable. They may have ^" l ' aad
to deal with rebellion, and a navy is not all-powerful, Torce." 7
even for the defence of coasts and commerce. It
can protect, but it cannot destroy. Without the help of
an army, it can neither complete the rain of the enemy's
fleet nor prevent its resuscitation. Without the help of an
army it can hardly force a hostile power to ask for terms.
Exhaustion is the object of its warfare; hut exhaustion, unless
accelerated by crushing blows, is an exceedingly slow process.
In the spring of 1861 the blockade was established in American
waters along the coasts of the Southern Confederacy, and
maintained with increasing stringency from month to month.
Yet it was not till the spring of 1865 that the colours of the
Union floated from the capitol of Richmond, and it was the army
which placed them there. A state, then., which should rely
on naval strength alone, could look forward to no other than
a protracted war, and a protracted war between two great
powers is antagonistic to the interests of the civilized world.
With the nations armed to the teeth, and dominated to a greater
or smaller extent by a militant spirit; with commerce and
finance dependent for health and security on universal peace,
foreign intervention is a mere question of time. Nor would
public opinion, either in Great Britain or America, be content
with a purely defensive policy, even if such policy were practic-
able. Putting aside the tedium and the dangers of an intermin-
able campaign, the national pride would never be brought to
confess that it was incapable of the same resolute effort as much
smaller communities. "An army, and a strong army," would
be the general cry. Nor would such an army be difficult to create.
Enormous numbers would not be needed. An army supported
by an invincible navy possesses a strength which is out of all
proportion to its size. Even to those who rely on the big bat-
talions and huge fortresses, the amphibious power of a great
maritime state, if intelligently directed, may be a most formidable
menace; while to the state itself it is an extraordinary security.
The history of Great Britain is one long illustration. Captain
Mahan points .out that there are always dominant positions,
outside the frontiers of a maritime state, which, in the interests
of commerce, as well as of supremacy at sea, should never be
allowed to pass into the possession of a powerful neighbour.
Great Britain, always dependent for her prosperity on narrow
seas, has long been familiar with the importance of the positions
that command these waterways. In one respect at least her
policy has been consistent. She has spared no effort to secure
such positions for herself, or, if that has been impracticable,
at least to draw their teeth. Gibraltar, Malta, St Lucia, Aden,
Egypt, Cyprus are conspicuous instances; but above all stands
Antwerp. In perhaps the most original passage of Alison's
monumental work the constant influence of Antwerp on the
destinies of the United Kingdom is vividly portrayed. " Nature
has framed the Scheldt to be the rival of the Thames. Flowing
throueh a country excelling even the midland counties of England
in wealth and resources, adjoining cities equal to any in Europe
in arts and commerce; the artery at once of Flanders and
Holland, of Brabant and Luxemburg, it is fitted to be the
great organ of communication between the fertile fields and
rich manufacturing towns of the Low Countries and other
maritime states of the world." Antwerp, moreover, the key
of the great estuary, is eminently adapted for the establishment
of a vast naval arsenal, such as it became under Philip II. of
GENERAL PRINCIPLES]
WAR
309
Spain and again under the first Napoleon. " It is the point,"
continues the historian, " from which in every age the independ-
ence of these kingdoms has been seriously menaced. Sensible
of her danger, it had been the fixed policy of Great Britain
for centuries to prevent this formidable outwork from falling
into the hands of her enemies, and the best days of her history
are chiefly occupied with the struggle to ward off such a disaster."
In ascribing, however, every great war in which Great Britain
has been engaged to this cause alone he has gone too far. The
security of India has been a motive of equal strength. Never-
theless, it was to protect Antwerp from the French that Charles
II. sided with the Dutch in 1670; that Anne declared war on
Louis XIV. in 1704; that Chatham supported Prussia in 1742;
that Pitt, fifty years later, took up arms against the Revolution.
The trophies of the British army in the great war with France
were characteristic of the amphibious power. The troops took
inter more battleships than colours, and almost as many
action* ot naval arsenals as land fortresses. Many were the
naval and blows they struck at the maritime strength of France
imtary an( j ner a nj es - ^ut had the expedition which landed
" on the Isle of Walcheren in 1809 been as vigorously
conducted as it was wisely conceived, it would have hit Napoleon
far harder than even the seizure of the Danish fleet at Copen-
hagen. The great dockyard that the emperor had constructed
on the Scheldt held the nucleus of a powerful fleet. Eight line-
of-battle ships and ten frigates lay in mid-channel. Twenty
vessels of different classes were on the slips, and in the magazines
and storehouses had been accumulated sufficient material to
equip all these and twenty more. The" destruction of Antwerp
and for a full week it was at Lord Chatham's mercy would
have freed scores of British frigates to protect British commerce;
Wellington, in his great campaign of 1813, could not have had
to complain that, for the first time, the communication by sea
of a British army was insecure; the Americans, in the war
which broke out in 1812, would have been more vigorously
opposed; and Napoleon, who, while Antwerp was his, never
altogether abandoned hope of overmastering Great Britain on
her own element, might, on his own confession, have relinquished
the useless struggle with the great sea power. The expedition
failed, and failed disastrously. But for all that, fulfilling as
it did the great maxim that the naval strength of the enemy
should be the first objective of the forces of the maritime power,
both by land and sea, it was a strategical stroke of the highest
order.
The predominant part played by the army under Wellington
in Spain and Belgium has tended to obscure the principle that
governed its employment in the war of 1793-1815. The army,
in the opinion of the country, was first and foremost the auxiliary
of the fleet; and only when the naval strength of the enemy
had been destroyed was it used in the ordinary manner, i.e.
in the invasion of the hostile territory and in lending aid to the
forces of confederate powers. Events proved that these principles
were absolutely sound. It was not in the narrow seas alone that
the army rendered good service to the navy. Depriving France
of her colonies, occupying her ports in foreign waters, ousting
her from commanding posts along the trade routes, it contributed
not only to her exhaustion, but to the protection of British
commerce and to the permanent establishment of maritime
supremacy. Few of these operations are of sufficient magnitude
to attract much notice from the ordinary historian, yet it is
impossible to overrate their effect. To the possession of the
dominant positions that were captured by the army, Great
Britain, in no small degree, is indebted for the present security of
her vast dominions. The keynote of the fierce struggle with the
French Empire was the possession of India. Before he became
First Consul, Napoleon had realized that India was the throne
of Asia; that whoever should sit on that throne, master of the
commerce of the East, of the richest and most natural market
for the products of the West, and of the hardiest and most en-
lightened nations of the golden hemisphere, would be master
of more than half the globe. But his prescience was not surer
than the instinct of the British people. Vague and shadowy
indeed were their dreams of empire, yet the presentiment of
future greatness, based on the foothold they had already gained
in Hindustan, seems always to have controlled the national
policy. They knew as well as Napoleon that Malta and Egypt,
to use his own phrase, were merely the outworks of their strong-
hold in the East; and that if those outworks fell into the hands
of France, a great army of warlike Mahommedans, led by French
generals, stiffened by a French army corps, and gathering
impetus from the accession of every tribe it passed through,
might march unopposed across the Indus. So, from first to last,
the least threat against Egypt and Malta sufficed to awaken
their apprehensions; and in their knowledge that India was the
ultimate objective of all his schemes is to be found the explanation
of the stubbornness with which they fought Napoleon. It is not
to be denied that in thwarting the ambition of their mighty
rival, or perhaps in furthering their own, the navy was the chief
instrument; but in thrusting the French from Egypt, in adding
Ceylon, Mauritius and Cape Colony to the outworks, the army,
small as it was then, compared with the great hosts of the
Continent, did much both for the making and the security of the
British Empire.
But the scope of the military operations of a maritime state
is by no means limited to the capture of colonies, naval arsenals
and coaling-stations. Timely diversions, by attracting a large
portion of the enemy's fighting strength on the mainland, may
give valuable aid to the armies of an ally. The Peninsular War
is a conspicuous example. According to Napoleon, the necessity
of maintaining his grip on Spain deprived him of 180,000 good
soldiers during the disastrous campaign of 1813; and those
soldiers, who would have made Dresden a decisive instead of a
barren victory, were held fast by Wellington. Again, it was the
news of Vittoria that made it useless for the emperor to propose
terms of peace, and so escape from the coils that strangled him
at Leipzig.
Nor is the reinforcement supplied by a small army based upon
the sea to be despised. In 1793 a British contingent under the
duke of York formed part of the allied forces which, had the
British government forborne to interfere, would in all probability
have captured Paris. Twenty-two years later, under wiser
auspices, another contingent, although numbering no more than
30,000 men, took a decisive part in the war of nations, and the
blunders of the older generation were more' than repaired at
Waterloo. Nevertheless, the strength of the amphibious power
has been more effectively displayed than in the campaign of
1815. Intervention at the most critical period of a war has
produced greater results than the provision of a contingent at
the outset. In 1781 the disembarkation of a French army at
Yorktown, Virginia, rendered certain the independence of the
United States; and in 1878, when the Russian invaders were
already in sight of Constantinople, the arrival of the British
fleet in the Dardanelles, following the mobilization of an ex-
peditionary force, at once arrested their further progress. Had
the British Cabinet of 1807 realized the preponderating strength
which even a small army, if rightly used, draws from the com-
mand of the sea, the campaign of Eylau would in all probability
have been as disastrous to Napoleon as that of Leipzig. The
presence of 20,000 men at the great battle would have surely
turned the scale in favour of the allies. Yet, although the men
were available, although a few months later 27,000 were assembled
in the Baltic for the coercion of Denmark, his Majesty's ministers,
forgetful of Marlborough's glories, were so imbued with the idea
that the British army was too insignificant to take pan in a
Continental war, that the opportunity was let slip. It is a
sufficiently remarkable fact that the successive governments
of that era, although they realized very clearly that the first
duty of the army was to support the operations and complete
the triumph of the navy, never seemed to have grasped the
principles which should have controlled its use when the com-
mand of the sea had been attained. The march of the Allies on
Paris in 1793 was brought to a standstill because the British
Cabinet considered that the contingent would be better em-
ployed in besieging Dunkirk. After the failure of the expedition
310
WAR
[GENERAL PRINCIPLES
under Sir John Moore to achieve the impossible, and in con-
junction with the Spaniards drive the French from the Peninsula,
the ministry abandoned all idea of intervention on the main
theatre, although, as we have seen, had such intervention been
well timed, it might easily have changed the current of events.
It is true that when the main theatre is occupied by huge armies,
as was the case during the whole of the Napoleonic conflict, the
value of a comparatively small force, however sudden its appear-
ance, is by no means easily realized. For instance, it would seem
at first sight that a British contingent of 100,000 men would be
almost lost amid the millions that would take part in the decisive
conflicts of a European war. It is remembered, however, that
with enormous masses of men the difficulties of supply are very
great. Steam has done much to lighten them, and the numbers
at the point of collision will be far greater than it was possible
to assemble in the days of Napoleon. Nevertheless, the lines of
communication, especially railways, will require more men to
guard them than heretofore, for they are far more vulnerable.
The longer, therefore, the lines of communication, the smaller
the numbers on the field of battle. Moreover, the great hosts of
the Continent, not only for convenience of supply, but for con-
venience of manoeuvre, will deploy several armies on a broad
front. At some one point, then, a reinforcement of even one or
two army corps might turn the scale.
The objections, however, to intervention of this character
are numerous. Between allied armies, especially if one is far
larger than the other, there is certain to be friction,
Weakness as was the case in the Crimea; and the question of
"armies. supply is not easily settled. If, however, the decisive
point is near the coast, as in the campaign of Eylau,
the army of the maritime power, possessing its own base, can
render effective aid without embarrassment either to itself
or its ally. But, under all other conditions, independent opera-
tions of a secondary nature are distinctly to be preferred. Such
was clearly the opinion of the British ministries during the
war with France. They recognized that by giving vitality
and backbone to popular risings even a small army might create
useful diversions. But their idea of a diversion was a series
of isolated efforts, made at far-distant points; and even so late
as 1813 they were oblivious of the self-evident facts that for a
diversion to be really effective it must be made in such strength
as to constitute a serious threat, and that it should be directed
against some vital point. Fortunately for Europe, Wellington
foresaw that the permanent occupation of Portugal, and the
presence of a British army in close proximity to the southern
frontier of France, would be a menace which it would be im-
possible for Napoleon to disregard. Yet with what difficulty
he induced the government to adopt his views, and how luke-
warm was their support, is exposed in the many volumes of his
despatches. In all history there are few more glaring instances
of incompetent statesmanship than the proposal of the cabinet
of 1813, at the moment Wellington was contemplating the
campaign that was to expel the French from Spain, and was
asking for more men, more money and more material, to detach
a large force in the vague hope of exciting a revolution in southern
Italy. Whether the improvement in communications, as well
as the increase in the size of armies, have not greatly weakened
the value of diversions on the mainland, it is difficult to say.
Railways may enable the defender to concentrate his forces
so rapidly that even the landing may be opposed, and with the
enormous numbers at his command he may well be able to
spare a considerable force from the main theatre. It is possible
to conceive that a small army, even if it completed its embarka-
tion, might find itself shut up in an entrenched position by a
force little larger than itself. If, however, the diversion were
made at a crisis of the campaign, the sudden appearance of a
new army might be decisive of the war. Otherwise, the army
would probably do more good if it refrained from landing and
confined itself to threats. So long as it was hidden by the
horizon, it would be invested with the terrors of the unknown.
The enemy's knowledge that at any moment a well-equipped
force, supported by a powerful fleet, might suddenly descend
upon some prosperous port or important arsenal, would compel
him to maintain large garrisons along the whole seaboard.
The strength of these garrisons, in all probability, would be
much larger in the aggregate than the force which menaced
them, and the latter would thus exercise a far greater disintegrat-
ing effect on the enemy's armed strength than by adding a few
thousand men to the hosts of its ally. On theatres of war which
are only thinly populated or half civilized, a descent from the
sea might easily produce a complete change in the situation.
The occupation of Plevna, in close proximity to the Russian
line of communications and to the single bridge across the Danube,
brought the Russian advance through Bulgaria to a sudden stop,
and relieved all pressure on Turkey proper. The deadlock
which ensued is suggestive. Let us suppose that the invaders'
line of communications had been a railway, and Plevna situated
near the coast. Supplied from the sea, with unlimited facilities
for reinforcement, Osman's ring of earthworks would have
been absolutely impregnable; and had the ring been pushed
so far inland as to secure scope for offensive action, the Russians,
in all human probability, would never have crossed the Balkans.
It is perfectly possible, then, that if an army lands within reach
of a precarious line of communications it may compel the enemy,
although far superior in numbers, to renounce all enterprises
against distant points.
Railways in war are good servants, but bad masters. In
some respects they are far superior to a network of highroads.
Two trains will supply the daily needs of 100,000 men
several hundred miles distant from their base. But
the road-bed is easily destroyed; the convoy system is impractic-
able, and the regular course of traffic is susceptible to the slightest
threat. So, when railways become the principal factors, as
when an army finds itself dependent on a long and exposed line,
a powerful aggressive combination becomes a matter of the
utmost difficulty. The whole attention of the commander will
be given to the security of his supplies, and even if he is not
thrown on the defensive by the enemy's activity, his liberty
of action will be exceedingly circumscribed. The relative values
of the different kinds of communications have a most important
bearing on the art of war. A great waterway, such as the Nile,
the Mississippi, the Danube or the Ganges, is safer and surer
than a railway. But railways are far more numerous than
navigable rivers, and a series of parallel lines is thus a better
means of supplying a large army. But neither railways
nor waterways as lines of supply or of operation are r * e seaas
to be compared with the sea. Before the war of 1870,
for instance, a study of the French railway system
enabled Moltke to forecast, with absolute accuracy, the direction
of Napoleon's advance, the distribution of his forces, and the
extent of front that they would occupy. In a war, therefore,
between two Continental powers, the staff on either side would
have no difficulty in determining the line of attack; the locality
for concentration would be at once made clear; and as the
carrying capacity of all railways is well known, the numbers
that would be encountered at any one point along the front
might be easily calculated. But if the enemy's army, supported
by a powerful fleet, were to advance across blue water, the case
would be very different. Its movements would be veiled in the
most complete secrecy. It would be impossible to do more than
guess at its objective. It might strike at any point along
hundreds of miles of coast, or it might shift from one point to
another, perhaps far distant, in absolute security; it could
bewilder the enemy with feints, and cause him to disperse his
forces over the whole seaboard. Surprise and freedom of
movement are pre-eminently the weapons of the power that
commands the sea. Witness the War of Secession. McClellan,
in 1862, by the adroit transfer of 120,000 men down the reaches
of Chesapeake to the Virginia Peninsula, had Richmond at his
mercy. Grant in 1864, by continually changing his line of
communication from one river to another, made more progress
in a month than his predecessors had done in two years. Sher-
man's great march across Georgia would have been impossible
had not a Federal fleet been ready to receive him when he reached
GENERAL PRINCIPLES]
WAR
phiblous
the Atlantic; and, throughout the war, the knowledge that at
any moment a vast fleet of transports might appear off any one
of the ports on their enormous seaboard prevented the Con-
federates, notwithstanding that the garrisons were reduced to
a most dangerous extent, from massing their full strength for
a decisive effort.
The power of striking like " a bolt from the blue " is of the
very greatest value in war. Surprise was the foundation of
almost all the grand strategical combinations of the past, as
it will be of those to come. The first thought and the last of the
great general is to outwit his adversary, and to strike
where he is least expected. And the measures he adopts
1.11. .1 i i
to accomplish his purpose are not easily divined.
What soldier in Europe anticipated Marlborough's
march to the Danube and Blenheim field ? What other brain
besides Napoleon's dreamt of the passage of the Alps before
Marengo? Was there a single general of Prussia before Jena
who foresaw that the French would march north from the
Bavarian frontier, uncovering the roads to the Rhine, and risking
utter destruction in case of defeat? Who believed, in the early
June of 1815, that an army 130,000 strong would dare to invade
a country defended by two armies that mustered together over
200,000 unbeaten soldiers? To what Federal soldier did it
occur, on the morning of Chancellorsville, that Lee, confronted
by 90,000 Northerners, would detach the half of his own small
force of 50,000 to attack his enemy in flank and rear? The
very course which appeared to ordinary minds so beset by
difficulties and dangers as to be outside the pale of practical
strategy has, over and over again, been that which led to decisive
victory; and if there is one lesson more valuable than another
as regards national defence, it is that preparation cannot be
too careful or precautions overdone. Overwhelming numbers,
adequately trained, commanded and equipped, are the only
means of ensuring absolute security. But a numerical preponder-
ance, either by land or sea. over all possible hostile combina-
tions, is unattainable, and in default the only sound policy
is to take timely and ample precautions against all enterprises
which are even remotely possible. There is nothing more to be
dreaded in war than the combined labours of a thoroughly
well-trained general staff, except the intellect and audacity of a
great strategist. The ordinary mind, even if it does
not snr ' n k from great danger, sees no way of surmount-
strattgy. ing great difficulties; and any operation which
involves both vast dangers and vast difficulties it
scoffs at as chimerical. The heaven-born strategist, on the
other hand, " takes no counsel of his fears." Knowing that
success is seldom to be won without incurring risks, he is always
greatly daring; and by the skill with which he overcomes all
obstacles, and even uses them, as Hannibal and Napoleon did
the Alps, and as some great captain of the future may use the
sea, to further his purpose and surprise his adversary, he shows
his superiority to the common herd. It is repeated ad nauseam
that in consequence of the vastly improved means of transmitting
information, surprise on a large scale is no longer to be feared.
It is to be remembered, however, that the means of concentrating
troops and ships are far speedier than of old; that false informa-
tion can be far more readily distributed; and also, that if there
is one thing more certain than another, it is that the great
strategist, surprise being still the most deadly of all weapons,
will devote the whole force of his intellect to the problem of
bringing it about.
Nor is it to be disguised that amphibious power is a far more
terrible weapon than even in the days when it crushed Napoleon.
Commerce has increased by leaps and bounds, and it is no longer
confined within territorial limits. The arteries vital to the
existence of civilized communities stretch over every ocean.
States which in 1800 rated their maritime traffic at a few hundred
thousand pounds sterling, value it now at many millions.
Others, whose flags, fifty years ago, were almost unknown on
the high seas, possess to-day great fleets of merchantmen;
and those who fifty years ago were self-dependent, rely in great
part, for the maintenance of their prosperity, on their intercourse
with distant continents. There is no great power, and few small
ones, to whom the loss of its sea-borne trade would be other than
a most deadly blow; and there is no great power that is not far
more vulnerable than when Great Britain, single-handed, held
her own against a European coalition. Colonies, commercial
ports, dockyards, coaling-stations are so many hostages to
fortune. Year by year they become more numerous. Year by
year, as commercial rivalry grows more acute, they become
more intimately bound up with the prosperity and prestige
of their mother-countries. And to what end? To exist as
pledges of peace, auspicia melioris aevi, or to fall an easy
prey to the power that is supreme at sea and can strike hard
on land ?
Even the baldest and briefest discussion of the vast subject
of war would be incomplete without some reference to the
relative merits of professional and unprofessional
soldiers. Voluntary service still holds its ground in the
Anglo-Saxon states; and both the United Kingdom *>/
and America will have to a great extent to rely, in tno '"-
case of conflicts which tax all their resources, on troops who
have neither the practice nor the discipline of their standing
armies. What will be the value of these amateurs when pitted
against regulars? Putting the question of moral aside, as
leading us too far afield, it is clear that the individual amateur
must depend upon his training. If, like the majority of the
Boers, he is a good shot, a good scout, a good skirmisher and, if
mounted, a good horseman and horsemaster, he is undeniably
a most useful soldier. But whether amateurs en masse, that is,
when organized into battalions and brigades, are thoroughly
trustworthy, depends on the quality of their officers. With good
officers, and a certain amount of previous training, there is no
reason why bodies of infantry, artillery or mounted infantry,
composed entirely of unprofessional soldiers, should not do
excellent service in the field. Where they are likely to fail is in
discipline; and it would appear that at the beginning of a
campaign they are more liable to panic, less resolute in attack,
less enduring under heavy losses and great hardships, and much
slower in manoeuvre than the professionals. To a certain extent
this is inevitable; and it has a most important bearing on the
value of the citizen soldier, for the beginning of a campaign is
a most critical phase. In short, troops who are only half-trained
or have been hastily raised may be a positive danger to the army
to which they belong; and the shelter of stout earthworks is
the only place for them. Yet the presence of a certain number
of experienced fighting men in the ranks may make all the
difference; and, in any case, it is probable that battalions com-
posed of unprofessional soldiers, the free citizens of a free and
prosperous state, are little if at all inferior, as fighting units, to
battalions composed of conscripts. But it is to be understood
that the men possess the qualifications referred to above, that
the officers are accustomed to command and have a good practical
knowledge of their duties in the field. A mob, however patriotic,
carrying small-bore rifles is no more likely to hold its own to-day
against well-led regulars than did the mob carrying pikes and
flint-locks in the past. A small body of resolute civilians, well-
armed and skilful marksmen, might easily on their own ground
defeat the same number of trained soldiers, especially if the
latter were badly led. But in a war of masses, the power of
combination, of rapid and orderly movement, and of tactical
manoeuvring is bound to tell. (G.F.R.H.)
LITERATURE. On the general principles of War, see C. v. Clause-
witz, Vom Kriege (Eng. trans. On War, new ed. 1906) ; C. v. B(inder)-
K(rieglstein), Gtist and Staff im Kriege (1895): Ardant du Picq,
Etudes sur le combat; W. Bagehot, Physics and Politics; G. le Bon,
Psychologie des faults and Psychologie de I' education; F. N. Maude,
War and the World's Life (1907); Berndt, Zahl im Kriege (statistical
tables); Biottot, Les Grands Inspires Jeanne d'Arc; C. W. C.
Oman, Art of War; M. Jahns, Gesch. der KriegsvnssenschafUn; v. der
Goltz, Volk in Waff en (Eng. trans., Nation in Arms); A. T. Mahan,
Influence of Sea Power on History; C. E. Callwell, Military Opera-
tions and Maritime Preponderance; P.H. Colomb, Naval Warfare;
Stewart Murray, Future Peace of the Anglo-Saxons; H. Spenser
Wilkinson, The Brain of an Army, War and Policy, &c. ; and works
mentioned in the bibliography to the article ARMY.
312
WAR
[LAWS OF WAR
II. LAWS op WAR
The law of war, in strict usage, does not apply to all armed
conflicts, but only to such conflicts as, by the usage of states,
CivHwar const i tute war - War exists when the organized armed
as atet'n- forces of one state are opposed to the organized armed
guished forces of another state. War also exists within the
lrom bounds of a single state when organized armed forces,
rebellion. ^ sufficient power to make the issue doubtful, place
themselves in opposition to the armed forces of the existing
government. If the disaffected forces are in a state of flagrant
inferiority in comparison with those of the existing govern-
ment there is not a state of war but of rebellion. The combatants
in civil war are entitled to treatment in accordance with the law
of war. Rebels, as outlaws, have no rights. In the South African
campaign (1899-1902) the question arose whether the manifest
inferiority of the Boer forces, the possession by the British forces
of the seats of government, and their practical occupation of the
whole country, did not put an end to the state of war and con-
stitute the Boer fighting forces rebels against a new existing
government which had proclaimed annexation of the conquered
states. The action of the British commanders is a precedent in
favour of the view that the fighting forces of an invaded state are
entitled to belligerent rights, though in a state of hopeless in-
feriority, so long as they remain in the field in organized bands.
In this, as in many cases which have formed international
usage, the danger of reprisals more than the logic of principles has
dictated a different line of conduct from that which the strict
principles of law suggested. A somewhat similar, but more
complicated situation, arose out of the cession by Spain to the
United States of the Philippine Islands. The insurgents being in
possession of them at the time, Spain ceded what she did not in
fact possess. Thus it has been contended that the position of the
insurgents became that of belligerents defending their country
against conquest by invading forces.
Wars have been classed in different ways wars of intervention,
wars of conquest, wars of defence, wars of independence, just
wars, unjust wars, and so on; but the law of war
totem*, applies to them all without distinction. States do
not sit as judges over each other, but treat war, subject
to their own interest, as a fact. Interest, however, with the
increasing development of international relations is becoming
a more important factor in the determination of the attitude of
the neutral onlooker (see NEUTRALITY).
In the Chino- Japanese War (1894-95) the Japanese had
to decide whether the Chinese were entitled to treatment under
the European law of war. Japan had acceded to the
" wlth Geneva Convention (see below) in 1886, and to the
peop/eT" Declaration of Paris (see below) in 1887. China was a
party to. neither, and observed the provisions of neither.
Japan, nevertheless, as related by her learned judicial advisers,
Professors Ariga and Takahashi, observed towards the Chinese
forces, combatant and non-combatant, all the rules of European
International Law without resorting to the reprisals to which
Chinese barbarities provoked her.
The position of neutral governments towards insurgent
forces is always a delicate one. If they are not recognized as
Neutral belligerents by the state against which they are
position arrayed, the state in question theoretically accepts
towards responsibility for the consequences of their acts in
lurgeats. respect of neutra i s t a tes. A neutral state may be
satisfied with this responsibility, or it may recognize the bel-
ligerent character of the insurgents. If, however, it does not,
the insurgent forces cannot exercise rights of war against
neutral property without exposing themselves to treatment as
outlaws and pirates. A case of such treatment occurred in
September 1902 in connexion with a then pending revolution
in Hayti. A German cruiser, the " Panther," treated an
insurgent gunboat, the " Crete-a-Pierrot," as a pirate vessel, 1
and sank her for having stopped and confiscated arms and
ammunition found among the cargo of the German steamer
1 The Times (gth September 1902).
Effect of
recogni-
tion of
belliger-
ency.
" Markomannia " on the ground that they were contraband
destined for the armed forces of the existing Haytian govern-
ment. The " Crete-a-Pierrot " had for some years formed part
of the Haytian navy, and was commanded by Admiral Killick,
who had been an admiral of that navy. There had been no
recognition of the belligerency of the insurgents. No state seems
to have made any observations on the incident, which may be
ta"ken to be in accordance with current international usage.
A well-known instance of a neutral government recognizing
insurgent forces as belligerent, in spite of the denial of that
character to them by the state against which they British re-
are carrying on hostilities, occurred in the North cognition
American Civil War. The right asserted by Great ofthe Co " m
Britain to recognize the belligerency of the Con-
federate forces was based on the contention that British com-
mercial interests were very largely affected by the blockade of
the Southern ports. It is agreed, however, among jurists that,
where the interests of neighbouring states are not affected, the
recognition of an insurgent's belligerency is needless interference. 2
The recognition of belligerency does not entail recognition
of the belligerent as a sovereign state. It goes no farther
than its immediate purpose. The belligerent armies
are lawful combatants, not bandits. Supplies taken
from invaded territory are requisitions, not robbery.
The belligerent ships of war are lawful cruisers, not
pirates; and their captures, made hi accordance
with maritime law, are good prize; and their blockades, if
effectual, must be respected by neutrals. But this does not
suffice to invest the belligerent with the attributes of
independent sovereignty for such objects as negotiation of
treaties, and the accrediting of diplomatic and consular agents.
This was the attitude of Great Britain and France towards the
Confederates in the American Civil War.
The position of a vassal state or a colony carrying on foreign
war without the consent of the suzerain or parent state might
involve still more complicated issues. 3
Civilized warfare, the textbooks tell us, is confined, as far
as possible, to disablement of the armed forces of the enemy;
otherwise war would continue till one of the parties
was exterminated. " It is with good reason," observes ^^" aaa
Vattel, " that this practice has grown into a custom civilians.
with the nations of Europe, at least with those that
keep up regular standing armies or bodies of militia. The troops
alone carry on war, while the rest of the nation remain in peace "
(Law of Nations, iii. 226). Modern notions of patriotism do not,
however, view this total and unconditional abstention of the
1 It is also agreed that, as the existence of belligerency imposes
burdens and liabilities upon neutral subjects, a state engaged in civil
war has no right, in endeavouring to effect its warlike objects, to em-
ploy measures against foreign vessels, which, though sanctioned in
time of peace, are not recognized in time of war. In other words, it
cannot enjoy at one and the same moment the rights of both peace
and war. Thus, in 1861, when the government of New Granada,
during a civil war, announced that certain ports would be closed, not
by blockade, but by order, Lord John Russell said that " it was
perfectly competent to the government of a country in a state of
tranquillity to say which ports should be open to trade, and which
should be closed ; but in the event of insurrection, or civil war in
that country, it was not competent for its government to close ports
which were de facto in the hands of the insurgents; and that such
a proceeding would be an invasion of international law relating to
blockade " (Hansard, clxiii., 1846). Subsequently the government
of the United States proposed to adopt the same measure against
the ports of the Southern States, upon which Lord John Russell
wrote to Lord Lyons that " Her Majesty's government entirely
concur with the French government in the opinion that a decree
closing the Southern ports would be entirely illegal, and would be an
evasion of that recognized maxim of the law of nations that the ports
of a belligerent can only be closed by an effective blockade " (State
Papers, North America, No. I, 1862). In neither case was the order
carried out. When in 1885 the President of Colombia, during the
existence of civil war, declared several ports to be closed without
instituting a blockade, Mr T. F. Bayard, Secretary of State of the
United States, in a despatch of 24th April of that year, fully
acknowledged the principle of this contention by refusing to
acknowledge the closure.
' In the Servo-Bulgarian War of 1885 the Sultan, though suzerain
of Bulgaria, was unmoved by the invasion of his vassal's dominions.
LAWS OF WAR]
WAR
civilian population as any longer possible. They have found,
to some extent, expression in the following Articles of the
Hague War-Regulations:
" Art. i. The laws, rights and duties of war apply not only to
an army, but also to militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the follow-
ing conditions: (a) To be commanded by a person responsible for
his subordinates; (ft) to have a fixed distinctive emblem recog-
nizable at a distance ; (c) to carry arms openly ; and (d) to conduct
their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war.
In countries where militia or volunteer corps constitute the army,
or form part of it, they are included under the denomination ' army.'
" Art. 2. The population of a territory not under occupation, who,
on the enemy's approach, spontaneously take up arms to resist the
invading troops without having had time to organize themselves in
accordance with Article I, shall be regarded as belligerent if they
carry arms openly, and if they respect the laws and customs of war." l
The only alteration made by the revised Convention of Nov.
zyth, 1907, as compared with that of 1899 is the insertion in
Art. 2 of the words in italics.
By these provisions, irregular combatants whom both the
government of the United States in the American Civil War
and the German government in the Franco-German War refused
to regard as legitimate belligerents, are now made legally so. 2
1 The preamble of the Convention refers specially to Articles I and
2 in the following terms: " In the view of the High Contracting
Parties, these provisions, the drafting of which has been inspired by
the desire to diminish the evils of war so far as military necessities
permit, are destined to serve as general rules of conduct for bel-
ligerents in their relations with each other and with populations;
" It has not, however, been possible to agree forthwith on provi-
sions embracing all the circumstances which occur in practice ;
" On the other hand, it could not be intended by the High Con-
tracting Parties that the cases not provided for should, for want of a
written provision, be left to the arbitrary judgment of the military
commanders ;
" Until a more complete code of the laws of war is issued, the High
Contracting Parties think it expedient to declare that in cases not
included in the Regulations adopted by them, populations and
belligerents remain under the protection and empire of the principles
of international law, as they result from the usages established among
civilized nations, from the laws of humanity, and the requirements of
the public conscience;
" They declare that it is in this sense especially that Articles I and
2 of the regulations adopted must be understood."
1 The instructions for the government of armies of the United
States in the field, issued in 1863, provided:
" Men or squads of men who commit hostilities, whether by fighting
or inroads for destruction or plunder, or by raids of any kind,
without commission, without being part and portion of the
organized hostile army, and without sharing continuously in
the war, but who do so with intermitting returns to their
homes and avocation, or with the occasional assumption of the
semblance of peaceful pursuits, divesting themselves of the
character or appearance of soldiers such men or squads of
men are not public enemies, and therefore, if captured, are not
entitled to the privilege of prisoners of war, but shall be
treated summarily as highway robbers or pirates."
Germany seven years later declined to recognize the regular bands
of francs-tireurs unless each individual member of them had been
personally called out by legal authority, and wore a uniform or badge,
irremovable and sufficient to distinguish him a.t a distance. The
older publicists were, on the whole, strongly opposed to the legaliza-
tion of irregular troops. Hallock settles the question in a summary
way by calling those who engage in partisan warfare, robbers and
murderers, and declaring that when captured they are to be treated
as criminals (International Law, chap, xviii. s. 8). It iseasy to
understand the unfavourable opinion of partisan bands usually ex-
pressed by the military authorities when the enormous power for
damage of modern arms is considered. At the Brussels Conference
of 1874 the representatives of the great military Powers of the
Continent naturally desired to keep spontaneous movements within
the narrowest possible bounds, while the delegates from the secondary
states, who have to rely for their defence chiefly upon the patriotism
of their people, endeavoured to widen the right of resistance to an
invader. Finally the Conference adopted the provisions which were
later formally recognized at the Hague Conference (see British State
Papers Miscellaneous, No. I, 1875, pp. 252-257). It is noteworthy
that both at the Brussels and the Hague Conferences the British
delegate ranged himself on the side of the smaller states in favour of
the recognition of guerrilla bands. At the Hague Conference Sir John
Ardagh gave notice of his intention to propose an additional Article,
to the effect that nothing in the Regulations should " be considered
as tending to diminish or suppress the right which belongs to the
population of an invaded country patriotically to oppose the most
energetic resistance by every legitimate means." The upshot of this
notice was to cause the insertion of a proviso in the preamble of the
Connected with the position of private persons in time of
war is that of their property in invaded territory, a subject
which has often been misunderstood. Assertions E aemy
as to its immunity from capture in warfare on land property
have been made which are historically inaccurate " i" v <^<i
and are not borne out by contemporary usage. No terrltory -
doubt contemporary usage is an improvement on older usage.
An invading army, before the practice of war became more
refined, lived by foraging and pillage in the invaded country;
pillage, in fact, being one of the inducements held out to the
adventurers who formed part of the fighting forces either as
officers or as common soldiers, and this continued down to
comparatively recent times. Attenuations followed from the
rise of standing and regular armies, and the consequent more
marked distinction between soldier and civilian. They have now
taken the form of systematic requisitions and contributions,
the confining of the right of levying these to generals and com-
manders-in-chief, the institution of quittances or bills drawn by
the belligerent invader on the invaded power and handed in
payment to the private persons whose movable belongings
have been appropriated or used, and of war indemnities. These
are methods of lessening the hardships of war as regards the
private property on land of the subjects of belligerent states.
Their object and effect have by no means been to arrive at
immunity, but to develop an organized system by which damage
and losses to individuals, whom the fortune of war has brought
into immediate contact with the enemy, are spread over the
whole community. There is thus no immunity of private
property in warfare on land, and the Hague War-Regulations,
far from declaring the contrary, have ratified the right of ap-
propriation of private property in the following Article:
" Neither requisitions in kind nor services can be demanded
from communes or inhabitants except for the necessities of the army
of occupation. They must be in proportion to the resources of the
country, and of such a nature as not to involve the population in
the obligation of taking part in military operations against their
country.
" These requisitions and services shall only be demanded on the
authority of the Commander in the locality occupied.
" The contributions in kind shall, as far as possible, be paid for
in ready money; if not, their receipt shall be acknowledged and the
payment of the amounts due shall be made as soon as possible "
(Article 52).
In another Article provision, moreover, is made for the utiliza-
tion of property in kind belonging to private persons:
" An army of occupation can only take possession of the cash,
funds and property liable to requisition belonging strictly to the
state, depots of arms, means of transport, stores and supplies,
and, generally, all movable property of the state which may be
used for military operations.
" All appliances, whether on land, at sea, or in the air adapted for
the transmission of news, or for the transport of persons or things,
exclusive of cases governed by naval law, depots ol arms, and gener-
ally, all kinds of ammunition of war, may be seized, even if they
belong to private individuals, but must be restored and compensation
fixed when peace is made."
Utilizable neutral rolling-stock is not excepted, Article 19
of the Convention on the rights and duties of neutral powers
and persons in war on land only providing that
" The plant of railways coming from neutral states, whether the
property of those states, or of companies, or of private persons, and
recognizable as such, shall be sent back as soon as possible to the
country oi origin."
Enemy property at sea is subject to different rules from
those which govern it on land. It is liable to capture and
confiscation wherever found on the high seas or in
enemy waters. The United States has made strenuous
efforts to get this rule of maritime warfare altered,
and immunity from capture accepted as the law of
the sea. It has even made this a condition of its accession to
the Declaration of Paris (see NEUTRALITY). But thus far other
powers have shown no disposition to agree to any alteration.
At the Hague Conferences the United States raised the question
again, but thus tar all that has been done has been to ratify
Convention'denying the right of military commanders to act accord-
ing to their own arbitrary judgment (Parliamentary Papers, No. I,
1899. c. 9534)-
WAR
[LAWS OF WAR
existing exemptions. The considerations which have led man-
kind to systematize the practice of war in regard to private
property on land do not arise in the same form in connexion
with private property at sea. Here there is no question of
seizing the live stock, or the bedding, or the food, or the utensils
of the private citizen. If ship and cargo are captured, it may
be hard upon the merchant, but such captures do not directly
deprive him of the necessaries of life. Yet, as in the case of war
on land, its hardships have been attenuated, and progress has
been made by developing a more systematic procedure of capture
of private property at sea. Thus exemption from capture is
now allowed by belligerents to enemy merchant ships which,
at the outbreak of war, are on the way to one of their ports,
and they also allow enemy merchantmen in their ports at its
outbreak a certain time to leave them. This is confirmed by
the Hague Convention of 1907 on the status of enemy ships
on the outbreak of hostilities. A somewhat similar practice
exists as regards pursuit of merchant ships which happen to be
in a neutral port at the same time with an enemy cruiser. Under
the Hague Convention of 1907 respecting the rights and duties
of neutral powers in naval war (Art. 16), this, too, is confirmed.
Lastly, there has frown up. on grounds similar to those which
have led to the indulgence shown to private property on land,
a now generally recognized immunity from capture of small
vessels engaged in the coast fisheries, provided they are in no
wise' made to serve the purposes of war, which also has been
duly confirmed in the Hague Conventions of 1907 by Art. 3 of
the convention relative to certain restrictions on the exercise
of the right of capture in maritime war. This has all been done
with the object of making the operations of war systematic, and
enabling the private citizen to estimate his risks and take the
necessary precautions to avoid capture, and of restricting acts
of war to the purpose of bringing it to a speedy conclusion.
We have seen that the only immunity of private property yet
known to the laws of war is a limited one at sea. War, by its
very nature, seems to prevent the growth of any such immunity.
The tendency in war on land has been to spread its effects over
the whole community, to keep a faithful record on both sides of
all confiscations, appropriations and services enforced against
private citizens; beyond this, protection has not yet been
extended. There is good reason for this. The object of each
belligerent being to break the enemy's power and force him to sue
for peace, it may not be enough to defeat him in the open field;
it may be necessary to prevent him from repairing his loss both
in men and in the munitions of war. This may imply crippling
his material resources, trade and manufactures. It has been
contended that " to capture at sea raw materials used in the
manufacturing industry of a belligerent state, or products on the
saie of which its prosperity, and therefore its taxable sources
depend, is necessarily one of the objects, and one of the least
cruel, which the belligerents pursue. To capture the merchant
vessels which carry these goods, and even to keep the seamen
navigating them prisoners, is to prevent the employment of the
ships by the enemy as transports or cruisers, and the repairing
from among the seamen of the mercantile marine of losses of men
in the official navy." l
The question of reform of the existing practice would naturally
be viewed in different countries according to their respective
interests. The United States has obviously an interest in the
exemption of its merchant vessels and cargoes from capture, a
small official navy being sufficient for the assertion of its ascend-
ancy on the American continent. It may also be presumed to be
in the interest of Italy, who, in a treaty with the United States
in 1871, provided for mutual recognition of the exemption.
In the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 the principle of inviolability
was adhered to by both parties. Germany proclaimed the same
principle in 1870, but afterwards abandoned it.
There is a strong movement in Great Britain in favour of the
general adoption of immunity. Whether it may now be expedient
for her to agree to such immunity is an open question. It is
1 Barclay, " Proposed Immunity of Private Property at Sea from
Capture by Enemy," Law Quarterly Review (January 1900).
quite conceivable, however, that different considerations would
weigh with her in a war with the United States from those which
would arise in a war with France or Germany. In the case of
the United States it might be in the interest of both parties to
localize the operations of war, and to interfere as little as possible,
perhaps for the joint exclusion of neutral vessels, with the traffic
across the Atlantic. In the case of a war with France or Germany,
Great Britain might consider that the closing of the high sea to
all traffic by the merchantmen of the enemy would be very much
in her own interest.
The converse subject of the treatment of subjects of the one
belligerent who remain in the country of the other belligerent also
was not dealt with at the Hague. British practice in
this matter has always been indulgent, the protection subfccts-
to the persons and property of non-combatant enemies tneir pro-
on British soil dating back to Magna Carta (s. 48), and P erf y "
this is still the law of England. The practice on the fj^^
continent of Europe varies according to circumstances,
to which no doubt, in the event of the invasion of Great Britain,
British practice would also have to adapt itself.
The Hague War-Regulations deal fully with the treatment of
prisoners, and though they add nothing to existing
practice, such treatment is no longer in the discretion
of the signatory Powers, but is binding on them. They
provide as follows:
Prisoners of war are in the power of the hostile government,
but not in that of the individuals or corps who captured them.
They must be humanely treated. All their personal belongings,
except arms, horses and military papers, remain their property
(Article 4). Prisoners of war may be interned in a town, fortress,
camp or any other locality, and bound not to go beyond certain
fixed limits; but they can .only be confined as an indispensable
measure of safety, and only so long as circumstances necessitating this
measure shall endure (Article 5). The state may utilize the labour of
prisoners of war according to their rank and aptitude, with the ex-
ception of officers. Their tasks shall not be excessive, and shall have
nothing to do with the military operations. Prisoners may be
authorized to work, for the public service, for private persons, or on
their own account. Work done for the state shall be paid for ac-
cording to the tariffs in force for soldiers of the national army em-
ployed on similar tasks, or if there are none in force, then according
to a tariff suitable to the work executed. When the work is for other
branches of the public service or for private persons, the conditions
shall be settled in agreement with the military authorities. The
wages of the prisoners shall go towards improving their position, and
the balance shall be paid them at the time of their release, after de-
ducting the cost of their maintenance (Article 6). The government
into whose hands prisoners of war have fallen is bound to maintain
them. Failing a special agreement between the belligerents, prisoners
of war shall be treated, as regards food, quarters and clothing, on the
same footing as the troops of the government which has captured
them (Article 7). Prisoners of war shall be subject to the laws, regula-
tions and orders in force in the army of the state into whose hands
they have fallen. Any act of insubordination warrants the adoption,
as regards them, of such measures of severity as may be necessary.
Escaped prisoners, recaptured before they have succeeded in re-
joining their army, or before quitting the territory occupied by the
army that captured them, are liable to disciplinary punishment.
Prisoners who, after succeeding in escaping, are again taken prisoners,
are not liable to any punishment for the previous flight (Article 8).
Every prisoner of war, if questioned, is bound to declare his true
name and rank, and if he disregards this rule, he is liable to a curtail-
ment of the advantages accorded to the prisoners of war of his class
(Article 9). Prisoners of war may be set at liberty on parole if the
laws of their country authorize it, and, in such a case, they are bound,
on their personal honour, scrupulously to fulfil, both as regards their
own government and the government by whom they were made
prisoners, the engagements they have contracted. In such cases,
their own government shall not require of nor accept from them any
service incompatible with the parole given (Article 10). A prisoner
of war cannot be forced to accept his liberty on parole; similarly the
hostile government is not obliged to assent to the prisoner's request
to be set at liberty on parole (Article 1 1). Any prisoner of war who is
liberated cm parole and recaptured, bearing arms against the govern-
ment to whom he had pledged his honour or against the allies of that
government, forfeits his right to be treated as a prisoner of war, and
can be brought before the courts (Article 12).
An interesting provision in the Regulations assimilates
individuals who, following an army without directly
.... j
belonging to it, such as newspaper correspondents
and reporters, sutlers, contractors, fall into the enemy's
hands, to prisoners of war, provided they can produce a
lsts
LAWS OF WAR]
WAR
certificate from the military authorities of the army they were
accompanying.
A new departure is made by clauses providing for the
institution of a bureau for information relative to prisoners of
informs- war> This is to be created at the commencement of
tton office hostilities, in each of the belligerent states and, when
necessary, in the neutral countries on whose territory
prisoners, belligerents have been received. It is intended to
answer all inquiries about prisoners of war, and is to be furnished
by the various services concerned with all the necessary informa-
tion to enable it to keep an individual return for each prisoner
of war. It is to be kept informed of internments and changes,
liberations on parole, evasions, admissions into hospital, deaths,
&c. It is also the duty of the bureau to receive and collect
all objects of personal use, valuables, letters, &c., found on
the battlefields or left by prisoners who have died in hospital or
ambulance, and to transmit them to those interested. Letters,
money orders and valuables, as well as postal parcels destined
for the prisoners of war or despatched by them, are to be free of
all postal duties both in the countries of origin and destination,
as well as in those they pass through. Gifts and relief in kind
for prisoners of war are to be admitted free of all duties of
entry, as well as of payments for carriage by the government
railways.
Furthermore, relief societies for prisoners of war, regularly con-
stituted with the object of charity, are to receive every facility,
within the bounds of military requirements and
societies, administrative regulations, for the effective accom-
plishment of their task. Delegates of these societies
are to be admitted to the places of internment for the distribution
of relief, as also to the halting-places of repatriated prisoners, " if
furnished with a personal permit by the military authorities, and
on giving an engagement in writing to comply with all their
regulations for order and police."
The obligations of belligerents with regard to sick and wounded
in war on land are now governed by the Geneva Convention of
k July 6th, 1906. By this Convention ambulances and
wounded, military hospitals, their medical and administrative
staff and chaplains are " respected and protected under
all circumstances," and the use of a uniform flag and arm-badge
bearing a red cross are required as a distinguishing mark of their
character. A Convention, accepted at the Peace Conferences,
has now adapted the principles of the Geneva Convention to
maritime warfare. This new Convention provides that
Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or
assigned by states specially and solely for the purpose of assist-
ing the wounded, sick or shipwrecked, and the names of which
have been communicated to the belligerent powers at the com-
mencement or during the course of hostilities, and in any case before
they are employed, are to be respected and cannot be captured while
hostilities last.
As regards hospital-ships equipped wholly or in part at the cost
of private individuals or officially recognized relief societies, they
likewise are to be respected and exempt from capture, provided the
belligerent or neutral power to which they belong shall have given
them an official commission and notified their names to the hostile
power at the commencement of or during hostilities, and in any case
before they are employed.
The belligerents have the right to control and visit them; they
can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a certain
course, and put a commissioner on board ; they can even detain
them, if important circumstances require it.
The religious, medical or hospital staff of any captured ship is
inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war.
Lastly, neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, having, or taking
on board, sick, wounded or shipwrecked of the belligerents, cannot
be captured for GO doing.
The following prohibitions are also placed by the Hague
Regulations on the means of injuring the enemy:
To employ poison or poisoned arms.
iKluHn, To k ' 11 or w und treacherously individuals belonging to
ent-mv * e nos . l '' e nation or army.
siege', bom- ^ H'" or w und an enemy who, having laid down arms
lardmeats OT " avln g n longer means of defence, has surrendered at
discretion.
To declare that no quarter will be given.
To employ arms, projectiles or material of a nature to cause
superfluous injury.
To make improper use of a flag of truce, the national flag or
military ensigns and the enemy's uniform, as well as the distinctive
badges of the Geneva Convention.
To destroy or seize the enemy's property, unless such destruction
or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of war;
to attack or bombard towns, villages, habitations or
buildings which are not defended. Hunt of
To pillage a town or place, even when taken by assault. w "'
Ruses of war and the employment of methods necessary to obtain
information about the enemy and the country, on the contrary, are
considered allowable.
A spy is one who, acting clandestinely, or on false pretences,
obtains, or seeks to obtain, information in the zone of operations of
a belligerent, with the intention of communicating it to
the hostile party (the Hague War-Regulations, Art. 29). Spkt.
Thus, soldiers not in disguise who have penetrated into the zone of
operations of a hostile army to obtain information are not considered
spies. Similarly, the following are not considered spies: soldiers or
civilians, carrying out their mission openly, charged with the delivery
of despatches destined either for their own army or for that of the
enemy. To this class belong likewise individuals sent in balloons to
deliver despatches, and generally to maintain communication be-
tween the various parts of an army or a territory (ib.). A spy taken
in the act cannot be punished without previous trial, and a spy who,
after rejoining the army to which he belongs, is subsequently captured
by the enemy, is a prisoner of war, and not punishable for his previous
acts of espionage. 1
In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps are to be taken to
spare as far as possible buildings devoted to religion, art, science
and charity, hospitals and places where the sick and wounded are
collected, provided they are not used at the same time for military
purposes; but the besieged are to indicate these buildings or places
by some particular and visible signs and notify them to the assailants.
A new Convention respecting bombardments by naval forces
was adopted by the Hague Conference of 1907, forbidding the
bombardment of undefended " ports, towns, villages, dwellings
or buildings," unless after a formal summons the local authorities
decline to comply with requisitions for provisions or supplies
necessary for the immediate use of the naval force before the
place in question. But they may not be bombarded on account
of failure to pay money contributions. On the other hand, the
prohibition does not apply to military works, depots of arms,
&c., or ships of war in a harbour.
Another new Convention adopted at the Hague in 1907 dealt
with the laying of automatic submarine contact mines. Its main
provisions are as follows:
It is forbidden :
1. To lay unanchored automatic contact mines, except when they
are so constructed as to become harmless one hour at most after the
person who laid them ceases to control them;
2. To lay anchored automatic contact mines which do not become
harmless as soon as they have broken loose from their moorings;
3. To use torpedoes which do not become harmless when they have
missed their mark (Art. i).
It is forbidden to lay automatic contact mines off the coast and
ports of the enemy, with the sole object cf intercepting commercial
shipping (Art. 2).
When anchored automatic contact mines are employed, every
possible precaution must be taken for the security of peaceful
shipping.
The belligerents undertake to do their utmost to render these
mines harmless within a limited time, and, should they cease to be
under surveillance, to notify the danger zones as soon as military
exigencies permit, by a notice addressed to shipowners, which must
also be communicated to the Governments through the diplomatic
channel. (Art. 3.)
Neutral Powers which lay automatic contact mines off their coasts
must observe the same rules and take the same precautions as are
imposed on belligerents.
The neutral Power must inform shipowners, by a notice issued in
advance, where automatic contact mines have been laid. This
notice must be communicated at once to the Governments through
the diplomatic channel. (Art. 4.)
At the close of the war. the Contracting Powers undertake to do
their utmost to remove the mines which they have laid, each Power
removing its own mines.
As regards anchored automatic contact mines laid by one of the
belligerents off the coast of the other, their position must be notified
to the other party by the Power which laid them, and each Power
must proceed witn the least possible delay to remove the mines in its
own waters. (Art. 5-)
1 See, as to Flags of Truce, Art. 32 of the Hague Regulations.
316
WARANGAL WARBECK, PERKIN
The Contracting Powers which dp not at present own perfected
mines of the pattern contemplated in the present Convention, and
which, consequently, could not at present carry out the rules laid
down in Articles I and 3, undertake to convert the materiel of their
mines as soon as possible so as to bring it into conformity with the
foregoing requirements. (Art. 6.)
Territory is considered as occupied when it is actually under
the authority of the hostile army. The authority having passed
Occupa- " lto tne hands of the occupant, the latter takes all
tton at possible steps to re-establish public order and safety.
hostile Compulsion of the population of occupied territory to
territory. ta j ie p art j n n^^ry operations against their own
country, or even give information respecting the army of the other
belligerent and pressure to take the oath to the hostile power are
prohibited. Private property must be respected, save in case
of military necessity (Arts. 46 and 52). The property of religious,
charitable and educational institutions, and of art and science,
even when state property, are assimilated to private property,
and all seizure of, and destruction or intentional damage done
to such institutions, to historical monuments, works of art
or science is prohibited (Art. 56).
Practice as regards declarations of war has hitherto varied.
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 was preceded by a deliberate
declaration. In the war between Japan and China
there was no declaration. (See Ariga, La Guerre
sino-japonaise, Paris, 1896). The delivery of an
ultimatum specifying those terms, the compliance with
which is demanded within a specified time, is practically a
conditional declaration of war which becomes absolute in case
of non-compliance. Thus the note communicated by the
United States to Spain on 2oth April 1898 demanded
practice. * ne " immediate withdrawal of all the land and sea
forces from Cuba," and gave Spain three days to
accept these terms. On the evening of 2 2nd April the United
States seized several Spanish vessels, and hostilities were thus
opened. In the case of the Transvaal War, the declaration also
took the form of an ultimatum. A special Hague convention
adopted at the Conference of 1907 now provides that hostilities
" must not commence without previous and explicit warning in
the form of a reasoned declaration of war or of an ultimatum
with conditional declaration of war." It also provides that the
existence of a state of war must be notified to the neutral powers
and shall not take effect in regard to them until after the receipt
of the notification which may be given by telegraph. Most of
the good effect of the provision, however, is negatived by the
qualification that neutral powers cannot rely on the absence of
notification if it is clearly established that they were in fact aware
of the existence of a state of war.
Too much confidence must not be placed in regulations con-
cerning the conduct of war. Military necessity, the heat of
action, the violence of the feelings which come into
law of war. P^ av w *^ always at times defeat the most skilfully-
' combined rules diplomacy can devise. Still, such
rules are a sign of conditions of public opinion which serve as a
restraint upon the commission of barbarities among civilized
peoples. The European operations in China consequent on the
" Boxer " rising showed how distance from European criticism
tends to loosen that restraint. On the other hand, it was signifi-
cant that both the United States and Spain, who were not parties
to the Declaration of Paris, found themselves, in a war confined
to them, under the necessity of observing provisions which the
majority of civilized states have agreed to respect. (T. BA.)
WARANGAL, an ancient town of India, in the Nizam's
Dominions or Hyderabad state, 86 m. N.E. of Hyderabad city.
It was the capital of a Hindu kingdom in the 1 2th century, but
little remains to denote its former grandeur except a fort and
four gateways of a temple of Siva. Warangal has given its name
to a district and a division of the state.
WARASDIN (Hungarian, Varasd; Croatian, VaraZdin), a royal
free town of Hungary, and capital of the county of Warasdin,
in Croatia-Slavonia ; on the right bank of the Drave, 62 m. by
rail N.N.E. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 12,930. Warasdin is the
seat of a district court, and possesses an old castle, a cathedral
and several churches, monasteries and schools. It carries on a
brisk trade in timber, wine, fruit, tobacco, spirits, stoneware
and silk. Coal is also mined in the Warasdin Mountains. The
celebrated sulphur baths of Constantins-Bad or Toplitz, known
to the Romans as Thermae Constanlianae, lie about 10 m. S.
WARBECK, PERKIN (c. 1474-1499), pretender to the throne
of England, was the son of Jehan de Werbecque, a poor burgess
of Tournay in Flanders and of his wife Katherine de Faro.
The exact date of his birth is unknown, but as he represented
himself as having been nine years old in 1483, it must have taken
place in, or close on, 1474. His confession made at the end of
his life was an account of his early years which is to some extent
supported by other testimony. The names of his father and other
relations whom he mentions have been found in the municipal
records of Tournay, and the official description of them agrees
with his statements. According to this version, which may be
accepted as substantially true, he was brought up at Antwerp
by a cousin Jehan Stienbecks, and served a succession of em-
ployers as a boy servant. He was for a time with an Englishman
John Strewe at Middleburg, and then accompanied Lady
Brampton, the wife of an exiled partisan of the house of York,
to Portugal. He was for a year employed by a Portuguese
knight whom he described as having only one eye, and whom
he names Vacz deCogna (Vaz daCunha?). In 1491 he was at
Cork as the servant of a Breton silk merchant Pregent (Pierre
Jean) Meno. Ireland was strongly attached to the house of York,
and was full of intrigue against King Henry VII. Perkin says
that the people seeing him dressed in the silks of his master
took him for a person of distinction, and insisted that he must
be either the son of George, duke of Clarence, or a bastard of
Richard III. He was more or less encouraged by the earls of
Desmond and Kildare. The facts are ill recorded, but it is safe
to presume that intriguers who wished to disturb the government
of Henry VII. took advantage of a popular delusion, and made
use of the lad as a tool. At this time he spoke English badly. By
1492 he had become sufficiently notorious to attract the attention
of King Henry's government and of foreign sovereigns. He
was in that year summoned to Flanders by Margaret , the widowed
duchess of Burgundy, and sister of Edward IV., who was the
main support of the Yorkist exiles, and who was the enemy of
Henry VII. for family reasons and for personal reasons also,
for she wished to extort from him the payment of the balance of
her dowry. She found the impostor useful as a means of injuring
the king of England. Several European sovereigns were moved
to help him by the same kind of reason. The suppositions that
he was the son of Clarence or of Richard III. were discarded in
favour of the more useful hypothesis that he was Richard, duke
of York, the younger of the two sons of Edward IV., murdered in
the Tower. Charles VIII., king of France, the counsellors of the
youthful duke of Burgundy, the duke's father Maximilian, king of
the Romans, and James IV. of Scotland, none of whom can have
been really deceived, took up his cause more or less actively. He
was entertained in France, and was taken by Maximilian to
attend the funeral of the emperor Frederick III. in 1493. At
Vienna he was treated as the lawful king of England. He was
naturally the cause of considerable anxiety to the English govern-
ment, which was well acquainted with his real history, and made
attempts to get him seized. His protectors entered into negotia-
tions which in fact turned on the question whether more was to
be gained by supporting him, or by giving him up. An appeal
to Isabella, queen of Castile, met with no response. In July
1495 he was provided with a few ships and men by Maximilian,
now emperor, and he appeared on the coast of Kent. No move-
ment in his favour took place. A few of his followers who landed
were cut off, and he went on to Ireland to join the earl of Desmond
in Munster. After an unsuccessful attack on Waterford in August,
he fled to Scotland. Here King James IV. showed him favour,
and arranged a marriage for him with Catherine Gordon, daughter
of the earl of Huntly. He was helped to make a short inroad
into Northumberland, but the intervention of the Spanish
government brought about a peace between England and
Scotland. In 1497 Perkin was sent on his travels again with
WARBLER WARBURTON, B. E. G.
3 1 ?
two or three small vessels, and accompanied by his wife, who
had borne him one or two children. After some obscure adven-
tures in Ireland, he landed at Whitesand Bay, near the Land's
End, on the 7th of September, and was joined by a crowd of the
country people, who had been recently in revolt against excessive
taxation. He advanced to Exeter, but was unable to master
the town. On the approach of the royal troops he deserted his
followers, and ran for refuge to the sanctuary of Beaulieu in
Hampshire. He then surrendered. His wife was kindly treated
and placed in the household of Henry's queen Elizabeth. Perkin
was compelled to make two ignominious public confessions at
Westminster, and in Cheapside on the isth and igth of June
1498. On the 23rd of November 1499 he was hanged on a charge
of endeavouring to escape from the Tower with the imprisoned
earl of Warwick.
See James Gairdner, Richard the Third, and the Story of Perkin
Warbeck (Cambridge, 1898).
WARBLER, in ornithology, the name bestowed in 1773 by
T. Pennant (Genera of Birds, p. 35) on the birds removed, in
1769, by J. A. Scopoli from the Linnaean genus Motacilla (cf.
WAGTAIL) to one founded and called by him Sylvia the last
being a word employed by several of the older writers in an
indefinite way that is to say, on all the species of Motacilla
which were not wagtails. " Warbler " has long been used by
English technical writers as the equivalent of Sylvia, and is now
applied to all members of the sub-family Sylviinae of the thrushes
(q.v.), and in the combination " American warblers " to the
distinct passerine family Mniotiltidae. The true warblers
(Sylviinae) are generally smaller than the true thrushes Turdinae
(see THRUSHES), with, for the most part, a weak and slender
bill. They seldom fly far, except when migrating, but frequent
undergrowth and herbage, living on insects, larvae and fruit.
The song is unusually clear and very sweet, with frequently
a metallic sound, as in the grasshopper warbler. The nest is
usually cup-shaped and well lined, and from three to six eggs
(twelverin Regulus), usually spotted, are laid.
The true warblers are chiefly Old World, visiting the southern Old
World in winter, but members of the sub-family occur in New
Zealand, Polynesia and Panama. Amongst the commonest in
England is the well-known sedge-bird or sedge- warbler, Acrocephalus
schoenobaenus, whose chattering song resounds in summer-time from
almost every wet ditch in most parts of Britain. As is the case with
so many of its allies, the skulking habits of the bird cause it to be far
more often heard than seen; but, with a little patience, it may be
generally observed flitting about the uppermost twigs of the bushes
it frequents, and its mottled back and the yellowish-white streak
over its eye serve to distinguish it from its ally the reed-wren or reed-
warbler, A. streperus, which is clad in a wholly mouse-coloured suit.
But this last can also be recognized by its different sone, and com-
paratively seldom does it stray from the reed-beds which are its
favourite haunts. In them generally it builds one of the most
beautiful of nests, made of the seed-branches of the reed and long
grass, wound horizontally round and round so as to include in its
substance the living stems of three or four reeds, between which it is
suspended at a convenient height above the water, and the structure
is so deep that the eggs do not roll out when its props are shaken by
the wind. Of very similar habits is the reed-thrush or great reed-
warbler, A. arundinaceus, a loud-voiced species, abundant on the
Continent but very rarely straying to England. Much interest also
attaches to the species known as Savi's warbler, Locustella luscini-
oides, which was only recognized as a constant inhabitant of th<
Fen district of England a few years before its haunts were destroyec
by drainage. The last example known to have been obtained in this
country was killed in 1856. The nest of this species is peculiar
placed on the ground and formed of the blades of a species of Glyceria
so skilfully entwined as to be a very permanent structure, and it is a
curious fact that its nests were well known to the sedge-cutters of the
district which it most frequented, as those of a bird with which they
were unacquainted, long before the builder was recognized by
naturalists. In coloration the bird somewhat resembles a nightingale
(whence its specific name), and its song differs from that of any of
those before mentioned, being a long smooth trill, pitched higher bu1
possessing more tone than that of the grasshopper-warbler Locustella
naevius which is a widely-distributed species throughout the British
Isles, not only limited to marshy sites, but affecting also dry soils
inhabiting indifferently many kinds of places where there is tanglec
and thick herbage, heather or brushwood. In those parts of Englam
where it was formerly most abundant it was known as the reeler or
reel-bird, from its song resembling the whirring noise of the reel a
one time used by the spinners of wool. The precise determination o
this bird the grasshopper lark, as it was long called in books, though
ts notes if once heard can never be mistaken for those of a grass-
topper or cricket, and it has no affinity to the larks as an English
pecies is due to the discernment of Gilbert White in 1768. In its
labits it is one of the most retiring of birds, keeping in the closest
helter, so that it may be within a very short distance of an eager
naturalist without his being able to see it the olive-colour, streaked
with dark brown, of its upper plumage helping to make it invisible.
The nest is very artfully concealed in the thickest herbage. The
oreign forms of aquatic warblers are far too numerous to be here
mentioned.
The members of the typical genus Sylvia, which includes some
of the sweetest singers, are treated of under WHITETHROAT; and
the willow- and wood-wrens under WREN. The Australian genus
Malurus, to which belong the birds known as " superb warblers,"
not inaptly so named, since in beauty they surpass any others of
heir presumed allies, is now placed in with the Old World fly-
catchers in the family Musicapidae. Part of the plumage of the cocks
n breeding-dress is generally some shade of intense blue, and is so
glossy as to resemble enamel, while black, white, chestnut or scarlet,
is well as green and lilac, are also present in one species or another,
so as to heighten the effect. But, as already stated, there are system-
atists who would raise this genus, which contains some 15 species,
:o the rank of a distinct family, though on what grounds it is hard
;o say.
The birds known as " American warblers," formjng what is now
recognized as a distinct family, Mniotiltidae, remain for considera-
:ion. They possess but nine instead of ten primaries, and are
peculiar to the New World. More than 130 species have been
described, and these have been grouped in 20 genera or more, of
which members of all but three are at least summer-visitants to
North America. As. a whole they are much more brightly coloured
than the Sylviinae, for, though the particular genus Mniotilta (from
which the family takes its name) is one of the most abnormal its
colours being plain black and white, and its habits rather resembling
those of a Tree-creeper (g.t>.) mother groups chestnut, bluish-grey
and green appear, the last varying from an olive to a saffron tint,
and in some groups the yellow predominates to an extent that has
gained for its wearers, belonging to the genus Dendroeca, the name of
golden " warblers. In the genus Setophaga, the members of which
deserve to be called " fly-catching " warblers, the plumage of the
males at least presents yellow, orange, scarlet or crimson.
The Mniotiltidae contain forms exhibiting quite as many diverse
modes of life as do the Sylviinae. Some are exclusively aquatic in
their predilections, others affect dry soils, brushwood, forests and
so on. Almost all the genera are essentially migratory, but a large
proportion of the species of Dendroeca, Setophaga, and especially
Basileuterus, seem never to leave their Neotropical home; while
the genera Leucopeza, Teretristis and Microligia, comprising in all
but 5 species, are peculiar to the Antilles. The rest are for the
most part natives of North America, where a few attain a very high
latitude, 1 penetrating in summer even beyond the Arctic Circle, and
thence migrate southward at the end of summer or in the fall of the
year, some reaching Peru and Brazil, but a few, as, for instance,
Parula pitiayumi and Geothlypis velata, seem to be resident in the
country last named. (A. N.)
WARBURTON, BARTHOLOMEW ELLIOTT GEORGE (1810-
1852), usually known as Eliot Warburton, British traveller and
novelist, was born in- 1810 near Tullamore, Ireland. He was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was called to the
Irish bar in 1837. He contracted lasting friendships with
Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) and A. W. Kinglake, and
gave up his practice as a barrister for travel and literature. He
made a hit with his first book, The Crescent and the Cross. It was
an account of his travels in 1843 in Turkey, Syria, Palestine and
Egypt, and fairly divided public attention with Kinglake's
Eothen, which appeared in the same year, 1844. Interest was
centred in the East at the time, and Warburton had popular
sympathy with him in his eloquent advocacy of the annexation
of Egypt; but, apart from this consideration, the spirited
narrative of his adventures and the picturesque sketches of
Eastern life and character were more than sufficient to justify
the success of the book. His most substantial work was a
Memoir of Prince Rupert and Ike Cavaliers (1849), enriched with
original documents, and written with eloquent partiality for the
subject. This was followed in 1850 by Reginald Hastings, a
novel, the scenes of which were laid in the same period of civil
war, and, in 1851, by another historical novel, Darien, or The
Merchant Prince. He was sent by the Atlantic and Pacific
Junction Company to explore the isthmus of Darien and to
negotiate a treaty with the Indian tribes. He sailed on this
1 Seven species have been recorded as wandering to Greenland, and
one, Dendroeca virens, is said to have occurred in Europe (ffov-
mannia, 1858, p. 425).
3 i8 WARBURTON, COLONEL SIR R. WARBURTON, W.
mission in the " Amazon," which perished by fire with nearly
all on board on the 4th of January 1852.
His brother, Major George Warburton (1816-1857), wrote
Hochelaga, or England in the New World (1846), and The Conquest
of Canada (1849).
WARBURTON, COLONEL SIR ROBERT (1842-1899), Anglo-
Indian soldier and administrator, was the son of an artillery
officer who had been taken prisoner at Kabul in 1842, and
escaped through the good offices of an Afghan princess. He
married this lady, and she transmitted to their son that power of
exercising influence over the tribes of the north-west frontier
which stood him in good stead during his long service in India.
Warburton entered the Royal Artillery in 1861, took part in the
Abyssinian War of 1867-68, and then joined the Bengal Staff
Corps. He served with distinction in the expedition against the
Utman Khel in 1878 and in the Afghan War of 1878-80. Very
soon after the British government had made permanent arrange-
ments for keeping open the Khyber Pass, Warburton was
appointed to take charge of it as political officer. This post he
held, discharging its duties with conspicuous ability, between
1879 and 1882 with intervals of other duty, and continuously
from 1882 until 1890. He turned the rude levies which formed
the Khyber Rifles into a fine corps, ready to serve the Indian
government wherever they might be required. He made the
road safe, kept the Afridis friendly, and won the thanks of the
Punjab government, expressed in a special order upon his retire-
ment, for his good work. When the Afridis began to cause
anxiety in 1897, Colonel Warburton was asked by the govern-
ment of India if he would assist in quieting the excitement
amongst them. He declared himself ready to do so, but in the
meantime the trouble had come to a head. Colonel Warburton
took part in the campaign which followed; at its close his active
career ended. He occupied his leisure in retirement by writing
his memoirs, Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900). He died at
Kensington on the 2 2nd of April 1899.
WARBURTON, WILLIAM (1698-1779), English critic and
divine, bishop of Gloucester, was born at Newark on the 24th of
December 1698. His father belonged to an old Cheshire family
and was town clerk of Newark. William was educated at
Oakham and Newark grammar schools, and in 1714 he was
articled to Mr Kirke, attorney at East Markham, in Nottingham-
shire. After serving his time he returned to Newark with the
intention of practising as a solicitor; but, having given some
time to the study of Latin and Greek, he left the law and was
ordained deacon by the archbishop of York in 1723, and in 1727
received priest's orders from the bishop of London. He had
occupied the interval in various literary labours, the most
important being the notes he contributed to Theobald's edition
of Shakespeare, and an anonymous share in a pamphlet on the
jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, The Legal Judicature in
Chancery stated (1727). This was an answer to another anony-
mous pamphlet, written by Philip Yorke, afterwards Lord Chan-
cellor Hardwicke, who replied in an enlarged edition (1728) of
his original Discourse of the Judicial Authority . . . of Master
of the Rolls. Warburtcn now received from Sir Robert Sutton
the small living of Greasley, in Nottinghamshire, exchanged next
year for that of Brant Broughton, Lincolnshire. He held in
addition, from 1730, the living of Frisby in Lincolnshire. In
1728 he was made an honorary M.A. of Cambridge. At Brant
Broughton for eighteen years he spent his time in study, the first
result of which was his treatise on the Alliance between Church
and Stale (1736). The book brought Warburton into favour at
court, and he probably only missed immediate preferment by
the death of Queen Caroline. His next and best-known work,
Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated on the Principles of a
Religious Deist ( 2 vols., 1737-1741), preserves his name as the
author of the most daring and ingenious of theological paradoxes.
The deists had made the absence of any inculcation of the
doctrine of a future life an objection to the divine authority of the
Mosaic writings. Warburton boldly admitted the fact and turned
it against the adversary by maintaining that no merely human
legislator would have omitted such a sanction of morality. The
author's extraordinary power, learning and originality were
acknowledged on all hands, though he excited censure and
suspicion by his tenderness to the alleged heresies of Conyers
Middleton. The book aroused much controversy. In a pamphlet
of " Remarks " (1742), he replied to John Tillard, and Remarks
on Several Occasional Reflections (1744-1745) was an answer to
Akenside, Conyers Middleton (who had up to this time been his
friend), Richard Pococke, Nicholas Mann, Richard Grey, Henry
Stebbing and other of his critics. As he characterized his
opponents in general as the " pestilent herd of libertine scribblers
with which the island is overrun," it is no matter of surprise that
the book made him many bitter enemies.
Either in quest of paradox, or actually unable to recognize the
real tendencies of Pope's Essay on Man, he entered upon its
defence against the Examen of Jean Pierre de Crousaz, in a series
of articles (1738-1739) contributed to The Works of the Learned.
Whether Pope had really understood the tendency of his own
work has always been doubtful, but there is no question that he
was glad of an apologist, and that Warburton's jeu d'esprit
in the long run did more for his fortunes than all his erudition.
It occasioned a sincere friendship between him and Pope, whom
he persuaded to add a fourth book to the Dunciad, and en-
couraged to substitute Gibber for Theobald as the hero of the
poem in the edition of 1743 published under the editorship of
Warburton. Pope bequeathed him the copyright and the
editorship of his works, and contributed even more to his advance-
ment by introducing him to Murray, afterwards Lord Mansfield,
who obtained for him in 1746 the preachership of Lincoln's
Inn, and to Ralph Allen, who, says Johnson, " gave him his
niece and his estate, and, by consequence, a bishopric." The
marriage took place in 1745, and from that time Warburton
resided principally at his father-in-law's estate at Prior Park, in
Gloucestershire, which he inherited on Allen's death in 1764.
In 1747 appeared his edition of Shakespeare, into which, as he
expressed it, Pope's earlier edition was melted down. He had
previously entrusted notes and emendations on Shakespeare to
Sir Thomas Hanmer, whose unauthorized use of them led to a
heated controversy. As early as 1727 Warburton had corre-
sponded with Theobald on Shakespearean subjects. He now
accused him of stealing his ideas and denied his critical ability.
Theobald's superiority to Warburton as a Shakespearean critic
has long since been acknowledged. Warburton was further
kept busy by the attacks on his Divine Legation from all quarters,
by a dispute with Bolingbroke respecting Pope's behaviour in
the affair of Bolingbroke's Patriot King, by his edition of Pope's
works (1751) and by a vindication hi 1750 of the alleged miracu-
lous interruption of the rebuilding of the temple of Jerusalem
undertaken by Julian, in answer to Conyers Middleton. ' War-
burton's manner of dealing with opponents was both insolent
and rancorous, but it did him no disservice. He became pre-
bendary of Gloucester in 1753, chaplain to the king in 1754,
prebendary of Durham in 1755, dean of Bristol in 1757, and in
1759 bishop of Gloucester. He continued to write so long as the
infirmities of age allowed, collecting and publishing his sermons,
and toiling to complete the Divine Legation, further fragments of
which were published with his posthumous Works. He wrote a
defence of revealed religion in his View of Lord Bolingbroke's
Philosophy (1754), and Hume's Natural History of Religion
called forth some Remarks ..." by a gentleman of Cambridge "
from Warburton, in which his friend and biographer, Richard
Hurd, had a share (1757). He made in 1762 a vigorous attack
on Methodism under the title of The Doctrine of Grace. He also
engaged in a keen controversy with Robert Lowth, afterwards
bishop of London, on the book of Job, in which Lowth brought
home charges of lack of scholarship and of insolence that admitted
of no denial. His last important act was to found in 1768 the
Warburtonian lecture at Lincoln's Inn, "to prove the truth of
revealed religion . . . from the completion of the prophecies of
the Old and New Testament which relate to the Christian Church,
especially to the apostacy of Papal Rome." He died at Gloucester
on the yth of June 1779. Warburton was undoubtedly a great
man, but his intellect, marred by wilfulness and the passion for
WARD, A. W. WARD, E. S. P.
paradox, effected no result in any degree adequate to its power.
He was a warm and constant friend, and gave many proofs of
gratitude to his benefactors.
Warburton's works were edited (7 vols., 1788) by Bishop Hurd
with a biographical preface, and the correspondence between the two
friends an important contribution to the literary history of the
period was edited by Dr Parr in 1808. Warburton's life was also
written by John Selby Watson in 1863, and Mark Pattison made him
the subject of an essay in 1889. See also I. D'Israeli, Quarrels of
Authors (1814); and especially John Nichols, Literary Anecdotes
(1812-1815), vol. v., and Illustrations (1817-1858), vol. ii., for his
correspondence with William Stukeley, Peter des Maizeaux, Thomas
Birch, John Jortin and Lewis Theobald.
WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- ), English historian
and man of letters, was born at Hampstead, London, on the
2nd of December 1837, and was educated in Germany and at
the university of Cambridge. In 1866 he was appointed pro-
fessor of history and English literature in Owens College, Man-
chester, and was principal from 1890 to 1897, when he retired.
He took an active part in the foundation of Victoria University,
of which he was vice-chancellor from 1886 to 1890 and from 1894
to 1896. In 1897 the freedom of the city of Manchester was
conferred upon him, and in 1900 he was elected master of Peter-
house, Cambridge. His most important work is his standard
History of English Dramatic Literature to the Age of Queen Anne
(1875), re-edited after a thorough revision in three volumes in
1899. He also wrote The House of Austria in the Thirty Years'
War (1869), Great Britain and Hanover (1899), The Eleclress
Sophia and the Hanoverian Succession (1903); he edited Crabbe's
Poems (2 vols., 1905-1906) and Pope's Poetical Works (1869);
he wrote the volumes on Chaucer and Dickens in the " English
Men of Letters " series, translated Curtius's History of Greece
(5 vols., 1868-1873); ne was one f tne editors of the Cambridge
Modern History, and with A. R. Waller edited the Cambridge
History of English Literature (1907, &c.). For the gth edition of
the Ency. Brit, he wrote the article DRAMA, and biographies
of Ben Jonson and other dramatists; and he became an important
contributor to the present work.
WARD, ARTEMUS, the pen-name of Charles Farrar Browne
(1834-1867), American humorous writer, was born in Waterford,
Maine. He- began life as a compositor and became an occasional
contributor to the daily and weekly journals. In 1858 he
published in the Cleveland Plain Dealer the first of the ' Artemus
Ward " series, which attained great popularity both in America
and England. His separate publications were: Arlemiis
Ward: his Book (New York, 1862); Artemus Ward: his
Travels (New York, 1865); Artemus Ward among the Fenians
(1865); Betsey Jane Ward: hur Book of Goaks (New York,
1866), generally attributed to him; Artemus Ward in London,
and other Papers (New York, 1867). Artemus Ward's Lecture
at the Egyptian Hall . . . and other Relics of the Humourist
(London, 1869), edited by T. W. Robertson and J. C. Hotten,
was published posthumously (New York, 1869). His wit largely
relied on the drollery of strange spelling. In 1860 he became
editor of Vanity Fair, a humorous New York weekly, which proved
a failure. About the same time he began to appear as a lecturer,
and his eccentric humour attracted large audiences. In 1866,
he visited England, where he became exceedingly popular both
as a lecturer and as a contributor to Punch. In the spring of
the following year his health gave way, and he died of consump-
tion at Southampton on the 6th of March 1867.
His Complete Works, with memoir by E. P. Kingston, were published
in London in the same year, and Sandwiches at New York in 1870.
WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879), English historical
and genre painter, was born at Pimlico, London, in 1816. Among
his early boyish efforts in art was a series of clever illustrations
to the Rejected Addresses of his uncles Horace and James Smith,
which was followed soon afterwards by designs to some of the
papers of Washington Irving. In 1830 he gained the silver
palette of the Society of Arts; and in 1835, aided by Wilkie
and Chantrey, he entered the schools of the Royal Academy,
having in the previous year contributed to its exhibition his
portrait of Mr O. Smith, the comedian, in his character of Don
Quixote. In 1836 he went to Rome, where in 1838 he gained a
silver medal from the Academy of St Luke for his " Cimabue and
Giotto," which in the following year was exhibited at the Royal
Academy. The young artist now turned his thoughts to fresco-
painting, which he studied under Cornelius at Munich. In
1843 he forwarded his ;< Boadicea Animating the Britons previous
to the Last Battle against the Romans " to the competition for
the decoration of the Houses of Parliament a work upon which
he was afterwards engaged, having in 1853 been directed by the
fine art commissioners to execute eight subjects in the corridor
of the House of Commons. The success of his " Dr Johnson
in Lord Chesterfield's Ante-Room " now in the National
Gallery, along with the " Disgrace of Lord Clarendon " (the
smaller picture) (1846), the " South Sea Bubble" (1847), and
" James II. Receiving the News of the Landing of the Prince of
Orange " (1850) secured his election as an associate of the Royal
Academy in 1847, and in 1855 he gained full academic honours.
Among the more important of his other works may be named
" Charlotte Corday Led to Execution " (1852), the " Last Sleep
of Argyll " (1854), the " Emperor of the French Receiving the
Order of the Garter " (1859), painted for the queen, the " Ante-
Chamber at Whitehall during the Dying Moments of Charles
II." (1861), " Dr Johnson's First Interview with John Wilkes "
(1865), and the " Royal Family of France in the Temple,"
painted in 1851, and usually considered the artist's masterpiece.
He died at Windsor, on the isth of January 1879. In 1848 he
had married Henrietta Ward (b. 1832), who, herself an admirable
artist, was a granddaughter of James Ward, R.A. (1760-1859),
the distinguished animal painter. Their son, Leslie Ward (b.
1851), became well known as " Spy " of Vanity Fair (from 1873
to 1009), and later of the World, with his character portraits of
contemporary celebrities.
WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911), American
author and philanthropist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts,
on the 3ist of August 1844. She was the granddaughter of the
Rev. Moses Stuart, and the daughter of the Rev. Austin Phelps
(1820-1890) who became a professor in the Andover Theological
Seminary in 1848, and Elizabeth Stuart Phelps (1815-1852),
who wrote Sunnyside (1851), a popular bock in its day, and
other works. In 1848 she removed with her parents to Andover,
where she attended private schools. When she was in her teens
she wrote short stories for the Youth's Companion, The Atlantic
Monthly and Harper's Magazine. She wrote many juveniles,
especially Sunday-School books, such as the Tiny and the Gypsy
series. In 1868 appeared in The Atlantic Monthly her short
story, The Tenth of January, a narrative of the falling and burning
of a cotton-mill at Lawrence, Mass., in 1860. In the same year
appeared The Gates Ajar (1868), her first novel, a realistic study
of life after death, which was widely read and was translated
into several European languages. Her Beyond the Gates (1883),
The Gates Between (1887) and Within the Gates (1901) are in the
same vein. She was actively interested in charitable work,
in the advancement of women and hi temperance reform.
In 1888 she married Herbert Dickinson Ward (b. 1861), son of
the Rev. William Hayes Ward.
- Among Mrs Ward's books, in addition to those already mentioned,
are: Men, Women and Ghosts (1869); The Trotty Book (1869),
juvenile; Hedged in (1870); The Silent Partner (1871); Trotty's
Wedding Tour and Story Book (1873), juvenile ; What to Wear (1873),
essays; Poetic Studies (1875), poems; The Story of Avis (1877),
Sealed Orders, and Other Stories (1879); Friends: a Duet (1881);
Doctor Zay (1882); Songs of the Silent World, and Other Poems
(1884); Old Maids, and Burglars in Paradise (1885); The Madonna
of the Tubs (1886), a short story, Jack the Fisherman (1887), a
Gloucester tragedy; The Struggle for Immortality (1889), essays;
Fourteen to One, and Other Stories (1891); Austin Phelps: a Memoir
(1891); Donald Marcy (1893); A Singular Life (1894), one of her
best-known novels; The Supply at Saint Agatha's (1896); Chapters
from a Life (1896); The Story of Jesus Christ: an Interpretation
(1897); The Successors of Mary the First (iQpl); Avery (1902), first
issued serially in Harper's Magazine as His Wife; TVixv (1904);
The Man in the Case (1906); Walled In (1907); and Though Life Do
Us Part (1908). In collaboration with her husband, she wrote two
novels founded on Biblical scenes and characters, The Master of the
Magicians (1890), and Come Forth (1890). Among Mr Ward's books
are The New Senior at Andover (1890); The Republic without a
President, and Other Short Sfories (1891) ; The Caftain of the Kttttwink
WARD, J. WARD, M. A.
320
(1892); A Dash to the Pole (1893); The White Crown, and Other
Stories (1894); The Burglar who moved Paradise (1897): and 1 he
Light of the World (1901).
WARD, JAMES (1769-1859), English animal painter and
engraver, was born in Thames Street, London, on the 23rd of
October 1769. At the age of twelve he was bound apprentice
with J. Raphael Smith, but he received little attention and
learnt nothing from this engraver. He was afterwards in-
structed for over seven years by his elder brother, William Ward,
and he engraved many admirable plates, among which his
" Mrs Billington," after Reynolds, occupies a very high place.
He presented a complete set of his engravings, in their various
states, numbering three hundred impressions, to the British
Museum. While still a youth he made the acquaintance of
George Morland, who afterwards married his sister; and the
example of this artist's works induced him to attempt painting.
His early productions were rustic subjects in the manner of
Morland, which were frequently sold as the work of the more
celebrated painter. His " Bull-Bait," an animated composition,
introducing many figures, attracted much attention in the
Royal Academy of 1797. A commission from Sir John Sinclair,
president of the new agricultural society, to paint an Alderney
cow, led to much similar work, and turned Ward's attention to
animal-painting, a department in which he achieved his highest
artistic successes. His " Landscape with Cattle," acquired for
the National Gallery at a cost of 1500, was painted in 1820-
1822 at the suggestion of West, in emulation of the " Bull of
Paul Potter " at the Hague. His " Boa Serpent Seizing a
Horse " was executed in 1822, and his admirable " Grey Horse,"
shown in the Old Masters' Exhibition of 1879, dates from 1828.
Ward also produced portraits, and many landscapes like the
" Gordale Scar " and the " Harlech Castle " in the National
Gallery. Sometimes he turned aside into the less fruitful paths
of allegory, as in his unsuccessful " Pool of Bethesda " (1818),
and " Triumph of the Duke of Wellington " (1818). He was a
frequent contributor to the Royal Academy and the British
Institution, and in 1841 he collected one hundred and forty
examples of his art, and exhibited them in his house in Newman
Street. He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in
1807, and a full member in i8n,and died at Cheshunt on the
23rd of November 1859.
Ward compiled an autobiography, of which an abstract was
published in the Art Journal in 1849.
WARD, JAMES (1843- ), English psychologist and meta-
physician, was born at Hull on the 27th of January 1843. He
was educated at the Liverpool Institute, at Berlin and Gottingen,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge; he also worked in the physio-
logical laboratory at Leipzig. He studied originally for the
Congregational ministry, and for a year was minister of Emmanuel
Church, Cambridge. Subsequently he devoted himself to
psychological research, became fellow of his college in 1875 and
university professor of mental philosophy in 1897. He was
Gifford lecturer at Aberdeen in 1895-1897, and at St Andrews
in 1908-1910. His work shows the influence of Leibnitz and
Lotze, as well as of the biological theory of evolution. His
psychology marks the definite break with the sensationalism of
the English school; experience is interpreted as a continuum
into which distinctions are gradually introduced by the action
of selective attention; the implication of the subject in experience
is emphasized; and the operation in development of subjective
as well as natural, selection is maintained. In his metaphysica
work the analysis of scientific concepts leads to a criticism ol
naturalism and of dualism, and to a view of reality as a unit>
which implies both subjective and objective factors. This view
is further worked out, through criticism of pluralism and as a
theistic interpretation of the world, in his St Andrews Gifford
Lectures (the Realm of Ends) .
Beside the article " Psychology " in the Ency. Brit, (gth, loth am
nth ed.) he has published Naturalism and Agnosticism (1809, 3rd
ed. 1007), besides numerous articles in the Journal of Physiology
Mind, and the British Journal of Psychology.
WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910), American
sculptor, was born in Urbana, Ohio, on the 29th of June 1830
lis education was received in the village schools. He studied
nder Henry K. Brown, of New York, in 1850-1857, and by
861, when he opened a studio in New York, he had executed
usts of Joshua R. Giddings, Alexander H. Stephens, and Hannibal
lamlin, prepared the first sketch for the " Indian Hunter,"
nd made studies among the Indians themselves for the work. .
n 1863 he became a member of the National Academy of Design
New York), and he was its president in 1872-1873. Among his
jest-known statues are the " Indian Hunter," finished in 1864
Central Park, New York); Washington, heroic size (on the
teps of the U.S. Sub-Treasury, Wall Street, New York); Henry
Ward Beecher (Brooklyn); an equestrian statue of General
George H. Thomas (Washington); Israel Putnam (Hartford);
and the seated statue of Horace Greeley, the founder of the New
York Tribune, in front of the office of that newspaper. In 1896
ic was elected president of the newly organized National Sculp-
ure Society (New York). Unlike his fellow-countryman, W. W.
Story, he acquired his training, his inspiration and his themes
rom his own country. He died in New York on the ist of
Vlay 1910.
WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841- ), American geologist
and sociologist, was born hi Joliet, Illinois, on the i8th of June
1841. He graduated at Columbian (now George Washington)
Jniversity in 1869 and from the law school of the same university
n 1871, his education having been delayed by his service in the
Union army during the Civil War. In 1865-1872 he was
employed hi the United States Treasury Department, and
aecame assistant geologist in 1881 and geologist in 1888 to the
U.S. Geological Survey. In 1884-1886 he was professor of
aotany in Columbian University. He wrote much on paleo-
Dotany, including A Sketch of Paleobotany (1885), The Geographi-
cal Distribution of Fossil Plants (1888) and The Status of the
Mesozoic Floras of the United States (1905). He is better known,
however, for his work in sociology, in which, modifying Herbert
Spencer and refuting the Spencerian individualism, he paralleled
social with psychological and physical phenomena. His more
important works are: Dynamic Sociology (1883, 2nd ed. 1897),
Psychic Factors of Civilization (1897), Outlines of Sociology (1898),
Sociology and Economics (1899), Pure Sociology (1903)1 and,
with J. Q. Dealy, Text-Book of Sociology (1905).
See an appreciation by L. Gumplowicz, in Die Zeit (Vienna, aoth
Aug. 1904); reprinted in English in vol. x. of The American Journal
of Sociology.
WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD] (1851-
), British novelist, was born on the nth of June 1851 at
Hobart, Tasmania, where her father, Thomas Arnold (1824-
1900), was then an inspector of schools. Thomas Arnold was a
son of Arnold of Rugby, and a brother of the poet Matthew
Arnold. As a scholar of University College, Oxford, at the
crisis of the Oxford Movement, he had begun h'fe as a Liberal
of the school of Jowett, Stanley and Clough. In 1856 he became
a Roman Catholic, relinquished his inspectorship of schools in
Tasmania, and was appointed professor of English literature
at Dublin, thence following Newman to Birmingham, where
he published his Manual of English Literature. After a brief
period of unrest he reverted to the English Church, and went to
Oxford, where he lived twenty years, editing The Select Works
of Wyclif and Beowulf for the Clarendon Press, Henry of Hunting-
don and Symeon of Durham for the " Rolls " series, and, with
W. E. Addis, the Catholic Dictionary. In 1877 he reverted once
more to the Roman Catholic Church, and was appointed fellow
of the new Royal University of Ireland, dying in Dubh'n on the
1 2th of November 1900. His daughter was brought up mainly
at Oxford, and her early associations with a life of scholarship
and religious conflict are deeply marked in her own later literary
career. She was brought into close connexion during this period
with Edward Hartopp Cradock, who was principal of Brasenose
College from 1853 till his death in 1886, and some of whose
characteristics went to the portrait of the " Squire " in Robert
Elsmere. In 1872 she married Thomas Humphry Ward (b.
1845), then fellow and tutor of Brasenose, and one of the authors
of the Oxford Spectator. Mr Humphry Ward, a son of the
WARD, S. WARD, W. G.
321
Rev. Henry Ward, Vicar of St Barnabas, King's Square, London,
E.G., remained at Oxford till 1880, and then went to London
to take up literary work; with the help of the chief critics of
the day he brought out the important selections of English
verse called The English Poets (4 vols., 1880-1881). He joined
the staff of The Times and wrote much for that paper, becoming
its principal art critic. He also published Humphry Sandwith,
a Memoir (1884); and he edited Men of the Reign (1885), English
Art in the Public Gatkries of London (1886), Men of the Time
(1887), and, with the help of Matthew Arnold, Huxley, Lord
Wolseley, H. S. Maine and others, The Reign of Queen Victoria:
a Survey of Fifty Years of Progress (1887).
Mrs Humphry Ward at first devoted herself to Spanish litera-
ture, and contributed articles on Spanish subjects to the Diction-
ary of Christian Biography, edited by Dr William Smith and Dr
Henry Wace. She wrote also for MacmUlan's Magazine. In
1881 she published her first book, Milly and Oily, a child's story
illustrated by Lady (then Mrs) Alma-Tadema. This was followed
in 1884 by a more ambitious, though slight, study of modern
life, Miss Bretherton, the story of an actress. In 1885 Mrs Ward
published an admirable translation of the Journal of the Swiss
philosopher Amiel, with a critical introduction, which showed
her delicate appreciation of the subtleties of speculative thought.
It was no bad preparation for her next book, which was to make
her famous. In February 1888 appeared Robert Elsmere, a
powerful novel, tracing the mental evolution of an English
clergyman, of high character and conscience and of intellectual
leanings, constrained to surrender his own orthodoxy to the
influence of the " higher criticism." The character of Elsmere
owed much to reminiscences both of T. H. Green, the philosopher,
and of J. R. Green, the historian. Largely in consequence of
a review by W. E. Gladstone in the Nineteenth Century (May
1888, " Robert Elsmere and the Battle of Belief "), the book
became the talk of the civilized world. It ran in five months
through seven editions in three-volume form, and the cheap
American editions had an enormous sale. It was translated
into several European languages, and was the subject of articles
in learned foreign reviews. Robert Elsmere is in itself a fine
story, notably in its picture of the emotional conflict between
Elsmere and his wife, whose over-narrow orthodoxy brings
her religious faith and their mutual love to a terrible impasse;
but it was the detailed discussion of the " higher criticism "
of the day, and its influence on Christian belief, rather than its
power as a piece of dramatic fiction, that gave the book its
exceptional vogue. It started, as no academic work could have
done, a popular discussion on historic and essential Christianity.
In 1890 Mrs Ward took a prominent part in founding Univer-
sity Hall, an " Elsmerian " settlement for working and teaching
among the poor. Her next novel, David Grieve, was published
in 1892. In Marcella (1894), and its sequel Sir George Tressady
(1896), she broke new ground in the novel of modern politics
and socialism, the fruk of observation and reflection at Univer-
sity Hall. In 1895 had appeared the short tragedy, the Story
of Bessie Costrell. Mrs Ward's next long novel, Helbeck of
Bannisdale (1898), treated of the clash between the ascetic
ideal of Roman Catholicism and modern life. The element of
Catholic and humanistic ideals entered also into Eleanor (1900),
in which, however, the author relied less on the interest of a
thesis and more on the ordinary arts of the novelist. Eleanor
was dramatized and played at the Court Theatre in 1902. In
Lady Rose's Daughter (1903) dramatized as Agatha in 1905
and The Marriage of William Aske (1905), modern tales founded
on the stories respectively of Mile de Lespinasse and Lady
Caroline Lamb, she relied entirely and with success upon
social portraiture. Later novels were Fenwick's Career (1906),
Diana Mallory (1908), Daphne (1909) and Canadian Born
(1910).
Mrs Ward's eminence among latter-day women-novelists
arises from her high conception of the art of fiction and her
strong grasp of intellectual and social problems, her descriptive
power (finely shown in the first part of Robert Elsmere) and
her command of a broad and vigorous prose style. But her
xxvm. ii
activities were not confined to literature. She was the originator
in England of the Vacation Schools, which have done much to
educate the poorest children of the community upon rational
lines. She also took a leading part in the movement for op-
posing the grant of the parliamentary suffrage to women, whilst
encouraging their active participation in the work of local
government. She was one of the founders of the Women's
National Anti-Suffrage League in 1908, and both spoke and
wrote repeatedly in support of its tenets.
See for bibliography up to June 1904, English Illustrated Magazine,
vol. xxxi. (N.S.) pp. 294 and 299. (H. CH.)
WARD, SETH (1617-1689), English bishop, was born in Hert-
fordshire, and educated at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,
where he became fellow in 1640. In 1643 he was chosen univer-
sity mathematical lecturer, but he was deprived of his fellowship
next year for opposing the Solemn League and Covenant. In
1649 he became Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, and
gained a high reputation by his theory of planetary motion,
propounded in the works entitled In Ismaelis Bullialdi astro-
nomiae philolaicae fundamenta inquisitio brevis (Oxford,
1653), and Astronomia geometrica (London, 1656). About this
time he was engaged in a philosophical controversy with Thomas
Hobbes. He was one of the original members of the Royal
Society. In 1659 he was appointed master of Trinity College,
Oxford, but not having the statutory qualifications he resigned
in 1660. Charles II. appointed him to the livings of St Lawrence
Jewry in London, and Uplowman, Devonshire, in 1661. He
also became dean of Exeter (1661) and rector of Breock, Corn-
wall (1662). In the latter year he was consecrated bishop of
Exeter, and in 1667 he was translated to the see of Salisbury.
The office of chancellor of the Order of the Garter was conferred
on him in 1671. In his diocese he showed great severity to
nonconformists, and rigidly enforced the act prohibiting con-
venticles. He spent a great deal of money on the restoration of
the cathedrals of Worcester and Salisbury. He died at Knights-
bridge on the 6th of January 1688/1689.
WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826), English mezzotint-engraver,
an elder brother of James Ward (?..), was born in London in
1766. He was the most distinguished pupil of J. Raphael Smith,
and executed a great part of many of the plates which bear the
name of that excellent engraver. In 1795 he began to exhibit in
the Royal Academy, of which in 1814 he was elected an associate
engraver. He also held the appointment of mezzotint-engraver
to the prince regent and the duke of York. He executed six
plates after Reynolds, engraved many of the works of his brother-
in-law, George Morland, and his mezzotints after Andrew Geddes,
which include the full-lengths of Sir David Wilkie and of Patrick
Brydone, are of great merit. His engravings are full of artistic
spirit, and show fine feeling for colour; and they are excellently
tender and expressive in their rendering of flesh. He died in
London on the ist of December 1826.
WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882), English Roman
Catholic theologian, was born on the 2ist of March 1812. His
career is extremely interesting as illustrating the development of
religious opinion at a remarkable crisis in the history of English
religious thought. Ward is described by his son and biographer as
somewhat unequally gifted by nature. For pure mathematics
he had a special gift almost a passion. For history, applied
mathematics for anything, in fact, outside the exact sciences
he felt something approaching to contempt. He was endowed
with a strong sense of humour and a love of paradox carried to
an extreme. He went up to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1830,
but his father's subsequent pecuniary embarrassments compelled
him in 1833 to try for a scholarship at Lincoln College, which
he succeeded in obtaining. His examination for mathematical
honours exhibited some of the peculiarities of his character and
mental powers. Four out. of his five papers on applied mathe-
matics were sent up absolutely blank. Honours, however, were
not refused him, and in 1834 he obtained an open fellowship at
Balliol. In the previous year the Tractarian movement had
commenced, and Ward's relations with that movement were as
original as the rest of his life. He was attracted to it by his
322
WARD WARDLAW, LADY
hatred of moderation and what he called " respectability " in
any shape a characteristic of which some amusing instances have
been handed down. He was repelled from it by the conception
he had formed of the character of Newman, whom he regarded as
a mere antiquary. When, however, he was at length persuaded
by a friend to go and hear Newman preach, he at once became
a disciple. But he had, as Newman afterwards said of him,
" struck into the movement at an angle." He had no taste for
historical investigations. He treated the question at issue as one
of pure logic, and disliking the Reformers, the right of private
judgment which Protestants claimed, and the somewhat prosaic
uniformity of the English Church, he flung himself into a general
campaign against Protestantism in general and the Anglican form
of it in particular. He nevertheless took deacon's orders in
1838 and priest's orders in 1840.
In 1839 Ward became the editor of the British Critic, the organ
of the Tractarian party, and he excited suspicion among the
adherents of the Tractarians themselves by his violent denuncia-
tions of the Church to which he still belonged. In 1841 he urged
the publication of the celebrated "Tract XC.," and wrote in
defence of it. From that period Ward and his associates worked
undisguisedly for union with the Church of Rome, and in 1844
he published his Ideal of a Christian Church, in which he openly
contended that the only hope for the Church of England lay in
submission to the Church of Rome. This publication brought
to a height the storm which had long been gathering. The
university of Oxford was invited, on the i3th of February 1845,
to condemn " Tract XC.," to censure the Ideal, and to degrade
Ward from his degrees. The two latter propositions were carried
and " Tract XC." only escaped censure by the non placet of
the proctors, Guillemard and Church. The condemnation
precipitated an exodus to Rome. Ward left the Church of
England in September 1845, and was followed by many others,
including Newman himself. After his reception into the Church
of Rome, Ward gave himself up to ethics, metaphysics and
moral philosophy. He wrote articles on free will, the philosophy
of theism, on science, prayer and miracles for the Dublin Review.
He also dealt with the condemnation of Pope Honorius, carried on
a controversial correspondence with John Stuart Mill, and took
a leading part in the discussions of the Metaphysical Society,
founded by Mr James Knowles, of which Tennyson, Huxley and
Martineau were also prominent members. He was a vehement
opponent of Liberal Catholicism. In 1851 he was made professor
of moral philosophy at St Edmund's College, Ware, and was
advanced to the chair of dogmatic theology in 1852. In 1868 he
became editor of the Dublin Review. He gave a vigorous support
to the promulgation of the dogma of Papal Infallibility in 1870.
After his admission into the Roman Catholic Church he had,
rather to the dismay of his friends, entered the married state,
and for a time had to struggle with poverty. But his circum-
stances afterwards improved. He died on the 6th of July
1882. (J= J- L.*)
See William George Ward and the Oxford Movement (1889); and
William George Ward and the Catholic Revival (1893), by his son,
Wilfrid Philip Ward (b. 1856), who has also written the Life and
Times of Cardinal Wiseman; and Ten Personal Studies (1908).
WARD, that which guards or watches and that which is
guarded or watched. The word is a doublet of " guard," which
was adapted from the French comparatively late into English.
Both are to be referred to the Teutonic root war-, to protect,
defend, cf. " wary," " warn," " beware," O. Eng. weard, Ger.
warten, &c., and the English " guardian," " garrison," &c.
The principal applications of the term are, in architecture, to
the inner courts of a fortified place; at Windsor Castle they are
called the upper and lower wards (see BAILEY, CASTLE); to a
ridge of metal inside a lock blocking the passage of any key
which has not a corresponding slot into which the ridge fits,
the slot in the key being also called " ward " (see LOCKS).
Another branch of meaning is to be found in the use of the word
for a division into which a borough is divided for the purpose
of election of councillors, or a parish for election of guardians.
It was also the term used as equivalent to " hundred " in
Northumberland and Cumberland. To this branch belongs the
use for the various large or small separate rooms in a hospital,
asylum, &c., where patients are received and treated. The
most general meaning of the word is for a minor or person
who is under a guardianship (see INFANT, MARRIAGE and ROMAN
LAW).
WARDEN, a custodian, defender, guardian (see GUARDIAN,
a word with which it is etymologically identical). The word is
frequently employed in the ordinary sense of a watchman
or guardian, but more usually in England in the sense of a chief
or head official. The lords wardens of the marches, for example,
were powerful nobles appointed to guard the borders of Scotland
and of Wales; they held their lands per baroniam, the king's
writ not running against them, and they had extensive rights of
administrating justice. The chief officer of the ancient stan-
naries of Cornwall has the title of lord warden (see STANNARIES),
as has also the governor of Dover Castle (see CINQUE PORTS).
Warden was until 1870 the alternative title of the master of the
mint, and " warden of the standards " the title of the head of
the Standards office (see STANDARDS). The principal or head of
several of the colleges of Oxford University is also termed
warden.
WARDHA, a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur
division of the Central Provinces, which take their name from
the Wardha river. The town is situated 49 m. S.W. of Nagpur
by rail. Pop. (1901) 9872. It was laid out in 1866, shortly
after the district was first constituted. It is an important
centre of the cotton trade.
The DISTRICT OF WARDHA has an area of 2428 sq. m. It is
hilly in the north, and intersected by spurs from the Satpura
range. The central portion includes the three peaks of Malegaon
(1726 ft.), Nandgaon (1874 ft.), and Jaitgarh (2086 ft.). From
this cluster of hills numerous small streams lead to the Wardha
river on the one side, while on the other the Dham, Bor, and
Asoda flow down the length of the district in a south-easterly
direction. The Wardha, and its affluent the Wanna, are the
only rivers of any importance. To the south the country
spreads out in an undulating plain, intersected by watercourses,
and broken here and there by isolated hills rising abruptly from
the surface. In general the lowlands are well wooded. Leopards,
hyenas, wolves, jackals and wild hog abound in the district;
other animals found are the spotted deer, nilgai and antelope.
The district is subject to great variations of climate, and the
rainfall at Wardha town averages 41 in. In 1901 the population
was 385,103, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade. The
principal crops are cotton, millet, wheat and oil-seeds. This
region supplies the cotton known in the market as Hinganghat.
There are cotton-mills at Hinganghat and Palgaon, and many
factories for ginning and pressing cotton. The district is traversed
by the Nagpur line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
A branch runs from Wardha town past Hinganghat to the
Warora coal-field in the district of Chanda. The history of
Wardha forms part of that of Nagpur district, from which it
was separated in 1862 for administrative purposes.
See Wardha District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1906).
WARDLAW, ELIZABETH, LADY (1677-1727), reputed
author of Hardyknule, second daughter of Sir Charles Halket,
was born in April 1677. She married in 1696 Sir Henry Wardlaw,
Bart., of Pitreavie. The ballad of Hardyknute, published in
1719 as an old poem, was supposed to have been discovered
by her in a vault at Dunfermline, but no MS. was ever produced;
and in the 1767 edition of Percy's Reliques the poem was ascribed
to her. The beautiful ballad of Sir Patrick Spens (F. J. Child,
English and Scottish Popular Ballads, ii. 17) has been also
asserted to be her work, one of the supporters of the theory
being Robert Chambers (Remarks on Scottish Ballads, 1859).
The level of accomplishment in Hardyknute, however, gives no
reason for supposing that Lady Wardlaw was capable of producing
Sir Patrick Spens.
See Norval Clyne, The Romantic Scottish Ballads and the Lady
Wardlaw Heresy (1859), and J. H. Watkins, Early Scottish Ballads
(Glasgow, 1867).
WARDLAW, H. WAREHAM
323
WARDLAW, HENRY (d. 1440), Scottish prelate, was a son
of Sir Andrew Wardlaw and a nephew of Walter Wardlaw
(d. 1390), bishop of Glasgow, who is said to have been made
a cardinal by the anti-pope Clement VII. in 1381. Educated
at the universities of Oxford and of Paris, Henry Wardlaw
returned to Scotland about 1385, and owing to his influential
connexions received many benefices in the Church. He passed
some time at Avignon, and it was whilst he was residing at the
1 court that he was chosen bishop of St Andrews, being
vcrated in 1403. Returning to Scotland he acted as tutor
to the future king, James I., and finished the work of restoring
his cathedral. Then having helped to bring about the release
of James from his captivity in England, he crowned this king
in May 1424, and afterwards acted as one of his principal ad-
visers. He appears to have been an excellent bishop, although
he tried to suppress the teaching of John Wycliffe by burning
Ivocates. He died on the 6th of April 1440. Wardlaw's
chief title to fame is the fact that he was the founder of the
university of St Andrews, the first Scottish university. He
\ the charter of foundation in February 1411, and the
privileges of the new seat of learning were confirmed by a bull of
Pope Benedict XIII., dated the 28th of August 1413. The
university was to be " an impregnable rampart of doctors and
masters to resist heresy."
WARDROBE, a portable upright cupboard for storing clothes.
The earliest wardrobe was a chest, and it was not until some
degree of luxury was attained in regal palaces and the castles
of powerful nobles that separate accommodation was provided
for the sumptuous apparel of the great. The name of wardrobe
was then given to a room in which the wall-space was filled with
cupboards and lockers the drawer is a comparatively modern
invention. From these cupboards and lockers the modern
wardrobe, with its hanging spaces, sliding shelves and drawers,
.-.lowly evolved. In its movable form as an oak " hanging
cupboard " it dates back to the early 1 7th century. For probably
a hundred years such pieces, massive and cumbrous in form,
but often with well-carved fronts, were made in fair numbers;
then the gradual diminution in the use of oak for cabinet-making
produced a change of fashion. Walnut succeeded oak as the
favourite material for furniture, but hanging wardrobes in walnut
appear to have been made very rarely, although clothes presses,
with drawers and sliding trays, were frequent. During a large
portion of the iSth century the tallboy (q.v.) was much used
for storing clothes. Towards its end, however, the wardrobe
began to develop into its modern form, with a hanging cup-
board at each side, a press in the upper part of the central
portion and drawers below. As a rule it was of mahogany,
but so soon as satinwood and other hitherto scarce finely
grained foreign woods began to be obtainable in considerable
quantities, many elaborately and even magnificently inlaid
wardrobes were made. Where Chippendale and his school
had carved, Sheraton and Hepplewhite and their contemporaries
obtained their effects by the artistic employment of deftly
contrasted and highly polished woods. The first step in the
evolution of the wardrobe was taken when the central doors,
which had hitherto enclosed merely the upper part, were carried
to the floor, covering the drawers as well as the sliding shelves,
and were fitted with mirrors.
WARD- ROOM (i.e. the room of the guard), the cabin occupied
by the commissioned officers, except the captain, in a man-of-
war. In the wooden line-of-battle ships it was above the gun-
room.
WARE, a market town in the Hertford parliamentary division
of Hertfordshire, England, on the river Lea, 22 m. N. of London
by a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 5573. The church of St Mary is a cruciform
Decorated and Perpendicular building of flint and stone, con-
sisting of chancel (built, it is supposed, by Lady Margaret
Beaufort, countess of Richmcnd, and mother of Henry VII.),
lady chapel to the south (c. 1380), nave of five bays of the time
of Richard II., transepts, aisles, south porch and embattled
tower of the time of Edward III. There is an elaborate
Perpendicular font. The modern mansion of The Priory, to the
west of the town, occupies the site of a priory of the order of
St Francis, founded, according to Dugdale, by Hugh de Grant-
maisnil, lord of Ware. A portion of the original building is
incorporated in the modern one. Among public buildings are
the corn exchange and the town-hall, which includes a literary
institute and library. The famous " Great Bed of Ware,"
referred to in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, which formerly was
at the Saracen's Head in Ware, has been removed to Rye House,
2 m. distant, the scene of the Rye House plot of 1683 against
Charles II. The town possesses breweries and brick-fields,
and there is a large trade in malt, assisted by the navigation of
the Lea to London. Near the village of Great Amwell (i m.
S.E.) are the sources of the New River, formed in 1606-1612 to
supply London with water; and on a small island in the stream
stands a monument to Sir Hugh Myddleton, through whose
exertions this work was carried out.
WARE, a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., traversed by the Ware river, and about 25 m. E.N.E. of
Springfield. Pop. (1880) 4817, (1800) 7329, (1000) 8263, of
whom 3263 were foreign-born, (1910 census) 8774. Area
29-3 sq. m. The township is served by the Boston & Albany and
Boston &"Maine railways, and by two interurban electric lines.
Its average elevation is about 550 ft. above sea-level. There
is a public library (14,225 volumes in 1910). In 1905 the value
of the factory products was $3,783,696, 23-2% more than in
1900. Among the manufactures are cotton and woollen goods,
and boots and shoes. The township owns and operates its
waterworks. Because of its hard and rough soil, Ware was not
settled as early as the surrounding townships, the first per-
manent settlement being made in 1730. It was incorporated
in 1742 as a precinct, in 1761 as a district (formed from parts
of Brookfield, Palmer and Western, now Warren, and certain
common lands), and in 1775 as a separate township. In 1823
additions were made from Brookfield and Western.
WAREHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the
eastern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, i2ijm.
S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 2003. It lies between the rivers Frome
and Piddle, i| m. above their outflow into Poole harbour. The
town is of high antiquity, and is partially surrounded by earth-
works probably of British construction. The church of St Mary
contains a chapel dedicated to St Edward, commemorating
that Edward who was murdered at Corfe Castle in this neigh-
bourhood, whose body lay here before its removal to Shaftes-
bury. It also possesses a remarkable Norman font of lead. Two
other ancient churches remain, but are not used for worship.
There are ruins of a priory dedicated to SS. Mary, Peter and
Ethelwold, and the site of the old castle may be traced. The
town and neighbourhood have been long noted for their lime
and cement, and large quantities of potters', pipe, fire and other
kinds of clay are sent to Staffordshire and to foreign countries.
The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors.
Area 251 acres.
Owing to its situation as a key of Purbeck, the site of Ware-
ham (Werhant, Warham) has been occupied from early times.
The earthworks, of British origin, were modified in almost every
successive age. That Wareham was a pre-Saxon town is evident
from Asser's statement that its British name was Durngucir.
The early chroniclers declare that St Aldhelm founded a church
near Wareham about 701, and perhaps the pricry, which is
mentioned as existing in 876, when the Danes retired from
Cambridge to a strong position in this fort. Their occupation
was not lengthy. Having made terms with Alfred, they broke
the conditions and returned to Cambridge. In the following
year they were again at Wareham, which they made their
headquarters. Eeorhtric, the immediate predecessor of Ecgbert,
was buried here. Further incursions made by the Danes in 098
and in 1015 under Canute probably resulted in the destruction
of the priory, on the site of which a later house was founded
in the I2th century as a cell of the Norman abbey of Lysa, and
in the decayed condition of Wareham in 1086, when 203 houses
324
WARENNE, EARLS WAR GAME
were ruined or waste, the result of misfortune, poverty and fire.
The early castle, which existed before 1086, was important
during the civil wars of Stephen's reign; in 1142 Robert, earl
of Gloucester, on his departure for France, committed it to his
son's charge. Stephen, however, surprised and took it, but it
surrendered to the earl in the same year on the king's refusal
to send it aid. John fortified it against Louis of France in 1216,
and during the civil wars it was the scene of much fighting,
being stormed by the parliamentary forces in 1644. Wareham
was accounted a borough in Domesday Book, and the burgesses
in 1176 paid 20 marks for a default. In 1180-1181 they rendered
account of 5 marks for erecting a gild without licence. The
fee-farm of the borough was obtained in 1211, on a fine of 100
marks. The constitution of Wareham underwent a change
during the years 1326-1338, when the governing body of the
bailiffs and commonalty were replaced by the mayor and bailiffs.
In 1587 Elizabeth granted certain privileges to Wareham, but
it was not incorporated until 1703, when the existing fairs for
April 6 and August 23 were granted. The port was important
throughout the middle ages, and was required to furnish four
ships for the French war in 1334. Considerable trade was
carried on with France and Spain, cloth, Purbeck stone and,
later, clay being largely exported.
WARENNE, EARLS. The Warennes derived their surname
from the river of Guarenne or Varenne and the little town of the
same name near Arques in Normandy. William de Warenne,
who crossed with William I. in 1066, was a distant cousin of the
Conqueror, his grandmother having been the sister of Gunnora,
wife of Richard I. of Normandy: De Warenne received as his
share of English spoil some 300 manors in Yorkshire, Norfolk,
Surrey and Sussex, including Lewes Castle. He was wounded
at the siege of Pevensey and died in 1089, a year after he had
received the title of earl of Surrey. Both he and his successors
were more commonly styled Earl Warenne than earl of Surrey.
His wife Gundrada, described on her monument as stirps ducum, 1
appears to have been a sister of Gharbod, earl of Chester.
Their son William, 2nd earl (c. 1071-1138), was a suitor for
the hand of Matilda of Scotland, afterwards queen of Henry I.
He was temporarily deprived of his earldom in 1101 for his
support of Robert, duke of Normandy, but he commanded at
the battle of Tenchebrai (1106), and was governor of Rouen in
1135. He carried off Elizabeth of Vermandois, granddaughter
of Henry I. of France, and wife of Robert, count of Meulan, and
married her in 1118 after her husband's death.
William de Warenne, 3rd earl (d. 1148), was, with his half-
brother, Robert de Beaumont, early of Leicester, present at the
battle of Lincoln, where his flight early in the day contributed
to Stephen's defeat. He remained faithful to the queen during
Stephen's imprisonment, and in 1146 he took the cross, and was
killed near Laodicea in January 1 148.
His daughter and heiress, Isabel, married in 1153 William de
Blois, second son of King Stephen and Matilda of Boulogne, and
in 1163 Hamelin Plantagenet, natural son of Geoffrey, count of
Anjou. Both Isabel's husbands appear to have borne the title
of Earl Warenne. Earl Hamelin was one of those who at the
council of Northampton denounced Becket as a traitor; he
remained faithful to his half-brother, Henry II., during the trouble
with the king's sons, and in Richard I.'s absence on the crusade
he supported the government against the intrigues of Prince John.
William de Warenne (d. 1240), son of Isabel and Hamelin, who
succeeded to the earldom in 1202, enjoyed the special confidence
of King John. In 1212, when a general rebellion was appre-
hended, John committed to him the custody of the northern
shires; and he remained faithful to his master throughout the
troubles which preceded the signing of the Charter. In 1216, as
the king's situation became desperate, the earl repented of his
loyalty, and, shortly before the death of John, made terms with
Prince Louis. He returned, however, to his lawful allegiance im-
mediately upon the accession of Henry III., and was, during his
minority, a loyal supporter of the crown. He disliked, however,
1 See R. E. Chester Watson, " Gundrada," in the Jnl. of the Arch.
Inst., xli. p. 1 08.
the royal favourites who came into power after 1227, and used his
influence to protect Hubert de Burgh when the latter had been
removed from office by their efforts (1232). Warenne's relations
with the king became strained in course of time. In 1238 he
was evidently regarded as a leader of the baronial opposition,
for the great council appointed him as one of the treasurers who
were to prevent the king from squandering the subsidy voted in
that year. His son John de Warenne (c. 1231-1304) succeeded
in 1240, and at a later date bore the style of earl of Surrey and
Sussex. In the battle of Lewes (1264) he fought under Prince
Edward, and on the defeat of the royal army fled with the queen
to France. His estates were confiscated but were subsequently
restored. He served in Edward I.'s Welsh campaigns, and took
a sill more prominent part in Scottish affairs, being the king's
lieutenant in Scotland in 1296-1297. In September 1297 he
advanced to Stirling, and, giving way to the clamour of his
soldiers, was defeated by William Wallace on the nth. He
invaded Scotland early the next year with a fresh army, and,
joining Edward in the second expedition of that year, commanded
the rear at Falkirk
By his first wife, Alice of Lusignan, half-sister of Henry III.,
Eari Warenne had three children Alice, who married Henry
Percy, father of the ist baron Percy; Isabella, who married
John Baliol, afterwards king of Scots; and William, who pre-
deceased his father, leaving a son John.
John de Warenne (1286-1347) succeeded his grandfather in
1304, and was knighted along with the prince of Wales in 1306,
two days after his marriage with the prince's niece, Joanna,
daughter of Eleanor of England, countess of Bar. From that
time onwards he was much engaged in the Scottish wars, in
which he had a personal interest, since John Baliol was his cousin
and at one time his ward. As there were no children of his
marriage, his nephew, Richard Fitzalan II., earl of Arundel
(c. 1307-1376), became heir to his estates and the earldom of
Surrey. His northern estates reverted to the crown, and the
southern estates held by Joanna of Bar during her lifetime
passed to Fitzalan. The Warrens of Poynton, barons of Stock-
port, descended from one of Earl Warenne's illegitimate sons by
Isabella de Holland. Earl Warenne had received from Edward
Baliol the Scottish earldom of Strathearn, but seems never to
have established effective possession.
See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (1896) ; and John
Watson, Memoirs of the Ancient Earls of Warren or Surrey (2 vols.,
Warrington, 1782).
WAR GAME, or (in its German form) KRIEGSPIEL, a scientific
game, played by representing the positions and movements
of troops on a map. Kriegspiel is, as the name indicates, of
German origin. A form of it, invented by Marshal Keith, and
called Kriegs-schachsspiel (War Chess), was in vogue in the
1 8th century. In its present form it was invented by von
Reisswitz (1794-1827), a Prussian officer, in 1824. As a game
it quickly became fashionable at the German courts, and as a
means of instruction it was promptly introduced into the Prussian
army, whence it has spread to all the armies of the world. The
idea of it has been applied also to naval warfare in recent times,
the most usual form of naval war game being that designed by
F. T. Jane about 1898.
In the military game the positions of troops are marked on
maps, movements are made under regulations and the whole
or portions of past campaigns can be reproduced in outline of
fair accuracy, or more usually hypothetical manoeuvres may
be formulated for study and instruction. The materials required
are at least three copies of the same map, drawn to such scale
as may be suitable to the magnitude of the operations to be
represented. If the scheme is one for small numbers of troops,
maps of large scale are essential, as small features of the
ground largely influence the action of small bodies, and it is only
on large-scale maps that the real influence of small features can
readily be appreciated. Conversely, with large bodies, maps
on a diminished scale are convenient. A great amount of detail
is necessary in all maps drawn for military purposes; heights,
roads, buildings, water-courses, fences and the nature of the
WARGLA WARHAM
325
ground, all enter into the question of the feasibility or the reverse
of military operations; and where the map is the actual field
of manoeuvre, the features of the natural field must be adequately
supplied. Blocks, cut or moulded to scale, represent the different
units of the combatants; and are coloured (generally red and
blue) to distinguish the opposing forces. Some pairs of dividers
and a few measures of the same scale as the maps employed
complete the material outfit. Printed regulations for the conduct
of kriegspiel are of small value; and although rules have been
drafted at various times and in many languages, they have
generally been allowed to lapSe, practice having proved that the
decision of a competent umpire is of more value, as to the sound-
ness or unsoundness of a military manoeuvre, than a code of
regulations which inevitably lack elasticity.
The usual course of procedure varies but little in the different
countries in which the system has been employed. The central
map screened from the view of the combatants is used by the
umpire, who places on it the forces of both sides; copies are on
eirher hand behind screens or in adjoining rooms, and on them
representative blocks are placed in positions which agree with the
information possessed by each respective commander. A scheme is
formulated such as may occur in war, and a " General Idea " or
"Narrative" is the common property of both sides. This contains
those items of common knowledge which would be in the possession
of either commander in the field. The General Idea is supplemented
by " special ideas," issued one to each of the combatants, supplying
the information which a commander might reasonably be expected
to have of the details of his own force. A third series of instruc-
tions is issued, entitled " Orders," which define to each commander
the object to be attained ; and on receipt of these he is required to
draft specific orders, such as, in manoeuvre or in war, would be
considered necessary for issue to field units in the assumed circum-
stances. Then the game begins. The units of artillery, cavalry,
infantry or train-wagons advance or retreat at a rate approxi-
mately regulated to their normal pace. Information gained by
advancing patrols is brought at realistic speed to its destination ; and
no alteration in the ordered movements of a unit is allowed, till ex-
piration of the calculated time for the transmission of the intelligence
and for the issue of fresh orders. So the exercise progresses, each
movement is marked, and periodically the blocks on the three maps
are placed as they would be at a simultaneous moment. Smaller
units yield to larger ones of the enemy; equal forces, if unassisted
by superiority of position," contain "one another, and are practically
neutralized till reinforcements arrive and equilibrium is overthrown.
The decisions of the umpire are all-important, and it is he who
makes or mars the value of the instruction. Some axioms must be
universally accepted for the guidance both of himself and of the
players. A force arrayed within effective range on the flank of an
equal and hostile force has the better position of the two. Artillery
in position with an unimpeded glacis is a terrible task for a frontal
attack. Cavalry, as such, is ineffective in woodlands, marshes or
a country broken up by cross hedges or wire fencing. Infantry in
masses is an ideal target for efficient artillery, and in scattered
bodies affords opportunities for attack by well-handled cavalry.
The just application of the ideas contained in these few sentences
to the varying stages of a combat is no mean task for a cultured
soldier.
One of many difficulties encountered in war is the lack of accurate
information. Any one man's view of details spread over large areas
of country is extremely limited; and even with the greatest pre-
cautions against unreality, a commander's information is vastly more
accurate over the extended units of his mimic force at kriegspiel than
when the forces so represented are men, horses and machines,
wrapped in dust or in smoke, and partially obscured by accidents of
the ground too insignificant for reproduction on the map. Yet
whilst accepting a certain unreality in kriegspiel, and to a less_ degree
in field manoeuvres, both by one and the other military training and
education are furthered. The framing of orders follows identical
lines at kriegspiel, at manoeuvres or in war. The movement of
troops in mimic warfare should be brought to harmonize as far as
possible with reality. Up to a point this is relatively easy, and
depends chiefly on the quality of the umpiring. But directly the
close contact of important bodies of troops is represented on paper,
imagination, not realism, governs the results. Even this, however,
can be tempered, as regards the larger problems of the tactical
grouping of forces, by the wisdom and experience of the umpire.
It is true that military history teems with tactical events that no
map can reproduce and no seer could have prophesied. But the
greater an officer's familiarity with military history, the more likely
he is to provide the margin of safety against such incidents in his
dispositions, and thus kriegspiel, even in the domain of general
tactics, is of invaluable assistance as a means of applying sound
principles, learned in other ways, to concrete cases.
WARGLA, a town in the Algerian Sahara, 175 m. S.W. of
Biskra on the caravan route to the Niger countries, and a starting-
point for the exploration of the southern part of the Sahara.
Pop. (1906) 3570, the majority of mixed Berber and negro blood.
The town is walled and is entered by six gateways, which are
fortified. The French fort, barracks, hospital and other buildings
are south of the native town. Wargla lies in an oasis containing
many palm trees. It claims to be the oldest town in the Sahara,
and was for a long time self-governing, but eventually placed
itself under the protection of the sultan of Morocco. The sultan,
however, had ceased to have any power in the town some time
previous to the French occupation. Wargla was first occupied
for the French in 1853 by native allies, but it was not until 1872
that the authority of France was definitely established. The
importance of the town as a trans-Saharan trade centre has
greatly declined since the suppression of slave-trading by the
French. The oasis in which Wargla is situated contains two or
three other small fortified ksurs or villages, the largest and most
picturesque being Ruissat. The total population of the oasis
is about 12,000.
WARHAM, WILLIAM (c. 1450-1532), archbishop of Canter-
bury, belonged to a Hampshire family, and was educated at
Winchester and New College, Oxford, afterwards practising and
teaching law both in London and Oxford. Later he took holy
orders, held two livings, and became master of the rolls in 1494,
while Henry VII. found him a useful and clever diplomatist.
He helped to arrange the marriage between Henry's son, Arthur,
and Catherine of Aragon; he went to Scotland with Richard
Foxe, then bishop of Durham, in 1497; and he was partly
responsible for several commercial and other treaties with
Flanders, Burgundy and the German king, Maximilian I. In
1502 Warham was consecrated bishop of London and became
keeper of the great seal, but his tenure of both these offices was
short, as in 1504 he became lord chancellor and archbishop of
Canterbury. In 1509 the archbishop married and then crowned
Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon, but gradually withdrawing
into the background he resigned the office of lord chancellor in
1515, and was succeeded by Wolsey, whom he had consecrated
as bishop of Lincoln in the previous year. This resignation was
possibly due to his dislike of Henry's foreign policy. He was
present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and assisted
Wolsey as assessor during the secret inquiry into the validity of
Henry's marriage with Catherine in 1527. Throughout the
divorce proceedings Warham's position was essentially that of
an old and weary man. He was named as one of the counsellors
to assist the queen, but, fearing to incur the king's displeasure
and usir^ his favourite phrase ira principis mors est, he gave her
very little help; and he signed the letter to Clement VII. which
urged the pope to assent to Henry's wish. Afterwards it was
proposed that the archbishop himself should try the case, but this
suggestion came to nothing. He presided over the Convocation
of 1531 when the clergy of the province of Canterbury voted
100,000 to the king in order to avoid the penalties of praemunire,
and accepted Henry as supreme head of the church with the
saving clause " so far as the law of Christ allows." In his con-
cluding years, however, the archbishop showed rather more
independence. In February 1532 he protested against all acts
concerning the church passed by the parliament which met in
1529, but this did not prevent the important proceedings which
secured the complete submission of the church to the state later
in the same year. Against this further compliance with Henry's
wishes Warham drew up a protest; he likened the action of Henry
VIII. to that of Henry II., and urged Magna Carta in defence
of the liberties of the church. He died on the 22nd of August
1 53 2 and was buried in Canterbury cathedral. Warham, who was
chancellor of Oxford University from 1506 until his death, was
munificent in his public, and moderate in his private life. As
archbishop he seems to have been somewhat arbitrary, and his
action led to a serious quarrel with Bishop Foxe of Winchester
and others in 1 5 1 2.
See VV. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury (1860-1876) ;
J. Gairdner in Diet. Nat. Biog., vol. fix. (1899), and The English
Church in the i6th Century (1902); J. S. Brewer, Reign of Henry
VIII. (1884); and A. F. Pollard, Henry VIII. (1905).
326
WARKWORTH WARNER, O. L.
WARKWORTH, a small town in the Wansbeck parliamentary
division of Northumberland, England, 32 m. N. of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne by the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 712.
It is beautifully situated in a hollow of the river Coquet, if m.
above its mouth, where on the S. bank is AMBLE, an urban
district (pop. 4428), with a harbour. An ancient bridge of two
arches crosses the river, with a fortified gateway on the road
mounting to the castle, the site of which is surrounded on three
sides by the river. Of this Norman stronghold there are fine
remains, including walls, a gateway and hall; while the re-
mainder, including the Lion tower and the keep, is of the i3th
and i4th centuries. Roger Fitz-Richard held the manor and
probably built the earliest parts of the castle in the reign of
Henry II. The lordship came to the Percies in Edward III.'s
reign and is still held by their descendants the dukes of North-
umberland, though it passed from them temporarily after the
capture of the castle by Henry IV. in 1405, and again on the
fall of the house of Lancaster. The foundation of Warkworth
church is attributed to Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria (c. 736),
who subsequently became a monk. It was the scene of a massacre
by a Scottish force sent by William the Lion in 1 1 74. The church
is principally of Norman and Perpendicular work, but remains
of the Saxon building have been discovered. In the vicinity
are remains of a Benedictine priory of the i3th century. By the
side of the Coquet above the castle is the Hermitage of Wark-
worth. This remarkable relic consists of an outer portion built
of stone, and an inner portion hewn from the steep rock above
the river. This inner part comprises a chapel and a smaller
chamber, both having altars. There is an altar-tomb with a
female effigy in the chapel. From the window between the
inner chamber and the chapel, and from other details, the date
of the work may be placed in the latter part of the I4th century,
the characteristics being late Decorated. The traditional story
of the origin of the hermitage, attributing it to one of the
Bertrams of Bothal Castle in this county, is told in Bishop
Percy's ballad The Hermit of Warkworth (1771). At Amble are
ruins of a monastic toll-house, where a tax was levied on shipping;
and Coquet Island, i m. off the mouth of the river, was a
monastic resort from the earliest times, like the Fame and Holy
Islands farther north. The harbour at Amble has an export
trade in coal and bricks, coal and fireclay being extensively
worked in the neighbourhood, and an import trade in timber.
WARLOCK, a wizard, sorcerer or magician (see MAGIC). The
word in O. Eng. is wasrloga, literally "a liar against the truth,"
from war, truth, cognate with Lat. verum (cf. Ger. wahr), and
loga, liar, from leogan, to lie (cf. Ger. lilgcn). It was thus used
with the meaning of a traitor, deceiver, a breaker of a truce.
In M. Eng. it is found as a name for the devil (warloghe), the arch
liar and deceiver. The use of the word for a sorcerer or wizard,
one whose magic powers are gained by his league with the devil,
seems to be a northern English or Scottish use.
WARMINSTER, a market town in the Westbury parlia-
mentary division of Wiltshire, England, xooj m. W. by S. of Lon-
don by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1001)
5547. Its white stone houses form a long curve between the
uplands of Salisbury Plain, which sweep away towards the north
and east, and the tract of park and meadow land lying south and
west. The cruciform church of St Denys has a 14th-century
south porch and tower. St Lawrence's chapel, a chantry built
under Edward I., was bought by the townsfolk at the Reforma-
tion. Warminster has also a free school established in 1707, a
missionary college, a training home for lady missionaries and
a reformatory for boys. Besides a silk mill, malthouses and
engineering and agricultural implement works, there is a brisk
trade in farm produce.
Warminster appears in Domesday, and was a royal manor
whose tenant was bound to provide, when required, a night's
lodging for the king and his retinue. This privilege was enforced
by George III. when he visited Longleat. The meeting of roads
from Bath, Frome, Shaftesbury and Salisbury made Warminster
a busy coaching centre. Eastward, within 2 m., there are two
great British camps: Battlesbury, almost impregnable save
| on the north, where its entrenchments are double ; and Scratch-
1 bury, a line of outworks encircling an area of some 40 acres,
with three entrances and a citadel in the midst. Barrows are
numerous. Longleat, a seat of the marquesses of Bath, lies 5 m.
S.E., surrounded by its deer park, crossed from N. to S. by a long
and narrow mere. The house is one of the largest and most
beautiful examples in the county, dating from the close of the
i6th century. Its name is derived from the " leat " or conduit
which conveyed water from Horningsham, about i m. south, to
supply the mill and Austin priory founded here late in the
i3th century. The monastic estates passed at the Dissolution to
the Thynne family, who built Longleat. Sir Christopher Wren
added certain staircases and a doorway. In 1670 the owner
was the celebrated Thomas Thynne satirized in Dryden's
Absalom and Achitophel, and Bishop Ken found a home at
Longleat for twenty years after the loss of his bishopric.
WARNER, CHARLES DUDLEY (1829-1900), American
essayist and novelist, was born of Puritan ancestry, in Plainfield,
Massachusetts, on the I2th of September 1829. From his sixth
to his fourteenth year he lived in Charlemont, Mass., the scene
of the experiences pictured in his delightful study of childhood,
Being a Boy (1877). H C removed thence to Cazenovia, New
York, and in 1851 graduated from Hamilton College, Clinton,
N.Y. He worked with a surveying party in Missouri; studied
law at the university of Pennsylvania; practised in Chicago
(1856-1860); was assistant editor (1860) and editor (1861-
1867) of The Hartford Press, and after The Press was merged
into The Hartford Coitrant, was co-editor with Joseph R. Hawley ;
in 1884 he joined the editorial staff of Harper's Magazine, for
which he conducted " The Editor's Drawer " until 1892, when
he took charge of " The Editor's Study." He died in Hartford
on the 2oth of October 1900. He travelled widely, lectured
frequently, and was actively interested in prison reform, city
park supervision and other movements for the public good.
He was the first president of the National Institute of Arts and
Letters, and, at the time of his death, was president of the
American Serial Science Association. He first attracted atten-
tion by the reflective sketches entitled My Summer in a Garden
(1870; first published in The Hartford Courant), popular for
their abounding and refined humour and mellow personal charm,
their wholesome love of out-door things, their suggestive comment
on life and affairs, and their delicately finished style, qualities
that suggest the work of Washington Irving. Among his other
works are Saunterings (descriptions of travel in eastern Europe,
1872) and Back-Log Studies (1872); Baddcck, and That Sort of
Thing (1874), travels in Nova Scotia and elsewhere; My Winter
on the Nile (1876); In the Levant (1876); In the Wilderness
(1878); A Roundabout Journey, in Europe (1883); On Horseback,
in the Southern States (1888); Studies in the South and West,
with Comments on Canada (1889); Our Italy, southern California
(1891); The Relation of Literature to Life (1896); The People
for Whom Shakespeare Wrote (1897); and Fashions in Literature
(1902). He also edited " The American Men of Letters " series,
to which he contributed an excellent biography of Washington
Irving (1881), and edited a large " Library of the World's Best
Literature." His other works include his graceful essays, As
We Were Saying (1891) and As We Go (1893); and his novels,
The Gilded Age (in collaboration with Mark Twain, 1873);
Their Pilgrimage (1886); A Little Journey in the World (1889);
Tlie Golden House (1894) ; and That Fortune (1889).
See the biographical sketch by T. R. Lounsbury in the Complete
Writings (15 vols., Hartford, 1904) of Warner.
WARNER, OLIN LEVI (1844-1896), American sculptor, was
born at West Suffield, Connecticut, on the 9th of April 1844.
In turn an artisan and a telegraph operator, by 1869 he had
earned enough money to support him through a course of study
in Paris under Jouffroy and Carpeaux. He was in France when
the Republic was proclaimed in 1870 and enlisted in the Foreign
Legion, resuming his studies at the termination of the siege.
In 1872 he removed to New York, where, however, he met with
little success; he then went to his father's farm in Vermont,
and worked for manufacturers of silver and plated ware as well
WARNER, S. WARRANT
327
as makers of mantel ornaments. He attracted the attention of
Daniel Cottier, of the Cottier Art Galleries of New York, where
Warner's work was exhibited, and some commissions gradually
secured for him recognition. They were followed by busts of
Alden Weir, the artist, and of Maud Morgan, the musician;
some decorations for the Long Island Historical Society; statues
of Governor Buckingham at the State Capitol, Hartford, Conn.;
William Lloyd Garrison and General Charles Devens, at Boston;
reliefs of several striking North American Indian types; a
fountain for Portland, Oregon, and the designs for the bronze
doors, "Tradition" and "Writing," of the Congressional
Library at Washington, of which he lived to complete only the
former, which contains the beautiful figures of " Imagination "
and " Memory." Warner died in New York City on the I4th
of August 1896. He was one of the five charter members of the
Society of American Artists (1877), and in 1889 became an
academician, National Academy of Design, New York. One of
his best-known works is a " Diana." He designed the souvenir
silver half-dollar piece for the Columbia Fair at Chicago, in 1893,
making also some colossal heads of great artists for the art palace,
and busts of Governors Clinton and Flower, of New York State.'
WARNER, SETH (1743-1784), American Revolutionary
soldier, was born in Roxbury, Connecticut, on the I7th of May
1743. He removed with his father to the " New Hampshire
Grants" in 1763, and became prominent among the young men
who forcibly resisted New York's claim to the territory (see
VI.RMONT). At the outbreak of the War of Independence, he
led the detachment of " Green Mountain Boys " which captured
Crown Point (</.*.) on the nth of May 1775, and took part in the
unsuccessful expedition against Quebec later in the year. In July
1776 he became colonel in the Continental Army, and served
throughout the war. He retired in 1782, and returned to
Roxbury, where he died in 1784.
See Daniel Chipman. Life (Burlington, Vt., 1858).
WARNER, WILLIAM (i558?-i6o9), English poet, was
born in London about 1558. He was educated at Magdalen
Hall, Oxford, but left the university without taking a degree.
He practised in London as an attorney, and gained a great
reputation among his contemporaries as a poet. His chief
work is a long poem in fourteen-syllabled verse, entitled Albion's
ind (1586), and dedicated to Henry Carey, ist Baron
Hunsdon. His history of his country begins with Noah, and is
brought down to Warner's own time. The chronicle is by no
means continuous, and is varied by fictitious episodes, the best
known of which is the idyll in the fourth book of the loves
of Argentille, the daughter of the king of Deira, and the Danish
prince, Curan. Here Warner's simple art shows itself at its best.
His book, perhaps on account of its patriotic subject, was very
popular, but it is difficult to understand how Francis Meres came
to rank him with Spenser as the chief heroical poets of the day,
and to institute a comparison between him and Euripides.
\\ Urner died suddenly at Amwell in Hertfordshire on the 9th
of March 1609.
His other works are Pan his Syrinx, or Pipe, Compact of Seven
Reedes (1585), a collection of prose tales; and a translation of the
Menaechmi of Plautus (1595). Albion's England consisted originally
of four " books," but the number was increased in successive issues,
and a posthumous edition (1612) contains sixteen books. It was
reprinted (1810) in Alexander Chalmers's English Poets.
WARNSDORF, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 124 m. N.E. of
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,150. Warnsdorf was formed
in 1870 by uniting seven separate village communities, and is
now one of the largest towns in Bohemia. It is a great industrial
centre, especially for textiles.
WARORA, a town of British India, in Chanda district of
the Central Provinces, on a branch of the Great Indian Peninsula
railway. Pop. (1901) 10,626. Warora gives its name to a
coalfield, which was worked by the government from 1871 to
1906; a fire-clay industry under the same management also
raised fire-clay for bricks and tiles. The ginning and pressing
of cotton is an important industry.
WARRANT (Med. Lat. -waranlum; O. Fr. garant, warant,
derived from O.H.G. root represented in modern German by
gewahfen), in English law, an authority in writing empowering
a person to do an act or to execute an office. The procedure
known as quo warranto (q.v.) is used to determine the right
to hold certain kinds of public office. The term " warrant "
occurs very early in constitutional documents: it is found in the
Assize of Clarendon and the Assize of the Forest, both in the
reign of Henry II., but in neither case in its modern meaning.
The original meaning seems to have been more akin to guarantee
(q.v.), warranty or security; and to some extent the term
implies something in the nature of a guarantee or representation
by the person issuing the warrant that the person who acts on
it can do so without incurring any legal penalty. The term is
applied to a great variety of documents of very different kinds,
which may be classified as (i) executive or administrative, (2)
judicial or quasi-judicial and (3) financial or commercial.
1. Executive and Administrative. While the royal prerogative was
insufficiently denned and limited, a great many executive acts were
authorized by royal warrant (per specials mandatum regis), which
now either depend on statute or are dealt with by departments
of state without the need of recourse to the personal authority of
the sovereign. Under present constitutional practice royal warrants
are as a general rule countersigned by a member of the cabinet or
other responsible officer of state. By an act of 1435 (18 Hen. VI.
c. i) letters patent under the great seal must bear the date of the
royal warrant delivered to the chancellor for their issue. This act
still applies to all patents, except for inventions. The form and
countersignature of warrants for affixing the great seal is regulated
by the Great Seal Act 1884. Pardon, which was granted for centuries
only by letters patent under the great seal, has since 1 827 in England
and 1828 in Ireland been granted in case of felony by warrant under
the royal sign manual countersigned by a secretary of state (/ & 8
Geo. IV. c. 28, s. 13; 9 Geo. IV. c. 54, s. 33). The prerogative of
the crown with reference to the control of the navy and army is
largely exercised by the issue of warrants. In 1871 the purchase of
commissions in the army was abolished by royal warrant, said to
have been authorized by statute (49 Geo. III. c. 126), but afterwards
confirmed by parliament (34 & 35 Viet. c. 86). Under existing legis-
lation for the government of the military forces of the crown royal
warrants are used to form army corps, to deal with certain details
as to pay and regimental debts, and with the militia and reserve
forces. The convocation of naval courts-martial and the appoint-
ment of judge-advocate and provost-marshal at such court is by
warrant of the Admiralty or of the officer on foreign or detached
service who by his commission is entitled to convene such a court
(see Naval Discipline Act 1866, s. 58; Army Act 1881, s. 179).
A general court-martial for the army is constituted by royal warrant
or convened by an officer authorized to convene such court, or his
lawful delegate (Army Act 1881, s. 48). Appointments to certain
offices under the crown are made by warrant of the king or of the
appropriate department of state. In the navy and army the
officers called warrant officers are so styled because they are appointed
by warrant and do not hold commissions. In 1602 the censorship of
the stage was committed to the poet Daniel by royal warrant (see
THEATRE), and certain tradesmen to the court are described as
" warrant holders," because of the mode of their appointment.
Abuses of claims to this distinction are punishable (Merchandise
Marks Act 1887, s. 20; Patents Act 1883, s. 107). Warrants under
the royal sign manual are subject to a ten-shilling stamp duty
(Stamp Act 1891). The issue of warrants under the hand of a
secretary of state, so far as they affect personal liberty, depends
in every case on statute, e.g. as to the surrender of fugitive criminals
(EXTRADITION), or the deportation of undesirable aliens (see ALIEN),
or the bringing up prisoners as witnesses in courts of justice. The
right of a secretary of state or the lord-lieutenant in Ireland by
express warrant in writing to detain or open letters in the post
office was recognized by orders in council and proclamations in the
1 7th century and by various post office acts, and is retained in the
Post Office Act 1836 (s. 25). The right was challenged, but was
finally established by the reports of committees of both Houses
appointed in 1844 on a complaint by Mazzini and others that Sir
James Graham, then home secretary, had opened their letters.
It was exercised as recently as 1881 over the letters of perfons
suspected of treasonable correspondence in Ireland. The warrant
of a law officer of the crown for sealing letters patent for inventions
(necessary under the old patent law) has been superseded by other
procedure since the Patents Act 1883.
2. Judicial and Quasi- Judicial Warrants. Unless a statute
otherwise provides a judicial warrant must be in writing under the
seal, if any, of the court, or under the hand and (or) seal of the
functionary who grants it. Committal for breach of privilege of the
House of Commons is by warrant of the Speaker. During the Tudor
and Stuart reigns frequent attempts were made by the crown and
great officers of state to interfere with personal liberty, especially
as to offences of state. The legality of these proceedings was
challenged by the judges in Elizabeth's reign. On the abolition of
the Star Chamber it was enacted (16 Car. I. c. 10) that if any person
328
WARRANT OF ATTORNEY
be imprisoned by warrant of the king in person, of the council
board, or any of the privy council, he is entitled to a writ of habeas
corpus, and the courts may examine into the legality of the cause of
detention. This enactment, and the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, put
an end to the interference of the executive with matters belonging
to the judicature; but until 1763 there survived a practice by
which a secretary of state issued warrants to arrest individuals for
state offences, and to search or seize the books and papers of the
accused. The latter practice was examined and declared illegal in
the famous case of Entick v. Carrington (19 How. St. Tr. 1030).
All privy councillors are included in the commission of the peace
for every county. The council itself is said to have power to issue
warrants of arrest for high treason, but the power, if it exists,
is in abeyance in England. The special powers given to the lord-
lieutenant of Ireland in 1881 (44 & 45 Viet. c. 5) expired in 1906.
As a result of the gradual restriction of the royal prerogative, the
term warrant has come in modern times oftenest to be used of
documents issuing from courts of justice. Few documents issuing
from the superior courts are called warrants. In these courts writs
and orders are more generally used. In courts of record which try
indictments a " bench warrant " is sometimes used for the arrest of
an absent defendant, but the word warrant has for judicial purposes
become most closely associated with the jurisdiction of justices of
the peace. As a general rule no one can be arrested without warrant.
To this rule there are certain exceptions either at common law or
by statute. At common law a justice of the peace, a sheriff, a
coroner, a constable and even a private person, may arrest any one
without warrant for a treason, felony or breach of the peace com-
mitted, or attempted to be committed, in his presence. A constable
(whether a constable at common law or a police constable appointed
under the Police Acts) may arrest a person indicted for felony; a
constable or a private person may arrest on reasonable suspicion
that he who is arrested has committed a felony. But in the latter
case he does so at his peril, for he most prove (what the constable
need not) that there has been an actual commission of the crime
by some one, as well as a reasonable ground for suspecting the
particular person. What is a reasonable ground it is of course im-
possible to define, but. in the case of a constable, a charge by a person
not manifestly unworthy of credit is generally regarded as sufficient.
An accused person who has been bailed may be arrested by his bail,
and the police may assist in the arrest. In neither case is a warrant
necessary. Nor is it necessary for the apprehension of one against
whom the hue and cry is raised. The king cannot arrest in person
or by verbal command, as no action would Re against him for wrong-
ful arrest. Statutory powers of arrest without warrant are given to
both constables and private persons by many statutes, e.g. the Night
Poaching Act 1828, certain of the Criminal Law Consolidation Acts
of 1861, the Prevention of Crime Act 1871 and Police Acts. In
those cases in which arrest without warrant is illegal or is found
inexpedient, information in writing or on oath is laid before a justice
of the peace setting forth the nature of the offence charged and to
srfme extent the nature of the evidence implicating the accused;
and upon this information, if sufficient in the opinion of the justice
applied to, he issues his warrant for the arrest of the person in-
criminated. The warrant, if issued by a competent court as to a
matter over which it has jurisdiction, becomes a judicial authority
to the person who executes it, and resistance to such a warrant is a
criminal offence. The possession of a legal warrant by a peace officer
on arrest is of great importance in determining whether a person
resisting apprehension is justified or not in his resistance. Should
the officer attempt to apprehend him on a warrant manifestly
illegal on its face, or without a warrant in a case where a warrant is
necessary, and be killed in the attempt, the killing would probably be
held to be manslaughter and not murder. Before bringing an action
against constables for alleged illegal arrest under a justice's warrant
the complainant must apply for the perusal and a copy of the warrant
(24 Geo. II. c. 44, s. 6; Pollock, Torts, 6th ed., 117). Entry upon
the land or seizure of property cannot as a rule be justified except
under judicial warrant. The only common law warrant of this kind
is the search warrant, which may be granted for the purpose of
searching for stolen goods. Special powers for issuing such warrants
are given by the Army, Merchant Shipping, Customs, Pawnbrokers
and Stamp Acts, and for the discovery of explosives or appliances
for coining and forgery. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885
allows the issue of search warrants where it is suspected that a
female is unlawfully detained for immoral purposes. Execution of
the decisions of a court of summary jurisdiction is secured by warrants,
part of the process of the court, such as warrants of distress or
commitment. A warrant may also issue for the apprehension of a
witness whose attendance cannot be otherwise assured. The forms
of warrants used by justices in indictable cases are scheduled to the
Indictable Offences Act 1848. Those used for summary jurisdiction
are contained in the Summary Jurisdiction Rules of 1886.
As a general rule, warrants must be executed within the_ local
jurisdiction of the officer who issued them. Warrants, &c., issued
by a judge of the High Court run through England, in criminal as
well as in civil cases: and the same rule applies as to courts having
bankruptcy jurisdiction. The warrants of justices of the peace can
be executed on fresh pursuit within 7 m. of the boundary of the
jurisdiction, and if properly backed by a local justice or officer in
any other part of the British islands (see SUMMARY JURISDICTION).
There is also a special provision as to executing warrants in the border
counties of England and Scotland. Under the Extradition Acts
and Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 provision is made for the issue of
warrants in aid of foreign and colonial justice; but the foreign and
colonial warrants have no force in the United Kingdom.
The word " warrant " is used as to a few judicial or quasi-judicial
matters of civil concern, e.g. warrant to arrest a ship in an admiralty
action in rent; and in the county courts warrants to the bailiffs of
the court are used where in the High Court a writ to the sheriff
would be issued, e.g. for attachment, execution, possession and de-
livery (see County Court Rules, 1903, scheduled forms). A warrant
of distress for rent issued by a landlord to a bailiff is sometimes
described as a private warrant, but it is in reality a peculiar quasi-
judicial remedy derived from feudal relations between lord and
vassal. Arrest in civil or quasi-civil proceedings is in certain cases
effected under warrant, e.g. where a bankrupt fails to obey orders
of the court for his attendance (Bankruptcy Act 1883, s. 25), and in
certain cases where justices have summary jurisdiction.
Financial and Commercial. Payment out of the treasury is
generally made upon warrant. Treasury warrants are regulated by
many of the acts dealing with the national debt.
Payment of dividends by trading corporations and companies is
generally made by means of dividend warrants. Mercantile warrants
are instruments giving a right to the delivery of goods, generally
those deposited at a dock or warehouse, and by mercantile custom
regarded as documents of title to the goods to which they relate.
They have been recognized by the legislature, especially in the
Factors Acts. Thus the interpretation clause of the Factors Act
1889 includes under the head cf documents of title, dock warrants
and warrants for the delivery of goods, and a fuller definition is given
by s. in of the Stamp Act 1891, which imposes on such documents
a stamp duty of 3d. Warrants of attorney are instruments authoriz-
ing an attorney to appear for the principal in an action and to consent
to judgment. They must now be attested by a solicitor and registered
in the Bill of Sale Office under the Debtors Act 1869. They are now
little used. The forgery of any warrant of this kind or of any
endorsement or assignment thereof is punishable under the Forgery
Act 1861.
Scotland. By art. xxiv. of the Articles of Union royal warrants
were to continue to be kept as before the union. The Secretary
for Scotland Act 1885 enabled the crown by royal warrant to appoint
the secretary to be vice-president of the Scotch Education Depart-
ment. The lord advocate's warrant runs throughout the whole
of Scotland. Warrants issued by courts of summary jurisdiction
agree in the main with those in use in England, though their names
are not the same (see SUMMARY JURISDICTION). There are numerous
statutory provisions as to warrants of other kinds. By the Debtors
(Scotland) Act 1838 (i & 2 Viet. c. 1 14) warrants for diligence, and to
charge the debtor under pain of imprisonment, may be inserted in
an extract of decree; and in a summons concluding for payment of
money a warrant to arrest the movables, debts and money of the
defender may be included. By the Court of Session Act 1868 (31 & 32
Viet. c. 100) a warrant of inhibition may be inserted in the will of
a summons. A crown writ is a warrant for infeftment (31 & 32
Viet. c. 101). The same act gives forms of warrants of registration.
The procedure of the sheriff court in its civil jurisdiction as to
warrants of citation is regulated by the Sheriff Courts (Scotland) Act
! 97 (7 Edw. VII. c. 51). The practice as to warrants of citation and
commitment in the High Court of Justiciary and the sheriff court
in its criminal jurisdiction now depends chiefly on the Criminal
Procedure Act 1887 (50 & 51 Viet. c. 35). The meditatio fugae
warrant is a judicial warrant on which imprisonment [may follow
until the debtor give cautio judicio sisli. It corresponds to some
extent to the writ ne exeat regno of English practice, but it may be
issued by a sheriff (i & 2 Viet. c. 119, s. 25). Another kind of
judicial warrant is a border warrant for arresting a debtor on the
English side of the border. The warrant of attorney is not known
in Scotland, its place being taken by the clause of registration,
which is not avoided by the death of the person giving it.
United States. By the constitutions of the United States and
of almost all the states, warrants are not to issue but upon probable
cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing
the place to be searched and the persons or thing to be seized. These
provisions have been held not to mean that there shall be no arrest
without warrant, but to confine the right of arrest to circumstances
similar to those which justify it in English law. The constitutions
of some states forbid general warrants. A warrant is generally
necessary lor the payment of money out of the United States or a
state treasury. (W. F. C.)
WARRANT OF ATTORNEY. A warrant of attorney to confess
judgment is a security for money (now practically obsolete) in
the form of an authority to a solicitor named by a creditor,
empowering him to sign judgment in an action against the
debtor for the sum due, with a defeasance, or clause that the
warrant shall not be put into force in case of due payment of
the money secured. It was often used as a collateral security,
either for the payment of an annuity or with mortgages, in
WARRANT-OFFICERWARREN, G. K.
329
order that the mortgagee, by entering up judgment, might obtain
priority in the administration of the assets of the mortgagor.
The Debtors Act 1869 contained various provisions for making
known to the debtor the extent of the liability incurred by him,
among others that the warrant must be executed in the presence
of a solicitor named by the debtor, and that it and the defeasance
must be written on the same paper. A warrant of attorney
must be duly stamped, generally as a mortgage (?..), and must
be registered as a judgment in the central office of the Supreme
Court.
WARRANT-OFFICER, in the British navy, the name given
to officers who rank next to those who hold commissions, being
appointed by warrant. They include the master, purser, surgeon,
gunner, boatswain and carpenter, the first thre being of " ward-
room rank," i.e. messing with the lieutenants. In the military
forces a warrant-officer is appointed by a secretary of state's
warrant, and ranks below the commissioned officers and above
the non-commissioned officers. A warrant-officer often holds
an honorary commission.
WARRANTY, etymologically, another form of GUARANTEE
(q.v.). It is used, however, in a rather different sense. The
sense common to both words is that of a collateral contract,
under which responsibility for an act is incurred, and for the
breach of which an action for damages lies. Warranty generally
expresses the responsibib'ty of the person doing the act, guarantee
the responsibility of some other person on his behalf. A warranty
may be defined, in the words of Lord Abinger, as " an express
or implied statement of something which the party undertakes
shall be part of the contract, and, though part of the contract,
collateral to the express object of it " (Chanter v. Hopkins, 1838,
4 M. & W. 404). It differs from a condition in that a condition
forms the basis of the contract and a breach of it discharges
from the contract, and from a representation in that the latter
does not affect the contract unless made a part of it expressly,
or by implication as in contracts of insurance and other contracts
uberrimae fidei, or unless it be fraudulent. These distinctions
are not always accurately maintained. Thus in the Real Property
Act 1845, 4, condition seems to be used for warranty.
Warranty as it affected the law of real property was, before the
passing of the Real Property Limitation Act 1833 and the Fines
and Recoveries Act 1833, a matter of the highest importance. A
warranty in a conveyance was a covenant real annexed to an estate
of freehold, and either expressed in a clause of warranty or implied
in cases where a feudal relation might exist between feoffor and
feoffee. The warranty, as described by Littleton, 697, was an
outgrowth of feudalism, and something very like it is to be found
in the Liber Feudorum. At the time of Glanvill the heir was bound
to warrant the reasonable donations of his ancestor. Warranty was
one of the elements in Bracton's definition of homage, 786, ' juris
vinculum quo quis astringitur ad warrantizandum defendendum et
acquietandum tenentem suum in seisina versus omnes." For an
express warranty the word warrantizo or warrant was necessary.
The word " give " implied a warranty, as did an exchange and
certain kinds of partition. In order to bind heirs a clause of warranty
was required. This was either lineal, collateral or commencing by
disseisin. The differences between the three kinds were very
technical, and depended on abstruse and obsolete learning. They
are treated at great length in old works on real property, especially
Coke upon Littleton by Butler, 3646. The feoffor or his heirs were
bound by voucher to warranty or judgment in a writ of warrantia
chartae to yield other lands to the feoffee in case of the eviction of the
latter. Vouching to warranty was a part of the old fictitious pro-
ceedings in a common recovery in use for the purpose of barring an
entail before the Fines and Recoveries Act. Warranty of this nature,
as far as it relates to the conveyance of real estate, though not
actually abolished in all possible cases, is now superseded by cove-
nants for title. The more usual of these are now by the Conveyanc-
ing Act 1 88 1 deemed to be implied in conveyances. For the implied
warranties of title and quality see SALE OF GOODS. Vouching to
warranty was at one time important in the law of personality as
well as of reality. The procedure is fully described in Glanvill.
The right of calling on the holder of lost or stolen goods to vouch
to warranty (interciare), i.e. to give up the name of the person
from whom he received them, under pain of forfeiture, was often
granted under the name of theam as a local franchise. Warranty,
as it exists at present in the law of personality, is either express or
implied. There is no general rule as to what constitutes a warranty.
It is not necessary that an express warranty should be in writing,
the law being that every affirmation at the time of sale of personal
chattels is a warranty, provided that it appears to have been so
intended. The principal cases of implied warranty occur in the
contracts of sale and insurance. There is also an implied warranty
in other kinds of contract, e.g. of seaworthiness by the shipowner in
a contract between him and a charterer for the hire of a ship. In
all cases of implied warranty the warranty may be excluded by the
special terms of .the contract. For breach of warranty an action
may be brought directly, or the breach may be used as'ground for
a counter claim or for reduction of damages, but the breach will not
in the case of a warranty proper entitle the person suffering by it to
a rescission of the contract. Thus in a sale the property passes
although the warranty be broken. In some cases warranties on sale
are the subject of statutory enactments, as the Merchandise Marks
Acts and the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts. In some other acts,
such as the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, the term warranty does not
occur, but the practical effect is the same.
Scotland. The term corresponding to warranty in the law of
heritable property is " warrandice." Warranty, strictly speaking,
seems confined to movables. Warrandice appears early in Scots
law, the heir by Regiam Majestatem being bound to warrant the
reasonable donations of his ancestor. Warrandice in the existing
law is either real or personal. Real warrandice is that whereby
warrandice lands are made over, as indemnity for those conveyed,
to assure the person to whom they were conveyed from loss by the
appearance of a superior title. Real warrandice is implied in ex-
cambion. Its effect is that the excamber, in case of eviction, may
recover possession of his original lands. This is not in accordance
with the English law in exchange. Personal warrandice is either
express or implied. There is an implied warrandice in every onerous
deed, and an absolute warrandice presumes an onerous consideration.
Express warrandice is either simple, against the future acts of the
vendor, from fact and deed, against acts whether past or future, or
absolute, or against all deadly, that is, on any ground existing before
the sale. A clause of warrandice is the Scottish equivalent of the
English covenants for title. By the Titles to Land Consolidation
(Scotland) Amendment Act 1869 a clause of warrandice in the form
given in the schedule to the act imports absolute warrandice as regards
the lands and the title-deeds thereof, and warrandice from fact and
deed as regards the rents.
United States. Warranty in conveyances of real estate is expressly
abolished by statute in many states. In some states warranty
is implied on the transfer and indorsement of negotiable instru-
ments, a. w.)
WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE (1830-1882), American
soldier, was born at Coldspring, New York, on the 8th of January
1830, and entered West Point in 1846, graduating in 1850. He
was assigned to the engineers, and for several years was employed
in survey work in the West, where he took part in sotne expedi-
tions against the Indians. In 1859 he was made assistant
instructor in mathematics at West Point. But two years later,
at the outbreak of the Civil War, the scientific subaltern was
made lieutenant-colonel of volunteers and posted to the newly
raised sth New York Volunteer Infantry. He was fully equal
to the task, for his regiment was very soon brought into a state
of marked efficiency. In August he was promoted colonel.
He commanded a brigade of the V. corps at Gaines's Mill, Second
Bull Run and Antietam, and was shortly afterwards promoted
brigadier-general of Volunteers. During the Fredericksburg
campaign he was on the engineer staff of the Army of
the Potomac, but after Chancellorsville he was appointed chief
of engineers in that army, and in that capacity rendered brilliant
servicesat Gettysburg (q.v.), his reward being promotion to major-
general U.S.V. and the brevet of colonel in the regular army.
When the Army of the Potomac was reorganized in the spring
of 1864 Warren returned to the V. corps as its commander.
His services in the Wilderness (q.v.) and Petersburg (q.v.)
campaigns proved his fitness for this large and responsible
command, but his naturally lively imagination and the
engineer's inbred habit of caution combined to make him a
brilliant but somewhat unsafe subordinate. He would have
become one of the great chiefs of staff of history, or even a
successful army commander, but he sometimes failed where a
less highly gifted man would have succeeded. He was at his
best when the military situation depended on his exercising
his initiative, as on the first day in the Wilderness, in which his
action saved the army, at his worst when, as on the icth of May
before Spottsylvania, he was ordered to attempt the impossible.
On the latter occasion both Grant and Meade threatened to
relieve him of his command, and Humphreys, the chief of staff
of the army, was actually sent to control the movements of the
V. corps. Similar incidents took place in the later stages of
330
WARREN, SIR J. B. WARREN, S.
the campaign, and at last, at the critical moment preceding the
battle of Five Forks, Sheridan, who was in chaige of the opera-
tions, was authorized by Grant to relieve Warren of his command
if he thought fit. The thoughtful Warren and the eager, violent
Sheridan were ill-matched. At the outset the V. corps, being
no longer composed of the solid troops of 1862 and 1863, fell
into confusion, which Warren exerted himself to remedy, and
in the event the battle was an important Union victory. But
after it had ended Sheridan sent for Warren and, with no attempt
to soften the blow, relieved him of his command. A court of
inquiry was subsequently held, which entirely exonerated
Warren from the reckless charges of apathy, almost of cowardice,
which Sheridan brought against him. Shortly after Five Forks
Warren resigned his volunteer commission, and received the
brevet of brigadier-general in the regular army. After the
war he was employed, in the substantive rank of major (1879
lieutenant-colonel) of engineers, in survey work and harbour
improvements. General Warren died on the 8th of August
1882 at Newport, R.I. A statue to his memory was erected at
Round Top, on the field of Gettysburg, on the sixth anniversary
of his death.
WARREN, SIR JOHN BORLASE, BART. (1753-1822), English
admiral, was born at Stapleford, Nottinghamshire, on the and
of September 1753, being the son and heir of John Boriase
Warren (d. 1775) of Stapleford and Little Marlow. He was
educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and in 1771 entered
the navy as an able seaman; in 1774 he became member of
parliament for Marlow; and in 1775 he was created a baronet,
the baronetcy held by his ancestors, the Borlases, having become
extinct in 1689. His career as a seaman really began in 1777,
and two years later he obtained command of a ship. In April
1794, in charge of a squadron of frigates, Warren captured
three French frigates, and in similar ways he did excellent
service for some time in protecting British trade. In 1796
he is said to have captured or destroyed 220 vessels. Perhaps
his best deed in the service was the defeat in October 1798 of a
French fleet, carrying 5000 men, which it was intended to land in
Ireland, a plan which he completely frustrated. In 1802 he was
sent to St Petersburg as ambassador extraordinary, but he did
not forsake the sea, and in 1806 he captured a large French war-
ship, the " Marengo." He became an admiral in 1810, and was
commander-in-chief on the North American station in 1813-
1814. He died on the 27th of February 1822. His two sons
predeceased their father, and his daughter and heiress, Frances
Maria (1784-1837), married George Charles Venables-Vernon,
4th Lord Vernon (1779-1835). Their son was George John
Warren Vernon, sth Lord Vernon (1803-1866).
WARREN, JOSEPH (1741-1775), American politician, was
born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the nth of June 1741.
He graduated from Harvard College in 1759, taught in a school
at Roxbury in 1760-1761, studied medicine, and began to
practise in Boston in 1764. The Stamp Act agitation aroused
his interest in public questions. He soon became associated
with Samuel Adams, John Adams and Josiah Quincy, Jr., as a
leader of the popular party, and contributed articles and letters
to the Boston Gazette over the signature " True Patriot." The
efforts of Samuel Adams to secure the appointment of committees
of correspondence met with his hearty support, and he and
Adams were the two leading members of the first Boston com-
mittee of correspondence, chosen in 1772. As chairman of a
committee appointed for the purpose, he drafted the famous
" Suffolk Resolves," which were unanimously adopted by a
convention at Milton (q.v.) on the gth of September 1 7 74. These
" resolves " urged forcible opposition to Great Britain if it should
prove to be necessary, pledged submission to such measures
as the Continental Congress might recommend, and favoured
the calling of a provincial congress. Warren was a member
of the first three provincial congresses (1774-1775), president
of the third, and an active member of the committee of public
safety. He took an active part in the fighting on the igth
of April, was appointed major-general of the Massachusetts
troops, next in rank to Artenias Ward, on the I4th of June
1775; and three days later, before his commission was made out,
he took part as a volunteer, under the orders of Putnam and
Prescott, in the battle of Bunker Hill (Breed's Hill), where he
was killed. Next to the Adamses, Warren was the most in-
fluential leader of the extreme Whig faction in Massachusetts.
His tragic death strengthened their zeal for" the popular cause
and helped to prepare the way for the acceptance of the Declara-
tion of Independence. Warren's speeches are typical examples
of the old style of American political eloquence. His best-
known orations were those delivered in Old South Church on
the second and fifth anniversaries (1772 and 1775) of the " Boston
Massacre."
The standard biography is Richard Frothingham's Life and Times
of Joseph Warren (Boston, 1865).
WARREN, MERCY (1728-1814), American writer, sister of
James Otis (?.f.), was born at Barnstable, Mass., and in 1754
married James Warren (1726-1808) of Plymouth Mass., a college
friend of her brother. Her literary inclinations were fostered
by both these men, and she began early to write poems and
prose essays. As member of the Massachusetts House of Rep-
resentatives (1766-1774) and its speaker (1776-1777 and
1787-1788), member (1774 and 1775) and president (1775)
of the Provincial Congress, and paymaster-general in 1775,
James Warren took a leading part in the events of the American
revolutionary period, and his wife followed its progress with
keen interest. Her gifts of satire were utilized in her political
dramas, The Adulator (1773) and The Group (1775); and John
Adams, whose wife Abigail was Mercy Warren's close friend,
encouraged her to further efforts. Her tragedies, " The Sack of
Rome " and " The Ladies of Castile," were included in her Poems,
Dramatic and Miscellaneous (i 790) , dedicated to General Washing-
ton. Apart from their historical interest among the beginnings
of American literature, Mercy Warren's poems have no permanent
value. In 1805 she published a History of the American Revolu-
tion, which was coloured by somewhat outspoken personal
criticism and was bitterly resented by John Adams (see his
correspondence, published by the Massachusetts Historical
Society, 1878). James Warren died in 1808, and his wife followed
him on the igth of October 1814.
See Elizabeth F. Ellet, Women of the Revolution (1856; new ed.,
1900) ; an article by Annie Russell Marble in the New England Mag-
azine (April 1903); Alice Brown, Mercy Warren (New York, 1896).
WARREN, MINTON (1850-1907), American classical scholar,
was born at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, on the 2Qth of January
1850, a descendant of Richard Warren, who sailed in the " May-
flower " in 1620. He was educated at Tufts College and sub-
sequently at Yale. After three years as a schoolmaster, he went
to Germany to complete his studies in comparative philology
and especially in Latin language and literature. Having taken
the degree of doctor of philosophy at Strassburg in 1879, he
returned to the United States as Latin professor at Johns
Hopkins University. In 1899 he was appointed Latin professor
at Harvard. His life-work was a new edition of Terence, which,
however, he left unfinished at his death. He was director of
the American School of Classical Studies in Rome (1897-1899),
and president of the American Philological Association (1898).
Among his publications are: " Enclitic Ne in Early Latin "
(Strassburg dissert., reprinted in Amer. Journ. of Philol., 1881);
On Latin Glossaries, with especial reference to the Codex Sangal-
lensis (St Gall Glossary) (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1885); The Stele
Inscription in the Roman Forum (Amer. Journ. of Philol., vol.
xxviii. No. 3, and separately in 1908). He died on the 26th
of November 1907.
See Harvard Magazine (Jan. 1908) and W. M. Lindsay in Classical
Review (Feb. 1908).
WARREN, SAMUEL (1807-1877), English lawyer and author,
son of Dr Samuel Warren, rector of All Souls', Ancoats, Man-
chester, was born near Wrexham in Denbighshire on the 23rd
of May 1807. The elder Samuel Warren (1781-1862) became a
Wesleyan minister, but was expelled by Conference in 1835 on
account of his attitude towards proposals for the establishment
of a theological training college at Manchester. He formed a
WARREN, W. WARRENSBURG
33 1
new association, the members of which were nicknamed Warren-
nid this developed into the United Methodist Free Churches.
Warren himself took orders in the Church of England. His son,
the younger Samuel Warren, studied medicine at the University
of Edinburgh, but abandoned this to study for the English bar.
utered the Inner Temple in 1828, and was successful in
his profession. He took silk in 1851, was made recorder of Hull
in 1852, represented Midhurst in parliament for three years
(1856-1859) and was rewarded in 1859 with a mastership in
lunacy. He had already' written a good deal on the subject of
insanity in its legal aspects, and he was always a determined
opponent of the rising school of medical alienists vfho were
more and more in favour of reducing certain forms of crime to a
state of mental aberration which should not be punished outside
of asylums. Meantime he had made much more brilliant success
in fiction. Very early in his career he had begun to write for
Blackwood. His Passages Jrom the Diary of a Late Physician
\MTO published in that magazine between August 1830 and
August 1837, and appeared in collected form in 1838. These
tic short stories, with a somewhat morbid interest shielded
under a moral purpose, were extremely popular. Warren's
brief experience as a medical student thus stood him in good
! . But his great success was Ten Thousand a Year, which
ran in Blackwood from October 1839 to August 1841, and was
published separately immediately on its conclusion. Critics
complained of the coarse workmanship, the banality of the
moralizing, the crudeness of the pathos, the farcical extravagance
of the humour; but meantime the work proved one of the most
popular novels of the century. Of the higher qualities of imagina-
tion and passion Warren was destitute, but his sketches of
character, especially farcical character Tittlebat Titmouse,
Oily Gammon, Mr Quicksilver (an open caricature of Lord
Brougham) are bold and strong, forcibly imprinted on the
memory, and the interest of the story is made to run with a
powerful current. For several years Warren was known as the
author of Ten Thousand a Year, and many tales were told of
his open pride in the achievement. In 1847 he made another
venture, but Now and Then was not a success. The Lily and the
Bee, a squib on the Crystal Palace, published in 1851, though it
had the honour of translation into Italian, was a signal failure.
A pessimistic dissertation on The Intellectual and Moral Develop-
ment of the Age, published in 1853, also fell flat, and thenceforth
Warren, after publishing his Works: Critical and Imaginative,
in four volumes in 1854, retired on his laurels. He died in
London on the 29th of July 1877.
Warren also wrote several legal works of repute Introduction to
Law Studies (1835), Extracts from Blackstone (1837), Manual of
Parliamentary Law (1852).
WARREN, WILLIAM (1812-1888), American actor, was born
in Philadelphia on the i7th of November 1812, the son of an
English actor (1767-1832) of the same name. His first stage
appearance was made there as Young Norval in Home's Douglas
in 1832. A dozen years of wandering theatrical life followed,
giving him a wide experience in every kind of part, the last few
in comedy in a company headed by his brother-in-law, J. B. Rice.
In 1846 he made his first appearance in Boston as Sir Lucius
O'Trigger in The Rivals at the Howard Athenaeum, and in the
next season he became a member of the Boston Museum, in
which stock company he remained for thirty-five years. Here
he held his " Golden Jubilee " on the 28th of October 1882.
He died on the 2ist of September 1888.
WARREN, a city and the county-seat of Trumbull county,
Ohio, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the Mahoning river,
about 50 m. S.E. of Cleveland, and 14 m. N.W. of Youngstown.
Pop. (1890) 5973, (1900) 8529(1161 foreign-born); (1910) 11,081.
Warren is served by the Erie, the Pennsylvania, and the Balti-
more & Ohio railways. The city has a public library and a
hospital. The surrounding country is devoted to farming,
dairying and coal and iron mining. The total value of the
factory products in 1905 was $2,414,379. The first permanent
white settlement on the site of Warren (then owned by Connecti-
cut) was made in 1799 by settlers from Washington county,
Pennsylvania. Warren was named in honour of a surveyor
Moses Warren, of New Lyme, Connecticut employed by the
Connecticut Land Company, which sold the land to the first
settlers. The county was named in honour of Governor Jonathan
Trumbull of Connecticut. Warren was chartered as a city in
1834. For several years before September 1909 Warren was
the national headquarters of the National American Woman's
Suffrage Association.
See History of Trumbull and Mahoning Counties (2 vols., Cleveland,
Ohio, 1882), and H. T. Upton, History of Trumbull County (Chicago,
1909).
WARREN, a borough and the county-seat of Warren county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the N. side of the Allegheny river at
the mouth of the Conewango river, about 35 m. N.E. of Titus-
ville. Pop. (1880) 2810; (1890) 4332; (1900) 8043, of whom
1529 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,080. The foreign
element is largely Swedish, Danish and Slavish. Warren is
served by the Pennsylvania and the Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley
& Pittsburg railways, and by electric railway to Jamestown,
New York. Among the public buildings and institutions are
the county court house, a state hospital for the insane (established
1873), a Y.M.C.A. building and a state armoury. Warren is
situated at the southern foot of a high sheer ridge, in a region
rich in oil and natural gas; the borough ships and refines oil,
and has various manufactures. The total value of its factory
product in 1905 was $5,976,905 (62-4% more than in 1900),
of which $3,038,894 was the value of refined oil and $1,220,165
the value of foundry and machine-shop products. The borough
owns and operates the water-works and the electric lighting plant.
The town site of Warren was laid out by commissioners appointed
by Governor Thomas Mifllin in 1795, and Warren was incorpor-
ated as a borough in 1832; it was named in honour of Joseph
Warren, the American patriot. In 1895 part of Glade township
was annexed.
See J. S.'Schenck and W. S. Rann, History of Warren County,
Pennsylvania (Syracuse, N.Y., 1887).
WARREN, properly an old term of the English forest law,
derived from the O. Fr. warenne, varenne, garenne (med. Lat.
warenna, warir, to guard, cf. " ward "), and applied to one of
the three lesser franchises, together with " chase " and " park,"
included under the highest franchise, the " forest," and ranking
last in order of importance. The " beasts of warren " were the
hare, the coney (i.e. rabbit), the pheasant and the partridge.
The word thus became used of a piece of ground preserved for
these beasts of warren. It is now applied loosely to any piece
of ground, whether preserved or not, where rabbits breed (see
FOREST LAWS).
WARRENPOINT, a seaport and watering-place of county
Down, Ireland, the terminus of a branch of the Great Northern
railway, by which it is 50! m. S.S.W. of Belfast. Pop. (1901)
1817. It lies on the northern shore of the beautiful Carlingford
Lough; behind it rise the Mourne Mountains, while across the
lough are the Carlingford Hills, with Slieve Gullion. These
hills afford shelter from inclement winds, and give Warrenpoint
and other neighbouring watering-places on the lough a climate
which renders them as popular in winter as in summer. There
is a quay here where large vessels can discharge, and agricultural
produce is exported. The shores of the lough are studded with
country seats lying picturesquely on the well- wooded hill slopes;
and nearly 3 m. E. of Warrenpoint (connected by tramway)
is Rosstrevor, one of the most noted watering-places in Ireland,
charmingly situated in a position open to the sea, but enclosed
on the north and east.
WARRENSBURG, a city and the county-seat of Johnson
county, Missouri, U.S.A., on a hilly site near the Blackwater
Fork of the La Mine river, in the west central part of the state,
about 65 m. S.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 4706; (1900)
4724, including 556 negroes and 127 foreign-born; (IQIO) 4680.
It is served by the Missouri Pacific railway. The city is the seat
of a state normal school (opened in 1872), and among the pro-
minent buildings are the court house and the railway station,
both built of local sandstone. Pertle Springs, about lira. S.,
332
WARRINGTON WARRISTON, LORD
is a summer resort. Warrensburg is a shipping and supply
point for a rich farming region. In the immediate vicinity
there are extensive quarries of a blue sandstone, one of the best
building stones of the state. Warrensburg was made the county-
seat in 1836. Its settlement dates from a little earlier. The
present city is not on the site of the original settlement, but
is near it; the old town was abandoned in 1857, when the railway
passed by it. During the Civil War Warrensburg was a Union
post.
WARRINGTON, a market town and municipal, county and
parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England, on the river
Mersey, midway between Manchester and Liverpool, and 182
m. N.W. by N. from London by the London & North-Western
railway. Pop. (1891) 52,288; (1901) 64,242. It has extensive
local connexions by way of the Cheshire lines. The church of
St Elphin is a fine cruciform building with lofty central tower
and spire. The style is Decorated, but restoration has been
heavy. A much earlier church formerly occupied the site, and
of this the crypt remains beneath the existing chancel. The town
hall, a classical building of the i8th century, was formerly a
residence, and was purchased by the corporation in 1872, while
the park in which it stands was devoted to public use. The
other chief buildings are the museum and free library, with
technical institute and the market hall. The educational
institutions include a free grammar school, founded by one of
the Boteler family in 1526, and a blue-coat school (1665). A
few half -timbered houses of the I7th century remain in the
streets. A wide system of electric tramways and district light
railways is maintained by the borough. Warrington and the
neighbourhood are an important centre of the tanning industry.
There are also iron bar, hoop and wire works, tool, soap, glass
and chemical works, foundries and cotton mills. Considerable
agricultural markets and fairs are held. The parliamentary
borough (1832), returning one member, extends into Cheshire.
The town was incorporated in 1847, and the corporation consists
of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 27 councillors. Area 3058 acres.
Warrington (otherwise Walintune, Werinton, Werington)
is supposed to be of British origin, and the great Roman road
from Chester to the north passed through it. There was a
Romano-British village perhaps also a military post at
Wilderspool. It is mentioned in Domesday Book as the head
of a hundred. After the Conquest it became one of the possessions
of Roger de Poictou. In Henry I.'s reign a barony was formed
for Pain de Vilars, of which Warrington was the head and to
which it gave the name, and from that family both manor and
barony passed to the Botelers or Butlers, who first established
their residence on the mote hill and before 1280 built Bewsey
in Burton wood. The Butlers held both barony and manor till
1586, when the barony lapsed and the manor passed after some
vicissitudes to the Irelands of Bewsey, then to the Booths and
in 1769 to the Blackburns. In 1255 William le Boteler obtained
a charter from Henry III. for an annual fair to last three days
from the eve of St Thomas the Martyr (i8th July). In 1277
Edward I. granted a charter for a weekly market on Friday
and an annual fair of eight days beginning on the eve of St
Andrew (soth Nov.), and in 1285 another charter changing the
market day from Friday to Wednesday and extending the summer
fair to eight days. The market and fairs had, however, existed
before the granting of these charters. Blome in 1673 speaks
of Warrington market as an important one " for linen cloth,
corn, cattle, provisions and fish, being much resorted to by the
Welshmen," and in 1730 Defoe says the market was especially
famous for " a sort of table -linen called Huk-a-back or Huk-a-
buk." The fairs are still held, as well as the Wednesday chartered
market, besides a Saturday market which is probably customary.
In the i8th and early igth centuries the chief industries were
huckabacks and coarse cloths, canvas, fustians, pins, glass,
sugar-refining and copper. During the Civil War the inhabitants
embraced the royalist cause and the earl of Derby occupied the
town and made it for some time his headquarters in order to secure
the passage of the Mersey. In April 1643 the parliamentary
forces attacked it, but had to raise the siege, as Lord Derby
began to set the town on fire. Lord Derby left Colonel Edward
Norris in command and in May the parliamentarians again
attacked the town, which was forced to surrender after a six
days' siege owing to lack of provisions. In 1 648, after the royalist
defeat at Winwick by Cromwell, part of the royal forces under
General Baillie rallied at Warrington, hoping to effect the passage
of the bridge, but failed, and the general with 4000 men capitu-
lated. In August 1659 Sir George Booth, lord of the manor,
was defeated at Winnington, and part of his forces surrendered
at Warrington to the parliamentary garrison. During the
Rebellion of 1745, on the approach of Prince Charles' Edward
from Manchester, the bridge was cut down and the few stragglers
who ventured that way seized. A borough was created by
William le Boteler about 1230 by a charter which has not been
preserved; but its growing strength alarmed the lord who
contrived to repress it before 1300, and for over 500 years
Warrington was governed by the lord's manor court. A charter
of incorporation was granted in 1847. By the Reform Act of
1832 the town returns one member to parliament. The church
dedicated to St Elphin is mentioned in Domesday Book, and
was in early times head of the ancient deanery of Warrington.
There was a friary of Augustine or Hermit Friars here founded
apparently about 1280.
WARRISTON, ARCHIBALD JOHNSTON, LORD (1611-1663),
Scottish judge and statesman, son of James Johnstone (d. 1617),
a merchant burgess of Edinburgh, was baptized on the 28th of
March 1611, educated at Glasgow, and passed advocate at the
Scottish bar in 1633. He first came into public notice in 1637,
during the attempt of Charles I. to force the English liturgy
upon Scotland, when as the chief adviser of the Covenanting
leaders he drew up their remonstrances. On the 28th of February
1638, in reply to a royal proclamation, he read to an enormous
multitude assembled in Greyfriars churchyard at Edinburgh
and in presence of the heralds, a strong protestation, and together
with Alexander Henderson was a principal author of the National
Covenant of 1638, drawing up himself the second part, which
consisted in a recapitulation of all the acts of parliament con-
demning " popery " and asserting the liberties of the Scottish
church. He was appointed clerk to the tables, and also clerk
and afterwards procurator or counsel to the general assembly
held at Glasgow the same year, when he was the means of restor-
ing several missing volumes of records. In June 1639 he took
part in the negotiations leading to the treaty of Berwick, when
his firm attitude was extremely displeasing to the king. He
urged Charles to refrain from annulling the acts of the assembly
since this would restrict all future assemblies, to which Charles
replied " that the devil himself could not make a more uncharit-
able construction or give a more bitter expression," and on
Johnston's continuing his speech ordered him to be silent and
declared he would speak to more reasonable men. 1 In August he
read a paper before the Scottish parliament, strongly condemning
its prorogation. In the following year he was appointed to attend
the general of the army and the committee, and on the 23rd of
June, when the Scottish forces were preparing to invade England,
he wrote to Lord Savile asking for definite support from the
leading opposition peers in England and their acceptance of the
National Covenant, which drew from the other side at first nothing
but vague assurances and subsequently the engagement forged
by Lord Savile with the signatures of the peers. In October
he was a commissioner for negotiating the treaty of Ripon and
went to London. He continued after the peace to urge the
punishment of the incendiaries, and especially of Traquair,
and in a private interview with the king strongly opposed the
proposed act of general oblivion. On the king's arrival in Scotland
in 1641 he led the opposition on the important constitutional
point of the control of state appointments, supporting the
claims of the parliament by an appeal to the state records, which
he had succeeded in recovering.
In September Johnston received public thanks for his services
from the Scottish parliament, and, in accordance with the policy
of conciliation then pursued for a short time by the king, was
1 Johnston's " Diary " in Scottish Hist. Soc. Publ., xxvi. 84,
WARRNAMBOOL
333
appointed on the I3th of November 1641 a lord of session, with
the title of Lord Warriston (a name derived from an estate
purchased by him near Edinburgh in 1636), was knighted, and
wus given a pension of 200 a year. The same month he was
appointed a commissioner at Westminster by the parliament
for settling the affairs of Scotland. He was a chief agent in
concluding the treaty with the English parliament in the autumn
of 1643, and was appointed a member of the committee of both
kingdoms in London which directed the military operations, and
in this capacity went on several missions to the parliamentary
generals. He took his seat early in 1644 in the Assembly of
Divines, to which he had been nominated, and vehemently
opposed measures tolerating independency or giving powers to
laymen in ecclesiastical affairs. The articles of the unsuccessful
treaty of Uxbridge were, for the most part, drawn up by him
the same year. Besides his public duties in England he sat in
the Scottish parliament for the county of Edinburgh from 1643
till 1647, was speaker of the barons, and served on various
committees. After the final defeat of Charles, when he had
surrendered himself to the Scots, Johnston was made in October
1646 king's advocate, and the same year was voted 3000 by
the estates for his services. He continued to oppose unwise
concessions to Charles, and strongly disapproved of the " engage-
ment " concluded in 1648 by the predominant party with Charles
at Carisbrooke, which, while securing little for Presbyterianism,
committed the Scots to hostilities with the followers of Cromwell.
He now became the leader of the " remonstrants," the party
opposed to the "engagement," and during the ascendancy of
the engagers retired to Cantyre as the guest of Argyll. He
returned again after the Whiggamore Raid, 1 met Cromwell at
Edinburgh in October after the defeat of the engagers at Preston,
and in conjunction with Argyll promoted the act of Classes,
passed on the 23rd of January 1649, disqualifying the royalists.
The good relations now farmed with Cromwell, however, were
soon broken off by the king's execution, and Johnston was
present officially at the proclamation of Charles II. as king at
Edinburgh, on the 5th of February 1649. On the loth of March
he was appointed lord clerk register. In May he pronounced
the vindictive sentence on Montrose, and he is said to have
witnessed with Argyll the victim being drawn to the place of
execution. He was present at the battle of Dunbar (3rd of
September 1650) as a member of the committee of estates,
to which body is ascribed the responsibility for Leslie's fatal
abandonment of his position on Doon Hill. After the defeat
he urged the removal of David Leslie, afterwards Lord Newark,
from the command, and on the 2ist of September delivered a
violent speech in Charles's presence, attributing all the late
misfortunes to the Stuarts and to their opposition to the
Reformation.
His first object in life being the defence of Presbyterianism,
Johnston could join neither of the two great parties, and now
committed himself to the faction of the remonstrants who
desired to exclude the king , in opposition to the resolutioners who
accepted Charles. The latter for some time maintained their
superiority in the kingdom, Johnston being reduced to poverty
and neglect. In the autumn of 1656 Johnston went to London
as representative of the remonstrants; and soon afterwards,
on the 9th of July 1657, he was restored by Cromwell to his
office of lord clerk register, and on the 3rd of November was
appointed a commissioner for the administration of justice
in Scotland, henceforth remaining a member of the government
till the Restoration. In January 1658 he was included by
Cromwell in his new House of Lords, and sat also in the upper
chamber in Richard Cromwell's parliament. On the latter's
abdication and the restoration of the Rump, he was chosen a
member of the council of state, and continued in the administra-
1 This was the name given to a successful raid on Edinburgh by
a band of Argyll's partisans gathered mainly from the west of
Scotland. It took place in September 1648, just after the defeat of
Hamilton at Preston. The term Whiggamore is said to be derived
from Whiggam, a word used by the ploughmen in the west of Scotland
to encourage their horses. See S. R. Gardiner, Great Civil War,
vol. iii. (1891).
tion as a member of the committee of public safety, maintaining
consistently his attitude against religious toleration. At the
Restoration he was singled out for punishment. He avoided
capture, escaping to Holland and thence to Germany, and was
condemned to death in his absence on the i3th of May 1661.
In 1663, having ventured into France, he was discovered at
Rouen, and with the consent of Louis XIV. was brought over
and imprisoned in the Tower of London. In June he was taken
to Edinburgh and confined in the Tolbooth. He was hanged
on the 22nd of July at the Market Cross, Edinburgh, the scene
of many of his triumphs, and a few yards from his own house
in High Street, which stood on the east side of what is now known
as Warriston's Close. His head was exposed on the Netherbow
and afterwards buried with his body in Greyfriars churchyard.
Johnston was a man of great energy, industry and ability,
and the successful defence of their religion by the Scots was
probably owing to him more than to any other man. He is
described by his contemporary Robert Baillie as " one of the
most faithful and diligent and able servants that our church
and kingdom has had all the tymes of our troubles." 1 He was
learned in the Scottish law, eloquent and deeply religious. His
passionate devotion to the cause of the Scottish church amounted
almost to fanaticism. According to the History by his nephew
Bishop Burnet, " he looked on the Covenant as the setting
Christ on his throne." He had by nature no republican leanings;
" all the Royalists in Scotland," writes Baillie as late as 1646,
" could not have pleaded so much for the crown and the king's
just power as the chancellor and Warriston did for many days
together." When, however, Presbyterianism was attacked
and menaced by the sovereign, he desired, like Pym, to restrict
the royal prerogative by a parliamentary constitution, and
endeavoured to found his arguments on law and ancient pre-
cedents. His acceptance of office under Cromwell hardly
deserves the severe censure it has received. He stood nearer
both in politics and religion to Cromwell than to the royalists,
and was able in office to serve usefully the state and the church,
but his own scrupulous conscience caused him to condemn
in his dying speech, as a betrayal of the cause of Presbyterianism,
an act which he regarded as a moral fault committed in order
to provide for his numerous family, and the remembrance of
which disturbed his last hours. Johnston was wanting in tact
and in consideration for his opponents, confessing himself that
his " natural temper (or rather distemper) hath been hasty
and passionate." He was hated by Charles I., whose statecraft
was vanquished by his inflexible purpose, and by Charles II.,
whom he rebuked for his dissolute conduct; but he was beloved
by Baillie, associated in private friendship and public life with
Argyll, and lamented by the nation whose cause he had
championed.
He had a large family, the most famous of his sons being James
Johnston (1655-1737), called " secretary Johnston." Having
taken refuge in Holland after his father's execution, Johnston
crossed over to England in the interests of William of Orange
just before the revolution of 1688. In 1692 he was appointed
one of the secretaries for Scotland, but he was dismissed
from office in 1696. Under Anne, however, he began again
to take part in public affairs, and was made lord clerk register.
Johnston's later years were passed mainly at his residence,
Orleans House, Twickenham, and he died at Bath in May 1737.
See W. Morison, Johnston of Warriston (1901).
WARRNAMBOOL, a seaport of Villiers county, Victoria, Aus-
tralia, 166 m. by rail W.S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 6410.
The town lies on an eminence, on the shores of Warrnambool Bay,
in a rich pastoral and agricultural district. Race meetings are
held here, and the steeplechase course is considered the finest in
the colony. Warrnambool has a fine port with a viaduct and
breakwater pier 2400 ft. in length, and a jetty 860 ft. in length,
on to which the railway runs. Large quantities of dairy produce,
wool and live stock are exported; and there are a number of
flourishing industries in the town, including brewing, flour-
milling, tanning and boot and biscuit manufacturing. Sandstone
* Baillie, Letters and Journals (Bannatyne Club, 1841).
334
WARSAW
abounds in the district and is extensively quarried. The summer
climate is the coolest in the Australian states.
WARSAW, a government of Russian Poland, occupying a
narrow strip of land west of the lower Bug and west of the Vistula
from its confluence with the Bug to the Prussian frontier. It
is bounded by the Polish governments of Plock and Lomza on
the N., Siedlce on the E., and Radom, Piotrkow and Kalisz
on the S. Area 5605 sq. m.; estimated pop. (1906) 2,269,0x30. It
occupies the great plain of central Poland, and is low and flat,
with only a few hills in the south, and along the course of the
Vistula in the north-west, where the terraces on the left bank
descend by steep slopes to the river. Terrible inundations often
devastate the region adjacent to the confluence of the Vistula
with the Narew and Bug, and marshes gather in the low-lying
grounds. The soil, which consists chiefly of boulder clay,
lacustrine clays, and sandy fluviatile deposits, is not particularly
fertile. The government is divided into thirteen districts, the
chief towns of which are Warsaw, Blonie, Gostynin, Grojec,
Kutno, Lowicz, Neszawa, Novo-Minsk, Plonsk, Radzymin,
Skierniewice, Sochaczew and Wloclawek. In spite of the un-
fertile soil, agriculture is prosecuted with considerable success.
Manufacturing" industries have also greatly developed.
WARSAW (Polish Warszawa, Ger. Warschau, Fr. Varsovie),
the capital of Poland and chief town of the government of
Warsaw. It is beautifully situated on the left bank of the
Vistula, 387 m. by rail E. of Berlin, and 695 m. S.W. of St
Petersburg. It stands on a terrace 1 20 to 130 ft. above the river,
to which it descends by steep slopes, leaving a broad bench at
its base. The suburb of Praga on the right bank of the Vistula,
here 450 to 660 yds. broad, is connected with Warsaw by two
bridges the railway bridge which passes close under the guns
of the Alexander citadel to the north, and the Alexander bridge
(1666 ft. long; built in 1865 at a cost of 634,000) in the centre
of the town. With its large population, its beautiful river, its
ample communications and its commerce, its university and
scientific societies, its palaces and numerous places of amuse-
ment, Warsaw is one of the most pleasant as well as one of the
most animated cities of eastern Europe. From a military point
of view Warsaw is the chief stronghold for the defence of Poland;
the Alexander citadel has been much improved, and the bridge
across the Vistula is defended by a strong fort, Slhvicki.
Situated in a fertile plain, on a great navigable river, below its
confluence with the Pilica and Wieprz, which drain southern
Poland, and above its confluence with the Narew and Bug, which
tap a wide region in the east, Warsaw became in medieval times
the chief entrep6t for the trade of those fertile and populous
valleys with western Europe. Owing to its position in the
territory of Mazovia, which was neither Polish nor Lithuanian,
and, so to say, remained neutral between the two rival powers
which constituted the united kingdom, it became the capital of
both, and secured advantages over the purely Polish Cracow
and the Lithuanian Vilna. And now, connected as it is by six
trunk lines with Vienna, Kiev and south- western Russia, Moscow,
St Petersburg, Danzig and Berlin, it is one of the most important
commercial cities of eastern Europe. The south-western railway
connects it with Lodz, the Manchester of Poland, and with the
productive mineral region of Piotrkow and Kielce, which supply
its steadily growing manufactures with coal and iron, so that
Warsaw and its neighbourhood have become a centre for all kinds
of manufactures. The iron and steel industry has greatly de-
veloped, and produces large quantities of rails. The machinery
works have suffered to some extent from competition with those
of southern Russia, and find the high price of land a great
obstacle in the way of extension. But the manufactures of plated
silver, carriages, boots and shoes (annual turnover 8,457,000),
millinery, hosiery, gloves, tobacco, sugar, and all sorts of small
artistic house decorations, are of considerable importance,
chiefly owing to the skill of the workers. Trade is principally in
the goods enumerated above, but the city is also a centre for
trade in corn, leather and coal, and its two fairs (wool and hops)
have a great reputation throughout western Russia. The
wholesale deportations of Warsaw artisans after the Polish
insurrections of 1794, 1831 and 1863 considerably checked, but
by no means stopped, the industrial progress of the town. The
barrier of custom-houses all round Poland, and the Russian rule,
which militates against the progress of Polish science, technology
and art, are so many obstacles to the development of its natural
resources. The population has nevertheless grown rapidly,
from 161,008 in 1860, 276,000 in 1872 and 436,750 in 1887, to
756,426 in 1901; of these more than 25,000 are Germans, and
one-third are Jews. The Russian garrison numbers over 30,000
men. Warsaw is an archiepiscopal see of the Greek Orthodox
and Roman Catholic churches, and the headquarters of the Y.,
VI. and XV. Army Corps.
The streets of Warsaw are adorned with many fine buildings,
partly palaces exhibiting the Polish nobility's love of display, partly
churches and cathedrals, and partly public buildings erected by the
municipality or by private bodies. Fine public gardens and several
monuments further embellish the city. The university (with 1500
students), founded in 1816 but closed in 1832, was again opened in
1869 as a Russian institution, the teaching being in Russian; it
has a remarkable library of more than 500,000 volumes, rich natural
history collections, a fine botanic garden and an astronomical
observatory. ,The medical school enjoys high repute in the scientific
world. The school of arts, the academy of agriculture and forestry,
and the conservatory of music are all high-class institutions. The
association of the friends of science and the historical and agricultural
societies of Warsaw were once well known, but were suppressed after
the insurrections, though they were subsequently revived.
The theatre for Polish drama and the ballet is a fine building,
which includes two theatres under the same roof; but the pride of
Warsaw is its theatre in the Lazieriki gardens, which were laid out
(1767-1788) in an old bed of the Vistula by King Stanislaus Ponia-
towski, and have beautiful shady alleys, artificial ponds, an elegant
little palace with ceilings painted by Bacciarelli, several imperial
villas and a monument (1788) to John Sobieski, king of Poland, who
delivered Vienna from the Turks in 1683. Here an artificial ruin on
an island makes an open-air theatre. Two other public gardens,
with alleys of old chestnut trees, are situated in the centre of che
city. One of these, the Saski Ogrod, or Saxon garden (17 acres),
which has a summer theatre and fine old trees, is one of the most
beautiful in Europe; it is the resort of the Warsaw aristocracy.
The Krasinski garden is the favourite promenade of the Jews.
The central point of the life of Warsaw is the former royal castle
(Zamek Krolewski) on Sigismund Square. It was built by the dukes
of Mazovia, enlarged by Sigismund III. (whose memorial stands
opposite) and Ladislaus IV., and embellished by John Sobieski and
Stanislaus Poniatowski. At present it is inhabited by the " governor-
general of the provinces on the Vistula " (i.e. Poland), and by the
military authorities. Most of its pictures and other art treasures
have been removed to St Petersburg and Moscow. Four main
thoroughfares radiate from it; one, the Krakowskie Przcdmiescie,
the best street in Warsaw, runs southward. It is continued by the
Nowy Swiat and the Ujazdowska Aleja avenue, which leads to the
Lazienki gardens. Many fine buildings are found in and near these
two streets: the church of St Anne (1454), which belonged formerly
to a Bernardine monastery; the agricultural and industrial museum,
with an ethnographical collection; the monument (1898) to the
national poet Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855) ; the Alexander Nevski
cathedral of the Orthodox Greek Church, built in 1894 and following
years on the Saxon Square in the Byzantine style, with five gilded
cupolas and a detached campanile, 238 ft. high; close beside it the
former Saxon palace, once the residence of the Polish kings but now
used as military administrative offices; the Lutheran church,
finished in 1799, one of the most conspicuous in Warsaw; a monu-
ment (1841) to the Polish generals who held with Russia in 1830
and were therefore shot by their compatriots, removed to the
Zielony Square in 1898 ; the buildings of the Art Association,
erected in 1898-1900; the university (see above); the church of the
Holy Ghost (1682-1696), with the heart and monument of the
musician F. F. Chopin; a monument (1830) to the astronomer
N. Kopernicus (1473-1543); the palaces of the families Zamoyski
and Ordynacki (now the conservatory of music) ; the building of
the Philharmonic Society (1899-1901); and the church of St Alex-
ander, built in 1826 and splendidly restored in 1891. The Ujaz-
dowska Aleja avenue, planted with lime-trees and bordered with
cafes and places of amusement, is the Champs Elysees of Warsaw.
It leads to the Lazienki park and to the Belvedere palace (1822),
now the summer residence of the governor-general, and farther west
to the Mokotowski parade ground, which is surrounded on the south
and west by the manufacturing district. Another principal street,
the Marszalkowska, runs parallel to the Ujazdowska from the Saxon
garden to this parade ground, on the south-east of which are the
Russian barracks. The above-mentioned streets are crossed by
another series running west and east, the chief of them being the
Senators, which begins at Sigismund Square and contains the best
shops. The palace of the archbishop of Warsaw, the Imperial
(Russian) Bank, formerly the Bank of Poland; the town hall (1725),
WARSAW WART
335
burned in 1863, but rebuilt in 1870; the small Pod Blacha palace,
now occupied by a chancery; the theatre (1833); the old .mint;
tin- beautiful Reformed church (1882) ; the Orthodox Greek cathedral
of the Trinity, rebuilt in 1837; the Krasinski palace (1692), burned
in 1782 but rebuilt; the place of meeting of the Polish diets, now
the Supreme Court; the church of the Transfiguration, a thank-
offering by John Sobieski for his victory of 1683, and containing
his heart and that of Stanislaus Poniatowski; and several palaces
i;rouped in or near Senators' Street and Miodowa Street.
To the west Senators' Street is continued by Electors' Street,
where is the very elegant church (1849) of St Charles Borromeo,
.UK I the Chlodna Street leading to the suburb of Wola, with a large
fit-Ill where the kings of Poland used to be elected. In Leshno Street,
wliirh branches oft from Senators' Street, are the Zelazna Brama,
or Iron Gate; in the market-place the bazaar, the arsenal and the
Wielopolski barracks.
To the north of Sigismund Square is the old town Stare Miasto
the Jewish quarter, and farther north still the Alexander citadel.
The old town very much recalls old Germany by its narrow streets
and antique buildings, the cathedral of St John, the most ancient
church in Warsaw, having been built in the I3th century and restored
in the I7th. The citadel, erected in 1832-1835 as a punishment for
the insurrection of 1831, is of the old type, with six forts too close to
the walls of the fortress to be useful in modern warfare.
The suburb of Praga, on the right bank of the Vistula, is poorly
built and often flooded; but the bloody assaults which led to its
<apture in 1794 by the Russians under Suvarov, and in 1831 by
Paskevich, give it a name in history.
In the outskirts of Warsaw are various more or less noteworthy
villas, palaces and battlefields. Willanow, the palace of John
Sobieski, afterwards belonging to Count X. Bramcki, was partly
built in 1678-1694 by Turkish prisoners in a fine Italian style, and
is now renowned for its historical relics, portraits and pictures. It
is situated to the south of Warsaw, together with the pretty pilgrim-
age church of Czerniakow, built by Prince Stanislaus Lubomirski in
1691, and many other fine villas (Morysinek, Natolin, Krolikarnia,
which also has a picture gallery, Wierzbno and Mokotow). Mary-
mont, an old country residence of the wife of John Sobieski, and the
Kaskada, much visited by the inhabitants of Warsaw, in the north,
the Saska Kempa on the right bank of the Vistula, and the castle
of Jablona down the Vistula are among others that deserve mention.
The castle and forest of Bielany (4! m. N.), on the bank of the
Vistula, are a popular holiday resort in the spring.
Among the battlefields in the neighbourhood is that of Grochow
where the Polish troops were defeated in 1831, and Wawer in the
same quarter (E. of Praga), where Prince Joseph Poniatowski
-defeated the Austrians in the war of 1809; at Maciejowice, 50 m.
up the Vistula, Kosciuszko was wounded and taken by the Russians
in 1794; and 20 m. down the river stands the fortress of Modlin,
now Novogeorgievsk.
History. The history of Warsaw from the i6th century
onwards is intimately connected with that of Poland. The
precise date of the foundation of the town is not known; but
it is supposed that Conrad, duke of Mazovia, erected a castle
on the present site of Warsaw as early as the 9th century. Casimir
the Just is supposed to have fortified it in the nth century, but
Warsaw is not mentioned in annals before 1224. Until 1526 it
was the residence of the dukes of Mazovia, but when their
dynasty became extinct it was annexed to Poland. When
Poland and Lithuania were united, Warsaw was chosen as the
royal residence. Sigismund Augustus (Wasa) made it (1550)
the real capital of Poland, and from 1572 onwards the election
of the kings of Poland took place on the field of Wola, on the W.
outskirts of the city. From the i7th century possession of it was
continually disputed between the Swedes, the Russians, the
Brandenburgers and the Austrians. Charles Gustavus of Sweden
took it in 1655 and kept it for a year; the Poles retook
it in July 1656, but lost it again almost immediately. Augustus
II. and Augustus III. did much for its embellishment, but it
had much to suffer during the war with Charles XII. of Sweden,
who captured it in 1702; but in the following year peace was
made, and it became free again. The disorders which followed
upon the death of Augustus III. in 1763 opened a field for
Russian intrigue, and in 1764 the Russians took possession of
the town and secured the election of Stanislaus Poniatowski,
which led in 1773 to the first partition of Poland. In November
1794 the Russians took it again, after the bloody assault on
Praga, but next year, in the third partition of Poland, Warsaw
was given to Prussia. In November 1806 the town was occupied
by the troops of Napoleon, and after the peace of Tilsit (1807)
was made the capital of the independent duchy of Warsaw;
but the Austrians seized it on the 2ist of April 1809, and kept
possession of it till the 2nd of June, when it once more became
independent. The Russians finally took it on the 8th of February
1813. On the 2gth of November 1830, Warsaw gave the signal
for the unsuccessful insurrection which lasted nearly one year;
the city was captured after great bloodshed by Paskevich, on
the 7th of September 1831. Deportations on a large scale,
executions, and confiscation of the domains of the nobility
followed, and until 1856 Warsaw remained under severe military
rule. In 1862 a series of demonstrations began to be made in
Warsaw in favour of the independence of Poland, and after
a bloody repression a general insurrection followed in January
1863, the Russians remaining, however, masters of the situation.
Executions, banishment to the convict prisons of Siberia, and
confiscation of estates followed. Deportation to Siberia and the
interior of Russia was carried out on an unheard-of scale.
Scientific societies and high schools were closed; monasteries
and nunneries were emptied. Hundreds of Russian officials
were called in to fill the administrative posts, and to teach in the
schools and the university; the Russian language was made
obligatory in all official acts, in all legal proceedings, and even,
to a great extent, in trade. The very name of Poland was
expunged from official writings, and, while the old institu-
tions were abolished, the Russian tribunals and administra-
tive institutions were introduced. The serfs were liberated.
Much rioting and lawless bloodshed took place in the city in
1905-1906. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
WARSAW, a city and the county-seat of Kosciusko county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the Tippecanoe river, about no m. E. of Chi-
cago. Pop. (1890)3547; (1900) 3987, including 102 foreign-born;
(1910) 4430. Warsaw is served by the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne
& Chicago (Pennsylvania system) and the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Chicago & St Louis railways, and by interurban electric lines.
It is picturesquely situated in the lake country of Indiana on
Center, Pike and Winona lakes. Immediately E. of the city,
on Winona (formerly Eagle) Lake, which is about 2 by 3 m. and
has an average depth of 30 ft., is Winona (formerly Spring
Fountain) Park (incorporated 1895 largely by Presbyterians),
which primarily aims to combine the advantages of Northfield,
Massachusetts, and Chautauqua, New York. There is excellent
boating and bathing here, and there are mineral springs in the
Park, where in the summer there are a Chautauqua course lasting
for six weeks, a normal school, a Bible school, a Bible conference,
a school of missions, an International Training School for Sunday
School Workers, a conference of temperance workers and nature
study and other regular summer school courses; and in other
months of the year courses are given here by the Winona Normal
School and Agricultural Institute, Winona Academy (for boys)
and Winona Conservatory of Music, and the Winona Park School
for Young Women. The control of the Park is inter-denomi-
national the Winona Federated Church was organized in 1905.
Under practically the same control is the Winona Technical
Institute in Indianapolis. The surrounding country is devoted
to farming and stock raising. Warsaw was first platted in 1836,
and became a city in 1875.
WART (Lat. verruca), a papillary excrescence of the skin, or
mucous membrane. The ordinary flat warts of the skin occur
mostly upon the hands of children and young persons; a long
pendulous variety occurs about the chin or neck of delicate
children, and on the scalp in adults. Warts are apt to come out
in numbers at a time; a crop of them suddenly appears, to
disappear after a time with equal suddenness. Hence the sup-
posed efficacy of charms. A single wart will sometimes remain
when the general eruption has vanished. The liability of crops
of warts runs in families. In after life a wart on the hands or
fingers is usually brought on by some irritation, often repeated,
even if it be slight. Warts often occur on the wrists and knuckles
of slaughter-house men and of those much occupied with ana-
tomical dissection; they are often of tuberculous origin (butchers'
warts). Chimney-sweeps and workers in coal-tar, petroleum,
&c., are subject to warts, which often become cancerous. Warts
occur singly in later life on the nose or lips or other parts of the
33^
WARTBURG, THE WARTON, J.
face, sometimes on the tongue; they are very apt to become
malignant. Towards old age broad and flattened patches of
warts of a greasy consistence and brownish colour often occur
on the back and shoulders. They also are apt to become
malignant. Indeed, warts occurring on the lip or tongue, or on
any part of the body of a person advanced in life, should be
suspected of malignant associations and dealt with accordingly.
Venereal warts occur as the result of gonorrhoea! irritation or
syphilitic infection.
A wart consists of a delicate framework of blood-vessels sup-
ported by fibrous tissue, with a covering of epidermic scales.
When the wart is young, the surface is rounded; as it gets
rubbed it is cleft into projecting points. The blood-vessels,
whose outgrowth from the surface really makes the wart, may be
in a cluster of parallel loops, as in the common sessile wart, or
the vessels may branch from a single stem, making the long,
pendulous warts of the chin and neck. The same kinds of warts
also occur on mucous surfaces. It is owing to its vascularity
that a wart is liable to come back after being shaved off; the
vessels are cut down to the level of the skin, but the blood is
still forced into the stem, and the branches are thrown out beyond
the surface as before. This fact has a bearing on the treatment
of warts, if they are snipped off, the blood-vessels of the stem
should be destroyed at the same time by a hot wire or some other
caustic, or made to shrivel by an astringent. The same end is
served by a gradually tightening ligature (such as a thread of
elastic) round the base of the wart. Glacial acetic or carbolic
acid may be applied on the end of a glass rod, or by a camel-hair
brush, care being taken not to touch the adjoining skin. A
solution of perchloride of iron is also effective in the same way.
Nitrate of silver is objectionable, owing to the black stains left
by it . A simple domestic remedy, often effectual, is the astringent
and acrid juice of the common stonecrop (Sedum acre) rubbed
into the wart, time after time, from the freshly gathered herb.
The result of these various applications is that the wart loses its
firmness, shrivels up, and falls off. Malignant and tuberculous
warts should be removed by the scalpel or sharp spoon, their
bases, if thought advisable, being treated by pure carbolic acid.
A peculiar form of wart, known as verrugas, occurs endemically
in the Andes. It is believed to have been one of the causes of
the excessive mortality from haemorrhages of the skin among the
troops of Pizarrp. Attention was called to it by Dr Archibald
Smith in 1842; in 1874, during the making of the Trans-Andean
railway, it caused considerable loss of life among English navvies
and engineers. (E. O. *)
WARTBURG, THE, a castle near Eisenach in the grand-duchy
of Saxe- Weimar. It is magnificently situated on the top of a
precipitous hill, and is remarkable not only for its historical
associations but as containing one of the few well-preserved
Romanesque palaces in existence. The original castle, of which
some parts including a portion of the above-mentioned palace
(Landgrafenhaus) still exist, was built by the landgrave Louis
" the Springer " (d. 1123), and from his time until 1440 it re-
mained the seat of the Thuringian landgraves. Under the
landgrave Hermann I., the Wartburg was the home of a boister-
ous court to which minstrels and " wandering folk " of all
descriptions streamed; 1 and it was here that in 1207 took place
the minstrels' contest (Sdngerkrieg) immortalized in Wagner's
Tannhauser. Some years later it became the home of the
saintly Elizabeth of Hungary (q.v.) on her marriage to Louis the
Saint (d. 1227), to whom she was betrothed in 1211 at the age of
four. 2 It was to the Wartburg, too, that on the 4th of May 1521,
Luther was brought for safety at the instance of Frederick the
Wise, elector of Saxony, and it was during his ten months'
residence here (under the incognito of Junker Jorg) that he
completed his translation of the New Testament.
From this time the castle was allowed gradually to decay.
It was restored in the iSth century in the questionable taste of
1 Walther von der Vogelweide (ed. F. Pfeiffer 1886, No. 99) and
Wolfram von Eschenbach (Parzival vi. 526 and Willehalm 417, 26)
both refer to the noise and constant crush of crowds passing in and
out at the Wartburg " night and day."
Wagner, with a poet^ licence, has placed the S&ngerkrieg during
Elizabeth's residence at the Wartburg.
the period; but its present magnificence it owes to the grand-
duke Charles Alexander of Saxe- Weimar, with whom at certain
seasons of the year it was a favourite residence.
The most interesting part of the castle is the Romanesque Land-
grafenhaus. This, besides a chapel, contains two magnificent halls
known as the Sangersaal (hall of the minstrels) in which Wagner
lays one act of his opera and the Festsaal (festival hall). The
Sangersaal is decorated with a fine fresco, representing the minstrels'
contest, by Moritz von Schwind, who also executed the frescoes in
other parts of the building illustrating the legends of St Elizabeth and
of the founding of the castle by Louis the Springer. The Festsaal
has frescoes illustrating the triumphs of Christianity, by Welter.
In the buildings of the outer court of the castle is the room once
occupied by Luther, containing a much mutilated four-post bed
and other relics of the reformer. The famous blot caused by Luther's
hurling his ink-pot at the devil has long since become a mere hole in
the wall, owing it is said to the passion of Ameiican tourists for
" souvenirs." _ ;
The armoury (Riistkammer) contains a fine collection of armour,
including suits formerly belonging to Henry II. of France, the elector
Frederick the Wise and Pope Julius II. The great watch-tower of
the castle commands a magnificent view of the Thuringian forest
on the one side and the plain on the other.
WARTHE (Polish, Warla), a river of Poland and Germany,
and the chief affluent of the Oder. It rises on the north slope
of the Carpathian Mountains N.W. of Cracow, flows north as far
as Radomsk, then west, then north again past Sieradz, until it
reaches Kola, where it again turns west, crosses the frontier into
the Prussian province of Posen, where it takes a northerly
direction past the town of Posen. Then once more bending west,
it flows past Schwerin and Landsberg aad enters the Oder from
the right at Ciistrin. Its total length is 445 m. of which 215 are
in Poland and 230 in Prussia; it is navigable up to Konin in
West Poland, a distance of 265 m. Its banks are mostly low and
flat, its lower course especially running through drained and
cultivated marshes. It is connected with the Vistula through its
tributary the Netze and the Bromberg canal. The area of its
drainage basin is 17,400 sq. m.
WART-HOG, the designation of certain hideous African wild
swine (see SWINE), characterized by the presence of large warty
protuberances on the face, the large size of the tusks in both
sexes, especially the upper pair, which are larger and stouter
than the lower ones and are not worn at their summits, and the
complexity and great size of the last pair of molar teeth in each
jaw. The adults have frequently no teeth except those just
mentioned, and nearly bare skins; and the young are uniformly
coloured. Two nearly allied species are recognized, namely,
the southern Phacochoerus aethiopicus, which formerly ranged
as far south as the Cape, and the northern P. africanus, which
extends to the mountains of Abyssinia, where it has been found at
a high elevation. In South and East Africa wart-hogs frequent
more or less open country, near water, and dwell in holes, generally
those of the aard-vark. In Abyssinia, on' the other hand, they
spend the day among bushes, or in ravines, feeding at night.
WARTON, JOSEPH (1722-1800), English critic and poet,
eldest son of Thomas Warton (see below), was baptized at Duns-
fold, Surrey, on the 22nd of April 1722, and entered Winchester
school on the foundation in 1735. W r illiam Collins was already
there, and the two formed a friendship which was maintained
through their Oxford career. They read Milton and Spenser
together, and wrote verses, which, published in the Gentleman's
Magazine, attracted the attention of Dr Johnson. Warton went
to Oriel College, Oxford, in 1740, and took his B.A. degree in
1744. He took holy orders, and during his father's lifetime
acted as his curate at Basingstoke. He then went to Chelsea,
London; but eventually returned to Basingstoke. He married,
became rector of Winslade (1748), of Tun worth (1754); in 1755
he was appointed a master in Winchester school, and headmaster
in 1766. He was not a successful schoolmaster, and when the
boys mutinied against him for the third time he wisely resigned
his position (1793).
His leisure was devoted to literature. Warton was far from
having the genius of Collins, but they were at one in their im-
patience under the prevailing taste for moral and ethical poetry.
Whoever wishes to understand how early the reaction against
Pope's style began should read Warton's The Enthusiast,
WARTON, T. WARWICK, EARLS OF
337
or The Lover of Nature, and remember that it was printed
in 1 744, the year of Pope's death. " As he is convinced," he
wrote in the preface (1746) to his Odes on Several Subjects, " that
the fashion of moralizing in verse has been carried too far, and
as he looks upon invention and imagination to be the chief
faculties of a poet, so he will be happy if the following odes may
be looked upon as an attempt to bring back poetry into its right
channel." He published an edition (1753) in Latin and English
of Virgil. This contained Christopher Pitt's version of the
Aeneid, his own rendering of the Eclogues and Georgics in the
heroic measure, and essays by Warburton and others. Warton
himself appended, essays on epic and didactic poetry, a life of
Virgil and notes. He made the acquaintance of JDr Johnson,
and wrote papers on Shakespeare and Homer in The Adventurer;
and in 1757 he published the first part of an Essay on the Genius
and Writings of Pope, an essay regarded at the time as revolu-
tionary, by Johnson at least, because it put Pope in the second
rank to Shakespeare, Spenser and Milton, on the ground that
moral and ethical poetry, however excellent, is an inferior species.
He held his own against Johnson in the Literary Club; and after
enduring many jests about the promised second part of the essay
and the delay in its appearance, published it at last, retracting
nothing, in 1782. Warton's edition of Pope was published in
1797. An edition of Dryden, for which he had collected materials,
was completed and published by his son in 1811. Warton was
a prebendary of St Paul's and of Winchester Cathedrals, and held
the livings of Upham and of Wickham, Hampshire, where he
died on the 23rd of February 1800.
See Biographical Memoirs of the Late Rev. Joseph Warton, by John
Wooll (vol. i., 1806, no more published).
WARTON, THOMAS (c. 1688-1745), English author,' professor
of poetry at Oxford, son of Anthony Warton, was born at Godal-
ming about 1688. He was educated at Hart Hall and Magdalen
College, Oxford. He was satirized for his incompetence as
professor of poetry by Nicholas Amhurst in Terrae filius as
" squinting Tom of Maudlin." He was vicar of Basingstoke,
Hampshire, and master of the grammar-school of the town,
where he had among his pupils Gilbert White, the naturalist.
He received further preferments in the church, and died at
Basingstoke on the loth of September 1745. He published
nothing during his lifetime, but after his death his son Joseph
published some of his poetry under the title of Poems on Several
Occasions (1748).
WARTON, THOMAS (1728-1790), English poet-laureate and
historian of poetry, younger son of Thomas Warton (see above),
was born at Basingstoke on the 9th of January 1728. He was
still more precocious as a poet than his brother translated one
of Martial's epigrams at nine, and wrote The Pleasures of Melan-
choly at seventeen and he showed exactly the same bent,
Milton and Spenser being his favourite poets, though he " did
not fail to cultivate his mind with the soft thrillings of the tragic
muse " of Shakespeare.
In a poem written in 1745 he shows the delight in Gothic
churches and ruined castles which inspired so much of his subse-
quent work in romantic revival. Most of Warton's poetry,
humorous and serious and the humorous mock-heroic was
better within his powers than serious verse was written before
the age of twenty-three, when he took his M.A. degree and
became a fellow of his college (Trinity, Oxford). He did not
altogether abandon verse; his sonnets, especially, which are the
best of his poems, were written later. But his main energies
were given to omnivorous poetical reading and criticism. He
was the first to turn to literary account the medieval treasures
of the Bodleian Library. It was through him, in fact, that the
medieval spirit which always lingered in Oxford first began to
stir after its long inaction, and to claim an influence in the modern
world. Warton, like his brother, entered the church, and held
one after another, various livings, but he did not many. He
gave little attention to his clerical duties, and Oxford always
remained his home. In 1749 he published an heroic poem in
praise of Oxford, The Triumph of Isis. He was a very easy
and convivial as well as a very learned don, with a taste for
pothouses and crowds as well as dim aisles and romances in
manuscript and black letter. The first proof that he gave of
his extraordinarily wide scholarship was in his Observations on the
Poetry of Spenser (1754). Three years later he was appointed
professor of poetry, and held the office for ten years, sending
round, according to the story, at the beginning of term to inquire
whether anybody wished him to lecture. The first volume of
his monumental work, The History of English Poetry, appeared
twenty years later, in 1774, the second volume in 1778, and the
third in 1781. A work of such enormous labour and research
could proceed but slowly, and it was no wonder that Warton
flagged in the execution of it, and stopped to refresh himself
with annotating (1785) the minor poems of Milton, pouring out
in . this delightful work the accumulated suggestions of forty
years.
In 1785 he became Camden professor of history, and was
made poet-laureate in the same year. Among his minor works
were an edition of Theocritus, a selection of Latin and Greek
inscriptions, the humorous Oxford Companion to the Guide and
Guide to the Companion (1762); The Oxford Sausage (1764); an
edition of Theocritus (1770); lives of Sir Thomas' Pope and
Ralph Bathurst, college benefactors; a History of the Antiquities
of Kiddington Parish, of which he held the living (1781); and
an Inquiry into the Authenticity of the Poems attributed to Thomas
Rowley (1782). His busy and convivial life was ended by a
paralytic stroke in May 1790.
Warton's poems were first collected in 1777, and he was engaged
at the time of his death on a corrected edition, which appeared in
1791, with a memoir by his friend and admirer, Richard Mant.
They were edited in 1822 for the British Poets, by S. W. Singer.
The History of English Poetry from the close of the nth to the Com-
mencement of the i8th Century, to which are prefixed two Dissertations:
I. On the Origin of Romantic Fiction in Europe; II. On the Introduc-
tion of Learning into England (1774-1781) was only brought down
to the close of the l6th century. It was criticized by J. Ritson in
1782 in A Familiar Letter to the Author. A new edition came put
in 1824, with an elaborate introduction by the editor, Richard Price,
who added to the text comments and emendations from Joseph
Ritson, Francis Douce, George Ashby, Thomas Park and himself.
Another edition of this, stated to be " further improved by the
corrections and additions of several eminent antiquaries," appeared
in 1840. In 1871 the book was subjected to a radical revision by
Mr W. C. Hazhtt. He cut out passages in which Warton had been
led into gross errors by misreading his authorities or relying on false
information, and supplied within brackets information on authors
or works omitted. Walton's matter, which was somewhat scattered,
although he worked on a chronological plan, was in some cases re-
arranged and the mass of profuse and often contradictory notes
was cut down, although new information was added by the editor
and his associates, Sir Frederick Madden, Thomas Wright, W. Aldis
Wright, W. W. Skeat, Richard Morris and F. J. Furnivall. When
all criticism has been allowed for the inaccuracies of Warton's work,
and the unsatisfactory nature of his general plan, the fact remains
that his book is still indispensable to the student of English poetry.
Moreover, much that may seem commonplace in his criticism was
entirely fresh and even revolutionary in his own day. Warton
directed the attention of readers to early English literature, and, in
view of the want of texts, rendered inestimable service by transcrib-
ing large extracts from early writers. Of the poets cf the i6th
century he was an extremely sympathetic critic and has not been
superseded.
See " T. Warton and Machyn's Diary," by H. E. D. Blakiston in
the English Historical. Review (April 1896) for illustrations of his
inaccurate methods.
WARWICK, EARLS OF. John Rous (c. 1411-1491), the
historian of the earls of Warwick, gives an account of them from
Brutus their founder through many mythical ancestors, among
whom is the Guy of romance. The ist earl of Warwick was
Henry de Newburgh (d. 1123), lord of Newbourg in Normandy
and son of Roger de Beaumont. He became constable of
Warwick Castle in 1068, and, though there is no proof that he
actually came over with the Conqueror, his elder brother Robert
de Beaumont, comte de Meulan, fought at Hastings. He
apparently spent most of his time in Normandy, and was a
baron of the Norman exchequer. He was created earl of Warwick
early in the reign of William II. receiving a grant of the great
estates of the Saxon, Thurkill of Arden, in Warwickshire. He
was attached throughout his life to Henry I., and both the
Beaumont brothers were faithful to the king at the time of the
WARWICK, SIR P.
conspiracy of the Norman nobles in 1 101. By his wife Margaret,
daughter of Geoffrey II., count of Perche, he had five sons and
two daughters. He died on the 2oth of June 1123, and was
buried in the Norman abbey of Preaux, near Pont-Audemer,
a family foundation of which he and his brother were patrons.
At Warwick he founded the priory of the Austin Canons, and
endowed the church of St Mary.
Of his sons Roger de Newburgh became and earl of Warwick
and died in 1153; Rotrou (d. 1139) became archbishop of
Rouen; and Robert, seneschal and justiciar of Normandy,
died in 1185 in the abbey of Bee, of which he was a benefactor.
The 2nd earl was followed by his two sons in succession, William
(d. 1184) and Waleran (d. 1204). Henry de Newburgh, sth
earl of Warwick (1192-1229), took the royal side in the civil
wars of the reigns of John and Henry III. The 6th earl, Thomas
de Newburgh (c. 1213-1297), left no heirs, and was succeeded
by his sister Margaret, countess of Warwick in her own right,
who was twice married, but left no heirs. Her second husband,
John du Plessis, assumed the title of earl of Warwick in 1245,
and in 1250 received a grant of his wife's lands for life. He was
succeeded in 1263 by Countess Margaret's cousin and heir,
Sir William Mauduit (1220-1268), Sth earl of Warwick.
Mauduit's sister and heiress, Isabel de Beauchamp, had apparently
adopted the religious life at the time of her brother's death, and
her son William de Beauchamp became 9th earl of Warwick.
His son Guy de Beauchamp, loth earl of Warwick (1278-
1315), received grants of land in Scotland for his services at
Falkirk, and in 1301 was one of the signatories of the letter
to the pope denying the papal right to interfere in Scottish
affairs. He was with Edward I. at the time of his death, and
is said to have been warned by him against Piers Gaveston.
He was one of the lords ordainers of 1310, and was concerned
in the capture of Gaveston, though he declined to countenance
his execution. He died on the loth of August 1315. His son,
Thomas de Beauchamp, nth earl (1313-1369), was marshal of
England in 1344, and of the English army in France in 1346.
He fought at Crecy and Poitiers, and was one of the original
knights of the Garter.
Thomas de Beauchamp, i2th earl (c. 1345-1401), was about
twenty-four years old when he succeeded his father. He served
on the lords' committee of reform in the Good Parliament in
1376, and again in 1377, and was a member of the commission of
inquiry in 1379. Appointed governor to Richard II. in February
1381, he joined the nobles who sought to impose their authority
on the king, and was one of the lords appellant in 1388. After the
overthrow of his party in 1389 Warwick lived in retirement,
but although he had for the moment escaped Richard's vengeance
he was not forgiven. Being invited with Gloucester and
Arundel to a banquet at court on the roth of July 1397 he alone
of the three was imprudent enough to obey the summons. He
was immediately arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London,
in that part of the fortress since known as the Beauchamp Tower.
Warwick made a full confession in parliament; his honours
were forfeited and he himself banished. He was again in the
Tower in 1398, but was liberated and restored to his honours
on the accession of Henry IV. His son Richard Beauchamp,
I3th earl of Warwick, is separately noticed.
Henry, i4th earl of Warwick (1423-1445), Earl Richard's
son, a descendant, through his mother Constance le Despenser,
of Edmund, duke of York, fifth son of Edward III., received a
patent making him premier earl in 1444. A year later he was
created duke of Warwick with precedence next after the duke of
Norfolk, a rank disputed by the duke of Buckingham. The
assertion that he was crowned king of the Isle of Wight seems to
have no foundation in fact. The I4th earl, whose honours were pro-
bably due to his father's services, died in his twenty-second year,
leaving a daughter Anne, who died in 1449. On her death the
earldom lapsed to the crown. The estates passed to Sir Richard
Neville (see WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, earl of), in right of
his wife Anne, sister of Henry Beauchamp, duke of Warwick.
He and his wife were created earl and countess of Warwick
each for life in 1450, with remainder to Anne's heirs, and, these
failing, to Margaret, countess of Shrewsbury, half-sister of the
countess Anne. After the death of her husband, the Kingmaker,
at Barnet in 1471, the rights of the countess, heiress of the
Beauchamp estates, were set aside " as if the seid countes were
nowe naturally dede " (act of 13 Edward IV. 1473) in favour of
her daughters, Isabel, wife of George, duke of Clarence, and
Anne, who, after the murder of her first husband Edward
prince of Wales in 1471, married Richard, duke of Gloucester,
afterwards Richard III. Their mother was allowed to resume
her estates in 1487, but only to settle them on the crown. She
was succeeded in 1493 in the earldom by her grandson Edward
Plantagenet, i8th earl of Warwick (1475-1499), son of the duke
of Clarence, .and therefore the Yorkist heir to the crown. He
was imprisoned in 1484, his sole offence being his birth, and
was executed in 1499 on a charge of conspiracy with his fellow-
prisoner, Perkin Warbeck. He was the last representative of
the male line of the Plantagenets. His honours were forfeited,
and his estates passed to his sister Margaret, countess of Salisbury
in her own right, the unfortunate lady who was executed in
The next bearer of the title was John Dudley, Viscount
Lisle, afterwards duke of Northumberland (?..), who was created
earl of Warwick in 1547, on account of his descent from Margaret,
countess of Shrewsbury, daughter of Richard Beauchamp,
earl of Warwick. The earldom became extinct with his son
John Dudley, 2oth earl of Warwick (c. 1528-1554), who was
condemned to death for having signed the letters patent making
his sister-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, heir apparent. He was
released from prison in October 1554, but died in the same month.
His brother, Ambrose Dudley (c. 1528-1590), who fought at
St Quentin in 1557, secured the reversal of the attainder of
himself and his brother consequent on the attempt to place
Lady Jane Grey on the throne, and in 1561 was created Baron
Lisle and earl of Warwick. He was in high favour with Elizabeth,
as was his third wife Anne, daughter of Francis Russell, 2nd
earl of Bedford. His brother Robert, earl of Leicester, having
predeceased him his honours became extinct on his death
in 1590.
The earldom was revived in 1618 in favour of Robert Rich,
3rd Baron Rich (c. 1560-1619), grandson of Lord Chancellor Rich,
who died shortly after his elevation. His wife Penelope, Lady
Rich, is separately noticed. He was succeeded in 1619 by his
eldest son Robert Rich, 2nd or 23rd earl of Warwick (q.v.), whose
two sons Robert (1611-1659) an d Charles (1619-1673) succeeded
him in the earldom and died leaving no male issue. The 5th or
26th earl >f Warwick was their cousin Robert Rich (1620-1675),
eldest son of Henry, ist earl of Holland. His grandson, the 7th
or 28th earl, left no issue, and the title became extinct on the
death, on the isth of September 1759, of his kinsman Edward
Rich, Sth or 2gth earl. It was revived two months later, when
Francis Greville, Baron Brooke of Beauchamps Court (1710-
J773). wr < had in 1746 been created Earl Brooke of Warwick
Castle, became earl of Warwick. Greville was descended from
Robert Greville, the 2nd baron, who was killed at Lichfield
during the civil war and he represented a cadet branch of the
Beauchamp family. His son George (1746-1816) became the
2nd earl of this h'ne, and the earldom has remained with his
descendants, Francis Richard (b. 1853) becoming the sth earl
in 1893. His wife, Frances Evelyn, countess of Warwick,
daughter of Colonel the Hon. C. H. Maynard (d. 1865), inherited
the estates of her grandfather, Henry Maynard, sth and last
Viscount Maynard (1788-1865). She became well known in
society, and later for her interest in social questions.
WARWICK, SIR PHILIP (1600-1683), English writer and
politician, was the son of Thomas Warwick, or Warrick, a
musician, and was born in Westminster on the 24th of December
1609. Educated at Eton, he travelled abroad for some time and
in 1636 became secretary to the lord high treasurer, William
Juxon; later he was a member of the Long Parliament, being
one of those who voted against the attainder of Stratford and who
followed Charles I. to Oxford. He fought at Edgehill and was
one of the king's secretaries during the negotiations with the
WARWICK, EARLS OF
parliament at Hampton Court, and also during those at Newport,
( 'hades speaking very highly of his services just before his
execution. Remaining in England, Warwick was passively loyal
to Charles II. during the Commonwealth and enjoyed the con-
fidence of the royalist leaders. In 1660 the king made him a
knight, and in 1661 he became a member of parliament and
secretary to another lord treasurer, Thomas Wriothesley, earl
of Southampton, retaining this post until the treasury was put
into commission on Southampton's death in May 1667. He
died on the isth of January 1683. Wai-wick's only son, the
younger Philip Warwick (d. 1683), was envoy to Sweden
in 1680.
rwick is chiefly known for his Memoirs of the reigne of King
Charles I., with a continuation to the happy restauration of King
Charles II., written between 1675 and 1677 and published in London
in 1701.
WARWICK, RICHARD BEAUCHAMP, EARL OF (1382-1439),
MIR of Thomas Beauchamp, was born at Salwarp in Worcester-
shire on the 28th of January 1382, and succeeded his father in
1401. He had some service in the Welsh War, fought on the
king's side at the battle of Shrewsbury on the 22nd of July 1403,
at the siege of Aberystwith in 1407. In 1408 he started on
a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, visiting on his way Paris and
Rome, and fighting victoriously in a tournament with Pandolfo
I\ I alatesta at Verona. From Venice he took ship to Jaffa, whence
he went to Jerusalem, and set up his arms in the temple. On
his return he travelled through Lithuania, Prussia and Germany,
and reached England in 1410. Two years later he was fighting
in command at Calais. Up to this time Warwick's career had
been that of the typical knight errant. During the reign of
Henry V. his chief employment was as a trusted counsellor and
diplomatist. He was an ambassador to France in September
14 1.5, and the chief English envoy to the coronation of Sigismund
at Aix-la-Chapelle, and to the council of Constance in the autumn
of 1414. During the campaign of Agincourt he was captain of
Calais, where in April 1416 he received Sigismund with such
courtly magnificence as to earn from him the title of the " Father
of Courtesy." In the campaigns of 1417-18 Warwick took a
prominent part, reducing Domfront and Caudebec. Then he
joined the king before Rouen, and in October 1418 had charge
of the negotiations with the dauphin and with Burgundy. Next
year he was again the chief English spokesman in the conference
at Meulan, and afterwards was Henry's representative in arrange-
ing the treaty of Troyes. At the sieges of Melun in 1420, and of
Mantes in 1421-22 he held high command. Warwick's sage
experience made it natural that Henry V. should on his death-bed
appoint him to be his son's governor. For some years to come
he was engaged chiefly as a member of the council in England.
In 1428 he received formal charge of the little king's education.
He took Henry to France in 1430, and whilst at Rouen had the
superintendence of the trial of Joan of Arc. In 1431 he defeated
Pothon de Xaintrailles at Savignies. Next year he returned to
England. The king's minority came nominally to an end in
1437- Warwick was then not unnaturally chosen to succeed
Richard of York in the government of Normandy. He accepted
loyally a service " full far from the ease of my years," and went
down to Portsmouth in August, but was long detained by bad
weather, " seven times shipped or ever he might pass the sea,"
and only reached Honfleur on the 8th of November. In Nor-
mandy he ruled with vigour for eighteen months, and died at his
post on the 3oth of April 1439. His body was brought home
and buried at Warwick. His tomb in St Mary's church is one of
the most splendid specimens of English art in the isth century.
Warwick married (i) Elizabeth Berkeley, (2) Isabella Despenser.
By his second wife he left an only son Henry, afterwards duke of
Warwick, who died in 1445, and a daughter Anne, who as her
brother's sister of the whole blood brought the title and chief
share of the estates to her husband Richard Neville, the king-
maker. By his first wife he had three daughters, of whom the
eldest, Margaret, married John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. John Rous (d. 1491) wrote a life of Warwick,
illustrated with over fifty drawings, now at the British Museum
(Lotton MS. Julius E. iv.). They have been reproduced in Strutt's
339
Manners and Customs; new edition by Mr Emery Walker with
notes by Lord Dillon and Mr W. St John Hope. More authoritative
material must be sought in strictly contemporary chronicles and
especially in the Vila HenriciQuinti ascribed ioE\mham, Monstrelef
Chronicles of London (ed. C. L. Kingsford) and J. Stevenson, Letters
&c. illustrative of the English Wars in France (" Rolls " series) For
modern accounts consult J. H. Wylie, Henry IV.; C. L. Kingsford
Henry V. ; and Sir James Ramsay, Lancaster and York. (C. L. K.)
WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF (1428-1471),
called " the king-maker," was eldest son of Richard Neville,
earl of Salisbury, by Alice, only daughter and heiress of Thomas,
the last Montacute earl of Salisbury. He was born on the 22nd
of November 1428, and whilst still a boy betrothed to Anne,
daughter of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick. When her
brother's daughter died in 1449, Anne, as only sister of the whole
blood, brought her husband the title and chief share of the
Warwick estates. Richard Neville thus became the premier
earl, and both in power and position excelled his father. Richard ,
duke of York, was his uncle, so when York became protector
in I4S3. and Salisbury was made chancellor, it was natural that
Warwick should be one of the council. After the king's recovery
in 1455 Warwick and his father took up arms in York's support.
Their victory at St Albans on the 22nd of May was due to the
fierce energy with which Warwick assaulted and broke the
Lancastrian centre. He was rewarded with the important office
of captain of Calais; to his position there he owed his strength
during the next five years. Even when York was displaced at
home, Warwick retained his post, and in 1457 was also made
admiral. He was present in February 1458 at the professed
reconciliation of the two parties in a loveday at St Paul's, London.
During the previous year he had done some good fighting on the
march of Calais by land, and kept the sea with vigour; now on
his return he distinguished himself in a great fight with Spanish
ships off Calais on the 28th of May, and in the autumn bv captur-
ing a German salt-fleet on its way to Lubeck. These' exploits
brought him a prestige and popularity that were distasteful to
the home government. Moreover, England was at war neither
with Castile nor with the Hanse. Warwick's action may possibly
have formed part of some Yorkist design for frustrating the
foreign policy of their rivals! At all events there was pretext
enough for recalling him to make his defence. Whilst he was
at the court at Westminster a brawl occurred between his re-
tainers and some of the royal household. Warwick himself
escaped with difficulty, and went back to Calais, alleging that
his life had been deliberately attempted. When in the following
year a renewal of the war was imminent, Warwick crossed ever
to England with his trained soldiers from Calais under Sir
Andrew Trollope. But at Ludlow on the i2th of October
Trollope and his men deserted, and left the Yorkists helpless.
Warwick, with his father, his cousin the young Edward of York,
and only three followers, made his way to Barnstaple. There
they hired a little fishing vessel. The master pleaded that he
did not know the Channel, but Warwick resourcefully took
command and himself steered a successful course to Calais. He
arrived just in time to anticipate the duke of Somerset, whom
the Lancastrians had sent to supersede him. During the winter
Warwick held Calais against Somerset, and sent out a fleet which
seized Sandwich and captured Lord Rivers. In the spring he
went to Ireland to concert plans with Richard of York. On his
return voyage he encountered a superior Lancastrian fleet in the
Channel. But Exeter, the rival commander, could not trust his
crews and dared not fight.
From Calais Warwick, Salisbury and Edward of York crossed
to Sandwich on the 26th of June. A few days later they entered
London, whence Warwick at once marched north. On the loth
of July he routed the Lancastrians at Northampton, and took
the king prisoner. For the order to spare the commons and slay
the lords Warwick was responsible, as also for some later execu-
tions at London. Yet when Richard of York was disposed to
claim the crown, it was, according to Waurin, Warwick who
decided the discussion in favour of a compromise, perhaps from
loyalty to Henry, or perhaps from the wish not to change a weak
sovereign for a strong. Warwick was in charge of London at the
340
WARWICK, 2ND EARL OF WARWICK
time when Richard and Salisbury were defeated and slain at
Wakefield. The Lancastrians won a second victory at St Albans
on the lyth of February 1461, possibly through lack of general-
ship on Warwick's part. But in his plans to retrieve the disaster
Warwick showed skill and decision. He met Edward of York
in Oxfordshire, brought him in triumph to London, had him
proclaimed king, and within a month of his defeat at St Albans
was marching north in pursuit of the Lancastrians. The good
generalship which won the victory of Towton may have been
due to Edward rather than to Warwick, but the new king was
of the creation of the powerful earl, who now had his reward.
For four years the government was centred undisputedly in
the hands of Warwick and his friends. The energy of his brother
John, Lord Montagu, frustrated the various attempts of the
Lancastrians in the north. In another sphere Warwick himself
was determining the lines of English policy on the basis of an
alliance with France. The power of the Nevilles seemed to be
completed by the promotion of George, the third brother, to be
archbishop of York. The first check came with the announce-
ment in September 1464 of the king's secret marriage to Elizabeth
Woodville. This was particularly distasteful to Warwick, who
had but just pledged Edward to a French match. For the time,
however, there was no open breach. The trouble began in 1466,
when Edward first made Rivers, the queen's father, treasurer,
and afterwards threw obstacles in the way of an intended
marriage between Warwick's daughter Isabel and George of
Clarence, his own next brother. Still in May 1467 Warwick
went again with the king's assent to conclude a treaty with
France. He returned to find that in his absence Edward, under
Woodville's influence, had committed himself definitely to the
Burgundian alliance. Warwick retired in dudgeon to his estates,
and began to plot in secret for his revenge. In the summer of
1469 he went over to Calais, where Isabel and Clarence were
married without the king's knowledge. Meantime he had stirred
up the rebellion of Robin of Redesdale in Yorkshire; and when
Edward was drawn nortn Warwick invaded England in arms.
The king, outmarched and outnumbered, had to yield himself
prisoner, whilst Rivers and his son John were executed. Warwick
was apparently content with the Overthrow of the Woodvilles,
and believed that he had secured Edward's submission. In
March 1470 a rebellion in Lincolnshire gave Edward an oppor-
tunity to gather an army of his own. When the king alleged
that he had found proof of Warwick's complicity, the earl, taken
by surprise, fled with Clarence to France. There, through the
instrumentality of Louis XL, he was with some difficulty
reconciled to Margaret of Anjou, and agreed to marry his second
daughter to her son. In September Warwick and Clarence, with
the Lancastrian lords, landed at Dartmouth. Edward in his
turn had to fly oversea, and for six months Warwick ruled
England as lieutenant for Henry VI., who was restored from his
prison in the Tower to a nominal throne. But the Lancastrian
restoration was unwelcome to Clarence, who began to intrigue
with his brother^ When in March 1471 Edward landed at
Ravenspur, Clarence found an opportunity to join him. Warwick
was completely outgenerailed, and at Barnet on the I4th of
April was defeated and slain.
Warwick has been made famous by Lytton as " The Last of
the Barons." The title suits him as a great feudal lord, who was
a good fighter but a poor general, who had more sympathy with
the old order than with the new culture. But he was more than
this. He had some of the qualities of a strong ruler, and the
power to command popularity. He was a skilled diplomatist
and an adroit politician. These qualities, with his position as
the head of a great family, the chief representative of Beauchamp,
Despenser, Montacute and Neville, made him during ten years
" the king-maker."
Warwick's only children were his two daughters. Anne, the
younger, was married after his death to Richard of Gloucester,
the future Richard III. Their husbands shared his inheritance
and quarrelled over its division.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Warwick of course fills a great place in con-
temporary authorities; for a note on the chief of them see
under EDWARD IV. For modern authorities see especially C. W.
Oman's brilliant but enthusiastic Warwick the King-Maker, Sir
James Ramsay's Lancaster and York, and Stubbs's Constitutional
History. (C. L. K.)
WARWICK, SIR ROBERT RICH, 2ND EARL OP (1587-1658),
colonial administrator and admiral, was the eldest son of Robert
Rich, earl of Warwick (see above) and his wife Penelope Rich
(q.v.), and succeeded to the title in 1619. Early interested in
colonial ventures, he joined the Bermudas, Guinea, New England
and Virginia companies. His enterprises involved him in
disputes with the East India Company (1617) and with the
Virginia Company, which in 1624 was suppressed through his
action. In 1627 he commanded an unsuccessful privateering
expedition against the Spaniards. His Puritan connexions and
sympathies, while gradually estranging him from the court, pro-
moted his association with the New England colonies. In 1628
he indirectly procured the patent for the Massachusetts colony,
and in 1631 he granted the " Saybrook " patent in Connecticut.
Compelled the same year to resign the presidency of the New
England Company, he continued to manage the Bermudas and
Providence Companies, the latter of which, founded in 1630,
administered Old Providence on the Mosquito coast. Mean-
while in England Warwick opposed the forced loan of 1626, the
payment of ship-money and Laud's church policy, and with his
brother the first lord Holland (q.v.) came to be recognized as one
of the heads of the Puritans. In March 1642 the Commons, in
spite of the king's veto, appointed him admiral of the fleet, and
in July he gained the whole navy for the parliament. He raised
forces in Norfolk and Essex on the outbreak of the war, and as
lord high admiral (1643-1645) he did good service in intercepting
the king's ships and relieving threatened ports. In 1643 he was
appointed head of a commission for the government of the
colonies, which the next year incorporated Providence Planta-
tions, afterwards Rhode Island, and in this capacity he exerted
himself to secure religious liberty. Reappointed lord high
admiral in May 1648, in the vain hope that his influence with the
sailors would win back the nine ships which had revolted to the
king, he collected a new fleet and blockaded them at Helvoetsluys.
Dismissed from office on the abolition of the House of Lords in
1649, he retired from public life, but was intimately associated
with Cromwell, whose daughter Frances married his grandson
and heir Robert Rich in 1657. He died on the igth of April
1658. The suspicions cast by his enemies on his religious sincerity
and political fidelity appear to be baseless.
WARWICK, a town of Merivale county, Queensland, Australia,
169 m. by rail S.W. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 3836. It lies on the
bank of the river Contadamine, in the heart of one of the best
agricultural districts in Queensland, and is perhaps the most
attractive inland town in the colony. It is well laid out with
many substantial public and private buildings, and has two large
parks, besides smaller recreation grounds. The district is famous
for its vineyards, and quantities of excellent wine are made;
wheat and maize are the principal crops, but tobacco, oats and
lucerne are largely grown. Coal is found near the town, as are
also marble, good building stone and brick clay.
WARWICK, a municipal and parliamentary borough, and the
county town of Warwickshire, England; finely situated on
the river Avon, the Warwick & Napton and Birmingham
canals, 98 m. N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 11,889. It is
served by the Great Western and the London & North-
Western railways. The parliamentary borough was united with
that of Leamington in 1885, and returns one member. Leaming-
ton lies 2 m. E., and the towns are united by the suburb of New
Milverton.
The magnificent castle of the earls of Warwick stands in
a commanding and picturesque position on a rocky eminence
above the river. Its walls, enclosing a lovely lawn and
gardens, are flanked by towers, of which Caesar's tower, 147 ft.
high, the Gateway tower and Guy's tower are the chief, dating
from the I4th century. The residential portion lies on the river
side. Excepting a few traces of earlier work, its appearance
is that of a princely mansion of the I7th century. There is
WARWICK WARWICKSHIRE
a famous collection of pictures. The Great Hall and other
apartments suffered from fire in 1871, but were restored. A vase
of marble attributed to the 4th century B.C. is preserved here; it
was discovered near Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli in Italy. Below
the castle the Avon, with thickly wooded banks, affords one of the
most exquisite reaches of river scenery in England. The church
of St Mary is principally, as it stands, a rebuilding of the time
of Queen Anne, after a fire in 1694. It appears from Domesday
that a church existed before the Conquest. It was made collegiate
by Roger de Newburgh, the second Norman earl, in 1123. At
the Dissolution Henry VIII. granted the foundation to the
burgesses of the town. The Beauchamp Chapel survived the
fire; it is a beautiful example of Perpendicular work, founded
by the will of Earl Richard Beauchamp, and built between
1443 and 1464. The fine tomb of the earl stands in the centre.
There are only scanty traces of the old town walls, but the east
and west gates remain, rendered picturesque by chapels built
above them. The priory of St Sepulchre was founded by Henry
de Newburgh and completed in the reign of Henry I., on the site
of an ancient church, for a society of canons regular. It is now
a private residence. Leicester Hospital, established by Robert
Dudley, earl of Leicester, is a picturesque example of half-timber
building. It was originally used as the hall of the united gilds
of the Holy Trinity, the Blessed Virgin and St George the
Martyr. The earl of Leicester, by an act of incorporation ob-
tained in 1571, founded the hospital for the reception of twelve
poor men possessing not more than 5 a year, and a master.
The first master, appointed by the earl himself, was the famous
Puritan, Thomas Cartwright. St John's Hospital, a foundation of
the time of Henry II., is represented by a beautiful Jacobean
mansion. There are numerous charities in the town, the principal
being those of Henry VIII., Sir Thomas White and Thomas
Oken. The first is devoted to ecclesiastical and municipal
stipends and to the King's School. By the charity of Sir Thomas
White, the sum of 100 is lent, without interest, to young trades-
men for a period of nine years. The King's School, an important
foundation for boys, dates from the reign of Edward the Con-
fessor. It occupies modern buildings. Upon the same foundation
are the high school for girls and the King's middle school. Among
public buildings are a shire haD, free library and museum.
Industries include gelatine- and brick-making, and there are
ironworks. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
Area, 5613 acres.
A famous site in the vicinity of Warwick is Guy's Cliffe, where
a modern mansion, embodying ancient remains, crowns the
precipitous rocky bank of the Avon. Here was the hermitage
of the first Guy, earl of Warwick. Blacklow Hill in the vicinity
was the scene of the execution of Piers Gaveston, the favourite
courtier of Edward II., in 1312.
Warwick (Waruric, Warrewici, Warrewyk) is said to have
been a Roman station, and was later fortified by ^Ethelflzd,
the lady of Mercia, against the Danes. At the time of the
Domesday Survey, Warwick was a royal borough, containing
261 houses, of which 130 were in the king's hands, while 19
belonged to burgesses who enjoyed all the privileges they had
had in the time of Edward the Confessor. The Conqueror granted
the borough to Henry of Newburgh, who was created earl of
Warwick, and in all probability built the castle on the site
of iEthelflaed's fortification. The Beauchamps, successors of
Henry of Newburgh as earls of Warwick, held the borough
of the king in chief. Although the borough owed its early
importance to the castle of the earls of Warwick as well as to its
position, and received a grant of a fair from John, earl of Warwick,
in 1261, it seems to have developed independently of them, and
received no charter until it was incorporated under the title of
the burgesses of Warwick in 1546 after it had come into the
king's hands by the attainder of Edward, earl of Warwick,
in 1499. Other charters were granted in 1553, 1665, 1684 and
1694, of which that of IS53 allowed the appointment of assistant
burgesses, though this was discontinued in 1698 because through
their means a candidate for the borough was elected who was not
supported by the recorder and aldermen. The charter of 1694
conferred the title of " Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses " on
the corporation, and appointed the offices of the borough.
The mayor, aldermen and assistant burgesses were to assemble
yearly at Michaelmas, and in the presence of all the burgesses
nominate two aldermen, who should elect the new mayor and
other officers. A mayor refusing office was to be fined 20, an
alderman 10 and an assistant burgess 5. In 1882 the borough
was divided into three wards, and the corporation consists of a
mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 town councillors. Warwick returned
two members to parliament from 1295, but in 1885 the number
was reduced to one. In addition to the fair granted by the earl
to the burgesses in 1261, he himself held by prescriptive right a
yearly fair in August and a market every Wednesday. Another
fair was granted in 1290, and in 1413 the fair held at Michaelmas
was changed to the feast of St Bartholomew. Fairs are now held
on the 1 2th of October and on the Monday before St Thomas's
day. A market is held every Saturday, the first charter for this
being granted in 1545. A gaol is mentioned here as early as
1 200 in a pipe roll of that year.
WARWICK, a township of Kent county, Rhode Island, U.S.A.,
about 5 m. S. of Providence, on the W. side of Narragansett Bay
(here called Providence river) and crossed by the Pawtuxet river,
which is in its lower course a part of the township's northern
boundary. Pop. (1890) 17,761; (1900) 21,316, of whom 7792
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 26,629. The township is
crossed by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway,
and electric lines serve most of its twenty-seven rather scattered
villages. The larger villages are: on the river, Pontiac, Natick,
River Point (at the junction of the two upper branches of the
Pawtuxet), Phoenix, Centreville and Crompton; on Greenwich
Bay, Apponaug and Warwick; and on Providence river,
Shawomet, Warwick Neck, Oakland Beach, Buttonwoods,
Conimicut and Long Meadow, which are summer resorts. Water
power is provided by the Pawtuxet river, and much cotton and
some woollen and print goods are manufactured. The value of
the factory product in 1905 was $7,051,971 (17-1% more than
in 1900); of the total, nine-tenths was the value of textile
products. Warwick, originally called Shawomet (Shawmut),
its Indian name, was settled in 1643 by Samuel Gorton (g.v.)
and a few followers. Gorton quarrelled with the Indians, was
carried off to Boston, was tried there for heresy, was convicted,
and was imprisoned; was released with orders to leave the
colony in March 1644, went to England, and under the patronage
of the earl of Warwick returned to his settlement in 1648 and
renamed it in honour of the earl. In 1647 the settlement entered
into a union with Providence, Newport and Portsmouth under
the Warwick (or Williams) charter of 1644, but during 1651-
1654 Warwick and Providence were temporarily separated from
the other two towns. Warwick was the birthplace of General
Nathanael Greene.
WARWICKSHIRE, a midland county of England, bounded N.
by Staffordshire, E. by Leicestershire and Northamptonshire,
S. by Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire, and W. by Worcestershire.
The area is 902-3 sq. m. The river Avon, watering a rich valley
on a line from N.E. to S.W., divides the county into two unequal
parts. The greater, lying to the N.W., drains principally to the
Trent through the rivers Cole, Blythe, Rea, Anker and minor
streams. Between these valleys, and dividing the system from
that of the Avon, the land rises in gentle undulations, and is of
plateau-like character, generally between 400 and 600 ft. in eleva-
tion. There' are considerable tracts of this nature on the western
boundary, both north and south of Birmingham, on the eastern
boundary north of Rugby, and in the centre between the Blythe,
the Anker and the Avon. From this side the Avon receives the
Swift, the Sowe and the Abie. The northern district was
distinguished by Camden as the Woodland, as opposed to the
southern or Feldon, " a plain champain." The northern wood-
land embraced the ancient forest of Arden (q.v.) and it is this
district which gave to the county the common epithets of
" woody " or " leafy." The Feldon or south-eastern district
is almost wholly in the Avon valley. From this side the
Avon receives the Learn, the Itchen and the Stour. Along the
342
WARWICKSHIRE
south-eastern boundary runs the highest line of hills in the county,
reaching some 800 ft., and including Edge Hill (which gives
name to the battle of 1642), and the Brailes, Dassett, Napton
and Shuckburgh hills. The county boundary here extends
across the highest line of hills, to include the headwaters of some
of the feeders of the Cherwell, and thus a small part of the
drainage area of the Thames. These hills rise abruptly, and
command wide views over the champaign. The finest silvan
scenery is found on the banks of the Avon; the position of Guy's
Cliffe and of Warwick Castle are well-known examples. It is not
difficult to trace the influence of the scenic characteristics of the
county in the writings of its most famous son, William Shake-
speare.
Geology. The Archean rocks are represented by some volcanic
ashes and intrusive dykes (the Caldecote Series), which are exposed
north-west of Nuneaton. They dip south-westward under the
Cambrian beds Hartshill Quartzite and Stockingford Shales
which give rise to higher ground ; the quartzite, which is opened up
in numerous large roadstone quarries, contains towards its summit
a fauna suggesting that of the Olenellus zone, one of the oldest faunas
known. The quartzite as well as the overlying shales is seamed
with intrusive dykes of diorite. A small inlier of the same shales
occurs at Dosthill, south of Tamworth. The Coal Measures of the
Warwickshire coalfield crop out in the north of the county between
Nuneaton and Tamworth and contain valuable coal-seams; they
pass conformably under the so-called Permian red sandstones and
marls which are apparently the equivalents of the Keele Beds
of Staffordshire, and like them should be grouped with the Coal
Measures; they occupy a considerable area north and west of
Coventry, and at Corley form high ground (625 ft.) ; in several places
shafts have been sunk through them to the productive Coal Measures
below. The rest of the county is occupied in the northern half by
the Triassic red rocks, and in the south-east by the Lias. Of the
Trias the Bunter (soft red sandstones with pebble-beds) is repre-
sented only between Birmingham and Sutton Coldficld, where it is
succeeded by the Keuper Sandstone, which is occasionally exposed
also around the edge of the coalfield (Tamwbrth, Coventry, Warwick,
Maxstoke) ; the Keuper Marls occupy a large area in the centre of
the county, while some sandstones in them form picturesque scarps
near Henley-in-Arden. The highly fossiliferous Rhaetic beds which
introduce the Lias are seldom exposed. The Lower Lias limestones
are worked for cement (as near Rugby) and abound in ammonites.
The Middle Lias sands and limestones follow, and form escarpments
(as at Edge Hill, 710 ft.) ; but these and the lowest members of the
Oolite series scarcely cross the county boundary from Oxfordshire.
Glacial drifts boulder-clay, sand and gravel overspread large areas
of the older rocks; their composition shows them to have been
deposited from glaciers or ice-sheets which entered the district from
the Irish Sea, from North Wales and from the North Sea. Later
fluvio-glacial gravels of the Avon valley have yielded mammalian
remains (hippopotamus, mammoth, &c.), while palaeolithic imple-
ments of quartzite have been found in the old gravels of the Rca
near Birmingham. Coal, ironstone, lime and cement are the chief
mineral products; manganese ore was formerly got from the
Cambrian rocks.
Climate and Agriculture. The climate is generally mild and
healthy. The soil is on the whole good, and consists of various
loams, marls, gravels and clays, well suited for most of the usual
crops. It is rich in pasture-land, and dairy-farming is increasing.
It has excellent orchards and market-gardens, and possesses some
of the finest woodlands in England. About five-sixths of the total
area, a high proportion, is under cultivation, and of this about two-
thirds is in permanent pasture. Oats and wheat occupy the greater
part of the area under grain crops. In connexion with the cattle-
rearing and dairy-farming, over half the acreage under green crops
is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangolds.
Industries. The industrial part of the county is the northern.
Warwickshire includes the greatest manufacturing centre of the
Midlands Birmingham, though the suburbs of that city extend
jnto Staffordshire and Worcestershire. Metal-working in all branches
is prosecuted here, besides other industries. Coventry is noted for
cycle-making,and,with Bedworth and Nuneaton and the intervening
villages, is a seat of the ribbon- and tape-makers. A small rich
coalfield occurs in the north-east, extending outside the county
northward from Coventry. Clay, limestone and other stone are
quarried at various points, and an appreciable amount of iron ore
is raised.
Communications. The main line of the London & North-Western
railway runs within the county near the N.E. boundary, by Rugby,
Nuneaton and Tamworth, with branches to Leamington and War-
wick, Coventry and Birmingham, and cross-branches. The northern
line of the Great Western railway runs through Leamington and
Warwick to Birmingham, with branches to Stratford-on-Avon and
Henley-in-Arden. The Leicester and Birmingham branch of the
Midland railway crosses the north of the county by Nuneaton, and
the Birmingham-Evesham line of this company serves Alcester.
The East and West Junction railway, from Blisworth in North-
amptonshire, serves Stratford-on-Avon and terminates at Broom
Junction on the Evesham line of the Midland. Water communii n-
tion through the east of the county is afforded by the Oxford and
Coventry canals. The Warwick & Napton canal joins the Oxford
at Napton; the Warwick & Birmingham joins these towns, and
the Stratford-on-Avon is a branch from it. The Fazeley canal runs
N.E. from Birmingham. None of the rivers is of commercial value
for navigation.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 577,462 acres, with a population in 1891 of 805,072,
and in 1901 of 897,835, the chief centres of increase lying natur-
ally in the parts about Birmingham and Coventry. The area
of the administrative county is 579,885 acres. The municipal
boroughs are: Aston Manor (pop. 77,326), Birmingham (522,204),
Coventry (69,978), Leamington, officially Royal Leamington
Spa (26,888), Nuneaton (24,996), Stratford-on-Avon (8310),
Sutton Coldfield (14,264) and Warwick (11,889), the county
town. The urban districts are: Bulkington (1548), Erdington
(16,368), Kenilworth (4544) and Rugby (16,830). Among the
towns not appearing in these lists there should be mentioned:
Alcester (2303), Atherstone (5248), Bedworth (7169), Colcshill
( 2 S93), Foleshill (5514) and Solihull (7517). Warwickshire is
in the midland circuit, and assizes are held at Warwick. It
has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 14 petty
sessional divisions. The boroughs of Birmingham, Coventry,
Royal Leamington Spa, Stratford-on-Avon, Sutton Coldfield and
Warwick have separate commissions of the peace, and the
boroughs of Birmingham and Warwick have, in addition,
separate courts of quarter sessions. The total number of civil
parishes is 267. The county, which is mostly in the diocese of
Worcester, but also extends into those of Lichfield, Gloucester,
Peterborough and Oxford, contains 297 ecclesiastical parishes
or districts, wholly or in part. Warwickshire has four parlia-
mentary divisions Northern or Tamworth, North-eastern or
Nuneaton, South-eastern or Rugby, and South-western or Strat-
ford-on-Avon, each returning one member. The parliamentary
boroughs of Aston Manor, Coventry and Warwick return one
member each, and that of Birmingham has seven divisions, each
returning one member.
Birmingham is the seat of a university, of the large grammar
school of King Edward VI., and of other important educational
institutions. At Rugby is one of the most famous of English
public schools. The King's School, Warwick, is a large boys'
school, and the Leamington High School is for girls. There is
a day training college for schoolmasters and schoolmistresses in
connexion with Mason University College, Birmingham. Among
other institutions there may be mentioned the Lady Warwick
College for the instruction of women in the higher branches of
agriculture, &c., founded by Frances, countess of Warwick, at
Reading in 1898, and subsequently removed to Studley Castle
in western Warwickshire, where there is accommodation for
50 students.
History. The earliest English settlers in the district now
known as Warwickshire were a tribe of Hwiccas who, pushing
up the Severn valley in the 6th century, made their way along
the passages afforded by the Avon valley and the Roman Fosse
Way, the extent of their settlement being indicated by the ancient
limits of the diocese of Worcester. The vast forest of Arden,
stretching from the Avon to the site of the modern Birmingham,
barred any progress northwards, at the same time affording
protection from the Anglian tribes who were already settled
about Atherstone, and it was only after the battle of Cirencester
in 628 that the whole of the Hwiccan territory was comprised
in Mercia. In 675 Cosford was included in the endowment of
Peterborough, and in 757 ^Ethelbald was slain at Seckington
in a battle with the West Saxons. The shire of Warwick origin-
ated in the loth century about ^Ethelflaed's new burgh at
Warwick, and is mentioned by name in the Saxon Chronicle in
1016, when it was harried by Canute. The Danes made frequent
incursions in the district in the loth and nth centuries, but no
traces of their settlements occur south of Rugby.
The shire offered little resistance to the Conqueror, who was
WASH, THE
343
at Warwick in 1068, and Thurkill the sheriff was one of the few
Englishmen to retain large estates which he had held before the
conquest, his family long continuing in the county under the
name of Arden. The fortification which he had raised at Warwick
William entrusted to Henry, son of Roger de Beaumont, after-
wards earl of Warwick, and Robert, count of Meulan, Henry's
cMcr brother, had an important fief. Coventry Minster was
richly endowed, and in 1285 the prior claimed among other
privileges to have an independent coroner and to hold two
courts a year. The earldom and castle of Warwick subsequently
passed to the Beauchamps, and in the reign of Henry VI. to the
Nevilles. The Clintons, founders of the castles and priories at
Maxstoke and Kenilworth, enjoyed large estates in the county
during the Norman period.
The ten Domesday hundreds of Warwickshire are now reduced
to four, all of which are mentioned in the 1 2th century. Hemling-
ford represents the Domesday hundred of Coleshill; Knightlow,
the Domesday hundreds of Bomelau, Meretone and Stanlei;
Kineton, the Domesday hundreds of Tremelau, Honesberie,
Fexhole and Berricestone; Barlichway, the Domesday hundreds
of Fernecumbe and Patelau. Coleshill took its name from Coles-
hill, a town near the junction of the Cole and the Ely the;
Hemlingford from a ford over the Tame near Kingsbury;
Knightlow from a hill on Dunsmore Heath; Meretone and
Stanlei from the villages of Marlon and Stoneleigh; Berrice-
stone from Barcheston on the Stour; Barlichway from a plot
of ground on a hill between Haselor and Burton. Patelau
hundred, which derived its name from a tumulus between
Wootton Wawen and Stratford-on-Avon, was a liberty of the
bishops of Worcester, and in the I7th century, though reckoned
part of Barlichway hundred, possessed a court leet and court
baron. The boundaries of Warwickshire have remained prac-
tically unchanged since the Domesday Survey, but Spilsbury,
now in Oxfordshire, Romsley, Shipley, Quat and Rudge, now
in Shropshire, and Chillington, now in Staffordshire, were assessed
under this county, while Sawbridge, Berkswell, Whitacre. Over
and Whichford, now in this county, were assessed under
Northamptonshire. Warwickshire was united with Leicester-
shire under one sheriff until 1566, the shire court for the former
being held at Warwick.
In the 1 3th century Warwickshire included the deaneries of
Warwick and Kineton within the archdeaconry and diocese of
Worcester; the rest of the county constituting the archdeaconry
of Coventry within the Lichfield diocese, with the deaneries
of Coventry, Stoneley, Merton and Arden. In 1836 the arch-
deaconry of Coventry was annexed to the diocese of Worcester,
and in 1854 its deaneries were entirely reconstituted and made
thirteen in number. In 1861 the deanery of Alcester was formed
within the archdeaconry of Worcester, and Kineton was divided
into North Kineton and South Kineton. In 1894 the deaneries
of Aston, Birmingham, Coleshill, Northfield, Polesworth,
Solihull and Sutton Coldfield were formed into the archdeaconry
of Birmingham, the archdeaconry of Coventry now including
the deaneries of Atherstone, Baginton, Coventry, Dasaett
Magna, Dunchurch, Leamington, Monks Kirby, Rugby and
Southam.
In the wars of the reign of Henry III. Simon de Montfort
placed Kenilworth Castle in charge of Sir John Giffard, who in
1264 attacked Warwick Castle and took prisoner the earl and
countess of Warwick, who had supported the king. During the
Wars of the Roses the Nevilles, represented by the earl of Warwick,
supported the Yorkist cause, while Coventry was a Lancastrian
stronghold. On the outbreak of the Civil War of the I yth century
Warwickshire and Staffordshire were associated for the parlia-
ment under Lord Brooke. The battle of Edgehill was fought
in 1642, and in 1643 Birmingham, then a small town noted for
its Puritanism, was sacked by Prince Rupert. Coventry endured
a siege in 1642, and skirmishes took place at Southam and
Warwick.
At the time of the Domesday Survey the industries of Warwick-
shire were almost exclusively agricultural, the extensive wood-
lands north of the Avon affording pasturage for sheep, while
meadows and water-mills were numerous in the river valleys. The
woollen industry flourished in Norman times, and Coventry was
famed for its wool and broadcloths in the reign of Edward III.
Coal was probably dug at Griff in the izth century, but the
Warwickshire collieries only came into prominence in the I7th
century, when John Briggs of Bedworth made an attempt to
monopolize the coal trade. Birmingham was already famous for
its smiths and cutlers in the i6th century. In the early i7th
century the depopulation and distress caused by the enclosures
of land for pasture led to frequent riots. The silk industry at
Coventry and the needle industry about Alcester both flourished
in the i8th century.
Warwickshire returned two members to the parliament of
1290, and in 1295 Coventry and Warwick were each represented
by two members. Tamworth returned two members in 1584.
Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four members
in two divisions; Birmingham was represented by two members,
and Tamworth was disfranchised. Under the act of 1868
the representation of Birmingham was increased to three
members.
Antiquities. Of pre-Norman architecture some traces appear in
the fine church of Wootton Wawen in the Arden (western) district.
Otherwise the type is scarce, but Saxon remains, such as burial urns
and jewelry, have been found in several places, as near Bensford
Bridge on Watling Street. For ecclesiastical architecture Coventry
with its three spires is famous, and among village churches there are
many fine examples. Of those retaining Norman portions may be
mentioned: Wolston and Berkswell in the Coventry district;
Polesworth, formerly conventual, and Curdworth in the north;
and in the south, in the neighbourhood of Edgehill, Burton Dassett,
a very noteworthy building, and Warmington. where there is a
remarkable specimen of domus inclusi or anchorite's chamber.
There are also fine examples of Decorated work, such as Knowle,
Solihull and Temple Balsall in Arden, and Brailes under the southern
hills. Among the numerous religious houses in the county several
have left remains. Such are the Cistercian foundations of Coombe
Abbey near Coventry, of the 12th century, adjoining the mansion
of that name in a beautiful park ; of Merevale near Atherstone ; and
of Stoneleigh near Kenilworth, also adjoining a famous mansion.
This abbey was a 12th-century foundation, but a majestic gatehouse
of the I4th century also stands. Maxstoke Priory, in Arden, was a
foundation for Augustinian canons of the I4th century. Wroxall
Abbey was a Benedictine nunnery of the I2th century; but the
name is given to a modern mansion. In view of the large share the
county has had in war, it is not surprising to find many examples
of great fortified houses or castles. Warwick Castle and Kenilworth
Castle, the one still a splendid residence, the other a no less splendid
ruin, are described under those towns. At HartshiH (the birthplace
of Michael Drayton the poet) there is a fragment of a Norman castle.
Among fortified mansions Maxstoke Castle is of the I4th century;
Baddesley Clinton Hall is of the isth as it stands, but is an earlier
foundation; Astley Castle is another good specimen of the period.
Compton Wyniates, once fortified, is a beautiful Elizabethan house
of bnck, so remarkably hidden in a hollow of the southern hills as
to be visible only from the closest proximity on all sides; Charles I.
lodged here during the Civil Wars. Charlecote Park is a modernized
Elizabethan hall in an exquisite situation on the Avon above Strat-
ford. Of more modern mansions Arbury Hall, Astley Castle,
Newnham Paddox, Ragley Hall and Walton Hall may be mentioned.
See Victoria County History, Warwickshire; Sir William Dugdale,
The Antiquities of Warwickshire (London, 1656; 2nd ed., 2 vols.,
London, 1730); W. Smith, A History of the County of Warwick
(Birmingham, 1830); J. T. Burgess, Historic Warwickshire (London,
1876); Early Earthworks in Warwickshire (Birmingham, 1884);
S. Timmins, History of Warwickshire (" Popular County History "
series) (London, 1889); J. Hannet, The Forest of Arden (London,
1863).
WASH, THE, a shallow bay of the North Sea, on the Lincoln-
shire and Norfolk coast of England. It is roughly square in
shape, penetrating the land for 22m., and being 20 m. wide at
the head and 12 at the mouth. Through the sandbanks which
form its bed there are two main channels into deep water; one,
Boston Deeps, is kept open by the waters of the Witham and
Welland; the other, Lynn Deeps, gives passage to those of the
Nene and the Great Ouse. The Wash is the remnant of a much
larger bay, which covered a large part of the Fens which now
border it; it is gradually filling with the deposits of the rivers,
and from time to time small portions are reclaimed (see FENS).
The flat bordering lands are protected by sea-walls. The
formerly dangerous passage of the marsh-lands, which were
liable to irruptions of the tide, is illustrated by the accident to
WASHBURN, C. C. WASHINGTON, GEORGE
344
King John in 1216 shortly before his death. Passing over
the Cross Keys Wash, near Sutton Bridge, his baggage and
treasure wagons were engulfed and he himself barely escaped
with life.
WASHBURN, CADWALLADER COLDEN (1818-1882),
American soldier and politician, was born at Livermore, Maine,
on the 22nd of April 1818. He was admitted to the bar in 1842,
and removed 'to Mineral Point, Wisconsin, where he practised
law, speculated in land and engaged in banking. He became
prominent in the Republican party, and was a member (1855-
1861) of the U.S. House of Representatives, of which his brother
Israel (1813-1883) was a member from Maine in 1851-1861; his
brother Elihu Benjamin (see below) changed the spelling
of the family surname to Washburne. At the beginning of
the Civil War he became colonel of the Second Wisconsin
Cavalry, was promoted to brigadier-general on the i6th of
July 1862 and to major-general on the 29th of November 1862,
and assisted in the capture of Vicksburg (4th July 1863), after
which he served in Texas and West Tennessee. Resigning from
the army in 1865, he became extensively interested in flour-milling
and lumbering in Wisconsin. From 1867 to 1871 he was again
a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, and subsequently
served one term (1872-1874) as governor of Wisconsin.
WASHBURN, a city and the county-seat of Bayfield county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 52 m. E. of Superior, Wis., and about
6 m. N. of Ashland, on Chequamegon Bay, an arm of Lake
Superior. Pop. (1910) 3830. Washburn is served by the
Northern Pacific and the Chicago & North-Western railways,
and by several lines of lake steamships. The city is finely
situated on high land above the bay, and is a popular summer
resort, being especially well known for its boating and fishing.
It has a Carnegie library. Among its manufactures are staves,
shingles, lumber, wooden ware and bricks. There is a powder
and dynamite plant in the vicinity. In the city there are also
grain elevators and large coal docks, and in the neighbourhood
are valuable stone quarries. In 1659 Radisson and Groseilliers
touched here on their trip along the south shore of Lake Superior.
In 1665 Father Claude Allouez, the Jesuit, established on the
shore of the bay, a short distance south of the present city, the
first French mission in Wisconsin, which he named " La Pointe
du Saint Esprit," and which in 1669 was placed in charge of
Father Jacques Marquette. The place was visited by Du Luth
in 1681-1682, and here in 1693 Le Sueur, a fur trader, built a
stockaded post. In 1718 a fort was erected and a French garrison
placed in it. About 1820-1821 a trading post of the American
Fur Company was established in the neighbourhood. The
present city, named in honour of Governor C. C. Washburn,
dates from about 1879, but its growth was slow until after 1888.
It was chartered as a city in 1904.
WASHBURNE, ELIHU BENJAMIN (1816-1887), American
statesman, born in Livermore, Maine, on the 23rd of September
1816. He was one of seven brothers, of whom four sat in Congress
from as many different states. He received a common school
education, graduated at the Harvard Law School in 1839,
and was soon afterwards admitted to the bar. In 1840 he
removed to Galena, Illinois. He was elected to Congress in
1852, where, first as a Whig and afterwards as a Republican,
he represented his district continuously until 1869, taking a
prominent part in debate, and earning the name " watch-dog
of the Treasury " by his consistent and vigorous opposition to
extravagant and unwise appropriations. He contributed much
to aid General Grant during the Civil War, and the latter on
becoming President made Washburne secretary of state. On
account of ill-health, however, he served only twelve days,
and was then appointed minister to France, where during the
Franco-Prussian War and the Commune he won much distinction
as protector of German and other foreign citizens in Paris. He
was the only foreign minister who remained at his post during
the Commune. In 1877 he retired from public life, and died in
Chicago, 111., on the 22nd of October 1887. He published
Recollections of a Minister to France (2 vols., 1887), and edited
The Edwards Papers (1884).
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1850- ),
American negro teacher and reformer, was born on a plantation
near Hale's Ford, Franklin county, Virginia. Soon after the
Civil War he went to Maiden, West Virginia, where he worked
in a salt furnace and then in a coal mine. He obtained an
elementary education at night school, and worked as a house
servant in a family where his ambition for knowledge was
encouraged. In 1872 " by walking, begging rides both in wagons
and in the cars " he travelled 500 m. to the Hampton (Virginia)
Normal and Agricultural Institute, where he remained three
years, working as janitor for his board and education, and
graduated in 1875. For two years he taught at Maiden, West
Virginia, and studied for eight months (1878-1879) at the Way-
land Seminary hi Washington, D.C. In 1879 he became in-
structor at the Hampton Institute, where he trained about
seventy-five American Indians with whom General S. C.
Armstrong was carrying on an educational experiment, and
he developed the night school, which became one of the most
important features of the institution. In 1881 he was appointed
organizer and principal of a negro normal school at Tuskegee,
Alabama (q.ii.), for which the state legislature had made an annual
appropriation of $2000. Opened in July 1881 in a little shanty
and church, the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute
became, under Washington's presidency, the foremost exponent
of industrial education for the negro. To promote its interests
and to establish better understanding between whites and
blacks, Washington delivered many addresses throughout the
United States, notably a speech in 1895 at the opening of the
Atlanta Cotton States and International Exposition. In 1900
at Boston, Massachusetts, he organized the National Negro
Business League. Harvard conferred upon him the honorary
degree of A.M. in 1896, and Dartmouth that of LL.D. in 1901.
Among his publications are a remarkable autobiography, Up
from Slavery (1901), The Future of the American Negro (1899),
Sowing and Reaping (1900), Character Building (1902), Working with
the Hands (1904), Tuskegee and its People (1905), Putting the most into
Life (1906), Life of Frederick Douglass (1907), The Negro in Business
(1907) and The Story of the Negro (1909).
WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829), American jurist,
nephew of George Washington, was born in Westmoreland
county, Virginia, on the isth of June 1762. He graduated in
1 778 at the College of William and Mary, where he was an original
member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society; was a member of a
volunteer cavalry troop in 1780; studied law in Philadelphia
in 1781, and began practice in his native county. He served in
the House of Delegates in 1787, and in the following year sat
in the convention which ratified for Virginia the Federal Con-
stitution. After living in Alexandria for a short time he removed
to Richmond and in 1798 was appointed an associate justice
of the United States Supreme Court by President John Adams.
He was George Washington's literary executor, and supervised
the preparation of John Marshall's Life of Washington (5 vols.,
1804-1807) ; and on Mrs Washington's death in 1802 he inherited
Mount Vernon and a part of the estate. He died in Philadelphia
on the 26th of November 1829.
WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799), the first president
of the United States, was born at Bridges Creek, Westmoreland
county, Virginia, on the 22nd (Old Style nth) of February
1732. The genealogical researches of Mr Henry E. Waters
seem to have established the connexion of the family with the
Washingtons of Sulgrave, Northamptonshire, England. The
brothers John and Lawrence Washington appear in Virginia
in 1658. John took up land at Bridges Creek, became a member
of the House of Burgesses in 1666, and died in 1676. His eldest
son, Lawrence, married Mildred Warner, by whom he had three
children John, Augustine (1694-1 743) and Mildred. Augustine
Washington married twice. By the first marriage, with Jane
Butler, there were four children, tw6 of whom, Lawrence and
Augustine, grew to manhood. By the second marriage, in 1730,
with Mary Ball, descendant of a family which migrated to
Virginia in 1657, there were six children George, Betty, Samuel,
John, Charles and Mildred. Upon the death of the father,
Lawrence inherited the estate at Hunting Creek, on the Potomac,
WASHINGTON, GEORGE
345
later known as Mount Vernon, and George the estate on the
Rappahannock, nearly opposite Fredericksburg, where his
father usually lived.
Of Washington's early life little is known, probably because
there was little unusual to tell. The story of the hatchet and
the cherry-tree, and similar tales, are undoubtedly apocryphal,
having been coined by Washington's most popular biographer,
Mason. Weems (d. 1825). l There is nothing to show that the
boy's life was markedly different from that common to Virginia
families in easy circumstances; plantation affairs, hunting,
fishing, and a little reading making up its substance. From 1735
to 1739 he lived at what is now called Mount Vernon, and after-
I wards at the estate on the Rappahannock. His education was
only elementary and very defective, except in mathematics,
in which he was largely self-taught; and although at his death
he left a considerable library, he was never an assiduous reader.
Although he had throughout his life a good deal of official contact
with the French, he never mastered their language. Some
careful reading of good books there must have been, however,
for in spite of pervading illiteracy, common in that age, in matters
of grammar and spelling, he acquired a dignified and effective
English style. The texts of his writings, as published by Jared
Sparks, have been so " edited " in these respects as to destroy
(their value as evidence; but the edition of Mr Worthington C.
Ford restores the original texts. Washington left school in the
autumn of 1747, and from this time we begin to know something
of his life. He was then at Mount Vernon with his half-brother
Lawrence, who was also his guardian. Lawrence was a son-in-law
of William Fairfax, proprietor of the neighbouring plantation of
Belvoir, and agent for the extensive Fairfax lands in the colony.
Lawrence had served with Fairfax at Cartagena, and had made
the acquaintance of Admiral Edward Vernon, from whom Mount
Vernon was named. The story that a commission as midshipman
was obtained for George through the good offices of the admiral,
but that the opposition of the boy's mother put an end to the
scheme, seems to lack proof. In 1748, however, through the
influence of Thomas, Lord Fairfax, the head of the family, who
had come to America to live, Washington, then only sixteen years
of age, was appointed surveyor of the Fairfax property; and an
appointment as public surveyor soon followed. The next three
years were spent in this service, most of the time on the frontier.
He always retained a disposition to speculate in western lands,
the ultimate value of which he early appreciated; many of his
later investments of this character are treated in C. W. Butter-
field's Washington-Crawford Letters (1877). He seems, too, to
have impressed others already with his force of mind and char-
acter. In 1751 he accompanied his half-brother Lawrence, who
was stricken with consumption, to the West Indies, where he
had an attack of small-pox which left him marked for life.
Lawrence died in the following year, making George executor
under the will and residuary heir of Mount Vernon; and the
latter estate became his in 1761.
In October 1753, on the eve of the last French and Indian war,
Washington was chosen by Governor Robert Dinwiddie as the
agent to warn the French away from their new posts on the
Ohio, in western Pennsylvania. He accomplished the winter
journey safely, though with considerable danger and hardship;
and shortly after his return was appointed lieutenant-colonel of
a Virginia regiment, under Colonel Joshua Fry. In April 1754
he set out with two companies for the Ohio, defeated (28th May)
a force of French and Indians at Great Meadows (in the present
Fayette county, Pennsylvania), but at Fort Necessity in this
vicinity was forced to capitulate (3rd July), though only after a
vigorous defence. For his services he received the thanks of
the House of Burgesses. When General Edward Braddock
arrived in Virginia in February 1755, Washington wrote him a
diplomatically worded letter, and was presently made a member
1 Weems was a Protestant Episcopal clergyman, who first published
a brief biography of Washington in 1800, and later (1806) consider-
ably expanded it and introduced various apocryphal anecdotes.
The biography, though worthless, had an immense circulation, and
is to a considerable degree responsible for the traditional conception
of Washington.
of the staff, with the rank of colonel. His personal relations with
Braddock were friendly throughout, and in the calamitous defeat
he showed for the first time that fiery energy which always lay
hidden beneath his calm and unruffled exterior. He ranged the
whole field on horseback, making himself the most conspicuous
target for Indian bullets, and, in spite of what he called the
" dastardly behaviour " of the regular troops, saved the expedi-
tion from annihilation, and brought the remnant of his Virginians
out of action in fair order. In spite of his reckless exposure,
he was one of the few unwounded officers. In August, after his
return, he was commissioned commander of the Virginia forces,
being then twenty-three years old. For about two years his task
was that of " defending a frontier of more than 350 m. with
700 men," a task rendered the more difficult by the insub-
ordination and irregular service of his soldiers, and by irritating
controversies over official precedence. To settle the latter
question he made a journey to Boston, in 1756, to confer with
Governor William Shirley. In the winter of 1757 his health
broke down, but in the next year he had the pleasure of com-
manding the advance guard of the expedition under General
John Forbes which occupied Fort Duquesne and renamed it
Fort Pitt. (See PITTSBURG: History.) At the end of the year
he resigned his commission, the war in Virginia being at an end,
and in January 1759 married Martha Dandridge (1732-1802),
widow of Daniel Parke Custis.
For the next fifteen years Washington's life at Mount Vernon,
where he made his home after his marriage, was that of a typical
Virginia planter of the more prosperous sort, a consistent member
and vestryman of the Established (Episcopal) Church, a large
slave-holder, a strict but considerate master, and a widely
trusted man of affairs. His extraordinary escape in Braddock's
defeat had led a colonial preacher to declare in a sermon his
belief that the young man had been preserved to be " the
saviour of his country "; but if there was any such impression
it soon died away, and Washington gave his associates no reason
to consider him a man of uncommon endowments. His marriage
brought him an increase of about $100,000 in his property, mak-
ing him one of the richest men in the colonies; and he was able
to develop his plantation and enlarge its extent. His attitude
towards slavery has been much discussed, but it does not seem
to have been different from that of many other planters of that
day: he did not think highly of the system, but had no invincible
repugnance to it, and saw no way of getting rid of it. In his
treatment of slaves he was exacting, but not harsh, and was
averse to selling them save in case of necessity. His diaries show
a minutely methodical conduct of business, generous indulgence
in hunting, comparatively little reading and a wide acquaintance
with the leading men of the colonies, but no marked indications of
what is usually considered to be " greatness." As in the case of
Lincoln, he was educated into greatness by the increasing weight
of his responsibilities and the manner in which he met them.
Like others of the dominant planter class in Virginia, he was
repeatedly elected to the House of Burgesses, but the business
which came before the colonial assembly was for some years of
only local importance, and he is not known to have made any
set speeches in the House, or to have said anything beyond a state-
ment of his opinion and the reasons for it. He was present on
the 29th of May 1765, when Patrick Henry introduced his famous
resolutions against the Stamp Act. That he thought a great deal
on public questions, and took full advantage of his legislative
experience as a means of political education, is shown by his
letter of the 5th of April 1769 to his neighbour, George Mason,
communicating the Philadelphia non-importation resolutions,
which had just reached him. In this he considers briefly the
best means of peaceable resistance to the policy of the ministry,
but even at that early date faces frankly and fully the probable
final necessity of resisting by force, and endorses it, though only
as a last resort. In May following, when the House of Burgesses
was dissolved, he was among the members who met at the
Raleigh tavern and adopted a non-importation agreement; and
he 'himself kept the agreement when others did not. Though
on friendly terms with Governor Norborne Berkeley, Baron
34-6
WASHINGTON, GEORGE
Botetourt and his successor, John Murray, earl of Dunmore, he
nevertheless took a prominent part, though without speech-
making, in the struggles of the Assembly against Dunmore,
and his position was always a radical one. As the breach
widened, he even opposed petitions to the king and parliament,
on the ground that the claims to taxation and control had been
put forward by the ministry on the basis of right, not of ex-
pediency, that the ministry could not abandon the claim of
right and the colonies could not admit it, and that petitions
must be, as they already had been, rejected. " Shall we,"
he writes in a letter, " after this whine and cry for relief? "
On the sth of August 1774 the Virginia convention appointed
Washington as one of seven delegates to the first Continental
Congress, which met at Philadelphia on the 5th of September,
and with this appointment his national career, which was to
continue with but two brief intervals until his death, begins.
His letters during his service in Congress show that he had fully
grasped the questions at issue, that he was under no delusions
as to the outcome of the struggle over taxation, and that he
expected war. " More blood will be spilled on this occasion," he
wrote, " if the ministry are determined to push matters to
extremity, than history has ever yet furnished instances of in
the annals of North America." His associates in Congress at
once recognized his military ability, and although he was not a
member of any of the committees of the Congress, he seems to
have aided materially in securing the endorsement by Congress
of the Suffolk county, Massachusetts, resolves (see MILTON,
Mass.) looking towards organized resistance. On the adjourn-
ment of the Congress he returned to Virginia, where he con-
tinued to be active, as a member of the House of Burgesses,
in urging on the organization, equipment and training of troops,
and even undertook in person to drill volunteers. His attitude
towards the mother country at this time, however, must not
be misunderstood. Much as he expected war, he was not yet
ready to declare in favour of independence, and he did not
ally himself with the party of independence until the course
of events made the adoption of any other course impossible.
In March 1775 he was appointed a delegate from Virginia to
the second Continental Congress, where he served on committees
for fortifying New York, collecting ammunition, raising money
and formulating army rules. It seems to have been generally
understood that, in case of war, Virginia would expect him to
act as her commander-in-chief, and it was noticed that, in the
second Congress, he was the only member who habitually appeared
in uniform. History, however, was to settle the matter on
broader lines. The two most powerful colonies were Virginia
and Massachusetts. The war began in Massachusetts, troops
from New England flocking to the neighbourhood of Boston
almost spontaneously; but the resistance, if it was to be effective,
must have the support of the colonies to the southward, and
the Virginia colonel who was serving on all the military com-
mittees of Congress, and whose experience in the Braddock
campaign had made his name favourably known in England,
was the obvious as well as the politic choice. When Congress,
after the fights at Lexington and Concord, resolved that the
colonies ought to be put in a position of defence, the first practical
step was the unanimous selection (June 15), on motion of John
Adams of Massachusetts, of Washington as commander-in-chief
of the armed forces of the United Colonies. Refusing any salary
and asking only the reimbursement of his expenses, he accepted
the position, asking " every gentleman in the room," however,
to remember his declaration that he did not believe himself to
be equal to the command, and that he accepted it only as a duty
made imperative by the unanimity of the call. He reiterated
this belief in private letters even to his wife; and there seems
to be no doubt that, to the day of his death, he was the most
determined sceptic as to his fitness for the positions to which he
was successively called. He was commissioned on the I7th of
June 1775, set out at once for Cambridge, Mass., and on the 3rd
of July took command of the levies there assembled for action
against the British garrison in Boston. The battle of Bunker
Hill had already taken place, news of it reaching him on the way
north. Until the following March, Washington's work was to
bring about some semblance of military organization and
discipline, to collect ammunition and military stores, to corre-
spond with Congress and the colonial authorities, to guide
military operations in widely separate parts of the country,
to create a military system for a people entirely unaccustomed
to such a thing and impatient and suspicious under it, and to
bend the course of events steadily towards driving the British
out of Boston. He planned the expeditions against Canada
under Richard Montgomery and Benedict Arnold, and sent
out privateers to harass British commerce. It is not easy to see
how Washington survived the year 1775; the colonial poverty,
the exasperating annoyances, the outspoken criticism of those
who demanded active operations, the personal and party dis-
sensions in Congress, the selfishness or stupidity which cropped
out again and again _ among some of the most patriotic of his
coadjutors were enough to have broken down most men. They
completed his training. The change in this one winter is very
evident. If he was not a great man when he went to Cambridge,
he was both a general and a statesman in the fullest sense when he
drove the British out of Boston in March 1776. From that time
until his death he was admittedly the foremost man of the
continent.
The military operations of the remainder of the War of Inde-
pendence are described elsewhere (see AMERICAN WAR OF
INDEPENDENCE). Washington's retreat through New Jersey;
the manner in which he turned and struck his pursuers at Trenton
and Princeton, and then established himself at Morristown, so as
to make the way to Philadelphia impassable; the vigour with
which he handled his army at the Brandy wine and Germantown;
the persistence with which he held the strategic position of Valley
Forge through the dreadful winter of 1777-1778, in spite of the
misery of his men, the clamours of the people and the impotence
and meddling of the fugitive Congress all went to show that the
fibre of his public character had been hardened to its permanent
quality. " These are the times that try men's souls," wrote
Thomas Paine at the beginning of 1776, and the words had added
meaning in each year that followed; but Washington had no
need to fear the test. The spirit which culminated in the treason
of Benedict Arnold was a serious addition to his burdens; for
what Arnold did others were almost ready to do. Many of the
American officers, too, had taken offence at the close personal
friendship which had sprung up between the marquis de La
Fayette and Washington, and at the diplomatic deference which
the commander-in-chief felt compelled to show to other foreign
officers. Some of the foreign volunteers were eventually dis-
missed politely by Congress, on the ground that suitable employ-
ment could not be found for them. The name of one of them,
Thomas Conway, an Irish soldier of fortune from the French
service, is attached to what is called " Conway's Cabal," a scheme
for superseding Washington by General Horatio Gates, who in
October 1777 succeeded in forcing Burgoyne to capitulate at
Saratoga, and who had been persistent in his depreciation of the
commander-in-chief and in intrigues with members of Congress.
A number of officers, as well as of men in civil life, were mixed up
in the plot, while the methods employed were the lowest forms
of anonymous slander; but at the first breath of exposure
every one concerned hurried to cover up his part in it, leaving
Conway to shoulder both the responsibility and the disgrace.
The treaty of alliance of 1778 with France, following the sur-
render of Burgoyne, put an end to all such plans. It was absurd
to expect foreign nations to deal with a second-rate man as
commander-in-chief while Washington was in the field, and he
seems to have had no further trouble of this kind. The prompt
and vigorous pursuit of Sir Henry Clinton across New Jersey
towards New York, and the battle of Monmouth, in which the
plan of battle was thwarted by Charles Lee, another foreign
recruit of popular reputation, closed the military record of
Washington, so far as active campaigning was concerned, until
the end of the war. The British confined their operations to
other parts of the continent, and Washington, alive as ever to
the importance of keeping up connexion with New England,
WASHINGTON, GEORGE
347
ted himself to watching the British in and about New York
City. It was in every way fitting, however, that he who had been
the mainspring of the war from the beginning, and had borne far
than his share of its burdens and discouragements, should
eiul it with the campaign of Yorktown, conceived by himself,
he surrender of Cornwallis (October 1781). Although peace
not concluded until September 1783, there was no more
riant fighting. Washington retained his commission until
$rd of December 1783, when, in a memorable scene, he
returned it to Congress, then in session at Annapolis, Md.,
retired to Mount Vernon. His expenses during the war,
ling secret service money, aggregated about $64,000; in
ion he expended a considerable amount from his private
fortune, for which he made no claim to reimbursement.
By this time the popular canonization of Washington had
fairly begun. He occupied a position in American public life
and in the American political system which no man could
possibly hold again. He may be said to have become a political
element quite apart from the Union, or the states, or the people
of either. In a country in which newspapers had at best only
a local circulation, and where communication was still slow and
ult, the knowledge that Washington favoured anything
superseded, with very many men, b~oth argument and the necessity
of information. His constant correspondence with the governors
of the states gave him a quasi-paternal attitude towards govern-
ment in general. On relinquishing his command, for example,
he was able to do what no other man could have done with
r propriety or safety: he addressed a circular letter to the
governors, pointing but changes in the existing form of govern-
ment which he believed to be necessary, and urging " an in-
'uble union of the states under one federal head," " a
regard to public justice," the adoption of a suitable military
lishment for a time of peace, and the making of " those
mutual concessions which are requisite to the general prosperity."
His refusal to accept a salary, either as commander-in-chief
or as president, might have been taken as affectation or im-
pertinence in any one else; it seemed natural and proper enough
in the case of Washington, but it was his peculiar privilege.
It i-> even possible that he might have had. a crown, had he
been willing to accept it. The army, at the end of the war,
was justly dissatisfied with its treatment. The officers were
called to meet at Newburgh, and it was the avowed purpose
of the leaders of the movement to march the army westward,
appropriate vacant public lands as part compensation for arrears
of pay, leave Congress to negotiate for peace without an army,
and " mock at their calamity and laugh when their fear cometh."
Less publicly avowed was the purpose to make their commander-
in-chief king, if he could be persuaded to aid in establishing a
monarchy. Washington put a summary stop to the whole pro-
ceeding. A letter written to him by Colonel Lewis Nicola, on be-
half of this coterie, detailed the weakness of a republican form of
government as they had experienced it, their desire for " mixed
government," with him at its head, and their belief that " the
title of king " would be objectionable to but few and of material
advantage to the country. His reply was peremptory and
indignant. In plain terms he stated his abhorrence of the
proposal; he vas at a loss to conceive what part of his conduct
could have encouraged their address; they could not have
found " a person to whom their schemes were more disagree-
able "; and he charged them, " if you have any regard for your-
self or posterity, or respect for me, to banish these thoughts
from your mind, and never communicate, as from yourself
or any one else, a sentiment of the like nature." His influence,
and his alone, secured the quiet disbanding of the discontented
army. That influence was as powerful after he had retired to
Mount Vernon as before the resignation of his command. The
Society of the Cincinnati, an organization composed of officers
of the late war, chose him as its first president; but he insisted
that the Society should abandon its plan of hereditary member-
ship, and change other features of the organization against which
there had been public clamour. When the legislature of Virginia
gave him 150 shares of stock in companies formed for the
improvement of the Potomac and James rivers, and he was
unable to refuse them lest his action should be misinterpreted,
he extricated himself by giving them to educational institutions.
His voluminous correspondence shows his continued concern
for a standing army and the immediate possession of the western
military posts, and his interest in the development of the
western territory. From public men in all parts of the country
he received such a store of suggestions as came to no other man,
digested it, and was enabled by means of it to speak with what
seemed infallible wisdom. In the midst of a burden of letter-
writing, the minute details in his diaries of tree-planting and
rotation of crops, and his increasing reading on the political
side of history, he found time to entertain a stream of visitors
from all parts of the United States and from abroad. Among
these, in March 1785, were the commissioners from Virginia and
Maryland, who met at Alexandria (q.v.) to form a commercial
code for Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac, and made an oppor-
tunity to visit Mount Vernou. From that moment the current
of events, leading into the Annapolis Convention (see ANNA-
POLIS, Md.) of 1786 and the Federal Convention of the follow-
ing year, shows Washington's close supervision at every point.
When the Federal Convention met at Philadelphia in May
1 787 to frame the present constitution, Washington was present
as a delegate from Virginia, though much against his will; and
a unanimous vote at once made him the presiding officer. Natur-
ally, therefore, he did not participate in debate; and he seems
to have spoken but once, and then to favour an amendment
reducing from 40,000 to 30,000 the minimum population required
as a basis of representation in the House. The mere suggestion,
coming from him, was sufficient, and the change was at once
agreed to. He approved the constitution which was decided
upon, believing, as he said, " that it was the best constitution
which could be obtained at that epoch, and that this or a dissolu-
tion awaits our choice, and is the only alternative." As president
of the convention he signed the constitution, and kept the papers
of the convention until the adoption of the new government,
when they were deposited in the Department of State. All his
vast influence was given to secure the ratification of the new
instrument, and his influence was probably decisive. When
enough states had ratified to assure the success of the new
government, and the time came to elect a president, there was
no hesitation. The office of president had been " cut to fit the
measure of George Washington," and no one thought of any
other person in connexion with it. The unanimous vote of the
electors made him the first president of the United States;
their unanimous vote elected him for a second time in 1792-
1793; and even after he had positively refused to serve for a
third term, two electors voted for him in 1796-1797. The public
events of his presidency are given, elsewhere (see UNITED STATES,
History). While the success of the new government was the work
of many men and many causes, one cannot resist the conviction
that the factor of chief importance was the existence, at the head
of the executive department, of such a character as Washington.
It was he who gave to official intercourse formal dignity and
distinction. It was he who secured for the president the power
of removal from office without the intervention of the Senate.
His support of Hamilton's financial plans not only insured a
speedy restoration of public credit, but also, and even more
important, gave the new government constitutional ground on
which to stand; while his firmness in dealing with the " Whisky
Insurrection " taught a much-needed and wholesome lesson of
respect for the Federal power. His official visits to New England
in 1789, to Rhode Island in 1790 and to the South in 1791
enabled him to test public opinion at the same time that they
increased popular interest in the national government. Himself
not a political partisan, he held the two natural parties apart,
and prevented party contest, until the government had become
too firmly established to be shaken by them. Perhaps the final
result would not in any case have failed, even had " blood and
iron " been necessary to bring it about; but the quiet attainment
of the result was due to the personality of Washington, as well
as to the political sense of the American people.
WASHINGTON, GEORGE
It would be a great mistake to suppose, however, that the
influence of the president was fairly appreciated during his
term of office, or that he himself was uniformly respected.
Washington seems never to have understood fully either the
nature, the significance, or the inevitable necessity of party
government in a republic. Instead, he attempted to balance
party against party, selected representatives of opposing political
views to serve in his first cabinet, and sought in that way to
neutralize the effects of parties. The consequence was that
the two leading members of the cabinet, Alexander Hamilton
and Thomas Jefferson, exponents for the most part of diametric-
ally opposite political doctrines, soon occupied the position, to
use the words of one of them, of " two game-cocks in a pit."
The unconscious drift of Washington's mind was toward the
Federalist party; his letters to La Fayette and to Patrick Henry,
in December 1798 and January 1799, make that evident even
without the record of his earlier career as president. It is in-
conceivable that, to a man with his type of mind and his extra-
ordinary experience, the practical sagacity, farsightedness and
aggressive courage of the Federalists should not have seemed
to embody the best political wisdom, however little he may have
been disposed to ally himself with any party group or subscribe
to any comprehensive creed. Accordingly, when the Democratic-
Republican party came to be formed, about 1793, it was not to
be expected that its leaders would long submit with patience to
the continual interposition of Washington's name and influence
between themselves and their opponents; but they maintained
a calm exterior. Some of their followers were less discreet.
The president's proclamation of neutrality, in the war between
England and France, excited them to anger; his support of
Jay's treaty with Great Britain roused them to fury. His
firmness in thwarting the activities of Edmond Charles Edouard
Genet, minister from France, alienated the partisans of France;
his suppression of the " Whisky Insurrection " aroused in some
the fear of a military despotism. Forged letters, purporting
to show his desire to abandon the revolutionary struggle, were
published; he was accused of drawing more than his salary;
his manners were ridiculed as "aping monarchy"; hints of
the propriety of a guillotine for his benefit began to appear;
he was spoken of as the " stepfather of his country." The brutal
attacks, exceeding in virulence anything that would be tolerated
to-day, embittered his presidency, especially during his second
term: in 1793 he is reported to have declared, in a cabinet
meeting, that " he would rather be in his grave than in his
present situation," and that " he had never repented but once
the having slipped the moment of resigning his office, and that
was every moment since." The most unpleasant portions of
Jefferson's Anas are those in which, with an air of psychological
dissection, he details the storms of passion into which the president
was driven by the newspaper attacks upon him. There is no
reason to believe, however, that these attacks represented the
feeling of any save a small minority of the politicians; the people
never wavered in their devotion to the president, and his election
would have been unanimous in 1796, as in 1792 and 1789, had
he been willing to serve.
He retired from the presidency in I797, 1 and returned to Mount
Vernon, his journey thither being marked by popular demon-
strations of affection and esteem. At Mount Vernon, which had
suffered from neglect during his absence, he resumed the planta-
tion life which he loved, the society of his family, and the care
of his slaves. He had resolved some time before never to obtain
another slave, and " wished from his soul " that Virginia could
be persuaded to abok'sh slavery; " it might prevent much future
mischief"; but the unprecedented profitableness of the cotton
industry, under the impetus of the recently invented cotton
gin, had already begun to change public sentiment regarding
slavery, and Washington was too old to attempt further innova-
tions. Visitors continued to flock to him, and his correspondence,
as always, took a wide range. In 1798 he was made commander-
in-chief of the provisional army raised in anticipation of war with
1 He had previously, under date of the I7th of September 1796,
issued a notable " Farewell Address " to the American people.
France, and was fretted almost beyond endurance by the quarrels
of Federalist politicians over the distribution of commissions.
In the midst of these military preparations he was struck down
by sudden illness, which lasted but for a day, and died at Mount
Vernon on the I4th of December 1799. His disorder was an
oedernatous affection of the wind-pipe, contracted by exposure
during a long ride in a snowstorm, and aggravated by neglect
and by such contemporary remedies as bleeding, gargles of
" molasses, vinegar and butter " and " vinegar and sage tea,"
which " almost suffocated him," and a blister of cantharides
on the throat. He died as simply as he had lived ; his last words
were only business directions, affectionate remembrances- to
relatives, and repeated apologies to the physicians and attendants
for the trouble he was giving them. Just before he died, says
his secretary, Tobias Lear, he felt his own pulse; his countenance
changed; the attending physician placed his hands over the
eyes of the dying man, " and he expired without a struggle or
a sigh." The third of the series of resolutions introduced in
the House of Representatives five days after his death, by John
Marshall of Virginia, later chief-justice of the Supreme Court,
states exactly, if somewhat rhetorically, the position of Washing-
tion in American history: " first in war, first in peace, and first
in the hearts of his countrymen." 2 His will contained a pro-
vision freeing his slaves, and a request that no oration be pro-
nounced at his funeral. His remains rest in the family vault
at Mount Vernon (?..), which since 1860 has been held by an
association, practically as national property.
All contemporary accounts agree that Washington was of
imposing presence. He measured just 6 ft. when prepared for
burial; but his height in his prime, as given in his orders for
clothes from London, was 3 in. more. La Fayette says
that his hands were " the largest he ever saw on a man."
Custis says that his complexion was " fair, but considerably
florid." His weight was about 220 Ib. Evidently it was his
extraordinary dignify and poise, forbidding even the suggestion
of familiarity, quite as much as his stature, that impressed those
who knew him. The various and widely-differing portraits of
him find exhaustive treatment in the seventh volume of Justin
Wiusor's Narrative and Critical History of America. Winsor
thinks that " the favourite profile has been unquestionably
Houdon's, with Gilbert Stuart's canvas for the full face, and
probably John Trumbull's for the figure." Stuart's face, however,
with its calm and benign expression, has fixed the populai
notion of Washington.
Washington was childless: the people of his time said he
was the father only of his country. Collateral branches of the
family have given the Lees, the Custises, and other families a
claim to an infusion of the blood.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A complete bibliography of books relating to
Washington would be very voluminous. The best edition of his
Writings is that of W. C. Ford (14 vols., New York, 1889-1893).
Sparks's edition (12 vols., Boston, 1837) has in the main been super-
seded, though it contains some papers not included by Ford, and the
Life, which comprises vol. i., still has value. J. D. Richardson's
Messages and Papers of the Presidents (vol. i., Washington, 1896)
collects the presidential messages and proclamations, with a few
omissions. A descriptive list of biographies and biographical
sketches is given in W. S. Baker's Bibliotheca Washingtoniana
(Philadelphia, 1889). The most important lives are those of John
Marshall (Philadelphia, 1804-1807), David Ramsay (New York,
1807), Washington Irving (New York, 1855-1859), E. E. Hale (New
York, 1888), H. C. Lodge (Boston, 1889; rev. ed., 1898), B. T.
Thayer (New York, 1894) and Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1897).
Valuable for their presentation of differing aspects of Washington's
career are: W. S. Baker's Itinerary of Washington (Philadelphia,
1892), H. B. Carrington's Washington the Soldier (New York, 1899),
G. W. P. Custis's Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington
(New York, 1860), P. L. Ford's True George Washington (Phila-
delphia, 1896) and R. Rush's Washington in Domestic Life (Phila-
delphia 1857). The larger comprehensive histories of the United
States by Bancroft, Hildreth, Winsor, McMaster, Von Hoist, Schouler
and Avery, the biographies in the " American Statesmen " series,
and Hart s " American Nation " series, are indispensable. There
is an interesting attempt to make a composite portrait of Washington
in Science (December 11, 1885). (W.MAcD.*)
1 This characterization originated with Henry Lee.
WASHINGTON
349
WASHINGTON, a city and the capital of the United States
of America, coterminous with the District of Columbia, on the
north-east bank of the Potomac river at the head of tide and
navigation, 40 m. S.W. of Baltimore, 135 m. S.W. of Philadelphia,
and 225 m. S.W. of New York. Area, 60 sq. m. (exclusive of
10 sq. m. of water surface). Pop. (1890) 230,392; (1900)
278,718, of whom 20,119 were foreign-born and 87,186 were
negroes; (1910) 331,069. The city proper covers only about
10 sq. m. lying between the Anacostia river and Rock Creek,
and rising from the low bank of the Potomac, which is here
nearly i m. wide; above are encircling hills and a broken
plateau, which rise to a maximum height of 420 ft. and contain
the former city of Georgetown, the villages of Anacostia,
Brightwood, Tennallytown, and other suburban districts.
Streets and Parks. The original plan of the city, which was
prepared by Major Pierre Charles L'Enfant (1755-1825), under
the supervision of President Washington and Thomas Jefferson, 1
was a masterpiece in landscape architecture and in the main
it has been preserved. Besides streets running east and west,
which are named by the letters of the alphabet, and streets
running north and south, which are numbered, there are avenues
named for various states, which radiate from two foci the
Capitol and the White House or traverse the city without any
fixed plan. North and south of the Capitol they are numbered;
east and west from it streets are lettered, but streets are dis-
tinguished by annexing to the name or letter the name of the
quarter: N.W., S.W., N.E. or S.E. the city is divided into
these four parts by North Capitol, East Capitol and South
Capitol streets, which intersect at the Capitol. The width of the
avenues is from 120 to 160 ft. and the width of the streets from
80 to 1 20 ft. More than one-half the area of the city is comprised
in its streets, avenues and public parks. Among the principal
residence streets are Massachusetts, especially between Dupont
and Sheridan circles, New Hampshire, Connecticut and Vermont
Avenues and i6th Street, all in the N.W. quarter of the city.
The principal business streets are Pennsylvania Avenue (especi-
ally between the Capitol and the White House) and 7th, gth, I4th
and F streets. Streets and avenues for the most part are paved
with a smooth asphalt pavement, and many of them have
two and occasionally four rows of overarching shade trees and
private lawns on either side. At nearly every intersection of two
avenues is a circle or square in which is the statue of some notable
American whose name the square bears. At the intersection
of a street with an avenue there is usually the reservation of a
small triangular grass plot at least. In L'Enfant's plan a park
or mall was to extend from the Capitol to the White House.
Instead of this the mall extends from the Capitol to Washington
Monument, which stands near the intersection of lines west from
the Capitol and south from the White House. In 1901, however,
a commission (Daniel Hudson Burnham, C. F. McKim, Augustus
St Gaudens and F. L. Olmsted, Jr.) was appointed by authority
of the United States Senate to prepare plans for the beautifi-
cation of the city and this body, seeking in the main to return to
L'Enfant's plan, has submitted a design for a park-like treatment
of the entire district between Pennsylvania and Maryland
avenues from the Capitol to the White House and between lower
New York Avenue and the Potomac, with an elm-shaded mall
300 ft. wide bisecting the park from the Capitol to the Monument,
with a group of official and scientific buildings fronting the mall
on either side, with a group of municipal buildings between the
mall and Pennsylvania Avenue, and with a Lincoln memorial
on the bank of the Potomac. Potomac Park (740 acres), a
portion of which is embraced in this design, has already been
reclaimed from the Potomac river. On Rock Creek, above
Georgetown, is the National Zoological Park (under the control
of the Smithsonian Institution), embracing 170 acres in a pictu-
resque site. North of this and extending to the boundary of the
1 The actual surveying and laying out of the city was done by
Andrew Ellicott (1754-1820), acivil engineer, who had been employed
in many boundary disputes, who became surveyor-general of the
United States in 1792, and from 1812 until his death was professor
of mathematics at the United States Military Academy at West
Point.
District, and including both banks of Rock Creek, with its wild
and picturesque beauty, is a tract of 1600 acres, known as Rock
Creek Park.
Climate. The climate of Washington is characterized by great
humidity, long-continued and somewhat oppressive heat in summer,
and mild winters. During a period of thirty-three years ending
December 1903 the mean winter temperature (December, January
and February) was 35 F. and the mean summer temperature (June,
July and August) 75; the mean of the winter minima was 27,
and the mean of the summer maxima 85. Extremes ranged, how-
ever, from an absolute maximum of 104 to an absolute minimum
of -15. There is an average annual precipitation of 43-1 in.,
which is quite evenly distributed throughout the year. Although
snowstorms are infrequent and snow never lies long on the ground,
the average fall of snow for the year amounts to 22-5 in.
Buildings. In a dignified landscape setting on the brow of a hill
that is itself nearly 100 ft. above the Potomac stands the Capitol *
(built 1793-1827; architect, William Thornton (d. 1827), super-
intendent of the Patent Office, whose designs were modified by
B. H. Latrobe and Charles Bulfinch; wings and dome added 1851-
1865). It consists of a central building of Virginia sandstone,
painted white, and two wings of white Massachusetts marble. Its
length is 751 ft., and its breadth ranges in different parts from 121
to 324 ft. The main building is surmounted with an iron dome,
designed by Thomas Ustic Walter, which rises to a height of 268 J ft.,
and on the dome is a statue of Liberty (1863; ipj ft. high) by
Thomas Crawford. The Capitol faces east, andon this side is a richly
sculptured * portico with Corinthian columns leading to the rotunda
under the dome, a sculptured Corinthian portico leading to the
Senate Chamber in the north wing, and a plain Corinthian portico
leading to the Hall of Representatives in the south wing; there is
also a portico at each end and on the west side of each wing. The
rotunda, 96 ft. in diameter and 180 ft. high, is decorated with eight
historical paintings: "Landing of Columbus" (1492), by John
Vanderlyn; " De Soto discovering the Mississippi " (1541), by
William Henry Powell; " Baptism of Pocahontas (1613), by John
Gadsby Chapman ; " Embarkation of the Pilgrims from Delft-
Haven " (1620), by Robert Walter Weir; " Signing the Declaration
of Independence (1776), by John Trumbull; "Surrender of
Burgoyne at Saratoga (1777), by Trumbull; " Surrender of Corn-
wallis at Yorktown " (1781), by Trumbull; and "Washington
resigning his Commission at Annapolis " (1783), by Trumbull.
Between the rotunda and the Hall of Representatives is the National
Hall of Statuary (formerly the Hall of Representatives), in which
each state in the Union may erect statues of two " of her chosen
sons "; and between the rotunda and the Senate Chamber is the
room of the Supreme Court, which until 1859 was the Senate
Chamber.*
The Executive Mansion, more commonly called the White House,
the official residence of the president, is a two-storey building of
Virginia freestone, painted white since 1814 to hide the marks of
fire only the walls were left standing after the capture of the city
by the British in that year. It is 170 ft. long and 86 ft. deep. It is
simple but dignified ; the principal exterior ornaments are an Ionic
portico and a balustrade. The White House was built in 17921709
from designs by James Hoban, who closejy followed the plans of the
seats of the dukes of Leinster, near Dublin, and in 1902-1903, when
new executive offices and a cabinet room were built and were con-
nected with the White House by an esplanade, many of the original
features of Hoban's plan were restored. East of the White House
and obstructing the view from it to the Capitol stands the oldest of
the departmental buildings, the Treasury Building (architect,
Robert Mills (1781-1855), then U.S. architect), an imposing edifice
mainly of granite, 510 ft. long and 280 ft. wide; on the east front
is a colonnade of thirty-eight Ionic columns, and on each of the
other three sides is an Ionic portico. On the opposite side of the
White House is a massive granite building of the State, War and
Navy Departments, 567 ft. long and 342 ft. wide. The Library of
Congress (1889-1807; cost, exclusive of site, over $6,000,000),
south-east of the Capitol, was designed by Smithmeyer & Pelz,
and the designs were modified by Edward Pearce Casey (b. 1864),
the architect; it is in the Italian Renaissance style, is 340 by 470 ft.,
and encloses four courts and a central rotunda surmounted by a flat
black copper dome, with gilded panels and a lantern. The exterior
walls are of white New Hampshire granite, and the walls of the
1 See Glenn Brown, The History of the United States Capitol (2 vols.,
1900-1903).
1 The allegorical decorations here are by Persico and Horatio
Greenough ; those on the Senate portico are by Thomas Crawford,
who designed the bronze doors at the entrances to the Senate and
House wings. At the east door of the rotunda is the bronze door
(1858; modelled by Randolph Rogers). At the west entrance are
elaborate bronze doors (1910) by Louis Amateis (b. 1855).
4 Connected with the Capitol by subways, immediately S.E. and
N.E. of the- Capitol respectively, are the marble office buildings
(1908) of the House of Representatives and of the Senate. The
Capitol is connected by subways with the Library of Congress also.
35
WASHINGTON
interior courts are of Maryland granite and white enamelled bricks.
There are numerous sculptural adornments without, and there is
elaborate interior decoration with paintings, sculpture, coloured
marbles and gilding. 1 Two squares north of the Senate office-
building is the Union Railway Station (1908; 343 by 760 ft.; cost,
$4,000,000), designed by Daniel Hudson Burnham, consisting ol a
main building of white granite (from Bethel, Vermont) and two
wings, and facing a beautiful plaza. On Pennsylvania Avenue,
nearly midway between the Capitol and the White House, is the
nine-storey Post Office (1899; with a tower 300 ft. high), housing
the United States Post Office Department and the City Post Office.
A few squares north-west of it are the General Land Office, the
headquarters of the Department of the Interior (commonly called
the Patent Office), with Doric portico; the Pension Office, in which
the Inauguration Ball is held on the evening of each president's
taking office; the Government Printing Office (twelve storeys one
of the few tall office-buildings in the city) ; the City Hall, or District
Court House; and the District Building (1908), another building of
the local government. On the heights north of Georgetown is the
United States Naval Observatory, one of the best -equipped institu-
tions of the kind; from it Washington time is telegraphed daily to
all parts of the United States. Near Rock Creek, west of George-
town, is the Signal Office and headquarters of the United States
Weather Bureau. In the Mall are the building of the Department
of Agriculture, the Smithsonian Institution (q.v.), the National
Museum (1910), the Army Medical Museum and the Bureau of
Fisheries, and here a building for the Department of Justice is to
be erected. Facing the Mall on the south is the home of the Bureau
of Engraving and Printing, in which the United States paper money
and postage stamps are made. Not far from the White House is the
Corcoran Gallery of Art (1894-1897; architect, Ernest Flagg), of
white Georgia marble in a Neo-Grecian style, housing a collection
of paintings (especially American portraits) and statuary; the
gallery was founded and endowed in 1869 by William Wilson Cor-
coran (1798-1888) " for the perpetual establishment and encourage-
ment of the Fine Arts." The Public Library, a gift of Andrew
Carnegie, is a white marble building in the Mount Vernon Square,
at the intersection of Massachusetts and New York avenues. A
prominent building, erected with money given mainly by Mr
Carnegie, is that of the Pan-American Union (formerly Bureau of
American Republics). The old Ford's Theatre, in which President
Lincoln was assassinated, is on Tenth Street N.W. between E and
F. The house in which Lincoln died is on the opposite side of the
street, and contains relics of Lincoln collected by O. H. Oldroyd.
Monuments. Foremost among the city's many monuments is
that erected to the memory of George Washington. It is a plain
obelisk of white Maryland marble, 55 ft. square at the base and
555 ft. in height; it was begun in 1848, but the work was abandoned
in 1855-1877, but was completed in 1884 at a cost of $i,3oo,ooo. 2
Among statues of Washington are the half-nude seated figure (1843)
by Greenough in the Smithsonian Institution, and an equestrian statue
(1860) of Washington at the Battle of Princeton by Clark Mills in
Washington Circle. Among the other prominent statues are:
the equestrian statue (1908) of General Philip Sheridan in Sheridan
Circle, by Gutzon Borglum ; an equestrian statue of General Sherman
near the Treasury Building, by Carl Rohl-Smith; a statue of
Frederick the Great (by T. Uphues; presented to the United States
by Emperor William II. of Germany) in front of the Army War
College at the mouth of the Anacostia river; a statue of General
Nathanael Greene (by H. K. Brown) in Stanton Square; statues
of General Winfield Scott in Scott Square (by H. K. Brown) and in
the grounds of the Soldiers' Home (by Launt Thompson) ; a statue
of Rear-Admiral S. F. Du Pont in Dupont Circle (by Launt Thomp-
son) ; of Rear-Admiral D. G. Farragut (by Vinnie Ream Hoxie) ;
an equestrian statue of General George H. Thomas (by J. Q. A.
Ward), erected by the Society of the Army of the Cumberland;
1 A bronze fountain, " The Court of Neptune," in front of the
Library, is by Hinton Perry. Granite portrait busts of great authors
occupy niches in windows near the entrance; these are by J. S.
Hartley, Herbert Adams and F. W. Ruckstuhl. The allegorical
figures over the entrance are by Bela L. Pratt. There are fine bronze
doors by Olin Warner and Frederick Macrnonnies. Among the
mural paintings are- series by John W. Alexander, Kenyon Cox,
E. H. Blashfield, Henry Oliver Walker (b. 1843), Walter McEwen,
Elihu-Vedder, Charles Sprague Pearce (b. 1851), Edward Simmons
(b. 1852), George Willoughby Maynard (b. 1843), Robert Reid
(b. 1862), George R. Barse, Jr. (b. 1861), W. A. Mackay, F. W.
Benson (b. 1862), Walter Shirlaw (b. 1838), Gari Melchers (b. 1860),
W. De L. Dodge (b. 1867) and others.
2 The site is said to have been chosen by Washington himself
Congress had planned a marble monument in 1783. In 1833 the
Washington National Monument Society was formed and a popular
subscription was taken. The obelisk was designed by Robert Mills,
whose original plan included a " Pantheon " 100 ft. high with a
colonnade and a colossal statue of Washington. After 1877 the work
was carried on by an appropriation made by Congress. See Frederick
L. Harvey, History of the Washington Monument and the National
Monument Society (Washington, 1903).
one of General George B. McClellan, by Frederick Macrnonnies; and
statues of Lincoln, 3 by Scott Flannery and (in Lincoln Park) by
Thomas Ball, of Joseph Henry (by W. W Story) in the grounds of
the Smithsonian Institution, of John Marshall (by Story) on the
west terrace of the Capitol, of General Andrew Jackson (by Clark
Mills) and, in Lafayette Square, of the Marquis de Lafayette (by
FalguiereandMercie),of the Comte de Rochambeau (by F. Hamar)
and of Baron von Steuben (1910). In Pennsylvania Avenue, at the
foot of Capitol Hill, is a Monument of Peace (by Franklin Simmons)
in memory of officers, seamen and marines of the U.S. Navy killed
in the Civil War.
Cemeteries. On the opposite side of the Potomac, in Virginia, and
adjoining Fort Myer, a military post (named in honour of General
Albert James Myer (1827-1880), who introduced in 1870 a system
of meteorological observations at army posts) with reservation of
186 acres, is Arlington, a National Cemetery (of 408-33 acres), in
which lie buried 21,106 soldiers killed in the Civil War and in the war
with Spain; among the distinguished officers buried here are
General Philip Henry Sheridan, Admiral David Dixon Porter,
General Joseph Wheeler and General Henry W. Lawton ; there is a
Spanish War Monument; the grounds are noted for their natural
beauty, and on the brow of a hill commanding a magnificent view
of the city is Arlington House (1802), the residence of George Wash-
ington Parke Custis (1781-1857), grandson of Martha Washington,
and afterwards of General Robert E. Lee, Custis's son-in-law; the
estate was seized by Federal troops early in the Civil War, and was
bought by the United States in 1864; there was a military hospital
here throughout the Civil War. Adjoining the grounds of the
Soldiers' Home (3 m. N. of the Capitol) isa National Military Cemetery
containing the graves of 7220 soldiers. On the bank of the Anacostia
river, east of the Capitol, is the Congressional Cemetery containing
the graves of many members of Congress. North of Georgetown is
Oak Hill Cemetery, and in the vicinity of the Soldiers' Home are
Rock Creek, Glenwood, Harmony, Prospect Hill and St Mary's Ceme-
teries. A crematorium was completed in 1909, and cremation
instead of interment has since been urged by the District com-
missioners.
Charities, &c. The National Soldiers' Home (1851), founded by
General Winfield Scott, comprises five buildings, with accommoda-
tions for 800 retired or disabled soldiers, and 512 acres of beautiful
grounds. The charitab'e and correctional institutions of the
District of Columbia are the following government institutions, under
the control of the United States or of the District of Columbia:
Freedmen's Hospital (1862), United States Naval Hospital (1866),
an Insane Asylum on the S. side of the Anacostia river, the District
of Columbia Industrial Home School (1872), a Municipal Lodging
House (1892), a Soldiers' and Sailors' Temporary Home (1888),
Workhouse, Reform School for Boys, Reform School for Girls and
Industrial Home School (1872). Among many private institutions
are the Washington City Orphan Asylum (1815); Lutheran Eye,
Ear and Throat Infirmary (1889); Episcopal Eye, Ear and Throat
Hospital (1897); Providence Hospital (1861; Sisters of Charity);
George Washington University Hospital (1898); Georgetown
University Hospital (1898); Columbia Hospital for Women (1866);
Children's Hospital (1871); Washington Hospital for Foundlings
(1887); Children's Temporary Home (1899; for negroes); a
German Orphan Asylum (1879); Washington Home for Incurables
(1889); Home for the Aged (1871); the National Lutheran Home
(1890); the Methodist Home (1890) and Baptist Home (1880).
A " non-support law," which went into effect in 1906, enacts that a
man who refuses to provide for his family when able to do so shall
be committed to the workhouse for hard labour, and that fifty cents
a day shall be paid to his family. A Juvenile Court and a Board of
Children's Guardians have extensive jurisdiction over dependent
and delinquent children, and a general supervision of all charities
and corrections is vested in a Board of Charities, consisting of five
members appointed by the president of the United States.
Education. Washington is one of the leading educational centres
of the United States. The public school system, under the control
of a Board of Education of six men and three women appointed by
the supreme court judges of the District of Columbia, embraces
kindergartens, primary schools, grammar schools, high schools, a
business high school, manual training schools, normal schools and
night schools. The schools are open nine months in the year, and
all children between eight and fourteen years of age are required to
attend some public, private or parochial school during these months
unless excused because of some physical or mental disability. George
Washington University, in the vicinity of the White House, is a non-
sectarian institution (opened in 1821 under the auspices of the
Baptist General Convention as " The Columbian College in the
District of Columbia"; endowed by W. W. Corcoran in 1872,
organized as the Columbian University in 1873, organized under its
present name* in 1904), and comprises Columbian College of Arts
1 A Lincoln memorial is to be erected on the Mall W. of the
Washington monument.
4 The name was changed when the offer of the George Washington
Memorial Association to build a $500,000 memorial building was
accepted.
WASHINGTON
35 1
and Sciences with a graduate department (1893), a College of the
Political Sciences (1907), Washington College of Engineering,
divisions of architecture and education (1907), a Department of Law
(first organized in 1826; closed in 1827; reorganized in 1865), a
Department of Medicine (1821; since 1866 in a building given by
W. W. Corcoran), with several affiliated hospitals, a Department
of Dentistry (1887), the National College of Pharmacy(umted with
the university in 1906), and a College of Veterinary Medicine (1908).
In 1909 this University had 185 instructors and 1520 students.
Georgetown University is in Georgetown (g.f.). The Catholic
University of America (incorporated 1887; opened 1889), with
buildings near the Soldiers' Home, stands at the head of Roman
Catholic schools in America. Although designed especially for
advanced theological studies, it comprises a School of the Sacred
Sciences, a School of Philosophy, a School of Letters, a School of
Physical Sciences, a School of Biological Sciences, a School of Social
Sciences, a School of Jurisprudence, a School of Law and a School of
Technological Sciences. In 1909 its faculty numbered 42 and its
students 225. A Franciscan convent, Dominican, Paulist and
Marist houses, and Trinity College for girls are affiliated with the
Catholic University. The American University (chartered 1893),
under Methodist Episcopal control, designed to bear a relation to
the Protestant churches similar to that of the Catholic University
to the Catholic Church, with a campus of 94 acres at the north-west
end of the city, in 1010 had not been opened to students. Howard
University (1867), for the higher education of negroes, is situated
south-west of the Soldiers' Home; it was named in honour of
General Oliver Otis Howard, one of its founders and (in 1869-1873)
its president; it has a small endowment, and is supported by
Congressional appropriations which are administered by the Secretary
of the Interior; it comprises an academy, a college of arts and
sciences, a teachers' college, a school of theology, a school of law, a
school of medicine, a pharmaceutic college, a dental college, a school
of manual arts and applied sciences, and a commercial college; in
1909 it had 121 instructors and 1253 students.
The Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb (see DEAF AND
DUMB), on Kendall Green, in the north-eastern part of the city, is
composed of Kendall school (a secondary school) and of Gallaudet
College (called in 1864-1893 the National Deaf Mute College; the
present name is in honour of Dr T. H. Gallaudet); it was the first
institution to give collegiate courses to the deaf, and it has received
Congressional appropriations, though it is a private foundation.
Washington has also several academies, seminaries and small
colleges; among the latter are St John's College (Roman Catholic,
1870) and Washington Christian College (non-sectarian, 1902). The
Washington College of Law (1896) is an evening school especially
for women. A School of Art is maintained in the Corcoran Gallery
of Art.
The Carnegie Institution of Washington, founded by Andrew
Carnegie in 1902 and endowed by him with $22,000,000 (810,000,000
in 1902; $12,000,000 later), is designed "to encourage in the
broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research and
discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement of
mankind; and in particular to conduct, endow and assist investiga-
tion in any department of science, literature or art, and to this end
to co-operate with governments, universities, colleges, technical
schools, learned societies and individuals; to appoint committees
of experts to direct special lines of research ; to publish and distribute
documents; and to conduct lectures, hold meetings and acquire
and maintain a library. " It is under the control of a board of
twenty-four trustees, vacancies in which are filled by the remaining
members. In 1908 ten departments had been organized: Botanical
Research, with a " desert laborato'ry " (1903) at Tucson, Arizona;
Economics and Sociology (1904); Experimental Evolution, with a
station (1904) at Cold Spring Harbor, New York (see HUNTINGTON,
N.Y.); Geophysical Research, with a laboratory (1906-1907) at
Washington investigations have been carried on by the U.S.
Geological Survey and at McGill University, Toronto; Historical
rch (1903); Marine Biology, with a laboratory (1904) at
Tortugas, Florida; Meridian Astrometry (1906; work is carried on
especially at Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York); Research
in Nutrition, with a laboratory (1906) at Boston, Massachusetts
investigations (since 1904) had been carried on at Yale and Wesleyan
universities; Solar Physics, with observatory (1905) on Mount
Wilson, California, and workshops at Pasadena, California, and
Terrestrial Magnetism (1903; headquarters in Washington); the
institution had assisted Luther Burbank in his horticultural experi-
ments since 1905, and had published the Index Medicus since 1903;
and it makes occasional grants for minor research and tentative
investigations.
The learned societies of Washington arc to a large degree more
national than local in their character; among them are: the
Washington Academy of Sciences (1898), a " federal head " of most
of the societies mentioned below; the Anthropological Societ"
(founded 1879; incorporated 1887), which has published Transactions
(1879 sqq., with the co-operation of the Smithsonian Institution)
and The American Anthropologist (1888-1898; since 1898 published
by the American Anthropological Association); the National
Geographic' Society (1888), which since 1903 has occupied the
Hubbard Memorial Building, which sent scientific expeditions to
Alaska, Mont Pelee and La Souffriere, and which publishes the Na-
tional Geographic Magazine (1888 sqq.), National Geographic Monographs
(1895) and various special maps; the Philosophical Society of
Washington (1871; incorporated 1901), devoted especially to
mathematical and physical sciences; the Biological Society (1880),
which publishes Proceedings (1880 sqq.); the Botanical Society of
Washington (1901); the Geological Society of Washington (1893);
the Entomological Society of Washington (1884), which publishes
Proceedings (1884 sqq.); the Chemical Society (1884); the Records
of the Past Exploration Society (1901), which publishes Records of
the Past (1902 sqq.); the Southern History Association (1896),
which issues Publications (1897 sqq.); the Society for Philosophical
Inquiry (1893), which publishes Memoirs (1893 sqq.); the Society
of American Foresters (1900;, which publishes Proceedings (1905
sqq.) ; and the Cosmos Club. The libraries and scientific collections
of the Federal government and its various bureaus and institutions
afford exceptional opportunities for students and investigators (see
LIBRARIES: United States). The Library of Congress contains
more than 1,800,000 volumes and 100,000 manuscripts, and large
collections of maps and pieces of music. In the library- of the
State Department are 70,000 volumes of documents. The library
of the Suigcon-General's Office contains 200,000 volumes, and is the
largest medical library in the world. Besides these there is a vast
amount of material in the collections of the Bureau of Education,
the Bureau of Ethnology, the Smithsonian Institution, the National
Museum, the House of Representatives, the Patent Office, the
Department cf Agriculture, the Botanic Gardens, the Bureau of
Fisheries, the Naval Observatory, the Geological Survey and the
Coast and Geodetic Survey. The Public Library, containing about
1 10,000 volumes, is a circulating library.
Communications. Seven railways enter the city : the Philadelphia,
Baltimore & Washington division of the Pennsylvania System, the
Baltimore & Ohio, the Southern, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Wash-
ington, Baltimore & Annapolis, the Washington Southern and the
Washington, Alexandria & Mt Vernon. Steamboats ply daily from
the foot of Seventh Street to Alexandria, Mt Vernon, Old Point
Comfort and Norfolk, and at Old Point Comfort there is connexion
with boats for New York. There is also an hourly ferry service to
Alexandria, and at irregular intervals there are boats direct to Balti-
more, Philadelphia, New York and Boston. The street railways,
underground trolley in the urban district and overhead trolley in
the suburbs, connect at several points with interurban railways in
Maryland and Virginia.
Industries. The city's manufactures'and commerce are of little
importance in proportion to its population. Only government
manufactures and manufactures for local consumption are at all
large. In 1905 the government's printing and publishing cost
$5,999,996; its ordnance and ordnance stores (in the Navy Yard
on the bank of the Anacostia river), $5,331,459; and its engraving
and plate printing, $3,499,517. The total value of the products of
all the factories in the District which were operated under private
ownership amounted to $18,359,159, and $9,575,971, or 52% of
this was the value of printing and publishing; bread and other
bakery products, gas and malt liquors.
Government. Washington is the seat of the Federal govern-
ment of the United States and as such is not self-ruled, but
governed by the Federal Congress. The city was chartered in
1802, with a mayor appointed annually by the president of the
United States and an elective council of two chambers. The
mayor was elected by the council from 1812 to 1820, and by the
people (biennially) from 1820 to 1871. In 1871 the Federal
Congress repealed the charters of Washington and Georgetown
and established a new government for the entire District, con-
sisting of a governor, a secretary, a board of public works, a
board of health and a council appointed by the president with
the concurrence of the Senate, and a House of Delegates and a
delegate to the National House of Representatives elected by
the people. In 1874 Congress substituted a government by three
commissioners appointed by the president with the concurrence
of the Senate, and in 1878 the government by commissioners was
made permanent. Two of the commissioners must be residents
of the District, and the third commissioner must be an officer of
the Corps of Engineers of the United States Army. The people
of the District have no voice in its government, have no repre-
sentation in Congress and do not vote for the president of the
United States. The District commissioners are the chief execu-
tive officers. Congress and the commissioners legislate for the
District; the president, the commissioners and the supreme
court of the District appoint the administrative officers and
boards; and the president appoints the judges of the District
courts, viz. a court of appeals, a supreme court, a municipal
court, a police court, a probate court and a juvenile court.
One-half the expenses of the government of Washington is paid
352
WASHINGTON
by the District of Columbia and one-half by the United States.
The revenue of the District, which is derived from a property
tax and from various licences, is paid into the United States
Treasury; appropriations, always specific and based on estimates
prepared by the commissioners, are made only by Congress;
and all accounts are audited by the Treasury Department.
The government owns the waterworks, by which an abundant
supply of water is taken from the Potomac at the Great Falls,
conducted for 12 m. through an aqueduct 9 ft. in diameter and
filtered through a sand filtration plant.
The government of the District has been uniformly excellent,
and the laws therefor have been modern in their tendency. The
employment of children under fourteen years of age in any factory,
workshop, mercantile establishment, store, business office, telegraph
or telephone office, restaurant, hotel, apartment house, club, theatre,
bootblack stand, or in the distribution or transmission of merchandise
or messages is forbidden, except that a child between twelve and
fourteen years of age may with the permission of the judge of the
juvenile court be employed at an occupation not dangerous or
injurious to his health or morals if necessary for his support or for
the assistance of a disabled, ill or invalid parent, a younger brother
or sister, or a widowed mother. No child under fourteen years of
age may be employed in any work whatever before six o'clock in the
morning, after seven o'clock in the evening, or during the hours
when the public schools are in session.
History. During the War of Independence Philadelphia was
the principal seat of the Continental Congress, but it was driven
thence in 1783 by mutinous soldiers, and for the succeeding
seven years the discussion of a permanent site for the national
capital was characterized by sectional jealousy, and there was
a strong sentiment against choosing a state capital or a large
city lest it should interfere with the Federal government. The
Constitution, drafted in 1787, authorized Congress " to exercise
exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district
(not exceeding 10 sq. m.) as may, by cession of particular
states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of govern-
ment of the United States." Virginia and Maryland promised-
such a cession; President Washington was known to be in favour
of a site on the Potomac, and in July 1790 Alexander Hamilton,
in return for Thomas Jefferson's assistance in passing the bill
for the assumption of the state war debts by the Federal govern-
ment, helped Jefferson to pass a bill for establishing the capital
on the Potomac, by which the president was authorized to select
a site anywhere along the Potomac between the.Eastern Branch
(Anacostia) and the Conococheague river, a distance of about
80 m., and to appoint three commissioners who under his direc-
tion should make the necessary surveys and provide accom-
modations for the receptipn of Congress in 1800. The com-
missioners Thomas Johnson (1732-1819) and Daniel Carroll
(1756-1829) of Maryland and Dr David Stuart of Virginia
gave the city its name; Major L'Enfant drew its plan, and
Andrew Ellicott laid it out. When, in 1800, the government
was removed to Washington it was " a backwoods settlement in
the wilderness "; as a city it existed principally on paper, and
the magnificence of the design only served to emphasize the
poverty of the execution. One wing of the Capitol and the
President's House were nearly completed, but much of the land
surrounding the Capitol was a marsh; there were no streets
worthy of the name, the roads were very bad, and the members
of Congress were obliged to lodge in Georgetown. For many
years such characterizations as " Wilderness City," " Capital
of Miserable Huts," " City of Streets without Houses," " City
of Magnificent Distances " and '' A Mudhole almost Equal to
the Great Serbonian Bog " were common. Resolutions were
frequently offered by some disgusted member of Congress for
the removal of the capital. In 1814, during the second war with
Great Britain, the British, after defeating on the 24th of August
an American force at Bladensburg, Prince George county,
Maryland, about 6 m. N.E. of Washington, occupied the' city
and burned the Capitol, the President's House, some of the
public offices, and the Navy Yard. In the following year when
a bill appropriating $300,000 for rebuilding was before Congress
it met with formidable opposition from the " capital movers."
The question of removal was again to the front when, in 1846,
the Virginia portion of the District was retroceded to that state
in response to the appeal of Alexandria, which had suffered from
the neglect of Congress. The lethargy of the nation toward
its capital suddenly vanished at the outbreak of the Civil War.
At the close of the first day's bombardment of Fort Sumter
(April i2th, 1861) Leroy P. Walker (1817-1884), the Confederate
Secretary of War, boasted chat before the ist of May the Con-
federate flag would float over the Capitol. The North, alarmed
at the threat, speedily transformed Washington into a great
military post and protected it on all sides with strong earthworks.
Throughout the war it was the centre of the military operations
of the North: here the armies were officered and marshalled, from
here they marched on their campaigns against the South, here
was the largest depot of military supplies, and here were great
hospitals for the care of the wounded. Although several times
threatened by the South, Washington was never really in danger
except in July 1864 when General Jubal' A. Early advanced
against it with 12,000 veterans, defeated General Lew Wallace
with about 3500 men at Monocacy Bridge on the 6th, and on
the nth appeared before the fortifications, which were at
the time defended by only a few thousand raw troops; the
city was saved by the timely arrival of some of Grant's veterans.
In the city, on the 23rd and 24th of May 1865, President
Andrew Johnson reviewed the returning soldiers of the Union
Army.
The population of Washington increased from 61,122 to
109,199 or 78-6% in the decade from 1860 to 1870, and the
stirring effects of the Civil War were far-reaching. The city had
been founded on too elaborate and extensive a plan to be left
to the initiative and unaided resources of its citizens. But under
the new form of government which was instituted in 1871 a
wonderful transformation was begun under the direction of
Alexander R. Shepherd (1835-1902), the governor of the District
and president of the board of public works. Temporary financial
embarrassment followed, but when the Federal government had
taken upon itself half the burden and established the economic
administration of the commissioners, the problem of beautifying
the nation's capital was solved.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. B. Todd, The Story of Washington, the National
Capital (New York, 1889); R. R. Wilson, Washington, the Capital
City (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1901); C. H. Forbes-Lindsay, Washington,
the City and the Seat of Government (Philadelphia, 1908); F. A.
Vanderlip, " The Nation's Capital," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns
of the Southern States (New York, 1900); William V. Cox, 1800-
1900, Celebration of the looth Anniversary of the Establishment of the
Seat of Government in the District of Columbia (Washington, 1901);
J. A. Porter, The City of Washington, its Origin and Administration,
m Johns Hopkins University Studies, vol. iii. (Baltimore, 1885);
C. Howard, Washington as a Center of Learning (Washington, 1904) ;
Tindall, Origin and Government of the District of Columbia (ibid.,
1903); A. R. Spofford, The Founding of Washington City (Baltimore,
1881); and Glenn Brown, Papers on Improvement of Washington
City (Washington, 1901).
WASHINGTON, a city and . county-seat of Daviess county,
Indiana, U.S.A., about 50 m. N.E. of Evansville. Pop. (1890)
6064, (1900) 8551, of whom 391 were foreign born and 255
negroes, (1910 census) 11,404. It is served by the Baltimore
& Ohio South Western (which has repair shops here) and the
Evansville & Indianapolis railways. The city has a public
library and a city park of 45 acres. It is the shipping point of
the surrounding farming, stock-raising and coal-mining region,
and there are deposits of kaolin and fireclay in the vicinity.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,166,749
(48-6% more than in 1900). The municipality owns and
operates the electric lighting plant. Washington was settled in
1816 and chartered as a city in 1870.
WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE), a city and
the county-seat of Fayette county, Ohio, U.S.A., on Paint
Creek, 35 m. S.E. of Springfield. Pop. (1880) 3798, (1890) 5742,
(1900) 5751 (708 negroes); (1910) 7277. It is -served by the
Baltimore & Ohio, the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Penn-
sylvania Lines), the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton, and the Cincin-
nati, Hamilton & Dayton railways. It is in a rich farming and
stock and poultry-raising region, has a large poultry-packing
house and various manufactures. Washington, or Washington
Court House as it is often called to distinguish it from the
WASHINGTON
353
village of Washington in Guernsey county, Ohio, was laid out in
1810 and was chartered as a city in 1888.
WASHINGTON, a borough and the county-seat of Washington
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 25 m. S.W. of Pittsburg
and about 30 m. N.E. of Wheeling, West Virginia, on Chartiers
Creek. Pop. (1900) 7670, of whom 465 were foreign born and
984 were negroes; (1910) 18,778. Washington is served by the
main line of the Baltimore & Ohio, the Chartiers Valley branch
of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania
system) and the Waynesburg & Washington railways and a
connecting line for freight service, and by electric railway to
Pittsburg. Among its public buildings and institutions are the
county court-house (in which are the rooms of the Washington
County Historical Society), the Federal building, two hospitals,
a Y.M.C.A. building and a public library. It is the seat of
Washington and Jefferson College, of Washington Seminary
(1836) for girls and of a school of business. Washington and
Jefferson College was incorporated, in 1865, by the consolidation
of two rival institutions, Washington Academy and Jefferson
College. Washington Academy (incorporated in 1787 and en-
dowed by the legislature of Pennsylvania), which was opened
in 1789, was incorporated as Washington College in 1806, and
in 1852 became a synodical college of the Presbyterian Church,
under the direction of the synod of Wheeling. Jefferson College,
which was an outgrowth of Canonsburg Academy at Canonsburg,
7 m. from Washington, was chartered in 1794, and incorporated
as Jefferson College in 1802; from 1826 until 1838 the Jefferson
Medical College of Philadelphia was its medical department.
In 1869, by an act of the legislature, all departments were located
at Washington. In 1872 a chair of engineering and applied
mathematics and one of biology were established with an endow-
ment of $40,000, the gift of Dr Francis J. LeMoyne, and the
chairs of Greek and of Latin were endowed by the Rev. C. C.
Beatty with $60,000. In 1909-1910 Washington and Jefferson
College (including Washington and Jefferson Academy) had 29
instructors, 413 students, about 20,000 volumes in its library
and an endowment of $630,000. Washington is in a bituminous
coal and natural gas region, and there are manufactories of glass,
iron tubing and pipe, tin plate, steel, &c. The site was part of
a tract bought in 1771 by David Hoge and was known at first
as Catfish camp after an Indian chief, Tingooqua or Catfish.
It was platted in October 1781 and called Bassettown in honour
of Richard Bassett (d. 1815), a member of the Federal constitu-
tional convention of 1787 and of the United States Senate in
1780-1793, and governor of Delaware in 1798-1801. The village
was replatted in November 1784 and renamed in honour of
General Washington, to whom a large part of the site had
belonged. The early settlers were chiefly Scotch-Irish. At
first a part of Strabane township, one of the original thirteen
townships of Washington county, in February 1786 Washington
was made a separate election district; it was incorporated
as a town in 1810; was chartered as a borough and enlarged
in 1852, and its limits were extended in 1854 and 1855. Since
1900 there have been added to the borough North and South
Washington and the industrial suburb of Tylerdale, East and
West Washington, although practically one with the borough,
remaining under separate administration. The location of
Washington on the old " National Road " gave it importance
before the advent of railways. At the LeMoyne crematory
established here by Dr Francis Julius LeMoyne, 1 on the 6th
of December 1876, took place the first public cremation in the
United States; the body burned was that of Baron Joseph
Henry Louis de Palm (1800-1876), a Bavarian nobleman who
had emigrated to the United States in 1862 and had been active
in the Theosophical Society in New York.
: LeMoyne (1798-11879) was the son of a French refugee, and
was an ardent abolitionist. In 1840 he was the Liberty party's
candidate for the vice-presidency. He built a normal school for
negroes near Memphis, Tennessee, and gave money to Washing-
ton College, at which he had graduated in 1815. Largely through
LeMoyne s influence Washington became an important point
on the " underground railway " for assisting runaway slaves
to Canada.
xrvm. 12
See Boyd Crumrine (ed.), The History of Washington County,
Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1882); and Alfred Creigh, The History
of Washington County from Us First Settlement to the Present Time
(Harrisburg, 1871).
WASHINGTON, the most north-westerly state of the United
States of America. It lies between latitudes 45 32' and 49 N.
and between longitudes 1 16 57' and 1 24 48' W. On the N. it is
bounded by British Columbia, along the 49th parallel as far W. as
the middle of the Strait of Georgia and then down the middle of
this strait and Haro Strait, and along the middle of the channel
of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, which separate it from Vancouver
Island; on theE. the south portion of its boundary is the Snake
river, which separates it from Idaho, but from the confluence of
the Snake and Clearwater rivers (a little W. of 117) the E.
boundary line between Washington and Idaho runs directly
N.; on the S. the Columbia river separates it from Oregon
from the mouth of that river to the point of the upper intersection
with the 46th parallel" of N. latitude, but from thence eastward
the S. boundary line between Washington and Oregon is the
46th parallel; on the W. the state is bounded by the Pacific
Ocean. The state has a maximum length, from E. to W., of
360 m. and a maximum width of 240 m.; area, 69,127 sq. m., of
which 2291 sq. m. are water surface.
Physical Features. The western half of Washington lies in the
Pacific Mountains province, consisting of the Coast range and the
Cascade range, separated by a broad basin known as the Sound
Valley. The eastern half of the state is occupied in the north by a
westward extension of the Rocky Mountains, and in the centre and
south by the north-western portion of the Columbia Plateau province.
The most prominent physical feature of the state is the Cascade
mountain range, which with a N.N.E. and S.S.W. trend crosses
the state 30 to 40 m. W. of the middle. On the S. border this
mountain range occupies a tract about 50 m. in width, and to the
northward it widens to 100 m. or more. The general height of the
ridges and peaks is about 8000 ft. above the sea, but there are five
ancient snow-capped volcanoes which equal or exceed 10,000 ft.
These are Mount Rainier or Tacoma (14,363 ft.), Mount Adams
(12,470 ft.), Mount Baker (10,827 ft.), Glacier Peak (10,436 ft.)
and Mount St Helens (10,000 ft.). Glaciers are common both in the
N. and in the S. region, even on the higher elevations. Both slopes
of the Cascades are cut deep by valleys. Along the Pacific Coast the
ridges of the Coast range are only about 1500 ft. in height in the
S. part of the state, but they rise northward in the Olympic Moun-
tains and reach a maximum of elevation on Mount Olympus of
8150 ft. The Olympics meet the ocean along a rather straight line,
but farther S. the coast line is broken by Gray s Harbour and Willapa
Bay, the drowned lower portions of river valleys. The upheaval of
the Cascade Mountains on the E. and the Olympic Mountains and
Coast range on the W. left between them the Puget Sound Basin,
the gently sloping sides of which descend in the central portion to
less than 100 ft. from sea-level. A still greater subsidence farther
north produced Puget Sound. East of the Cascade Mountains the
Columbia and Spokane rivers mark the boundary between the
Okanogan Highlands to the northward and the Columbia plateau
to the southward. The Okanogan Highlands, an outlier of the
Rocky Mountains extending westward from the Coeur d'Alene
Mountains in Idaho, reach heights of 5000 to 6coo ft. above the sea,
but are characterized by long gentle slopes, rounded divides and
wide stream basins. In some ofthe larger valleys there are glacial
terraces. The Columbia plateau consists of horizontal beds of lava
having a total thickness of several thousand feet, and its surface
has a general elevation of loop to 2000 ft. above sea-level. West of
the Columbia river the plain is broken by several monoclinal ridge*
rising 2000 to 3000 ft. above it and extending eastward 50 to 75 m.
from the foothills of the Cascades. In some parts, especially (in
Douglas and Grant counties) within the Big Bend of the Columbia,
the plain is frequently cut by coulees, or abandoned river channels,
some of them 500 to 600 ft. deep and with very precipitous walls.
The Grand Coulee represents the course of the Columbia river
during the glacial period, when its regular channel was blocked with
ice. There are also deep canyons which have been cut by the rivers
in their present courses, especially by the Snake river and its tribu-
taries. The S_.\V. corner of the state is occupied by the Blue Moun-
tains, which rise about 7000 ft. above the sea and are cut deep by
canyons. About 11,000 so. m. in Washington have a minimum
elevation exceeding 3000 ft. ; an approximately equal area has a
maximum elevation less than 500 ft., and the mean elevation of the
entire state is 1 700 ft.
The Okanogan Highlands, the Columbia plain, the E. slope of the
Cascade Mountains and the S. portion of the Puget Sound Basin
are drained by the Columbia and its tributaries. This large river
enters the N.E. corner of the state from the N., traverses it in a
winding course from N. to S., forms the greater portion of its S.
boundary, and discharges into the Pacific Ocean. The Snake (in
354
WASHINGTON
the S.E., a little W. of the ngth parallel), the Spokane (in the east
central part) and the Pend Oreille (on the N. boundary) are its
principal tributaries from the E. ; the Yakima (a little above the
mouth of the Snake) from the W. ; and the Okanogan (in the north
central part of the state), from the N. A portion of the Puget
Sound Basin and a portion of the Coast range are drained by the
Chehalis river, which has cut a channel through the Coast range and
discharges into Gray's Harbour. The W. slope of the Cascades,
most of the E. slope of the Olympics and the N. portion of the
Puget Sound Basin are drained by a great number of small rivers
into the Puget Sound ; and the W. slope of the Olympics and Coast
range is drained by several other small rivers into the Pacific. On
the Cascade Mountains, at the heads of streams, are a number of
lakes of glacial origin, the largest of which is Lake Chelan on the E.
slope in Chelan county. This is nearly 60 m. in length, and from
i to 4 m. wide. At the upper end it is about 1400 ft. deep, but it is
shallow at the lower end where the water is held back by a morainal
dam, and where only 3$ m. from the Columbia river it is about
400 ft. above the level of the river. There are also several alkali
lakes cr chains of alkali lakes in the coulees on the Columbia plateau.
Fauna. Many species of wild animals still inhabit the state, but
the number of each species has been much reduced. The caribou,
moose, antelope, mountain sheep, beaver, otter and mink are scarce.
Few elk are found except in the inaccessible districts on the Olympic
Mountains. White- and black-tailed deer and black bear inhabit
the densest forests. Mountain goats are quite numerous on the
Cascades. The destruction of cougars, lynx (" wildcats "), coyotes
and wolves is encouraged by bounties. Coyotes and jack-rabbits
are the most numerous denizens of the Columbia plain. Musk-rats
and skunks are numerous west of the Cascades. The blue grouse
and partridge are the principal game birds. The sage-hen is common
on the Columbia plain. The Japanese pheasant and the California
quail have increased in numbers under the protection of the state.
Among other game birds are prairie-chickens, ducks, geese, swan,
brant, sandhill crane and snipe. The speckled trout, which abounds
in nearly all of the mountain streams and lakes, is the principal game
fish. Other freshwater fish are the perch, black bass, pike, pickerel
and white fish. There are large quantities of salmon in the
lower Columbia river, in Gray's and Willapa harbours, and in
Puget Sound; oyster fisheries in Gray's and Willapa harbours
and in Puget Sound; cod, perch, flounders, smelt, herring and
sardines in these and other salt waters. For all the more desirable
game a close season has been established by the state.
Flora. The Puget Sound Basin and the neighbouring slopes of
the Cascade and Olympic Mountains are noted for their forests,
consisting mainly of giant Douglas fir or Oregon pine (Pseudotsuga
Douglasii), but containing also some cedar, spruce and hemlock,
a smaller representation of a few other species and a dense under-
growth. Near the Pacific Coast the forests consist principally of
hemlock, cedar and Sitka spruce. At an elevation of about 3000 ft.
on the W. slope of the Cascades the red fir ceases to be the dominant
tree, and between this elevation and the region of perpetual snow,
on a few of the highest peaks, rise a succession of forest zones con-
taining principally: (i) yellow pine, red and yellow fir, white fir
and cedar; (2) lodgepole pine, white pine, Engelmann spruce and
yew; (3) subalpine fir, lovely fir, noble fir, Mertens hemlock, Alaska
cedar and tamarack; (4) white-bark pine, Patton hemlock, alpine
larch and creeeping juniper. Deciduous trees and shrubs are repre-
sented in western Washington by comparatively small numbers of
maple, alder, oak, cottonwood, willow, ash, aspen, birch, dogwood,
sumach, thornapple, wild cherry, chokecherry, elder, huckleberry,
blueberry,) blackberry, raspberry, gooseberry and grape. The E.
slope of the Cascades and most of the Okanogan Highlands are
clothed with light forests consisting chiefly of yellow pine, but
containing also Douglas fir, cedar, larch, tamarack and a very
small amount of oak. In the eastern part of the Okanogan High-
lands there is some western white pine, and here, too, larch is
most abundant. The Columbia plain is for the most part treeless
and, except where irrigated, grows principally bunch-grass or, in its
lower and more arid parts, sagebrush. In the forest regions of
eastern Washington the underbrush is light, but grasses and a great
variety of flowering plants abound.
Climate. In western Washington, where the ocean greatly
influences the temperature and the mountains condense the moisture
of vapour-bearing winds, the climate is equable and moist. Eastern
Washington, too, usually has a mild temperature, but occasionally
some regions in this part of the state are visited by a continental
extreme, and as the winds from the ocean lose most of their moisture
in passing over the Cascades, the climate is either dry or arid accord-
ing to elevation. Along the coast the temperature is rarely above
92 F. or below 10 F. ; the mean temperature for July is about
60, for January 40, and for the entire year 50. In the Puget
Sound Basin an occasional cold east wind during a dry period in
winter causes the temperature to fall below zero. At Centralia, in
the Chehalis Valley, the temperature has risen as high as 102.
But the mean temperature for January is 34 in the N. portion of
the basin and 40 in the S. portion; for July it is 60" in the north
and 65 in the south ; and for the entire year it is 46 in the north
and 52 in the south. During April and October the temperatures
in eastern Washington are nearly the same as those in western
Washington, but during July the temperatures in eastern Washingtc
are subject to a range from 40 to 110, and during January froi
65 to - 30. However, the climate is so dry in eastern Washingtc
that the " sensible " variations are much less than those recorde
by the thermometer. In the south-eastern counties the winte
are mild, with the exception of an occasional cold period, and
summers are hot. The rainfall on the W. slope of the Olymp __
Coast range and Cascade Mountains is from 60 to 120 in. annually
and in the Puget Sound Basin it is from 25 to 60 in., it beir
least on the N.E. or leeward side of the Olympics. About thret
fourths of the rain in western Washington falls during the we
season from November to April inclusive. On the Okanogan High
lands, on the eastern foothills of the Cascade Mountains, on th_
Blue Mountains and on the elevated portion of the Columbia Plain
which comprises the E. border counties, the annual rainfall and melt
snow amount to from 12 to 24 in., but in the southern half of easte.
Washington the Columbia river flows through a wide district of lo
elevation, where the rainfall and melted snow amount to only 6 i
1 2 in. a year, and where there is scarcely any precipitation during th
summer months. There is a heavy snowfall in winter on the moun
tains, and in a large portion of eastern Washington the average annua
snowfall is 40 in. or more. Along the coast the prevailing wind
blow from the west or south; in the Puget Sound Basin from th
south, and in eastern Washington from the south-west, excep
in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, where they are north-we
During summer the winds are very moderate in western Washington,
but during winter they occasionally blow with great violence. In
eastern Washington hot winds from the north or east are occasionally
injurious to the growing wheat in June or July. Light hailstorms
are not uncommon, but tornadoes are unknown in the state.
Soils. The soils of western Washington are chiefly glacial, those
of eastern Washington chiefly volcanic. In the low tidewater
district of the Puget Sound Basin an exceptionally productive soil
has been made by the mixture of river silt and sea sand. In numerous
depressions, some of which may have been the beds of lakes formed
by beaver dams, the soil is deep and largely of vegetable formation.
In the valleys of rivers which have overflowed their banks and on
level bench lands there is considerable silt and vegetable loam
mixed with glacial clay; but on the hills and ridges of western
Washington the soil is almost wholly a glacial deposit consisting
principally of clay but usually containing some sand and gravel.
On the Columbia plateau the soil is principally volcanic ash and
decomposed lava ; it is almost wholly volcanic ash in the more arid
sections, but elsewhere more decomposed lava or other igneous rocks,
and some vegetable loam is mixed with the ash. On the E. slope
of the Cascades and on the Okanogan Highlands glacial deposits of
clay, gravel or sand, as well as vegetable loam, are mixed with the
volcanic substances.
Fisheries. Washington's many waterways, both fresh and salt,
and especially those which indent or are near the coast, make the
fisheries resources of great value. The catch and canning of salmon
are particularly important. In 1905 the value of canned salmon
was $2,431,605 (26,601,429 Ib).
Forests. In 1907 the estimated area of standing timber in Wash-
ington was 11,720 sq. m. besides that included in national forest
reserves. The forest reserves are included in ten national parks,
named the Chelan, Columbia, Colville, Kaniksu, Olympic, Ranier,
Snoqualmie, Washington, Wanaha and Wenatchee, the Chelan being
the largest, with an area of 2,492,500 acres. The aggregate area of
these parks (all of which were opened in 1907 and 1908) is 18,850-7
sq. m., or about three-elevenths of the total area of the state.
Irrigation. The principal Federal irrigation undertakings in 1910
were known as the ' Okanogan project " and the " Yakima project."
The former (authorized in 1905) provided for the irrigation of about
10,000 acres in Okanogan county by means of two reservoirs of an
aggregate area of 650 acres, main canals and main laterals 20 m.
long and small laterals 30 m. long, the water being taken from
the Salmon river. In 1909 about 3000 acres in this project were
watered and under cultivation. The Yakima project involved the
irrigation of about 600,000 acres by means of five reservoirs of an
aggregate area of 804,000 acre-feet, and was undertaken by the
United States government in 1905.
Agriculture. The development of the agricultural resources of
Washington was exceedingly rapid after 1880. The wheat crop
in 1909 was 35,780,000 bushels, valued at $33,275,000; oats,
9,898,000 bushels, valued at $4,751,000; barley, 7,189,000 bushels,
valued at $4,601,000; rye, 84,000 bushels, valued at $79,000;
Indian corn, 417,000 bushels, valued at $359,000. The principal
wheat-producing region is the south-eastern part of the state.
Western Washington has large hay crops; in the E. part of the
state much alfalfa is grown, especially in Yakima county. In W.
Washington peas are raised for forage.
Vegetable crops are successfully grown in low alluvial lands of the
W. part of the state, and on the irrigated volcanic ash lands E. of
the mountains. Apple-growing and the raising of other fruits
have increased rapidly. Small fruits are more successful in the
W. part of the state. Grapes are grown on the mountain sides,
cranberries on the bog lands near the coast, and nuts in the S.E.
parts.
Live-stock and dairy products are important factors in the
:
WASHINGTON
355
agricultural wealth of Washington, but the raising of live-stock on
ranges is less common than when large herds grazed free on govern-
ment lands. Dairying, as distinct from grazing, has much increased
in importance in recent years.
Minerals. The mineral wealth of Washington is large, but its
resources have been only slightly developed, and had hardly begun
before the first decade of the 2oth century : in 1902 the total value
of all mineral products was $5,393,659; in 1907 it was $11,617,706
and in 1908 $11,610,224.
The coal deposits of Washington are the only important ones in
the Pacific states, and in Washington only, of the Pacific states, is
there any coking coal. In the Cowlitz Valley an inferior coal was
found in 1848. The first important coal-mmmg was near Bellingham
May, in Whatcom county, where coal was discovered in 1852 and
where 5374 tons were mined in 1860. Between 1850 and 1860 coal
was found on the Stilaguamish river (Snohomish county) and on the
Black river (near Seattle) and in 1863 at Gilman (King county);
but it was not until between 1880 and 1885, when the Green river
field in King county and the Roslyn mines in Kittitas county were
opened, that commercial production became important: the output
was 3,024,943 tons (valued at $6,690,412) in 1908, when nearly one-
half (i ,414,621 tons) of the total was from Kittitas county and most
of the remainder from the counties of King (931,643 tons) and
Pie'rce (551,678 tons). There are large deposits of glacial and
residual clays and clay shales throughout the state.
Serpentine marble with seamed markings has been found in
Adams and Stevens counties. Granite is found about Puget Sound
and in the extreme eastern part of the state; it is largely used in
riprap or rough foundations. Sandstone is found especially in the
N.VV. in Whatcom and San Juan counties; it is used for paving
blocks. Limestone also is found most plentifully in the north and
north-western parts of the state.
Gold, silver, copper, lead and a little iron (almost entirely brown
ore) are the principal ores of commercial importance found in
Washington. The total value of gold, silver, copper and lead in
1908 was $378,816 (gold $242,234, silver $47,076, copper $41,188,
lead $48,318). The largest output of each of these ores in 1908
was in Stevens county ; Ferry, King and Okanogan counties ranked
next in the output of gold; Okanogan and Ferry counties in the
output of silver; Okanogan in the output of copper; and King in
the output of lead. About nine-tenths of the gold was got from
dry or siliceous ores and about 8 % from placer mines; about two-
thirds of the silver from dry or siliceous ores, about two-ninths from
copper ores, and most of the other ninth from lead ores. The only
lead ore is galena. The copper is mostly a copper glance passing
into chalcopyrite; it is found in fissure veins with granite. A small
quantity of zinc (7 tons in 1906) is occasionally produced. Tungsten
is found as wolframite in Stevens county near Deer Trail and Bissell,
in Okanogan county near Loomis, in Whatcom county near the inter-
national boundary, and (with some scheelite) at Silver Hill, near
Spokane. Nickel has been found near Keller in Ferry county, and
molybdenum near Davenport, Lincoln county. There is chrpmite
in the black sands of the sea-coast and the banks of the larger rivers.
Antimony deposits were first worked in 1906. Arsenic is found.
Manufactures. There was remarkable growth in the manufactur-
ing industries of Washington between 1880 and 1905, due primarily
to the extraordinary development of its lumber industry. In 1870
the value of lumber products was $i ,307,585, and the Territory ranked
thirty-first among the states and territories in this industry, and in
1880 the value of the product was $1,734,742; by 1905 the value
had increased to $49,572,512, and Washington now ranked first.
The manufacture of planing mill products, including sashes, doors
and blinds, was an important industry, the products being valued
in 1905 at $5,173,422.
Next in commercial importance to lumber and timber products
are flour and grist mill products, valued in 1005 at $14,663,612.
Other important manufactures are: slaughtering and meat packing
(wholesale), $6,251,705 in 1005; malt liquors, $4,471,777; and
foundry and machine shop products, $3,862,279.
Transportation and Commerce. Puget Sound has formed a
natural terminus for several transcontinental railways, the cities of
Seattle and Tacoma on its shores affording outlets to the commerce
of the Pacific for the Northern Pacific, the Great Northern and the
Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound transcontinental lines, which
enter these cities with their own tracks. The Union Pacific and the
Canadian Pacific reach Seattle over the tracks of other roads. The
Northern Pacific and the Great Northern enter the state near the
middle of its eastern boundary at Spokane, which is a centre for
practically all the railway lines in the eastern part of the state.
The Northern Pacific, the first of the transcontinental roads to touch
the Pacific north of San Francisco, reaches Seattle with a wide
sweep to the south, crossing the Columbia river about where it is
entered by the Yakima and ascending the valley of the latter to
the Cascade Mountains. The Great Northern, running west from
Spokane, crosses the state in nearly a straight line, and between this
road and the Northern Pacific, and paralleling the Great Northern,
runs the recently constructed Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound,
the westward extension of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul. The
Northern Pacific sends a branch line south from Tacoma parallel
with the coast to Portland on the Columbia river, where it meets the
Southern Pacific and the Oregon Railroad & Navigation Company's
line (a subsidiary of the Union Pacific), thus affording communica-
tion southwards, and up the valley of the Columbia to the east.
Entering the south-east corner of the state, the Oregon Railroad &
Navigation Company extends a line northwards to Spokane, and a
branch of the Great Northern, leaving the main line at this city,
runs north-westward into British Columbia. The Spokane, Portland
& Seattje railway connects the three cities named by way of the
Columbia Valley; and the Spokane & Inland Empire sends a line
eastward into Idaho to the Coeur d'Alene country and another
through the south-eastern part of the state into Nevada. In 1880
the railway mileage was 289 m.; in 1890, 2012-05 m -; ' n 1900,
2888-44 m. ; and on the 1st of January 1900, 4180-32 m.
Seattle and Tacoma are among the four leading ports of the
United States on the Pacific. Other harbours on Puget Sound of
commercial importance are Olympia, Everett and Bellingham.
Port Townsend is the port of entry for Puget Sound. Gray's
Harbour, on the western coast, is of importance in lumber traffic.
Population. The population in 1860 was 11,594; in 1870,
23>955; in 1880, 75,116; in 1890, 349,300, an increase within
the decade of 365-1%; in 1900, 518,103, an increase of about
45%. In 1910, according to the U.S. census returns, the total
population of the state reached 1,141,900. Of the total popula-
tion in 1900, 394,179 were native whites, 111,364 or 21-5% were
foreign-born, 10,139 (of whom 2531 were not taxed) were Indians,
5617 were Japanese, 3629. were Chinese, and 2514 were negroes.
The Indians on reservations in 1909 were chiefly those on Colville
Reservation (1,297,000 acres unallotted), in the N.E. part of the
state, and the Yakima Reservation (837,753 acres unallotted),
in the S. part; they belonged to many small tribes chiefly of
the Salishan, Athapascan, Chinookan and Shahaptian stocks.
Of the foreign-bom, 18,385 were English-Canadians, 16,686
Germans, 12,737 Swedes, 10,481 natives of England, 9891
Norwegians and 7262 Irish. Of the total population 241,388
were of foreign parentage (i.e. either one or both parents were
foreign-born), and of those having both parents of a given
nationality 34,490 were of German, 19,359 of Swedish, 17,456
of Irish, 16,959 of Norwegian and 16,835 of English parentage.
The Roman Catholic Church in 1906 had more members than
any other religious denomination, 74,981 out of the total of
191,976 in all denominations; there were 31,700 Methodists,
13,464 Lutherans, 11,316 Baptists, 10,628 Disciples of Christ,
10,025 Congregationalists and 6780 Protestant Episcopalians.
Government. Washington is governed under its original
constitution, which was adopted on the ist of October 1889. An
amendment may be proposed by either branch of the legislature;
if approved by two-thirds of the members elected to each branch
and subsequently, at the next general election, by a majority
of the people who vote on the question it becomes a part of the
constitution. Five amendments have been adopted: one in
1894, one in 1896, one in 1900, one in 1904, and one in 1910.
Suffrage is conferred upon all adult citizens of the
United States (including women, 1910) who have lived in the
state one year, in the county ninety days, and in the city,
town, ward or precinct thirty days immediately preceding the
election, and are able to read and speak the English language;
Indians who are not taxed, idiots, insane persons and convicts
are debarred. General elections are held biennially, in even-
numbered years, on the first Tuesday after the first Monday
in November, and candidates, except those for the supreme
court bench and a few local offices, are nominated at a direct
primary election, held the second Tuesday in September.
The governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer,
auditor, attorney-general, superintendent of public instruction and
commissioner of public lands are elected for a term of four years;
and each new administration begins on the second Monday in
January. The governor's salary is $6000 a year, which is the
maximum allowed by the constitution.
The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives,
and the constitution provides that the number of representatives
shall not be less than sixty-three nor more than ninety-nine, and
the number of senators not more than one-half nor less than one-
third the number of representatives. Senators are elected by
single districts for a term of four years, a portion retiring every two
years; representatives are elected, one, two or three from a district,
for a term of two years. Regular sessions of the legislature are held
biennially, in odd-numbered years, and begin on the second Monday
WASHINGTON
in January. Any bill or any item or items of any bill which has
passed both houses may be vetoed by the governor, and to override
a veto a two-thirds vote of the members present in each house is
required. No law other than appropriation bills can go into effect
until ninety days after the adjournment of the legislature, except in
case of an emergency, by a vote in each house of two-thirds of all its
members. The members of the legislature are paid $5 for each day's
attendance during the session, besides an allowance for travelling
expenses.
Justice is administered principally by a supreme court, superior
courts and justices of the peace. The supreme court consists of
nine judges elected for a term of six years, one of those whose term
next expires being chosen chief justice, and is divided into two
departments. The presence of at least three judges in each
department is required, and the concurrence of at least three judges
is necessary to a decision. In case of a disagreement the case may
be heard again in the same department, transferred to the other
department, or to the court en bane. The chief justice or any four
of his associates may at any time convene the court en bane, and
if so convened at least five of the judges must be present, and the
concurrence of at least five is necessary to a decision. The supreme
court h^s original jurisdiction in habeas corpus, quo warranto and
mandamus proceedings against all state officers ; and it has appellate
jurisdiction except in civil actions for the recovery of money or
personal property, in which the original amount in controversy
does not exceed $200, and which at the same time do not involve
the legality of a tax, impost, assessment, toll or municipal fine, or
the validity of a statute. Judges of the superior courts (one or more
for each county, or one for two or more counties jointly) are elected
for a term of four years. They have original jurisdiction in all
cases in equity, in all cases at law which involve the title or possession
of real property, or the legality of a tax, impost, assessment, toll or
municipal fine, and in all other cases at law in which the amount
in controversy is $100 or more, in nearly all criminal cases, in matters
of probate, in proceedings for divorce, and in various other cases;
and they have appellate jurisdiction of cases originally tried before
a justice of the peace or other inferior courts where the amount in
controversy is more than $20. Justices of the peace, one or more
in each election precinct, are elected for a term of two years. They
have jurisdiction of various civil actions in which the amount in
controversy is less than $100, and concurrent jurisdiction with the
superior courts in all cases of misdemeanours, but punishment by a
justice of the peace is limited in cities of the first class to a fine of
$500, or imprisonment for six months, and elsewhere to a fine of
$100 or imprisonment for thirty days.
Local Government. The government of each county is vested
principally in a board of three commissioners elected by a county
at large, some for two and some for four years. The other
county officers are a clerk, a treasurer, an auditor, an assessor, an
attorney, an engineer, a sheriff, a coroner and a superintendent of
public schools, each elected for a term of two years. Township
organization is in force only when adopted by a particular county at
a county election; in 1910 only one county (Spokane) had the town-
ship organization. Each township is governed by the electors
assembled annually (the first Tuesday in March) in town meeting
and by three supervisors, a clerk, a treasurer, an assessor, a justice
of the peace and a constable, and an overseer of highways for each
road district, all elected at the town meeting, justice of the peace
and a constable for a term of two years, the other officers for a term
of one year; each overseer of highways is chosen by the electors of
his district. Municipalities are incorporated under general laws,
and cities are divided into three classes, the first class including
those having a population of 20,000 or more, the second class those
having a population between 10,000 and 20,000, the third class those
having a population between 1500 and 10,000. When a community
has a population between 300 and 1500 within an area of I sq. m..
it may be incorporated as a town. A city of the first class is per-
mitted to frame its own charter, but its general powers are prescribed
by statute. A city of the second class must elect a mayor and twelve
councilmen, and its mayor must appoint a police judge, an attorney,
a street commissioner and a chief of police. A city of the third class
must elect a mayor, seven councilmen, a treasurer, a health officer,
a clerk and an attorney, and its mayor must apoint a marshal,
a police justice and as many policemen as the council provides
for. An incorporated town must elect a mayor, five councilmen
and a treasurer, and its mayor must appoint a marshal and a c'.erk.
Miscellaneous Laws. Either husband or wife may hold, manage
and dispose of his or her separate property independent of the other,
but property which they hold in common is under the management
and control of the husband except that he cannot devise by will
more than one-half of the community real or personal property, or
convey, mortgage or encumber any of the community real estate
unless his wife joins him. When either husband or wife dies intestate
one-third of the separate real estate of the deceased goes to the sur-
vivor if there are two or more children, one-half of it if there is only
one child, the whole of it if there are no children, no issue of children,
and no father, mother, brother or sister. One-half of the community
property goes to the survivor in any case, and the whole of it if there
is no will and neither children nor the issue of children. Where there
is no will one-half of the residue of the separate personal estate go
to the survivor if there are issue, and the whole of it if there are i
issue. A law enacted in 1909 forbids a marriage in which either i
the parties is a common drunkard, habitual criminal, epileptic
imbecile, feeble-minded person, idiot or insane person, a person \vh
has been afflicted with hereditary insanity, a person who is afflictc
with pulmonary tuberculosis in its advanced stages, or a person wh
is afflicted with any contagious venereal disease, unless the woma
is at least forty-five years of age. A plaintiff must resid
in the state one year before filing an application for a divorce.
Neither party is permitted to marry a third party until six months
after the divorce has been obtained. Washington has a state board
consisting of three members appointed by the governor to confer with
commissioners from other states upon such matters as marriage
and divorce, insolvency, descent and distribution of property,
the execution and probate of wills, for the purpose of promoting
uniformity of legislation respecting them. A homestead to the value
of $1000 which is owned and occupied by the head of a family
exempt from attachment or forced sale except for debts secured b
mechanics', labourers', materialmen's or vendors' liens upon tl:
premises. If the owner is a married man the homestead may t
selected from the community property but not the wife's separate
property without her consent, and when it has been selected, even if
from the husband's separate property, u cannot be encumbered
conveyed without the wife's consent. Personal property is exemf
from execution or attachment as follows: all wearing apparel c
every person and family; private libraries to the value of $500; all
family pictures; household goods to the value of $500; certain
domestic animals or $250 worth of other property chosen instead;
firearms kept for the use of a person or family; certain article
(within specified values) necessary to the occupations of farmers,
physicians, and other professional men. teamsters, lightermen, &c.,
and the proceeds of all life and accident insurance. By a law enacte
in 1909 the licensing of the sale of intoxicating liquors, other than fc
medical purposes by druggists and pharmacists, is left to the optio
of counties and cities.
Charities, &c. The state charitable and penal institutions consis
of the Western Washington Hospital for the Insane at Fort Steilj
coom, the Eastern Washington Hospital for the Insane at Medic
Lake, the State School for the Deaf and the State School for the Blin
at Vancouver, the State Institution for Feeble-minded near Medic
Lake, the Washington Soldiers' Home and Soldiers' Colony
Orting, the Veterans' Home at Port Orchard, the State Penitentiar
at Walla Walla, the State Reformatory at Monroe and the Stat
Training School at Chehalis. All of these institutions are under th
management of a bi-partisan State Board of Control which consist
of three members appointed by the governor for a term of six years
one every two years, and also removable by the governor in his dii
cretion. Each member receives a salary of $3000 a year. Thesare
board together with the superintendent of the penitentiary constitut
a prison board. The State Training School is for the reformator
training of children between eight and eighteen years of age who hav
been found guilty of any crime other than murder, manslaughter (
highway robbery, or who for some other cause have been committe
to it by a court of competent jurisdiction.
Education. The public school system is administered by a stat
superintendent of public instruction, a state board of education
regents or trustees of higher institutions of learning, a superintenden
of the common schools and a board of education in each county
and a board of directors in each school district. The state suj
intendent is elected for a term of four years. The state boar
of education consists of the state superintendent, the president
of the University of Washington, the president of the Stat
College of Washington, the principal of one of the state norma
schools chosen biennially by the principals of the state norma
schools, and three other members appointed biennially by the
governor, one of whom must be a superintendent of a distric'
of the first class, one a county superintendent and one a princip
of a high school. This body very largely determines the course
study in the elementary schools, high schools, normal school and tfc
normal departments of the University and the State College, approv
the rt quirements for entrance to the University and the State Colle
and prepares the questions for the examination of teachers. Eac
county superintendent is elected for a term of two years. Th
county board of education consists of the county superintendent an
four other members appointed by him for a term of two years ; ont
of its principal duties is to adopt the text-books for schools '~
districts in which there is no four-year accredited high schc*
In a school district which maintains a four-year accredite
high school there is a text-book commission consisting of the city
superintendent or the principal of the high school, two membe
of the board of directors designated by the board, and two teache
appointed by the board. All children between eight and fiftei
years of age, and all between fifteen and sixteen years of ag
who are not regularly employed in some useful or remunerativ
occupation, must attend the public school all the time it is in session
or a private school for the same time unless excused by the city c
the county superintendent because of mental or physical disabilit
or because of proficiency in the branches taught in the first eight
WASHINGTON
357
grades. Washington has three state normal schools : one at Cheney,
one at Bellingham, and one at Ellensburg, and each of them is under
the management of a board of three trustees anointed by the
governor with the concurrence of the Senate for a term of six years,
one every two years. The State College of Washington (1890) at
Pullman, for instruction in agriculture, mechanical arts and natural
sciences, includes an agricultural college, an experiment station and
a school of science. The University of Washington (1862) at Seattle
embraces a college of liberal arts, a college of engineering and schools
of law, pharmacy, mines and forestry. Whitman College (Congrega-
tional, 1866) at Walla Walla, Gonzaga College (Roman Catholic,
1887) at Spokane, Whitworth College (Presbyterian, 1890) at Tacoma
and the University of Puget Sound (Methodist Episcopal, 1903) at
Tacoma are institutions of higher learning maintained and controlled
by their respective denominations.
Finance. The revenue for state, county and municipal purposes
is derived principally from a general property tax, a privilege tax
levied on the gross receipts of express companies and private
car companies, an inheritance tax and licence fees for the sale
of intoxicating liquors. Real property is assessed biennially;
personal property, annually. For the two years ending the 1st of
October 1908 the total receipts into the state treasury amounted
to $10,854,281-42 and the total disbursements amounted to
$11,053,375-13. The net state debt on the 1st of October 1908
amounted to $967,576-38.
History. The early exploration of the western coast of North
America grew out of the search for a supposed passage, some-
times called the " Strait of Anian " between the Pacific and the
Atlantic. In Purchas his Pilgrimmes (1625) was published the
story of Juan de Fuca, a Greek mariner whose real name was
Apostolos Valerianos, who claimed to have discovered the
passage and to have sailed in it more than twenty days. Though
the story was a fabrication, the strait south of Vancouver Island
was given his name. An account of the various Spanish and
English explorers has already been given under OREGON and need
not be repeated at length here.
In 1787 a company of Boston merchants sent two vessels,
the " Columbia " and the " Washington " under John Kendrick
and Robert Gray (1755-1806) to investigate the possibility
of establishing trading posts. They reached Nootka Sound in
September 1788, and in July 1789 Captain Gray in the
" Columbia " began the homeward voyage by way of China.
Captain Kendrick remained, erected a fort on Nootka Sound,
demonstrated that Vancouver was an island and in 1 79 1 purchased
from the Indians large tracts of land between 47 and 51 N.
lat. for his employers. On the homeward voyage he was
accidentally killed and his vessel was lost. Meanwhile Captain
Gray in September 1 790 sailed from Boston on a second voyage.
During the winter of 1791-1792 he built another fort on Nootka
Sound and mounted four cannon from the ship. With the coming
of spring he sailed southward, determined to settle definitely
the existence of the great river, which he had vainly attempted
to enter the previous summer. Captain George Vancouver
(1758-1798), in charge of a British exploring expedition then
engaged in mapping the coast (1792-1794), was sceptical of
the existence of the river, but Captain Gray, undiscouraged,
persisted in the search and on the nth of May 1792 anchored
in the river which he named Columbia in honour of his ship.
The later claim of the United States to all the territory drained
by the river was based chiefly upon this discovery by Captain
Gray, who had succeeded where Spanish and British had failed.
The territory became known as Oregon (q.v.).
The first white man certainly known to have approached
the region from the east was Alexander Mackenzie of the North-
west Fur Company, who reached the coast at about lat. 52
in July 1793. With the purchase of Louisiana (3oth April 1803)
the United States gained a clear title to the land between the
Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains as far north as 49 ana,
because of contiguity, a shadowy claim to the region west of
the mountains. In 1819 Spain specifically renounced any claim
she might have to the coast north of 42, strengthening thereby
the position of the United States. Just before the purchase
of Louisiana, President Jefferson had recommended to Congress
(i8th January 1803) the sending of an expedition to explore the
headwaters of the Missouri, cross the Rockies and follow the
streams to the Pacific. In accordance with the recommendation
Meriwether Lewis (q.v.) and William Clark, both officers of the
United States Army, with a considerable party left St Louis
on the I4th of May 1804, ascended the Missouri to the head-
waters, crossed the Rockies and, following the Columbia river,
reached the ocean in November 1805. The return journey
over nearly the same route was begun on the 23rd of March
1806, and on the 23rd of September they reached St Louis.
The story of the struggle of the rival British and American
companies to control the fur trade, with the final dominance
of the Hudson's Bay Company has been told under OREGON and
need not be repeated. Since the country was considered to be
of little value the question of boundaries was not pressed either
by Great Britain or the United States after the War of 1812,
and by a treaty concluded on the 2oth of October 1818 it was
agreed that " any country that may be claimed by either party
on the north-west coast of North America, westward of the
Stony (Rocky) Mountains shall be free and open for the term of
ten years from the date of the signature of the present convention
to the vessels, citizens and subjects of the two powers." On
the 6th of August 1827 the convention was continued in force
indefinitely with the proviso that either party might abrogate
the agreement on twelve months' notice. Meanwhile Russia
(i7th April 1824) agreed to make no settlement south of 54 40'
and the United States agreed to make none north of that line.
In February 1825 Great Britain and Russia made a similar
agreement. This left only Great Britain and the United States
as the contestants for that territory west of the Rocky Mountains
between 42 and 54 40', which by this time was commonly
known as the Oregon country. American settlers in considerable
numbers soon began to enter the region south of the Columbia
river, and in 1841, and again in 1843, these settlers attempted
to form a provisional government. A fundamental code was
adopted in 1845 and a provisional government was established,
to endure until " the United States of America extend their
jurisdiction over us." North of the river, the Hudson's Bay
Company discouraged settlement, believing that the final deter-
mination of the boundary controversy would make that stream
the dividing line. Though there were a few mission stations in
the eastern part of the present state of Washington (see WHITMAN,
MARCUS), the first permanent American settlement north of
the Columbia was made in 1845 on the Des Chutes river, at the
head of Puget Sound at the present Tumwater. Others soon
followed in spite of the efforts of the chief factor of the Hudson's
Bay Company , Dr John M'Loughlin, and these permanent
settlers finally carried the day.
Interest in the Oregon country developed with the increase
of settlers and of knowledge and a demand for the settlement
of the boundary dispute arose. The report of Captain Charles
Wilkes, who visited the coast in 1841-1842 in charge of the
United States exploring expedition helped to excite this interest.
In the presidential campaign of 1844 one of the Democratic
demands was " Fifty-four forty or fight." By a treaty negotiated
by James Buchanan, on the part of the United States, and
Richard Pakenham, on the part of Great Britain, and ratified
on the I7th of July 1846, the boundary was fixed at 49 to the
middle of the channel separating the continent from Vancouver
Island and thence " southerly through the middle of the said
channel and of Fuca's Straits to the Pacific Ocean." A dispute
later arose over this water-line. The act establishing a territorial
government for Oregon was approved on the I4th of August
1848, and the first governor, Joseph Lane (1801-1881), assumed
the government on the 3rd of March 1849. Following the in-
crease of population north of the Columbia, the territory was
divided, and Washington Territory was established on the 2nd
of March 1853, with the river as die southern boundary to the
point where it is intersected by the forty-sixth parallel, and
thence along that parallel to the summit of the Rocky Mountains,
thereby including portions of the present states of Idaho and
Montana. The first governor, Major Isaac I. Stevens, of the
United States Army, took charge on the 2gth of September
1853, and a census indicated a population of 3065, of whom 1682
were voters. Olympia was chosen as the temporary seat of
358
WASHST AND WASP
government, and Governor Stevens at once set to work to ex-
tinguish the Indian titles to land and to survey a route for a
railway, which was later to become the Northern Pacific. The
Indians, alarmed by the rapid growth of the white population,
attempted to destroy the scattered settlements and the wandering
prospectors for gold, which had been discovered in eastern
Washington in 1855. Between 1855 and 1859, after many sharp
contests, the Indians were partially subdued.
Shortly after 1846, the British began to assert that the Rosario
Strait and not Haro Strait (as the Americans held) was the
channel separating the mainland and Vancouver Island, thus
claiming the Haro Archipelago of which San Juan was the
principal island. Conflict of authority arose, and in 1859 San
Juan was occupied by U.S. troops commanded by Captain
George E. Pickett (1825-1875), and for a time hostilities seemed
imminent. By agreement joint occupation followed until, by
the Treaty of Washington (May 8, 1871), the question was
left to the German emperor, who decided (October 21, 1872) in
favour of the United States. Meanwhile Oregon was admitted
as a state (February 14, 1859) with the present boundaries, and
the remnant of the territory, including portions of what are
now Idaho and Wyoming, was added to Washington. The
discovery of gold in this region, however, brought such a rush of
population that the Territory of Idaho was set oft" (March 3, 1863)
and Washington was reduced to its present limits. Rapid growth
in population and wealth led to agitation for statehood, and a
constitution was adopted in 1878, but Congress declined to pass
an enabling act. The development of Alaska and the completion
of the Northern Pacific Railroad to the coast (1883) brought a
great increase in rx mlation. A large number of Chinese coolies
who had been intrc .'uced to construct the railway congregated
in the towns on the a mpletion of the work, and in 1885 serious
anti-Chinese riots led to the declaration of martial law by
the governor and to the use of United States troops. Finally
the long-desired admission to statehood was granted by Con-
gress (February 22, 1889) and President Benjamin Harrison
(November n, 1889) formally announced the admission complete.
Since admission the progress of the state has continued with
increasing rapidity. The Alaska- Yukon Exposition, designed
to exhibit the resources of western America, held at Seattle
June-October 1909, was a complete success. In politics the
state has been Republican in national elections, except in 1896,
when it was carried by a fusion of Democrats and Populists.
A Populist was elected governor and was re-elected in 1900.
GOVERNORS OF WASHINGTON
Territorial.
Isaac I. Stevens .
185.1-1 857
C. H. Mason (acting) .
1857
Fayette McMullen
1857-1858
C. H. Mason (acting) .
1858-1859
Richard D. Gholson
1859-1860
Henry M. McGill (acting)
1860-1861
Wm. H.Wallace .
1861
L. J. S. Turney (acting)
1861-1862
Wm. Pickering * .
1862-1866
George E. Cole
1866-1867
E. L. Smith (acting) .
1867
Marshall F. Moore
1867-1869
Alvin Flanders
1869-1870
Edward S. Salmon
1870-1872
Elisha P. Ferry
1872-1880
W. A. Newell
1880-1884
Watson C. Squire
1884-1887
Eugene Semple
Miles C. Moore
1887-1889
1889
State.
Elisha P. Ferry . Republican 1889-1893
John H. McGraw . 1893-1897
J. R. Rogers . . Populist 1897-1901
Henry C. McBride 2 Republican (acting) 1901-1905
Albert E. Mead . Republican 1905-1909
Samuel G. Cosgrove 3 1909
M. E. Hay . . Republican (acting) I 99-
*_ Absent from the Territory during the greater part of 1865, during
which time Elwood Evans acted as governor.
4 In place of J. R. Rogers, deceased.
* Died 28th March 1909.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general and physical description see th
Annual Reports (1902 sqq,.) of the Washington Geological Survey-
in vol. i. there ts a " Bibliography of the Literature referring to th
Geology of Washington " by R. Arnold ; O. L. Waller, Irrigatio
in the State of Washington (Washington, 1909), Bulletin 214 of th
U.S. Department of Agriculture; and Water Supply and Irrigatir
, .. __. Ballinge.
and A. Remington, Codes and Statutes of Washington (ibid., 1910).
For history see H. H. Bancroft, The Northwest Coast (2 vols., San
Francisco, 1884), and Oregon (2 vols., ibid., 1886-1888), Washingto
Idaho and Montana (ibid., 1890); George Vancouver, Voyage
Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean (3 vols., London, 1797) ; Elwot _
Evans, Washington (Tacoma, Washington, 1893); and E. S. Meany,
Washington (New York, 1909). See also the bibliographies unde
OREGON and WHITMAN, MARCUS.
WASHSTAND, a table or stand containing conveniences fo
personal ablutions. In its 18th-century form it was called
" basin stand "or " basin frame," and is still sometimes descrih
as a " washhand stand." Its direct, but remote, ancestor wa
the monastic lavabo, ranges of basins of stone, lead or marbl<
fed from a cistern. They were usually of primitive conception,
and a trough common to all was probably more frequent tha
separate basins. Very occasionally they were of bronze adorned
with enamels and blazoned with heraldry. Very similar usages
obtained in castles and palaces, fixed lavatories being con-
structed in the thickness of the walls for the use of their more
important residents. These arrangements were obviously
intended only for the summary ablutions which, until a very late
date, sufficed to even the high-born. By degrees the lavab
became portable, and a " basin frame " is mentioned as early
as the middle of the 1 7th century. Examples of earlier date than
the third or fourth decade of the i8th century are, however,
virtually unknown. Thenceforward, until about the end of that
century, this piece of furniture was usually literally a " stand."
It was supported upon a tripod; a circular orifice in the top
received the basin, and smaller ones were provided for a soap
dish and a water-bottle. Sometimes a stand for the water-jug
when the basin was in use was provided below, and very com-
monly there was a drawer, sometimes even two drawers, belov
the basin. Great numbers of these stands were made to fit into
corners, and a " corner wash-stand " is still one of the commone
objects in an old furniture shop. Chippendale designed such
stands in an elaborate rococo fashion, as well as in simpler form.
As the 1 8th century drew to its close the custom of using the same
apartment as reception room by day and sleeping room by night
produced a demand for what was called " harlequin furniture "-
pieces which were contrived a double or triple debt to pay.
Thus a variety of complicated combination washstands and
dressing tables were made, and fitted with mirrors and sometimes
with writing conveniences and drawers for clothes. Sheraton
developed astonishing ingenuity in devising a type of furniture
which, if we may judge by the large number of examples still
existing, must have become highly popular. With the beginning
of the i gth century and the expansion of ideals of personal
cleanliness, the washstand grew in size and importance. It
acquired the form of an oblong wooden table provided, like
its smaller predecessors, with orifices for basins and fitted with a
broad shelf-like stretcher upon which the jugs were placed when
they were removed from the basins. Ample space was provided
for soap-dishes and water-bottles. These tables were single or
double, for the use of one or two persons. The washstand, as
we know it in the 2oth century, took its final form when the
wooden top was replaced by marble, unpierced, the basins being
placed upon the slab, which, in the beginning almost invariably
white, is now often of red or other warm-tinted marble.
WASP (Lat. vespa), the common name for a well-known
sort of stinging insect. The order Hymenoptera is divided into
two sub-orders, the Symphyta and the Apocrita. The latter
is subdivided into several sections, one of which, the Vespoidea,
includes all the true wasps; in addition to the ruby wasps and
many of the " Fossores " or digging wasps.
The true wasps (forming the old section Diploptera) are in
their turn divided into three families (i) the Vespidae, (2) the
WASP
359
Eumenidae, and (3) the Masaridae, which together comprise
some 1500 different species. They are characterized by their
wings, which are present in both sexes and also in the modified
females or workers, being longitudinally folded when at rest,
except in the Masaridae. The antennae are usually elbowed,
and contain twelve or thirteen joints; in some cases they are
clavate. A pair of notched faceted eyes are present, and three
ocelli in the top of the head. The mouth-parts are arranged for
sucking, but have not reached that degree of perfection found
amongst the bees. Hence wasps cannot obtain the sugary
sci Tc-tion from deeply-seated nectaries, and their visits to flowers
are confined to such as are shallow or widely opened; they
particularly frequent the Umbelliferae. The maxillae are
elongated, and compressed, the maxillary palp six-jointed. The
labium is prolonged centrally into a " tongue," which is glandular
at the tip; the paraglossae are linear. The labial palp has three
or four joints. The pro-thorax is oval, and its sides are prolonged
backward to the base of the wings. The fore wing has two or
three submarginal cells. The legs are not provided with any
adaptations for collecting pollen. The abdomen is sometimes
pedunculate, its second (apparently first) segment being drawn
out into a long stalk, which connects it with the alitrunk, made up
of the thorax and the first abdominal segment. The queens and
the workers are armed with a powerful sting. The usual colour
of these insects is black, relieved to a greater or less degree by
spots and patches of yellow or buff.
The Diploptera may be subdivided into two groups in accord-
ance with the habits of life of the insects comprising the section.
One of the groups includes the family Vespidae, which is com-
posed of social wasps, and includes the hornet ( Vespa crabro) and
the common wasp (V. vulgaris). The other group contains two
smaller families, the Eumenidae and the Masaridae, the members
of which are solitary in their mode of life.
Family I . Vespidae. In addition to their social habits the members
of this family are characterized by certain structural features. The
anterior wings have three submarginal cells. The antennae have
thirteen joints in the males and twelve in the females; the claws of
the tarsi are simple; the anterior four tibiae have two spines at the
tip; the abdomen is but rarely pedunculated, and the posterior
segments are often very contractile.
T~he members of this family approximate very closely to bees in
their social manner of life. The communities are composed of males,
fertile females and workers. The latter are females in which the
ovary remains undeveloped; they resemble the perfect female in
external appearance, but are slightly smaller. It has been shown by
P. Marchal that a clear line of distinction between queen and worker
cannot always be drawn. Unlike the hive bees', the wasps' com-
munity is annual, existing for one summer only. Most of the
members die at the approach of autumn, but a few females which
have been fertilized hibernate through the winter, sheltered under
stones or in hollow trees. In the spring and with the returning warm
weather the female regains her activity and emerges from her hiding-
place. She then sets about finding a convenient place for building
a nest and establishing a new colony. The common wasp (K.
vulgaris) usually selects some burrow or hole in the ground, which, if
too small, she may enlarge into a chamber suitable for her purpose.
She then begins to build the nest. This is constructed of small fibres
of old wood, which the wasp gnaws, and kneads, when mixed with
the secretion from the salivary glands, into a sort of papier-mache
pulp. Some of this is formed into a hanging pillar attached to the
root of the cavity, and in the lower free end of this three shallow
cup-like cells are hung. In each of these an egg is laid. The foundress
of the society then continues to add cells to the comb, and as soon
as the grubs appear from the first-laid eggs she has in addition to
tend and feed them. The development within the egg takes eight
days.
The grubs are apodal, thicker in the middle than at either end;
the mandibles bear three teeth; the maxillae and labium are repre-
sented by fleshy tubercles. The body, exclusive of the head, consists
of thirteen segments, which bear lateral tubercles and spiracles.
The larva has no anus. The larvae are suspended with the head
downwards in the cells, and require a good deal of attention, being
fed by their mother upon insects which are well chewed before they
are given to the larvae, or upon honey. At the same time the mother
is enlarging and deepening the cells in which they live, building new
cells, and laying more eggs, which are usually suspended in the same
angle of each cell.
After about a fortnight the grubs cease to feed, and, forming a silky
cover to their cells, become pupae. This quiescent stage lasts about
ten days, at the end of which period they emerge as the imago or
perfect insect. The silky covering of the cell is round or convex
outwards; and to leave the cell the insect either pushes it out, when
it opens like a box Jid, or gnaws a round hole through it. As soon as
the cell is vacated it is cleaned out and another egg deposited. In
this way two or three larvae occupy successively the same cell during
the summer. The first wasps that appear in a nest are workers, and
these at once set to work to enlarge the comb, and feed the larvae, &c.
The material of the nest, as before stated, is usually dried
wood, worked by the mandibles of the wasp, with the addition of its
salivary secretion, into a pulp, which can easily be moulded whilst
moist; it dries into a substance of a papery appearance, but
possessing considerable tenacity. Sometimes paper itself, such as old
cartridge cases, is used. The combs are arranged horizontally ; each
contains a single layer of cells opening downwards. The second
comb is suspended from the first by a number of hanging pillars which
are built from the point of union of three cells. The space between
two combs is just sufficient to allow the wasps to cross each other.
The combs are roughly circular in outline, and increase in size for the
first four or five layers, after which they begin to decrease; the
whole is covered by a roughly made coating consisting of several
layers of the same papery substance which composes the combs.
This is continued down until it forms a roughly spherical covering for
the whole, but not giving any support to the combs, which are inde-
pendent of it. As the nest increases in size, the covering needs to be
repeatedly pulled to pieces and reconstructed, its inner layer being
cut away as the combs are enlarged. The covering is pierced by
apertures for the passage of the wasps. The cells are hexagonal at
their mouths, but above become more rounded in their cross section.
During the first half of the summer workers only are produced, but,
as fruit ripens and food becomes more abundant, fully developed
females and males appear, the latter often from parthenogenetically
developed eggs of the later broods of workers. The males and
females are larger than the workers, and require larger cells for their
development; these are usually kept apart from one another and
from those of the workers. The malts may be distinguished by their
longer antennae, by the more elongated outline of their body, and by
the absence of a sting.
In a favourable season, when the weather is warm and food
plentiful, a nest may contain many thousands of cells full of wasps in
various stages of development; and, as each cell is occupied two
or three times in the course of a summer, those authorities who put
the number of the members of the community as high as 30,000 are
probably not far wrong.
At the approach of autumn the society begins to break up; the
males fertilize the females whilst flying high in the air. They then
die, often within a few hours. The workers leave the nest, carrying
with them any grubs that remain in the cells, and both soon perish.
The nest is entirely deserted. The fertilized females, it has been seen,
creep into crevices under stones or trees, or hide amongst moss, and
hibernate until the warmth of the following spring induces them to
leave their hiding-places and set about founding a new community.
There are altogether, seven species of Vespa met with in Britain.
V. vulgaris, the common or ground wasp, V. rufa, the red wasp,
distinguished by its reddish-yellow
abdomen, and V. germanica, the
German wasp, with three black
spots upon its first abdominal seg-
ment, are classed together as ground
wasps. They build their nests in
burrows in the ground, but this is
not an invariable rule; they may
be distinguished from the tree wasps
by their shorter cheeks and usually
by the first joint in the antennae
of the female being black. Vespa
austriaca (arborea) is a race of V.
rufa, in whose nest it sometimes
lives as an inquiline. The tree wasps build stouter nests upon
branches of trees; the first joint of the antennae of the females
is yeliow in front. The tree wasps are V. sylvestris, noreegica and
crabro.
The hornet, V. crabro, is the largest species occurring in Great
Britain. They have a more distinctly red colour than the common
wasp, and a. row of red spots upon each side of the abdomen. They
occur much more rarely than the common wasp, and appear to be
almost confined to the southern half of England. Their nests
resemble those described above, but are larger; they are found in
hollow trees or deserted out-houses. Their communities are smaller
in number than those of the other wasps.
The hornet, where it occurs in any number, does a considerable
amount of damage to forest trees, by gnawing the bark off the
younger branches to obtain material for constructing its nest.
It usually selects the ash or alder, but sometimes attacks the lime,
birch and willow. Like the wasp, it does much damage to fruit, upon
the juices of which it lives. On the other hand, the wasp is useful
by keeping down the numbers of flies and other insects. It catches
these in large numbers, killing them with its jaws and not with its
sting. It then tears off the legs and wings, and bears the body back
to its nest as food for the larvae. Wasps also act to some extent as
flower fertilizers, but in this respect they cannot compare with bees;
they visit fewer flowers, and have no adaptations on their limbs for
carrying off the pollen.
FIG. I. Vespa rufa.
3 6
WASP
The genus Vespa is very widely spread; it contains over forty
species, distributed all over the world. Some of the largest and
handsomest come from eastern Asia. V. mandarina of China and
Japan, and V. magnified of the East Indies and Nepal, measure
2 in. across the wings;
V. orientalis, found in
Greece, Egypt and the
East, builds its nest of
clay.
The only other genus
of Vespidae which is
found in Europe is
Polistes, which occurs in
the countries bordering
the Mediterranean. The
colonies of this genus
are much smaller than
those of Vespa. Each
nest consists of a single
tier of cells in the form
of a round plate, sup-
ported in the middle
by a single stalk. This
comb is sometimes
vertical, the cells then
being horizontal or
slightly oblique. Some
of the members of this
genus store up honey,
which in the case of a
South American species
is poisonous, from the
nature of the flowers
FIG. 2. Nest of Vespa syhestris. from which it is gathered.
The members of this
genus have a slender body; the thorax is more oblong than in the
genus Vespa, the palps are stouter and the abdomen is more
distinctly pedunculate.
The genus Ischnogaster, from the East Indies, has many structural
, features in common with the Eumenidae, but the character of its
communities, and its nest, which is very small, justify its position
amongst the social wasps.
The genus learia, common in Australia and the East Indies,
builds very small nests, of two or three rows of cells, hanging on
one side from a stalk.
Synaeca is a South American genus, which builds large nests,
sometimes 3 ft. in length, closely applied to the branch of a tree;
they never contain more than one layer of cells, which are hori-
zontally placed. The whole nest is built of coarse material, chiefly
small pieces of bark; and there is only one opening, at the lower end.
Another South American genus, Chartergus, makes a tough nest,
pendent from boughs of trees, and opening to the exterior below
by a median aperture. The combs are
arranged, somewhat like funnels, inside
one another, but with spaces between.
The apex of each comb is pierced by a
hole for the wasps to pass from one
gallery to another.
The nest of Tatua, which occurs in
FIG. 3. Polistes tepidvs and nest.
Mexico and South America, is also pendent, but the combs
are horizontal; the opening from the exterior is at the side,
and the passage from one gallery to another is also lateral.
The external appearance of the nest of Neetarina, found in Brazil
and other parts of South America, resembles that of the common
wasp, but is rougher. Internally the combs are arranged concentri-
cally, more or less parallel with the external covering which affords
them support.
The members of the two remaining families, the Eumenidae and
the Masaridae, resemble one another in their solitary mode of life;
only males and normal females, exist no workers being found.
Family 2. Eumenidae. Solitary species, with three submarginal
cells in the fore wing; antennae with thirteen joints in the male,
twelve in the female; abdomen sometimes pedunculate, posterior
segments contractile. In the foregoing structural features the
Eumenidae resemble the Vespidae, but they differ in having bifid
FIG. 4.
Eumenes smithii.
claws on their tarsi, and the two anterior tibiae have but one spine
at the tin. The mandibles are elongated, and form a kind of rostrum,
in this respect approaching the Fossores.
Eumenes coarctata is the only British species of this genus. The
female is J in. long, the male somewhat shorter. The abdomen is
connected with the thorax by a long peduncle. The colour is black,
relieved by spots of yellow. It constructs small
spherical cells of mud, which are found attached
to stems of plants, very generally to the heath.
At first the cell opens to the exterior by means
of a round pore; one egg is deposited in each
cell, and a store of honey as food for the larva
when hatched; the cell is then closed with mud.
The larvae of some species are carnivorous, and
then the food-supply stored up in the cell con-
sists of caterpillars and other insect larvae
which have been paralysed by the parent wasp
stinging them through the cerebral ganglion;
when the larva of the Eumenes emerges from the egg it sets up
these and devours them.
The genus Odynerus contains a very large number of species,
found in all parts of the world. The members of this genus are
about the size of a fly, and they differ from Eumenes in having a
sessile abdomen. Some of the species construct their cells in sand-
heaps, lining them with agglutinated grains of sand; others live in
cavities of trees lined with the same material, whilst others build
their nests of mud. Like some of the species of Eumenes, they store
up paralysed Lepidopterous and Chrysomeleous larvae as food for
their carnivorous grubs.
Family 3. Masaridae. The members of the third family, the
Masaridae, are sharply distinguished by the possession of only two
submarginal cells in the fore wing, which folds imperfectly or not at
all when at rest. Their antennae are frequently clavate, particularly
so in the genus Celonites; they are twelve-jointed, but as the terminal
joints are almost fused they appear to be composed of only eight
joints. The wings are not so completely folded as in the other two
families, and the abdomen is but slightly contractile. The maxillae
are short and their palps very small, with but three or four joints.
The number of genera comprised in this family is small; none
occur in Britain, but in southern Europe some species are found.
They make their nest in cavities in the earth, generally in a bank
and construct an irregular gallery leading down to it.
During hot fine summers wasps cause a good deal of loss to
market gardeners and fruit growers. During this time of year
they live almost exclusively upon the sweet juices of ripe fruit,
occasionally carrying off small particles of the flesh. At the
same time they have not entirely lost their carnivorous tastes,
for they frequently attack the meat in butcher's shops, but
render compensation by killing and carrying off to feed their
grubs considerable numbers of blow-flies. Wasps also perform
an important service in keeping down the numbers of cater-
pillars. The larvae are almost exclusively carnivorous, living
upon insects captured by their parents and
reduced by them to a pulp before being given
to the young. During the spring the first
broods that appear live largely upon honey;
and this forms the staple
food of the genus Polistes
throughout their whole
life.
In attempting to rid a
district of wasps, unless
the nest can be taken,
there is little good in
killing stray members of
the community. On the
other hand, the killing of
queen-wasps in early
spring probably means that the formation of a nest and the
production of a society whose members are counted by
thousands is in each case prevented.
The number of wasps is kept down by numerous enemies.
The most effective of these live in the nests and devour the
larvae; among them are two species of beetle, Rhipiphorus
paradoxus and Lebia linearis. Two species of Ichneumon,
and a species of Anthomyia, also infest the nests of wasps and
prey upon the grubs. The larvae of the syrphid flies Volucella,
found in the nests of both wasps and bees, are now believed to
be scavengers rather than parasites. In the tropics some species
are attacked by fungi, the hyphae of which protrude between
FIG. 5. Masaris vespiformis.
WASSAIL WASTE
361
the segments of the abdomen, and give the wasp a very extra-
ordinary appearance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to various systematic memoirs
enumerated at the end of the article on Hymenoptera, reference
may be made to De Saussure (Monographic des gulpes sociales,
Geneve, 1853-1858), P. Marchal (Arch. Zool. Exp. Gen. (3), iv.,
1896), C. Janet (Mem. Soc. Zool. France, viii., 1895) and O. H. Latter
(Natural History of Common Animals, ch. v., Cambridge, 1904).
(A. E. S.;G.H. C.)
WASSAIL (O. Eng. was hdl, " be whole," " be well "), primarily
the ancient form of " toasting," the term being applied later to the
Christmas feasting and revelries and particularly to the bowl of
spiced ale or wine which was a feature of the medieval Christmas.
One of the earliest references to the wassail-bowl in English
history is in the description of the reception of King Vortigern
by Hengist, when Rowena " came into the king's presence,
with a cup of gold filled with wine in her hand, and making a
low reverence unto the king said, ' Waes hael hlaford Cyning,'
which is ' Be of health, Lord King.' " In a collection of ordinances
for the regulations of the royal household in Henry VII. 's
reign, the steward on Twelfth Night was to cry " wassail "
three times on entering with the bowl, the royal chaplain respond-
ing with a song. Wassailing was as much a custom in the
monasteries as in laymen's houses, the bowl being known as
poculum Caritalis. What was popularly known as wassailing
was the custom of trimming with ribbons and sprigs of rosemary
a bowl which was carried round the streets by young girls
singing carols at Christmas and the New Year. This ancient
custom still survives here and there, especially in Yorkshire,
where the bowl is known as " the vessel cup," and is made
of holly and evergreens, inside which are placed one or two dolls
trimmed with ribbons. This cup is borne on a stick by children
who go from house to house singing Christmas carols. In
Devonshire and elsewhere it was the custom to wassail the
orchards on Christmas and New Year's eve. Pitchers of ale or
cider were poured over the roots of the trees to the accompani-
ment of a rhyming toast to their healths.
WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guasl t gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast,
desolate) , a term used in English law in several senses, of which
four are the most important, (i) " Waste of a manor " is that
part of a manor subject to rights of common, as distinguished
from the lord's demesne (see COMMONS, MANOR). (2) " Year,
day, and waste " was a part of the royal prerogative, acknowledged
by a statute of Edward II., De Praerogaliva Regis. The king
had the profits of freehold lands of those attainted of felony and
petit treason, and of fugitives for a year and a day with a right
of committing waste in sense (3) thereon. After the expiration
<>f a year and a day the lands returned to the lord of the fee.
This species of waste was abolished by the Corruption of Blood
Act 1814 (see FELONY, TREASON). (3) The most usual significa-
tion of the word is " any unauthorized act of a tenant, for a
freehold estate not of inheritance, or for any lesser interest,
which substantially alters the permanent character of the thing
demised (i.) by diminishing its value, (ii.) by increasing the
burden on it, (iii.) by impairing the evidence of title and thereby
injuring the " inheritance " (West Ham Charity Board v. East
London W.W., 1900, i Ch. 624, 637; cf. Pollock, Law of Torts,
7th ed., 345).
Waste in sense (3) is either voluntary or permissive. Voluntary
waste is by act of commission, as by pulling down a house, wrongfully
removing fixtures (q.v.), cutting down timber trees, i.e. oak, ash, elm,
twenty years old, and such other trees, e.g. beech, as by special
custom are counted timber, in the district, opening new quarries or
mines (but not continuing the working of existing ones), or doing
anything which pay for this is the modern test alter the nature
of the thing demised, such as conversion of arable into meadow land.
Although an act may technically be waste, it will not as a rule
constitute actionable waste, or be restrained by injunction, in the
absence of some prohibitive stipulation if it is ameliorating," i.e.
( it improves the value of the land demised (see Meux v. Cobley,
1892, 2 Ch. 253, 263). In the case of " timber estates " upon which
trees of various kinds are cultivated solely for their produce and the
profit gained from their periodical felling and cutting, the timber
is not considered as part of the inheritance but as the annual fruits
of the estate, and an exception arises in favour of the tenant for life
(see Dashwood v. Magniac, 1891, 3 Ch. 306). Under the Settled
Land Act 1882 a tenant for life may grant building, mining and other
leases for the prescribed terms " for any purpose whatever, whether
involving waste or not." Permissive waste is by act of omission,
such as allowing buildings to fall out of repair. A " fermor " a term
which here includes " allwho held by lease for life or lives, or for years
by deed or without deed " by the statute of Marlborough (1267)
may not commit waste without licence in writing from the reversioner.
In case a tenant for life or for any smaller interest holds (as is often
the case by the terms of a will or settlement) " without impeachment
of waste (sauns impeachment de wast, i.e. without liability to have
his waste challenged or impeached), his rights are considerably
greater, and he may use the profits salva rerum substantia (to use the
language of Roman law, from which the English law of waste is in
great measure derived). For instance, he may cut timber in a
husband-like manner and open mines; but he may not commit
what is called equitable waste, that is, pull down or deface the
mansion or destroy timber planted or left for ornament or shelter
(Weld-Blundell v. Wolseley, 1903, 2 Ch. 664). Acts of equitable waste
were, before 1875, not cognizable in courts of common law, but by
the Judicature Act 1873, s. 25 (3), in the absence of special provisions
to that effect an estate for life without impeachment of waste does
not confer upon the tenant for life any legal light to commit equitable
waste. A copy-holder may not commit waste unless allowed to do
so by the custom of the manor. The penalty for waste is forfeiture
of the copyhold; Galbraith v. Foynton, 1905, 2 K.B. 258 (see COPY-
HOLD). The Agricultural Holdings Acts 1900 and 1906, by reason
of their provisions giving compensation for improvement, as regards
the holdings to which they apply, override some of the old common
law doctrines as to waste. The act of 1900 provides (s. 2 [3]) that
where a tenant, who claims compensation for improvements, has
wrongfully been guilty of waste, either voluntary or permissive, the
landlord shall be entitled to set off the sums due to him in respect
of such waste, and to have them assessed by arbitration in manner
provided by the acts of 1900 and 1906. Under the act of I'9o6 the
tenant is permitted to disregard the terms of his tenancy as to the
mode of cropping on arable land, but if he exercises his statutory
freedom of cropping in such a manner as to injure or deteriorate his
holding, the landlord is entitled to recover damages for such injury,
&c. (s. 3).
Remedies for Waste. Various remedies for waste have been given
to the reversioner at different periods in the history of English law.
At common law only single damages seem to have been recoverable.
This was altered by the legislature, and for some centuries waste
was a criminal or quasi-criminal offence. Magna Carta enacted that
a guardian committing waste of the lands in his custody should
make amends and lose his office. The statute of Marlborough (1267)
made a " fermor " (as above defined) committing waste liable to
grievous amercement as well as to damages, and followed Magna
Carta in forbidding waste by a guardian. The statute of Gloucester
(1278) enacted that a writ of waste might be granted against a
tenant for life or years or in courtesy or dower, and on being attainted
of waste the tenant was to forfeit the land wasted and to pay thrice
the amount of the waste. This statute was repealed by the Civil
Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879. In addition to the writ of waste
the writ of estrepement (said to be a corruption of exstirpamentum,
and to be connected with the French estropier, to lame) lay to prevent
injury to an estate to which the title was disputed. This writ has
long been obsolete. Numerous other statutes dealt with remedies
for waste. The writ of waste was superseded at common law by
the " mixed action " of waste (itself abolished by the Real Property
Limitation Act 1833), and by the action of trespass on the case (see
TORT, TRESPASS). The court of chancery also intervened by in-
junction to restrain equitable waste. At present proceedings may
be taken either by action for damages, or by application for an
injunction, or by both combined, and either in the king's bench or
in the chancery divisions. By the Judicature Act 1873, s - 2 5 (8),
the old jurisdiction to grant injunctions to prevent threatened waste
is considerably enlarged. The Rules of the Supreme Court, Ord.
xvi- r. 37, enable a representative action to be brought for the
prevention of waste. In order to obtain damages or an injunction,
substantial injury or danger of it must be proved. In England only
the high court (unless by agreement of the parties) has jurisdiction
in questions of waste, but in Ireland, where the law of waste is similar
to English law, county courts and courts of summary jurisdiction
have co-ordinate authority to a limited extent (cf. Land Act 1860,
ss- 35-39)-
The law of waste as it affects ecclesiastical benefices will be found
under DILAPIDATIONS.
(4) " Waste of assets " or " devastavit " is a squandering and mis-
application of the estate and effects of a deceased person by his
executors or administrators, for which they are answerable out of
their own pockets as far as they have or might have had assets of
the deceased (see EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS). Executors
and administrators may now be sued in the county court for waste
of assets (County Courts Act 1888, s. 95).
Scotland. In Scots law " waste " is not used as a technical term,
but the respective rights of fiar and life-renter are much the same as
in England. As a general rule, a life-renter has no right to cut
timber, even though planted by himself. An exception is admitted
in the case of coppice wood, which is cut at regular intervals and
allowed to grow again from the rocts. Grown timber is also available
362
WATCH
to the life-renter for the purpose of keeping up the estate or repairing
buildings. Before making use of mature timber for estate purposes,
the life-renter should give notice to the fiar. He is also entitled
to the benefit of ordinary windfalls. Extraordinary windfalls are
treated as grown timber. Life-renters by " constitution " (i.e. by
grant from the proprietor) as opposed to life-renters by " reserva-
tion " (where the proprietor has reserved the life- rent to himself in
conveying the fee to another) have, as a rule, no right to coals or
minerals underground if they are not expressed in the grant or
appear to have been intended by a testator to pass by his settlement,
for they are paries soli. Where coals or minerals are expressed in
the grant, and also in cases of life-rent by " reservation, ' the life-
renter may work any mine which had been opened before the be-
ginning of his right, provided he does not employ a greater number
of miners, or bring up a greater quantity of minerals, than the un-
burdened proprietor did. All life-renters are entitled to such
minerals as are required for domestic use and estate purposes.
British Possessions. French law is in force in Mauritius, and has
been followed in substance in the civil codes of Quebec (art. 455)
and St Lucia (art. 406). In most of the other colonies the rules of
English law are followed, and in many of them there has been legisla-
tion on the lines of the English Settled Land Acts. In India the law
as to waste is included to some extent in the Transfer of Property
Act (No. IV. of 1882) and its amendments. Section 108 deals with
the liabilities of lessees for waste, which may be varied by the terms
of the lease or by local usage. The liabilities for waste of persons
having under Hindu or Mahommedan law limited interests in
reality depend in the main upon those laws and not on Indian
statute law.
United States.-?-" In the United States, especially in the Western
states, many acts are held to be only in a natural and reasonable
way of, using and improving the land clearing wild woods, for
example which in England, or even in the Eastern states, would be
manifest waste " (Pollock, Torts, 7th ed., 345). Thus Virginia, North
Carolina, Vermont and Tennessee have deviated in favour of the
tenant from English rules, while Massachusetts has adhered to them
(Ruling Cases, tit. " Waste," xxv. 380, American notes). In certain
states, e.g. Minnesota, Oregon and Washington (ibid., p. 381), the
action of waste is regulated by statute.
Europe. The French Civil Code provides (.art. 591) that the
usufructuary may cut timber in plantations that are laid out for
cutting, and are cut at regular intervals, although he is bound to
follow the example of former proprietors as to quantity and times.
This provision is in force in Belgium (Civil Code, art. 591). Analogous
Provisions are to be found in the civil codes of Holland (art. 814),
pain (art. 485), Italy (art. 486), and cf. the German Civil Code,
art. 1036.
AUTHORITIES. English law: Bewes, Law of Waste; Fawcett,
Law of Landlord and Tenant; Foa, Law of Landlord and Tenant;
Woodfall, Law of Landlord and Tenant. Scots law: Erskine,
Principles (Edinburgh). Irish law: Nolan and Kane, Statutes
relating to the Law of Landlord and Tenant in Ireland (Dublin) ;
Wylie, Judicature Acts (Dublin). American law: Bouvier, Law
Diet. (Boston and London). Indian law: Shepherd and Brown,
Indian Transfer of Property Act 1882. (A. W. R.)
WATCH (in O. Eng. wacce, a keeping guard or watching,
from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake), a portable time-
piece. This is the most common meaning of the word in its
substantival form, and is the subject of the present article. The
word, by derivation, means that which keeps watchful or wakeful
observation or attention over anything, and hence is used of a
person or number of persons whose duty it is to protect anything
by vigilance, a guard or sentry; it is thus the term for the body
of persons who patrolled the streets, called the hours, and
performed the duties of the modern police. The application of
the term to a period of time is due to the military division of
the night by the Greeks and Romans into " watches " (^uXaxat,
mgiliae), marked by the change of sentries; similarly, on ship-
board, time is also reckoned by " watches,'' and the crew is
divided into two portions, the starboard and port watches,
taking duty alternately. 1 The transference of the word to that
which marks the changing hours is easy.
1 In the British navy the twelve hours of the night are divided
into three watches of four hours from eight to twelve the first
watch, from twelve to four the middle watch, and from four to eight
the morning watch. The twelve hours of the day are divided into
four watches, two of four hours eight to midday, midday to four
P.M. and two of two hours, from four to six and six to eight. These
are the " dog watches," and their purpose is to change the turn of
the watches every twenty-four hours, so that the men who watch
from eight to midnight on one night, shall watch from midnight till
4 A.M. on the next. The " watch bill " is the list of the men appointed
to the watch, who are mustered by the officers. Time was originally
kept by an hour-glass, every half-hour; the number of the half-hour
The invention of portable timepieces dates from the end
the 1 5th century, and the earliest manufacture of them was ir
Germany. They were originally small clocks with mainsprir
enclosed in boxes; sometimes they were of a globular for
and were often called " Nuremberg eggs." Being too large fo
the pocket they were frequently hung from the girdle,
difficulty with these early watches was the inequality of action
of the mainspring. An attempt to remedy this was provide
by a contrivance
called the stack-freed,
which was little more
than a sort of rude
auxiliary spring. The
problem was solved
about the years 1525-
1 540 by the invention
of the fusee. By this
contrivance the main-
spring is made to turn
a barrel on which is
wound a piece of
catgut, which in the
latter part of the i6th
century was replaced
by a chain. The other end of the catgut band is wound upon
a spiral drum, so contrived that as the spring runs down and
becomes weaker the leverage on the axis of the spiral increas
and thus gives a stronger impulse to the works (fig. i).
In early watches the escapement was the same as in early
clocks, namely, a crown wheel and pallets with a balance end
in small weights. Such an escapement was, of course, ve
imperfect, for since the angular force acting on the balance do
not vary with the displacement, the time of oscillation varie
with the arc, and this again varies with every variation of th
driving force. An immense improvement was therefore effected
when the hair-spring was added to the balance, which was
replaced by a wheel. This was done about the end of the i7th
century. During the i8th century a series of escapements were
invented to replace the old crown wheel, ending in the chrono-
meter escapement, and though great improvements in detail
have since been made, yet the watch, even as it is to-day, may be
called an iSth-century invention.
The watches of the i6th century were usually enclosed in
cases ornamented with the beautiful art of that period. Some-
times the case was fashioned like a skull, and the watches were
made in the form of octagonal jewels, crosses, purses, little books,
dogs, sea-shells, &c., in almost every instance being finely en-
graved. Queen Elizabeth was very fond of receiving presents,
and, as she was also fond of clocks, a number of the gifts pre-
sented to her took the form of jewelled watches.
The man to whom watch-making owes perhaps most was
Thomas Tompion (1639-1713), who invented the first dead-beat
escapement for watches (fig. 2). It consisted of a balance-wheel
mounted on an axis of semi-cylindrical form
with a notch in it, and a projecting stud.
When the teeth of the scape-wheel came Rs//\C 7/\
against the cylindrical part of the axis they ' / \\ ' \N
were held from going forward, but when the FIG. 2.
motion of the axis was reversed, the teeth
slipped past the notch and struck the projection, thus giving
an impulse. This escapement was afterwards developed by
George Graham (1673-1751) into the horizontal cylindrical
escapement and into the well-known dead-beat escapement for
clocks.
The development of escapements in the i8th century greatly
is shown by striking the watch bell, hanging on a beam of the fore-
castle, or by the mainmast, with the clapper. One stroke is given
for each half-hour. Thus 12.30 A.M. is one bell in the middle watch,
and 3 A.M. is six bells. The bell was also used to indicate the course
of a ship in a fog. A vessel on the starboard tack tolled the bell, a
vessel on the port tack beat a drum. The watch guns were fired
when setting the watch in the evening and relieving it in the morning.
The gun is now only fired at sundown.
WATCH
363
improved watches. But a defect still remained, namely,
the influence of temperature upon the hair-spring of the balance-
wheel. Many attempts were made to provide a remedy. John
Harrison proposed a curb, so arranged that alterations of tempera-
ture caused unequal expansion in two pieces of metal, and thus
actuated an arm which moved and mechanically altered the length
of the hair-spring, thus compensating the effect of its altered
elasticity. But the best solution of the problem was ultimately
proposed by Pierre le Roy (1717-1785) and perfected by Thomas
Ikunshaw (1740-1829). This was to diminish the inertia of the
balance-wheel in proportion to the increase of temperature, by
means of the unequal expansion of the metals composing the rim.
Invention in watches was greatly stimulated by the need of a
good timepiece for finding longitudes at sea, and many successive
rewards were offered by the government for watches which
would keep accurate time and yet be able to bear the rocking
motion of a ship. The difficulty ended by the invention of the
chronometer, which was so perfected towards the early part of
the ipth century as to have even now undergone but little change
of form. In fact the only great triumph of later years has been
the invention of watch-making machinery, whereby the price
is so lowered that an excellent watch (in a brass case) can now
be purchased for about 2 and a really accurate time-keeper for
about 18.
A modern watch consists of a case and framework containing
the four essential parts of every timepiece, namely, a mainspring
and apparatus for winding it UD, a train of wheels with hands and
a face, an escapement and a balance-wheel and hair-spring. We
shall describe these in order.
The Mainspring. As has been said, the mainspring of an ojd-
fashioned watch was provided with a drum and fusee so astoequalize
its action on the train. An arrangement was provided to prevent
overwinding, consisting of a hook which when the chain was nearly
wound up was pushed aside so as to engage a pin, and thus prevent
further winding (see fig. i). Another arrangement for watches
without a fusee, called a Geneva stop, consists of a wheel with one
tooth affixed to the barrel arbour, working into another with only
four or five teeth. This allows the barrel arbour only to be turned
round four or five times.
The " going-barrel, " which is fitted to most modern watches, con-
tains no fusee, but the spring is delicately made to diminish in size
from one end to the other, and it is wound up for only a few turns,
so that the force derived from it does not vary very substantially.
The unevenness of drive is in modern watches sought to be counter-
acted by the construction of the escapement and balance-wheel.
Watches used formerly to be wound with a separate key. They
are now wound by a key permanently fixed to the case. The de-
pression of a small knob gears the winding key with the hands so as
to enable them to be set. With this contrivance watches are well
protected against the entry of dust and damp.
Watch Escapements. The escapements that have come into
practical use are (i) the old vertical escapement, now disused; (2)
the lever, very much the most common in English watches; (3) the
horizontal or cylinder, which is equally common in foreign watches,
though it was of English invention; (4) the duplex, which used to be
more in fashion for first-rate watches than it is now; and (5) the
detached or chronometer escapement, so called because it is always
used in marine chronometers.
The vertical escapement is simply the original clock escapement
adapted to the position of the wheels in a watch and the balance,
in the manner exhibited in fig. 3. As it
requires considerable thickness in the
watch, is inferior in going to all the others
and is no cheaper than the level escape-
ment can now be made, it has gone out ol
use.
The lever escapement, as it is now univer-
sally made, was brought into use late in the
i8th century by Thomas Mudge. Fig. 4
shows its action. The position of the lever with reference to the pallets
is immaterial in principle, and is only a question of convenience in
the arrangement; but it is generally such as we have given it.
The principle is the same as in the dead-beat clock escapement,
with the advantage that there is no friction on the dead faces of the
pallets beyond what is necessary for locking. The reason why this
friction cannot be avoided with a pendulum is that its arc of vibration
is so small that the requisite depth of intersection cannot be got
between the two circles described by the end S of the lever and any
pin in the pendulum which would work into it; whereas, in a watch,
the pin P, which is set in a cylinder on the verge of the balance, does
not generally slip out of the nick in the end of the lever until the
balance has got 15 past its middle position. The pallets are under-
cut a little, as it is called, i.e. the dead faces are so sloped as to
FIG. 3.
FIG. 4.
FIG. 5.
give a little recoil the wrong way, or slightly to resist the unlocking,
because otherwise there would be a risk that a shake of the watch
would let a tooth escape while the pin is dis-
engaged from the lever. There is also a further
provision added for safety. In the cylinder
which carries the impulse pin P there is a
notch just in front of P, into which the other
pin S on the lever fits as they pass; but when
the notch has got past the cylinder it would
prevent the lever from returning, because the
safety-pin S cannot pass except through the
notch, which is only in the position for letting it
pass at the same time that the impulse-pin is
engaged in the lever. The pallets in a lever
escapement (except bad and cheap ones) are
always jewelled, and the scape- wheel is of brass.
The staff of the lever also has jewelled pivot-
holes in expensive watches, and the scape- wheel has in all good
ones. The holes for the balance-pivots are now always jewelled.
The scape- wheel in this and most of the watch escapements generally
beats five times in a second, in large chronometers four times; and
the wheel next to the scape-wheel carries the seconds-hand.
Fig. 5 is a plan of the horizontal or cylinder escapement, cutting
through the cylinder, which is on the verge of the balance, at the
level of the tops of the teeth of the escape-wheel ; for the triangular
pieces A, B are not flat projections in the same plane as the teeth,
but are raised on short stems above the plane of the wheel ; and stil!
more of the cylinder than the portion
shown at ACD is cut away where the
wheel itself has to pass. The author of
this escapement was G. Graham, and it
resembles his dead escapements in clocks
in principle more than the lever escape-
ment does, though much less in appear-
ance, because in this escapement there is
the dead friction of the teeth against the
cylinder, first on the outside, as here repre-
sented, and then on the inside, as shown
by the dotted lines, during the whole
vibration of the balance, except that portion which belongs to the
impulse. The impulse is given by the oblique outside edges Aa, Bb
of the teeth against the edges A, D of the cylinder alternately. The
portion of the cylinder which is cut away at the point of action is
about 30 less than the semicircle. The cylinder itself is made either
of steel or ruby, and, from the small quantity of it which is left at
the level of the wheel, it is very delicate; and probably this has been
the main reason why, although it is an English invention, it has been
most entirely abandoned by the English watchmakers in favour of the
lever, which was originally a French invention, though very much
improved by Mudge, for before his invention the lever had a rack or
portion of a toothed wheel on its end, working into a pinion on the
balance verge, and consequently it was affected by the dead friction,
and that of this wheel and pinion besides. This used to be called the
rack lever, and Mudge's the detached lever; but, the rack lever being
now quite obsolete, the word " detached " has become confined to
the chronometer, to which it is more appropriate, as will be seen
presently. The Swiss watches have almost universally the horizontal
escapement. It is found that for some reason which is apparently
unknown, as the rule certainly does not hold in cases seemingly
analogous a steel scape-wheel acts better in this escapement than
a brass one, although in some other cases steel upon steel, or even
upon a ruby, very soon throws off a film of rust, unless they are kept
well oiled, while brass and steel, or stone, will act with scarcely any
oil at all, and in some cases with none.
The duplex escapement (fig. 6) is probably so called because there
is a double set of teeth in the scape-wheel the long ones (like those
of the lever escapement in shape) . for
locking only, and short ones (or rather
upright pins on the rim cf the wheel) for
giving the impulse to the pallet P on the
verge of the balance. It is a single-beat
escapement; i.e. the balance only receives
the impulse one way, or at every alter-
nate beat, as in the chronometer escape-
ment. When the balance is turning in the
direction marked by the arrow, and arrives
at the position in which the dotted tooth
b has its point against the triangular notch
V, the tooth end slips into the notch, and,
as the verge turns farther round, the tooth
goes on with it till at last it escapes
when the tooth has got into the position
A; and by that time the long tooth or
pallet which projects from the verge has
moved from * to P, and just come in front of the pin T, which stands
on the rim of the scape-wheel, and which now begins to push against
P, and so gives the impulse until it also escapes when it has arrived
at /; and the wheel is then stopped by the next tooth B having got
into the position b, with its point resting against the verge.and there
Is dead friction between them, and this friction is lessened by the
FIG. 6.
WATCH
distance of the points of the long teeth from the centre of the scape-
wheel. As the balance turns back, the nick V goes past the end of
the tooth b. and in consequence of its smallness it passes without
visibly affecting the motion of the scape-wheel, though of course it
does produce a very slight shake in passing. It is evident that, if it
did not pass, the tooth could not get into the nick for the next escape.
The objection to this escapement is that it requires very great
delicacy of adjustment, and the watch also requires to be worn care-
fully; for, if by accident the balance is once stopped from swinging
back far enough to carry the nick V past the tooth end, it will stop
altogether, as it will lose still more of its vibration the next time from
receiving no impulse. The performance of this escapement, when
well made, and its independence of oil, are nearly equal to those of
the detached escapement; but, as lever watches are now made
sufficiently good for all but astronomical purposes, for which chrono-
meters are used, and they are cheaper both to make and to mend
than duplex ones, the manufacture of duplex watches has almost
disappeared.
The chronometer or detached escapement is shown at fig. 7 in the
form to which it was brought by Earnshaw, and in which it has
remained ever since, with the very slight difference that the pallet P,
on which the impulse is given (corresponding exactly to the pallet P
in the duplex escapement), is now generally set in a radial direction
from the verge, whereas Earnshaw made it sloped backward, or
undercut, like the scape-wheel teeth. The early history of escape-
ments on this principle does not seem to be very clear. They appear
to have originated in France ; but there is no doubt that they were
considerably improved by the first Arnold (John), who died in 1799.
Earnshaw's watches, however, generally beat his in trials.
In fig. 7 the small tooth or cam V, on the verge of the balance,
!s just on the point of unlocking the detent DT from the tooth T
of the scape- wheel ; and the tooth A will immediately begin to give
the impulse on the pallet P, which, in good
chronometers, is always a jewel set in the
cylinder; the tooth V is also a jewel. This
part of the action is so evident as to require
no further notice. When the balance returns,
the tooth V has to get past the end of the
detent, without disturbing it; for, as soon as
it has been unlocked, it falls against the
banking-pin E, and is ready to receive the
next tooth B, and must stay there until it is
again unlocked. It ends, or rather begins, in a
stiffish spring, which is screwed to the block
D on the watch frame, so that it moves without
any friction of pivots, like a pendulum. The
passing is done by means of another spring VT,
G ,
to
FIG. 7.
called the passing spring, which can be pushed away from the body
of the detent towards the left, but cannot be pushed the other way
without carrying the detent with it. In the back vibration, there-
fore, as in the duplex escapement, the balance receives no impulse,
and it has to overcome the slight resistance of the passing spring
besides; but it has no other faction, and is entirely detached from
the scape-wheel the whole time, except when receiving the impulse.
That is also the case in the lever escapement ; but the impulse in that
escapement is given obliquely, and consequently with a good deal
of friction; and, besides, the scape-wheel only acts on the balance
through the intervention of the lever, which has the friction of its
own pivots and of the impulse pin. The locking-pallet T is undercut
a little for safety, and is also a jewel in the best chronometers; and
the passing spring is usually of gold. In the duplex and detached
escapements, the timing of the action of the different parts requires
great care, i.e. the adjusting them so that each may be ready to act
exactly at the right time; and it is curious that the arrangement
which would be geometrically correct, or suitable for a very slow
motion of the balance, will not do for the real motion. If the pallet P
were really set so as just to point to the tooth A in both escapements
at the moment of unlocking (as it has been drawn, because otherwise
it would look as if it could not act at all), it would run away some
distance before the tooth could catch it, because in the duplex
escapement the scape-wheel is then only moving slowly, and in the
detached it is not moving at all, and has to start from rest. The
pallet P is therefore, in fact, set a little farther back, so that it
may arrive at the tooth A just at the time when A is ready for it,
without wasting time and force in running after it. The detached
escapement has also been made on the duplex plan of having long
teeth for the locking and short ones or pins nearer the centre for the
impulse; but the advantages do not appear to be worth the addi-
tional trouble, and the force required for unlocking is not sensibly
diminished by the arrangement, as the spring D must in any case be
fairly stiff, to provide against the watch being carried in the position
in which the weight of the detent helps to unlock it.
An escapement called the lever chronometer has been several times
reinvented, which implies that it has never come into general use.
It is a combination of the lever as to the locking and the chronometer
as to the impulse. It involves a little drop and therefore waste
of force as a tooth of the wheel just escapes at the " passing "
beat where no impulse is given. But it should be understood
that a single-beat escapement involves no more loss of force and
the escape of no more teeth than a double one, except the slight
drop in the duplex and this lever chronometer or others on the
same principle.
There have been several contrivances for remontoire escapements ;
but there are defects in all of them ; and there is not the same
advantage to be obtained by giving the impulse to a watch-balance
by means of some other spring instead of tne mainspring as there is
in turret-clocks, where the force of the train is liable to very much
greater variations than in chronometers or small clocks.
The balance-wheel and hair-spring consist of a small wheel, usually
of brass, to which is affixed a spiral, or in chronometers a helical,
spring. This wheel swings through an angle of from 1 80 to 270
and its motions are approximately isochronous. The time of the
watch can be regulated by an arm to which is attached a pair of pins
which embrace the hair-spring at a point near its outer end, and by
the movement of which the spring can be lengthened or shortened.
The first essential in a balance-wheel is that its centre of gravity
should be exactly in the axis, and that the centre of gravity of the
hair-spring should also be in the axis of the balance-wheel. True
isochronism is disturbed by variations in the driving force of the
train or by variations in temperature, and also by variations in
barometric pressure. Isochronism is produced in the first place
by a proper shape of the spring and its overcoil. It is usual to time
the watch's going when the mainspring is partly wound up, as well
as when it is fully wound up, and then by removing parts of the
hair-spring to get such an adjustment that the rate is not influenced
by the lesser or greater extent to which the watch has been wound.
The variations in length and still more in elasticity caused in a hair-
spring by changes of temperature were for long not only a trouble
to watchmakers but a bar to the progress of the art. A pendulum
requires scarcely any compensation except for its own elongation
by heat; but a balance requires compensation, not only for its
own expansion, which increases its moment of inertia just like the
pendulum, but far more on account of the decrease in the strength
of the spring under increased heat. E. G. Dent, in a pamphlet on
compensation balances, gave the following results of some experi-
ments with a glass balance, which he used for the purpose on account
of its less expansibility than a metal one: at 32 F., 3606 vibrations
in an hour; at 66, 3598-5: and at 100, 3599. If therefore it had
been adjusted to go right (or 3600 times in an hour) at 32. it would
have lost 7$ and 8j seconds an. hour, or more than three minutes a
day, for each successive increase of 34, which is about fifteen times
as much as a common wire pendulum would lose under the same
increase of heat ; and if a metal balance had been used instead of a
glass one the difference would have been still greater.
The necessity for this large amount of compensation having arisen
from the variation of the elasticity of the spring, the first attempts
at correcting it were by acting on the spring itself in the manner
of a common regulator. Harrison's compensation consisted of a
compound bar of brass and steel soldered together, having one end
fixed to the watch-frame and the other carrying two curb pins
which embraced the spring. As the brass expands more than the
steel, any increase of heat made the bar bend ; and so, if it was set
the right way, it carried the pins along the spring, so as to shorten
it. This contrivance is called a compensation curb; and it has often
been reinvented, or applied in a modified form. But there are two
objections to it: the motion of the curb pins does not correspond
accurately enough to the variations in the force of the spring, and
it disturbs the isochronism, which only subsists at certain definite
lengths of the spring.
The compensation which was next invented left the spring un-
touched, and provided for the variations of temperature by the
construction of the balance itself. Fig. 8 shows the plan of the
ordinary compensation balance. Each portion
of the rim of the balance is composed of an
inner bar of steel with an outer one of brass
soldered, or rather melted, upon it, and
carrying the weights b, b, which are screwed to
it. As the temperature increases, the brass
expanding must bend the steel inwards, and
so carries the weights farther in, and
diminishes the moment of inertia of the
balance, the decrease of rate being inversely
as the diameter of the balance-wheel. The
metals are generally soldered together by
pouring melted brass round a solid steel disk, and the whole is
afterwards turned and filed away till it leaves only the crossbar in
the middle lying flat and the two portions of the rim standing
edgeways. The first person to practise this method of uniting
them appears to have been either Thomas Earnshaw or Pierre le
Roy.
The adjustment of a balance for compensation can only be done
by trial, and requires a good deal of time. It must be done in-
dependently of that for time the former by shifting the weights,
because the nearer they are to the crossbar the less distance they
will move over as the rim bends with them. The timing is done
by screws with heavy heads (/, t, fig. 8), which are just opposite to
the ends of the crossbar, and consequently not affectea by the
bending of the rim; other screws are also provided round the rim
for adjusting the moment of inertia and centre of gravity of the
balance-wheel. The compensation may be done approximately by
FIG. 8.
WATCH
3 6 5
the known results of previous experience with similar balances;
and many watches are sold with compensation balances which have
never been tried or adjusted, and sometimes with a mere sham
compensation balance, not even cut through.
Secondary Compensation. When chronometers had been brought
to great perfection it was perceived that there was a residuary error,
which was due to changes of temperature, but which no adjustment
of the compensation would correct. The cause of the secondary
error is that as the temperature rises the elasticity of the spring
decreases, and therefore its accelerating force upon the balance-
wheel diminishes. Hence the watch tends to go slower.
In order to compensate this the split rim of the balance-wheel is
made with the more expansible metal on the outside, and therefore
tends to curl inwards with increase of temperature, thus diminishing
tin- moment of inertia of the wheel. Now the rate of error caused
by the increase of temperature of the spring varies approximately with
the temperature according to a certain law, but the rate of correction
due to the diminution of the moment of inertia caused by the change
of form of the rim of the wheel does not alter proportionally, but
according to a more complex law of its own, varying more rapidly
with cold than with heat, so that if the rate of the chronometer is
correct, say, at 30" F. and also at 90 F., it will gain at all intermediate
temperatures, the spring being thus under-corrected for high tempera-
tures and over-corrected for low. Attempts have been made by
alterations of shape of the balance-wheel to harmonize the progress
of the error with the progress of the correction, but not with very
conspicuous success.
We shall give a short description of the principal classes of in-
ventions for this purpose. The first disclosed was that of J. S.
Eiffe (sometimes attributed to Robert Molyneux), which was com-
municated to the astronomer-royal in 1835. In one of several
methods proposed by him a compensation curb was used; and
though, for the reasons given before, this will not answer for the
primary compensation, it may for the secondary, where the motion
required is very much smaller. In another the primary compensation
bar, or a screw in it, was made to reach a spring set within it with a
small weight attached at some mean temperature, and, as it bent
farther in, it carried this secondary compensation weight along with
it. The obvious objection to this is that it is discontinuous; but the
whole motion is so small, not more than the thickness of a piece of
paper, that this and other compensations on the same principle
appear to have been on some occasions quite successful.
Another large class of balances, all more or less alike, may be
represented by E. J. Dent's, which came next in order of time.
He described several forms of his invention; the following descrip-
tion applies to the one he thought the best. In fig. 9 the flat cross-
bar rr is itself a compensation bar which bends
upwards under increased heat; so that, if
the weights v, v were merely set upon up-
right stems rising from the ends of the cross-
bar, they would approach the axis when that
bar bends upwards. But, instead of the
stems rising from the crossbar, they rise from
the two secondary compensation pieces stu, in
the form of staples, which are set on the
crossbar; and, as these secondary pieces
themselves also bend upwards, they make
the weights approach the axis more rapidly
as the heat increases; and by a proper
adjustment of the height of the weights on
the stems the moment of inertia of the balance can be made to
vary in the proper ratio to the variation of the intensity of the
spring. The cylindrical spring stands above the crossbar and
between the staples.
Fig. 10 represents E. T. Loseby's mercurial compensation balance.
Besides the weights D, D, set near the end of the primary compen-
sation bars B, B, there are small bent tubes FE, FE with mercury
in them, like a thermometer, the bulbs being at F, F. As the heat
increases, not only do the primary weights D, D and the bulbs F, F
approach the centre of the balance,
but some of the mercury is driven
along the tube, thus carrying some
more of the weight towards the
centre, at a ratio increasing more
rapidly than the temperature. The
tubes are sealed at the thin end,
with a little air included. The
action is here equally continuous
with Dent's, and the adjustments
for primary and secondary com-
pensation are apparently more in-
dependent of each other; and this
modification of Le Roy's use of
mercury for compensated balances
(which does not appear to have
Answered) is certainly very elegant and ingenious. Nevertheless an
analysis of the Greenwich lists for seven years of Loseby's trials
proved that the advantage of this method over the others was more
theoretical than practical; Dent's compensation was the most suc-
cessful of all in three years out of the seven, and Loseby's in only one.
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
Loseby's method has never been adopted by any other chronometer-
maker, whereas the principles both of Eiffe's and of Dent's methods
have been adopted by several other makers.
A few chronometers have been made with glass balance-springs,
which have the advantage of requiring very little primary and no
secondary compensation, on account of the very small variation in
their elasticity, compared with springs of steel or any other metal.
One of the most important and interesting attempts to correct the
temperature errors of a hair-spring by a series cf corresponding
temperature changes in the moment of inertia of the balance-wheel
has been made by means of the use of the nickel-steel compound
called invar, which, on account of its very small coefficient of ex-
pansion, has been of great use for pendulum rods. In a memoir
published in 1904 at Geneva, Dr Charles Guillaume, the inventor of
invar, shows that in order to get a true secondary compensation
what is wanted is a material having the property of causing the
curve of the rim of the wheel to change at an increasing rate as
compared with changes in the temperature. This is founo! in those
specimens of invar in which the second coefficient of expansion is
negative, i.e. which are less dilatable at higher temperatures than
at lower ones. It is satisfactory to add that such balance-wheels
have been tried successfully on chronometers, and notably in a deck
watch by Paul Ditisheim of Neuchatel, who has made a chronometer
with a tourbillon escapement and an invar balance-wheel, which
holds the highest record ever obtained by a watch of its class.
It is obvious that in order that a watch may keep good time the
centre of gravity of the balance-wheel and hair-spring must be
exactly in the axis; for if this were not the case, then the wheel
would act partly like a pendulum, so that the time would vary
according as the watch was placed in different positions. It is
exceedingly difficult to adjust a watch so that these " position
errors " are eliminated. Accordingly it has been proposed to
neutralize their effect by mounting the balance-wheel and hair-
spring upon a revolving carriage which shall slowly rotate, so that
in succession every possible position of the balance-wheel and spring
is assumed, and thus errors are averaged and mutually destroy one
another. This is called the tourbillon escapement. There are
several forms of it, and watches fitted with it often keep excellent
time.
Stop watches or chronographs are of several kinds. In the usual
and simplest form there is a centre seconds hand which normally
remains at rest, but which, when the winding handle is pressed in,
is linked on to the train of the watch and begins to count seconds,
usually by fifths. A second pressure arrests its path, enabling
the time to be taken since the start. A third pressure almost
instantaneously brings the seconds hand back to zero, this result
being effected by means of a heart-shaped cam which, when a lever
presses on it instantaneously, flies round to zero position. The
number of complete revolutions of the seconds hand, i.e. minutes, is
recorded on a separate dial.
Calendar work on watches is, of course, fatal to-great accuracy of
time-keeping, and is very complicated. A watch is made to record
days of the week and month, and to take account of leap years
usually by the aid of star-wheels with suitable pauls and stops.
The type of this mechanism is to be found in the calendar motion of
an ordinary grandfather's clock.
Watches have also been made containing small musical boxes and
arranged with performing figures on the dials. Repeaters are striking
watches which can be made at will to strike the hours and either the
quarters or the minutes, by pressing a handle which winds up a
striking mechanism. They were much in vogue as a means of dis-
covering the time in the dark before the invention of lucifer matches,
when to obtain a light by means of flint and steel was a troublesome
affair.
From what has been said it will be seen that for many years the
form of escapements and balance-wheels has not greatly altered.
The great improvements which modern science has been able to
effect in watches are chiefly in the use of new metals and in the
employment of machinery, which, though they have altered the
form but little, have effected an enormous revolution in the price.
The cases of modern watches are made sometimes of steel, artificially
blackened, sometimes of compounds of aluminium and copper,
known as aluminium gold. Silver is at present being less employed
than formerly. The hair-springs are often of palladium in order to
render the watch non-magnetizable. An ordinary watch, if the
wearer goes near a dynamo, will probably become magnetized and
quite useless for time-keeping. One of the simplest cures for this
accident is to twirl it rapidly round while retreating- from the dynamo
and to continue the motion till at a considerable distance. The use
of invar has been already noticed.
It would be impossible to enumerate, still more to describe, the
vast number of modern machines that have been invented for
making watches. It may be said briefly that every part, including
the toothed wheels, is stamped out of metal. The stamped pieces
are then finished by cutters and with milling machinery. Each
machine as a rule only does one operation, so that a factory will
contain many hundreds of different sorts of machines. The modern
watchmaker therefore is not so much of a craftsman as an engineer.
The effect of making all the parts of a watch by machinery is that
each is interchangeable, so that one part will fit any watch. It is
366
WATER
not an easy thing to secure this result, for as the machines are used
the cutting edges wear down and require regrinding and resetting.
Hence a tool is not allowed to make more than a given quantity of
parts without being examined and readjusted, and from time to
time the pieces being put out are tested with callipers. The parts
thus made are put in groups and sorted into boxes, which are then
given over to the watch-adjusters, who put the parts together and
make the watch go. The work of adjustment for common watches
is a simple matter. But expert adjusters select their pieces, measure
them and correct errors with their tools. The finest watches are thus
largely machine-made, but hand-finished. The prejudice against
machine-made watches has been very strong in England, but is
dying out not, unfortunately, before much of the trade has been
lost. A flourishing watch industry exists in Switzerland in the
neighbourhood of Neuchatel. A watch in a stamped steel case can
now be made for about five shillings. There is no reason why in
such a neighbourhood as Birmingham the English watch industry
should not revive.
The use of jewelled bearings for watch pivots was introduced by
Nicholas Facio about the beginning of the i8th century. Diamonds
and sapphires are usually employed and pierced either by diamond
drills or by drills covered with diamond dust. Rubies are not a
very favourite stone for jewels, but as they and sapphires can now
be made artificially for about two shillings a carat the difficulty of
obtaining material for watch jewelling has nearly disappeared.
Watches have also been fitted with machinery whereby electric
contacts are made by them at intervals, so that if wires are led to
and away from them, they can be made to give electric signals and
thus mark dots at regular intervals on a moving strip of paper.
As in the case of clocks, the accuracy of going of a watch is esti-
mated by observation of the variations of its mean daily rate. This
is officially done at Kew Observatory, near Richmond, and also for
admiralty purposes at Greenwich. At Richmond watches are divided
into two classes, A and B. For an A certificate the trials last for
forty-five days, and include tests in temperatures varying from 40
to 90 F., going in every position with dial vertical, face up and face
down. The average daily departure from the mean daily rate, that
is the average error due to irregular departures from the average
going rate, must not exceed 2 seconds a day except where due to
position, when it may amount to 5 seconds. The errors should not
increase more than 0-3 seconds a day for each I F. The trial for the
B certificate is somewhat similar but less severe. Chronometers
are put through trials lasting 55 days, and their average error
from mean rate is expected not to exceed 0-5 seconds per diem.
The fees for these tests are various sums from two guineas down-
wards. In estimating the time-keeping qualities of a watch or clock,
the error of rate is of no consequence. It is simply due to the time-
keeper going too fast or too slow, and this can easily be corrected.
What is wanted for a good watch is that the rate, whatever it is,
shall be constant. The daily error is of no account provided it is a
uniform daily error and not an irregular one. Hence the object of
the trials is to determine not merely the daily rate but the variations
of the daily rate, and on the smallness of these the value of the watch
as a time-keeper depends. (G.; H. H.C.)
WATER. Strictly speaking, water is the oxide of hydrogen
which is usually stated to have the formula H 2 O (see below),
but in popular use the term is applied to a great variety of
different substances, all of which agree, however, in being the
water of the chemist modified differently in the several varieties
by the nature or proportion of impurities. In all ordinary
waters, such as are used for primary purposes, the impurities
amount to very little by weight as a rule to less than ^th of i %.
Of all natural stores of water the ocean is by far the most
abundant, and from it all other water may be said to be derived.
From the surface of the ocean a continuous stream of vapour
is rising up into the atmosphere to be recondensed in colder
regions and precipitated as rain, snow or sleet, &c. Some^ths
of these precipitates of course return directly to the ocean;
the rest, falling on land, collects into pools, lakes, rivers, &c.,
or else penetrates into the earth, perhaps to reappear as springs
or wells. As all the saline components of the ocean are non-
volatile, rain water, in its natural state, can be contaminated
only with the ordinary atmospheric gases oxygen, nitrogen
and carbon dioxide. Rain water also contains perceptible traces
of ammonia, combined as a rule, at least partly, with the nitric
acid, which is produced wherever an electric discharge pervades
the atmosphere.
Lake waters, as a class, are relatively pure, especially if the
mountain slopes over which the rain collects into a lake are
relatively free of soluble components. For example, the water
of Loch Katrine (Scotland) is almost chemically pure, apart
from small, but perceptible, traces of richly carboniferous matter
taken up from the peat of the surrounding hills, and whii
mpart to it a faint brownish hue, while really pure water is
alue when viewed through a considerable thickness.
River water varies very much in composition even in the
same bed, as a river in the course of its journey towards the
ocean passes from one kind of earth to others; while, compared
with spring waters, relatively poor in dissolved salts, rivers
are liable to be contaminated with more or less of suspended
matter.
Spring waters, having been filtered through more or less
considerable strata of earth, are, as a class, clear of suspended,
but rich in dissolved, mineral and organic matter, and may also
contain gases in solution. Of ordinarily occurring minerals
only a few are perceptibly soluble in water, and of these calcium
carbonate and sulphate and common salt are most widely
diffused. Common salt, however, in its natural occurrence,
is very much localized; and so it comes that spring and well
waters are contaminated chiefly with calcium carbonate and
sulphate. Of these two salts, however, the former is held in
solution only by the carbonic acid of the water, as calcium
bicarbonate. But a carbonate-of-lime water, if exposed to the
atmosphere, even at ordinary temperatures, loses its carbonic
acid, and the calcium carbonate is precipitated. The stalactites
(q.v.) which adorn the roofs and sides of certain caverns are
produced in this manner. Many waters are valuable medicinal
agents owing to their contained gases and salts (see MINERAL
WATERS).
In addition to its natural components, water :s liable to be con-
taminated through accidental influxes of foreign matter. Thus,
for instance, all the Scottish Highland lochs are brown through
the presence in them of dissolved peaty matter. Rivers flowing
through, or wells sunk in, populous districts may be contaminated
with excrementitious matter, discharges from industrial establish-
ments, &c. The presence of especially nitrogenous organic matter is
a serious source of danger, inasmuch as such matter forms the
natural food or soil for the development of micro-organisms, includ-
ing those kinds of bacteria which are now supposed to propagate
infectious diseases. Happily nature has provided a remedy. The
nitrogenous organic matter dissolved in (say) a river speedily suffers
disintegration by the action of certain kinds of bacteria, with forma-
tion of ammonia and other (harmless) products; and the ammonia,
again, is no sooner formed than, by the conjoint action of other
bacteria and atmospheric oxygen, it passes first into (salts of) nitrous
and then nitric acid. A water which contains combined nitrogen in
the form of nitrates only is, as a rule, safe organically; if nitrites are
present it becomes liable to suspicion ; the presence of ammonia is a
worse symptom; and if actual nitrogenous organic matter is found
in more than microscopic traces the water is possibly (not necessarily)
a dangerous water to drink.
All waters, unless very impure, become safe by boiling, which
process kills any bacteria or germs that may be present.
Of the ordinary saline components of waters, soluble magnesium
and calcium salts are the only ones which are objectionable sanitarily
if present in relatively large proportion. Calcium carbonate is
harmless; but, on the other hand, the notion that the presence of
this component adds to the value of a water as a drinking water is a
mistake. The farinaceous part of food alone is sufficient to supply
all the lime the body needs; besides, it is questionable whether lime
introduced in any other form than that of phosphate is available for
the formation of, for instance, bone tissue.
The fitness of a water for washing is determined by its degree of
softness. A water which contains lime or magnesia salts decom-
poses soap with formation of insoluble lime or magnesia salts of the
fatty acids of the soap used. So much of the soap is simply wasted ;
only the surplus can effect any detergent action. Several methods
for determining the hardness of a water have been devised. The
most exact method is to determine the lime and magnesia gravi-
metrically or by alkalimetry; or by Clark's soap test, but this
process frequently gives inaccurate results. In this method, which,
however, is largely used, a measured volume of the water is placed
in a stoppered bottle, and a standard solution of soap is then dropped
in from a graduated vessel, until the mixture, by addition of the last
drop of soap, has acquired the property of throwing up a peculiar
kind of creamy froth when violently shaken, which shows that all the
soap-destroying components have been precipitated. The volume of
soap required measures the hardness of the water. The soap-solution
is referred to a standard by means of a water of a known degree of
hardness prepared from a known weight of carbonate of lime by
converting it into neutral chloride of calcium, dissolving this in water
and diluting to a certain volume. The hardness is variously ex-
pressed. On Clark's scale it is the grains of calcium carbonate per
gallon of 70,000 grains; in Germany the parts of lime per 100,000
of water, and in France the parts of calcium carbonate per 100,000.
WATER-BOATMAN WATERBURY
On the English scale, a water of 15 and over is hard, between 5
and 15" moderately hard, and of less than 5 soft.
That part of the hardness of a water which is actually owing to
carbonate of lime (or magnesia) can easily be removed in two ways,
(ij By boiling, the free carbonic acid goes off with the steam, and
the carbonate of lime, being bereft of its solvent, comes down as a
precipitate which can be removed by filtration, or by allowing it
to settle, and decanting off the clear supernatant liquor. (2) A
method of Clark's is to mix the water with just enough of milk of
lime to convert the free carbonic acid into carbonate. Both this
and the original carbonate of lime are precipitated, and can be
removed as in the first case.
From any uncontaminated natural water pure water is easily
prepared. The dissolved salts are removed by distillation; if care
be taken that the steam to be condensed is dry, and if its condensation
be effected within a tube made of a suitable metal (platinum or
silver are best, but copper or block tin work well enough for ordinary
purposes), the distillate can contain no impurities except atmospheric
gases, which latter, if necessary, must be removed by boiling the
distilled water in a narrow-necked flask until it begins to " bump,"
and then allowing it to cool in the absence of air. This latter opera-
tion ought, strictly speaking, to be performed in a silver or platinum
flask, as glass is appreciably attacked by hot water. For most
purposes distilled water, taken as it comes from the condenser, is
sufficiently pure. The preparation of absolutely pure water is a
matter of great difficulty. Stas, in his stoichiometric researches,
mixed water with potassium manganate, and distilled after twenty-
four hours; the product being redistilled and condensed in a
platinum tube just before it was required.
Pure water, being so easily procured in any quantity, is used
largely as a standard of reference in metrology and in the quantita-
tive definition of physical properties. Thus a " gallon " is defined
as the volume at 62" F. of a quantity of water whose unconnected
mass, as determined by weighing in air of 3O-in. pressure and 62 F.
of temperature, is equal to 10 ID avoirdupois. The kilogramme in
like manner is defined as the mass of I cubic decimetre of water,
measured at the temperature corresponding to its maximum density
(4 C.). The two fixed points of the thermometer correspond the
lower (o C., or 32 F.) to the temperature at which ice melts, the
upper (100 C., or 212 F.) to that at which the maximum tension
of steam, as it rises from boiling water, is equal to 760 mm. or 3O-in.
mercury pressure. 30 in. being a little more than 760 mm., 212 F.
is, strictly speaking, a higher temperature than 100 C., but the
difference is very trifling. Specific heats are customarily measured
by that of water, which is taken as = I. All other specific heats of
liquids or solids (with one exception, formed by a certain strength of
aqueous methyl alcohol) are less than i. The temperate character of
insular climates is greatly owing to this property of water. Another
physiographically important peculiarity of water is that it expands
on freezing (into ice), while most other liquids do the reverse, n
volumes of ice fuse into only 10 volumes of water at o C. ; and the
ice-water produced, when brought up gradually to higher and higher
temperatures, again exhibits the very exceptional property that it
contracts between o and 4 C. (by about ToJffo of its volume) and
then expands again by more and more per degree of increase of
temperature, so that the volume at 100 C. is I -043 times that at 4 C.
In former times water was viewed as an element," and the
notion remained in force after this term (about the time of Boyle)
had assumed its present meaning, although cases of decomposition
of water were familiar to chemists. In Boyle's time it was already
well known that iron, tin and zinc dissolve in aqueous hydrochloric
or sulphuric acid with evolution of a stinking inflammable gas. Even
Boyle, however, took this gas to be ordinary air contaminated with
inflammable stinking oils. This view was held by all chemists
until Cavendish, before 1784, showed that the gas referred to, if
properly purified, is free of smell and constant in its properties,
which are widely different from those of air the most important
point of difference being that the gas when kindled in air burns
with evolution of much heat and formation of water. Cavendish,
however, did not satisfy himself with merely proving this fact
qualitatively; he determined the quantitative relations, and found
that it takes very nearly 1000 volumes of air to burn 423 volumes
of " hydrogen " gas; but 1000 volumes of air, again, according to
Cavendish, contain 210 volumes of oxygen; hence, very nearly,
2 volumes of hydrogen take up I volume of oxygen to become
water. This important discovery was only confirmed by the sub-
sequent experiments of Humboldt and Gay-Lussac, which were no
more competent than Cavendish's to prove that the surplus of 3
units (423 volumes instead of 420) of hydrogen was an observational
error. More recent work, e.g. of Money, Leduc and Scott, has shown
that the ratio is not exactly 2-1. The gravimetric composition was
determined by Berzelius and Dulong, and later by Dumas by
passing pure hydrogen over red-hot copper oxide. It has also been
determined by several other variations and methods (see HYDROGEN).
The molecular weight of liquid water has attracted much attention,
for it was perceived long ago that its high boiling point, refractive
index and other properties were not consistent with the simple
formula HO. Cryoscopic measurements led to the probable formula
(HjO)i, whilst the surface tension leads to (HjO)i. The Question
has been considered by H. E. Armstrong, who suggests that the
simple molecule, HjO, which he calls hydrone, condenses in liquid
water to form cyclic or chained compounds, containing tetravalent
oxygen, resembling in structure the polymethylenes or paraffins.
WATER-BOATMAN, an aquatic hemipterous insect of the
family Nolonectidae, of which the best known species (Notonecta
glauca) is a prominent feature in the pond-life of Great Britain.
The technical name, Notonecta, meaning " back-swimmer,"
alludes to the habit of the insect of swimming upside down, the
body being propelled through the water by powerful strokes
of the hind legs, which are fringed with hair and, when at rest, are
extended laterally like a pair of sculls in a boat. As is the case
with other water-bugs, this insect is predaceous and feeds upon
aquatic grubs or worms. The body is richly supplied with long
hairs, which serve to entangle bubbles of air for purposes of
respiration. The eggs are laid in the stems of water plants.
WATERBUCK (Wasserbok), the name of a large South African
antelope (Cobus ellipsiprymnus) belonging to the subfamily
Cervtcaprinae, characterized by the white elliptical ring on the
buttocks, and the
general reddish
grey colour of the
long and coarse
hair. . They have
heavily fringed
necks and tufted
tails; the bucks
carry long sub-
lyrate and heavily
ringed horns, but
the does are horn-
less. They seek
refuge from pur-
suit in the water.
The name is ex-
tended to include
the sing-sing or
defassa waterbuck
(C. dejassa), a
widespread
species, without
the white ring on
the buttocks, and
represented by several local races, one of which is foxy red
while a second is greyish. Both species equal in size the red
deer. The smaller members of the genus Cobus (which is
exclusively African) are generally called kobs. (See ANTELOPE.)
WATERBURY, a city and one of the county-seats of New
Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., since 1900 coextensive with
the township of Waterbury, on the Naugatuck river, in the west
central part of the state, about 32 m. S.W. of Hartford. Pop.
(1900) 51,139, of whom 15,368 were foreign-born (5866 being
Irish, 2007 Italian, 1777 French Canadian, 1265 Russian, 1195
French, and 938 English); (1910 census) 73,141. Area 29 sq. m.
Waterbury is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, and is connected by electric lines with New
Haven, Bridgeport, Thomaston, Woodbury and Watertown.
It has four public parks (the Green, Chase, Hamilton and
Forest), with a total acreage of 80 acres, and a Soldiers' and
Sailors' Monument, designed by George E. Bissell. The most im-
portant public buildings are the Federal building, the county
court house, a state armoury, the Silas Bronson Public Library
(1870; with an endowment of $200,000 and with 81,500 volumes
in 1910), the Odd Fellows Temple, a Y.M.C.A. building and the
Buckingham Music Hall (1007); and among the charitable in-
stitutions are the Southmayd Home (1898) for aged women, the
Waterbury hospital (1890) and the St Mary's hospital (1008).
In the city are the St Margaret's Diocesan School for Girls
(Protestant Episcopal, 1875), the Waterbury Industrial School
and the Academy of Notre Dame (1868). There is good water
power here from the Naugatuck river and its tributaries Mad
river and Great Brook. In 1905 Waterbury ranked third among
the manufacturing cities of Connecticut (being surpassed only by
Waterbuck.
3 68
WATER-DEER WATERFORD
Bridgeport and New Haven), with a factory product valued at
$32,367,359 (6-7 % more than in 1900). The most important manu-
factures are rolled brass and copper (value in 1905, $12,599,736,
or 24-3 % of the total for the United States), brass-ware (value in
1905, $7,387,228, or 42-2% of the total for the United States),
clocks and watches over a million watches are made here each
year and stamped ware (value in 1905, $1,037,666). The
manufacture of brass- ware originated here in 1802 with the
making of brass buttons; iron buttons covered with silver
were first made here about 1760, block tin and pewter buttons
about 1800, bone and ivory buttons about 1812, sheet brass in
1830, and pins and plated metals for daguerreotypes in 1842.
Old-fashioned tall wooden clocks were made in Waterbury in the
latter part of the i8th century, and cheap watches were first made
here in 1879; these were long distinctive of Waterbury, and were
often called " Waterbury watches." The manufacture of cloth
dates from 1814, and broadcloth was first made here in 1833.
The city has a large wholesale trade and is a shipping point for
dairy products. The municipality owns and operates the water-
works.
The township of Waterbury was incorporated in 1686, having
been since its settlement in 1677 a part of Farmington township
known as Mattatuck. The city of Waterbury was first chartered
in 1853. The city and the township were consolidated in 1901.
City elections are held biennially and the mayor, city clerk,
treasurer, comptroller, city sheriff and aldermen hold office for
two years. With the consent of the Board of Aldermen the
mayor appoints five electors who with the mayor constitute a
department of public works; appoints three electors who with
the mayor, comptroller, and president of the Board of Aldermen
constitute a department of finance; appoints five electors who
with the mayor constitute a department of public safety; and
appoints five electors who constitute a department of public
health. In 1902 there was a destructive fire in the business
district of the city, and during a strike of street railway employees
in 1903 state troops were called out to maintain order.
WATER-DEER, a small member of the deer-tribe from
northern China differing from all other Ceroidae except the musk-
deer (with which it has no affinity) by the absence of antlers
in both sexes. To compensate for this deficiency, the bucks
are armed with long sabre-like upper tusks (see DEER). The
species typifies a genus, and is known as Hydrelaphus (or Hydro-
poles) inermis; but a second form has been described from
Hankow under the name of H. kreyenbergi, although further
evidence as to its claim to distinction is required. Water-deer
frequent the neighbourhood of the large Chinese rivers where
they crouch amid the reeds and grass in such a manner as to be
invisible, even when not completely concealed by the covert.
When running, they arch their backs and scurry away in a series
of short leaps. In captivity as many as three have been produced
at a birth.
This is one of the few deer in which there are glands neither
on the hock nor on the skin covering the cannon-bone. These
glands probably enable deer to ascertain the whereabouts of
their fellows by the scent they leave on the ground and herbage.
The sub-aquatic habits of the present species probably render
such a function impossible, hence the absence of the glands.
The tail is represented by a mere stump. (R. L.*)
WATERFALL, a point in the course of a stream or river where
the water descends perpendicularly or nearly so. Even a very
small stream of water falling from any considerable height
is a striking object in scenery. Such falls, of small volume
though often of immense depth, are common, for a small stream
has not the power to erode a steady slope, and thus at any con-
siderable irregularity of level in its course it forms a fall. In
many mountainous districts a stream may descend into the valley
of the larger river to which it is tributary by way of a fall, its
own valley having been eroded more slowly and less deeply
than the main valley. Mechanical considerations apart, the
usual cause of the occurrence of a waterfall is a sudden change
in geological structure. For example, if there be three horizontal
strata, so laid down that a hard stratum occurs between two
soft ones, a river will be able to grade its course through the
upper or lower soft strata, but not at the same rate through the
intermediate hard stratum, over a ledge of which it will con-
sequently fall. The same will occur if the course of the river has
been interrupted by a hard barrier, such as an intrusive dyke of
basalt, or by glacial or other deposits. Where a river falls over
an escarpment of hard rock overlying softer strata, it powerfully
erodes the soft rock at the base of the fall and may undermine
the hard rock above so that this is broken away. In this way
the river gradually cuts back the point of fall, and a gorge is
left below the fall. The classic example of this process is provided
by the most famous falls in the world Niagara.
WATER-FLEA, a name given by the earlier microscopists
(Swammerdam, 1669) to certain minute aquatic Crustacea of
the order Cladocera, but often applied also to other members
of the division Entomostraca (?..). The Cladocera are abundant
everywhere in fresh water. One of the commonest species,
Daphnia pulex, found in ponds and ditches, is less than one-
tenth of an inch in length and has the body enclosed in a trans-
parent bivalved shell. The
head, projecting in front of
the shell, bears a pair of
branched feathery antennae
which are the chief swim-
ming organs and propel the
animal, in a succession of
rapid bounds, through the
water. There is a single
large black eye. In the
living animal five pairs of
leaf-like limbs acting as
gills can be observed in
constant motion between
the valves of the shell, and
the pulsating heart may be
seen near the dorsal surface,
a little way behind the
head. The body ends
behind in a kind of tail
dyt
Parker and HaswetPs Text-Book of Zojloty,
by permission of Macmillan & Co.
Daphnia (after Claus).
ant. I. antennule. d.gl. Digestive
ant. 2. Antenna. eland.
with a double curved daw br Brain f _ Swimming-
which can be protruded br.p. Brood- feet,
from the shell. The female pouch, ht. Heart,
carries the eggs in a brood- E - Eve - sh -&- Shell-gland,
chamber between the back
of the body and the shell until hatching takes place. Through-
out the greater part of the year only females occur and
the eggs develop " parthenogenetically," without fertiliza-
tion. When the small males appear, generally in the
autumn, fertilized " winter " or " resting eggs " are produced
which are cast adrift in a case of " ephippium " formed by a
specially modified part of the shell. These resting eggs enable
the race to survive the cold of winter or the drying up of the water.
For a fuller account of the Cladocera and of other organisms
which sometimes share with them the name of " water-fleas," see
the article ENTOMOSTRACA. (W. T. CA.)
WATERFORD, a county of Ireland in the province of Munster,
bounded E. by Waterford Harbour, separating it from Wexford,
N. by Kilkenny and by Tipperary, W. by Cork, and S. by the
Atlantic. The area is 458,108 acres, or about 716 sq. m. The
coast line is in some parts bold and rocky, and is indented
by numerous bays and inlets, the principal being Waterford
Harbour; Tramore Bay, with picturesque cliffs and some
extensive caves, and noted for its shipwrecks, on account of the
rocky character of its bed; Dungarvan Harbour, much fre-
quented for refuge in stormy weather; and Youghal Harbour,
partly separating county Waterford from county Cork. The
surface of the county is to a large extent mountainous, providing
beautiful inland scenery, especially towards the west and north-
west. The Knockmealdown Mountains, which attain a height
of 2609 ft., form the northern boundary with Tipperary. A
wide extent of country between Clonmel and Dungarvan is
occupied by the two ranges of the Comeragh and Monavallagh
WATERFORD
369
Mountains, reaching a height of 2504 ft. To the south of Dun-
garvan there is a lower but very rugged range, called the Drum
Hills. The south-eastern division of the county is for the most
part level. Though Waterford benefits in its communications
by the important rivers in its vicinity, the only large river it
can properly claim as belonging to it is the Blackwater. This
river is famous for salmon fishing, and, particularly in the stretch
between Cappoquin and Lismore, flows between high, well-
wooded banks, contrasting beautifully with the background of
mountains. It enters the county east of Fermoy, and flows
eastward to Cappoquin, the head of navigation, where it turns
abruptly southward, to fall into the sea at Youghal Harbour.
Waterford Harbour may be called the estuary of three important
rivers, the Suir, the Nore and the Barrow, but neither of the
two last touches the county. The Suir reaches it about 8 m.
from Clonmel, and thence forms its northern boundary with
Tipperary and Kilkenny. It is navigable to Clonmel, but the
traffic lies mainly on the left bank, outside the county.
Geology. The Knockmealdown Mountains are an anticline of
Old Red Sandstone, cut away at the eastern end to expose Silurian
strata, which are associated with an extensive series of volcanic and
intrusive rocks, often crushed by earth-movement. The impressive
scarp formed by the Old Red Sandstone conglomerate above this
lower ground is called the Comeragh Mountains. The moraine-
dammed cirque of Lough Coumshingaun lies in these, with a precipice
1000 ft. in height. The unconformity of the Old Red Sandstone on
the greenish and yellowish Silurian shales is excellently seen on the
north bank of the Suir at Waterford. Carboniferous Limestone is
found in the floor of the synclinals on either side of the great anticline,
that is, in the Suir valley on the north, and in the green and richly-
wooded hollow of the Blackwater on the south. Rapidly repeated
anticlinal and synclinal folds continue this structure across the
country befween Dungarvan and Youghal. Rich copper-mines were
worked, mainly in the igth century, in the Silurian area near Bon-
mahon, and the region remains full of mineral promise.
Industries. The land is generally better adapted for pasturage
than for tillage, although there are considerable tracts of rich soil
in the south-eastern districts. The proportion of tillage to pasture
is, however, roughly as I to 3$, though the acreage under the principal
crops of oats, potatoes and turnips is on the whole fairly maintained.
The numbers of cattle, sheep and poultry increase steadily, and pigs
are extensively reared. The woollen manufacture, except for home
use, is practically extinct, but the cotton manufacture is still of some
importance. There are also breweries, distilleries and a large
number of flour-mills. The valuable deep sea and coast fisheries
have distinct headquarters at Waterford, and the noted salmon
fisheries of the Suir and Blackwater have theirs at Waterford and
Lismore respectively. Railway communication is provided by the
Waterford, Dungarvan, Lismore and Co. Cork branch of the Great
Southern and Western railway, traversing the county from E. to W. ;
and by the Waterford and Tramore railway, while the city of Water-
ford is approached by lines of the first-named company from the N.
(from Dublin) and W. (from Limerick).
Population and Administration. The population (95,702 in
1891; 87,187 in 1901) decreases at a rate about equal to the
average of the Irish counties, and emigration is considerable.
Nearly 95% of the total are Roman Catholics, and about 74%
constitute the rural population. The chief towns are the city
of Waterford (pop. 26,769), Dungarvan (4850), and Lismore
(1583); Portlaw and Tramore, and Cappoquin are lesser towns.
The county is divided into eight baronies. Down to the Union
in 1800 the county returned two members, and the boroughs
of Dungarvan, Lismore and Tallow two each. Thereafter, and
before the Redistribution Act of 1885, the county returned two
members, the borough of Waterford two, and Dungarvan one.
The county now returns two members, for the east and west
divisions respectively, while the county of the city of Waterford
returns one member. Assizes are held at Waterford, and quarter
sessions at Lismore, Dungarvan, and Waterford. The county
is mainly in the Protestant diocese of Ossory, and the Roman
Catholic diocese of Waterford and Lismore.
History and A nliquilies. In the 9th century the Danes landed
in the district, and afterwards made a permanent settlement.
Waterford was one of the twelve counties into which King John
is stated to have divided that part of Ireland which he nominally
annexed to the English crown. On account of the convenience of
the city as a landing place, many subsequent expeditions passed
through the county, directed against disaffected or rebellious
tribes. In 1444 the greater part of it was granted to James,
earl of Desmond, and in 1447 it was bestowed on John Talbot,
earl of Shrewsbury, who was created earl of Waterford. The
county suffered severely during the Desmond rebellion, in the
reign of Elizabeth, as well as in the rebellion of 1641 and during
the Cromwellian period. There are in the county a considerable
number of banows, duns, cromlechs and similar relics of the
ancient inhabitants. At Ardmore, overlooking the sea from
Ram Head, there is a round tower 95 ft. in height, and near it
a huge rath and a large number of circular entrenchments.
Among the old castles special mention may be made of Lismore,
originally erected in 1185, but now in great part comparatively
modern. The chief ecclesiastical remains are those of the chancel
and nave of the cathedral of Ardmore, where a monastery and
oratory were founded by St Declan in the 7th century. The see
of Ardmore was abolished in the i2th century. Here are also
remains of a church and oratory, and a holy well. Mention should
be made of the existing monastery of Mount Melleray, a convent
of Trappists founded near Cappoquin in 1830, on the expulsion
of the foreign members of this order from France. Schools,
both free and boarding, are maintained; and there is a branch
of the order at Roscrea (Co. Tipperary).
WATERFORD, a city, county of a city, parliamentary
borough, seaport, and the chief town of Co. Waterford,
Ireland. Pop. (1901) 26,769. It is finely situated on the south
bank of the Suir 4 m. above its junction with the Barrow, at
the head of the tidal estuary called Waterford Harbour, mm.
S.S.W. from Dublin by the Great Southern and Western railway.
This is the principal railway serving the city, having lines from
Dublin and from the north-west, besides the trunk line between
Rosslare, Waterford and Cork. Waterford is also, however,
the terminus of the Dublin and South-Eastern line from Dublin
via New Ross, and for the Waterford and Tramore line, serving
the seaside resort of Tramore, 7 m. S. The Suir is crossed by
a wooden bridge of thirty-nine arches, and 832 ft. long, con-
necting Waterford with the suburb of Ferrybank. The city is
built chiefly along the banks of the river, occupying for the most
part low and level ground except at its western extremity,
and excepting the quay and the Mall, which connects with the
southern end of the quay, its internal appearance is hardly of a
piece with the beauty of its environs. The modern Protestant
cathedral of the Holy Trinity, generally called Christ Church,
a plain structure with a lofty spire, occupies the site of the
church built by the Danes in 1096, in the Mall. Near it are the
episcopal palace and deanery. There is a handsome Roman
Catholic cathedral, and the training seminary for priests called
St John's College deserves notice. The principal secular buildings
are the town-hall, the county and city courts and prisons, the
custom-house and the barracks. At the extremity of the quay
is a large circular tower, called Reginald's Tower, forming at
one time a portion of the city walls, and occupying the site of
the tower built by Reginald the Dane in 1003. Near the summit
one of the balls shot from the cannon of Cromwell while besieging
the city is still embedded in the wall. Other remains of the
fortifications, consisting of towers and bastions, are to be seen
as in the Tramore railway sidings and in Castle Street. There
are a number of hospitals and similar benevolent institutions,
including the leper house founded in the reign of King John,
now used practically as an infirmary. The town possesses
breweries, salt-houses, foundries and flour mills; and there is
a large export trade in cattle, sheep and pigs, and in agricultural
produce. It is the headquarters of extensive salmon and sea
fisheries. Waterford is second in importance to Cork among
the ports of the south coast of Ireland. There is regular com-
munication by steamer with Cork, with Dublin and Belfast,
with Fishguard, Glasgow, Liverpool, Bristol, Plymouth, South-
ampton, London and other ports. Local steamers ply to Dun-
cannon, New Ross and other places on the neighbouring estuaries.
Waterford Harbour is a winding and well-sheltered bay formed
by the estuary of the river Suir, and afterwards by the joint
estuary of the Nore and Barrow. Its length to the sea is about
15 m. Its entrance is 3 m. wide, and is lighted by a fixed light
WATERFORD--WATERHOUSE, J. W.
37
on the ancient donjon of Hook Tower (139 ft. in height) and
others. The quay, at which there is a depth of 22 ft. of water
at low tide, was enlarged in 1 705 by the removal of the city walls,
and is about ij m. in length. At Ferrybank, on the Kilkenny
side of the river, there is a shipbuilding yard with patent slip
and graving dock. By the Suir there is navigation for barges
to Clonmel, and for sailing vessels to Carrick-on-Suir; by the
Barrow for sailing vessels to New Ross and thence for barges
to Athy, and so to Dublin by a branch of the Grand Canal ; and
by the Nore for barges to Inistioge. The shores of the harbour
are picturesque and well-wooded, studded with country residences
and waterside villages, of which Passage and Duncannon are
popular resorts of the citizens of Waterford.
Anciently Waterford was called Cuan-na-groith, the haven of
the sun. By early writers it was named Menapia. It is supposed
to have existed in very early times, but first acquired importance
under the Danes, of whom it remained one of the principal
strongholds until its capture by Strongbow in 1171. On the
i8th of October 1172 Henry II. landed near Waterford, and he
here received the hostages of the people of Munster. It became
a cathedral city in 1096. The Protestant dioceses of Cashel,
Emly, Waterford and Lismore were united in 1833. Prince
John, afterwards king of England, who had been declared lord
of Ireland in 1 1 7 7 , landed at Waterford in 1 1 8 5 . After ascending
the English throne he granted it a fair in 1204, and in 1206 a
charter of incorporation. He landed at Waterford in 1210, in
order to establish within his nominal territories in Ireland a
more distinct form of government. The city received a new
charter from Henry III. in 1 23 2. Richard II. landed at Waterford
in October 1394 and again in 1399. In 1447 it was granted by
Henry VI. to John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, who was created
earl of Waterford. In 1497 it successfully resisted an attempt
of Perkin Warbeck to capture it, in recognition of which it
received various privileges from Henry VII., who gave it the
title of urbs intacla. In 1603, after the accession of James I.
to the English crown, the city, along with Cork, took a prominent
part in opposition to the government and to the Protestant
religion, but on the approach of Mountjoy it formally submitted.
From this time, however, the magistrates whom it elected refused
to take the oath of supremacy, and, as by its charter it possessed
the right to refuse admission to the king's judges, and therefore
to dispense with the right of holding assizes, a rule was obtained
in the Irish chancery for the seizure of its charter, which was
carried into effect in 1618. In 1619 an attempt was made to
induce Bristol merchants to settle in the city and undertake
its government, but no one would respond to the invitation,
and in 1626 the charter was restored. The city was unsuccessfully
attacked by Cromwell in 1649, but surrendered to Ireton on the
loth of August 1650. After the battle of the Boyne James II.
embarked at it for France (July 1690). Shortly afterwards it
surrendered to William, who sailed from it to England. It
sent two members to parliament from 1374 to 1885, when the
number was reduced to one. In 1898 it was constituted one of
the six county boroughs having separate county councils.
WATERFORD, a village of Saratoga county, New York,
U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Hudson river, near the mouth of
the Mohawk river, and about 10 m. N. of Albany. Pop. (1900)
3146, of whom 474 were foreign-born; (1905) 3134; (1910)
3245. Waterford is served by the Delaware & Hudson rail-
way, and is at the junction of the Erie and the Champlain
divisions of the great barge canal connecting Lake Erie and Lake
Champlain. There was a settlement here probably as early as
1630, and Waterford was laid out in 1784, and was incorporated
as a village in 1794.
WATERHOUSE, ALFRED (1830-1005), English architect,
was born at Liverpool on the igth of July 1830, and passed his
professional pupilage under Richard Lane in Manchester. His
earliest commissions were of a domestic nature, but his position
as a designer of public buildings was assured as early as 1859 by
success in the open competition for the Manchester assize courts.
This work marked him not only as an adept in the planning of a
complicated building on a large scale, but also as a champion of
the Gothic cause. Nine years later, in 1868, another competition
secured for Waterhouse the execution of the Manchester town-
hall, where he was able to show a firmer and perhaps more original
handling of the Gothic manner. The same year brought him the
rebuilding of part of Caius College, Cambridge, not his first uni-
versity work, for Balliol, Oxford, had been put into his hands
in 1867. At Caius, out of deference to the Renaissance treat-
ment of the older parts of the college, the Gothic element was
intentionally mingled with classic detail, while Balliol and
Pembroke, Cambridge, which followed in 1871, may be looked
upon as typical specimens of the style of his mid career Gothic
tradition (European rather than British) tempered by individual
taste and by adaptation to modern needs. Girton College,
Cambridge, a building of simpler type, dates originally from the
same period (1870), but has been periodically enlarged by further
buildings. Two important domestic works were undertaken in
1870 and 1871 respectively Eaton Hall for the duke, then
marquis, of Westminster, and Heythrop Hall, Oxfordshire, the
latter, a restoration, being of a fairly strict classic type. Iwerne
Minster for Lord Wolverton was begun in 1877. In 1865 Water-
house had removed his practice from Manchester to London,
and he was one of the architects selected to compete for the Royal
Courts of Justice. He received from the government, without
competition, the commission to build the Natural History
Museum, South Kensington, a design which marks an epoch in
the modern use of terra-cotta. The new University Club a
Gothic design was undertaken in 1866, to be followed nearly
twenty years later by the National Liberal Club, a study in
Renaissance composition. Waterhouse's series of works for
Victoria University, of which he was made LL.D. in- 1895, date
from 1870, when he was first engaged on Owens College, Man-
chester. Yorkshire College, Leeds, was begun in 1878; and
Liverpool University College in 1885. St Paul's School, Hammer-
smith, was begun in 1881, and in the same year the Central
Technical College in Exhibition Road, London. Waterhouse's
chief remaining works in London are the new Prudential Assur-
ance Company's offices in Holborn; the new University College
Hospital; the National Provincial Bank, Piccadilly, 1892; the
Surveyors' Institution, Great George Street, 1896; and the
Jenner Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea, 1895. For
the Prudential Company he designed many provincial branch
offices, while for the National Provincial Bank he also designed
premises at Manchester. The Liverpool Infirmary is Water-
house's largest hospital; and St. Mary's Hospital, Manchester,
the Alexandra Hospital, Rhyl, and extensive additions at the
general hospital, Nottingham, also engaged him. Among works
not already mentioned are the Salford gaol; St Margaret's
School, Bushey; the Metropole Hotel, Brighton; Hove town-
hall; Alloa town-hall; St Elizabeth's church, Reddish; the
Weigh House chapel, Mayfair; and Hutton Hall, Yorks. He
died on the 22nd of August, 1905.
Waterhouse became a fellow of the Royal Institute of British
Architects in 1861, and president from 1888 to 1891. He obtained
a grand prix for architecture at the Paris Exposition of 1867, and
a " Rappel " in 1878. In the same year he received the Royal
gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and was
made an associate of the Royal Academy, of which body he became
a full member in 1885 and treasurer in 1898. He became a member
of the academies of Vienna (1869), Brussels (1886), Antwerp (1887),
Milan (1888) and Berlin (1889), and a corresponding member of
the Institut de France (1893). After 1886 he was constantly called
upon to act as assessor in architectural competitions, and was a
member of the international jury appointed to adjudicate on the
designs for the west front of Milan Cathedral in 1887. In 1890 he
served as architectural member of the Royal Commission on the
proposed enlargement of Westminster Abbey as a place of burial.
From 1891 to 1902, when he retired, his work was conducted in
partnership with his son, Paul Waterhouse.
WATERHOUSE, JOHN WILLIAM (1847- ), English
painter, was the son of an artist, by whom he was mainly trained.
As a figure-painter he shows in his work much imaginative
power and a very personal style, and his pictures are for the
most part illustrations of classic myths treated with attractive
fantasy. An able draughtsman and a fine colourist, he must be
ranked among the best artists of the British school. He was
WATER-LILYWATERLOO CAMPAIGN
elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1885 and acade-
mician in 1895. Four of his paintings, " Consulting the Oracle,"
" St Eulalia," " The Lady of Shalott " and " The Magic Circle,"
are in the National Gallery of British Art.
See " J. W. Waterhouse and his Work," by A. L. Baldry, Studio,
vol. iv.
WATER-LILY, a name somewhat vaguely given to almost
any floating plant with conspicuous flowers, but applying more
especially to the species of Nymphaea, Nuphar, and other members
of the order Nymphaeaceae. These are aquatic plants with
thick fleshy rootstocks or tubers embedded in the mud, and
throwing up to the surface circular shield-like leaves, and leafless
flower-stalks, each terminated by a single flower, often of
great beauty, and consisting of four or five sepals, and numer-
ous petals gradually passing into the very numerous stamens
without any definite line of demarcation between them. The
ovary consists of numerous carpels united together and free,
or more or less embedded in the top of the flower-stalk. The
ovary has many cavities with a large number of ovules attached
to its walls, and is surmounted by a flat stigma of many radiating
rows as in a poppy. The fruit is berry-like, and the seeds are
remarkable for having their embryo surrounded by an endosperm
as well as by a perisperm. The anatomical construction of these
plants presents many peculiarities which have given rise to
discussion as to the allocation of the order among the dicotyledons
or among the monocotyledons, the general balance of opinion
being in favour of the former view. The leaf-stalks and flower-
stalks are traversed by longitudinal air-passages, whose dis-
position varies in different species. The species of Nymphaea
are found in every quarter of the globe. Their flowers range
from white to rose-coloured, yellow and blue. Some expand in
the evening only, others close soon after noon. Nymphaea alba
(Castalia alba) is common in some parts of Britain, as is also the
yellow Nuphar luteum (Nymphaea lutca). The seeds and the
rhizomes contain an abundance of starch, which renders them
serviceable in some places for food.
Of recent years great strides have been made in the culture of
new varieties of water-lilies in the open air. Many beautiful
Nymphaea hybrids have been raised between the tender and
hardy varieties of different colours, and there are now in com-
merce lovely forms having not only white, but also yellow, rose,
pink and carmine flowers. In many gardens open-air tanks
have been fitted up with hot-water pipes running through them
to keep the water sufficiently warm in severe weather. The
open-air water-lily tank in the Royal gardens, Kew, is one of the
latest and most up-to-date in construction. These coloured
hybrids were originated by M. Latour Marliac, of Temple-sur-Lot,
France, some of the most favoured varieties being cornea, chroma-
tella, flammea, ignea, rosea, Robinsoni, Aurora, blanda, &c.
Amongst hardy species of Nymphaea now much grown are Candida,
nitida, odorata, pygmaea and tuberosa, all with white, more or less
sweet-scented flowers ; flava, yellow, and sphaerocarpa, rpse<armine.
Amongst the tender or hothouse Nymphaeas the following are most
noted: blanda, white; devoniensis, scarlet (a hybrid between
N. Lotus and N. rubra) ; edulis, white ; elegans, yellowish white and
purple; gigantea, blue; kewensis, rose-carmine (a hybrid between
N. devoniensis and N. Lotus); Lotus, red, white; pubescens, white;
scutifolia, bright blue; stellata, bli'e, with several varieties; and
Sturtevanti, a pale-rose hybrid.
Under the general head of water-lily are included the lotus of
Egypt. Nymphaea' Lotus, and the sacred lotus of India and China,
Nelumbium speciosum, formerly a native of the Nile, as shown by
Egyptian sculptures and other evidence, but no longer found ia
that river. The gigantic Victoria regia, with leaves 6 to 7 ft. in
diameter and flowers 8 to 16 in. across, also belongs to this group.
It grows in the backwaters of the Amazon, often covering the surface
for miles ; the seeds are eaten under the name water maize.
WATERLOO, a city and the county-seat of Black Hawk
county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Cedar river, about 90 m. W. of
Dubuque and about 275 m. W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 6674;
(iqoo) 12,580, of whom 1334 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
26,693. It is served by the Illinois Central (which has large
construction and repair shops here), the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific, the Chicago Great Western, and the Waterloo, Cedar
Falls & Northern (from Cedar Falls to Sumner) railways. The
city has several public parks, a public library (1879) with two
buildings, a Y.M.C.A. building, and a good public school system,
including a manual training school. There is a Chautauqua
park. The river here is 700 to 900 ft. wide; its clear water flows
over a limestone bed through a rather evenly sloping valley
in the middle of the city with enough fall to furnish valuable
water power. The value of the factory product in 1905 was
$4,693,888. The city is situated in a rich agricultural, dairying
and poultry-raising region, and is an important shipping point.
Waterloo was first settled about 1846, was laid out in 1854,
first chartered as a city in 1868, and became a city of the first
class in 1905.
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN. 1815. On February 27, 1815,
Napoleon set sail from Elba with his force of 1000 men and
4 guns, determined to reconquer the throne of France. On
March i he landed near Cannes, and proceeded at once to march
on Paris. He deliberately chose the difficult route over the
French Ales because he recognized that his opponents would
neither expect him by this route nor be able to concert combined
operations in time to thwart him. Events proved the wisdom
of his choice. His advance to Paris was a series of triumphs,
his power waxing with every league he covered, and when he
reached Paris the Bourbons had fled. But he had soon to turn
his attention to war. His sudden return, far from widening
the breaches between the allies, had fused them indissolubly
together, and the four powers bound themselves to put 1 50,000
men apiece under arms and to maintain them in the field until
Napoleon had been utterly crushed. So, from the first, France'
was faced with another war against an affrighted and infuriated
Europe, a war in which the big battalions would be on the side
of the Seventh Coalition; and to oppose their vast armies
Napoleon only had in March the 150,000 men he had taken over
from Louis XVTII. when the Bourbon hurriedly quitted the
throne. Of this force the emperor could have drawn together
some 50,000 men within ten days and struck straight at the
small allied forces that were in Belgium at the moment. But
he wisely refrained from taking the immediate offensive. Such
an act would have proved that he desired, nay provoked a war;
and further, the engagement of such small forces could lead to
no decisive results. Napoleon therefore stayed his hand and
proceeded to hasten forward the organization, almost the creation
of an army, with which he could confront the coalition. Mean-
while he sought to detach Great Britain and Austria from the
alliance. But he did not permit his political enterprise to stay
his military preparations; and, by constant attention
to the minutest details, by June i he had got together
an army of 360,000 for the defence of France, one half
of which was available for field service. In this army
was comprised his whole means of defence; for he had no allies.
On his return from Elba it is true that Murat, the king of Naples,
took his side; but recklessly opening an offensive campaign,
Murat was beaten at Tolentino (May 2-3), and he found himself
compelled to fly in disguise to France, where the emperor refused
him an audience or employment. Herein Napoleon wronged
France, for he deprived her of the most brilliant cavalry soldier
of the period. Shorn thus of his single ally, the emperor realized
that the whole eastern land-frontier of France was open to
invasion, from the North Sea to the Mediterranean. By the
end of May he had placed his forces as follows to protect his
empire.
D'Erlon's I. Corps cantoned between Lille and Valenciennes.
Reille's II. Corps cantoned between Valenciennes and Avesnes.
Vandamme's III. Corps cantoned around RocroL
Gerard's IV. Corps cantoned at Metz.
Lobau's VI. Corps cantoned at Laon.
Grouchy's Cavalry Reserve at Guise.
Marshal Mortier with the Imperial Guard at Paris.
Rapp with the V. Corps (20,000) near Strassburg.
18,500 more troops under Suchet, Brune and Lecourbe
guarded the S.E. frontier from Basel to Nice, and covered Lyons;
8000 men under Clausel and Decaen guarded the Pyrenean
frontier; whilst Lamarque led 10,000 men into La Vendee to
quell the insurrection in that quarter. In 1815 Napoleon was
not supported by a united and unanimous France; the country
372
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
was weakened by internal dissensions at the very moment
when it was needful to put every man in line to meet the rising
tide of invasion surging against the long curving eastern frontier.
Napoleon now pondered over his plan of campaign. In
Belgium, across an almost open frontier, lay an ever-increasing
force of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian troops under Wellington
and Bliicher. The Rhine frontier was threatened by Schwarzen-
berg's Austrians (210,000) ; Barclay de Tolly's Russians (150,000)
were slowly coming up; and another Austrian force menaced
the S.E. frontier of France. The allies determined that they
would wage a war without risks, and they were particularly
anxious to avoid the risk of defeat in detail. It was accordingly
arranged that Wellington and Bliicher should await in Belgium
the arrival of the Austrian and Russian masses on the Rhine,
about July i, before the general invasion of France was begun.
Thereafter, whatever befell, the allied armies would resolutely
press forward towards Paris, affording each other mutual support,
and with the tremendous weight of troops at their disposal
thrust back Napoleon upon his capital, force him to fight in
front of it, and drive him when defeated within its works. The
end would then be in sight. Thus they had planned the campaign,
but Napoleon forestalled them. In fact, the threatening danger
forced his hand and compelled him to strike before he had
collected a sufficient army for his defensive needs. Consequently
he determined to advance swiftly and secretly against Wellington
and Bliicher, whose forces, as Napoleon knew, were dispersed
over the country of their unenthusiastic ally. Thus he designed
to crush a part of the coalition before the Russians and Austrians
poured over the eastern frontier. Once Wellington and Bliicher
were destroyed he would move southwards and meet the other
allies on the Rhine. He might thus compensate for his numerical
inferiority by superior mobility and superior leadership.
His information showed that Wellington held the western
half of Belgium from the Brussels-Charleroi road to the Scheldt,
that his base of operations was Ostend, and that his
headquarters were at Brussels. Bliicher, based on
the Rhine at Coblentz, held the eastern half from the
Brussels-Charleroi road to the Meuse, and had his headquarters
at Namur. The emperor was convinced that nothing could be
gained by invading Belgium from the S.E. or W.; such a stroke
would surely drive the allies together, and that was never
Napoleon's custom. On the other hand, if he struck straight
at Charleroi the allied junction point he would drive the
" Armee du Nord " like an armoured wedge between the allies,
if only he caught them unsuspicious and unready. Forced
asunder at the outset, each would (in all probability) fall back
along his own line of communication, and the gap thus made
between the allies would enable the emperor to manoeuvre
between them and defeat them in turn. To gain the best chance
of success he would have to concentrate his whole army almost
within gunshot of the centre of the enemies' outposts without
attracting their attention; otherwise he would find the allies
concentrated and waiting for him.
Wellington and Bliicher were disposed as follows in the early
days of June (Map I.). The Anglo-Dutch army of 93,000
with headquarters at Brussels were cantoned: I. Corps (Prince
of Orange), 30,200, headquarters Braine-le-Comte, disposed in
the area Enghien-Genappe-Mons; II. Corps (Lord Hill), 27,300,
headquarters Ath, distributed in the area Ath - Oudenarde-
Ghent; reserve cavalry (Lord Uxbridge) 9900, in the valley of
the Dendre river, between Grammont and Ninove; the reserve
(under Wellington himself) 25,500, lay around Brussels. The
frontier in front of Leuze and Binche was watched by the Dutch-
Belgian light cavalry.
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN.iSis
Theatre of Operations in Belgium
Showing Dispositions of Opposing Forces
onjiight of June 14-15.1815
English Miles
'Alt ylo-DutcIt Cantonment. | ' COR
}
Anglo-Dutch Outpos
Pnttia* Sonfodm.nls ^' CORPS i
MAPI.
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
373
Bliicher's Prussian army of 116,000 men, with headquarters
at Namur, was distributed as follows:
I. Corps (Zieten), 30,800, cantoned along the Sambre, headquarters
Charleroi, and covering the area Fontaine 1 Evfique-Fleurus^Moustier.
II. Corps (Pirch I.), 31,000, headquarters at Namur, lay in the area
Namur- Ha nnut-Huy.
III. Corps (Thielemann), 23,900, in the bend of the river Meuse,
headquarters Ciney, and disposed in the area Dinant-Huy-Ciney.
IV. Corps (Billow), 30,300, with headquarters at Li6ge, around
that place.
The frontier in front of Binche, Charleroi and Dinant was
watched by the Prussian outposts.
Thus the allied front extended for nearly 90 m. across Belgium,
and the mean depth of their cantonments was 30 m. To con-
centrate the whole army on either flank would take six days,
and on the common centre, about Charleroi, three days.
The allies had foreseen the very manoeuvre that Napoleon
designed to put into execution, and had decided that if an
attempt were made to break their centre they would concentrate
forwards and on their inner flanks, the Anglo-Dutch army
forming up at Gosselies and the Prussians at Fleurus. Here
they woul* be in contact, and ready to act united against
Napoleon with a numerical superiority of two to one. The
necessary three days' warning of the French concentration they
felt certain they would obtain, for Napoleon's troops were at this
juncture distributed over an area (Lille-Metz-Paris) of 175 m.
by 100 m.; and to concentrate the French army unknown to, and
unobserved by, the allies, within striking distance and before they
had moved a man to meet the onrush of the foe, was unthinkable.
But, as in 1800, it was the unthinkable that happened.
It will be seen that Blucher covered Fleurus, his concentration
point, by Zieten's corps, in the hope of being able to collect his
army round Fleurus in the time that Zieten would secure for him
by a yielding fight. Wellington on the other hand was far less
satisfactorily placed; for in advance of Gosselies he had placed
only a cavalry screen, which would naturally be too weak to gain
him the requisite time to mass there. Hence his ability to
concentrate hung on the mere good luck of obtaining timely
information of Napoleon's plans, which in fact he failed to obtain.
But the two tracts of country covered by the allies differed
vastly in configuration. Bliicher's left was protected by the
difficult country of the Ardennes. On the other hand, the duke's
whole section lay close to an open frontier across which ran no
fewer than four great roads, and the duke considered that his
position " required, for its protection, a system of occupation
quite different from that adopted by the Prussian army." He
naturally relied on his secret service to warn him in such time
as would enable him to mass and meet the foe. His reserve
was well placed to move rapidly and promptly in any direction
and give support wherever required.
The emperor made his final preparations with the utmost
secrecy. The Army of the North was to concentrate in three
fractions around Solre, Beaumont and Philippeville as dose to
Charleroi as was practicable; and he arranged to screen the
initial movements of the troops as much as possible, so as to
prevent the allies from discovering in time that their centre
was aimed at. He directed that the movements of the troops
when they drew near the allied outposts should be covered
as far as possible by accidents of ground, for there was no great
natural screen to cover his strategical concentration.
G6rard and the IV. Corps from Metz,having thelongestdistance
to go, started first (on June 6), and soon the whole army was
7 6e in motion for the selected points of concentration,
Pnach every effort being made to hide the movements of the
conceit- troops. On June n Napoleon himself left Paris for
ton the front, and by June 14 he had achieved almost
the impossible itself; for there, at Solre, Beaumont and Philippe-
ville, lay his mass of men, 124,000 strong, concentrated under
his hand without rousing the enemy's suspicions, and ready
to march across the frontier at dawn. Far different were things
on the other side of the Sambre. The allies were still resting
in fancied security, dispersed throughout widely distant canton-
ments; for nothing but vague rumours had reached them, and
they had not moved a man to meet the enemy.
The opposing armies were of very different quality. Welling-
ton's was a collection of many nationalities; the kernel being
composed of his trusty and tenacious British and King's German
Legion troops, numbering only 42,000 men. Of the remainder
many were far from enthusiastic in the cause for which they had
perforce to take up arms, and might prove a source of weakness
should victory incline to the French eagles. Bliicher's army
was undoubtedly more homogeneous, and though it is doubtful
if he possessed any troops of the same quality as Wellington's
best, on the other hand he had no specially weak elements.
Napoleon was at the head of a veteran army of Frenchmen,
who worshipped their leader and were willing to die for France
if necessity demanded. But there were lines of weakness, too,
in his army. He had left Marshal Davout behind in Paris, and
Murat in disgrace; Suchet was far off on the eastern frontier,
and Clausel was in the south of France. The political reasons
for these arrangements may have been cogent, but they injured
France at the very outset. Marshal Souk was appointed chief
of the staff, a post for which he possessed very few qualifications;
and, when the campaign began, command of the left and right
wings had perforce to be given to the only two marshals available,
Ney and Grouchy, who did not possess the ability or strategic
skill necessary for such positions. Again, the army was morally
weakened by a haunting dread of treason, and some of the
chiefs, Ney for example, took the field with disturbing visions
of the consequences of their late betrayal of the Bourbon cause,
in case of Napoleon's defeat. Finally, the army was too small
for its object. Herein Napoleon showed that he was no longer
the Napoleon of Austerlitz; for he left locked up in far-distant
secondary theatres no less than 56,500 men, of whom he could
have collected some 30,000 to 36,000 for the decisive campaign
in Belgium. Had he made in 1815 the wise distribution of his
soldiers in the theatre of war which he made in his former
immortal campaigns, he would have concentrated 155,00010
160,000 of his available force opposite to Charleroi on June 14,
and the issue of the campaign would hardly have been in doubt.
But he failed to do so, and by taking the field with such inferior
numbers he left too much to Fortune.
For his advance into Belgium in 1815 Napoleon divided his
army into two wings and a reserve. As the foe would lie away
to his right and left front after he had passed the Sambre, one wing
would be pushed up towards Wellington and another towards
Blucher; whilst the mass of the reserve would be centrally
placed so as to strike on either side, as soon as a force of the
enemy worth destroying was encountered and gripped. To
this end he had, on the I4th, massed his left wing (Reille and
D'Erlon) around Solre, and his right wing (G6rard) at Philippe-
ville; whilst the central mass (Vandamme, Lobau, the Guard
and the Cavalry Reserve) lay around Beaumont.
The orders for the French advance next day, among the
finest ever issued, directed that the army should march at dawn
and move to the Sambre at Marchienne and Charleroi. By
evening it was expected that the whole would have crossed the
Sambre, and would bivouac between the sundered allies.
But at the very outset delays occurred. Owing to an accident
that befell the single orderly despatched with orders for Van-
damme, the III. Corps remained without other definite j^
orders than those issued on June 13, warning them to passage
be ready to move at 3 A.M. The corps therefore /*
stood fast on the morning of June 15, awaiting further s "* re -
instructions. This was the more unfortunate as Van-
damme was destined to lead the advance on Charleroi by
the centre road. But the emperor regarded it merely as " an
unfortunate accident," nothing more, and the advance in two
wings and a reserve continued, undisturbed by such occurrences.
Gerard, too, was late in starting, for his corps had not been
fully concentrated over-night. Zieten's outposts on the right
bank of the Sambre gained still further time, for they fought
stubbornly to retard the French advance on Marchienne and
Charleroi. But Zieten declined, and very wisely, to fight on the
right bank, and he made the most of the screen afforded by the
little river. He had to delay the French advance for 24 hours
374
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
and give time for Bliicher's concentration, at the same time
retaining his own freedom of manoeuvre, and this in spite of
the great length of the summer day, the short distance that he
lay in front of Fleurus, the tremendous numerical superiority
of the French and Napoleon's personal presence at their head.
When the French left wing and centre reached the Sambre
bridges, at Marchienne and Charleroi, they found them held and
strongly barricaded, and the cavalry were powerless to force the
passage. It was nearing noon when the emperor reached the
front with the Young Guard, whom he had personally hurried
forward. He immediately took action, and under his direction
the bridge at Charleroi was stormed shortly after noon. Almost
at the same time Reille forced the passage at Marchienne.
Instead cf drawing his corps together and retreating en masse
up the Fleurus road, Zieten wisely withdrew on two roads, using
those to Quatre Bras and Fleurus. The defenders of Marchienne
used the former, while the brigade which had held Charleroi
fell back by the latter. The emperor at once began the advance
along both the roads. The left wing was directed to push up
the Gosselies-Quatre Bras road, and Pajol's cavalry followed
the Prussians who retired along the Gilly-Fleurus road. The
emperor took post at Charleroi. About 3 P.M. Marshal Ney joined
the army, was given the command of the left whig, and ordered to
drive the Prussians out of Gosselies, and clear the road northward
of that place. Ney took over his command just when the attack
on Gosselies was impending. The Prussians were driven from
the town, but they managed to effect a roundabout retreat to
Ligny, where they rallied. Ney pushed on his advance up the
Brussels road. When he had left for the front, the emperor
proceeded with Grouchy to reconnoitre the Prussian position at
Gilly; and handing over the command of the right wing to the
marshal, whom he ordered to capture Gilly, Napoleon returned
to Charleroi, to hasten the passage of the French army across
the Sambre and mass it in the gap between the allies. But the
head of Vandamme's corps had by this time crossed the river,
and the emperor ordered it to assist Grouchy.
What meanwhile were the allies doing? There is no doubt
that, surprised by the suddenness of the French advance, they
were caught unprepared. But on the isth the critical nature of
the situation dawned on them, and naturally on Bliicher first, as
his headquarters were nearer to the frontier than Wellington's,
and Bliicher had had previous experience of Napoleon's powers.
As soon as the Prussian marshal got the first real warning of
imminent danger, he ordered (in accordance with the pre-
arranged plan) an immediate concentration of his army on his
inner flank at Sombreffe. Unfortunately for him the first orders
sent to Billow by Gneisenau, chief of the staff, at midnight
June 14-15, were written in so stilted and hazy a style that Biilow
did not consider any especial display of energy was required.
Hence the IV. Corps was neutralized until after the i6th. The
other two corps commanders (Pirch I. and Thielemann) received
clearer orders, and acted promptly enough. They concentrated
their scattered men and hastened to march to the appointed
rendezvous. By nightfall Pirch I. had bivouacked the II. Corps
at Mazy, only 4 m. short of Sombreffe, and Thielemann and
the III. Corps had reached Namur, within easy distance of the
Ligny battlefield. Bliicher wisely shifted his own headquarters
to Sombreffe on the afternoon of the isth.
Wellington's position at nightfall was very different, and can
hardly be termed safe or even satisfactory. Definite news of
the French advance only reached Brussels about 3 P.M. on the
iSth; and even then the duke was by no means certain of the
direction of Napoleon's main stroke. Hence the first orders he
issued were for his divisions to concentrate at their respective
alarm-posts, intending later to send them further orders when
the situation had somewhat cleared up. For whatever reasons,
Wellington thought Napoleon would attempt to turn his right
and cut his line of communications. Had Napoleon attempted
this he would (if successful) have driven the Anglo-Dutch army
back upon the Prussians, instead of separating the allies, as he
actually tried to do and very nearly succeeded in doing. Failing
to appreciate this fully, Wellington omitted to order an immediate
concentration on his inner (left) flank as Bliicher had done, and
the danger of Bliicher's position was thus enormously increased.
Curiously enough, the allies do not appear to have decided
upon the course to be taken in case they were surprised, as they
virtually were, and their system of intercommunication if
system it can be called was most imperfect. They ought to
have arranged loyally and promptly to let each other know every
move it was proposed to make and the reasons for moving, for
thus only could concerted action be ensured when confronted
with Napoleon, " in whose presence it was so little safe to make
... a false movement."
Wellington's subordinates at the critical point, however, acted
with admirable boldness. Prince Bernard, in command of a
brigade at Quatre Bras and Frasnes, recognizing the pressing
danger that threatened on the Brussels road, retained his position
there to check the French advance, instead of drawing off
westwards and massing with the rest of his division at Nivelles;
and in this action he was firmly supported by his immediate
superiors. It was due to their presence of mind that Wellington
maintained his hold on the important strategical point of Quatre
Bras on June i sand 16. Consequently, as Ney's wing advanced
northward from Gosselies along the Brussels road, it came upon an
advanced detachment of this force at Frasnes. The detachment
was quickly forced to retire on its supports at the cross-roads,
but here Prince Bernard firmly held his position; and by
his skilful use of cover and the high standing corn he prevented
the French gauging the weakness of the small force that barred
their way. The day was now drawing to a close, and Ney
decided wisely not to push his advance any farther. He was in
front of a force of unknown strength which appeared resolved
to stand its ground, his men were tired, and the cannon-thunder
to his right rear proclaimed clearly that Grouchy had not
made much headway on the Fleurus road. To push on farther
might isolate the left wing among a host of allies. He therefore
halted his command, and, later, made a report to the emperor.
Meanwhile two long hours had been wasted on the right whilst
Grouchy and Vandamme deliberated over their plan of action in
front of the Prussian brigade at Gilly; and it was not until the
emperor himself again reached the front, about 5.30 P.M., that
vigour replaced indecision. There was a brief bombardment,
and then Vandamme's corps was sent forward with the bayonet
to drive out the foe. The shock was too great ; the Prussians
gave way immediately and were chased back into the woods by
cavalry. Grouchy now pushed on towards Fleurus, which was
still held by Bliicher's troops, and there the advance came to a
halt, as the light was failing and the troops exhausted.
Thus, thanks to Zieten's fine delaying action, Bliicher by
nightfall on June 15 had secured most of the ground requisite
for his pre-arranged concentration; for one corps was in position,
and two others were at hand. Billow's corps was unavailable,
for the reason already given, but of this fact Bliicher was still
necessarily ignorant. Wellington, owing to his original disposi-
tions and the slowness of his concentration, had only retained
a grip on Quatre Bras thanks to the boldness of his subordinates
on the spot. His other troops were assembling: I. Corps,
Nivelles, Braine-le-Comte and Enghien; II. Corps, Ath, Gram-
mont and Sotteghem; heavy cavalry at 'Ninove; Reserve at
Brussels. During the night of the isth orders were sent for the
divisions to move eastwards towards Nivelles, and at dawn the
Reserve marched for Mt. S. Jean. Thus Wellington did not
even yet realize the full significance of the emperor's opening
moves.
But if the intelligence which the duke rightly relied on had
come to hand on the isth, it cannot be doubted that he would
have effected a more expeditious concentration on his inner flank.
His trusted intelligence officer, Colonel Colquhoun Grant, was at
this time in France, and it had been arranged that his reports
should be received at the duke's outposts by General Dornberg,
for transmission to the duke. On June 15 Grant wrote to
Wellington stating that the French were advancing, and that
French officers spoke freely about a decisive action being fought
within three days. But Dornberg, arrogating to himself the right
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
375
of selecting the reports which were worth forwarding, sent it
back, saying that, so far from convincing him that the emperor
was advancing to give battle, it assured him of the contrary.
Owing to this officer's presumptuous folly Grant's information
only reached the duke on June 18, too late to be of use.
The Army of the North on this night was disposed as follows:
The left wing stretched from Frasnes back to the Sambre at
Marchienne and Thuin. Reille's corps was to the front and was
covered by the light cavalry of the Guard and Pir6's lancers.
Ney's headquarters were at Gosselies; one division (Girard's)
was at Wangcnies and acted as a link between the two wings.
The right wing, under Grouchy, had come to a halt in front of
Fleurus. It was covered by Pajol's and Exelmans' cavalry corps.
Vandamme's was the leading infantry corps, and it bivouacked
with its head at Winage. Gerard's corps (with which was
Kellermann's cuirassier corps) halted astride the Sambre at
Chatelet. Gerard's advance had been delayed owing to the
commander of his leading division deserting with his staff to
the Prussians. Consequently the IV. Corps had not assisted
at all in the passage of the river; though had it only been
present, it would have been magnificently placed to co-operate
with Grouchy in the action of Gilly. Thus each of these
strategical covering forces was itself protected by an adequate
tactical advanced guard, to perform the service of local pro-
tection. The centre (or reserve) was meanwhile disposed as
follows: The Guard was halted between Gilly and Charleroi;
the emperor's headquarters being at the latter place. Milhaud's
Cuirassier corps and Lobau's ( VI.) corps w^re south of the Sambre,
between Charleroi and Jamioulx. In this particular the execu-
tion on June 15 fell short of the original conception, for at night-
fall about one-third of the French army was still on the right
bank of the river. This, however, signified little, for the emperor
still occupied a dominant strategical position.
Napoleon had now perfected his arrangements for the invasion
of Belgium, and his army was organized definitely in two wings
and a reserve ; the latter being so placed that it could be brought
" into action on either wing as circumstances dictated." As
circumstances dictated, either wing would fasten upon one of the
allied armies and detain it until the reserve had time to come
up and complete its destruction; the other wing meantime de-
taining the other allied army and preventing its commander
from coming to his colleague's assistance. The emperor was not
in possession of. the Namur-Nivelles road. The allies were thus
afforded an opportunity of committing the very blunder which
Napoleon longed for, namely to attempt a risky forward con-
centration. His dispositions on the night of the I5th-i6th were
skilfully calculated to encourage the allies to mass at Quatre
Bras arid Sombreffe, and his covering force were pushed suffi-
ciently forward to Frasnes and Fleurus to grip whichever ally
adventured his army first. At nightfall the Army of the North
lay concentrated " in a square whose sides measured 12 m. each;
and it could with equal facility swing against the Prussians or
the Anglo-Dutch, and was already placed between them."
Early on the morning of June 16 Prince Bernard was reinforced
at Quatre Bras by the rest of his division (Perponcher's) ; and
Wellington's other troops were now all on the march eastward
except the reserve, who were heading southwards and halted
at the cross-road of Mt. S. Jean until the duke had resolved that
their objective should be Quatre Bras. They then marched in
that direction. Blucher meanwhile was making his arrangements
to hold a position to the south of the Namur-Nivelles road and
thus maintain uninterrupted communication with Wellington at
Quatre Bras. In this way he would keep open the Namur road,
and also that from Gembloux for Billow's arrival.
Napoleon spent the early morning in closing up his army, and
writing what proved to be the most important letter of the
campaign to Ney (Charleroi, about '8 A.M.): " I have adopted as
the general principle for this campaign to divide my army into
two wings and a reserve. . . . The Guard will form the reserve,
and I shall bring it into action on either wing just as circum-
stances dictate. . . . According to circumstances I shall weaken
one wing to strengthen my reserve. ..." Here, in its simplest
form, is the principle that underlies Napoleon's strategy in 1815.
Only on the wing on which the reserve is brought into action
will a decisive result be aimed at. The other is to be used ex-
clusively to neutralize the other enemy, by holding him at bay.
Napoleon's original plan for the i6th was based on the assump-
tion that the allies, who had been caught napping, would
not attempt a risky forward concentration; and he intended
therefore to push an advanced guard as far as Gembloux, for the
purpose of feeling for and warding off Blucher. To assist this
operation the reserve would move at first to Fleurus to reinforce
Grouchy, should he need assistance in driving back Blucher's
troops; but, once in possession of Sombreffe, the emperor would
swing the reserve westwards and join Ney, who, it was supposed,
would have in the meantime mastered Quatre Bras. In pursuance
of this object Ney, to whom Kellermann was now attached,
was to mass at Quatre Bras and push an advanced guard 6 m.
northward of that place, with a connecting division at Marbais
to link him with Grouchy. The centre and left wing together
would then make a night-march to Brussels. The allies would
thus be irremediably sundered, and all that remained would
be to destroy them in detail. Napoleon now awaited further
information from his wing commanders at Charleroi, where he
massed the VI. Corps (Lobau), to save it, if possible, from a
harassing countermarch, as it appeared likely that it would
only be wanted for the march to Brussels. Ney spent the
morning in massing his two corps, and in reconnoitring the
enemy at Quatre Bras, who, as he was informed, had been rein-
forced. But up till noon he took no serious step to capture the
cross-roads, which then lay at his mercy. Grouchy meantime
reported from Fleurus that Prussian masses were coming up
from Namur, but Napoleon does not appear to have attached
much importance to this report. He was still at Charleroi
when, between 9 and 10 A.M., further news reached him from
the left that considerable hostile forces were visible at Quatre
Bras. He at once wrote to Ney saying that these could only be
some of Wellington's troops, and that Ney was to concentrate
his force and crush what was in front of him, adding that he
was to send all reports to Fleurus. Then, keeping Lobau pro-
visionally at Charleroi, Napoleon hastened to Fleurus, arriving
about ii. He found that Grouchy had made little progress
beyond the town. As he surveyed the field from the windmill
north of Fleurus it struck him as significant that Blticher's
troops were disposed parallel to the Namur road, as if to
cover a forward concentration, and not at right angles to it,
as they would be had they been covering a retreat. Still,
at the moment, only one corps was showing. Possibly, how-
ever, the decisive day of the campaign had come. By the
emperor's arrangements Vandamme, Gerard, Pajol and Exel-
mans would be available after 2 P.M. to attack whatever force
Blucher might command, and the Guard and Milhaud would
be at hand to act as reserve. The wonder is that he did
not now order Lobau to move to some intermediate position,
such as Wangenies, where he would be available for either
wing as circumstances dictated. At 2 P.M. Napoleon ordered
Ney to master Quatre Bras, and added that the emperor would
attack the corps which he saw in front of him. Whichever wing
succeeded first would then wheel inwards and help the other.
Not yet had Napoleon grasped the full significance of the allied
movements, for the decisive flank had not yet become clear.
Blucher had already determined to fight. Meanwhile, Welling-
ton, having reached Quatre Bras in the morning, wrote to him
to concert the day's operations; then, as all was quiet in his
front, he rode over to meet Blucher at Brye. The two chiefs,
surveying the French army in their front, considered that no
serious force was in front of Quatre Bras, and Wellington termin-
ated the interview with the conditional promise that he would
bring his army to Blucher's assistance at Ligny, if he was not
attacked himself. This promise, of course, was never fulfilled,
for Ney employed the duke all day at Quatre Bras; and, further-
more, the duke's tardy concentration made it quite impossible for
him to help Blucherdirectly on theLigny battlefield. Onhisreturn
to Quatre Bras he found that a crisis had already been reached.
37 6
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
*
LIGNY
and
QUATREBRAS
Scale, 1:119,000
rvncA frooplMHAfig/o Dutch Troopt I < Prussian Troopt
Skirmishers Skirmlstltrt . oon SJtirmighe
MAP II.
Quatre
Bras.
Ney had allowed the valuable hours to slip away when he
could have stormed Quatre Bras with ease and ensured co-
operation with his master. Remembering the surprises
that the battles in Spain had provided for the marshals
opposed to the duke, he massed nearly the whole
of Reille's corps before he advanced. The prince of Orange, in
command at Quatre Bras, had only 7500 troops. But by
boldly scattering his force and by making use of the Bossu wood
and the farms, he covered the cross-roads and showed a firm
front to the very superior force which Ney commanded. It
was then 2 P.M. The Dutch-Belgian troops to the east of the
Brussels highway were at once forced back by the mass of men
moved against them, and it looked as if the whole defence
would crumple up. But about 3 P.M. timely succour reached
the field Van Merlen's cavalry from Nivelles, Picton and the
5th division from Brussels and Wellington returned and took
over the command. Picton at once stopped the victorious French
advance to the east of the road, but the remaining division
(Jr6me) of Reille's corps now reached the front and Ney flung
it into the Bossu wood to clear that place and keep his left flank
free. A fierce fight now broke out all along the line, in which
Jer6me steadily made ground in the Bossu wood, while Picton
showing a dauntless front maintained his position. The Bruns-
wick contingent now reached the field, but their duke whilst
leading a charge received a mortal wound and the attack failed.
It was nearly 4.15 P.M. when Ney received Napoleon's 2 P.M.
order, and in obedience to it he made another attack, in which
the Bossu wood was virtually cleared of its defenders. However,
about 5 P.M. further reinforcements reached Wellington, Allen's
(3rd) division coming in from Nivelles. Ney now realized that
he could only capture Quatre Bras with D'Erlon's help.
But shortly afterwards (about 5-15) he heard that the I.
Corps, without his direct order or knowledge, had moved east-
wards to assist in the battle of Ligny. Immediately afterwards
(about 5.30) he received an order from Napoleon to seize Quatre
Bras and then turn eastwards to crush BlUcher, who was caught
at Ligny. Napoleon added, " The fate of France is in your
hands." Ney's duty was merely to hold Wellington for certain
at Quatre Bras and allow D'Erlon to carry out the movement
which must ensure a decisive result at Ligny, in accordance
with Napoleon's plan of campaign. In any case D'Erlon could
not come back in time to give him effectual help. But incap-
able of grasping the situation, and beside himself with rage,
Ney sent imperative orders to D'Erlon to return at once, and
immediately afterwards he ordered Kellermann to lead his one
available cuirassier brigade and break through Wellington's
line. The charge was admirably executed; it overthrew one
British regiment which it caught in line, but being unsup-
ported it achieved nothing further of importance, and was
beaten back. When this attempt to master the cross-roads
had ended in failure, Ney received a verbal message from the
emperor, enjoining him that, whatever happened at Quatre
Bras, D'Erlon must be allowed to carry out the movement ordered
by the emperor. The bearer, Major Baudus, knowing the im-
portance of the manoeuvre which the I. Corps was carrying out,
strove to induce Ney to reconsider D'Erlon's recall; but the
marshal refused and ended the discussion by plunging into the
fight. Shortly afterwards (about 7 P.M.) Wellington received
further reinforcements (Cooke's division of the British Guards),
which brought his force up to 33,000 against Ney's 22,000 men.
The duke then attacked strenuously all along the line, and
before darkness stopped the fight he drove back the French to
their morning position at Frasnes. The losses were as follows :
Anglo-Dutch 4700, and French 4300. At 9 P.M., when the battle
was lost and won, D'Erlon's corps arrived. It had already
reached the edge of the Ligny battlefield when the counter-order
arrived, and conceiving that he was still under Marshal Ney
(for the officer who bore the pencil-note directing Ney to detach
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
377
D'Erlon, had on his own initiative ordered the I. Corps to the
eastward) the general considered he ought to return to the left
wing, and leaving one division at Wagnelee he withdrew his force.
The incident was immeasurably unfortunate for the French.
Had the I. Corps been thrown into the doubtful struggle at
Quatre Bras, it must have crushed Wellington; had it been used
at Ligny it would have entailed Blucher's annihilation. But
oscillating between the two fields, it took pait in neither. When
the fighting was over, at 10 P.M., Ney wrote a short and some-
what one-sided account of the action to Soult
On the other flank there had meanwhile been waged the bitterly
fought battle of Ligny. As Blucher's dispositions gradually
became clearer the emperor realized that the first
decisive day of the campaign had actually come, and
he promptly made arrangements for defeating the Prussian
army in his front. Blucher, to cover the Namur road, held with
the I. Corps the villages of Brye, St Amand and Ligny, whilst
behind his centre was massed the II. Corps, and on his left was
placed the III. Corps. Wellington and Biilow on arrival would
act as general reserve. Blucher's army, as he finally disposed it,
was quite visible to Napoleon on the bare open slopes which
it occupied above St Amand and Ligny, the II. Corps being
especially exposed. The emperor decided to bear down Blucher's
centre and right with the corps of Vandamme and G6rard and
with Girard's division which he had drawn into his operations,
containing the Prussian left meanwhile with the squadrons of
Pajol and Exelmans, assisted by a few infantry. The Guard and
Muhaud were in hand at Fleurus. Further, he could order up
Lobau, and direct Ney to move his rearward corps across and
form it up behind Blucher's right. When the battle was ripe, he
would crush the Prussian centre and right between the Guard and
D'Erlon's corps. It was a somewhat complicated manoeuvre;
for he was attempting to outflank his enemy with a corps that he
had subordinated to Marshal Ney. Much depended on whether
Ney would grasp the full purport of his orders; in a similar case
at Bautzen he had failed to do so, and he failed as badly now.
The usual Napoleonic simplicity was wanting at Ligny, and he
paid in full for the want.
It was just after 2-30 P.M. when Napoleon, hearing the sound
of Ney's cannon to the westward and realizing that Wellington
was attacked and neutralized, commenced the battle at Ligny.
Blucher's force was numerically very superior. The Prussians
numbered about 83,000 men to Napoleon's 71,000 (including
Lobau, who only came up at the end of the day). A fierce fight
was soon raging for the villages. Vandamme and Girard attacked
S. Amand, whilst Gerard attempted to storm Ligny; on the
right Grouchy held Thielemann in play, and in the centre near
Fleurus were the Guard and Milhaud in reserve, close to the
emperor's headquarters on the mill. At 3.15 P.M., when the battle
was in full swing, Napoleon wrote in duplicate to Ney, saying,
" The fate of France is in your hands," and ordering the marshal
to master Quatre Bras and move eastwards to assist at Ligny.
Immediately afterwards, hearing that Ney had 20,000 men in
front of him, he sent the " pencil-note " by General La B6doyere
which directed Ney to detach D'Erlon's corps to Ligny. This.
as we know, the A.D.C. in a fit of mistaken zeal took upon himself
to do. Hence the corps appeared too soon, and in the wrong
direction. But neither order made it sufficiently clear to Ney
that co-operation at Ligny was the essential, provided that
Wellington was held fast at Quatre Bras. In other words, Ney
had merely to hold Wellington with part of the French left wing
all day, and detach the remainder of his force to co-operate in the
deathblow at Ligny. This is clear when the first letter to Ney
is studied with the orders, as it was meant to be; but Ney in the
heat of action misread the later instructions. Meanwhile the
emperor ordered Lobau to bring up his corps at once to Fleurus
where he could hardly be of great service, whereas had he been
directed to move on Wagnel6e he might have co-operated in the
last struggle far more efficiently. The fight for the villages
continued to rage fiercely and incessantly, each side behaving as if
its mortal foe was in front. The villages were captured and re-
captured, but generally the French had the better of the fighting,
for they compelled Bliicher to use up more and more of his
reserves, and prevented the Prussians from breaking through to
the southward of S. Amand. Eventually the fighting became so
furious that the troops engaged literally melted away, particu-
larly at Ligny, and the emperor was finally compelled to caH
on his reserve to replenish the troops first engaged. But hardly
had the Young and Middle Guard marched off to reinforce
Vandamme and Gerard, when Vandamme sent word that a hostile
column, over 30,000 strong, was threatening the French left (in
reality this was D'Erlon's corps). Vandamme's exhausted troops
were unnerved at the sight of this fresh foe, and an incipient
panic was only quelled by turning guns on the fugitives. It was
now between 5.30 and 6. The emperor concluded that this
could not be D'Erlon, because he had arrived too soon and was
marching in an evidently wrong direction. He at once sent an
officer to reconnoitre. Meanwhile the reinforcements which he
had despatched were most opportune. The Prussians had seized
the opportunity offered by the slackening of the French attacks
to rally and deliver a counterstroke, which was parried, after
achieving a small measure of success, by the bayonets of the
Young Guard. It was about 6.30 before Napoleon learned that
the unknown force was actually D'Erlon's, and somewhat later
he heard that it had counter-marched and withdrawn westwards.
Repeated orders sent to the commander of the division left by
D'Erlon failed to induce him to engage his command decisively,
and thus Napoleon obtained no direct co-operation from his
left wing on this, the first decisive day of the campaign. Thus
relieved about his left, but realizing that D'Erlon had returned
to Ney, the emperor had perforce to finish the battle single-
handed. Bliicher now delivered a general counterstroke against
Vandamme. Massing every available man he led the attack in
person; but he vainly attempted to make ground to the south
of S. Amand; the exhausted Prussians were overpowered by
the chasseurs of the Guard and forced to retire in disorder.
Napoleon's opportunity to finish the battle had come at last.
He could at least beat Blucher and render the Prussians unfit
for any serious operation except retreat on June 17, although
he could no longer expect to destroy the Prussian army. Lobau's
corps, too, was now arriving and forming up on the heights east of
Fleurus. The artillery of the Guard, therefore, came into action
above Ligny to prepare Blucher's centre for assault. Some
delay was occasioned by a thunderstorm; but, as this passed
over, the guns opened and the Old Guard and Milhaud's cuiras-
siers proceeded to form up opposite to Ligny. About 7.45 P.M.
a crashing salvo of 60 guns gave the signal for a combined assault
to be delivered by Gerard and the Guard, with Milhaud moving
on their right flank. Bliicher : s worn-out soldiers could not
withstand the tremendous impact of Napoleon's choicest troops,
and the Prussian centre was pierced and broken. But the gallant
old marshal still had some fresh squadrons in hand, and he
promptly launched them to stem the French advance. While
leading one of the charges in person his horse was shot and fell
under him, but he was rescued and borne in a semi-conscious
condition from the field. Without doubt, the personal risk to
which Blucher exposed himself at this crisis was far too great;
for it was essential that the command of the Prussian army
should remain vested in a chief who would loyally keep in touch
and act entirely in concert with his colleague. In this way only
could the allies hope to obtain a decisive success against Napoleon.
By 9 P.M. the main battle was over, and everywhere the French
pushed resistlessly forward. Napoleon was master of Blucher's
battlefield, and the beaten Prussians had retired to the north of
the Namur-Nivelles road. Under the circumstances, the late
hour, the failing light and the lack of information as to events
on the left wing, immediate pursuit was out of the question.
The execution had again fallen short of the conception;
Blucher though beaten was not destroyed, nor was bis line with
Wellington cut. If the Prussians now retired northwards,
parallel to the direction which Wellington would follow perforce
on the morrow, the chance of co-operating in a decisive battle
would still remain to the allies; and Gneisenau's order issued
by moonlight, directing the retreat on Tilly and Wavre, went
378
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
far to ensuring the possibility of such combined action. However,
Gneisenau was very remiss in not immediately reporting this
vital move and the necessity for it to tne duke, as it left the
Anglo-Dutch inner flank quite exposed. Gneisenau apparently
selected Wavre, not with the intention of assisting his ally,
but rather to re-establish his own line of communication, and
the presence of the Prussians on the field of battle of Waterloo
must be put down to the immortal credit of Bliicher and
Grolmann, his quartermaster-general. Gneisenau at this crisis
in the affairs of the allies does not appear to have subordinated
everything to co-operation at all cost with Wellington, and he
allowed supply considerations and the re-establishment of his
communications to overweigh the paramount necessity of ar-
ranging concerted action with his ally. Probably Wellington's
failure to co-operate at Ligny had heightened the Prussian
chief-of-staff's unworthy suspicions of the good faith and
soldierly qualifications of the British marshal; and it was well for
the allies that Bliicher was able to resume command before
Napoleon had time to profit from the dissensions that would
probably have arisen had Gneisenau remained in control. The
casualties in the hard-fought battle of Ligny were very heavy.
The Prussians lost about 12,000 men and 21 guns, and the French
8500; in Ligny more than 4000 dead lay on an area of about
400 sq. yds., and in one of the hamlets of S. Amand there lay,
almost to a man, the gallant 82nd of the line (Girard's division).
So close was the fighting that most of the 20,000 casualties lay
on about 2 sq. m. of ground. It was a really Napoleonic battle.
Despite D'Erlon's misadventure the emperor had the game
still in his hands, for Ney's failure had actually placed the Anglo-
Dutch army in a precarious position. So true is it that a tactical
failure encountered in carrying out a sound strategical plan
matters but little. Again Napoleon's plan of campaign had
succeeded. The emperor having beaten Blucher, the latter
must fall back to rally and re-form, and call in Billow, who had
only reached the neighbourhood of Gembloux on June 16;
whilst on the other flank Ney, reinforced by D'Erlon's fresh
corps, lay in front of Wellington, and the marshal could fasten
upon the Anglo-Dutch army and hold it fast during the early
morning of June 17, sufficiently long to allow the emperor to
close round his foe's open left flank and deal him a deathblow.
But it was clearly essential to deal with Wellington on the
morrow, ere Blucher could again appear on the scene. Welling-
ton was by no means so well acquainted with the details of the
Prussian defeat at Ligny as he ought to have been. It is true
that, before leading the final charge, Blucher despatched an
aide-de-camp to his colleague, to tell him that he was forced to
retire; but this officer was shot and the message remained
undelivered. To send a message of such vital importance by a
single orderly was a piece of bad staff work. It should have
been sent in triplicate at least, and it was Gneisenau's duty
to repeat the message directly he assumed temporary command.
Opposed as they were to Napoleon, Gneisenau's neglect involved
them in an unnecessary and very grave risk.
Napoleon was unwell, and consequently was not in the saddle
on the 1 7th as early as he would otherwise have been. In his
June 17 a bsence neither Ney nor Soult appears to have made
any serious arrangements for an advance, although
every minute was now golden. During the night more reinforce-
ments arrived for Wellington, and on the morning of June 17
the duke had most of his army about Quatre Bras. But it was
24 hours too late, for Blucher's defeat had rendered the Anglo-
Dutch position untenable. Early in the morning Wellington
(still ignorant of the exact position of his ally) sent out an officer,
with an adequate escort, to establish touch with the Prussians.
This staff officer discovered and reported that the Prussians were
drawing off northwards to rally at Wavre; and about 9 A.M. a
Prussian orderly officer arrived from Gneisenau to explain the
situation and learn Wellington's plans. The duke replied that
he should fall back on Mt S. Jean, and would accept battle there,
in a selected position to the south of the Forest of Soignes,
provided he was assured of the support of one of Blucher's
corps. Like the good soldier and loyal ally that he was, he now
subordinated everything to the one essential of manoeuvring
so as to remain in communication with Blucher. It was 2 A.M.
on June 18 before he received the answer to his suggestion.
Early on the I7th the Prussians drew off northwards on three
roads, Thielemann covering the withdrawal and moving via
Ge-nbloux to join hands with Billow. The French cavalry on
the right, hearing troops in motion on the Namur road, dashed in
pursuit down the turnpike road shortly after dawn, caught up the
fugitives and captured them. They turned out to be stragglers;
but their capture for a time helped to confirm the idea, prevalent
in the French army, that Bliicher was drawing off towards his
base. Some delay too was necessary before Napoleon could
finally settle on his plan for this day. The situation was still
obscure, details as to what had happened on the French left were
wanting, and the direction of Blucher's retreat was by no means
certain. Orders, however, were sent to Ney, about 8 A.M., to
take up his position at Quatre Bras, and if that was impossible
he was to report at once and the emperor would co-operate.
Napoleon clearly meant that Ney should attack whatever
happened to be in his front. If confronted by a rear-guard
he would drive it off and occupy Quatre Bras; and if Wellington
was still there the marshal would promptly engage and hold fast
the Anglo-Dutch army, and report to the emperor. Napoleon
would in this case hasten up with the reserve and crush Welling-
ton. Wellington in fact was there; but Ney did nothing what-
ever to retain him, and the duke began his withdrawal to Mt. S.
Jean about 10 A.M. The last chance of bringing about a decisive
French success was thus allowed to slip away.
Meanwhile Napoleon paid a personal visit about 10 A.M. to
the Ligny battlefield, and about n A.M. he came to a decision.
He determined to send the two cavalry corps of Pajol
and Exelmans, and the corps of Vandamme and
Gerard, with Teste's division (VI. Corps), a force of
33,000 men and no guns, to follow the Prussians, penetrate
their intentions and discover if they meditated uniting with
Wellington in front of Brussels. As Exelmans' dragoons had
already gained touch of the III. Prussian corps at Gembloux, the
emperor directed Marshal Grouchy, to whom he handed over the
command of this force, to " proceed to Gembloux." This order
the marshal only too literally obeyed. After an inconceivably slow
and wearisome march, in one badly arranged column moving on
one road, he only reached Gembloux on June 17, and halted there
for the night. His cavalry gained contact before noon with
Thielemann's corps, which was resting at Gembloux, but the
enemy was allowed to slip away and contact was lost for want
of a serious effort to keep it. Grouchy did not proceed to the
front, and entirely failed to appreciate the situation at this
critical juncture. Pressing danger could only exist if Blucher
had gone northwards, and northwards, therefore, in the Dyle
valley, he should have diligently sought for traces of the Prussian
retreat. 1 Had Blucher gone eastwards, Grouchy, holding the
Dyle, could easily have held back any future Prussian advance
towards Wellington. Grouchy, however, went to Gembloux as
ordered. By nightfall the situation was all in favour of the
allies; for Grouchy was now actually outside the four Prussian
corps, who were by this time concentrated astride the Dyle at
Wavre. Their retreat having been unmolested, the Prussians
were ready once more to take the field, quite twenty-four hours
before Napoleon deemed it possible for the foe defeated at Ligny.
On the other flank, too, things had gone all in favour of Welling-
ton. Although the emperor wrote to Ney again at noon, from
Ligny, that troops had now been placed in position at Marbais
to second the marshal's attack on Quatre Bras, yet Ney remained
quiescent, and Wellington effected so rapid and skilful a retreat
that, on Napoleon's arrival at the head of his supporting corps,
1 There appears to be no reason to believe that Grouchy pushed
any reconnaissances to the northward and westward of Gentinnes on
June 17; had he done so, touch with Blucher's retiring columns
must have been established, and the direction of the Prussian retreat
made clear. The right of Milhaud's cuirassier corps, whilst marching
from Marbais to Quatre Bras, saw a column of Prussian infantry
retiring towards Wavre, and Milhaud reported this fact about 9 P.M.
to the emperor, who, however, attached little weight to it.
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
379
June 18.
he found only the duke's cavalry screen and some horse artillery
still in position. Can we wonder that he gave vent to his anger
Napoleon's al> d declared that Ney had ruined France? This was
tumult ot the fatal mistake of the campaign, and Fortune turned
Welling- no w against her former favourite. Although the
smouldering fires of his old energy flamed out once
more and Napoleon began a rapid pursuit of the cavalry screen,
which crumpled up and decamped as he advanced, yet all his
efforts were powerless to entangle the Anglo-Dutch rearguard
in such an extent that Wellington must turn back to its assist-
ance. The pursuit, too, was carried out in the midst of a tropical
thunderstorm which broke at the roar of the opening cannonade,
and very considerably retarded the French pursuit. It was
not until the light was failing that Napoleon reached the heights
of Rossomme opposite to Wellington's position and, by a masterly
reconnaissance in force, compelled the duke to disclose the pres-
ence of practically the whole Anglo-Dutch army. The French
halted, somewhat loosened by pursuit, between Rossomme and
Genappe and spent a wretched night in the sodden fields.
During the night Wellington received the reassuring news
that Blucher would bring two corps certainly, and possibly four,
to Waterloo, and determined to accept battle. Napoleon's plan
being to penetrate between the allies and then defeat them
successively, the left was really the threatened flank of the
Anglo-Dutch army. Yet so far was Wellington from divining
Napoleon's object that he stationed 17,000 men (including
Colville's British division) at Hal and Tubize, 8 m. away
to his right, to repel the turning movement that he ground-
lessly anticipated and to form a rallying point for his right in
case his centre was broken. By deliberately depriving himself
of this detachment, on June 18, the duke ran a very grave
risk. With the 67,600 men whom he had in hand, however,
he took up a truly admirable " Wellingtonian " position astride
the Nivelles-Brussels and Charleroi-Brussels roads which meet at
Mt S. Jean. He used a low ridge to screen his main
defensive position, exposing comparatively few troops
in front of the crest. Of his 156 guns, 78 belonged to the British
artillery; but of his 67,600 men only 29,800 were British or
King's German Legion troops, whereas all Napoleon's were
Frenchmen and veterans. Wellington occupied Hougoumont
in strength, chiefly with detachments of the British Guards;
and he also placed a garrison of the K.G.L. in La Haye Sainte,
the tactical key of the allied position. Both these farms were
strengthened; but, still nervous about his right flank, the duke
occupied Hougoumont in much greater force than La Haye
Sainte, and massed the bulk of his troops on his right. The main
position was very skilfully taken up, and care was taken to
distribute the troops so that the indifferent and immature were
closely supported by those who were " better disciplined and
more accustomed to war." Owing to a misconception, one
Dutch-Belgian brigade formed up in front of the ridge. Full
arrangements were made for BlUcher's co-operation through
General Muffling, the Prussian attache on the duke's staff.
The duke was to stand fast to receive the attack, whilst the
Prussians should close round Napoleon's exposed right and
support Wellington's left. The Prussians were thus the real
general reserve, and it was Wellington's task to receive Napoleon's
attack and prepare him for the decisive counter-stroke.
Blucher loyally kept his promise to his ally; but the execution
left much to be desired. He did not start his corps on their
westward march until a considerable time after dawn, and then,
owing to bad staff work, the rear corps of all (Biilow) was selected
to lead the march. This unnecessary delay was aggravated
further by a fire that broke out in Wavre and delayed the march.
In spite of his hurts the old marshal was in the saddle.
Meanwhile Napoleon formed his army for the attack on
Wellington's position. The wet state of the ground (largely
composed of corn-fields) and the scattered bivouacs of the
French army prevented the attack from being made at 6 A.M.
as Napoleon had desired. It was therefore put off first of all
until o A.M., and later until 11.30, to permit the sodden ground
to dry sufficiently for the mounted arms to manoeuvre freely and
give time to the French army to close up. During the night the
emperor had received a report from Marshal Grouchy, dated
Gembloux, 10 P.M., I7th, which stated that the Prussians were
retiring in two columns towards Wavre and Perwez. Grouchy
added that if he found that the bulk of the Prussians were
moving on Wavre he would follow them and separate them from
Wellington. But a glance at the map shows that this was
impossible. By following the Prussians Grouchy, who had taken
up a position outside the Prussian left flank, would inevitably
drive the allies together. It was 10 A.M. when the emperor
answered this letter, and he directed the marshal to march for
Wavre, thus approaching the French army and entering the zone
of the main operations. The underlying idea of manceuvring in
two wings and a reserve should be kept in mind when considering
this letter. Its meaning will then clearly be, that Grouchy was to
endeavour to place his force on the inner Prussian flank and hold
them back from Waterloo. But this is just what the despatch
does not state verbally and precisely, and accordingly Grouchy,
like Ney on the i6th and I7th, misread it.
The French army proceeded to form up in an imposing an-ay
some 1300 yards from Wellington's position, and if some mis-
givings as to the result filled the minds of men like Soult, Reillc
and Foy, who had had previous experience of Wellington in
the field, none at any rate dwelt in Napoleon's mind. The
lateness of the hour at which the attack was delivered, and the
emperor's determination to break Wellington's centre instead
of outflanking the Anglo-Dutch left and further separating the
allies, deprived him of whatever chance he still possessed of
beating Wellington before Blucher could intervene. Napoleon
drew up his army of 74,000 men and 246 guns in three lines,
fully in view of the allies. In the first line were the corps of
Reille and D'Erlon, who were destined to attack the allied line
and prepare it for the final assault. In the second line were
Kellermann's cuirassiers, the incomplete corps of Lobau, the
squadrons of Demon and Subervie, and Milhaud's cuirassiers.
In the third line was the Guard. It was an imposing array of
veteran troops, and when their emperor rode along the lines they
received him with extraordinary enthusiasm.
The battle of Waterloo may be divided into five phases.
About 11.30 the first phase opened with an attack by one of
Reille's divisions on Hougoumont. This was a mere
side-issue, destined to draw Wellington's attention JJ^"*** 1 '
to his right, and in this it failed. About noon, how- p i,*se.
ever, a battery of 80 French guns unlimbered on the
long spur to the S.E. of La Haye Sainte, to prepare the duke's
centre for the main attack. Here the form of the ground so
skilfully chosen sheltered the defence in some degree from the
tempest of iron that now beat against the position. After
i P.M., and just before he gave orders for Ney to lead the main
attack, the emperor scanned the battlefield, and on his right
front he saw a dense dark cloud emerging from the woods at
Chapelle Saint Lambert. It was soon discovered that this
was Billow's corps marching to Wellington's assistance. A
letter was now awaiting despatch to Grouchy, and to it was added
a postscript that the battle was raging with Wellington, that
Billow's corps had been sighted by the emperor, and that the
marshal was to hasten to the field and crush Biilow. This order
at least was precise and clear, but it was sent 1 2 hours too late,
and when Grouchy received it he was unable to carry it out.
To neutralize Biilow when necessity arose, the emperor now
detached Lobau together with the squadrons of Demon and
Subervie. The French general, however, hardly drew out
far enough from the French right; otherwise the magnificent
resolution he displayed and the admirable obstinacy with which
his troops fought against ever-increasing odds are worthy of
all praise. Thus as early as 1.30 P.M. the Prussian interven-
tion deranged the symmetry of Napoleon's battle-array.
It did not occur to the emperor that it would be wise to break
off the fight now and seek a more favourable opportunity of
beating the allies in detail. He was still determined to play
the game out to the bitter end, and involve Wellington and
Billow's corps in a common ruin.
3 8o
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
French Troops. ...._^HmAnQlo-Dutclt Troops.^,} 1 Prussian 7Voopc,.w
r Lobmi 2nd.position\L^ Anglo-Dutch Shlrmithers ooo Approximate Contour
MAP III.
Second
phase.
Ney was therefore ordered to attack Wellington's centre with
D'Erlon's corps. Owing to a misconception the columns used
for advance were over-heavy and unwieldy, and the
corps failed to achieve anything of importance. As
D'Erlon's troops advanced the Dutch-Belgian brigade
in front of the ridge, which had been subjected to an overwhelm-
ing fire from the 80 French guns at close range, turned about
and retired in disorder through the main position. This, however,
was the solitary success secured by the I. corps; for the left
division failed to storm La Haye Sainte, which was most gallantly
defended, and Picton's division met the remainder of D'Erlon's
corps face to face, engaging them in a murderous infantry
duel in which Picton fell. It was during this struggle that Lord
Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades on the enemy;
and the " Union brigade " catching the French infantry unawares
rode over them, broke them up, and drove them to the bottom
of the slope with the loss of two eagles. The charge, however,
over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh
French horsemen hurled on them by the emperor, were driven
back with great loss. So far no success against Wellington had
been achieved, and Billow was still an onlooker.
Ney was now ordered to attack La Haye Sainte again, but the
attack failed. A furious cannonade raged, and the Anglo-Dutch
line withdrew slightly to gain more cover from the
ridge. Ney misinterpreted this manoeuvre and led
out, about 4 P.M., Milhaud's and Lefebvre-Desnouettes'
horsemen (43 squadrons) to charge the allied centre between the
two farms. For several reasons, the cavalry could only advance
at a trot. As the horsemen closed they were received with
Third
phase.
volleys of case from the guns, and the infantry formed into
squares. Against the squares the horsemen were powerless,
and failing to break a single square, they were finally swept off
the plateau by fresh allied horsemen. Kellermann's cuirassiers
and the heavy horse of the Guard (37 fresh squadrons) now
advanced to support the baffled cavalry, the latter falling in as
supports. The whole 80 squadrons resumed the attack, but with
no better result. The cavalry gradually became hopelessly
entangled among the squares they were unable to break, and
at last they were driven down the face of the ridge and the most
dramatic part of the battle came to an end. Had these great
cavalry attacks been closely supported by infantry, there can
be little doubt that they must have achieved their object. But
they were not. In his handling of the three arms together,
Napoleon on this day failed to do justice to his reputation.
About 4.30 P.M. Billow at last engaged. Lobau's men were
gradually overpowered and forced back into Plancenoit, the
village was stormed, and the Prussian round shot reached
the main road. To set his right flank free the emperor called
further on his reserve, and sent Duhesme with the Young Guard
to Lobau's support. Together, these troops drove Billow out
of Plancenoit, and forced him back towards the Paris wood.
But the Prussians had not yet changed the fate of the day.
Napoleon now ordered Ney to carry La Haye Sainte at what-
ever cost, and this the marshal accomplished with the wrecks
of D'Erlon's corps soon after 6 P.M. The garrison
(King's German Legion) had run out of rifle ammuni- phase.
tion and the French bursting in seized the post. This
was the first decided advantage that Napoleon had gained during
WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH WATERLOW
Fifth
phase
the day. The key of the duke's position was now in Napoleon's
hands, Wellington's centre was dangerously shaken, the troops
were exhausted, and the reserves inadequate. But the Iron Duke
faced the situation unmoved. Calmly he readjusted his line and
strengthened the torn centre. Happily for him, Pirch I.'s and
Zieten's corps were now at hand. Pirch I. moved to support
Billow; together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once
more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot.
Napoleon, therefore, had to free his right flank before he could
make use of Ney's capture. To this end he sent two battalions
of the Old Guard to storm Plancenoit. The veterans did the work
magnificently with the bayonet, ousted the Prussians from the
place, and drove them back 600 yards beyond it. But Napoleon
could not turn now on Wellington. Zieten was fast coming
up on the duke's left, and the crisis was past. Zieten's advent
permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur
on the duke's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the
depleted centre. The value of this reinforcement at this particular
moment can hardly be overestimated.
The French army now fiercely attacked Wellington all along the
line; and the culminating point of this phase was reached when
Napoleon sent forward the Guard, less 5 battalions,
to attack Wellington's centre. Delivered in three
Echelons, these final attacks were repulsed, the first
Schelon by Colin Halkett's British Brigade, a Dutch-Belgian
battery, and a brigade of Chasse's Dutch-Belgian division;
the second and third echelons by the Guards, the 52nd, and the
Royal Artillery. Thus ended the fifth phase.
As the Guard recoiled (about 8 P.M.) Zieten pierced the north-
east corner of the French front, and their whole line gave way
as the allies rushed forward on their now defenceless
Fnach '*" P rev Tnree battalions of the Guard indeed stood their
ground for some time, but they were finally over-
whelmed. Afterwards, amidst the ruins of their army, two
battalions of the ist Grenadiers of the Guard defied all efforts to
break them. But, with the exception of these two battalions, the
French army was quickly transformed into a flying rabble.
Biilow and Pirch I. now finally overpowered Lobau, once more
recaptured Plancenoit, and sealed the doom of the French army.
But Lobau 's heroic efforts had not been in vain; they had
given his master time to make his last effort against Wellington;
and when the Guard was beaten back the French troops
holding Plancenoit kept free the Charleroi road, and prevented
the Prussians from seizing Napoleon's line of retreat.
When Wellington and Bliicher met about 9.15 P.M. at
" La Belle Alliance, " the victorious chiefs arranged that
the Prussians should take up the pursuit, and they faithfully
carried out the agreement. Pushing on through the night, they
drove the French out of seven successive bivouacs and at length
drove them over the Sambre. The campaign was virtually
at an end, and the price paid was great. The French had lost
over 40,000 men and almost all their artillery on June 18; the
Prussians lost 7000, and Wellington over 15,000 men. So
desperate was the fighting that some 45,000 killed and wounded
lay on an area of roughly 3 sq. m. At one point on the plateau
"the 27th (Inniskillings) were lying literally dead in square ";
and the position that the British infantry held was plainly marked
by the red line of dead and wounded they left behind them.
A few words may now be bestowed on Marshal Grouchy,
commanding the right wing. The marshal wrongly determined
Orouchy's on tne X 8th to continue his march to Wavre in a single
operations column, and he determined, still more wrongly, to
June move by the right bank of the Dyle. Breaking up
from bivouac long after dawn, he marched forward,
via Walhain. Here he stopped to report to the emperor some
intelligence which turned out to be false, and he remained for
breakfast. Hardly had he finished when the opening roar of
the cannonade at Waterloo was heard. Grouchy was now urged
by his generals, especially by Gerard, to march to the sound of
the firing, but he refused to take their advice, and pushed on to
Wavre, where he found the Prussians (Thielemann's corps of
16,000 men) holding the passages across the Dyle. A fierce fight
(called the Action of Wavre) began about 4 P.M., in which the
Prussians were for long victorious. Instead of concentrating
his force upon one bridge over the swampy and unfordable
Dyle, Grouchy scattered it in attacks upon several; and when
the emperor's despatch arrived, saying Btilow was in sight, the
marshal was powerless to move westward. Towards the end of
the day Colonel Vallin's Hussars stormed the Limale bridge, and
a large part of Grouchy's force then promptly gained the left
bank. The action continued til! about 1 1 P.M., when it died out,
to recommence shortly after dawn. Thielemann was at length
overborne by sheer weight of numbers, and towards n A.M.
he was forced to retire towards Louvain. The losses were con-
siderable, about 2400 men on each side.
Grouchy's victory was barren. In the far higher duty of co-
operation he had failed miserably. His tactical achievement
could avail the emperor nothing, and it exposed his own force
to considerable danger. Whilst pondering on the course he should
follow, the marshal received the news of the.awful disaster that
had oyertaken-the emperor at Waterloo. In a flash he-realized
his danger and made prompt arrangements to begin his retreat
on Namur, the only line to France that was then available.
This retreat he carried out resolutely, skilfully and rapidly,
slipping past Bliicher and finally bringing his force to Paris.
But the rapid advance of the allies gave France no time to rally.
Napoleon was forced to abdicate, and finding escape was impos-
sible, he surrendered (on July 14) to the British " the most
powerful, the most unwavering and the most generous of his foes."
The causes of Napoleon's failure in the Waterloo campaign were
as follows: The French army was numerically too weak for the
gigantic task it undertook. Napoleon himself was no longer the
Napoleon of Marengo or Austerhtz, and though he was not Droken
down, his physical strength was certainly impaired. 'Ney failed to
grasp and hold Wellington on the critical I7th June; and on the
I7th and i8th Grouchy's feeble and false manoeuvres enabled
Bliicher to march and join Wellington at Waterloo. Napoleon's
chance of success was dangerously diminished, if not utterly de-
stroyed, by the incompetence of the two marshals whom in an evil
hour he selected for high commands. Another dominant influence in
shaping the course of events was the loyalty of Bliicher to his ally,
and the consequent appearance of the Prussian army at Waterloo.
Nor must we overlook Wellington's unswerving determination to
co-operate with Bliicher at all costs, and his firmness on June 18;
or the invincible steadiness shewn by the British troops and those
of the King's German Legion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Some of the principal books on the campaign are :
Colonel Grouard, Critique de 1813; H. Houssaye, Waterloo; General
Pollio, Waterloo (ltf/5); Shaw-Kennedy, BoMle of Waterloo;
Captain W. Siborne, 9th Foot, History of the Waterloo Campaign ;
Clausewitz, Campagne de 1815; Colonel Charras, Histoire de la
Campagne de 1815, Waterloo; L. Navez, Les Quatre Bras, Ligny,
Waterloo et Wavre; General H. T. Siborne, R.E., Waterloo Letters;
Colonel Chesney, Waterloo Lectures; Wellington, Despatches and
Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo; Correspondence and Com-
mentaires of Napoleon.
In this article the writer has been greatly assisted by the advice
and suggestions of Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. Hime, R.A. (A. F. B.*)
WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH, an urban district in the
Bootle and Onnskirk parliamentary divisions of Lancashire,
England/at the mouth of the Mersey, 4 m. N. by W. of Liverpool.
Pop. (1891) 17,225; (1901) 23,102. On account of its facilities
for bathing, firm sands, pleasant scenery and nearness to Liver-
pool, of which it is a suburb, it is much frequented both by
visitors and by residents.
WATERLOW, SIR ERNEST ALBERT (1850- ), English
painter, was born in London, and received the main part of his
art education in the Royal Academy schools, where, in 1873,
he gained the Turner medal for landscape-painting. He was
elected associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colours
in 1880, member in 1894, and president in* 1897; associate of
the Royal Academy in 1890, and academician in 1903"; and he
was knighted in 1902. He began to exhibit in 1872 and has
produced a considerable number of admirable landscapes, in
oil and water-colour, handled with grace and distinction. One
of his pictures, " Galway Gossips, " is in the National Gallery
of British Art.
See Sir E. A. Waterlow, R.A., P.R.W.S., by C. Collins Baker (Art
Journal Office, 1906).
3 82
WATER MOTORS
i,
WATER MOTORS. The subject of hydraulic transmission
of power is treated generally under POWER TRANSMISSION
(Hydraulic), and the present article is confined to water motors.
Hydraulic Lifts. The direct-acting lift is perhaps the simplest
of all machines using pressure-water, but as the height of the
lift increases, certain problems in construction become exceedingly
difficult to cope with, notably those due to the great increase
in the weight and displacement of the ram. In fact, with a
simple ram it is not possible to lift beyond a certain height
with a given pressure and load. It becomes, therefore, necessary
to balance in some way the varying displacement of the ram
if economy is to be secured in the working: this is often done by
the use of counter-weights attached to chains travelling over
head sheaves, but this largely destroys the simplicity and safety
of the direct-acting lift, and hence some form of hydraulic
balancing is more satisfactory and more certain.
In one form, shown in fig. I, the lift cylinder is in hydraulic
connexion with a pair of short cylinders placed one above the other,
the pistons working in them being
connected together by a common
rod. Below the piston of the upper
cylinder is an annular space E
(surrounding the common piston
rod) with a capacity equal to the
maximum displacement of the lift-
ram, while the corresponding
annular area C of the piston of the
lower cylinder is just large enough
when subjected to the working
water pressure to enable the work
of lifting the net load to be done
and any friction to be overcome.
The area B of the top side of the
upper piston is proportioned in suet
a way that when under the ful
water pressure the dead weight ol
the ram and cage is just balancec
when the former is at the bottom
of its stroke. With this arrange-
ment the lift - ram and the two
balance pistons are always in equi-
librium, or, in other words, the
ever-changing displacement of the
lift-ram is automatically in balance
To work the lift, pressure- water is
admitted to the annular space C
above the lower of the two balance
pistons (the space B above the upper
one is always in communication
with the pressure- water), and tht
combined pressure on the two pis
tons is sufficient to lift the cage
ram and load. As the ram ascend'
it apparently increases in weight
but this is balanced by the greate
pressure on the two balance piston
as they descend, owing to the in
crease of the head of water acting
on them. To allow the lift-ram to
descend, the pressure-water in (
above the lower balance piston i
discharged through the exhaust inti
the drain, while that above th
upper piston is simply pushed bad
into the pressure main. As ar
illustration of the economy of thi
system, it may be mentioned tha
in one lift having a 6-in. ram with i
lift of 90 ft., the working load bein
I ton and the maximum workin;
speed 1 80 ft. a minute, the quantit
of pressure-water used per journey o
90 ft. was reduced from 109 to 24
gallons by the use of this method o
balancing.
From Supply]
FIG. I. Hydraulic;
Balancing.
In another system of hydraulic balance (fig. 2) the ram A has a
annular area so proportioned that when it is connected with th
water in an elevated tank (usually placed somewhere in the roof o
the building), the hydraulic pressure upon it just balances the weigh
of the ram and cage. Here again, since the intensity of the pressur
on A becomes greater as it descends owing to the increased head, th
apparent increase of weight of the lift-ram as it rises is automatical!'
balanced ; water from the high-pressure system is admitted dow
the hollow ram B and does the work of lifting the live load.
Since the introduction of deep-level electric railways in Londo
nd elsewhere, hydraulic passenger lifts on a large scale have been
irought into use for conveying passengers up and down from the
treet level to the underground stations.
Direct-acting Water Motors. Owing to the difficulty of securing
a durable motor with a simple and trustworthy means of auto-
matically regulating the quantity of water used
o the power needed at various times from
he motor, not much advance has been
ecently made in the use of water motors
with reciprocating rams or pistons. Prob-
ably the most successful one has been a
otary engine invented by Mr Arthur Rigg. 1
In this engine the stroke, and therefore the
amount of water used, can be varied either by
land or by a governor while it is running; the
speed can also be varied, very high rates, as
much as 600 revolutions a minute, being attain-
able without the question of shock or vibration
jecoming troublesome. The cylinders are cast
n one piece with a circular valve, and rotate
about a main stud S (fig. 3), while their
alungers are connected to a disk crank which
rotates above the point O, which is the centre
of the main crank; O S being the crank length
or half stroke of the engine, any variation in
its length will vary the power of Che engine and
at the same time the quantity of water used.
The movement of S is obtained by means of
a relay engine, in which there are two rams of
different qiameters; a constant pressure is
always acting on the smaller of these when the
motor is at work, while the governor (or hand-
power if desired) admits or exhausts pressure-
water from the face of the other, and the move-
ments to and fro thus given to the two rams alter
the position of the stud S, and thus change the
stroke of the plungers of the main engine. Fig. 4
gives an outside view of a 3O-H.P. engine capable
of using water at a pressure of 700 ft per sq.
in.; the governor is carried within the driving
pulley shown at the right-hand end, while the
working revolving cylinders are carried insic'e
the boxed-in flywheel at the left-hand end, the
relay cylinder and its attachments being fixed to
the bed-plate in front of the flywheel. On a
test one of these engines gave an efficiency or
duty of 80%.
Water Wheels. The Pelton water wheel
(fig. 5) has proved a most successful motor
when very high heads are available, heads
of 2000 feet having been used occasionally.
Such machines have been extensively em-
ployed in America, and have also lately
been used in Great Britain, worked by the
high-pressure water supplied in large towns.
The wheel carries a series of cups placed at egual distances around
the circumference. A jet or jets of water impinge on the cups, the
interiors of which are shaped in such a way that the jet is discharged
parallel to its original direction. If the linear velocity of the cups
in feet a second is Vi, and the linear velocity of the jet is \t, then
the velocity of the jet relative to the cup is V z Vi feet a second,
and if the whole energy of
the water is to be given
up to the cups, the water
must leave the cup with
zero absolute velocity.
But its velocity relative to
the cup, as it passes back-
wards, is (V 2 Vi), and
since the forward velocity
of the cup is Vi, the abso-
lute velocity of the water is
-(V 2 -y,)+V,or2V I -V ? .
This will become zero if
Vi is |V 2 , that is, if the
linear velocity of the cup-
centres is one-half that of
the jet of water impinging
upon them. The theoretical
efficiency of the wheel
would then be 1 00%. The
actual efficiency of these
wheels when used with high
FIG. 3. Section of Rigg's Water-
Engine.
falls is from 80 to 86%; when
WI1CC13 W1ICTII UO^VJ *ci *&" -
used in connexion with high-pressure water in London an el
1 This engine was fully described in Engineering, vol. xlv p. 61.
WATER MOTORS
383
of 70% has been obtained, and when a dynamo is driven directly
by them about 66 % of the hydraulic energy has been converted into
electric energy.
Pelton wheels are very sensitive to variation of load, and con-
siderable trouble was experienced at first in securing adequate
FIG. 4. External View of Rigg's Water-Engine. l
governing when they were used to generate electric energy; but
this difficulty has been overcome, and they have been rendered most
efficient machines for use with high falls, where ordinary turbines
would be difficult to manage owing to the excessive speed at which
they would run. In a small installation in the United States water
is brought in a 36-in. pipe a distance of 1800 ft., and supplies six
Pelton wheels each 28 in.
in diameter, running at 135
revolutions a minute under
a head of 130 ft. The total
power developed is 600 H.P.,
and though the load factor
varies very greatly in this
case, the differential type of
governor used secures perfect
control of the running of the
wheels.
Turbines. The turbine
has now become one of
the most efficient of the
prime movers employed by
man, and in the United States of America and on the continent
of Europe 2 its use has enormously increased of recent years.
Though no radical changes have been made in the design of tur-
bines for some years, an immense amount of skill and ingenuity
has been shown in perfecting and improving details, and such
machines of great size and power are now constantly being
made, and give every satisfaction when in use.
In the " Hercules " turbine, shown in fig. 6, the flow is what is
called mixed, that is, it is partly a radial inward and partly an axial
flow machine. On entering, the water flows at first in a radial
direction, and then gradually, as it passes through the wheel, it
receives a downward component which becomes more and more
important. Professor Thurston has published the results of a test
1 This and some of the other drawings have been taken from
Blaine's Hydraulic Machinery.
* The following statistics of turbine construction in Switzerland
arc taken from Schweizerische Bauzeitung (IQOI), p. 128, which, in
the same volume at p. 53, contains a valuable article on the most
important improvements in turbines and their regulation shown
in the Paris Exhibition of 1901 :
FIG. 5. Pelton Wheel.
Period.
Number
of
Turbines.
Total H.P.
Averaee
H.P
1844-1869
1869-1879
1879-1889
1889-1899
Totals
767
1006
1840
2231
36,894
66,688
133.579
400,474
48
661
72*
I79J
5844
637.635
of one of these, which gave an efficiency of 87 % at full load and 70%
at about three-fifths full load.
Another turbine of the mixed flow type is the " Victor," which
consists of three parts the outer guide case, and, inside this, the
register gate, and the wheel. The gate regulates the speed of the
wheel by varying the quantity of water ; when fully open it
merely forms a continuation of the guide passages, and
thus offers no obstruction to the flow of the water, but by
giving it a movement through a part of a revolution the
passages are partly blocked and the flow of the water is
checked. This form of regulation is fairly efficient down
to three-quarter opening. Turbines of this type may also
be used on horizontal shafts, and are very useful in the case
of low falls where there is a large amount of water and the
head is fairly constant. At Massena, in New York State,
75,000 H.P. is to be developed from fifteen sets of these
turbines working under a head of 40 ft. Each generator
can develop 5000 H.P. at a potential of 2200 volts, and is
driven by three horizontal double turbines on the same
shaft; when working under a minimum head of 32 ft, at
150 revolutions, each turbine will have a nominal horse-
power of looo.
Probably the most important application of turbines to
the generation of power on a great scale is that at Niagara
Falls. The water is tapped off from the river Niagara about
i m. above the falls and brought by a canal to the power-
house. The wheel-pit is 180 ft. in depth, and is connected
with the river below the falls by a tail-race, consisting of
a tunnel 21 ft. high and 18 ft. 10 in. wide at its largest
section. The original turbines were of the " Fourneyron "
type, and a pai/ were mounted on each vertical shaft, the two
being capable of giving out 5000 H.P. with a fall of 136 ft.
Each pair of wheels is built in three storeys, and the outflow
of the water is controlled by a cylindrical gate or sluice, which is moved
up and down by the action of the governor. As the pair of wheels
and the big vertical shaft (which is of hollow steel 38 in. in diameter)
with the revolving part of the dynamo mounted on the upper end
of the shaft weigh about 152,000 ft, a special device, since adopted
in other similar power plants, was designed to balance in part this
FIG. 6. " Hercules " Turbine.
dead weight. The water passes from the penstock through the guide
blades of the upper wheel, and in doing so acts in an upward direction
on a cover of the upper wheel, which thus becomes, as it were,
a balance-piston. The total upward pressure on this piston is cal-
culated to be equal to 150,000 Ib; hence the shaft-bearings are
practically relieved from pressure when the wheels are running.
Another turbine which has come into extensive use is the " Francis, '
an exceedingly efficient turbine on a low fall with large quantities
of water. At Schaffhausen two of them with a fall of 12 J ft. de-
veloped 430 H.P., when the older turbines only gave 260 H.P., the
WATER-OPOSSUMWATER POLO
efficiency of the Francis turbine being in this case 86 % at full load
and 77 % at half load.
A recent form of the Jonval turbine is shown in fig. 7. This
turbine was designed to give 1250 H.P. with a fall of 25 ft. and an
efficiency of 77 %. It is fitted with a suction pipe and a circular
balanced sluice for admitting and cutting off the water-supply.
The wheel is 12 ft. 3^ in. in diameter, and has a speed of fifty revolu-
tions per minute, and the power generated is transmitted through
bevel-gearing to a horizontal shaft from which the power is taken
FIG. 7. Jonval Turbine.
off for various purposes. When complete the turbine weighed
about 140 tons. There is a regulating arrangement, by which one-
half of the guide-passages can be shut off in pairs from the water,
and at the same time air is freely admitted into these Unused passages
by pipes which pass through the hinges of the controlling shutter.
Tests of a turbine of this slow-moving type showed an efficiency of
82 % at full gate, and one of 75 % when half of the passages in the
guide-blades were closed by the shutters, as described above.
As an illustration of the use of water-power, even at a considerable
distance from a town, the case of Lausanne may be described. The
town has secured the right of using a waterfall of 113 to 118 ft.
high, by impounding the Rh6nenear Saint Maurice. In dry seasons
this will supply 6000 H.P., and for quite ten months in an ordinary
year 14,000 H.P. The plant in 1902 consisted of five turbines,
having horizontal axles, and each developing 1000 H.P. when
running at 300 revolutions a minute. They drive electric generators,
and the current so produced is taken at a pressure of 22,000 volts
on overhead wires a distance of 35 m. to Lausanne, the loss being
estimated not to exceed 10% in the long transmission. Near the
town is a station for reducing the voltage, and current is distributed
at 125 volts for lighting purposes and at 500 volts for use on the
tramways and for other power purposes.
AUTHORITIES. For further information concerning the construc-
tion and employment of water motors, the reader is referred to the
following papers and textbooks : Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1882), p.H9
(1889), p. 350; (1895), p. 353. (These papers contain full accounts
of recent forms of lifts.) Engineering, vol. Ixvii. pp. 91, 128, 160,
" Power Station at Niagara ; vol. Txxii. pp. 391-767, "Govern-
ing of Water Wheels." Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. Ixxxvi. p. 60,
"Mersey Railway Lifts"; vol. xciii. p. 596, "Experiments on
Jonval and Girard Turbines at Alching ''; vol. xcvi. p. 182, " Hy-
draulic Canal Lifts"; vol. cii. p. 154, " Keswick Water-Power
Electric Station " ; vol. cxii. p. 410, " Hydraulic Works at Niagara " ;
vol. cxviii. p. 537, " A 12-Mile Transmission of Power Generated by
Pelton Wheels "; vol. cxxiii. p. 530, " The Pelton Water Wheel ";
vol. cxxiv. p. 223, "The Niagara Power Works"; vol. cxxvi.
p. 494, "The Rheinfelden Power Transmission Plant "; vol. cxli.
p. 269, " Electric Transmission Plants in Transvaal," p. 307, " Tur-
bines "; vol. cxlii. p. 451, " Electrical Installations at Lausanne ";
vol. cxlv. p. 423, Water Power at Massena "; vol. cxlvii. p. 467,
"Some Large Turbine Installations." Wood, Theory of Turbines;
Bovey, Hydraulics; Bjorling, Hydraulic Motors; Elaine, Hydraulic
Machinery; Bodmer, Hydraulic Motors; Unwin, "Water Motors"
(Lectures on Hydro-Mechanics, Inst. Civil Eng., 1885). (T. H. B.)
WATER-OPOSSUM, or YAPOCK (Chironectes minimus), the
single representative of the genus. This animal is distinguished
from other opossums by its webbed hind-feet, non-tuberculated
soles, and peculiar coloration. Its ground colour is light grey,
with four or five sharply contrasted brown bands passing across
its head and back, giving it a very peculiar mottled appearance;
the head and body together are about 14 in. long, and the tail
measures a little more. It is almost wholly aquatic in its habits,
living on small fish, crustaceans and other water animals; it
range extends from Guatemala to southern Braz.il.
WATER POLO, a game which has done much to advanc
swimming in popular favour and to improve the stamina
swimmers. It is played either in a bath or open water, the teams
consisting of seven a side. The field of play must not exceed
30 yds. or be less than 19 yds. in length, and the width must not
be more than 20 yds. The ball used must be round and fully
inflated, and must not measure less than 265, nor more than 28 in.
in circumference. It must be waterproof, with no strapped
seams outside, and no grease or other objectionable substance
placed on it. The goals must be 10 ft. in width, with a cross-bar
3 ft. above the surface when the water is 5 ft. or over in depth,
and 8 ft. from the bottom when the water is less than 5 ft. in
depth; in no case must the water in which a game is played
be less than 3 ft. Goal nets are used in all important matches.
The duration of a match is supposed to be 14 minutes, seven
minutes each way. The officials consist of a referee, a time-
keeper and two goal scorers, the first-named official starting
the game by throwing the ball into the centre of the bath.
A goal is scored by the entire ball passing between the goal
posts and under the cross-bar.
The players have to place themselves in a line with their respective
goals, and are not allowed to start swimming to the centre of the
bath until the word " Go " is given. They are usually divided into
3 forwards, I half-back, 2 backs and a goalkeeper. To the fastest
swimmer is usually assigned the place of centre-forward, and it is
his duty to make all headway possible so as to reach the ball before
the opposing forward of the other side, then pass rapidly back to the
half or one of the backs and swim on to within close proximity of
the opponent's goal and wait for a pass. The other forwards should
rapidly follow him up and each man carefully shadow one of the
opposing side. In handling the ball only one hand may be used,
for to touch the ball with both hands at the same time constitutes
a foul, as also does the holding of the rail or the side, during any
part of the game, the standing on or touching of the bottom of the
bath except for the purpose of resting, interfering or impeding an
opponent in any way, unless he be holding the ball, holding the ball
under water when tackled, jumping from the bottom or pushing off
from the side (except at starting or restarting) in order to play the
ball or duck an opponent, holding, pulling back or pushing off from
an opponent, turning on the back to kick at an opponent, assisting
a player at the start or restart to get a good push off, throwing the
ball at the goalkeeper from a free throw or refusing to play the ball
at the command of the referee after a foul or the ball has been out
of the field of play. Dribbling or striking the ball is held to be not
holding, but lifting, carrying, pressing under water or placing the
hand under or over the ball when actually touching, is holding;
dribbling up the bath and through the posts is permissible. There
is a penalty area, 4 yds. from each goal-post, and the imaginary line
across the bath is not allowed to be passed by the respective goal-
keepers, otherwise they commit a foul. They may stand to defend
their goal, touch the ball with both hands or jump from the bottom
to play the ball, but in all other respects the same rules as to fouls
apply to them as to other players. In any case they are not allowed
to throw the ball beyond half -distance. If they do so the opposing
side is awarded a free throw. For fouls which the referee considers
to have been committed wilfully there are very severe penalties, and
those guilty of them are ordered out of the water until a goal has been
scored, thus for the time being crippling the side. Deliberately
wasting time, starting before the word " Go," taking up a position
within 2 yds. of the opponent's goal, changing position after the
whistle has blown for a free throw or other similar stoppage of play,
or deliberately splashing an opponent in the face, are all held to be
wilful fouls. Whenever the whistle blows for fouls the players have
to remain in their respective places until the ball has left the hand
of the player to whom the free throw was awarded. A player who
has been wilfully fouled within 4 yds. of his opponent's goal line is
given a penalty throw, and the consequence is that a close match
is often won by reason of a player deliberately breaking the rules
when his goal is hotly assailed. In ordinary fouls the ball must
touch another player before a goal can be scored, but in penalty
throws it need not. Any player throwing the ball over his own
goal line concedes a corner throw to the other side, but if an opposing
player sends it over it is a free throw for the goalkeeper. After each
goal is scored the players return to their respective ends, waiting
for the word " Go, and at half-time they are allowed a rest of three
minutes, during which they leave the water. Fouls, half-time and
time are declared by whistle, and goals by bell.
The game requires careful practice of smart and scientific passing,
side and back-handed throws, and accurate shooting. For this
purpose " throwing the water-polo ball " contests are commonly
held by the leading clubs, who also engineer competitions on points
for shooting at goal.
WATER RIGHTS
385
, It was not until the formation of the London Water Polo
League in 1889 that the game was specially catered for, but a
form of it had previously been known and played in several
parts of England and Scotland. In 1870 the old London Swim-
ming Association, the forerunner of the present Amateur
Swimming Association, appointed a committee to draw up rules
for a game of " Football in the water," but no report of that
committee appears to have been presented. In 1876 aquatic
handball matches were played in the sea off Bournemouth by
members of the Bournemouth Premier Rowing Club, and in 1877
there were similar matches at the annual competition for the
Bon Accord Club in the river Dee, and a year prior to that
some rules had been drawn up for the Aberdeen Club. The game
at length found its way to the Midlands, and led to the foundation
of the Midland Aquatic Football Association, whose rules were
somewhat similar to those in vogue in America, where goals
are scored by placing the ball in a marked-out space called
" goal." In 1883 Birmingham Leander played All England at
Portsmouth; in 1885 the Amateur Swimming Association took
official recognition of the game, and in 1888 started the English
championship, this being won the first year by Burton-on-Trent.
Then came the foundation of the London Water Polo League,
through whose agency county associations came into being,
inter-county matches were played, and international games
arranged. The first county matches were played in 1890, and
the first international the same year, the game being between
England and Scotland at Kensington Baths on 28th July.
England was beaten by four goals to none, but the outcome of
the match was the cementing of friendly relations between the
English and Scottish associations, and the gradual spread of
the game, until the English, Irish, Scottish and Welsh associa-
tions joined together and formed an international board, without
whose sanction none of the rules of the game can now be altered.
Oxford and Cambridge met for the first time in 1891, and since
then the Blues' committee of each university have given
swimming and water polo a " half blue." The eame has become
popular in many European countries, and friendly matches
between English and continental clubs are frequently played.
It has also extended to Egypt, India and Australia, in which
countries the British rules have been adopted.
See the Amateur Swimming Association's Handbook for rules of
the game and instructions to referees. (W. Hy.)
WATER RIGHTS. By the law of England the property in
the bed and water of a tidal river, as high as the tide ebbs and
flows at a medium spring tide, is presumed to be in the crown
or as a franchise in a grantee of the crown, such as the lord of
a manor, or a district council, and to be extra-parochial. The
bed and water of a non-tidal river are presumed to belong to
the person through whose land it flows, or, if it divide two
properties, to the riparian proprietors, the rights of each extend-
ing to midstream (ad medium filum aquae). In order to give
riparian rights, the river must flow in a defined channel, or at
least above ground. The diminution of underground water
collected by percolation, even though malicious, does not give
a cause of action to the owner of the land in which it collects,
it being merely damnum sine injuria, though he is entitled to
have it unpolluted unless a right of pollution be gained against
him by prescription. The right to draw water from another's
well is an easement, not a profit a prendre, and is therefore
claimable by custom. As a general rule a riparian proprietor,
whether on a tidal or a non-tidal river, has full rights of user
of his property. Most of the statute law will be found in the
Sea Fisheries Acts 1843 to 1891, and the Salmon and Freshwater
Fisheries Acts 1861 to 1886. In certain cases the rights of the
riparian proprietors are subject to the intervening rights of other
persons. These rights vary according as the river is navigable
or not, or tidal or not. For instance, all the riparian proprietors
might combine to divert a non-navigable river, though one
alone could not do so as against the others, but no combination
of riparian proprietors could defeat the right of the public to
have a navigable river maintained undiverted. We shall here
consider shortly the rights enjoyed by, and the limitations
XXVHI. 13
imposed upon, riparian proprietors, in addition to those falling
under the head of fishery or navigation. In these matters
English law is in substantial accordance with the law of other
countries, most of the rules being deduced from Roman law.
Perhaps the main difference is that running water is in Roman
law a res communis, like the air and the sea. In England,
owing to the greater value of river water for manufacturing
and other purposes, it cannot be said to be common property,
even though it may be used for navigation. The effect of this
difference is that certain rights, public in Roman law, such as
mooring and unloading cargo, bathing, drying nets, fishing for
oysters, digging for sand, towing, &c., are only acquirable by
prescription or custom in England. By Roman law, a hut might
lawfully be built on the shore of the sea or of a tidal river; in
England such a building would be a mere trespass. Preaching
on the foreshore is not legal unless by custom or prescription
(Llandudno Urban Council v. Woods, 1899, 2 Ch. 705). Nor
may a fisherman who dredges for oysters appropriate a part of
the foreshore for storing them (Truro Corporation v. Rowe, 1902,
2 K.B. 709).
The right of use of the water of a natural stream cannot be better
described than in the words of Lord Kingsdown in 1858: " By the
general law applicable to running streams, every riparian proprietor
has a right to what may be called the ordinary use of water flowing
past his land for instance, to the reasonable use of the water for
domestic purposes and for his cattle, and this without regard to the
effect which such use may have in case of a deficiency upon pro-
prietors lower down the stream. But, further, he has a right to the
use of it for any purpose, or what may be deemed the extraordinary
use of it, provided he does not thereby interfere with the rights of
other proprietors, either above or below him. Subject to this con-
dition, he may dam up a stream for the purposes of a mill, or divert
the water for the purpose of irrigation. But he has no right to inter-
cept the regular flow of the stream, if he thereby interferes with the
lawful use of the water by other proprietors, and inflicts upon them
a sensible injury " (Miner v. Gilmour, 12 Moore's P.C. Cases, 156).
The rights of riparian proprietors where the flow of water is artificial
rest on a different principle. As the artificial stream is made by a
person for his own benefit, any right of another person as a riparian
proprietor does not arise at common law, as in the case of a natural
stream, but must be established by grant or prescription. If its
origin be unknown the inference appears to be that riparian pro-
prietors have the same rights as if the stream had been a natural
one (Baily v. Clark, 1902, I Ch. 649). The rights of a person not a
riparian proprietor who uses land abutting on a river or stream by
the licence or grant of the riparian proprietor are not as full as though
he were a riparian proprietor, for he cannot be imposed as a riparian
proprietor upon the other proprietors without their consent. The
effect of this appears to be that he is not entitled to sensibly affect
their rights, even by the ordinary as distinguished from the extra-
ordinary use of the water. Even a riparian proprietor cannot divert
the stream to a place outside his tenement and there use it for pur-
poses unconnected with the tenement (McCartney v. Londonderry
& Lough Swilly Rly. Co., 1904, A.C. 301).
The limitations to which the right of the riparian proprietor is
subject may be divided into those existing by common right, those
imposed for public purposes, and those established against him by-
crown grant or by custom or prescription. Under the first head
comes the public right of navigation, of anchorage and fishery from
boats (in tidal waters), and of taking shell-fish (and probably other
fish except royal fish) on the shore of tidal waters as far as any
right of several fishery does not intervene. Under the second head
would fall the right of eminent domain by which the state takes
riparian rights for public purposes, compensating the proprietor,
the restrictions upon the sporting rights of the proprietor, as by
acts forbidding the taking of fish in close time, and tne Wild Birds
Protection Acts, and the restrictions on the ground of public health,
as by the Rivers Pollution Act 1876 and the regulations of port
sanitary authorities. The jurisdiction of the state over rivers in
England may be exercised by officers of the crown, as by commis-
sioners of sewers or by the Board of Trade, under the Crown Lands
Act 1866. A bridge is erected and maintained by the county
authorities, and the riparian proprietor must bear any inconvenience
resulting from it. An example of an adverse right by crown grant
is a ferry or a port. The crown, moreover, as the guardian of the
realm, has jurisdiction to restrain the removal of the foreshore, the
natural barrier of the sea, by its owner in case of apprehended danger
to the coast. The rights established against a riparian proprietor oy
private persons must as a rule be based on prescription or custom,
only on prescription where they are in the nature of profits a prendre.
The public cannot claim such rights by prescription, still less by
custom. Among such rights are the right to land, to discharge cargo,
to tow, to dry nets, to beach boats, to take sand, shingle or water, to
have a sea-wall maintained, to pollute the water (subject to the Rivers
3 86
WATER-SCORPIONWATERSPOUT
Pollution Act), to water cattle, &c. In some cases the validity of
local riparian customs has been recognized by the legislature. The
right to enter on lands adjoining tidal waters for the purpose of watch-
ing for and landing herrings, pilchards and other sea-fish was con-
firmed to the fishermen of Somerset, Devon and Cornwall by I Jac. I.
c. 23. Digging sand on the shore of tidal waters for use as manure
on the land was granted to the inhabitants of Devon and Cornwall by
7 Jac. I. c. 18. The public right of taking or killing rabbits in the day-
time on any sea bank or river bank in the county of Lincoln, so far
as the tide extends, or within one furlong of such bank, was preserved
by the Larceny Act 1881. It should be noticed that rights of the
public may be subject to private rights. Where the river is navi-
gable, although the right of navigation is common to the subjects of
the realm, it may be connected with a right to exclusive access to
riparian land, the invasion of which may form the ground for legal
proceedings by the riparian proprietor (see Lyon v. The Fishmongers'
Company, 1876, I A.C. 662). There is no common-law right of
support by subterranean water. A grant of land passes all water-
courses, unless reserved to the grantor.
A freshwater lake appears to be governed by the same law as a
non-tidal river, surface water being pars soli. The preponderance of
authority is in favour of the right ofthe riparian proprietors as against
the crown. Most of the law will be found in Bristow v. Cormican,
1878, 3 A.C. 648.
Unlawful and malicious injury to sea and river banks, towing paths,
sluices, flood-gates, mill-dams, &c., or poisoning fish, is a crime
under the Malicious Damage Act 1861.
Ferry is a franchise created by grant or prescription. When
created it is a highway of a special description, a monopoly to be
used only .for the public advantage, so that the toll levied must be
reasonable. The grantee may have an action or an injunction for
infringement of his rights by competition unless the infringement
be by act of parliament. In Hopkins v. G.N. Ry. Co., 1877, 2
Q.B.D. 224 (followed in Dibden v. Skirrow, 10x37, I Ch. 437), it was
held that the owner of a ferry cannot maintain an action for loss of
traffic caused by a new bridge or ferry made to provide for new traffic.
Many ferries are now regulated by local acts.
Weir, the gurges of Domesday, the kideUus of Magna Carta, as
appurtenant to a fishery, is a nuisance at common law unless granted
by the crown before 1272. From the etymology of kidellus the weir
was probably at first of wicker, later of timber or stone. The owner
of a several fishery in tidal waters cannot maintain his claim to a weir
unless he can show a title going back to Magna Carta. In private
waters he must claim by grant or prescription. Numerous fishery
acts from 25 Ed w. I II . st . 4, c. 4 deal with weirs, especially with regard
to salmon fishery. An interesting case is Hanbury v. Jenkins, 1901,
2 Ch. 401, where it was held that a grant of " wears " in the Usk by
Henry VIII. i 1516 passed the bed of the river as well as the right
of fishing.
Mill may be erected by any one, subject to local regulations and
to his detaining the water no longer than is reasonably necessary for
the working of the wheel. But if a dam be put across running water,
the erection of it can only be justified by grant or prescription, or (in
a manor) by manorial custom. On navigable rivers it must have
existed before 1272. The owner of it cannot pen up the water
permanently so as to make a pond of it.
Bathing. The reported cases affect only sea-bathing, but Hall
(p. 160) is of opinion that a right to bathe in private waters may
exist by prescription or custom. There is no common-law right to
bathe in the sea or to place bathing-machines on the shore. Pre-
scription or custom is necessary to support a claim, whether the fore-
shore is the property of the crown or of a private owner (Brinckman
v. Matley, 1904, 2 Ch. 313). Bathing in the sea or in rivers is now
often regulated by the by-laws of a local authority.
Scotland. The law of Scotland is in general accordance with that
of England. One of the principal differences is that in Scotland,
if a charter state that the sea is the boundary of a grant, the
foreshore is included in the grant, subject to the burden of crown
rights for public purposes. Persons engaged in the herring fishery
off the coast of Scotland have, by n Geo. III. c. 31, the right to use
the shore for 100 yds. from high-water mark for landing and drying
nets, erecting huts and curing fish. By the Army Act 1881, s. 143,
soldiers on the march in Scotland pay only half toll at ferries. The
right of ferry is one of the regalia minora acquirable by prescriptive
possession on a charter of barony. Sea-greens are private property.
The right to take seaweed from another's foreshore may be prescribed
as a servitude. Interference with the free passage of salmon by
abstraction of water to artificial channels is restrainable by interdict
(Pirie v. Earl of Kintore, 1906, A.C. 478). See the Salmon Fisheries
(Scotland) Acts 1828 to 1868.
In Ireland the law is in general accordance with that of England.
In R. v. Clinton, I.R. 4 C.L. 6, the Irish court went perhaps beyond
any English precedent in holding that to carry away drift seaweed
from the foreshore is not larceny. The Rivers Pollution Act 1876
was re-enacted for Ireland by the similar act of 1893.
In the United States the common law of England was originally
the law, the state succeeding to the right of the crown. This was
no doubt sufficient in the thirteen original states, which are not
traversed by rivers of the largest size, but was not generally followed
when it became obvious that new conditions, unknown in England,
had arisen. Accordingly the soil cf navigable rivers, fresh or salt,
and of lakes, is vested in the state, which has power to regulate
navigation and impose tolls. The admiralty jurisdiction of the
United States extends to all public navigable rivers and lakes where
commerce is carried on between different states or with foreign
nations (Genesee Chief v. Fitzhugh, 12 Howard's Rep. 443). And
in a case decided in 1893 it was held that the open waters of the
great lakes are " high seas " within the meaning of 5346 of the
Revised Statutes (U.S. v. Rodgers, 150 U.S. Rep. 249). A state
may establish ferries and authorize dams. But if water from a
dam overflow a public highway, an indictable nuisance is caused.
The right of eminent domain is exercised to a greater extent than
in England in the compulsory acquisition of sites for mills and the
construction of levees or embankments, especially on the Mississippi.
In the drier country of the west and in the mining districts, the
common law as to irrigation has had to be altered, and what was
called the " Arid Region Doctrine " was gradually established. By
it the first user of water has a right by priority of occupation if he
give notice to the public of an intention to appropriate, provided
that he be competent to hold land.
AUTHORITIES. Hall's Essay on the Rights of the Crown on the Sea-
Shore (1830) has been re-edited in 1875 and 1888. See also S. A.
and H. S. Moore, History and Law of Fisheries (1903). Among
American authorities are the works of Angell, Gould and Pomeroy,
on Waters and Watercourses, Washburn on Easements, Angell on
the Right of Property in Tide Waters, Kirney on Irrigation and the
Report to the Senate on Irrigation (1900). (J. W.)
WATER-SCORPION, an aquatic hemipterous insect of the
family Nepidae, so called from its superficial resemblance to a
scorpion, which is due to the modification of the legs of the
anterior pair for prehension, and to the presence of a long
slender process, simulating a tail, at the posterior end of the
abdomen. The common British species (Nepa cinerea) lives
in ponds and stagnant water, and feeds upon aquatic animal
organisms principally of the insect kind. Respiration in the
adult is effected by means of the caudal process, which consists
of a pair of half-tubes capable of being locked together to form
a siphon by means of which air is conducted to the tracheae
at the apex of the abdomen when the tip of the tube is thrust
above the surface of the water. In immature forms the siphon
is undeveloped and breathing takes place through six pairs of
abdominal spiracles. The eggs, laid in the stems of plants,
are supplied with seven filamentous processes which float freely
in the water.
In Nepa the body is broad and flat; but in an allied water-bug,
Ranatra, which contains a single British species (R. linearis), it is
long and narrow, while the legs are very slender and elongate.
Certain exotic members of this group, sometimes erroneously
referred to the Nepidae, but really forming a special family, Belo-
stomidae, are of large size, a South American species, Belostoma
grande, reaching a length of between 4 and 5 in.
WATERSHED, in physical geography, the line separating the
headstreams tributary to two different river-systems or basins.
Alternative terms are " water-parting " and " divide." The
crest of a mountain ridge forms the most clearly marked water-
shed; in a plain country of gentle slope (e.g. the central plain of
Ireland) the watershed is often difficult to trace, as the head-
waters of two different river systems may merge in marshes or
lakes at the highest levels. In a mountainous country, where
two streams, flowing in opposite directions but having their
sources adjacent, are both gradually eroding or cutting back
the land at their heads, a pass is formed. In such cases, where
one stream erodes faster than the other, the stronger may
ultimately " behead " the weaker, and " capture " some of its
waters, whose flow is diverted from one basin to another.
WATERSPOUT, a local vorticular storm occurring over a
water-surface, and in origin and form similar to a tornado (q.v.)
over the land. A whirling, funnel-shaped cloud, first observed
as a pendant from the mass of storm-cloud above, seems to
grow downwards, tapering, towards the water-surface, which is
violently agitated, and finally (when the spout is fully developed)
appears to be drawn up to meet the cloud from above. This
appearance is deceptive, as the bulk of the water carried along
by the whirling spout is condensed from the atmosphere, and,
even when the spout is formed over a salt-water surface, is
found to be fresh. Waterspouts occur most frequently over
the w^rm seas of the tropics, but they are not confined to the
warmer tropical seasons, or even to low latitudes.
COLLECTING AREAS]
WATER SUPPLY
387
WATER SUPPLY. This article is confined to the collection
and storage of water for domestic and industrial uses and
irrigation, and its purification on a large scale. The conveyance
of water is dealt with in the article AQUEDUCT.
COLLECTING AREAS
Surface Waters. Any area, large or small, of the earth's
surface from any part of which, if the ground were impermeable,
water would flow by gravitation past any point in a natural
watercourse is commonly known in Europe as the " hydro-
graphic basin " above that point. In English it has been called
indifferently the " catchment basin," the " gathering ground,"
the " drainage area " and the " watershed." The latter term,
though originally equivalent to the German W asserscheide
" water-parting " is perhaps least open to objection. The
water-parting is the line bounding such an area and separating
it from other watersheds. The banks of a watercourse or sides
of a valley are distinguished as the right and left bank respectively,
the spectator being understood to be looking down the valley.
The surface of the earth is rarely impermeable, and the
structure of the rocks largely determines the direction of flow
of so much of the rainfall as sinks into the ground and is not
evaporated. Thus the figure and area of a surface watershed
may not be coincident with that of the corresponding under-
ground watershed: and the flow in any watercourse, especially
from a small watershed, may, by reason of underground flow
from or into other watersheds, be dispropor-
tionate to the area apparently drained by that
watercourse.
When no reservoir exists, the volume of
continuous supply from any watershed area
Dly is evidently limited to the minimum,
weather or, so-called, extreme dry weather
/low of fl ov> O f the stream draining it. This
/ream. canno t be determined from the rain-
fall; it entirely depends upon the power of the
soil and rock to store water in the particular
area under consideration, and to yield it con-
tinuously to the stream by means of concen-
trated springs or diffused seepage. Mountain
areas of 10,000 acres and upwards, largely
covered with moorland, upon nearly imper-
meable rocks with few water-bearing fissures, yield in tem-
perate climates, towards the end of the driest seasons, and
therefore solely from underground, between a fifth and a
quarter of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres. Through-
out the course of the river Severn, the head-waters of which
are chiefly supplied from such formations, this rate does not
materially change, even down to the city of Worcester, past
which the discharge flows from 1,256,000 acres. But in smaller
areas, which on the average are necessarily nearer to the water-
parting, the limits are much wider, and the rate of minimum
discharge is generally smaller.
Thus, for example, on 1000 acres or less, it commonly falls to one-
tenth of a cubic foot, and upon an upland Silurian area of 940 acres,
giving no visible sign of any peculiarity, the discharge fell, on the
aist of September 1895, to one-thirty-fifth of a cubic foot per second
per 1000 acres. In this case, however, some of the water probably
passed through the beds and joints of rocks to an adjoining valley
lying at a lower level, and had both streams been gauged the average
would probably have been considerably greater. The Thames at
Teddington, fed largely from cretaceous areas, fell during ten days in
September 1898 (the artificial abstractions for the supply of London
being added) to about one-sixth of a cubic foot, and since 1880 the
discharge has occasionally fallen, in each of six other cases, to about
one-fifth of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres. Owing, however,
to the very variable permeability of the strata, the tributaries of the
Thames, when separately gauged in dry seasons, yield the most
divergent results. It may be taken as an axiom that the variation
of minimum discharges from their mean values increases as the
separate areas diminish. In the eastern and south-eastern counties
of England even greater variety of dry weather flow prevails than in
the west, and upon the chalk formations there are generally no
surface streams, except such as burst out after wet weather and form
the so-called " bournes." On the other hand, some rocks in mountain
districts, notably the granites, owing to the great quantity of water
stored in their numerous fissures or joints, commonly yield a much
higher proportion of so-called dry weather flow.
When, however, a reservoir is employed to equalize the
flow during and before the period of dry weather, the minimum
flow continuously available may be increased to a
much higher figure, depending upon the capacity of
that reservoir in relation to the mean flow of the stream supplying
it. In such a case the first essential in determining the yield
is to ascertain the rainfall. For this purpose, if there are no
rain-gauges on the drainage area in question, an estimate may
be formed from numerous gaugings throughout the country,
most of which are published in British Rainfall, initiated by the
late Mr G. J. Symons, F.R.S., and now carried on by Dr H. R.
Mill. 1 But except in the hands of those who have spent years
in such investigations, this method may lead to most incorrect
conclusions. If any observations exist upon the drainage area
itself they are commonly only from a single gauge, and this
gauge, unless the area is very level, may give results widely
different from the mean fall on the whole area. Unqualified
reliance upon single gauges in the past has been the cause of
serious errors in the estimated relation between rainfall and
flow off the ground.
The uncertainties are illustrated by the following actual example :
A battery of fourteen rain-gauges, in the same vertical plane, on
ground having the natural profile shown by the section (fig. l),
gave during three consecutive years the respective falls shown by
FIG. i.
the height of the dotted lines above the datum line. Thus on the
average, gauge C recorded 20% more than gauge D only 70 ft.
distant; while at C, in 1897, the rainfall was actually 30% greater
than at J only 560 ft. away. The greatly varying distribution of
rainfall over that length of 1600 ft. is shown by the dotted lines
measured upwards from the datum to have been remarkably con-
sistent in the three years; and its cause the path necessarily taken
in a vertical plane by the prevailing winds blowing from A towards
N after passing the steep bank at C D may be readily understood.
Such examples show the importance of placing any rain-gauge, so far
as possible, upon a plane surface of the earth horizontal, or so
inclined that, if produced, especially in the direction of prevailing
winds, it will cut the mean levels of the area whose mean rainfall is
intended to be represented by that gauge. It has been commonly
stated that rainfall increases with the altitude. This is broadly true.
A rain-cloud raised vertically upwards expands, cools and tends to
precipitate; but in the actual passage of rain-clouds over the surface
of the earth other influences are at work. In fig. 2 the thick line
FIG. 2.
represents the profile of a vertical section crossing two ranges of hills
and one valley. The arrows indicate the directions of the prevailing
winds. At the extreme left the rain-clouds are thrown up, and if this
were all, they would precipitate a larger proportion of the moisture
1 Since the above was written, this work has been taken over by
the " British Rainfall Organization."
3 88
WATER SUPPLY
[COLLECTING ARE
they contained as the altitude increased. But until the clouds rise
above the hill there is an obvious countervailing tendency to com-
pression, and in steep slopes this may reduce or entirely prevent pre-
cipitation until the summit is reached, when a fall of pressure with
commotion must occur. Very high mountain ranges usually consist
of many ridges, among which rain-clouds are entangled in their
ascent, and in such cases precipitation towards the windward side of
the main range, though on the leeward sides of the minor ridges of
which it is formed, may occur to so large an extent that before the
summit is reached the clouds are exhausted or nearly so, and in this
case the total precipitation is less on the leeward than on the wind-
ward side of the main range; but in the moderate heights of the
United Kingdom it more commonly happens from the causes ex-
plained that precipitation is prevented or greatly retarded until the
summit of the ridge is reached. The following cause also contributes
to the latter effect. Imagine eleven raindrops A to K to fall simul-
taneously and equi-distantly from the horizontal plane AM. A strong
wind is urging the drops from left to right. The drops A and K may-
be readily conceived to be equally diverted by the wind, and to fall
near the tops of the two hills respectively. Not so drop C, for directly
the summit is passed the wind necessarily widens put vertically and,
having a greater space to fill, loses forward velocity. It may even
eddy backwards, as indicated by the curved arrows, and it is no
uncommon thing, in walking up a steep hill in the contrary direction
to the flight of the clouds, to find that the rain is coming from
behind. Much the same tendency exists with respect to all drops
between B and E, but at F the wind has begun to accommodate itself
to the new regime and to assume more regular forward motion, and
as | is approached, where vertical contraction of the passage through
which the wind must pass takes place, there is an increasing tendency
to lift the raindrops beyond their proper limits. The general effect
is that the rain falling from between G and K is spread over a greater
area of the earth G'K' than that falling from the equal space between
B and F, which reaches the ground within the smaller area B'F'.
From this cause also, therefore, the leeward side of the valley re-
ceives more rain than the windward side. In the United Kingdom
the prevailing winds are from the south-west, and some misapprehen-
sion has been caused by the- bare, but perfectly correct, statement
that the general slope towards the western coast is wetter than
that towards the eastern. Over the whole width of the country from
coast to coast, or of the Welsh mountain ranges only, this is so;
but it is nevertheless true that the leeward side of an individual valley
or range of hills generally receives more rain than the windward side.
Successive abstraction of raindrops as the rain-clouds pass over
ridge after ridge causes a gradually diminishing precipitation, but
this is generally insufficient to reverse the local conditions, which
tend to the contrary effect in individual ranges. The neglect of
these facts has led to many errors in estimating the mean rainfall on
watershed areas from the fall observed at gauges in particular parts
of those areas.
In the simplest case of a single mountain valley to be used for the
supply of an impounding reservoir, the rainfall should be known at
five points, three being in the axis of the valley, of which one is near
the point of intersection of that axis with the boundary of the
watershed. Then, in order to connect with these the effect of the
right- and left-hand slopes, there should be at least one gauge on each
side about the middle height, and approximately in a line perpendicu-
lar to the axis of the valley passing through the central gauge. The
relative depths recorded in the several gauges depend mainly upon
the direction of the valley and steepness of the bounding hills. The
gauge in the bottom of the valley farthest from the source will in a
wide valley generally record the least rainfall, and one of those on
the south-west side, the highest. Much will depend upon the judicious
placing of the gauges. Each gauge should have for 10 or 15 yds.
around it an uninterrupted plane fairly representing the general
level or inclination, as the case may be, of the ground for a much
larger distance around it. The earliest records of such gauges
should be carefully examined, and if any apparently anomalous
result is obtained, the cause should be traced, and when not found
in the gauge itself, or in its treatment, other gauges should be used to
check it. The central gauge is useful for correcting and checking the
others, but in such a perfectly simple case as the straight valley
above assumed it may be omitted in calculating the results, and if
the other four gauges are properly placed, the arithmetical mean of
their results will probably not differ widely from the true mean for
the valley. But such records carried on for a year or many years
would afford no knowledge of the worst conditions that could arise
in longer periods, were it not for the existence of much older gauges
not far distant and subject to somewhat similar conditions. The
nearer such long-period gauges are to the local gauges the more
likely are their records to rise and fall in the same proportion. The
work of the late Mr JamesGlaisher.F.R.S., of the lateMr G.J. Symons,
F.R.S., of the Meteorological Office and of the Royal Meteorological
Society, has resulted in the establishment of a vast number of rain-
gauges in different parts of the United Kingdom, and it is generally,
though not always, found that the mean rainfall over a long period
can be determined, for an area upon which the actual fall is known
only for a short period, by assigning to the missing years of the short-
period gauges, rainfalls bearing the same proportion to those of
corresponding years in the long-period gauges that the rainfalls of
the known years in the short-period gauges bear to those of cor
spending years in the long- period gauges. In making such compari-
sons, it is always desirable, if possible, to select as standards long-
period gauges which are so situated that the short-period district lies
between them. Where suitably placed long-period gauges exist,
and where care has been exercised in ascertaining the authenticit
of their records and in making the comparisons, the short records c.
the local gauges may be thus carried back into the long periods with
nearly correct results.
Rainfall is proverbially uncertain; but it would appear from the
most trustworthy records that at any given place the total rainfall
during any period of 50 years will be within I or 2 % of the total
rainfall at the same place during any other period of 50 years, while
the records of any period of 25 years will generally be found to fall
within 3$ % of the mean of 50 years. It is equally satisfactory to
know that there is a nearly constant ratio on any given area (ex-
ceeding perhaps 1000 acres) between the true mean annual rainfall,
the rainfall of the driest year, the two driest consecutive years
and any other groups of driest consecutive years. Thus in any
period of 50 years the driest year (not at an individual gauge but
upon such an area) will be about 63% of the mean for the 50
years.
That in the two driest consecutive years will be about 75 % of th
mean for the 50 years.
That in the three driest consecutive years will be about 80 % of the
mean for the 50 years.
That in the four driest consecutive years will be about 83 % of th
mean for the 50 years.
That in the five driest consecutive years will be about 85 % of the
mean for the 50 years.
That in the six driest consecutive years will be about 86J % of the
mean for the 50 years.
Apart altogether from the variations of actual rainfall produced by
irregular surface levels, the very small area of a single rain-gauge is
subject to much greater variations in short periods than can possibly
occur over larger areas. If, therefore, instead of regarding only the
mean rainfall of several gauges over a series of years, we compare the
relative falls in short intervals of time among gauges yielding the
same general averages, the discrepancies prove to be very great, and
it follows that the maximum possible intensity of discharge from
different areas rapidly increases as the size of the watershed decreases.
Extreme cases of local discharge are due to the phenomena known
in America as " cloud-bursts,' which occasionally occur in Great
Britain and result in discharges, the intensities of which have rarely
been recorded by rain-gauges. The periods of such discharges are
so short, their positions so isolated and the areas affected so small,
that we have little or no exact knowledge concerning them, though
their disastrous results are well known. They do not directly affect
the question of supply, but may very seriously affect the works from
which that supply is given.
Where in this article the term " evaporation " is used alone,
it is to be understood to include absorption by vegetation.
Of the total quantity of rainfall a very variable pro- _
~ J Lvaporm-
portion is rapidly absorbed or re-evaporated. Thus tioa and
in the western mountain districts of Great Britain, absorp-
largely composed of nearly impermeable rocks more WoD -
or less covered with pasture and moorland, the water evaporated
and absorbed by vegetation is from 13 to 15 in. out of a rainfall
of 80 in., or from 16 to 19%, and is nearly constant down to
about 60 in., where the proportion of loss is therefore from 22
to 25%. The Severn down to Worcester, draining 1,256,000 acres
of generally flatter land largely of the same lithological character,
gave in the dry season from the ist of July 1887 to the 3oth
of June 1888 a loss of 17-93 in- upon a rainfall of 27-34 in. or
about 66%; while in the wet season, ist of July 1882 to the
30th of June 1883, the loss was 21-09 in. upon a rainfall of
43-26 in., or only 49%. Upon the .Thames basin down to
Teddington, having an area of 2,353,000 acres, the loss in the
dry season from the ist of July 1890 to the 3oth of June 1891
was 17-22 in. out of a rainfall of 21-62 in., or 79%; while in
the wet season, ist of July 1888 to the 3oth of June 1889, it was
18-96 out of 29-22 in., or only 65%. In the eastern counties
the rainfall is lower and the evaporation approximately the
same as upon the Thames area, so that the percentage of loss
is greater. But these are merely broad examples and averages
of many still greater variations over smaller areas. They show
generally that, as the rainfall increases on any given area evapora-
tion increases, but not in the same proportion. Again, the loss
from a given rainfall depends greatly upon the previous season.
An inch falling in a single day on a saturated mountain area
will nearly all reach the rivers, but if it falls during a drought
seven-eighths may be lost so far as the period of the drought
COLLECTING AREAS]
WATER SUPPLY
389
is concerned. In such a case most of the water is absorbed by
the few upper inches of soil, only to be re-evaporated during the
next few days, and the small proportion which sinks into the
ground probably issues in springs many months later. Thus
the actual yield of rainfall to the streams depends largely upon
the mode of its time-distribution, and without a knowledge
of this it is impossible to anticipate the yield of a particular
rainfall. In estimating the evaporation to be deducted from
the rainfall for the purpose of determining the flow into a
reservoir, it is important to bear in mind that the loss from a
constant water surface is nearly one and a half times as great as
from the intermittently saturated land surface. Even neglecting
the isolated and local discharges due to excessive and generally
unrecorded rainfall, the variation in the discharge of all streams,
and especially of mountain streams, is very great. We have
seen that the average flow from mountain areas in Great Britain
towards the end of a dry season does not exceed one-fifth of a
cubic foot per second per 1000 acres. Adopting this general
minimum as the unit, we find that the flow from such areas up
to about 5000 acres, whose mean annual rainfall exceeds 50 in.,
may be expected occasionally to reach 300 cub. ft., or 1500 such
units; while from similar areas of 20,000 or 30,000 acres with
the same mean rainfall the discharge sometimes reaches 1 200 or
1300 such units. It is well to compare these results with those
obtained from much larger areas but with lower mean rainfall.
The Thames at Teddington has been continuously gauged by
the Thames Conservators since 1883, and the Severn at Worcester
by the writer, on behalf of the corporation of Liverpool, during
the 10 years 1881 to 1890 inclusive. The highest flood, common
to the two periods, was that which occurred in the middle of
February 1883. On that occasion the Thames records gave a
discharge of 7-6 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres, and the
Severn records a discharge of 8-6 cub. ft. per second per 1000
acres, or 38 and 43 respectively of the above units; while in
February 1881, before the Thames gaugings were commenced,
the Severn had risen to 47 of such units, and subsequently in
May 1886 rose to 50 such units, though the Thames about the
same time only rose to 13. But in November 1894 the Thames
rose to about 80 such units, and old records on the Severn
bridges show that that river must on many occasions have risen
to considerably over too units. In both these cases the natural
maximum discharge is somewhat diminished by the storage
produced by artificial canalization of the rivers.
These illustrations of the enormous variability of discharge
serve to explain what is popularly so little understood, namely,
the advantage which riparian owners, or other persons
interested in a given stream, may derive from works
constructed primarily for the purpose of diverting
the water of that stream it may be to a totally
different watershed for the purposes of a town supply. Under
modern legislation no such abstraction of water is usually
allowed, even if limited to times of flood, except on condition
of an augmentation of the natural dry-weather flow, and this
condition at once involves the construction of a reservoir. The
water supplied to the stream from such a reservoir is known
as " compensation water," and is generally a first charge upon
the works. This water is usually given as a continuous and
uniform flow, but in special cases, for the convenience of mill-
owners, as an intermittent one. 1 In the manufacturing districts
of Lancashire and Yorkshire it generally amounts to one-third
of the whole so-called " available supply." In Wales it is usually
about one-fourth, and elsewhere still less; but in any case it
amounts to many times the above unit of one-fifth of a cubic
foot per second per 1000 acres. Thus the benefit to the fisheries
and to the riparian owners generally is beyond all question; but
the cost to the water authority of conferring that benefit is
also very great commonly (according to the proportion of the
natural flow intended to be rendered uniform) 20 to 35% of
1 The volume of compensation water is usually fixed as a given
fraction of the so-called " available supply " (which by a convention
that has served its purpose well, is understood to be the average flow
of the stream during the three consecutive driest years).
the whole expenditure upon the reservoir works. Down to the
middle of the igth century, the proportioning of the size of a
reservoir to its work was a very rough operation, yit/dof
There were few rainfall statistics, little was known stream
of the total loss by evaporation, and still less of its **
distribution over the different periods of dry and n * crvolr -
wet weather. Certain general principles have since been laid
down, and within the proper limits of their application have
proved excellent guides. In conformity with the above-men-
tioned convention (by which compensation water is determined
as a certain fraction of the average flow during the three driest
consecutive years) the available supply or flow from a given
area is still understood to be the average annual rainfall during
those years, less the corresponding evaporation and absorption
by vegetation. But this is evidently only the case when the
reservoir impounding the water from such an area is of just
sufficient capacity to equalize that flow without possible exhaus-
tion in any one of the three summers. If the reservoir were
larger it might equalize the flow of the four or more driest
consecutive years, which would be somewhat greater than that
of the three; if smaller, we might only be able to count upon
the average of the flow t>f the two driest consecutive years, and
there are many reservoirs which will not yield continuously
the average flow of the stream even in the single driest year.
With further experience it has become obvious that very few
reservoirs are capable of equalizing the full flow of the three
consecutive driest years, and each engineer, in estimating the
yield of such reservoirs, has deducted from the quantity ascer-
tained on the assumption that they do so, a certain quantity
representing, according to his judgment, the overflow which in
one or more of such years might be lost from the reservoir.
The actual size of the reservoir which would certainly yield
the assumed supply throughout the driest periods has therefore
been largely a matter of judgment. Empirical rules have grown
up assigning to each district, according to its average rainfall,
a particular number of days' supply, independently of any inflow,
as the contents of the reservoir necessary to secure a given yield
throughout the driest seasons. But any such generalizations
are dangerous and have frequently led to disappointment and
sometimes to needless expenditure. The exercise of sound
judgment in such matters will always be necessary, but it is
nevertheless important to formulate, so far as possible, the
conditions upon which that judgment should be based. Thus
in order to determine truly the continuously available discharge
of any stream, it is necessary to know not only the mean flow
of the stream, as represented by the rainfall less the evaporation,
but also the least favourable distribution of that flow throughout
any year.
The most trying time-distribution of which the author has had
experience in the United Kingdom, or which he has been able to
discover from a comparison of rainfalls upon nearly impermeable
areas exceeding 1000 acres, is graphically represented by the thick
irregular line in the left-hand half of fig. 3, where the total flow for
the driest year measures 100 on the vertical percentage scale; the
horizontal time scale being divided into calendar months.
The diagram applies to ordinary areas suitable for reservoir con-
struction and in which the minimum flow of the stream reaches about
one-fifth of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres. Correspondingly,
the straight line o a represents uniformly distributed supply, also
cumulatively recorded, of the same quantity of water over the same
period. But, apart from the diurnal fluctuations of consumption
which may be equalized by local " service reservoirs," uniform
distribution of supply throughout twelve months is rarely what we
require; and to represent the demand in most towns correctly, we
should increase the angle of this line to the horizontal during the
summer and diminish it during the winter months, as indicated by
the dotted lines b b. The most notable features of this particular
diagram are as follows: Up to the end of 59 days (to the z8th Febru-
ary) the rate of flow is shown, by the greater steepness of the thick
line, to be greater than the mean for the year, and the surplus
water about 1 1 % of the flow during the year must be stored ;
but during the 184 days between this and the end of the 24^rd day
(jjist August) the rate of flow is generally below the mean, while from
that day to the end of the year it is again for the most part above the
mean. Now, in order that a reservoir may enable the varying flow,
represented cumulatively by the irregular line, to be discharged in
a continuous and uniform flow to satisfy a demand represented
39
WATER SUPPLY
[COLLECTING AREAS
cumulatively by the straight line a a, its capacity must be such that
it will hold not only the II % surplus of the same year, but that, on
June loth, when this surplus has been used to satisfy the demand, it
will still contain the water c d 19% stored from a previous year;
otherwise between June loth and August 3ist the reservoir will be
empty and only the dry weather flow of the stream will be available
for supply. In short, if the reservoir is to equalize the whole flow of
this year, it must have a capacity equal to the greatest deficiency
c d of the cumulative flow below the cumulative demand, plus the
greatest excess efof the cumulative flow over the cumulative demand.
This capacity is represented by the height of the line a'a' (drawn
parallel to a a from the point of maximum surplus/) vertically above
the point of greatest deficiency c, and equal, on the vertical scale, to
the difference between the height = 48% and 2 = 78% or 30% of
the stream-flow during the driest year. A reservoir so proportioned
to the stream-flow with a proper addition to avoid drawing off the
bottom water, would probably be safe in Great Britain in any year
**Q*c*crT or
OKI, :,
* Of cmtfT r*M
rwo
CONS,
HfO
YCA1S.
'Ct/rUf,- DRIEST YEAilS
JAN tie <*M* *P* MAY JUffX JULY AUS 5f>
* 'ET- ^xT yrjveiwo
DCC t/A/t FEU MA*. AP* MAY JUNE JULY AV SEP OC
2
FIG. 3.
for a uniform demand equal to the cumulative stream-flow; or, if it
failed, that failure would be of very short duration, and would
probably only occur once in 50 years.
It may be at first sight objected that a case is assumed in which
there is no overflow before the reservoir begins to fall, and therefore
no such loss as generally occurs from that cause. This is true, but it
is only so because we have made our reservoir large enough to contain
in addition to its stock of 19%, at the beginning of the year, all the
surplus water that passes during the earlier months in this driest year
with its least favourable time-distribution of flow. Experience
shows, in fact, that if a different distribution of the assumed rainfall
occurs, that distribution will not try the reservoir more severely while
the hitherto assumed uniform rate of demand is maintained. But, as
above stated, the time-distribution of demand is never quite uniform.
The particular drought shown on the diagram is the result of an
exceptionally early deficiency of rainfall which, in conjunction with
the variation of demand shown by the dotted line b b, is the most
trying condition. The reservoir begins to fall at the end of February,
and continues to do so with few and short exceptions until the end of
August, and it so happens that about the end of August this dotted
line, 6 b representing actual cumulative demand, crosses the straight
line a a of uniform demand, so that the excess of demand, represented
by the slope from June to September, is balanced by the deficiency of
demand, represented by the flatter slope in the first five months,
except as regards the small quantity b e near the end of February,
which, not having been drawn off during January and February, must
overflow before the end of February. To avoid this loss the 1 1 % is
in this case to be increased by the small quantity b e determined by
examination of the variation of the actual from a constant demand.
After the reservoir begins to fall in this case at the end of February
no ordinary change in the variation of demand can affect the
question, subject of course to the cumulative demand not exceeding
the reservoir yield for the assumed year of minimum rainfall. In
assuming a demand at the beginning of the year below the mean,
resulting in an overflow equal in this case to b e at the end of February
and increasing our reservoir to meet it, we assume also that some
additional supply to that reservoir beyond the 1 1 % of the stream-
flow from the driest year can be obtained from the previous year.
In relation to this supply from the previous year the most trying
assumption is that the rainfall of that year, together with that of the
driest year, will be the rainfall of the two driest consecutive years.
We have already seen that while the rainfall of the driest of 50 years
is about 63 % of the mean, that of the driest two consecutive
years is about 75 % of the mean. It follows, therefore, that the year
immediately preceding the driest cannot have a rainfall less than
about 87 % of the mean. As the loss by evaporation is a deduction
lying between a constant figure and a
direct proportional to the rainfall, we
should err on the safe side in assuming
the flow in the second driest year to be
increased proportionally to the rainfall,
or by the difference between 63 and 87
equal to 24% of the mean of 50 years.
This 24 % of the 50 years' mean now is
38 % of the driest year's flow in fig. 3,
and is therefore much more than
sufficient to ensure the reservoir begin-
ning the driest year with a stock equal
to the greatest deficiency 19% of
the cumulative flow of that year beyond
the cumulative demand.
But in determining the capacity of
reservoirs intended to yield a supply
of water equal to the mean flow of
two, three or more years, the error,
though on the safe side, caused by
assuming the evaporation to be pro-
portional to the rainfall, is too great
to be neglected. The evaporation
slightly increases as the rainfall in-
creases, but at nothing like so high
a rate. Having determined this
evaporation for the second driest con-
secutive year and deducted it from
the rainfall which, as above stated,
cannot be less than 87 % of the mean
of 50 years we may, as shown on
fig. 3, extend our cumulative diagram
of demand and flow into the reservoir
from one to two years.
The whole diagram shows, by the
greater gradient of the unbroken
straight lines, the greater demand
which can be satisfied by the enlarge-
ment of the reservoir to the extent necessary to equalize the flow
of the two driest consecutive years. The new capacity is either
c A or c' ti, whichever, in the particular case under investigation,
is the greater. In the illustration the c' h' is a little greater,
measuring 47! % of the flow of the driest year. In the same way
we may group in a single diagram any number of consecutive
driest years, and either ascertain the reservoir capacity necessary
for a given uniform yield (represented cumulatively by a straight
line corresponding with a'a! , but drawn over all the years instead
of one), or conversely, having set up a vertical from the most
trying point in the line of cumulative flow (c or c' in fig. 3
representing, in percentage of the total annual flow of the driest
year, the capacity of reservoir which it may be convenient to
provide) we may draw a straight line a'" a'" of uniform yield
from the head of that vertical to the previous point of maximum
excess of cumulative flow. The line a" a" drawn from zero
parallel to the first line, produced to the boundaries of the
diagram, will cut the vertical at the end of the first year at the
percentage of the driest year's flow which may be safely drawn
continuously from the reservoir throughout the two years. It
is to be observed that any irregularity in the rate of supply
from the reservoir may occur between the critical periods of
maximum excess of cumulative flow and maximum deficiency
COLLECTING AREAS]
WATER SUPPLY
39 1
DIAGRAM Or RESERVOIR CAPACITY AND YIELD :-/>/ net AT/ON TO FLOW or STREAM excesses t/* TERMS or *A,*rAu.
. The figures in the right-hand column at the ends of the
curved lines are inches of mean annual rainfall over a period of
50 years.
The co-ordinates to any point upon any curved line give respec-
tively the required reservoir capacity and daily yield in gallons per
acre of drainage area, corresponding with the mean annual rainfall
represented by that curved line,
The curves have been drawn for a mean annual evaporation of
14 in. For any increased rate of evaporation i% in. are to be sub-
tracted from the rainfall for each inch of evaporation above 14 in.
For any decreased rate of evaporation i % in. are to be added to the
rainfall for each inch of evaporation below 14 in.
Any excess of evaporation from the water surface and allowance
for bottom water are to be added to the storage so found.
The period over which the reservoir equalizes the flow is shown
by the number of years marked on the straight radial lines.
Where the absolute minimum stream flow is known to be greater
than the minimum of Jcubicfoot persecond per 1000 acres (loSgallons
per ncre per day) assumed in the diagram, the capacity of the reservoir
as taken from thediagram may be reduced by the amount correspond-
ing to that minimum flow for the particular rainfall and evaporation.
CAPACITY Or RESERVOIR IN GALLONS PER ACRE OF DRAINAGE AREA
FIG. 4.
392
WATER SUPPLY
[COLLECTING AREAS
of cumulative flow (/ and c respectively, in the one year diagram)
which does not increase the aggregate cumulative supply
between those points, or cause the line of cumulative supply
from the reservoir to cut the line of cumulative flow into it.
From diagrams constructed upon these principles, the general
diagram (fig. 4) has been produced. To illustrate its use, assume the
case of a mean rainfall of 50 in., figured in the tight-hand column at
the end of a curved line, and of 14 in. of evaporation and absorption
by vegetation as stated in the note on the diagram. The ordinate
to any point upon this curved line then represents on the left-hand
scale the maximum continuous yield per day for each acre of drainage
area, from a reservoir whose capacity is equal to the corresponding
abscissa. As an example, assume that we can conveniently construct
a reservoir to contain, in addition to bottom water not to be used,
200,000 gallons for each acre of the watershed above the point of
interception by the proposed dam. We find on the left-hand scale of
yield that the height of the ordinate drawn to the so-inch mean rain-
fall curve from 200,000 on the capacity scale, is 1457 gallons per day
per acre; and the straight radial line, which cuts the point of inter-
section of the curved line and the co-ordinates, tells us that this
reservoir will equalize the flow of the two driest consecutive years.
Similarly, if we wish to equalize the flow of the three driest con-
secutive years we change the co-ordinates to the radial line figured 3,
and thus find that the available capacity of the reservoir must be
276,000 gallons per acre, and that in consideration of the additional
expense of such a reservoir we shall increase the daily yield to 1612
gallons per acre. In the same manner it will be found that by means
of a reservoir having an available capacity of only 118,000 gallons
per acre of the watershed, we may with the same rainfall and evapora-
tion secure a daily supply of 1085 gallons per acre. In this case the
left-hand radial line passes through the point at which the co-
ordinates meet, showing that the reservoir will just equalize the flow
of the driest year. Similarly, the yield from any given reservoir,
or the capacity required for any yield, corresponding with any mean
rainfall from 30 to too in., and with the flow over any period, from
the driest year to the six or more consecutive driest years, may be
determined from the diagram.
It is instructive to note the ratio of increase of reservoir capacity
and yield respectively for any given rainfall. Thus, assuming a
mean rainfall of 60 in. during 50 years, subject to evaporation and
absorption equal to 14 in. throughout the dry period under considera-
tion, we find from the diagram the following quantities (in gallons
per acre of drainage area) and corresponding ratios :
Net Capacity of Reservoir.
Yield of Reservoir.
Ill-o
T> x s Jj
E*
a a
'3 .
,1^
O
X
i
t~,
ll.
u O.
o tt'o'a
||g
~|1|
J3
rt ^
&
ill
p
|ll- a
-I
V
J
3
r
Jj
(I)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
I
162,000
100
1475
IOO
o
2
256,OOO
158-0
58-0
1922
130-3
30-3
3
352,000
217-3
37-5
2108
142-9
9-7
4
4l6,OOO
256-8
18-2
2220
150-5
5-3
5
466,000
287-7
12-0
2294
155-5
3-3
6
504,000
311-1
8-1
2350
159-3
2-4
On comparing columns 3 and 6 or 4 and 7 it appears that so great is
the increase required in the size of a reservoir in relation to its in-
creased yield, that only in the most favourable places for reservoir
construction, or under the most pressing need, can it be worth while
to go beyond the capacity necessary to render uniform the flow of the
two or three driest consecutive years.
It must be clearly understood that the diagram fig. 4 does not
relieve the reader from any exercise of judgment, except as regards
the net capacity of reservoirs when the necessary data have been
obtained. It is merely a geometrical determination of the conditions
necessarily consequent in England, Scotland and Wales, upon a given
mean rainfall over many years, upon evaporation and absorption in
particular years (both of which he must judge or determine for
himself), and upon certain limiting variations of the rainfall, already
stated to be the result of numerous records maintained in Great
Britain for more than 50 years. It must also be remembered that
the total capacity of a reservoir must be greater than its net available
capacity, in order that in the driest seasons fish life may be main-
tained and no foul water may be drawn off.
Applied to most parts of Ireland and some parts of Great Britain,
the diagram will give results rather unduly on the safe side, as the
extreme annual variations of rainfall are less than in most parts of
Great Britain. Throughout Europe the annual variations follow
nearly the same law as in Great Britain, but in some parts the
distribution of rainfall in a single year is often more trying. The
droughts are longer, and the rain, when it falls, especially along the
Springs
and
shallow
wells.
Mediterranean coast, is often concentrated into shorter periods.
Moreover, it often falls upon sun-heated rocks, thus increasing the
evaporation for the time; but gaugings made by the writer in. the
northern Apennines indicate that this loss is more than compensated
by the greater rapidity of the fall and of the consequent flow. In
such regions, therefore, for reservoirs equalizing the flow of 2 or more
years, the capacity necessary does not materially differ from that
required in Great Britain. As the tropics are approached, even in
mountain districts, the irregularities become greater, and occasion-
ally the rainy season is entirely absent for a single year, though the
mean rainfall is considerable.
We have hitherto dealt only with the collection and sto:
of that portion of the rainfall which flows over the surface of
nearly impermeable areas. Upon such areas the
loss by percolation into the ground, not retrieved in
the form of springs above the point of interception
may be neglected, and the only loss to the stream
is that already considered of re-evaporation into the air and of
absorption by vegetation. But the crust of the earth varies
from almost complete impermeability to almost complete
permeability. Among the sedimentary rocks we have, for
example, in the clay slates of the Silurian formations, rocks
no less cracked and fissured than others, but generally quite
impermeable by reason of the joints being packed with the very
fine clay resulting from the rubbing of slate upon slate in the
earth movements to which the cracks are due. In the New Red
Sandstone, the Greensand and the upper Chalk, we find the
opposite extremes; while the igneous rocks are for the most
part only permeable in virtue of the open fissures they contain.
Wherever, below the surface, there are pores or open fissures,
water derived from rainfall is (except in the rare cases of displace-
ment by gas) found at levels above the sea determined by the
resistance of solids to its passage towards some neighbouring
sea, lake or watercourse. Any such level is commonly known
as the level of saturation. The positions of springs are deter-
mined by permeable depressions in the surface of the ground
below the general level of saturation, and frequently also by the
holding up of that level locally by comparatively impermeable
strata, sometimes combined with a fault or a synclinal fold of
the strata, forming the more permeable portion into an under-
ground basin or channel lying within comparatively impermeable
boundaries. At the lower lips or at the most permeable parts
of these basins or channels such rainfall as does not flow over the
surface, or is not evaporated or absorbed by vegetation, and
does not, while still below ground reach the level of the sea,
issues as springs, and is the cause of the continued flow of rivers
and streams during prolonged droughts. The average volume
in dry weather, of such flow, generally reduced to terms of the
fraction of a cubic foot per second, per thousand acres of the
contributing area, is commonly known in water engineering
as the " dry weather flow " and its volume at the end of the dry
season as the " extreme dry weather flow."
Perennial springs of large volume rarely occur in Great
Britain at a sufficient height to afford supplies by gravitation;
but from the limestones of Italy and many other
parts of the world very considerable volumes issue
far above the sea-level, and are thus available, without
pumping, for the supply of distant towns. On a small scale,
however, springs are fairly distributed over the United Kingdom,
for there are no formations, except perhaps blown sand, which do
not vary greatly in their resistance to the percolation of water,
and therefore tend to produce overflow from underground at
some points above the valley levels. But even the rural popula-
tions have generally found surface springs insufficiently constant
for their use and have adopted the obvious remedy of sinking
wells. Hence, throughout the world we find the shallow well
still very common in rural districts. The shallow well, however,
rarely supplies enough water for more than a few houses, and
being commonly situated near to those houses the water is often
seriously polluted. Deep wells owe their comparative immunity
from pollution to the circumstances that the larger quantity
of water yielded renders it worth while to pump that water and
convey it by pipes from comparatively unpolluted areas; and
that any impurities in the water must have passed through a
Deep
Welts.
COLLECTING AREAS)
WATER SUPPLY
393
considerable depth, and by far the larger part of them through
a great length of filtering material, and must have taken so
long a time to reach the well that their organic character has
disappeared. The principal water-bearing formations, utilized
in Great Britain by means of deep wells, are the Chalk and the
New Red Sandstone. The Upper and Middle Chalk are perme-
able almost through their mass. They hold water like a sponge,
but part with it under pressure to fissures by which they are
intersected, and, in the case of the Upper Chalk, to ducts following
beds of flints. A well sunk in these formations without striking
any fissure or water-bearing flint bed, receives water only at
a very slow rate; but if, on the other hand, it strikes one or
more of the natural water-ways, the quantity of water capable
of being drawn from it will be greatly increased.
It is a notable peculiarity of the Upper and Middle Chalk
formations that below their present valleys the underground
water passes more freely than elsewhere. This is explained
by the fact that the Chalk fissures are almost invariably rounded
and enlarged by the erosion of carbonic acid carried from the
surface by the water passing through them. These fissures
take the place of the streams in an impermeable area, and those
beneath the valleys must obviously be called upon to discharge
more water from the surface, and thus be brought in contact
with more carbonic acid, than similar fissures elsewhere. Hence
the best position for a well in the Chalk is generally that over
which, if the strata were impermeable, the largest quantity of
surface water would flow. The Lower Chalk formation is for
the most part impermeable, though it contains many ruptures
and dislocations or smashes, in the interstices of which large
bodies of water, received from the Upper and Middle Chalk,
may be naturally stored, or which may merely form passages
for water derived from the Upper Chalk. Thus despite the
impermeability of its mass large springs are occasionally found
to issue from the Lower Chalk. A striking example is that
known as Lydden Spout, under Abbot's Cliff, near Dover.
In practice it is usual in chalk formations to imitate artificially
the action of such underground watercourses, by driving from
the well small tunnels, or " adits " as they are called, below the
water-level, to intercept fissures and water-bearing beds, and
thus to extend the collecting area.
Next in importance to the Chalk formations as a source of
underground water supply comes the Trias or New Red Sand-
stone, consisting in Great Britain of two main divisions, the
Keuper above and the Bunter below. With the exception
of the Red Marls forming the upper part of the Keuper, most
of the New Red Sandstone is permeable, and some parts contain,
when saturated, even more water than solid chalk; but, just
as in the case of the chalk, a well or borehole in the sandstone
yields very little water unless it strikes a fissure; hence, in New
Red Sandstone, also, it is a common thing to form underground
chambers or adits in search of additional fissures, and sometimes
to sink many vertical boreholes with the same object in view.
As the formation approaches the condition of pure sand, the
water-bearing property of any given mass increases, but the
difficulty of drawing water from it without admixture
of sand also increases. In sand below water there are,
of course, no open fissures, and even if adits could be
usefully employed, the cost of constructing and lining them
through the loose sand would be prohibitive. The well itself
must be lined; and its yield is therefore confined to such water
as can be drawn through the sides or the bottom of the lining
without setting up a sufficient velocity to cause any sand to
flow with the water. Hence it arises that, in sand formations,
only shallow wells or small boreholes are commonly found.
Imagine for a moment that the sand grains were by any means
rendered immobile without change in the permeability of their
interspaces; we could then dispense with the iron or brickwork
lining of the well ; but as there would still be no cracks or fissures
to extend the area of percolating water exposed to the open
well, the yield would be very small. Obviously, it must be very
much smaller when the lining necessary to hold up loose sand
is used, tlncemented brickwork, or perforated ironwork, are
Wells la
the usual materials employed for lining the well and holding up
the sand, and the quantity of water drawn is kept below the
comparatively small quantity necessary to produce a velocity,
through the joints or orifices, capable of disturbing the sand.
The rate of increase of velocity towards any isolated aperture
through which water passes into the side of a well sunk in a deep
bed of sand is, in the neighbourhood of that aperture, inversely
proportional to the square of the distance therefrom. Thus, the
velocity across a little hemisphere of sand only i in. radius
covering a i-in. orifice in the lining is more than 1000 times the
mean velocity of the same water approaching the orifice radially
when 16 in. therefrom. This illustration gives some idea of the
enormous increase of yield of such a well, if, by any
means, we can get rid of the frictional sand, even from
within the 16 in. radius. We cannot do this, but
happily the grains in a sand formation differ very
widely in diameter, and if, from the interstices between the larger
grains in the neighbourhood of an orifice, we can remove the
finer grains, the resistance to flow of water is at once enormously
reduced. This was for the first time successfully done in a well,
constructed by the Biggleswade Water Board in 1902, and now
supplying water over a large area of North Bedfordshire. This
well, 10 ft. diameter, was sunk through about no ft. of surface
soil, glacial drift and impermeable gault clay and thence passed
for a further depth of 70 ft. into the Lower Greensand formation,
the outcrop of which, emerging on the south-eastern shore of
the Wash, passes south-westwards, and in Bedfordshire attains
a thickness exceeding 250 ft. The formation is probably more
or less permeable throughout; it consists largely of loose sand
and takes the general south-easterly dip of British strata. The
Biggleswade well was sunk by processes better known in connexion
with the sinking of mine shafts and foundations of bridges
across the deep sands or gravels of bays, estuaries and great
rivers. Its full capacity has not been ascertained; it much
exceeds the present pumping power, and is probably greater
than that of any other single well unassisted by adits or boreholes.
This result is mainly due to the reduction of frictional resistance
to the passage of water through the sand in the immediate
neighbourhood of the well, by washing out the finer particles
of sand and leaving only the coarser particles. For this purpose
the lower 45 ft. of the cast-iron cylinders forming the well was
provided with about 660 small orifices lined with gun-metal
tubes or rings, each armed with numerous thicknesses of copper
wire gauze, and temporarily closed with screwed plugs. On
the removal of any plug, this wire gauze prevented the sand
from flowing with the water into the well; but while the finer
particles of sand remained in the neighbourhood of the orifice,
the flow of water through the contracted area was very small.
To remove this obstruction the water was pumped out while
the plugs kept the orifices closed. A flexible pipe, brought
down from a steam boiler above, was then connected with any
opened orifice. This pipe was provided, close to the orifice,
with a three-way cock, by means of which the steam might be
first discharged into the sand, and the current between the cock
and the well then suddenly reversed and diverted into the well.
The effect of thus alternately forcing high-pressure steam among
the sand, and of discharging high-pressure water contained in
the sand into the well, is to break up any cohesion of the sand,
and to allow all the finer particles in the neighbourhood of the
orifice to rush out with the water through the wire gauze into
the well. This process, in effect, leaves each orifice surrounded
by a hemisphere of coarse sand across which the water flows
with comparative freedom from a larger hemisphere where the
corresponding velocity is very slow, and where the presence
of finer and more obstructive particles is therefore unimportant.
Many orifices through which water at first only dribbled were thus
caused to discharge water with great force, and entirely free from
sand, against the opposite side of the well, while the general
result was to increase the inflow of water many times, and to
entirely prevent the intrusion of sand. Where, however, a
firm rock of any kind is encountered, the yield of a well (under
a given head of water) can only be increased by enlargement
394
WATER SUPPLY
[COLLECTING ARE/
of the main well in depth or diameter, or by boreholes or adits.
No rule as to the adoption of any one of these courses can be
laid down, nor is it possible, without examination of each
particular case, to decide whether it is better to attempt to
increase the yield of the well or to construct an additional well
some distance away. By lowering the head of water in any
well which draws its supply from porous rock, the yield is always
temporarily increased. Every well has its own particular level
of water while steady pumping at a given rate is going on, and
if that level is lowered by harder pumping, it may take months,
or even years, for the water hi the interstices of the rock to
accommodate itself to the new conditions; but the permanent
yield after such lowering will always be less than the quantity
capable of being pumped shortly after the change. We have
hitherto supposed the pumps for drawing the water to have been
placed in the well at such a level as to be accessible, while the
suction pipe only is below water. Pumps, however,
bohoi's mav ^ e ( an< * nave been) placed deep down in boreholes,
so that water may be pumped from much greater
depths. By this means the head of pressure in the boreholes
tending to hold the water back in the rock is reduced, and the
supply consequently increased; but when the cost of main-
tenance is included, the increased supply from the adoption of
this method rarely justifies expectations. When the water has
been drawn down by pumping to a lower level its passage
through the sandstone or chalk in the neighbourhood of the
borehole is further resisted by the smaller length of borehole
below the water; and there are many instances in which repeated
lowering and increased pumping, both from wells and boreholes,
have had the result of reducing the water available, after a few
years, nearly to the original quantity. One other method the
; / use ^ t ^ ie so " ca ^ e< ^ " air-lift " should be mentioned.
This ingenious device originated in America. The
object attained by the air-lift is precisely the same as that
attained by putting a pump some distance down a borehole;
but instead of the head being reduced by means of the pump,
it is reduced by mixing the water with air. A pipe is passed
down the borehole to the desired depth, and connected with
air-compressors at the surface. The compressors being set to
work, the air is caused to issue from the lower end of the pipe
and to mix in fine bubbles with the rising column of water,
sometimes several hundred feet in height. The weight of the
column of water, or rather of water and air mixed, is thus greatly
reduced. The method will therefore always increase the yield
for the time, and it may do so permanently, though to a very
much smaller extent than at first; but its economy must always
be less than that of direct pumping.
In considering the principles of well supplies it is important
to bear the following facts in mind. The crust of the earth, so
far as it is permeable and above the sea-level, receives from
rainfall its supply of fresh water. That supply, so far as it is
not evaporated or absorbed by vegetation, passes away by the
streams or rivers, or sinks into the ground. If the strata were
uniformly porous the water would lie in the rock at different
depths below the surface according to the previous quantity
and distribution of the rainfall. It would slowly, but constantly,
percolate downwards and towards the sea, and would ooze out
at or below the sea-level, rarely regaining the earth's surface
earlier except in deep valleys. Precisely the same thing happens
in the actual crust of the earth, except that, in the formations
usually met with, the strata are so irregularly permeable that
no such uniform percolation occurs, and most of the water,
instead of oozing out near the sea-level, meets with obstructions
which cause it to issue, sometimes below the sea-level and
sometimes above it, in the form of concentrated springs.
After prolonged and heavy rainfall the upper boundary of the
sub-soil water is, except in high ground, nearly coincident with
the surface. After prolonged droughts it still retains more or
less the same figure as the surface, but at lower depths and
always with less pronounced differences of level.
Sedimentary rocks, formed below the sea or salt lagoons,
must originally have contained salt water in their interstices.
On the upheaval of such rocks above the sea-level, fresh wat
from rainfall began to flow over their exposed surfaces, and
so far as the strata were permeable, to lie in their saline
interstices upon the salt water. The weight of the water
original salt water above the sea-level, and of the fresh below
water so superimposed upon it, caused an overflow Kfouaa.
towards the sea. A hill, as it were, of fresh water rested in the
interstices of the rock upon the salt water, and continuing to
press downwards, forced out the salt water even below the leve
of the sea. Subject to the rock being porous this process would
be continued until the greater column of the lighter fresh water
balanced the smaller head of sea water. It would conceivably
take but a small fraction of the period that has in most cases
elapsed since such upheavals occurred for the salt water to be
thus displaced by fresh water, and for the condition to be
attained as regards saturation with fresh water, in which with
few exceptions we now find the porous portions of the earth's
crust wherever the rainfall exceeds the evaporation. There
are cases, however, as in the valley of the Jordan, where the
ground is actually below the sea-level, and where, as the tota
evaporation is equal to or exceeds the rainfall, the lake surface
also are below the sea-level. Thus, if there is any percolation
between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, it must be towards
the latter. There are cases also where sedimentary rocks,
fornied below the sea or salt lagoons, are almost impermeable:
thus the salt deposited in parts of the Upper Keuper of the New
Red Sandstone, is protected by the red marls of the formation,
and has never been washed out. It is now worked as an im-
portant industry in 'Cheshire.
Perhaps the most instructive cases of nearly uniform percola-
tion in nature are those which occur in some islands or peninsulas
formed wholly of sea sand. Here water is maintained
above the sea-level by the annual rainfall, and may
be drawn off by wells or borings. On such an island,
in the centre of which a borehole is put down, brackish water
may be reached far below the sea-level; the salt water forming
a saucer, as it were, in which the fresh water lies. Such a salt-
water saucer of fresh water is maintained full to overflowing
by the rainfall, and owing to the frictional resistance of the sand
and to capillary action and the fact that a given column of
fresh water is balanced by a shorter column of sea water, the
fresh water never sinks to the mean sea-level unless artificially
abstracted.
Although such uniformly permeable sand is rarely met with in
great masses, it is useful to consider in greater detail so simple a case.
Let the irregular thick line in fig. 5 be the section of a circular island
a mile and a quarter in diameter, of uniformly permeable sand.
Virtual sca?t ISfbnrt lanottuiKnat grtdf.
Diumfterofulantt ftHil>y
Oder ana larfenataKf \J
FIG. 5.
The mean sea-level is shown by the horizontal line aa, dotted where
it passes through the land, and the natural mean level of saturation
66, above the sea-level, by a curved dot and dash line. The water,
contained in the interstices of the sand above the mean sea-level,
would (except in so far as a film, coating the sand particles, is held up
by capillary attraction) gradually .sink to the sea-level if there were
no rainfall. The resistance to its passage through the sand is, how-
ever, sufficiently great to prevent this from occurring while percola-
tion of annual rainfall takes place.
Hence we may suppose that a condition has been attained in which
the denser salt water below and around the saucer CC (greatly
exaggerated in vertical scale) balances the less dense, but deeper
WATER SUPPLY
DAMS]
fresh water within it. Next suppose a well to be sunk in the middle
of the island, and a certain quantity of water to be drawn therefrom
daily. For small supplies such a well may be perfectly successful;
but however small the quantity drawn, it must obviously have the
i of diminishing the volume of fresh water, which contributes
to the maintenance of the level of saturation above the sea-level;
and with further pumping the fresh water would be so far drawn
upon that the mean level of saturation would sink, first to a curved
figure a cone of depression such as that represented by the new
level of saturation ad, and later to the figure represented by the lines
ee, in which the level of saturation has everywhere been drawn below
the mean sea-level. Before this stage the converse process begins,
the reduced column of fresh water is no longer capable of balancing
the sea water in the sand, inflow occurs at c and e, resulting finally in
the well water becoming saline. The figure, in this case of uniform
percolation, assumed by the water in the neighbourhood of a deep
well is a surface of revolution, and, however irregular the percolation
and the consequent shape of the figure, it is commonly, but somewhat
incorrectly, called the " cone of depression. " It cannot have straight,
or approximately straight, sides in any vertical plane, but in nature
is an exceedingly irregular figure drawn about curves not unlike
those in fig. 5. In this case, as in that of a level plane of uniformly
porous sand, the vertical section of the figure is tangential to the
vi-rt ical well and to the natural level of the subsoil water.
The importance of this illustration is to be found elsewhere than in
islands, or peninsulas, or in uniformly porous sand. Where the
strata are not uniformly porous, they may resist the passage of water
from the direction of the sea or they may assist it ; and round the
whole coast of England, in the Magnesian limestone to the north-
east, in the Chalk and Greensand to the east and south., and in the
New Red Sandstone to the west, the number of wells which have
been abandoned as sources of potable supply, owing to the percola-
tion of sea water, is very great. Perhaps the first important cases
occurred in the earlier part of the igth century on the Lancashire
shore of the Mersey estuary, where, one after another, deep wells in
the New Red Sandstone had to be abandoned for most purposes.
On the opposite side, in the Cheshire peninsula, the total quantity of
water drawn has been much less, but even here serious warnings have
been received. In 1895 the single well then supplying Eastbourne
was almost suddenly rendered unfit for use, and few years pass
without some similar occurrence of a more or less serious kind. The
remarkable suddenness with which such changes are brought about
is not to be wondered at when the true cause is considered. The
action of sandstone in filtering salt waters was investigated in 1878
by Dr Isaac Roberts, F.R.S., who showed that when salt water was
allowed to percolate blocks of sandstone, the effluent was at first
nearly fresh, the salt being filtered out and crystallized for the most
part near the surface of ingress to the sandstone. As the process
continued the salt-saturated layer, incapable of further effective
filtration, grew in thickness downwards, until in the iprocess of time
it filled the whole mass of sandstone. But before this was accom-
plished the filtration of the effluent became defective, and brackish
water was received, which rapidly increased nearly to the saltness
of the inflow. Into such blocks, charged with salt crystals and
thoroughly dried, fresh water was then passed, and precisely the
converse process took place. A thickness of only 12 in. of Bunter
sandstone proved at first to be capable of removing more than 80%
of the chlorides from sea water; but, after the slow passage of only
0-6 gallon through I cub. ft. of stone, the proportion removed fell
to 8-51 %. The general lesson to be learned from these facts is, that
if the purity of the water of any well not far removed from the sea is
to be maintained, that water must not be pumped down much below
the sea-level. In short, the quantity of water drawn must in no case
be allowed to exceed the quantity capable of being supplied
to the well through the medium of the surrounding soil
and rock, by rain falling upon the surface of the land. If
it exceeds this, the stock of fresh water held in the inter-
stices of the rock, and capable of flowing towards the well,
must disappear; and the deficit between the supply and &*/>'
demand can only be made up by water filtering from the sea -^Si'i W .-
and reaching the well at first quite free from salt, but sooner V
or later in a condition unfit for use.
395
r
river water whatever. Thus natural or artificial surfaces
which are completely permeable to rainfall may become
almost impermeable when protected by surface water from
drought and frost, and from earth-worms, vegetation and
artificial disturbance. The cause of this choking of the pores
is precisely the same as that described below in the case of sand
filters. But in order that the action may be complete the
initial resistance to percolation of water at every part of the
soil must be such that the motion of the water through it shall
be insufficient to disturb the water-borne mineral and organic
particles lodged on the surface or in the interstices of the soil.
If, therefore, a reservoir so formed survives the first few years
without serious leakage, it is not likely, in the absence of artificial
disturbance, to succumb owing to leakage at a later period.
Hence, as the survival of the fittest, there are many artificial
waters, with low dams consisting exclusively of earth and
sometimes very sandy earth satisfactorily performing their
functions with no visible leakage. But it is never advisable to
rely upon this action, where, as in the case of a reservoir for water
supply, large portions of naturally permeable bottom are liable
to be uncovered and exposed to the weather.
The most important dams are those which close the outlets
of existing valleys, but a dam may be wholly below ground, and
according to the commoner method of construction
in Great Britain, wherever sufficiently impermeable
rising ground is not met with at the intended boundary
of a reservoir, a trench is cut along such portion, and carried
down to rock or such other formation as, in the engineer's
opinion, forms a sufficiently impermeable sheet beneath the
whole surface to be covered with water. Into this trench so-
called " puddled clay," that is, clay rendered plastic by kneading
with water, is filled and thoroughly worked with special tools,
and trodden in layers. In this manner an underground
compartment is formed, the bottom of which is natural, and
the sides partly natural and partly artificial, both offering
high resistance to the passage of water. Above ground, if the
water level is to be higher than the natural boundary, the same
puddle walls or cores are carried up to the required level, and
are supported as they rise by embankments of earth on
either side.
Fig. 6 is a typical section of a low dam of this class, impounding
water upon gravel overlying impermeable clay. In such a structure
the whole attention as regards water-tightness should be concen-
trated upon the puddle wall or core. When, as may happen in dry
seasons, the puddle wall remains long above the water level, it parts
with moisture and contracts. It is essential that this contraction
shall not proceed to such an extent as may possibly produce cracking.
Drying is retarded, and the contraction due to a given degree of
drying is greatly reduced, by the presence of sand and small stones
among the clay. Nearly all clays, notably those from the Glacial
deposits, naturally contain sand and stones, 40 to 5O%_ by weight of
which is not too much if uniformly distributed and if the clay is
otherwise good. But in the lower parts of the trench, where the
Earthen
dams.
DAMS
Any well-made earthen embankment of moderate
height, and of such thickness and uniformity of con-
struction as to ensure freedom from excessive
percolation at any point, will in the course of time
become almost impermeable to surface water standing
against it; and when permeable rocks are covered with many
feet of soil, the leakage through such soil from standing water
newly placed above it generally diminishes rapidly, and in
process of time often ceases entirely. Even the beds of
sluggish rivers flowing over porous strata generally become
so impermeable that excavations made in their neighbour-
hood, though freely collecting the subsoil water, receive no
FIG. 6. Section of Typical Low Earth Embankment in Flat Plain.
clay can never become dry, plasticity and ductility are, for reasons
to be explained below, the first consideration, and there the pro-
portion of grit should be lower. The resistance of clay to percolation
by water depends chiefly upon the density of the clay, while that
density is rapidly reduced if the clay is permitted to absorb water.
Thus, if dry clay is prevented from expanding, and one side be sub-
jected to water pressure while the other side is held up by a com-
pletely porous medium, the percolation will be exceedingly small;
but if the pressure preventing the expansion is reduced the clay will
swell, and the percolation will increase. On the restoration of the
pressure, the density will be again increased by the reduction of the
39 6
WATER SUPPLY
[DAMS
water-filled interstices, and the percolation will be correspondingly
checked. Hence the extreme importance in high dams with clay
cores of loading the clay well for some time before water pressure is
brought against it. If this is done, the largest possible quantity of
clay will be slowly but surely forced into any space, and, being pre-
vented from expanding, it will be unable subsequently to absorb
more water. The percolation will then be very small, and the risk
of disintegration will be reduced to a minimum. The embankments
on either side of the puddle wall are merely to support the puddle and
to keep it moist above the ground level when
the reservoir is low. They may be quite per-
meable, but to prevent undue settlement and
distortion they must, like the puddle, be well
consolidated. In order to prevent a tendency to
slip, due to sudden and partial changes of satura-
tion, the outer embankment should always be
permeable, and well drained at the base except
close to the puddle. The less permeable materials
should be confined to the inner parts of the
embankments; this is especially important in the
case of the inner embankment in order that,
when the water level falls, they may remain moist
without becoming liable to slip. The inner slope
should be protected from the action of waves by
so-called " hand-pitching," consisting of roughly-
squared stonework, bedded upon a layer of
broken stone to prevent local disturbance of the
embankment by action of the water between
the joints of the larger stones.
In mountain valleys, rock or shale, commonly
the most impermeable materials met with in such
positions, are sometimes not reached till con-
siderable depths are attained. There are several
cases in Great Britain where it has been neces-
sary to carry down the puddle trench to about
200 ft. below the surface of the ground vertically
above those parts. The highest dams of this class
in the British islands impound water to a level
of about no ft. above the bottom of the valley.
Such great works have generally been well con-
structed, and there are many which after fifty
years of use are perfectly sound and water-tight,
and afford no evidence of deterioration. On the
other hand, the partial or total failure of smaller
dams of this description, to retain the reservoir
water, has been much more common in the past
than is generally supposed. Throughout Great
Britain there are still many reservoirs, with
earthen dams, which cannot safely be filled; and
others which, after remaining for years in this
condition, have been repaired. From such cases
and their successful repair valuable experience of
the causes of failure may be derived.
Most of these causes are perfectly well under-
stood by experienced engineers, but instances of
Era Ion bv ma ' construct ion of recent date are still met with., A
fl " few such cases will now be mentioned. The base of
a puddle trench is often found to have been placed
upon rock, perfectly sound in itself, but having joints which
are not impermeable. The loss of water by leakage through
such joints or fissures below the puddle wall may or may not
be a serious matter in itself; but if at any point there is sufficient
movement of water across the base of the trench to produce the
slightest erosion of the clay above it, that movement almost in-
variably increases. The finer particles of clay in the line of the joint
are washed away, while the sandy particles, which nearly all natural
clays contain, remain behind and form a constantly deepening
porous vein of sand crossing the base of the puddle. Percolation
the sand. Thus the permeable vein grows vertically rather than
horizontally, and ultimately assumes the form of a thin vertical
sheet traversing the puddle wall, often diagonally in plan, and having
a thickness which has varied in different cases from a few inches to a
couple of feet or more, of almost clean sand rising to an observed
height of 30 or 40 ft., and only arrested in its upward growth by the
necessary lowering of the reservoir water to avoid serious danger.
The settlement of the plastic clay above the eroded portion soon
produces a surface depression at the top of the embankment over or
FIG. 7. Earth Embankment, with stone toe and concrete trench.
through this sand is thus added to the original leakage. Having
passed through the puddle core the leaking water sometimes rises to
the _surface of the ground, producing a visibly turbid spring. As
erosion proceeds, the contraction of the space from which the clay
is washed continues, chiefly by the sinking down of the clay above
FIG. 8. Leakage due to improperly formed discharge culvert through
puddle wall of reservoir.
nearly over the leakage, and thus sometimes gives the first warning of
impending danger. It is not always possible to prevent any leakage
whatever through the strata below the bottom or beyond the ends
of the trench, but it is always possible to render such leakage entirely
harmless to the work above it, and to carry the water by relief-pipes
to visible points at the lower toe of the dam. Wherever the base of a
puddle wall cannot be worked into a continuous bed of clay or shale,
or tied into a groove cut in sound rock free from water-bearing
fissures, the safest course is to base it on an artificial material at once
impermeable and incapable of erosion, interposed between the rock
and the puddled clay. Water-tight concrete is a suitable material
for the purpose; it need not be made so thick as the puddle core,
and is therefore sometimes used with considerable advantage in lieu
of the puddle for the whole depth below ground. In
fig. 7 a case is shown to be so treated. Obviously, the
junction between the puddle and the concrete might
have been made at any lower level.
However well the work may be done, the lower part
of a mass of puddled clay invariably settles into a
denser mass when weighted with the clay (
above. If, theretore, one part is held up, fett ] ement .
by unyielding rock for example, while an
adjoining part has no support but the clay beneath
it, a fracture ^-not unlike a geological fault must
result. Fig. 8 is a part longitudinal section through
the puddle wall of an earthen embankment. The
puddle wall is crossed by a pedestal of concrete carry-
ing the brick discharge culvert. The puddle at a was
originally held up by the flat head of this pedestal;
not so the puddle at 6, which under the superin-
weight settled down and produced the fault be,
cumbent _____ - . -
accompanied with a shearing or tangential strain or, less probably,
with actual fracture in the direction bd. Serious leakage at once
began between c and 6 and washed out the clay, particle by particle,
but did not wash out the sand associated with it, which remained
DAMS]
WATER SUPPLY
397
behind in the crevice. The clay roof, rather than the walls of this
crevice of sand, gave way and pressed down to fill the vacancy, and
the leakage worked up along the weakened plane of tangential strain
bd. On the appearance of serious leakage the overflow level of the
water originally at ef was lowered for safety to gh; and for many
years the reservoir was worked with its general level much below gh.
The sand-filled vein, several inches in width, was found, on taking
out the puddle, to have terminated near the highest level to which
the water was allowed to rise, but not to have worked downwards.
There can be little doubt that the puddle at the right-hand angle j
w.is also strained, but not to the point of rupture, as owing to the
rise of the sandstone base there was comparatively little room for
settlement on that side. In repairing this work the perfectly safe
form shown by the dotted
lines ka, kj was substituted
for the flat surface aj, and
this alone, if originally
adopted, would have pre-
vented dangerous shearing
strains. As an additional
precaution, however, deep
tongues of concrete like
those in fig. 7 were built
in the rock throughout the
length of the trench, and
carried up the sides and
over the top of the ped-
estal. The puddle was
then replaced, and remains
sensibly watertight. The
FIG. 9. Overhanging Rock Leakage.
lesson taught by fig. 8 applies also to the ends of puddle walls
where they abut against steep faces of rock. Unless such faces
are so far below the surface of the puddle, and so related to
the lower parts of the trench, that no tension, and consequent
tendency to separation of the puddle from the rock, can possibly
take place, and unless abundant time is given, before the
reservoir is charged, for the settlement and compression of the
puddle to be completed, leakage with disastrous results may occur.
In other cases leakage and failure have arisen from allowing a part
of the rock bottom or end of a puddle trench to overhang, as in fig. 9.
Here the straining of the original horizontal puddle in settling down
is indicated in a purposely exaggerated way by the curved lines.
There is considerable distortion ofthe clay, resulting from combined
shearing and tensile stress, above each of the steps of rock, and
reaching its maximum at and above the highest rise ab, where it has
proved sufficient to produce a dangerous line of weakness ac, the
tension at a either causing actual rupture, or such increased porosity
as to permit of percolation capable of keeping open the wound. In
such cases as are shown in figs. 8 and 9 the growth of the sand vein is
not vertical, but inclined towards the plane of maximum shearing
strain. Fig. 9 also illustrates a weak place at b where the clay either
never pressed hard against the overhanging rock or has actually
drawn away therefrom in the process of settling towards the lower
part to the left. When it is considered that a parting of the clay,
sufficient to allow the thinnest film of water to pass, may start the
formation of a vein of porous sand in the manner above explained,
it will be readily seen how great must be the attention to details, in
unpleasant places below ground, and below the water level of the
surrounding area, if safety is to be secured. In cases like fig. 9 the
rock should always be cut away to a slope, such as that shown in
fig. 10.
If no considerable difference of water-pressure had been allowed
between the two sides of the puddle trench in figs. 8 or 9 until the clay
had ceased to settle down,
!* ' s P r bable that the
interstices, at first formed
between the puddle and
the concrete or rock,
would have been suffici-
ently filled to prevent in-
jurious percolation at any
future time. Hence it is
always a safe precaution
to afford plenty of time
for such settlement before
FIG. 10. Proper Figure for Rock Slope. a reservoir is charged
with water. But to all
such precautions should be added the use of concrete or brickwork
tongues running longitudinally at the bottom of the trench, such as
those shown at a higher level in fig. 7.
In addition to defects arising out of the condition or figure of the
rock or of artificial work upon which the puddle clay rests, the puddle
Defect* la wa " itself is " en def ective. The original material may
have been perfectly satisfactory, but if, for example, in
wall. *" e P r g res ? of the work a stream of water is allowed to
flow across it, fine clay is sometimes washed away, and the
gravel or sand associated with it left to a sufficient extent to permit
f future percolation. Unless such places are carefully dug out or
re-puddled before the work of filling is resumed, the percolation may
increase along the vertical plane where it is greatest, by the erosion
and falling in of the clay roof, as in the other cases cited. Two
instances probably originating in some such cause are shown in fig. 1 1
in the relative positions in which they were found, and carefully
measured, as the puddle was removed from a crippled reservoir dam.
These fissures are in vertical planes stretching entirely across the
puddle trench, and reaching in one case, oa, nearly to the highest
level at which the reservoir had been worked for seventeen years
after the leakage had been discovered. The larger and older of these
veins was 44$ ft. high, of which 14 ft. was above the original ground
level, and it is interesting to note that this portion, owing probably to
easier access for the water from the reservoir and reduced com-
pression of the puddle, was much wider than below. The little vein
to the left marked bb, about 3! ft. deep, is curious. It looks like the
beginning of success of an effort made by a slight percolation during
the whole life of the reservoir to increase itself materially by erosion.
EmbarJ&nent,
malty intended top water level -
Highest working level allowed
f*t
FIG. n. Vertical Vein of Leakage.
There is no reason to believe that the initial cause of such a leakage
could be developed except during construction, and it is certain that
once begun it must increase. Only a knowledge of the great loss
of capital that has resulted from abortive reservoir construction
justifies this notice of defects which can always be avoided, and are
too often the direct result, not of design, but of parsimony in pro-
viding during the execution of such works, and especially below
ground, a sufficiency of intelligent, experienced and conscientious
supervision.
In some cases, as, for example, when a high earthen embankment
crosses a gorge, and there is plenty of stone to be had, it is desirable
to place the outer bank upon a toe or platform of rubble stonework,
as in fig. 7, by which means the height of the earthen portion is
reduced and complete drainage secured. But here again great care
must be exercised in the packing and consolidation of the stones,
which will otherwise crack and settle.
f As with many other engineering works, the tendency to slipping
either of the sides of the valley or of the reservoir embankment itself
has often given trouble, and has sometimes led to serious disaster.
WATER SUPPLY
[DAMS
This, however, is^ kind of failure not always attributable to want
of proper supervision during construction, but rather to improper
choice of the site, or treatment of the case, by those primarily
responsible.
In .countries where good clay or retentive earth cannot be
obtained, numerous alternative expedients have been adopted
with more or less success. In the mining districts
wMi'aht- f America, for example^ where timber is cheap, rough
phragms stone embankments have been lined on the water face
efwood, w j t jj timber to form the water-tight septum. In such
cre<e C &c' a position, even if the timber can be made sufficiently
water-tight to begin with, the alternate immersion
and exposure to air and sunshine promotes expansion and con-
traction, and induces rapid disintegration, leakage and decay.
Such an expedient may be justified by the doubtful future of
mining centres, but would be out of the question for permanent
water supply. Riveted sheets of steel have been occasionally
used, and, where bedded in a sufficient thickness of concrete,
with success. At the East Canon Creek dam, Utah, the height
of which is about 61 ft. above the stream, the trench below
ground was filled with concrete much in the usual way, while
above ground the water-tight diaphragm consists of a riveted
steel plate varying in thickness from & in. to ^ in. This
steel septum was protected on either side by a thin wall of
asphaltic concrete supported by rubble stone embankments,
and owing to irregular settling of the embankments became
greatly distorted, apparently, however, without causing leakage.
Asphalt, whether a natural product or artificially obtained, as,
for example, in some chemical manufactures, is a most useful
material if properly employed in connexion with reservoir dams.
Under sudden impact it is brittle, and has a conchoidal fracture
like glass; but under continued pressure it has the properties
of a viscous fluid. The rate of flow is largely dependent upon the
proportion of bitumen it contains, and is of course retarded by
mixing it with sand and stone to form what is commonly called
asphalt concrete. But given time, all such compounds, if they
contain enough bitumen to render them water-tight, appear to
settle down even at ordinary temperatures as heavy viscous
fluids, retaining their fluidity permanently if not exposed to
the air. Thus they not only penetrate all cavities in an exceed-
ingly intrusive manner, but exert pressures in all directions,
which, owing to the density of the asphalt, are more than 40 %
greater than would be produced by a corresponding depth of
water. From the neglect of these considerations numerous
failures have occurred.
Elsewhere, a simple concrete or masonry wall or core has been
used above as well as below ground, being carried up between
embankments either of earth or rubble stone. This construction
has received its highest development in America. On the
Titicus, a tributary of the Croton river, an earthen dam was
completed in 1895, with a concrete core wall 100 ft. high almost
wholly above the original ground level, which is said to be
impermeable; but other dams of the same system, with core
walls of less than too ft. in height, are apparently in their
present condition not impermeable. Reservoir No. 4 of the
Boston waterworks, completed in 1885, has a concrete core wall.
The embankment is 1800 ft. long and 60 ft. high. The core wall
is about 8 ft. thick at the bottom and 4 ft. thick at the top, and
in the middle of the valley nearly 100 ft. in height. At irregular
intervals of 150 ft. or more buttresses 3 ft. wide and i ft. thick
break the continuity on the water side. That this work has been
regarded as successful is shown by the fact that Reservoir No. 6
of the same waterworks was subsequently constructed and
completed in 1894 with a similar core wall. There is no serious
difficulty in so constructing walls of this kind as to be practically
water-tight while they remain unbroken; but owing to the
settlement of the earthen embankments and the changing level
of saturation they are undoubtedly subject to irregular stresses
which cannot be calculated, and under which, speaking generally,
plastic materials are much safer. In Great Britain masonry
or concrete core walls have been generally confined to positions
below ground. Thus placed, no serious strains are caused either
by changes of temperature or of moisture or by movements of
the lateral supports, and with proper ingredients and care
a very thin wall wholly below ground may be made water-
tight.
The next class of dam to be considered is that in which the
structure as a whole is so bound together that, with certain
reservations, it may be considered as a monolith
subject chiefly to the overturning tendency of water-
pressure resisted by the weight of the structure itself
and the supporting pressure of the foundation. Masonry dams
are, for the most part, merely retaining walls of exceptional
size, in which the overturning pressure is water. If such a dam
is sufficiently strong, and is built upon sound and moderately
rough rock, it will always be incapable of sliding. Assuming
also that it is incapable of crushing under its own weight and the
pressure of the water, it must, in order to fail entirely, turn over
on its outer toe, or upon the outer face at some higher level.
It may do this in virtue of horizontal water-pressure alone, or
of such pressure combined with upward pressure from intrusive
water at its base or in any higher horizontal plane. Assume
first, however, that there is no uplift from intrusive water. As
the pressure of water is nil at the surface and increases in direct
proportion to the depth, the overturning moment is as the cube
of the depth; and the only figure which has a moment of
resistance due to gravity, varying also as the cube of its depth,
is a triangle. The form of stability having the least sectional
area is therefore a triangle. It is obvious that the angles at the
base of such a hypothetical dam must depend upon the relation
between its density and that of the water. It can be shown,
for example, that for masonry having a density of 3, water being
i, the figure of minimum section is a right-angled triangle, with
the water against its vertical face; while for a greater density
the water face must lean towards the water, and for a less density
away from the water, so that the water may lie upon it. For
the sections of masonry dams actually used in practice, if designed
on the condition that the centre of all vertical pressures when
the reservoir is full shall be, as hereafter provided, at two-thirds
the width of the base from the inner toe, the least sectional area
for a, density of 2 also has a vertical water face. As the density
of the heaviest rocks is only 3, that of a masonry dam must
be below 3, and in practice such works if well constructed vary
from 2-2 to 2-6. For these densities, the deviation of the water
face from the vertical in the figure of least sectional area is,
however, so trifling that, so far as this consideration is concerned,
it may be neglected.
If the right-angled triangle abc, fig. 12, be a profile i ft. thick of a
monolithic dam, subject to the pressure of water against its vertical
side to the full depth ab =
d in feet, the horizontal Vatr level- Q-
pressure of water against
the section of the dam, in-
creasing uniformly with the
depth, is properly repre-
sented by the isosceles
right-angled triangle abe,
in which be is the maximum /
water-pressure due to the tetfrtar-iraKr pressure n>-
full depth d, while the area
s
<P
abe = is
the total hori-
zontal pressure against the
dam, generally stated in
cubic feet of water, acting
at one-third its depth above
FIG. 12. Diagram of Right-Angled
Triangle Dam.
the base. Then is the resultant horizontal pressure with an over-
turning moment of
(i)
If x be the width of the base, and p the density of the masonry, the
weight of the masonry in terms of a cubic foot of water will be -j-
acting at its centre of gravity g, situated at fx from the outer toe,
and the moment of resistance to overturning on the outer toe,
^ '-"
DAMS]
Equating the moment of resistance (2) to the overturning moment
(i), we have
WATER SUPPLY
399
and
-4- (3)
V2p
That is to say, for such a monolith to be on the point of overturning
under the horizontal pressure due to the full depth of water, its base
must be equal to that depth divided by the square root of twice the
density of the monolith. For a density of 2-5 the base would there-
fore be 44-7 % of the height.
We have now to consider what are the necessary factors of safety,
and the modes of their application. In the first place, it is out of
. the question to allow the water to rise to the vertex o
* of such a masonry triangle. A minimum thickness must
** be adopted to give substance to the upper part ; and where
th dam is not used as a weir it must necessarily rise several feet
above the water, and may in either event have to carry a roadway.
Moreover, considerable mass is required to reduce the internal
strains caused by changes of temperature. In the next place, it is
necessary to confine the pressure, at every point of the masonry, to
an intensity which will give a sufficient factor of safety against
crushing. The upper part of the dam having been designed in the
light of these conditions, the whole process of completing the design
is simple enough when certain hypotheses have been adopted, though
somewhat laborious in its more obvious form. It_is clear that the
greatest crushing pressure must occur, either, with the reservoir
empty, near the lower part of the water face ab, or with the reservoir
full, near the lower part of the outer face ac. The principles hitherto
adopted in designing masonry dams, in which the moment of re-
sistance depends upon the figure and weight of the masonry, involve
certain assumptions, which, although not quite true, have proved
useful and harmless, and are so convenient that they may be con-
tinued with due regard to the modifications which recent investiga-
tions have suggested. One such assumption is that, if the dam is
well built, the intensity of vertical pressure will (neglecting local
irregularities) vary nearly uniformly from face to face along any
horizontal plane. Thus, to take the simplest case, if abce (fig. 13)
represents a rectangular mass already designed for the superstructure
e
Centre of *is-6fer pressure
FIG. 13. Factor of Safety Diagram.
of the dam, and g its centre of gravity, the centre of pressure upon
the base will be vertically under g, that is, at the centre of the base,
and the load will be properly represented by the rectangle bfgc, of
which the area represents the total load and the uniform depth of its
uniform intensity. At this high part of the structure the intensity of
pressure will of course be much less than its permissible intensity.
If now we assume the water to have a depth d above the base, the
total water pressure represented by the triangle kbh will have its
centre at <f/3 from the base, and by the parallelogram of forces,
assuming the density of the masonry to be 2-5, we find that the
centre of pressure upon the base be is shifted from the centre of the
base to a point i nearer to the outer toe c, and adopting our assump-
tion of uniformly varying intensity of stress, the rectangular diagram
of pressures will thus be distorted from the figure bftc to the figure of
equal area bjlc, having its centre o vertically under the point at which
FIG. 14. Diagram showing lines of
pressure in Masonry Dam.
the resultant of all the forces cuts the base be. For any lower level
the same treatment may, step by step, be adopted, until the maxi-
mum intensity of pressure cl exceeds the assumed permissible
maximum, or the centre of pressure reaches an assigned distance
from the outer toe c, when the base must be widened until the
maximum intensity of pressure or the centre of pressure, as the
case may be, is brought within the prescribed limit. The resultant
profile is of the kind shown in fig. 14.
Having thus determined the outer profile under the conditions
hitherto assumed, it must be similarly ascertained that the water
face is everywhere can-
able of resisting the
vertical pressure of the
masonry when the reser-
voir is empty, and the
base of each compart-
ment must be widened
if necessary in that
direction also. Hence in
dams above 100 ft. in
height, further adjust-
ment of the outer profile
may be required by
reason of the deviation
of the inner profile from
the vertical. The effect
of this process is to give
a series of points in the
horizontal planes at
which the resultants of
all forces above those
planes respectively cut
the planes. Curved
lines, as dotted in fig. 14,
drawn through these points give the centre of pressure, for the
reservoir full and empty respectively, at any horizontal plane.
These general principles were recognized by Messrs Graen and
Delocre of the Fonts et Chaussees, and about the year 1866 were put
into practice in the Furens dam near St Etienne. In 1871 the late
Professor Rankine, F.R.S., whose remarkable perception of the
practical fitness or unfitness of purely theoretical deductions gives
his writings exceptional value, received from Major Tulloch, R.E.,
on behalf of the municipality of Bombay, a request to consider the
subject generally, and with special reference to very high dams, such
as have since been constructed in India. Rankine pointed out that
before the vertical pressure reached the maximum pressure per-
missible, the pressure tangential to the slope might do so. Thus
conditions of stress are conceivable in which the maximum would be
tangential to the slope or nearly so, and would therefore increase the
vertical stress in proportion to the cosecant squared of the slope.
It is very doubtful whether this pressure is ever reached, but such a
limit rather than that of the vertical stress must be considered when
the height of a dam demands it. Next, Rankine pointed out that, in
a structure exposed to the overturning action of forces which fluctu-
ate in amount and direction, there should be no appreciable tension
at any point of the masonry. But there is a still more important
reason why this condition should be strictly adhered to as regards
the inner face. We have hitherto considered only the horizontal
overturning pressure of the water; but if from originally defective
construction, or from the absence of vertical pressure due to weight of
masonry towards the water edge of any horizontal bed, as at ab in
fig. 14, water intrudes beneath that part of the masonry more readily
than it can obtain egress along be, or in any other direction towards
the outer face, we shall have the uplifting and overturning pressure
due to the full depth of water in the reservoir over the width i added
to the horizontal pressure, in which case all our previous calculations
would be futile. The condition, therefore, that there shall be no
tension is important as an element of design; but when we come to
construction, we must be careful also that no part of the wall shall
be less permeable than the water face. In fig. 13 we have seen that
the varying depth of the area bjlc approximately represents the
varying distribution of the vertical stress. If, therefore, the centre
of that became so far removed to the right as to make ;' coincident
with b, the diagram of stresses would become the triangle j'l'c', and
the vertical pressure at the inner face would be nil. This will
evidently happen when the centre sf pressure *' is two-thirds from the
inner toe 6' and one-third from the outer toe c' ; and if we displace the
centre of pressure still further to the right, the condition that the
centre of figure of the diagram shall be vertically under that centre of
pressure can only be fulfilled by allowing the point j' to cross the
base to j* thus giving a negative pressure or tension at the inner toe.
Hence it follows that on the assumption of uniformly varying stress
the line of pressures, when the reservoir is full, should not at any
horizontal plane fall outside the middle third of the width of that
plane.
Rankine in his report adopted the prudent course of taking as the
safe limits certain pressures to which, at that time, such structures
were known to be subject. Thus for the inner face he took, as the
limiting vertical pressure, 320 ft. of water, or nearly 9 tons per sq. ft-
and for the outer face 250 ft. of water, or about 7 tons per sq. ft.
400
WATER SUPPLY
For simplicity of calculation Rankine chose logarithmic curves for
both the inner and outer faces, and they fit very well with the con-
ditions. With one exception, however the Beetaloo dam in
Australia 1 10 ft. high there are no practical examples of dams with
logarithmically curved faces.
After Rankine, a French engineer, Bouvier, gave the ratio of the
maximum stress in a dam to the maximum vertical stress as I to the
cosine squared of the angle between the vertical and the resultant
which, in dams of the usual form, is about as 13 is to 9.
During the last few years attention has been directed to the
stresses including shearing stresses on planes other than 'hori-
zontal. M. Levy contributed various papers on the subject which
will be found in the Comptes rendus de I Academic des Sciences (1895
and 1898) and in the Annales des Fonts et Chaussees (1897). He in-
vestigated the problem by means of the general differential equations
of static equilibrium for dams of triangular and rectangular form
considered as isotropic elastic solids. In one of
these papers Levy formulated the requirement
now generally adopted in France that the vertical
pressure at the upstream end of any joint, calcu-
lated by the law of uniformly varying stress,
should not be less than that of the water pressure
at the level of that joint in order to prevent in-
trusive water getting into the structure.
These researches were followed by those of
Messrs L. W. Atcherley and Karl Pearson, F.R.S., 1
and by an approximate graphical treatment by
Dr W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. 2 Dr Unwin took two
horizontal planes, one close above the other, and
calculated the vertical stresses on each by the law
of uniformly varying stresses. Then the differ-
ence between the normal pressure on a rectangular RESERVOIR
element in the lower plane and that on the upper "^
plane is the weight of the element and the differ-
ence between the shears on the vertical faces of
that element. The weights being known, the
principal stresses may be determined. These
researches led to a wide discussion of the sufficiency
of the law of uniformly varying stress when
applied to horizontal joints as a test of the
stability of dams. Professor Karl Pearson showed
that the results are dependent upon the assump-
tion that the distribution of the vertical stresses
on the base of the structure also followed the
law of uniformly varying stress. In view of the
irregular forms and the uncertainties of the nature
of the materials at the foundation, the law of uni-
formly varying stress was not applicable to the
base of the dam. He stated that it was practic-
ally impossible to determine the stresses by purely
mathematical means. The late Sir Benjamin
Baker, F.R.S., suggested that the stresses might
be measured by experiments with elastic models,
and among others, experiments were carried out
by Messrs Wilson and Gore * with indiarubber
models of plane sections of dams (including the
foundations) who applied forces to represent the
gravity and water pressures in such a manner that
the virtual density of the rubber was increased
many times without interfering with the proper
ratio between gravity and water pressure, and by this means the
strains produced were of sufficient magnitude to be easily measured.
The more important of their results are shown graphically in figs.
15 and 1 6, and prove that the law of uniformly varying stress is
generally applicable to the upper two-thirds of a dam, but that at
parts in or near the foundations that law is departed from in a way
which will be best understood from the diagrams.
Fig. 15 shows a section of the model dam. The maximum principal
stresses are represented by the directions and thicknesses of the two
systems of intersecting lines mutually at right angles.
Tensile stresses (indicated by broken Jines on the diagram) are
shown at the upstream toe notwithstanding that the Une of resist-
ance is well within the middle third of the section. It is important to
notice that the maximum value of the tension at the toe lies in a
direction approximately at 45 to the vertical, but at points lower
down in the foundation this tension, while less in magnitude, becomes
much more horizontal. This feature indicates that in the event of a
crack occurring at the upstream toe, its extension would tend to
turn downwards and follow a direction nearly parallel with the
maximum pressure lines, in which direction it would not materially
affect the stability of the structure.
As a matter of fact, the foundations of most dams are carried down
in vertical trenches, the lower part only being in sound materials so
that actual separation almost corresponding with the hypothetical
1 On Some Disregarded Points in the Stability of Masonry Dams,
Drapers' Company Research Memoir (London, 1904).
* Engineering (May mh, 1905).
3 Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 172, p.
107.
[DAMS
crack is allowed in the first instance with no harmful effects. Similar
experiments upon models with rounded toes but otherwise of the
same form showed a considerable reduction in the magnitude of the
tensile stresses.
On examining the diagram it will be observed that the maximum
compressive stresses are parallel to and near to the down stream face
of the section, which values are approximately equal to the maxi-
mum value of the vertical stress determined by the law of uniformly
varying stress divided by the cosine squared of the angle between the
vertical and the resultant.
The distributions of stress on the base line of the model for " reser-
voir empty " and " reservoir full " are shown in fig. 16 by ellipses of
stress and by diagrams of stress on vertical and horizontal sections.
Arrow heads at the ends of an axis of an ellipse indicate tension
as distinct from compression, and the semi-axes in magnitude and
direction represent the principal stresses.
FIG. 15. Diagrams illustrating results of
Wilson and Core's experiments with an India-
rubber model dam. Reservoir full.
The two systems of lines mutually at right
angles show the directions of the maximum and
minimum stresses respectively. Such stresses
are termed principal stresses. Tension is indi-
cated by broken lines and compression by full
lines.
The shearing stresses are zero along the lines
of principal stress and reach a maximum on
lines at 45 thereto. The magnitudes of the
maximum shearing stresses are indicated by the
algebraic differences of the thicknesses of the
lines of principal stress.
Line ab is in such a position that the stresses
along and above it are not materially affected
by the more irregular stresses below that line
produced by the sudden change in section at
the base of the dam. The vertical distance
above the line ab of any point in the dotted
line dc is proportional to the vertical com-
ponent of the compressive stress on the line ab
assumed to vary uniformly from face to face,
and similarly the vertical distance of any
point in the 3-dot-and-dash line ae above
the line ab is proportional to the vertical
component of the stress determined ex-
perimentally. The vertical component
diagrams abed and abea are
drawn to a larger scale than
the lines indicating the principal
stresses.
It is obvious that experiments of the kind referred to cannot take
into account all the conditions of the problem met with in actual
practice, such as the effect of the rock at the sides of the valley and
variations of temperature, &c., but deviations in practice from the
conditions which mathematical analyses or experiments assume are
nearly always present. Such analyses and experiments are not on
that account the less important and useful.
So far we have only considered water-pressure against the reser-
voir side of the dam ; but it sometimes happens that the water and
earth pressure against the outer face is considerable enough to modify
the lower part of the section. In dams of moderate height above
ground and considerable depth below ground there is, moreover,
no reason why advantage should not be taken of the earth resistance
due either to the downstream face of the trench against which the
foundations are built, or to the materials excavated and properly
embanked against that face above the ground level or to both.
We do not always know the least resistance which it is safe to give
to a retaining wall subject to the pressure of earth, or conversely,
the maximum resistance to side-thrust which natural or embanked
earth will afford, because we wisely neglect the important but very
variable element of adhesion between the particles. It is notorious
among engineers that retaining walls designed in accordance with
the well-known theory of conjugate pressures in earth are un-
necessarily strong, and this arises mainly from the assumption that
the earth is merely a loose granular mass without any such ad-
hesion. As a result of this theory, in the case of a retaining wall
supporting a vertical face of earth beneath an extended horizontal
plane level with the top of the wall, we get
p_iV3? I sin d>
~ 2 ' I +sin <t>
DAMS] WATER SUPPLY 401
RESERVOIR EMPTY RESERVOIR FULL
ELLIPSES Or STRESS
VERTICAL PRESSURES ON HORIZONTAL JOINTS.
HORIZONTAL PRESSURE) ON VERTICAL JOINTS.
SH E AHINS
STR E S S ES
FIG. 16. Showing Stresses at base of model dam determined experimentally.
where P is the horizontal pressure of the earth against the wall
exerted at one-third its height, w the weight of unit volume of
the material, x the height of the wall, and the angle of repose of
the material. That the pressure so given exceeds the maximum
possible pressure we do not doubt; and, conversely, iT we put
p,_w**.i +sin <t>
2 I sin <f>'
we may have equal confidence that P' will be less than the maximum
pressure which, if exerted by the wall against the earth, will be borne
without disturbance. But like every pure theory the principles of
conjugate pressures in earth may lead to danger if not applied with
due consideration for the angle of repose of the material, the modi-
fications brought about by the limited width of artificial embank-
ments, the possible contraction away from the masonry, of clayey
materials during dry weather for some feet in depth and the tendency
of surface waters to produce scour between the wall and the em-
bankment. Both the Neuadd and the Fisher Tarn dams are largely
dependent upon the support of earthen embankments with much
economy and with perfectly satisfactory results.
In the construction of the Vyrnwy masonry dam Portland
cement concrete was used in the joints. When more than six
months old, 9 in. cubes of this material never failed under
compression below in tons per sq. ft. with an average of 167
tons; and the mean resistance of all the blocks tested between
two and three years after moulding exceeded 215 tons per sq. ft.,
while blocks cut from the concrete of the dam gave from 181
to 329 tons per sq. ft. It has been shown that the best hydraulic
lime, or volcanic puzzuolana and lime, if properly ground
while slaking, and otherwise treated in the best-known manner,
as well as some of the so-called natural (calcareous) cements,
will yield results certainly not inferior to those obtained from
Portland cement. The only objection that can in any case be
urged against most of the natural products is that a longer time
is required for induration; but in the case of masonry dams
sufficient time necessarily passes before any load, beyond that
of the very gradually increasing masonry, is brought upon the
structure. The result of using properly treated natural limes
is not to be judged from the careless manner in which such
limes have often been used in the past. Any stone of which
it is desirable to build a masonry dam would certainly possess
an average strength at least as great as the above figures for
concrete; the clay slate of the Lower Silurian formation, used
in the case of the Vyrnwy dam, had an ultimate crushing strength
of from 700 to 1000 tons per sq. ft. If, therefore, with such
materials the work is well done, and is not subsequently liable
to be wasted or disintegrated by expansion or contraction or
other actions which in the process of time affect all exposed
surfaces, it is clear that 1 5 to 20 tons per sq. ft. must be a perfectly
safe load. There are many structures at present in existence
bearing considerably greater loads than this, and the granite
ashlar masonry of at least one, the Bear Valley dam in California,
is subject to compressive stresses, reaching, when the reservoir
is full, at least 40 to 50 tons per sq. ft., while certain brickwork
linings in mining shafts are subject to very high circumferential
stresses, due to known water-pressures. In one case which
has been investigated this circumferential pressure exceeds
26 tons per sq. ft., and the brickwork, which is 18 in. thick and
20 ft. internal diameter, is perfectly sound and water-tight.
In portions of the structure liable to important changes of
pressure from the rise and fall of the water and subject to the
additional stresses which expansion and contraction by changes
of temperature and of moisture induce, and in view of the great
difficulty of securing that the average modulus of elasticity in
all parts of the structure shall be approximately the same, it is
probably desirable to limit the calculated load upon any external
work, even of the best kind, to 15 or 20 tons per sq. ft. It is
clear that the material upon which any high masonry dam is
founded must also have a large factor of safety against crushing
under the greatest load that the dam can impose upon it, and
this consideration unfits any site for the construction of a
masonry dam where sound rock, or at least a material equal in
strength to the strongest shale, cannot be had; even in the case
of such a material as shale the foundation must be well below
the ground.
402
WATER SUPPLY
The actual construction of successful masonry dams has
varied from the roughest rubble masonry to ashlar work. It
Materials. ls P r bable, however, that, all things considered,
random rubble in which the flattest side of each
block of stone is dressed to a fairly uniform surface, so that it
may be bedded as it were in a tray of mortar, secures the nearest
approach to uniform elasticity. Such stones may be of any
size subject to each of them covering only a small proportion
of the width of the structure (in the Vyrnwy dam they reached
8 or 10 tons each), and the spaces between them, where large
enough, must be similarly built in with smaller, but always the
largest possible, stones; spaces too small for this treatment
must be filled and rammed with concrete. All stones must be
beaten down into their beds until the mortar squeezes up into
the joints around them. The faces of the work may be of squared
masonry, thoroughly tied into the hearting; but, in view of the
expansion and contraction mentioned below, it is better that the
face masonry should not be coursed. Generally speaking, in
the excavations for the foundations springs are met with; these
may be only sufficient to indicate a continuous dampness at
certain beds or joints of the rock, but all such places should be
connected by relief drains carried to visible points at the back
of the dam. It should be impossible, in short, for any part of the
rock beneath the dam to become charged with water under
pressure, either directly from the water in the reservoir or from
higher places in the mountain sides. For similar reasons care
must be taken to ensure that the structure of the water face
of the dam shall be the least permeable of any part. In the
best examples this has been secured by bedding the stones near
to the water face in somewhat finer mortar than the rest, and
sometimes also by placing pads to fill the joints for several
inches from the water face, so that the mortar was kept away
from the face and was well held up to its work. On the removal
of the pads, or the cutting out of the face of the mortar where
pads were not used, the vacant joint was gradually filled with
almost dry mortar, a hammer and caulking tool being used to
consolidate it. By these means practical impermeability was
obtained. If the pores of the water face are thus rendered
extremely fine, the surface water, carrying more or less fine
detritus and organic matter, will soon close them entirely and
assist in making that face the least permeable portion of the
structure.
But no care in construction can prevent the compression of
the mass as the superincumbent weight comes upon it. Any
given yard of height measured during construction, or at any
time after construction, will be less than a yard when additional
weight has been placed upon it; hence the ends of such dams
placed against rock surfaces must move with respect to those
surfaces when the superincumbent load conies upon them.
This action is obviously much reduced where the rock sides
of the valley rise slowly; but in cases where the rock is very
steep, the safest course is to face the facts, and not to depend for
water-tightness upon the cementing of the masonry to the rock,
but rather to provide a vertical key, or dowel joint, of some
material like asphalt, which will always remain water-tight.
So far as the writer has been able to observe or ascertain, there
are very few masonry dams in Europe or America which have
not been cracked transversely in their higher parts. They
generally leak a little near the junction with the rock, and at
some other joints in intermediate positions. In the case of the
Neuadd dam this difficulty was met by deliberately omitting
the mortar in transverse joints at regular intervals near the top
of the dam, except just at their faces, where it of course cracks
harmlessly, and by filling the rest with asphalt. Serious move-
ment from expansion and contraction does not usually extend
to levels which are kept moderately damp, or to the greater
mass of the dam, many feet below high-water level.
The first masonry dam of importance constructed in Great Britain
was that upon the river Vyrnwy, a tributary of the Severn, in con-
nexion with the Liverpool water-supply (Plate I.). Its height,
subject to water-pressure, is about 134 ft., and a carriage-way is
carried on arches at an elevation of about 1 8 ft. higher. As this
dam is about 1 180 ft. in length from rock to rock, it receives practic-
[DAMS
ally no support from the sides of the valley. Its construction drew
much attention to the subject of masonry dams in England where
the earthwork dam, with a wall of puddled clay, had hitherto been
almost universal and since its completion nine more masonry dams
of smaller size have been completed. In connexion with the Elan
and Claerwen works, in Mid-Wales, for the supply of Birmingham,
six masonry dams were projected, three of which are completed, in-
cluding the Caban Gocn dam, 590 ft. long at the water level, and
subject to a water-pressure of 152 ft. above the rock foundations and
of 122 ft. above the river bed, and the Craig-yr-allt Goch dam,
subject to a head of 133 ft. The latter dam is curved in plan, the
radius being 740 ft. and the chord of the arc 515 ft. In the Derwent
Valley scheme, in connexion with the water supplies of Derby,
Leicester, Nottingham and Sheffield, six more masonry dams have
received parliamentary sanction. Of these the highest is the Hag-
glee, on the Ashop, a tributary of the Derwent, which will impound
water to about 136 ft. above the river bed, the length from rock to
rock being 980 ft. Two of these dams are now in course of construc-
tion, one of which, the Howden, will be 1080 ft. in length and will
impound water to a depth of 114 ft. above the river bed. In 1892
the excavation was begun for the foundations of a masonry dam
across the Croton river, in connexion with the supply of New York.
The length of this dam from rock to rock at the overflow level is
about 1500 ft. The water face, over the maximum depth at which
that face cuts the rock foundations, is subject to a water-pressure of
about 260 ft., while the height of the dam above the river bed is
163 ft. The section, shown in fig. 17, has been well considered. The
hearting is of rubble masonry, and the faces are coursed ashlar.
T
bnresttfqrtof '.^^
foiuulation,. vvv
voc
FIG. 17. Section of Croton Dam.
So-called " natural cement " has been used, except during frosty
weather, when Portland cement was substituted on account of its
more rapid setting. An important feature in connexion with this
dam is the nature of the foundation upon which it stands. Part of
the rock is schist, but the greater portion limestone, similar in
physical qualities to the Carboniferous limestone of Great Britain.
The lowest part of the surface of this rock was reached after excavat-
ing through alluvial deposits to a depth of about 70 ft., but owing
to its fissured and cavernous nature it became necessary to ex-
cavate to much greater depths, reaching in places more than I2O ft.
below the original bottom of the valley. Great pains appear to have
been taken to ascertain that the cavernous portions of the rock had
been cut out and built up before the building was begun.
The Furens dam, already referred to as the earliest type of a
scientifically designed structure of the kind, is subject to a pressure
of about 166 ft. of water; the valley it crosses is only about 300 ft.
wide at the water level, and the dam is curved in plan to a radius of
828 ft. Much discussion has taken place as to the utility of such
curvature. The recent investigations already referred to indicate
the desirability of curving dams in plan in order to reduce the possi-
bility of tension and infiltration of water at the upstream face. In
narrow rock gorges extremely interesting and complex problems re-
lating to the combined action of horizontal and vertical stresses arise,
and in some such cases it is evident that much may be done by means
of horizontal curvature to reduce the quantity of masonry without
reduction of strength. The Bear Valley dam, California, is the most
WATER SUPPLY
PLATE.
THE VYRNWY VALLEY, MONTGOMERYSHIRE, June 1888.
From Photographs by J . Maclardy.
XXVIII. 4 oj.
LAKE VYRNWY, December 1889.
RESERVOIRS]
WATER SUPPLY
403
daring example in existence of the employment of the arch principle.
Its height from the rock bed is 64 ft., and it is subject during floods
to a head of water not much less. The length of the chord of the arc
is the valley is about 250 ft. and the radius 335 ft. The dam was
begun in 1883, with a base 20 ft. thick, narrowing to 13 ft. at a height
of 16 ft. The cost of this thickness being regarded as too great, it
abruptly reduced to 8 ft. 6 in., and for the remaining 48 ft. it
was tapered up to a final width of about 3 ft. The masonry is de-
scribed by Mr Schuyler as " a rough uncut granite ashlar, with a
hearting of rough rubble all laid in cement mortar and gravel."
This dam has been in satisfactory use since 1885, and the slight
filtration through the masonry which occurred at first is said to have
almost entirely ceased.
In New South Wales thirteen thin concrete dams, dependent upon
horizontal curvature for their resistance to water pressure, have
been constructed in narrow gorges at comparatively small cost to
impound water for the use of villages. The depth of water varies
from 1 8 ft. to 76 ft. and five of them have cracked vertically, owing
apparently to the impossibility of the base of the dam partaking of
the changes of curvature induced by changes of temperature and of
moisture in the upper parts. It is stated, however, that these cracks
close up and become practically water-tight as the water rises.
Something has been said of the failures of earthen dams. Many
masonry dams have also failed, but, speaking generally, we know
less of the causes which have led to such failures. The
Failures, examination of one case, however, namely, the bursting
in 1895 of the Bouzey dam, near Epinal, in France, by which many
lives were lost, has brought out several points of great interest. It
is probably the only instance in which a masonry dam has slipped
upon its foundations, and also the only case in which a masonry
dam has actually overturned, while curiously enough there is every
probability that the two circumstances had no connexion with each
other. A short time after the occurrence of the catastrophe the dam
was visited by Dr W. C. Unwin, F.R.S., and the writer, and a very
careful examination of the work was made by them. Some of the blocks
of rubble masonry carried down the stream weighed several hundred
tons. The original section of the dam is shown by the continuous
thick line in fig. 18, from which it appears that the work was subject
to a pressure of only about 65 ft. of water. In the year 1884 a length
V. 450-0 1
FIG. 19. Elevation and Plan of Bouzey Dam.
FIG. 1 8. Section of Bouzey Dam.
of 450 ft. of the dam, out of a total length of 1706 ft., slipped upon
its foundation of soft sandstone, and became slightly curved in plan
as shown at a, b, fig. 19, the maximum movement from the original
straight line being about I ft. Further sliding on the base was pre-
vented by the construction of the cross-lined portions in the section
(fig. 18). These precautions were perfectly effective in securing the
safety of the dam up to the height to which the counterfort was
carried. As a consequence of this horizontal bending of the dam the
vertical cracks shown in fig. 19 appeared and were repaired. Eleven
1 See Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. cxxvi. pp. 91-95.
years after this, and about fifteen years after the dam was first
brought into use, it overturned on its outer edge, at about the level
indicated by the dotted line just above the counterfort; and there is
no good reason to attribute to the movement of 1884, or to the
vertical cracks it caused, any influence in the overturning of 1895.
Some of the worst
I
cracks were, in-
deed, entirely be-
yond the portion
overturned,
which consisted
of the mass 570
ft. long by 37
ft. in depth, and
weighing about
20,000 tons,
shown in eleva-
tion in fig. 19.
The line of pres-
sures as generally
given for this
dam with the
reservoir full, on
the hypothesis
that the density
of the masonry
was a little over
2, is shown by ,
long and short Water Fate "
dots in fig. 1 8.
Materials actu-
ally collected from the dam indicate that the mean density
did not exceed 1-85 when dry and 2-07 when saturated, which
would bring the line of pressures even closer to the outer
face at the top of the counterfort. In any event it must have
approached well within si ft. of the outer face, and was more
nearly five-sixths than two-thirds of the width of the darn
distant from the water face; there must, therefore, have been
considerable vertical tension at the water face, variously com-
puted according to the density assumed at from ij to 1}
ton per square foot. This, if the dam had been thoroughly
well constructed, either with hydraulic lime or Portland
cement mortar, would have been easily borne. The
materials, however, were poor, and it is probable that
rupture by tension in a roughly horizontal plane took place.
Directly this occurred, the front part of the wall was sub-
ject to an additional overturning pressure of about 35 ft.
of water acting upwards, equivalent to about a ton per
square foot, which would certainly, if it occurred through-
out any considerable length of the dam, have immediately
overturned it. But, as a matter of fact, the dam actually
stood for about fifteen years. Of this circumstance there
are two possible explanations. It is known that more or
less leakage took place through the dam, and to moderate
this the water face was from time to time coated and
repaired with cement. Any cracks were thus, no doubt,
temporarily closed ; and as the structure of the rest of the
dam was porous, no opportunity was given for the per-
colating water to accumulate in the horizontal fissures
to anything like the head in the reservoir. But in
reservoir work such coatings are not to be trusted, and a
single horizontal crack might admit sufficient water to
cause an uplift. Then, again, it must be remembered that
although the full consequences of the facts described might
arise in a section of the dam I ft. thick (if that section
were entirely isolated), they could not arise throughout the
length unless the adjoining sections were subject to like
conditions. Any horizontal fissure in a weak place would,
in the nature of things, strike somewhere a stronger place,
and the final failure would be deferred. Time would then
become an element. By reason of the constantly changing
temperatures and the frequent filling and emptying of the
reservoir, expansion and contraction, which are always at
work tending to produce relative movements wherever
one portion of a structure is weaker than another, must
have assisted the water-pressure in the extension of the
horizontal cracks, which, growing slowly during the
fifteen years, provided at last the area required to enable
the intrusive water to overbalance the little remaining stability of
the dam.
RESERVOIRS
From very ancient times in India, Ceylon and elsewhere,
reservoirs of great area, but generally of small depth, have been
built and used for the purposes of irrigation; and in modern
times, especially in India and America, comparatively shallow
reservoirs have been constructed of much greater area, and in
some cases of greater capacity, than any in the United Kingdom.
4-04
WATER SUPPLY
[PURIFICATION
Yet the hilly parts of the last-named country are rich in magni-
ficent sites at sufficient altitudes for the supply of any parts by
gravitation, and capable, if properly laid out, of affording a
volume of water, throughout the driest seasons, far in excess
of the probable demand for a long future. Many of the great
towns had already secured such sites within moderate distances,
and had constructed reservoirs of considerable size, when, in
1879, 1880 and 1892 respectively, Manchester, Liverpool and
Birmingham obtained statutory powers to draw water from
relatively great distances, viz. from Thirlmere in Cumberland,
in the case of Manchester; from the river Vyrnwy, Montgomery-
shire, a tributary of the Severn, in the case of Liverpool; and
from the rivers Elan and Claerwen in Radnorshire, tributaries
of the Wye, in the case of Birmingham. Lake Vyrnwy, com-
pleted in 1889, includes a reservoir which is still by far the
largest in Europe.
This reservoir is situated in a true Glacial lake-basin, and having
therefore all the appearance of a natural lake, is commonly known
as Lake Vyrnwy. It is 825 ft. above the sea, has an
area of 1121 acres, an available capacity exceeding 12,000
Vyrawy. m ili; on gallons, and a length of nearly 5 m. Its position
in North Wales is shown in black in fig. 20, and the two views on
Plate I. show respectively the portion of the valley visible from the
dam before impounding began, and the same portion as a lake on the
completion of the work. Before the valves in the dam were closed,
the village of Llanwddyn, the parish church, and many farmsteads
were demolished. The church was rebuilt outside the watershed, and
the remains from the old churchyard were removed to a new cemetery
adjoining it. The fact that this valley is a post-Glacial lake-basin
was attested by the borings and excavations made for the founda-
tions of the dam. The trench in which the masonry was founded
covered an area 120 ft. wide at the bottom, and extending for 1172 ft.
across the valley. Its site had been determined by about 190
borings, probings and shafts, which, following upon the indications
afforded by the rocks above ground, proved that the rock bed crossing
the valley was higher at this point than elsewhere. Here then, buried
in alluvium at a depth of 50 to 60 ft. from the surface, was found the
rock bar of the post-Glacial lake; at points farther up the valley,
borings nearly 100 ft. deep had failed to reach the rock. The Glacial
striae, and the dislocated rocks moved a few inches or feet from
their places, and others, at greater distances, turned over, and
beginning to assume the sub-angular form of Glacial boulders were
found precisely as the glacier, receding from the bar, and giving place
to the ancient lake, had left them, covered and preserved by sand and
gravel washed from the terminal morain. Later came the alluvial
silting-up. Slowly, but surely, the deltas of the tributary streams
advanced into the lake, floods deposited their burdens of detritus in
the deeper places, the lake shallowed and shrank and in its turn
yielded to the winding river of an alluvial strath, covered with peat,
reeds and alders, and still liable to floods. It is interesting to record
that during the construction of the works the implements of Neolithic
man were found, near the margin of the modern lake, below the peat,
and above the alluvial clay on which it rested. Several of the reser-
voir sites in Wales, shown by shaded lines in fig. 20, are in all prob-
ability similar post-Glacial lake-basins, and in the course of time
some of them may contain still greater reservoirs. They are pro-
vided with well-proportioned watersheds and rainfall, and being
nearly all more than 500 ft. above the sea, may be made available for
the supply of pure water by gravitation to any part of England.
In 1892 the Corporation of Birmingham obtained powers for the
construction of six reservoirs on the rivers Elan and Claerwen, also
shown in fig. 20, but the sites of these reservoirs are long narrow
valleys, not lake-basins. The three reservoirs on the Elan were
completed in 1904. Their joint capacity is 11,320 million gallons
and this will be increased to about 18,000 millions when the remain-
ing three are built.
Of natural lakes in Great Britain raised above their ordinary levels
that the upper portions may be utilized as reservoirs, Loch Katrine
supplying Glasgow is well known. Whitehaven is similarly suppliec
from Ennerdale, and in the year 1894 Thirlmere in Cumberland was
brought into.use, as already mentioned, for the supply of Manchester
The corporation have statutory power to raise the lake 50 ft., at
which level it will have an available capacity of about 8000 million
gallons; to secure this a masonry dam has been constructed, though
the lake is at present worked at a lower level.
It is obvious that the water of a reservoir must never be allowec
to rise above a certain prescribed height at which the works will b<
perfectly safe. In all reservoirs impounding the natura
Overflow. g ow { a stream| t h; s involves the use of an overflow
Where the dam is of masonry it may be used as a weir; but where
earthwork is employed, the overflow, commonly known in such a
case as the " bye-wash," should be an entirely independent work
consisting of a low weir of sufficient length to prevent an unsafe rise
of the water level, and of a narrow channel capable of easily carryin;
away any water that passes over the weir. The absence of one or botl
of these conditions has led to the failure of many dams.
Reservoirs unsafe from this cause still exist in the United Kingdom.
iVhere the contributory drainage area exceeds 5000 acres, the dis-
harge, even allowing for so-called " cloud-bursts," rarely or never
xceeds the rate of about 300 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres, or
500 times the minimum dry weather flow, taken as one-fifth of a
:ubic foot ; and if we provide against such an occasional discharge,
with a possible maximum of 400 cub. ft. at much more distant
ntervals, a proper factor of safety will be allowed. But when a
eservoir is placed upon a smaller area the conditions are materially
:hanged. The rainfall which produces, as the average of all the
ributaries in the larger area, 300 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres,
s made up of groups of rainfall of very varying intensity, falling
upon different portions of that area, so that upon any section of it the
ntensity of discharge may be much greater.
The height to which the water is permitted to rise above the sill
of the overflow depends upon the height of the embankment above
hat level (in the United Kingdom commonly 6 or 7 ft.), and this
again should be governed by the height of possible waves. In open
>laces that height is seldom more than about one and a half times the
iquare root of the " fetch " or greatest distance in nautical miles
rom which the wave has travelled to the point in question ; but in
narrow reaches or lakes it is relatively higher. In lengths not ex-
ceeding about 2 m., twice this height may be reached, giving for a
2-mile " fetch " about 3J ft., or if ft. above the mean level. Above
this again, the height of the wave should be allowed for " wash,"
naking the embankment in such a case not less than sJ ft. above the
lighest water-level. If, then, we determine that the depth of over-
low shall not exceed I j ft., we arrive at 6f ft. as sufficient for the
icight of the embankment above the sill of the overflow. Obviously
we may shorten the sill at the cost of extra height of embankment, but
it is rarely wise to do so.
The overflow sill or weir should be a masonry structure of rounded
vertical section raised a foot or more above the waste-water course,
in which case for a depth of ij ft. it will discharge, over every foot
of length, about 6 cub. ft. per second. Thus, if the drainage area
exceeds 5000 acres, and we provide for the passage of 300 cub. ft.
per second per 1000 acres, such a weir will be 50 ft. long for every
lopoacres. But, as smaller areas are approached, the excessive local
rainfalls of short duration must be provided for, and beyond these
there are extraordinarily heavy discharges generally over and gone
before any exact records can be made; hence we know very little
of them beyond the bare fact that from 1000 acres the discharge may
rise to two or three times 300 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres. In
the writer's experience at least one case has occurred where, from a
mountain area of 1300 acres, the rate per 1000 was for a short time
certainly not less than 1000 cub. ft. per second. Nothing but long
observation and experience can help the hydraulic engineer to judge
of the configuration of the ground favourable to such phenomena.
It is only necessary, however, to provide for these exceptional dis-
charges during very short periods, so that the rise in the water-level
of the reservoir may be taken into consideration ; but subject to this,
provision must be made at the bye- wash for preventing such a flood,
however rare, from filling the reservoir to a dangerous height.
From the overflow sill the bye-wash channel may be gradually
narrowed as the crest of the embankment is passed, the water
being prevented from attaining undue velocity by steps of heavy
masonry, or, where the gradient is not very steep, by irregularly set
masonry.
PURIFICATION
When surface waters began to be used for potable purposes,
some mode of arresting suspended matter, whether living
or dead, became necessary. In many cases gauze
strainers were at first employed, and, as an improve-
ment upon or addition to these, the water was caused
to pass through a bed of gravel or sand, which, like the gauze,
was regarded merely as a strainer. As such strainers were
further improved, by sorting the sand and gravel, and using the
fine sand only at the surface, better clarification of the water
was obtained; but chemical analysis indicated, or was at the
time thought to indicate, that that improvement was practically
confined to clarification, as the dissolved impurities in the water
were certainly very little changed. Hence such filter beds, as
they were even then called, were regarded as a luxury rather
than as a necessity, and it was never suspected that, notwith-
standing the absence of chemical improvement in the water,
changes did take place of a most important kind. Following
upon Dr Koch's discovery of a method of isolating bacteria, and
of making approximate determinations of their number in
any volume of water, a most remarkable diminution in the
number of microbes contained in sand-filtered water was
observed; and it is now well known that when a properly
constructed sand-filter bed is in its best condition, and is worked
in the best-known manner, nearly the whole of the microbes
PURIFICATION]
WATER SUPPLY
405
existing in the crude water will be arrested. The sand, which
is nominally the filter, has interstices about thirty times as wide
as the largest dimensions of the larger microbes; and the reason
why these, and, still more, why organisms which were individually
invisible under any magnifying power, and could only be detected
as colonies, were arrested, was not understood. In process
of time it became clear, however, that the worse the condition
of a filter bed, in the then general acceptation of the term,
the better it was as a microbe filter; that is to say, it was not
until a fine film of mud and microbes had formed upon the
surface of the sand that the best results were obtained.
Even yet medical science has not determined the effect upon
the human system of water highly charged with bacteria which
are not known to be individually pathogenic. In the case of
the bacilli of typhoid and cholera, we know the direct effect;
but apart altogether from the presence of such specific poisons,
polluted water is undoubtedly injurious. Where, therefore,
there is animal pollution of any kind, more especially where there
is human pollution, generally indicated by the presence of
bacillus coli communis, purification is of supreme importance,
and no process has yet been devised which, except at extravagant
cost, supersedes for public supplies that of properly -conducted
sand filtration. Yet it cannot be too constantly urged that such
filtration depends for its comparative perfection upon the surface
film; that this surface film is not present when the filter is new,
or when its materials have been recently washed; that it may be,
and very often is, punctured by the actual working of the
filters, or for the purpose of increasing their discharge; and that
at the best it must be regarded as an exceedingly thin line
of defence, not to be depended upon as a safeguard against
highly polluted waters, if a purer source of supply can
possibly be found. Such filters are not, and in the nature of
things cannot be, worked with the precision and continuity
of a laboratory experiment.
In fig. 21 a section is shown of an efficient sand-filter bed. The thick-
ness of sand is 3 ft. 6 in. In the older filters it was usual to support
this sand upon small gravel
resting upon larger gravel,
and so on until the material
was sufficiently open to pass
the water laterally to under-
drains. But a much shal-
lower and certainly not less
efficient filter can be con-
structed by making the
under-drains cover the whole
bottom. In fig. 21 the sand
rests on small gravel of
such degree of coarseness
that the whole of the grains
would be retained on a sieve
of J-in. mesh and rejected
by a sieve of J-in. mesh in
the clear, supported upon a
3-in. thickness of bricks laid
close together, and consti-
tuting the roof of the under-
drains, which are formed by
! CONCRETE, other bricks laid on thin
asphalt, upon a concrete
FIG. 21. Section of Sand-Filter Bed. floor. In this arrangement
the whole of the materials
may be readily removed for cleansing. In the best filters an
automatic arrangement for the measurement of the supply to
each separate filter, and for the regulation of the quantity within
certain limits, is adopted, and the resistance at outflow is so
arranged that not more than a certain head of pressure, about
2\ ft., can under any circumstances come upon the surface film,
while a depth of several feet of water is maintained over the
sand. It is essential that during the working of the filter the
water should be so supplied that it will not disturb the surface of
the sand. When a filter has been emptied, and is being re-charged,
the water should be introduced from a neighbouring filter, and should
pass upwards in the filter to be charged, until the surface of the sand
has been covered. The unfiltered water may then be allowed to flow
quietly and to fill the space above the sand to a depth of 2 or 3 ft.
It would appear to be impossible with any water that requires filtra-
tion to secure that the first filtrate shall be satisfactory if filtration
begins immediately after a filter is charged; and if the highest
results are to be obtained, either the unfiltered water must be per-
mitted to pass extremely slowly over the surface of the sand without
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passing through it, or to stand upon the sand until the surface film
has formed. With waters giving little or no sediment, which are
often the most dangerous, some change, as by the first method, is
necessary. It has been proposed, on the other hand, to allow the
filter to act slowly until the surface film is formed, and to discard the
first effluent. This course can scarcely fail to introduce into the sand
many bacteria, which may be washed through when the full working
of the filters is begun ; and it should not, therefore, be adopted when
the source of the supply is known to be subject to human pollution.
The time for the formation of anefficient surface films varies, according
to the quality of the raw water, from a few hours to a few days. Judg-
ing from the best observations that have been made on a large scale,
the highest rate of efficient filtration when the surface film is in good
condition is about 4 in. downwards per hour of the water contained
above the sand, equivalent to about 50 gallons per day from each
square foot of sand. When the surface film has once been formed,
and the filter has begun its work, it should continue without interrup-
tion until the resistance of that film becomes too great to permit of the
necessary quantity of water being passed. That period will vary,
according to the condition of the water, from eight or ten days to four
weeks. The surface film, together with half an inch to an inch of
sand, is then carefully scraped off and stored for subsequent washing
and use. This process may be repeated many times until the thick-
ness of the fine sand is reduced to about 18 in., when the filter bed
should be restored to its full thickness.
A lately discovered effect of sand filtration is a matter of great
importance in connexion with the subject of aqueducts. A brown
slimy sediment, having the appearance of coffee grounds when
placed in clear water, nas been long observed in pipes conveying
surface waters from mountain moorlands. The deposit grows on
the sides of the pipes and accumulates at the bottom, and causes
most serious obstruction to the flow of water. The chemists and
bacteriologists do not appear to have finally determined the true
nature and origin of this growth, but it is found in the impounded
waters, and passes into the pipes, where it rapidly increases. It is
checked even by fine copper wire-gauze strainers, and where the
water passes through sand-filter beds in the course of an aqueduct,
the growth, though very great between the reservoir and the filter
beds, is almost absent between the filter beds and the town. Even
the growth of the well-known nodular incrustations in iron pipes is
much reduced by sand filtration. From these facts it is clear that,
other things being the same, the best position for the strainers and
filter beds is as close as possible to the reservoir.
Some surface waters dissolve lead when bright, but cease to do so
when the lead becomes tarnished. More rarely 'the action is con-
tinuous, and the water after being passed through lead cisterns and
pipes produces lead poisoning so called " plumbism." The lia-
bility to this appears to be entirely removed by efficient sand
filtration.
Sand filtration, even when working in the best possible manner,
falls short of the perfection necessary to preve_nt the passage of
bacteria which may multiply after the filter is passed. Small,
however, as the micro-organisms are, they are larger than the
capillary passages in some materials through which water under
pressure may be caused to percolate. It is therefore natural that
attempts should have been made to construct filters which, while
permitting the slow percolation of water, should preclude the
passage of bacteria or their spores. In the laboratory of Pasteur
probaoly the first filter which successfully accomplished this object,
was produced. In this apparatus, known as the Pasteur-Chamber
land filter, the filtering medium is biscuit porcelain. It was followed
by the Berkefield filter, constructed of baked infusorial earth. Both
these filters arrest the organisms by purely mechanical action, and
if the joints are water-tight and they receive proper attention and
frequent sterilization, they both give satisfactory results on a small
scale for domestic purposes. The cost, however to say nothing of
the uncertainty where large volumes of water are concerned, much
exceeds the cost of obtaining initially safe water. Moreover, if a
natural water is so liable to pathogenic pollution as to demand filtra-
tion of this kind, it ought at once to be discarded for an initially pure
supply; not necessarily pure in an apparent or even in a chemical
sense, for water may be visibly coloured, or may contain considerable
proportions both of organic and inorganic impurity, and yet be taste-
less and free from pathogenic pollution.
There are several materials now in use possessing remarkable
power to decolourize clarify, chemically punfy and oxidize water;
but they are too costly for use in connexion with public water supplies
unless a rate of filtration is adopted quite inconsistent with the
formation of a surface film capable of arresting micro-organisms.
This fact does not render them less useful when applied to the arts
in which they are successfully employed.
Attempts have been made, by adding certain coagulants to the
water to be filtered, to increase the power of sand and other granu-
lar materials to arrest bacteria when passing through them at much
higher velocities than are possible for successful filtration by means
of the surface film upon sand. The effect is to produce between the
sand or other grains a glutinous substance which does the work per-
formed by the mud and microbes upon the surface of the sand filter.
Elsewhere centrifugal force, acting somewhat after its manner in the
cream separator, has been called in aid.
406
WATER SUPPLY
[PURIFICATION
The sedimentation tank forms a. very important
Srdimea- help to filtration. In the case of river waters liable
to turbidity the water should always be passed
through such tanks before being placed in the filters.
They form, moreover, additional safeguards against organic
impurity. Sedimentation tanks on a sufficient scale may effect
the purification of the water to almost any desired extent.
This -is shown to be the case by the purity of some lake
PURIFICATION]
WATER SUPPLY
407
waters; but the first cost of the works and the subsequent
removal of the sediment are in some cases a serious matter,
and any approach to the comparatively perfect action of lakes
is out of the question. By the use of such tanks, however, when
the condition of the water demands it, and by passing the
effluent water through sand filters when in good condition, the
number of microbes is found to be reduced by as much as 97
or even 99%. This, when attained, is undoubtedly a most
408
WATER SUPPLY
[DISTRIBUTION
important reduction in the chance of pathogenic bacteria passing
into the filtered water; but much more must be done than has
hitherto in most places been done to ensure the constancy of
such a condition before it can be assumed to represent the
degree of safety attained. No public supply should be open
to any such doubt as ought to, or may, deter people from
drinking the water without previous domestic filtration or
boiling.
DISTRIBUTION
The earliest water supplies in Great Britain were generally
distributed at low pressure by wooden pipes or stone or brick
conduits. For special purposes the Romans introduced
cast-lead pipes, but they were regarded as luxuries,
not as necessaries, and gave way to cheaper conduits
made, as pump barrels had long been made, by boring
out tree trunks, which are occasionally dug up in a good state of
preservation. This use of tree-trunks as pipes is still common
in the wooded mountain districts of Europe. Within the igth
century, however, cast iron became general in the case of large
towns; but following the precedent inseparable from the use
of weaker conduits, the water was still delivered under very
low pressure, rarely more than sufficient to supply taps or tanks
near the level of the ground, and generally for only a short
period out of each twenty-four hours. On the introduction
of the Waterworks Clauses Act 1847, an impetus was given
to high-pressure supplies, and the same systems of distributing
mains were frequently employed for the purpose; but with
few exceptions the water continued to be supplied intermittently,
and cisterns or tanks were necessary to store it for use during
the periods of intermission. Thus it happened that pipes and
joints intended for a low-pressure supply were subjected, not
only to high pressure, but to the trying ordeal of suddenly
varying pressures. As a rule such pipes were not renewed:
the leakage was enormous, and the difficulty was met by the
very inefficient method of reducing the period of supply still
farther. But even in entirely new distributing systems the
network is so extensive, and the number of joints so great, that
the aggregate leakage is always considerable; the greatest
loss being at the so-called " ferrules " connecting the mains with
the house " communication " or " service " pipes, in the lead
pipes, and in the household fittings. But a far greater evil
than mere loss of water and inconvenience soon proved to be
inseparable from intermittent supply. Imagine a hilly town
with a high-pressure water supply, the water issuing at numerous
points, sometimes only in exceedingly small veins, from the
pipes into the sub-soil. In the ordinary course of intermittent
supply or for the purpose of repairs, the water is cut off at some
point in the main above the leakages; but this does not prevent
the continuance of the discharge in the lower part of the town.
In the upper part there is consequently a tendency to the
formation of a vacuum, and some of the impure sub-soil water
near the higher leakages is sucked into the mains, to be mixed
with the supply when next turned on. We are indebted to the
Local Government Board for having traced to such causes
certain epidemics of typhoid, and there can be no manner of
doubt that the evil has been very general. It is therefore of
supreme importance that the pressure should be constantly
maintained, and to that end, in the best-managed waterworks
the supply is not now cut off even for the purpose of connecting
house-service pipes, an apparatus being employed by which this
is done under pressure. Constant pressure being granted,
constant leakage is inevitable, and being constant it is not
surprising that its total amount often exceeds the aggregate
of the much greater, but shorter, draughts of water taken for
various household purposes. There is therefore, even in the
best cases, a wide field for the conservation and utilization of
water hitherto entirely wasted.
Following upon the passing of the Waterworks Clauses Act
1847, a constant supply was attempted in many towns, with
the result in some cases that, owing to the enormous loss
arising from the prolongation of the period of leakage from
a fraction of an hour to twenty-four hours, it was impossible to
maintain the supply. Accordingly, in some places large sections
of the mains and service pipes were entirely renewed,
and the water consumers were put to great expense in
changing their fittings to new and no doubt better
types, though the old fittings were only in a fraction of the cases
actually causing leakage. But whether or not such stringent
methods were adopted, it was found necessary to organize a
system of house-to-house visitation and constantly recurring
inspection. In Manchester this was combined with a most
careful examination, at a depot of the Corporation, of all fittings
intended to be used. Searching tests were applied to these
fittings, and only those which complied in every
respect with the prescribed regulations were stamped
and permitted to be fixed within the limits of the
water supply. But this did not obviate the necessity for house-
to-house inspection, and although the number of different points
at which leakage occurred was still great, it was always small
in relation to the number of houses which were necessarily
entered by the inspector; moreover, when the best had been
done that possibly could be done to suppress leakage due to
domestic fittings, the leakage below ground in the mains, ferrules
and service pipes still remained, and was often very great.
It was clear, therefore, that in its very nature, house-to-house
visitation was both wasteful and insufficient, and it remained
for Liverpool to correct the difficulty by the application, hi
1873, of the " Differentiating waste water meter," which has
since been extensively used for the same purpose in various
countries. One such instrument was placed below the roadway
upon each main supplying a population of generally between
1000 and 2000 persons.
Its action is based upon the following considerations: When
water is passing through a main and supplying nothing but leakage
the flow of that water is necessarily uniform, and any instrument
which graphically represents that flow as a horizontal line conveys
to the mind a full conception of the nature of the flow, and if by
the position of that line between the bottom and the top of a diagram
the quantity of water (in gallons per hour, for example) is recorded,
we have a full statement, not only of the rate of flow, but of its
nature. We know, in short, that the water is not being usefully
employed. In the actual instrument, the paper diagram is mounted
upon a drum caused by clockwork to revolve uniformly, and is ruled
with vertical hour lines, and horizontal quantity lines representing
gallons per hour. Thus, while nothing but leakage occurs the uniform
horizontal line is continued. If now a tap is opened in any house
connected with the main, the change of flow in the main will be
represented by a vertical change of position of the horizontal line,
and when the tap is turned off the pencil will resume its original
vertical position, but the paper will have moved like the hands of a
clock over the interval during which the tap was left open. If, on
the other hand, water is suddenly drawn off from a cistern supplied
through a ball-cock, the flow through the ball-cock will be recorded,
and will be represented by a sudden rise to a maximum, followed by a
gradual decrease as the ball rises and the cistern fills; the result
being a curve having its asymptote in the original horizontal line.
Now, all the uses of water, of whatever kind they may be, produce
some such irregular diagrams as these, which can never be confused
with the uniform horizontal line of leakage, but are always super-
imposed upon it. It is this leakage line that the waterworks engineer
uses to ascertain the truth as to the leakage and to assist him in its
suppression. In well-equipped waterworks each house service pipe
is controlled by a stop-cock accessible from the footpath to the
officials of the water authority, and the process of waste detection by
this method depends upon the manipulation of such stop-cocks in
conjunction with the differentiating meter. As an example of one
mode of applying the system, suppose that a night inspector begins
work at 1 1.30 p.m. in a certain district of 2000 persons, the meter of
which records at the time a uniform flow of 2000 gallons an hour,
showing the not uncommon rate of leakage of 24 gallons per head per
day. The inspector proceeds along the footpath from house to house,
and outside each house he closes the stop-cock, recording opposite
the number of each house the exact time of each such operation.
Having arrived at the end of the district he retraces his steps,
reopens the whole of the stop-cocks, removes the meter diagram,
takes it to the night complaint office, and enters in the " night
inspection book " the records he has made. The next morning the
diagram and the " night inspection book " are in the hands of the
day inspector, who compares them. He finds, for example, from
the diagram that the initial leakage of 2000 gallons an hour has
in the course of a 4J hours' night inspection fallen to 400 gallons
an hour, and that the 1600 gallons an hour is accounted for by
WATERS, TERRITORIAL
409
fifteen distinct drops of different amounts and at different times.
Each of these drops is located by the time and place records in the
book and the time records on the diagram as belonging to a particular
service pipe; so that out of possibly 300 premises the bulk of the
Ir.ikage has been localized in or just outside fifteen. To each of
thi-se premises he goes with the knowledge that a portion of the total
leakage of 2000 gallons an hour is almost certainly there, and that
it must be found, which is a very different thing from visiting three
or four hundred houses, in not one of which he has any particular
reason to expect to find leakage. Even when he enters a house with
previous knowledge that there is leakage, its discovery may be
difficult. It is often hidden, sometimes underground, and may only
be brought to light by excavation. In these cases, without some
such system of localization, the leakage might go on for years or
for ever. There are many and obvious variations of the system.
That described requires a diagram revolving once in a few hours,
otherwise the time scale will be too close ; but the ordinary diagram
revolving once in 24 hours is often used quite effectively in night
inspections by only closing those stop-cocks which are actually
passing water. This method was also first introduced in Liverpool.
The night inspector carries with him a stethoscope, often consisting
merely of his steel turning-rod, with which he sounds the whole of
the outside stop-cocks, but only closes those through which the
sound of water is heard. An experienced man, or even a boy, if
selected as possessing the necessary faculty (which is sometimes
very strongly marked), can detect the smallest dribble when the stop-
cock is so far closed as to restrict the orifice. Similar examinations
by means of the stop- valves on the mains are also made, and it often
happens that the residual leakage (400 gallons an hour in the last
case) recorded on the diagram, but not shut off by the house stop-
cocks, is mentioned by the inspector as an " outside waste," and
localized as having been heard at a stop-cock and traced by sounding
the pavement to a particular position under a particular street. All
leakages found on private property are duly notified to the water
tenant in the usual way, and subsequent examinations are made
to ascertain if such notices have been attended to. If this work
is properly organized, nearly the whole of the leakage so detected
is suppressed within a month. A record of the constantly fluctuating
so-called " night readings " in a large town is most interesting and
instructive. If, for example, in the case of a hundred such districts
we watch the result of leaving them alone, a gradual growth of
leakage common to most of the districts, but not to all, is observed,
while here and there a sudden increase occurs, often doubling or
trebling the total supply to the district. Upon the original installa-
tion of the system in any town, the rate of leakage and consequent
total supply to the different districts is found [to vary greatly, and
in some districts it is usually many times as great per head as in
others. An obvious and fruitful extension of the method is to employ
the inspectors only in those districts which, for the time being,
promise the most useful results.
In many European cities the supply of water, even for domestic
purposes, is given through ordinary water meters, and paid for,
according to the meter record, much in the same manner
as a supply of gas or electricity. By the adoption of
this method great reductions in the quantity of water
used and wasted are in some cases effected, and the water tenant
pays for the leakage or waste he permits to take place, as well as
for the water he uses. The system, however, does not assist in
the detection of the leakage which inevitably occurs between the
reservoir and the consumer's meter; thus the whole of the mains,
joints and ferrules connecting the service pipes with the mains,
and the greater parts of the service pipes, are still exposed to leakage
without any compensating return to the water authority. But the
worst evil of the system, and one which must always prevent its
introduction into the United Kingdom, is the circumstance that it
treats water as an article of commerce, to be paid for according to
the quantity taken. In the organization of the best municipal
water undertakings in the United Kingdom the free use of water
is encouraged, and it is only the leakage or occasional improper
employment of the water that the water authority seeks, and that
successfully, to suppress. The objection to the insanitary effect of
the meter-payment system has, in some places, been sought to be
removed by providing a fixed quantity of water, assumed to be
sufficient, as the supply for a fixed minimum payment, and by using
the meter records simply for the purpose of determining what
additional payment, if any, becomes due from the water tenant.
Clearly, if the excesses are frequent, the limit must be too low;
if infrequent, all the physical and administrative complication
involved in the system is employed to very little purpose.
The question of the distribution of water, rightly considered,
resolves itself into a question of delivering water to the water
tenant, without leakage on the way, and of securing that the
fittings employed by the water tenant shall be such as to afford
an ample and ready supply at all times of the day and night
without leakage and without any unnecessary facilities for waste.
If these conditions are complied with, it is probable that the
total rate of supply will not exceed, even if it reaches, the rate
s
necessary in any system, not being an oppressive and insanitary
system, by which the water is paid for according to the quantity
used. (G. F. D.)
WATERS, TERRITORIAL. In international law " territorial
waters " are the belt of sea adjacent to their shores which
states respect as being under their immediate territorial jurisdic-
tion, subject only to a right of " inoffensive " passage through
them by vessels of all nations. As to the breadth of the belt
and the exact nature of this inoffensive right of passage, however,
there is still much controversy. The 3-miles' limit recognized
and practised by Great Britain, France and the United States
seems to have been derived from the cannon range of the period,
when it was adopted as between Great Britain and the United
States, i.e. towards the close of the i8th century. Bynkershoek,
a famous Dutch jurist, whose authority at one time was almost
as great in England as in his own country, in a dissertation on
the Dominion of the Sea (1702), had devised a plausible juridical
theory to support a homogeneous jurisdiction over environing
waters in the place of the quite arbitrary claims made at that
time, to any distance seawards, from whole seas to range of vision.
Starting from the fact that fortresses can give effective protection
within range of their cannon, and that in practice this effective
protection was respected, he argued that the respect was not
due to the reality of the presence of cannon, but to the fact that
the state was in a position to enforce respect. This it could do
from any point along its shore. Hence his well-known doctrine:
terrae dominium finitur, ubi finitur armorum vis. The doctrine
satisfied a requirement of the age and became a maxim of inter-
national law throughout northern Europe, both for the protection
of shore fisheries and for the assertion of the immunity of
adjacent waters of neutral states from acts of war between
belligerent states. Germany still holds in principle to this
varying limit of cannon range. Norway has never agreed to
the 3 m., maintaining that the special configuration of her
coast necessitates the exercise of jurisdiction over a belt of 4 m.
Spain lays claim to jurisdiction over 6 m. from her shores. The
writers and specialists on the subject are quite as much divided.
A British Fishery Commission in 1893 reported that " the present
territorial limit of 3 m. is insufficient, and that, for fishery
purposes alone, this limit should be extended, provided such
extension can be effected upon an international basis and with
due regard to the rights and interests of all nations." The
committee recommended that " a proposition on these lines
should be submitted to an international conference of the
powers who border on the North Sea." There is already an
international convention, dated 6th May 1882, between Great
Britain, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany and Denmark,
relating to the regulation of the fisheries in the North Sea, which
has fixed the limit of territorial waters as between the contracting
parties at 3 m. measured from low- water mark and from a straight
line drawn from headland to headland at the points where they
are 10 m. across. In the British Act of 29th June 1893, giving
effect to a subsequent convention (:6th November 1881) between
the same parties for the regulation of the liquor traffic in the
North Sea, " territorial waters " are declared to be as defined
in the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878. In this Act the
definition is as follows:
The territorial waters of Her Majesty's dominions in reference to
the sea means such part of the sea adjacent to the coast of the
United Kingdom, or the coast of some other part of Her Majesty's
dominions, as is deemed by international law to be within the
territorial sovereignty of Her Majesty; and for the purpose of any
offence declared by this act to be within the jurisdiction of the
admiral, any part of the open sea within one marine league of the
coast measured from low-water mark shall be deemed to be open
sea within the territorial waters of Her Majesty's dominions.
This definition only restricts the operation of the 3 m. limit
to offences dealt with in the act, and does not deal with bays.
The act of 1893 declares that the articles of the convention
" shall be of the same force as if they were enacted in the body
of the act," but this convention gives no definition of territorial
waters.
The jurisdiction exercised in British territorial waters under
WATER-THYME WATERTON
the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act of 1878 1 is asserted
without distinction between them and inland waters. " All
offences " committed by any person, whether a British subject
or not, and whether or not committed " on board or by means
of a foreign ship," " within the territorial waters of Her Majesty's
dominions," are made punishable under it. No exception is
made for offences committed on merely passing foreign vessels,
except that there is this attenuation in their case, that no
prosecution can take place without a special authorization given
by certain high officers of state. 2 It is doubtful whether any
Continental state would recognize so complete a jurisdiction.
The subject has been exhaustively dealt with by both the
Institute of International Law and the International Law
Association, 'which, at the suggestion of the rapporteur of the
two committees, decided that the subjects of fisheries and
neutrality should be dealt with separately. The following
considerations and rules were adopted in 1894 by the institute
and afterwards by the association:
Whereas there is no reason to confound in a single zone the
distance necessary for the exercise of sovereignty and protection
of coast fisheries and the distance necessary to guarantee the
neutrality of non-belligerents in time of war; And whereas the
distance most commonly adopted of 3 m. from low-water mark
has been recognized as insufficient for the protection of coast fisheries ;
And whereas, moreover, this distance does not correspond to the
real range of cannon placed on the coast ; The following dispositions
are adopted :
Art. I. The state has the right of sovereignty over a belt of sea
along its coast subject to the right of inoffensive passage reserved
in article 5. This belt is called territorial waters (mer territoriale).
Art. II. Territorial waters extend for 6 sea m. (60 to I degree of
latitude) from low-water mark along the whole extent of its coasts.
Art. III. For bays, territorial waters follow the trend of the
coast except that it is measured from a straight line drawn across
the bay from the two points nearest the sea where the opening of
the bay is of 12 marine m. in width, unless a greater width shall have
become recognized by an immemorial usage.
Art. IV. In case of war the adjacent neutral state shall have
the right to extend by its declaration of neutrality or by special
notification its neutral zone from 6 m. to cannon range from the
coast.
Art. V. All ships, without distinction, have the right of inoffen-
sive passage through territorial waters, subject to the belligerent
right to regulate, and for purposes of defence to bar, the passage
through the said waters for every ship, and subject to the right of
neutrals to regulate the passage through the said waters for ships
of war of all nationalities.
Art. VI. Crimes and offences committed on board foreign ships
passing through territorial waters by persons on board such ships,
upon persons or things on board the same ships, are, as such, beyond
the jurisdiction of the adjacent state, unless they involve a violation
of the rights or interests of the adjacent state, or of its subjects or
citizens not forming part of its crew or its passengers.
Art. VII. Ships passing through territorial waters must conform
to the special rules laid down by the adjacent state, in the interest
and for the security of navigation and for the police of the sea.
Art. VIII. Ships of all nationalities, by the simple fact of being
in territorial waters, unless merely passing through them, are sub-
ject to the jurisdiction of the adjacent state.
The adjacent state has the right to continue upon the high seas
the pursuit of a ship coirfmenced within territorial waters, and to
arrest and try it for an offence committed within the limits of its
waters. In case of capture on the high seas the fact shall, however,
be notified without delay to the state to which the ship belongs.
The pursuit is interrupted from the moment the ship enters the
territorial waters of its own state or of a third power. The right of
pursuit ceases from the moment the ship enters a port either of its
own country or of a third power.
1 This act was passed to meet what was thought to be a defect in
British law, the decision in the well-known " Franconia " case having
been that territorial waters were " out of the realm," and that
criminal jurisdiction within them over a foreign ship could be exer-
cised only in virtue of an act of parliament.
1 Proceedings, says 3 of the act, for the trial and punishment
of a person who is not a British subject, and who is charged with any
offence as is declared by this act to be within the jurisdiction of the
admiral, shall not be instituted in any Court of the United Kingdom,
except with the consent of one of the principal Secretaries of State,
and on his certificate that the institution of such proceedings is in his
opinion expedient, and shall not be instituted in any British dominions
outside of the United Kingdom except with the leave of the governor
of the part of the dominions in which such proceedings are proposed
to be instituted, and on his certificate that it is expedient that such
proceedings should be instituted.
Art. IX. The special position of ships of war and of ships assimilated
to them is reserved
Art. X. The provisions of the preceding articles are applicable
to straits not exceeding 12 m. in width, with the following modifica-
tions and exceptions :
(1) Straits, the coast of which belong to different powers,
form part of the territorial waters of the adjacent states, their
jurisdiction respectively extending to the middle line of the
straits ;
(2) Straits whose coasts belong to the same state, and which
are indispensable for maritime communication between two or
more states other than the state in question, form part of the
territorial waters of the said state whatever the proximity of
the two coasts may be;
(3) Straits serving as a passage between one open sea and
another can never be closed.
Art. XI. The position of straits already regulated by conventions
or special usage is reserved.
The Dutch government in 1896 brought these rules to the
notice cf the leading European governments, and suggested
the desirability of concluding an international convention on
the subject. The only government which was unfavourable
to the proposal was that of Great Britain. (See as to the Moray
Firth Fisheries controversy, NORTH SEA FISHERIES CONVENTION.)
In the Hague Convention of 1907 respecting the rights and
duties of neutral powers in naval war, the existing practice
in regard to territorial waters is confirmed (see arts. 2, 3, 9, 10,
12, 13 and 18), but no definition of what constitutes the distance
of these waters seawards is given. This question is among
those which the next Hague Conference may deal with, inasmuch
as for purposes of neutrality the difficulties connected with
fishery questions do not arise. 3
AUTHORITIES. Sir Thomas Barclay, Question de la mer territoriale
(published by the Association Internationale de la Marine, Paris,
1902); Idem, as rapporteur on the subject in the Annuaires de
I'institut de droit international for 1893 and 1894; Idem, Special Re-
port of the International Law Association (replies to Questionnaire,
1893), and Report and Discussion (1895); Idem, Problems of Inter-
national Practice and Diplomacy (London, 1907), pp. 109 et seq. See
also Coulson and Forbes, Law relating to Waters (London, 1910),
3rd ed., pp. 5 et seq. (T. BA.)
WATER-THYME, known botanically as Elodea canadensis, a
small submerged water-weed, native of North America. It
was introduced into Co. Down, Ireland, about 1836, and
appeared in England in 1841, spreading through the country
in ponds, ditches and streams, which were often choked with
its rank growth. Elodea is a member of the monocotyledonous
natural order Hydrocharideae (q.v.).
WATERTON, CHARLES (1782-1865), English naturalist and
traveller, was born at Walton Hall, near Pontefract, Yorkshire,
on the 3rd of June 1782. After being educated at the Roman
Catholic college of Stonyhurst, and travelling a short time in
Spain, he went to Demerara to manage some estates belonging to
his family. He continued in this occupation for about eight
years, when he began those wanderings upon the results of which
his fame as a naturalist principally rests. In his first journey,
which began in 1812, and the principal object of which was to
collect the poison known as curare, he travelled through British
Guiana by the Demerara and Essequibo rivers to the frontiers
of Brazil, making many natural history collections and observa-
tions by the way. After spending some time in England he
returned to South America in 1816, going by Pernambuco and
Cayenne to British Guiana, where again he devoted his time
to the most varied observations in natural history. For the third
time, in 1820, he sailed from England for Demerara, and again
he spent his time in similar pursuits. Another sojourn in England
of about three years was followed by'a visit to the United States
in 1824; and, having touched at several of the West India
islands, he again went on to Demerara, returning to England
at the end of the year. In 1828 he published the results of his
four journeys, under the title of Wanderings in South America
consisting largely of a collection of observations on the
3 The question of revising the limits fixed for Territorial Waters
in the Convention of 1882 (see above) was the subject of an animated
discussion at the conference at Hull of the National Sea Fisheries
Protection Association in 1906, when a resolution was adopted in
favour of maintaining the present 3-miles limit on grounds of
expediency, which deserve serious consideration.
WATERTOWN WATERVILLE
411
appearance, character and habits of many of the animals to be
found in British Guiana. Waterton was a keen and accurate
observer, and his descriptions are of a graphic and humorous
character, rarely to be found in works on natural history. He
married in 1829, and from that time lived mostly at Walton Hall,
devoting himself to the improvement of his estate, to country
pursuits, and to natural history observations. He also pub-
lished three series of Essays in Natural History (1838, 1844. 1857).
He died at Walton Hall on the 27th of May 1865, from the result
of an accident. His only son, Edmund Waterton (1830-1887),
was an antiquary, who paid special attention to rings; some of
those he collected are in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
WATERTOWN, a township of Middlesex county, Massachu-
setts, U.S.A., on the Charles river, about 6 m. W. of Boston.
Pop. (1890) 7073; (igoo) 9706, of whom 2885 were foreign-
born and 53 were negroes; (1910 census) 12,875. Area,
4-1 sq. m. Watertown is served by the Fitchburg division of
the Boston & Maine railway, and is connected with Boston,
Cambridge, Newton (immediately adjacent and served by the
New York, New Haven & Hartford railway) and neighbouring
towns by electric railways. It is a residential and manufacturing
suburb of Boston. The township is at the head of navigation
on the Charles, and occupies the fertile undulating plains along
the river running back to a range of hills, the highest of which
are Whitney Hill (200 ft.) and Meeting House Hill (250 ft.).
Within the township are several noteworthy examples of colonial
architecture. There are several small parks and squares,
including Central Square, Beacon Square, about which the
business portion of the township is centred, and Saltonstall
Park, in which is a monument to the memory of Watertown 's
soldiers who died in the Civil War, and near which are the
Town House and the Free Public Library, containing a valuable
collection of 60,000 books and pamphlets and historical memorials.
There are two interesting old burying-grounds: one on Grove
Street, near the Cambridge line, first used in 1642, contains a
monument to John Coolidge, killed during the British retreat
from Concord and Lexington on the igth of April 1775; the
other is near the centre of the village about the former site of the
First Parish Church. In Coolidge's Tavern (still standing)
Washington was entertained on his New England tour in 1789;
and in a house recently moved from Mt Auburn Street to Marshall
Street the Committee of Safety met in 1775. Within the town-
ship are mounds and earthworks which Professor E. N. Hereford
thought were the remains of a Norse settlement in the nth
century, and which include a semicircular amphitheatre of six
tiers or terraces which he thought was an assembly place, and
a portion of a stone wall or dam. The Federal government
maintains at Watertown one of its principal arsenals, occupying
grounds of about 100 acres along the river. Several of the
original low brick buildings, built between 1816 and 1820, still
stand. In 1905 the value of Watertown's factory products
was $15,524,675.
Watertown was one of the earliest of the Massachusetts Bay
settlements, having been begun early in 1630 by a group of
settlers led by Sir Richard Saltonstall and the Rev. George
Phillips. The first buildings were upon land now included
within the limits of Cambridge. For the first quarter century
Watertown ranked next to Boston in population and area.
Since then its limits have been greatly reduced. Thrice portions
have been added to Cambridge, and it has contributed territory
to form the new townships of Weston (1712), Waltham (1738),
and Belmont (1859). In 1632 the residents of Watertown
protested against being compelled to pay a tax for the erection
of a stockade fort at Cambridge; this was the first protest in
America against taxation without representation and led to the
establishment of representative government in the colony.
As early as the close of the I7th century Watertown was the
chief horse and cattle market in New England and was known
for its fertile gardens and fine estates. Here about 1632 was
erected the first grist mill in the colony, and in 1662 one of the
first woollen mills in America was built here. In the First
Parish Church, the site of which is marked by a monument,
the Provincial Congre&s after adjournment from Concord, met
from April to July 1775; the Massachusetts General Court
held its sessions here from 1775 to 1778, and the Boston town
meetings were held here during the siege of Boston, when many
of the well-known Boston families made their homes in the
neighbourhood. For several months early in the War of Inde-
pendence the Committees of Safety and Correspondence made
Watertown their headquarters and it was from here that General
Joseph Warren set out for Bunker Hill. In 1832-1834 Theodore
Parker conducted a private school here and his name is still
preserved in the Parker School.
See S. A. Drake, History of Middlesex County (2 vols., Boston,
1880) ; Convers Francis, A Historical Sketch of Watertown to the
close of its Second Century (Cambridge, 1830); S. F. Whitney,
Historical Sketch of Watertown (Boston, 1906); and " Watertown,"
by S. F. Whitney, in vol. iii. of D. Hamilton Kurd's History of
Middlesex County (Philadelphia, 1890). The Watertown Records
(4 vols., Watertown and Boston, 1894-1906) have been published by
the Historical Society of Watertown (organized in 1888 and incor-
porated in 1891).
WATERTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county,
New York, U.S.A., 73 m. (by rail) N. of Syracuse, on the Black
river. Pop. (1890) 14,725; (1900) 21,696, of whom 5119 were
foreign-born and 75 were negroes; (1910 census) 26,730. Water-
town is served by the New York Central & Hudson River
railway. The city has several squares and public parks, one of
them, City Park, having an area of about 300 acres. Among
the public buildings and institutions are the city hall, the Federal
building, the county court house, a state armoury, the Flower
Memorial Library (erected as a memorial to Roswell P. Flower,
governor of New York in 1892-1895, by his daughter, Mrs J. B.
Taylor) with 25,514 vols. in 1910, the Immaculate Heart
Academy (Roman Catholic), the Jefferson County Orphan
Asylum (1859), the St Patrick's Orphanage (1897; under the
Sisters of St Joseph), the Henry Keep Home (1879), for aged
men and women, St Joachim's Hospital (1896; under the
Sisters of Mercy), and the House of the Good Samaritan (1882).
Watertown is situated in a fertile agricultural and dairying
region, of which it is a distributing centre, and it ships large
quantities of farm produce and dairy products (especially cheese).
The Black river furnishes water-power which is utilized by
manufacturing establishments of diversified character. In 1905
the city's factory product was valued at $8,371,618. Watertown
was settled during the late years of the i8th century. It became
the county-seat in 1805, was incorporated as a village in 1816
and was first chartered as a city in 1869.
WATERTOWN, a city of Dodge and Jefferson counties,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both banks of the Rock river, about 45 m.
W.N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1800) 8755; (1900) 8437, including
2447 foreign-born; (1905, state census) 8623; (1910) 8829. Water-
town is served by the Chicago & North- Western and the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by an interurban electric
line, connecting with Milwaukee. It is the seat of North-western
University (1865; Lutheran), which includes collegiate, pre-
paratory and academic departments, and had in 1908-1909
ii instructors and 283 students, and of the Sacred Heart College
(Roman Catholic, opened in 1872 and chartered in 1874), under
the Congregation of the Holy Cross. There are also a Canegie
library, a Lutheran Home for the Feeble-Minded, and a City
Hospital. The Rock river furnishes water-power which is
utilized for manufacturing. The value of the factory product
in 1905 was $2,065,487. The city is situated in a dairying and
farming region. The municipality owns and operates its water-
works. Watertown was founded about 1836 by settlers who
gave it the name of their former home, Watertown, New York.
Afterwards there was a great influx of Germans, particularly
after the Revolution of 1848, among them being Carl Schurz,
who began the practice of law here. Germans by birth or descent
still constitute a majority of the population. Watertown was
incorporated as a village in 1849, and was chartered as a city
in 1853.
WATERVILLE, a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A.,
on the Kennebec river, 19 m. above Augusta. Pop. (1000)
412
WATERVLIET WATSON, R.
9477, of whom 2087 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,458. It
is served by the Wiscasset, Waterville & Farmington railway,
and two lines of the Maine Central railroad. The Ticonic Falls
in the river afford excellent water-power, which is used in the
manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, &c. In Winslow (pop.
in 1910, 2709), on the opposite side of the river and connected
by bridges with Waterville, are large paper and pulp mills.
Waterville has a Carnegie library and is the seat of Colby College
(Baptist), which was incorporated as the Maine Literary and
Theological Institution in 1813, was renamed Waterville College
in 1821, was named Colby University in 1867, in honour of
Gardner Colby (1810-1879), a liberal benefactor, and received its
present name in 1899. Since 1871 women have been admitted
on the same terms as men. In 1910 the college library contained
51,000 volumes. Waterville was settled about the middle of
the i8th century. It was a part of the township of Winslow
from 1771 to 1802, when it was incorporated as a separate town-
ship. It was first chartered as a city in 1883.
WATERVLIET, a city of Albany county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the W. bank of the Hudson river opposite Troy and about
5 m. N. of Albany. Pop. (1890) 12,967; (1900) 14,321, of whom
2754 were foreign-born and 59 were negroes; (1910 census)
1 5,074. Watervliet is served by the Delaware & Hudson railway
and by steamboat lines on the Hudson river, and is connected
with Troy by bridges and ferries, and with Albany, Troy, Cohoes
and Schenectady by electric lines. The Erie and Champlain
canals have their terminals a short distance above the city.
The city has a city hall and a public library. Watervliet is
situated in a good farming country, but is chiefly a manufacturing
place; in 1905 its factory products were valued at $1,884,802
(25% more than in 1900), not including the product of the
United States Arsenal (1807), on the river, an important manu-
factory of heavy ordnance. The place was originally called
West Troy and was incorporated as a village in 1836; in 1897
it was chartered as a city under its present name; at the same
time the township of Watervliet in which it was situated was
divided into the townships cf Colonie and Green Island. In
1776 the first settlement of Shakers (q.v.) in America was made
in the township by " Mother Ann " Lee and her followers, who
named it Niskayuna. Here " Mother Ann " died and is buried.
WATFORD, a market town in the Watford parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, 17 J m. N.W. of London
by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. of urban
district (1891) 17,063; (1901) 29,327. It lies on the small river
Colne in a pleasant undulating and well wooded district. The
church of St Mary, with embattled tower and spire, is of various
dates, and contains good examples of monumental work of the
early i7th century; and in the churchyard is buried Robert
Clutterbuck (d. 1831), author of the History and Antiquities
of the County of Hertford. There are several modern churches
and chapels. The chief building within the town is the Watford
Public Library and School of Art. There are large breweries,
also corn-mills, malt-kilns and an iron foundry. Bushey, on the
south side of the Colne, lying for the most part high above it,
is a suburb, chiefly residential, with a station on the North-
Western line. The church of St James, extensively restored
by Sir Gilbert Scott, is Early English in its oldest part, the
chancel. Here a school of art was founded by Sir Hubert von
Herkomer, R.A., but it was closed in 1904, and subsequently
revived in other hands. Other institutions are the Royal
Caledonian Asylum and the London Orphan Asylum. At
Aldenham, 2 m. N.E., the grammar school founded in 1599 now
ranks as one of the minor English public schools.
WATKIN, SIR EDWARD WILLIAM, ist Bart. (1810-1901),
English railway manager, was born in Manchester on the 26th
of September 1819. He was the son of Absalom Watkin, a
merchant in Manchester, and was employed in his father's
counting-house, ultimately becoming a partner; but in 1845
he was appointed secretary of the Trent Valley railway, which
was soon afterwards absorbed by the London & North-Western
Company. He next joined the Manchester & Sheffield Com-
pany, of which he became general manager and then chairman,
subsequently combining with the duties thus entailed the
chairmanship of the South-Eastern (1867) and of the Metropolitan
(1872). His connexion with these three railways was maintained
to within a short time of bis death, and they formed the material
of one of his most ambitious schemes the establishment of
a through route under one management frorri Dover to Man-
chester and the north. This was the end he had in view in his
successful fight for the extension of the Manchester, Sheffield
& Lincolnshire railway (now the Great Central) to London;
and his persistent advocacy of the Channel tunnel (q.v.) between
Dover and Calais was really a further development of the same
idea, for its construction would have enabled through trains
to be run from Paris to Lancashire and Scotland, via the East
London (of which also he was for a time chairman) and the
Metropolitan. The latter scheme, however, failed to obtain the
necessary public and political support. Other projects had even
less success. His plans for a tunnel between Scotland and
Ireland under the North Channel, and for a ship canal across
Ireland from Galway to Dublin, did not come to anything;
while the great tower at Wembley Park (near Harrow), intended
to surpass the Eiffel Tower at Paris, stopped at an early stage.
It was in the realms of railway politics that Watkin showed to
best advantage; for the routine work of administration pure
and simple he had no aptitude. He entered parliament as a
Liberal, and after representing Stockport from 1864 to 1868, sat
as member for Hythe for twenty-one years from 1874, becoming
a Liberal-Unionist at the time of the Home Rule split, and
subsequently acting as a " free lance." In 1868 he received a
knighthood, and in 1880 he was created a baronet. His death
occurred at Northenden, Cheshire, on the I3th of April 1901.
WATKINS, a village and the county-seat of Schuyler county,
New York, U.S.A., at the head (south end) of Seneca Lake, about
22 m. N.N.W. of Elmira. Pop. (1890) 2604; (1900) 2943;
(1905) 2957; (1910) 2817. Watkins is served by the New York
Central & Hudson River, the Northern Central (Pennsylvania)
and the Lehigh Valley railways, by an electric line to' Elmira
and by a steamer line on the lake. There are mineral springs,
whose waters, notably those of an iodo-bromated brine spring,
are used in bath treatment for rheumatism, gout, heart, kidney
and liver diseases, &c. Partly within the village limits is Watkins
Glen, a narrow winding gorge about 2 m. long, with walls and
precipices from 100 to 300 ft. high, through which flows a small
stream, forming many falls, cascades and pools. The Glen
property, about 103 acres, was opened as an excursion resort
in 1863, and in 1906 was made a free state reservation or park
and was placed in the custody of the American Scenic and
Historic Preservation Society. About 3 m. S.E. is Havana
Glen, about ij m. long. The first settlement here was made
in 1788, and Watkins was incorporated as a village in 1842.
WATLING STREET, the Early English name for the great
road made by the Romans from London past St Albans (Roman
Verulamium) to Wroxeter (Roman Viroconium) near Shrewsbury
and used by the Anglo-Saxons, just as a great part of it is used
to-day. According to early documents the name was at first
Waeclinga (or Wsetlinga) straet; its derivation is unknown,
but an English personal name may lie behind it. After the
Conquest the road was included in the list of four Royal Roads
which the Norman lawyers recorded or invented (see ERMINE
STREET). Later still, in the Elizabethan period and after it,
the name Watling Street seems to have been applied by anti-
quaries to many Roman or reputed Roman roads in various
parts of Britain, and English map-makers and inferior writers
on Roman roads still perpetuate the fictions. In particular,
the Roman " North Road " which ran from York through
Corbridge and over Cheviot to Newstead near Melrose, and thence
to the Wall of Pius, and which has largely been in use ever since
Roman times, is now not unfrequently called Watling Street,
though there is no old authority for it and throughout the middle
ages the section of the road between the Tyne and the Forth
was called Dere Street. (F. J. H.)
WATSON, RICHARD (1737-1816), English divine, was born in
August 1737 at Heversham in Westmorland. His father, a
WATSON, T.
schoolmaster, sent him to Trinity College, Cambridge, where
he was elected a fellow in 1760. About the same time he had
the offer of the post of chaplain to the factory at Bencoolen, in
the Straits Settlements. " You are too good," said the master
of Trinity, " to die of drinking punch in the torrid zone "; and
Watson, instead of becoming, as he had flattered himself, a great
orientalist, remained at home to be elected professor of chemistry,
a science of which he did not at the time possess the simplest
rudiments. " I buried myself," he says, " in my laboratory, and
in fourteen months read a course of chemical lectures to a very
full audience." One of his discoveries led to the black-bulb
thermometer. Not the least of his services was to procure an
endowment for the chair, which served as a precedent in similar
instances. In 1771 he was appointed regius professor of divinity,
but did not entirely renounce the study of chemistry. In 1768
he had published Inslitutiones metallurgicae, intended to give
a scientific form to chemistry by digesting facts established
by experiment into a connected series of propositions. In 1781
he followed this up with an introductory manual of Chemical
Essays. In 1776 he answered Gibbon's chapters on Christianity,
and had the honour of being one of the only two opponents
whom Gibbon treated with respect. The same year he offended
the court by a Whig sermon, but in 1779 became archdeacon
of Ely. He had always opposed the American War, and on the
accession of Lord Shelburne to power in 1782 was made bishop
of Llandaff, being permitted to retain his other preferments on
account of the poverty of the see. Shelburne expected great
service from him as a pamphleteer, but Watson proved from
the ministerial point of view a most impracticable prelate. He
immediately brought forward a scheme for improving the condi-
tion of the poorer clergy by equalizing the incomes of the bishops,
the reception of which at the time may be imagined, though it
was substantially the same as that carried into effect by Lord
Melbourne's government fifty years later. Watson now found
that he possessed no influence with the minister, and that he had
destroyed his chance of the great object of his ambition, promo-
tion to a better diocese. Neglecting both his see and his professor-
ship, to which latter he appointed a deputy described as highly
incompetent, he withdrew to Calgarth Park, in his native county,
where he occupied himself in forming plantations and in the
improvement of agriculture. He also frequently came forward
as a preacher and as a speaker in the House of Lords. His
advice to the government in 1787 is said to have saved the
country 100,000 a year in gunpowder. In 1796 he published,
in answer to Thomas Paine, an Apology for the Bible, perhaps
the best known of his numerous writings. Watson continued to
exert his pen with vigour, and in general to good purpose,
denouncing the slave trade, advocating the union with Ireland,
and offering financial suggestions to Pitt, who seems to have
frequently consulted him. In 1798 his Address to the People
of Great Britain, enforcing resistance to French arms and French
principles, ran through fourteen editions, but estranged him
from many old friends, who accused him, probably with injustice,
of aiming to make his peace with the government. Though
querulous because of his non-preferment, De Quincey tells us
that " his lordship was a joyous, jovial, and cordial host." He
died on the 2nd of July 1816, having occupied his latter years
in the composition and revision of an autobiography (published
in 1817), which, with all its egotism and partiality, is a valuable
work, and the chief authority for his life.
WATSON, THOMAS (c. 1357-1592). English lyrical poet, was
born in London, probably in 1357. He proceeded to Oxford,
and while quite a young man enjoyed a certain reputation, even
abroad, as a Latin poet. His De remedio amoris, which was
perhaps his earliest important composition, is lost, and so is
his " piece of work written in the commendation of women-kind,"
which was also in Latin verse. He came back to London and
became a law-student. The earliest publication by Watson
which has survived is a Latin version of the A ntigone of Sophocles,
issued in 1581. It is dedicated to Philip Howard, earl of Arundel,
who was perhaps the patron of the poet, who seems to have spent
some part of this year in Paris. Next year Watson appears for
the first time as an English poet in some verses prefixed to Whet-
stone's Heptameron, and also in a far more important guise,
as the author of the 'EKaroniraBla. or Passionate Centurie of Love.
This is a collection or cycle of 100 pieces, in the manner of
Petrarch, celebrating the sufferings of a lover and his long
farewell to love. The technical peculiarity of these interesting
poems is that, although they appear and profess to be sonnets,
they are really written in triple sets of common six-line stanza,
and therefore have eighteen lines each. It seems likely that
Watson, who courted comparison with Petrarch, seriously
desired to recommend this form to future sonneteers; but in
this he had no imitators. 1 Among those who were at this time
the friends of Watson we note Matthew Royden and George
Peele. In 1585 he published a Latin translation ofTasso's
pastoral play of Aminta, and his version was afterwards trans-
lated into English by Abraham Fraunce (1587). Watson was
now, as the testimony of Nashe and others prove, regarded as
the best Latin poet of England. In 1590 he published, in
English and Latin verse, his Meliboeus, an elegy on the death
of Sir Francis Walsingham, and a collection of Italian Madrigals,
put into English by Watson and set to music by Byrd. Of the
remainder of Watson's career nothing is known, save that on the
26th of September 1592 he was buried in the church of St
Bartholomew the Less, and that in the following year his latest
and best book, The Tears of Fancie, or Love Disdained (1593),
was posthumously published. This is a collection of sixty
sonnets, regular in form, so far at least as to have fourteen lines
each. Spenser is supposed to have alluded to the untimely death
of Watson in Colin Clout's Come Home Again, when he says:
" Amyntas quite is gone and lies full low,
Having his Amaryllis left to moan."
He is mentioned by Meres in company with Shakespeare, Peele
and Marlowe among " the best for tragedie," but no dramatic
work of his except the translations above mentioned has come
down to us. It is certain that this poet enjoyed a great reputa-
tion in his lifetime, and that he was not without a direct influence
upon the youth of Shakespeare. He was the first, after the
original experiment made by Wyat and Surrey, to introduce
the pure imitation of Petrarch into English poetry. He was well
read in Italian, French and Greek literature. Watson died young,
and he had not escaped from a certain languor and insipidity
which prevent his graceful verses from producing their full effect.
This demerit is less obvious in his later than in his earlier pieces,
and with the development of the age, Watson, whose con-
temporaries regarded him as a poet of true excellence, would prob-
ably have gained power and music. As it is, he has the honour of
being one of the direct forerunners of Shakespeare (in Venus and
Adonis and in the Sonnets), and of being the leader in the long
procession of Elizabethan sonnet-cycle writers. (E. G.)
The English works of Watson, excepting the madrigals, were first
collected by Edward Arber in 1870. Thomas Watson's " Italian
Madrigals Englished" (1590) were reprinted (ed. F. J. Carpenter)
from the Journal of Germanic Philology (voj. ii., No. 3, p. 337) with
the original Italian, in 1899. See also Mr Sidney Lee's Introduction
(pp. xxxii.-xli.) to Elizabethan Sonnets in the new edition (1904) of
An English Garner.
1 Speaking of the Hecatompathia, Mr Sidney Lee says: " Watson
deprecates all claim to originality. To each poem he prefixes a
prose introduction in which he frankly indicates, usually with
ample quotations, the French, Italian or classical poem which was
the source of his inspiration " (Elizabethan Sonnets, p. xxviii.). In
a footnote (p. xxxix.) he adds: " Eight of Watsons sonnets aie,
according to his own account, renderings from Petrarch; twelve
are from Serafino dell' Aquila (1466-1500); four each come from
Strozza, the Ferrarese poet, and from Ronsard; three from the
Italian poet, Agnolo Firenzuola (1493-1548); two each from the
French poet, tienne Forcadel, known as Forcatulus (i5i4?-i.573),
the Italian Girolamo Parabosco (fl. 1548), and Aeneas Sylvius;
while many are based on passages from such authors as (among the
Greeks) Sophocles.Theocntus, Apollonius of Rhodes (author of the
epic Argonaulica); or (among the Latins), Virgil, Tibullus, Ovid,
Horace, Propertius, Seneca, Pliny, Lucan, Martial and Valerius
Flaccus; or (among the modern Italians) Angelo Poliziano (1454-
1494) and Baptista Mantuanus (1448-1516); or (among other
modern Frenchmen) Geryasius Sepinus of Saumur, writer of eclogues
after the manner of Virgil and Mantuanus."
414
WATSON, WILLIAM (c. 1559-1603), English conspirator, was
a native of the north of England, and was born probably on the
23rd of April 1559. In 1586 he became a Roman Catholic priest
in France, and during the concluding years of Elizabeth's reign
he paid several visits to England; he was imprisoned and
tortured more than once. He became prominent as a champion
of the secular priests in their dispute with the Jesuits, and in
1601 some writings by him on this question appeared which were
answered by Robert Parsons. When Elizabeth died, Watson
hastened to Scotland to assure James I. of the loyalty of his
party, and to forestall the Jesuits, who were suspected of intrigu-
ing with Spain. The new king did not, however, as was hoped,
cease to exact the necessary fines; and the general dissatisfaction
felt by the Roman Catholics gave rise to the " Bye plot," or
" Watson's plot," in which connexion this priest's name is best
known, and to its sequel the Main or Cobham's, plot. Watson
discussed the grievances of his cc-religionists with another priest,
William Clark, with Sir Griffin Markham and Anthony Copley,
and with a disappointed Protestant courtier, George Brooke;
they took another Protestant, Thomas, i sth Lord Grey de Wilton,
into their confidence, and following many Scottish precedents
it was arranged that James should be surprised and seized, while
they talked loudly about capturing the Tower of London, con-
verting the king to Romanism, and making Watson lord keeper.
One or two of the conspirators drew back; but Watson and his
remaining colleagues arranged to assemble at Greenwich on the
24th of June 1603, and under the pretence of presenting a
petition to carry out their object. The plot was a complete
failure; Henry Garnet and other Jesuits betrayed it to the
authorities, and its principal authors were seized, Watson being
captured in August at Hay on the Welsh border. They were
tried at Winchester and found guilty; Watson and Clark were
executed on the gth of December 1603, and Brooke suffered the
same fate a week later. Grey and Markham were reprieved.
Before the executions took place, however, the failure of the
Bye plot had led to the discovery of the Main plot. Brooke's
share in the earlier scheme caused suspicion to fall upon his
brother Henry Brooke, Lord Cobham, the ally and brother-in-law
of Sir Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury. Cobham
appears to have been in communication with Spain about the
possibility of killing " the king and his cubs " and of placing
Lady Arabella Stuart on the throne. He was seized, tried and
condemned to death, but although led out to the scaffold he
was not executed. It was on suspicion of being associated with
Cobham in this matter that Sir Walter Raleigh was arrested and
tried.
See the documents printed by T. G. Law in The Archpriest contro-
versy (1896-1898); the same writer's Jesuits and Seculars (1889),
and S. R. Gardiner, History of England, vol. i. (1905).
WATSON, WILLIAM (1858- ), English poet, was born on
the 2nd of August 1858 at Burley-in-Wharfedale, Yorkshire,
and was brought up at Liverpool, whither his father moved for
business. In 1880 he published his first book The Prince's Quest,
a poem showing the influence of Keats and Tennyson, but giving
little indication of the author's mature style. It attracted no
attention until it was republished in 1893 after Mr Watson had
made a name by other work. In 1884 appeared Epigrams of
Art, Life and Nature, a remarkable little volume, which already
showed the change to Mr Watson's characteristic restraint and
concision of manner. But it passed unnoted. Recognition came
with the publication of Wordsworth's Grave in 1890; and fame
with the publication of the second edition in 1891, and the
appearance in the Fortnightly Review, August 1891, of an article
by Grant Allen entitled " A New Poet." Wordsworth's Grave,
which marked a reversion from the current Tennysonian and
Swinburnian fashion to the meditative note of Matthew Arnold,
exhibited in full maturity Mr Watson's poetical qualities; his
stately diction, his fastidious taste, his epigrammatic turn, his
restrained yet eloquent utterance, his remarkable gift of literary
criticism in poetic form. Besides Wordsworth's Grave the
volume contained Ver tenebrosum (originally published in the
National Review for June 1885), a series of political sonnets
WATSON, W. WATT
indicating a fervour of political conviction which was later to
find still more impassioned expression; also a selection with
additions from the Epigrams of 1884, and among other miscellane-
ous pieces his tribute to Arnold, " In Laleham Churchyard."
During the years 1890-1892 he contributed articles to the
National Review, Spectator, Illustrated London News, Academy,
Bookman and Atalanta, which were collected and republished in
1893 as Excursions in Criticism. In 1893 he also published
Lacrymae Musaram, the poem which gave the title to the volume
being a fine elegy on the death of Tennyson; and it included the
poem on " Shelley's Centenary " (both of these printed privately
in 1892), and " The Dream of Man," the earliest of his philo-
sophical poems. The same year, too, saw the publication of
The Eloping Angels, a serio-comic trifle of small merit, dedicated
to Grant Allen. During this year Mr Gladstone bestowed
on him the Civil List pension of 200 available on the death of
Tennyson. In 1894 followed Odes and Other Poems, and in
1895 The Father of the Forest, which contained also the fine
" Hymn to the Sea " in English elegiacs (originally contributed
to the Yellow Book), " The Tomb of Burns," and " Apologia,"
a piece of candid and just self-criticism. The volume contained
also a sonnet " To the Turk in Armenia," a prelude to the series
of sonnets about Armenia contributed to the Westminster
Gazette and republished in a brochure called -The Purple East in
1896. These sonnets were republished with revision and con-
siderable additions, and a preface by the bishop of Hereford,
in The Year of Shame in 1897. Whatever view was taken of the
poet's incursion into politics, no one doubted his passionate
sincerity, or the excellence of the poetical rhetoric it inspired.
In 1898 were published his Collected Poems and a volume of new-
poetry The Hope of the World, which opened with his three chief
philosophical poems, the title piece, " The Unknown God," and
" Ode in May." In 1902 he printed privately 50 copies of New
Poems, and published his " Ode on the Coronation of King
Edward VII.," a favourable specimen of its class; and in 1903
besides a volume of Selected Poems a collection of poems contri-
buted to various periodicals and called For England: Poems
Written During Estrangement, a poetical defence of his impugned
patriotism during the Boer War. In 1909 appeared an important
volume of New Poems.
Mr Watson's poetry falls chiefly into the classes above in-
dicated critical, philosophical and political to which may be
added a further class of Horatian epistles to his friends. This
classification indicates the high character and also the limitations
of his poetry. It is contemplative, not dramatic, and only
occasionally lyrical in impulse. In spite of the poet's plea in
his " Apologia " that there is an ardour and a fire other than
that of Eros or Aphrodite, ardour and fire are not conspicuous
qualities of his verse. Except in his political verse there is more
thought than passion. Bearing trace enough of the influence of
the romantic epoch, his poetry recalls the earlier classical period
in its epigrammatic phrasing and Latinized diction. By the
distinction and clarity of his style and the dignity of his move-
ment William Watson stands in the true classical tradition of great
English verse, in a generation rather given over to lawlessness
and experiment.
See also section on William Watson in Poets of the Younger Genera-
tion, by William Archer (1902) ; and for bibliography up to Aug.
1903, English Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxix. (N.S.), pp. 542 and
548. (W.P.J.)
WATT, JAMES (1736-1819), Scottish engineer, the inventor of
the modern condensing steam-engine, was born at Greenock
on the igth of January 1736. His father was a small merchant
there, who lost his trade and fortune by unsuccessful speculation,
and James was early thrown on his own resources. Having a
taste for mechanics he made his way to London, at the age of
nineteen, to learn the business of a philosophical-instrument
maker, and became apprenticed to one John Morgan, in whose
service he remained for twelve months. From a child he had
been extremely delicate, and the hard work and frugal living of
his London pupilage taxed his strength so severely that he was
forced at the end of a year to seek rest at home, not, however,
WATT
until he had gained a fair knowledge of the trade and' become
handy in the use of tools. Before going to London he had made
the acquaintance of some of the professors in Glasgow college,
and on his return to Scotland in 1756 he sought them out and
obtained work in repairing astronomical instruments. He next
tried to establish himself as an instrument maker in Glasgow,
but the city gilds would not recognize a craftsman who had not
served the full term of common apprenticeship, and Watt was
forbidden to open shop in the burgh. The college, however, took
hira under its protection, and in 1757 he was established in its
precincts with the title of mathematical-instrument maker to the
university.
Before many months Joseph Black, the discoverer of latent
heat, then lecturer on chemistry, and John Robison, then a
student, afterwards professor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh,
became his intimate friends, and with them he often discussed the
possibility of improving the steam-engine, of which at that time
Thomas Newcomen's was the most advanced type. The engine
was then applied only to pumping water chiefly in the drainage
of mines; and it was so clumsy and wasteful of fuel as to be
but little used. Some early experiments of Watt in 1761 or 1762
led to no positive result, but in 1764 his attention was seriously
drawn to the matter by having a model of Newcomen's engine,
which formed part of the college collection of scientific apparatus,
given him to repair. Having put the model in order, he was at
once struck with its enormous consumption of steam, and set
himself to examine the cause of this and to find a remedy.
In Newcomen's engine the cylinder stood vertically under one
end of the main lever or " beam " and was open at the top.
Steam, at a pressure scarcely greater than that of the atmosphere,
was admitted to the under side; this allowed the piston to be
pulled up by a counterpoise at the other end of the beam.
Communication with the boiler was then shut off, and the steam
in the cylinder was condensed by injecting a jet of cold water
from a cistern above. The pressure of the air on the top of the
piston then drove it down, raising the counterpoise and doing
work. The injection water and condensed steam which had
gathered in the cylinder were drained out by a pipe leading
down into a well.
Watt at once noticed that the alternate heating and cooling
of the cylinder in Newcomen's engine made it work with tedious
slowness and excessive consumption of steam. When steam
was admitted at the beginning of each stroke, it found the metal
of the cylinder and piston chilled by contact with the condensed
steam and cold injection water of the previous stroke, and it
was not until much steam had been condensed in heating the
chilled surfaces that the cylinder was able to fill and the piston
to rise. His first attempt at a remedy was to use for the material
of the cylinder a substance that would take in and give out heat
slowly. Wood was tried, but it made matters only a little
better, and did not promise to be durable. Watt observed that
the evil was intensified whenever, for the sake of making a good
vacuum under the piston, a specially large quantity of injection
water was supplied.
He then entered on a scientific examination of the properties
of steam, studying by experiment the relation of its density
and pressure to the temperature, and concluded that two
conditions were essential to the economic use of steam in a
condensing steam-engine. One was that the temperature of
the condensed steam should be as low as possible, 100 F. or
lower, otherwise the vacuum would not be good; the other
was, to quote his own words, " that the cylinder should be always
as hot as the steam which entered it." In Newcomen's engine
these two conditions were incompatible, and it was not for some
months that Watt saw a means of reconciling them. Early in
1765, while walking on a Sunday afternoon in Glasgow Green,
the idea flashed upon him that, if the steam were condensed
in a vessel distinct from the cylinder, it would be practicable
to make the temperature of condensation low, and still keep
the cylinder hot. Let this separate vessel be kept cold, either
by injecting cold water or by letting it stream over the outside,
and let a vacuum be maintained in the vessel. Then, whenever
communication was made between it and the cylinder, steam
would pass over from the cylinder and be condensed; the pressure
in the cylinder would be as low as the pressure in the condenser,
but the temperature of the metal of the cylinder would remain
high, since no injection water need touch it. Without delay
Watt put this idea to the test, and found that the separate con-
denser did act as he had anticipated. To maintain the vacuum
in it he added another new organ, namely, the air-pump, the
function of which is to remove the condensed steam and water
of injection along with any air that gathers in the condenser.
To further his object of keeping the cylinder as hot as the
steam that entered it, Watt supplemented his great invention
of the separate condenser by several less notable but still import-
ant improvements. In Newcomen's engine a layer of water
over the piston had been used to keep it steam-tight; Watt
substituted a tighter packing lubricated by oil. In Newcomen's
engine the upper end of the cylinder was open to the air; Watt
covered it in, leading the piston-rod through a steam-tight
stuffing box in the cover, and allowed steam instead of air to
press on the top of the piston. In Newcomen's engine the
cylinder had no clothing to reduce loss of heat by radiation and
conduction from its outer surface; Watt not only cased it in
non-conducting material, such as wood, but introduced a steam-
jacket, or layer of steam, between the cylinder proper and an
outer shell.
All these features were specified in his first patent (see STEAM-
ENGINE), which, however, was not obtained till January 1769,
nearly four years after the inventions it covers had been made.
In the interval Watt had been striving to demonstrate the merits
of his engine by trial on a large scale. His earliest experiments
left him in debt, and, finding that his own means were quite
insufficient to allow him to continue them, he agreed that Dr
John Roebuck, founder of the Carron ironworks, should take
two-thirds of the profits of the invention in consideration of
his bearing the cost. An engine was then erected at Kinneil,
near Linlithgow, where Roebuck lived, and this gave Watt the
opportunity of facing many difficulties in details of construction.
But the experiments made slow progress, for Roebuck's affairs
became embarrassed, and Watt's attention was engaged by other
work. He had taken to surveying, and was fast gaining reputa-
tion as a civil engineer. In 1767 he was employed to make a
survey for a Forth and Clyde canal a scheme which failed to
secure parliamentary sanction. This was followed during the
next six years by surveys for a canal at Monkland, for another
through the vaUey of Strathmore from Perth to Forfar, and
for others along the lines afterwards followed by the Crinan and
Caledonian canals. He prepared plans for the harbours of Ayr,
Port-Glasgow and Greenock, for deepening the Clyde, and for
building a bridge over it at -Hamilton. In the course of this
work he invented a simple micrometer for measuring distances,
consisting of a pair of horizontal hairs placed in the focus of a
telescope, through which sights were taken to a fixed and
movable target on a rod held upright at the place whose distance
from the observer was to be determined. The micrometer was
varied in a number of ways; and another fruit of his ingenuity
about the same time was a machine to facilitate drawing in
perspective.
Meanwhile the engine had not been wholly neglected. Watt
had secured his patent; the Kinneil trials had given him a
store of valuable experience; Roebuck had failed, but another
partner was ready to take his place. In 1768 Watt had made
the acquaintance of Matthew Boulton, a man of energy and
capital, who owned the Soho engineering works at Birmingham.
Boulton agreed to take Roebuck's share in the invention, and
to join Watt in applying to parliament for an act to prolong the
term of the patent. The application was successful. In 1775
an act was passed continuing the patent for twenty-five years.
By this time the inventor had abandoned his civil engineering
work and had settled in Birmingham, where the manufacture
of steam-engines was begun by the firm of Boulton & Watt.
The partnership was a singularly happy one. Boulton had the
good sense to leave the work of inventing to Watt, in whose
416
WATT
genius he had the fullest faith; on the other hand, his substantial
means, his enterprise, resolution and business capacity supplied
what was wanting to bring the invention to commercial success.
During the next ten years we find Watt assiduously engaged
in developing and introducing the engine. Its first and for a
time its only application was in pumping; it was at once put
to this use in the mines of Cornwall, where Watt was now
frequently engaged in superintending the erection of engines.
Further inventions were required to fit it for other uses, and
these followed in quick succession. Watt's second steam-engine
patent is dated 1781. It describes five different methods of
converting the reciprocating motion of the piston into motion
of rotation, so as to adapt the engine for driving ordinary
machinery. The simplest way of doing this, and the means now
universally followed, is by a crank and fly-wheel; this had
occurred to Watt, but had meanwhile been patented by another,
and hence he devised the " sun and planet wheels " and other
equivalent contrivances. A third patent, in 1782, contained
two new inventions of the first importance. Up to this time the
engine had been single-acting; Watt now made it double-acting;
that is to say, both ends of the cylinder, instead of only one,
were alternately put in communication with the boiler and the
condenser. Up to this time also the steam had been admitted
from the boiler throughout the whole stroke of the piston;
Watt now introduced the system of expansive working, in which
the admission valve is closed after a portion only of the stroke
is performed, and the steam enclosed in the cylinder is then
allowed to expand during the remainder of the stroke, doing
additional work upon the piston without making any further
demand upon the boiler until the next stroke requires a fresh
admission of steam. He calculated that, as the piston advanced
after admission had ceased, the pressure of the steam in the
cylinder would fall in the same proportion as its volume increased
a law which, although not strictly true, does accord very
closely with the actual behaviour of steam expanding in the
cylinder of an engine. Recognizing that this would cause a
gradual reduction of the force with which the piston pulled or
pushed against the beam, Watt devised a number of contrivances
for equalizing the effort throughout the stroke. He found,
however, that the inertia of the pump-rods in his mine engines,
and the fly-wheel in his rotative engines, served to compensate
for the inequality of thrust sufficiently to make these con-
trivances unnecessary. His fourth patent, taken out in 1784,
describes the well-known " parallel motion," an arrangement
of links by which the top of the piston-rod is connected to the
beam so that it may either pull or push, and is at the same time
guided to move in a sensibly straight line. " I have started a
new hare," he writes to Boulton in June of that year; " I have
got a glimpse of a method of causing a piston-rod to move up
and down perpendicularly by only fixing it to a piece of iron upon
the beam, without chains or perpendicular guides or untowardly
frictions, arch-heads, or other pieces of clumsiness. I think it
a very probable thing to succeed, and one of the most ingenious
simple pieces of mechanism I have contrived."
A still later invention was the throttle-valve and centrifugal
governor, by which the speed of rotative engines was automatic-
ally controlled. One more item in the list of Watt's contributions
to the development of the steam-engine is too important to be
passed without mention: the indicator, which draws a diagram
of the relation of the steam's pressure to its volume as the stroke
proceeds, was first used by Boulton & Watt to measure the
work done by their engines, and so to give a basis on which the
charges levied from their customers were adjusted. It would
be difficult to exaggerate the part which this simple little instru-
ment has played in the evolution of the steam-engine. The
eminently philosophic notion of an indicator diagram is funda-
mental in the theory of thermodynamics; the instrument
itself is to the steam engineer what the stethoscope is to the
physician, and more, for with it he not only diagnoses the ailments
of a faulty machine, whether in one or another of its organs,
but gauges its power in health.
The commercial success of the engine was not long in being
established. By 1783 all but one of the Newcomen pumping
engines in Cornwall had been displaced by Watt's. The mine
were then far from thriving; many were even on the point
being abandoned through the difficulty of dealing with
volumes of water; and Watt's invention, which allowed
to be done at a moderate cost, meant for many of them a ne
lease of life. His engine used no more than a fourth of the fu
that had formerly been needed to do the same work, and
Soho firm usually claimed by way of royalty a sum equivaler
to one-third of the saving a sum which must have been nearly
equal to the cost of the fuel actually consumed. Rival manu
facturers came forward, amongst whom Edward Bull
Jonathan Carter Hornblower are the most conspicuous name
They varied the form of the engine, but they could not avoic
infringing Watt's patent by the use of a separate condens
When action was taken against them on that ground, the
retaliated by disputing the validity of the fundamental pater
of 1769. In the case of Boulton & Watt v. Bull the cour
was divided on this point, but in an action against Hornblower
the patent was definitely affirmed to be valid by a unanimous
finding of the Court of King's Bench. This was in 1799, only a
year before the monopoly expired, but the decision enabled
the firm to claim a large sum as arrears of patent dues. In
connexion with these trials Watt himself, as well as his early
friends Black and Robison, drew up narratives of the invention
of the steam-engine, which are of much interest to the student
of its history. 1
Before Watt's time the steam-engine was exclusively a steam-
pump, slow-working, cumbrous and excessively wasteful of fuel.
His first patent made it quick in working, powerful and efficient,
but still only as a steam-pump. His later inventions adapted it
to drive machinery of all kinds, and left it virtually what it is
to-day, save in three respects. In respect of mechanical arrangement
the modern engine differs from Watt's chiefly in this, that the
beam, an indispensable feature in the early pumping-engines, and
one which held its place long after the need for it had vanished,
has gradually given way to more direct modes of connecting the
piston with the crank. Another difference is in the modern use of
nigh-pressure steam. It is remarkable that Watt, notwithstanding
the fact that his own invention of expansive working must have
opened his eyes to the advantage of high-pressure steam, declined
to admit it into his practice. He persisted in the use of pressures
that were little if at all above that of the atmosphere. His rivals
in Cornwall were not so squeamish. Richard Trevithick ventured
as far as 120 Ib on the square inch, and a curious episode in the
history of the steam-engine is an attempt which Boulton & Watt
made to have an act of parliament passed forbidding the use of high
pressure on the ground that the lives of the public were endangered.
The third and only other respect in which a great improvement has
been effected is in the introduction of compound expansion. Here,
too, one cannot but regret to find the Soho firm hostile, though the
necessity of defending their monopoly makes their action natural
enough. Hornblower had in fact stumbled on the invention of the
compound engine, but as his machine employed Watt's condenser
it was suppressed, to be revived after some years by Arthur Woolf
(1766-1837). In one of his patents (1784) Watt describes a steam
locomotive, but he never prosecuted this, and when William Mur-
doch, his chief assistant (famous as the inventor of gas-lighting),
made experiments on the same lines, Watt gave him little encourage-
ment. The notion then was to use a steam carriage on ordinary
roads; its use on railways had not yet been thought of. When that
idea took form later in the last years of Watt's life, the old man
refused to smile upon his offspring; it is even said that he put a
clause in the lease of his house that no steam carriage should on any
pretext be allowed to approach it.
On the expiry in 1800 of the act by which the patent of 1769
had been extended, Watt gave up his share in the business of
engine-building to his sons, James, who carried it on along with
a son of Boulton for many years, and Gregory, who died in
1804. The remainder of his life was quietly spent at Heathfield
Hall, his house near Birmingham, where he devoted his time,
with scarcely an interruption, to mechanical pursuits. His
last work was the invention of machines for copying sculpture
1 Another narrative of the utmost interest was written by Watt in
1814 in the form of a footnote to Robison's article " Steam-Engine,"
from the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which Watt
revised before it was reprinted in the collected edition of Robison's
works. See Robison's Mechanical Philosophy, vol. 5i.
WATTEAU
one for making reduced copies, another for taking facsimiles
by means of a light stiff frame, which carried a pointer over the
surface of the work while a revolving tool fixed to the frame
alongside of the pointer cut a corresponding surface on a suit-
able block. We find him in correspondence with Sir Francis
Chantrey about this machine not many months before his death,
and presenting copies of busts to his friends as the work " of
a young artist just entering on his eighty-third year." His
life drew to a tranquil close, and the end came at Heathfield
on the i pth of August 1819. His remains were interred in the
neighbouring parish church of Handsworth.
Watt was twice married first in 1763 to his cousin Margaret
Miller, who died ten years later. Of four children born of the
marriage, two died in infancy; another was James (1769-1848),
who succeeded his father in business; the fourth was a daughter
who lived to maturity, but died early, leaving two children.
His second wife, Anne Macgregor, whom he married before
settling in Birmingham in 1775, survived him; but her two
children, Gregory and a daughter, died young.
Some of Watt's minor inventions have been already noticed.
Another, which has proved of great practical value, was the letter-
copying press, for copying manuscript by using a glutinous ink and
pressing the written page against a moistened sheet of thin paper.
He patented this in 1780, describing both a roller press, the use
of which he seems to have preferred in copying his own correspond-
ence, and also the form of screw press now found in every merchant's
office.
In the domain of pure science Watt claims recognition not only
as having had ideas greatly in advance of his age regarding what
is now called energy, but as a discoverer of the composition of water.
Writing to Joseph Priestley in April 1783, with reference to some
of Priestley s experiments, he suggests the theory that " water is
composed of dephlogisticated air and phlogiston deprived of part of
their latent or elementary heat." It is difficult to determine the
exact meaning attached to these antiquated terms, and to say how
far Watt's suggestion anticipated the fuller discovery of Cavendish.
Watt's views were communicated to the Royal Society in 1783,
Cavendish's experiments in 1784, and both are printed in the same
volume of the Philosophical Transactions.
The early and middle part of Watt's life was a long struggle with
poor health: severe headache prostrated him for days at a time;
but as he grew old his constitution seems to have become more
robust. His disposition was despondent and shrinking; he speaks
of himself, but evidently with unfair severity, as " indolent to
excess." " I am not enterprising," he writes; " I would rather face
a loaded cannon than settle an account or make a bargain ; in short,
I find myself out of my sphere when I have anything to do with
mankind." He was a man of warm friendships, and has left a
personal memorial of the greatest interest in his numerous letters.
They are full of sagacity and insight : his own achievements are
told with a shrewd but extremely modest estimate of their value, and
in a style of remarkable terseness and lucidity, lightened here and
there by a touch of dry humour. In his old age Watt is described
by his contemporaries as a man richly stored with the most various
knowledge, full of anecdote, familiar with most modern languages
and their literature, a great talker. Scott speaks of " the alert,
kind, benevolent old man, his talents and fancy overflowing on every
subject, with his attention alive to every one's question, his informa-
tion at every one's command."
, See J. P. Muirhead, Origin and Progress of the Mechanical In-
dentions of James Watt (3 vols., 1854; v l s - > and ii. contain a
memoir and Watt's letters; vol. iii. gives a reprint of his patent
specifications and other papers); Muirhead, Life of Watt (1858);
Smiles, Lives of Boulton and Watt; Williamson, Memorials of the
Lineage, &c., of James Watt, published by the Watt Club (Greenock,
1856) ; Correspondence of the late James Wait on his Discovery of the
Theory of the Composition of Water, edited by Muirhead (1846) ;
1823), by James Watt, junior; Robison, Mechanical Philosophy,
vol. ii. (1822) (letters and notes by Watt on the History of the Steam-
Engine). (J. A. E.)
WATTEAU, ANTOINE (1684-1721), French painter, was
born in Valenciennes, of humble Flemish origin. Comte de
Caylus, his staunch friend of later years, and his first biographer,
refers to Watteau's father as a hard man, strongly disinclined
to accede to his son's wish to become a painter; but other
accounts show him in a kinder light as a poor, struggling
man, a tiler by trade, who secured for his son the best possible
education. Certain it is that at the age of fourteen Watteau
was placed with G6rin, a mediocre Valenciennes painter, with
xxvm. 14
whom he remained until 1702. It is to be assumed that he learnt
far more from the study of Ostade's and Teniers's paintings in
his native town than from his first master's teaching. Not
only in subject-matter, but in their general tonality, his earliest
works, like " La Vraie Gaiet6," which was in the collection of Sir
Charles Tennant, suggest this influence. G6rin died in 1702,
and Watteau, almost penniless, went to Paris, where he found
employment with the scene-painter Metayer. Things, however,
went badly with his new master, and Watteau, broken down
in health and on the verge of starvation, was forced to work in
a kind of factory where devotional pictures were turned out in
wholesale fashion. Three francs a week and meagre food were
his reward; but his talent soon enabled him to paint the St
Nicolas, the copying of which was allotted to him, without hav-
ing to refer to the original. Meanwhile he spent his rare leisure
hours and the evenings in serious study, sketching and drawing
his impressions of types and scenes. His drawings attracted
the attention of Claude Gillot, an artist imbued with the spirit
of the Renaissance, who after having successfully tried himself
in the mythological and historical genre, was just at that time
devoting himself to the characters and incidents of the Italian
comedy. Gillot took Watteau as pupil and assistant, but the
young man made such rapid progress that he soon equalled and
excelled his master, whose jealousy led to a quarrel, as a result of
which Watteau, and with him his fellow-student and later pupil,
Lancret, severed his connexion with Gillot and entered about
1708 the studio of Claude Audran, a famous decorative painter
who was at that time keeper of the collections at the Luxembourg
Palace. From him Watteau acquired his knowledge of decorative
art and ornamental design, the garland-like composition which
he applied to the designing of screens, fans and wall panels.
At the same time he became deeply imbued with the spirit of
Rubens and Paolo Veronese, whose works he had daily before
him at the palace; and he continued to work from nature and
to collect material for his formal garden backgrounds among
the fountains and statues and stately avenues of the Luxembourg
gardens. His chinoiseries and singeries date probably from the
years during which he worked with Audran.
Perhaps as a recreation from the routine of ornamental design ,
Watteau painted at this time " The Departing Regiment,"
the first picture in his second and more personal manner, in
which the touch reveals the influence of Rubens's technique,
and the first of a long series of camp pictures. He showed the
painting to Audran, who, probably afraid of losing so talented
and useful an assistant, made light of it, and advised him not
to waste his time and gifts on such subjects. Watteau, suspicious
of his master's motives, determined to leave him, advancing
as excuse his desire to return to Valenciennes. He found a
purchaser, at the modest price of 60 livres, in Sirois, the father-
in-law of his later friend and patron Gersaint, and was thus
enabled to return to the home of his childhood. In Valenciennes
he painted a number of the small camp-pieces, notably the
" Camp-Fire," which was again bought by Sirois, the price this
time being raised to 200 livres; this is now in the collection of
Mr W. A. Coats in Glasgow. Two small pictures of the same
type are at the Hermitage in St Petersburg.
Returning to Paris after a comparatively short sojourn at
Valenciennes, he took up his abode with Sirois, and competed in
1709 for the Prix de Rome. He only obtained the second prize,
and, determined to go to Rome, he applied for a crown pension
and exhibited the two military pictures which he had sold to
Sirois, in a place where they were bound to be seen by the
academicians. There they attracted the attention of de la Fosse,
who, struck by the rare gifts displayed in these works, sent for
Watteau and dissuaded him from going to Italy, where he had
nothing to learn. It was to a great extent due to de la Fosse
and to Rigaud that Watteau was made an associate of the
Academy in 1712, and a full member in 1717, on the completion
of his diploma picture, " The Embarkment for Cythera," now
at the Louvre. A later, and even more perfect, version of the
same subject is in the possession of the German emperor. It is
quite possible that the superb portrait of Rigaud by Watteau.
4i 8
WATTENBACH WATTERSON
belonging to Mr Hodgkins, was painted in acknowledgment of
Rigaud's friendly action.
Watteau now went to live with Crozat, the greatest private
art collector of his time, for whom he painted a set of four
decorative panels of " The Seasons," one of which, " Summer,"
is now in the collection of Mr Lionel Phillips. Crozat left at his
death some 400 paintings and 19,000 drawings by the masters.
It is easy to imagine how Watteau roamed among these treasures,
and became more and more familiar with Rubens and the great
Venetians. In 1719 or 1720 the state of his health had become
so alarming that he went to London to consult the famous doctor
Richard Mead. But far from benefiting by the journey, he
became worse, the London fog and smoke proving particularly
pernicious to a sufferer from consumption. On his return to
Paris he lived for six months with his friend Gersaint, for whom
he painted in eight mornings the wonderful signboard depicting
the interior of an art dealer's shop, which is now cut into two
parts in the collection of the German emperor. His health made
it imperative for him to live in the country, and in 1721 he took
up his abode with M. le Fevre at Nogent. During all this time,
as though he knew the near approach of the end and wished to
make the best of his time, he worked with feverish haste. Among
his last paintings were a " Crucifixion " for the cure of- Nogent,
and a portrait of the famous Venetian pastellist Rosalba Camera,
who at the same time painted her portrait of Watteau. His
restlessness increased with the progress of his disease; he wished
to return to Valenciennes, but the long journey was too danger-
ous; he sent for his pupil Pater, whom he had dismissed in a fit
of ill-temper, and whom he now kept by his side for a month to
give him the benefit of his experience; and on the i8th of July
1721 he died in Gersaint's arms.
Watteau's position in French art is one of unique importance,
for, though Flemish by descent, he was more French in his art
than *ny of his French contemporaries. He became the founder
and at the same time the culmination of a new school which
marked a revolt against the pompous decaying classicism of the
Louis XIV. period. The vitality of his art was due to the rare
combination of a poet's imagination with a power of seizing
reality. In his treatment of the landscape background and of
the atmospheric surroundings of the figures can be found the
germs of impressionism. All the later theories of light and its
effect upon the objects in nature are foreshadowed by Watteau's
files champetres, which give at the same time a characteristic,
though highly idealized, picture of the artificiality of the life
of his time. He is the initiator of the Louis XV. period, but,
except in a few rare cases, his paintings are entirely free from the
licentiousness of his followers Lancret and Pater, and even more
of Boucher and Fragonard. During the last years of his life
Watteau's art was highly esteemed by such fine judges as Sirois,
Gersaint, the comte de Caylus, and M. de Julienne, the last of
whom had a whole collection of the master's paintings and
sketches, and published in 1735 the Abregi de la vie de Watteau,
an introduction to the four volumes of engravings after Watteau
by Cochin, Thomassin, Le Bas, Liotard and others. From the
middle of the i8th century to about 1875, when Edmond de
Goncourt published his Catalogue raisonne of Watteau's works
and Caylus's discourse on Watteau delivered at the Academy
in 1748, the discovery of which is also due to the brothers de
Goncourt, Watteau was held in such slight esteem that the
prices realized by his paintings at public auction rarely exceeded
100. Then the reaction set in, and in 1891 the " Occupation
according to Age " realized 5200 guineas at Christie's, and
" Perfect Harmony " 3500 guineas. At the Bourgeois sale at
Cologne in 1904 " The Village Bride " fetched 5000.
The finest collection of Watteau's works is in the possession of
the German emperor, who owns as many as thirteen, all of
the best period, and mostly from M. de Julienne's collection.
At the Kaiser Friedrich museum in Berlin are two scenes from
the Italian and French comedy and a fete champUre. In the
Wallace Collection are nine of his paintings, among them " Rustic
Amusements," " The Return from the Chase," " Gilles and his
Family," " The Music Party," " A Lady at her Toilet " and
" Harlequin and Columbine." The Louvre owns, besides th
diploma picture, the " Antiope," " The Assemblage in the Park,'
" Autumn," " Indifference," " La Finette," " Gilles," " A Re
union " and " The False Step," as well as thirty-one origina
drawings. Other paintings of importance are at the Dresden
Glasgow, Edinburgh, St Petersburg and Vienna galleries; and
a number of drawings are to be found at the British Museu
and the Albertina in Vienna. Of the few portraits known to have
been painted by Watteau, one is in the collection of the late
Groult in Paris.
AUTHORITIES. Since the resuscitation of Watteau's fame by th.
de Goncourts, an extensive literature has grown around his life and
work. The basis for all later research is furnished by Caylus'r
somewhat academic Life, Gersaint's Catalogue raisonne (Paris
1744), and Julienne's Abrege. For Watteau's childhood, the most
trustworthy information will be found in Cellier's Watteau, son
enfance, ses comtemporains (Valenciennes, 1867). Of the greatest
importance is the Catalogue raisonne de I'&uvre de Watteau, by E. de
Goncourt (1875), and the essay on Watteau by the brothers de
Goncourt in L'Art du XVIII' siecle. See also Watteau by Paul
Mantz (Paris, 1892); ' Antoine Watteau," by G. Dargenty (Les
Artistes celebres, Paris, 1891); Watteau, by Gabriel Seailles (Paris
1892); Antoine Watteau by Claude Phillips (London, 1895; reprintec
without alterations or corrections by the author, 1905) ; and Camille
Mauclair's brilliant monograph Antoine Watteau (London, 1905),
which is of exceptional interest as a physiological study, since
the author establishes the connexion between Watteau's art and
character and the illness to which he succumbed in the prime
his life. . (P.G.K.)
WATTENBACH, WILHELM (1810-1897), German historian,
was born at Ranzau in Holstein on the 22nd of September i8ic
He studied philology at the universities of Bonn, Gottingen
and Berb'n, and in 1843 he began to work upon the Monument,
Germaniae historica. In 1855 he was appointed archivist at
Breslau; in 1862 he became professor of history at Heidelberg
and ten years later professor at Berlin, where he was a memb
of the directing body of the Monumenta and a member of the
Academy. He died at Frankfort on the 2ist of September 1897.
Wattenbach was distinguished by his thorough knowledge of the
chronicles and other original documents of the middle ages,
and his most valuable work was done in this field.
His principal book, Deutschlands Geschichtsquetten im MitU
bis zur Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts, is unrivalled as a guide to th
sources of the history of Germany in the middle ages; this was first
published in 1858, and has passed through several editions. Cognate
works are his Anleitungzur lateinischen Paldographie (Leipzig, 1869,
and again 1886); and Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1871,
and again 1896). Wattenbach also wrote Beitrdge zur Geschichte
der christlichen Kirche in Bohmen und Mahren (Vienna, 1849);
Geschichte des romischen Papsltums (Berlin, 1876); and Anleitung
zur griechischen Paldographie (Leipzig, 1867, and again 1895).
WATTERSON, HENRY (1840- ), American journalist,
was born in Washington, D.C., on the i6th of February 1840.
His father, Harvey McGee Watterson (1811-1891), was a jour-
nalist and lawyer, and was a Democratic representative in Con-
gress in 1830-1843. The son was educated by private tutors,
and between 1858 and 1861 was editor of the Washington States
and of the Democratic Review. During the Civil War he served
in the Confederate army as aide-de-camp to General Nathan B.
Forrest and to General Leonidas Polk in 1861-1862; he was
editor of the Chattanooga Rebel in 1862-1863, and was chief of
scouts in General Joseph E. Johnston's army in 1864. In
1865-1867 he was an editor of the Republican Banner, at Nash-
ville, Tennessee, and in 1867-1868 was editor of the Journa
at Louisville, Kentucky. In 1868, with W. N. Haldeman,
founded and became editor of the Louisville Courier- Journal,
a consolidation of the Courier (1843), the Democrat (1844),
and the Journal (1830); and it soon became one of the most
influential of Southern newspapers. He was a Democratic
representative in Congress from August 1876 to March 1877,
and was delegate at large to the National Democratic Conventions
of 1876, 1880, 1884, 1888 and 1802, serving as temporary chairman
in 1876, and as chairman of the platform committee in 1880
and 1888. He became widely known as a lecturer and orator.
His publications include History of the Spanish- American War
(1899) and The Compromises of Life (1902).
WATTIGNIES WATTMETER
419
WATTIGNIES, a village of France si m. S.S.E. of Maubeuge,
the scene of a battle in the French Revolutionary Wars (?..),
(ought on the isth-i6th October 1793. The Allied army, chiefly
\ustrians, under Coburg, was besieging Maubeuge, and the
Revolutionary army, preparing to relieve it, gathered behind
Avesnes. Coburg disposed a covering force of 2 1 ,000 astride the
Avesnes-Maubeuge road, 5000 on the right with their flank on
the Sambre, 9000 in the centre, on a ridge in an amphitheatre of
woods, and 6000 on the left, chiefly on the plateau of Wattignies.
A long line of woods enabled the Republican commander, Jourdan,
to deploy unseen; 14,000 men were io attack the right, 16,000
were sent towards Wattignies, and 13,000 were to demonstrate
in the centre till the others had succeeded and then to attack.
Meantime (though this part of the programme miscarried) the
Maubeuge garrison, which was almost as strong as its besiegers,
was to sally out. Even without the Maubeuge garrison Jourdan
had a two-to-one superiority. But the French were still the
undisciplined enthusiasts of Hondschoote. Their left attack
progressed so long as it could use " dead ground " in the valleys,
but when the Republicans reached the gentler slopes above,
the volleys of the Austrian regulars crushed their swarms, and
the Austrian cavalry, striking them in flank, rode over them.
The centre attack, ordered by Camot on the assumption that all
was well on the flanks, was premature; like the left, it pro-
gressed while the slopes were sharp, but when the Republicans
arrived on the crest they found a gentle reverse slope before them,
at the foot of which were Coburg's best troops. Again the dis-
ciplined volleys and a well-timed cavalry charge swept back
the assailants. The French right reached, but could not hold,
Wattignies. But these reverses were, in the eyes of Carnot and
Jourdan, mere mishaps. Jourdan wished to renew the left
attack, but Carnot, the engineer, considered the Wattignies
plateau the key of the position and his opinion prevailed. In
the night the nearly equal partition of force, which was largely
responsible for the failure, was modified, and the strength of
the attack massed opposite Wattignies. Coburg meanwhile
strengthened his wings. He heard that Jourdan had been re-
inforced up to 100,000. But he called up few fresh battalions,
and put into line only 23,000 men. In reality Jourdan had not
received reinforcements, and the effects of the first failure almost
neutralized the superiority of numbers and enthusiasm over
discipline and confidence. But at last, after a long fight had
eliminated the faint-hearted, enough brave men remained
in the excited crowds held together by Carnot and Jourdan
to win the plateau. Coburg then drew off. His losses were
2500 out of 23,000, Jourdan's 3000 out of 43,000.
WATTLE AND DAB, a term in architecture (Lat. cratitius)
applied to a wall made with upright stakes with withes twisted
between them and then plastered over. It is probably one of
the oldest systems of construction; the Egyptians employed
the stems of maize for the upright stakes; these were secured
together with withes and covered over with mud, the upper
portions of the maize stems being left uncut at the top, to in-
crease the height of the enclosure; and these are thought by
Professor Petrie to have given the origin for the cavetto cornice
of the temples, the torus moulding representing the heavier
coil of withes at the top of the fence wall. Vitruvius (ii. 8)
refers to it as being employed in Rome. In the middle ages in
England it was employed as a framework for clay chimneys.
WATTMETER, an instrument for the measurement of electric
power, or the rate of supply of electric energy to any circuit.
The term is generally applied to describe a particular form of
electrodynamometer, consisting of a fixed coil of wire and an
embracing or neighbouring coil of wire suspended so as to be
movable. In general construction the instrument resembles
a Siemens electrodynamometer (see AMPEREMETER). The fixed
coil is called the current coil, and the movable coil is called the
potential coil, and each of these coils has its ends brought to
separate terminals on the base of the instrument. The principle
on which the instrument works is as follows: Suppose any
circuit, such as an electric motor, lamp or transformer, is receiving
electric current; then the power given to that circuit reckoned
in watts is measured by the product of the current flowing through
the circuit in amperes and the potential difference of the ends of
that circuit hi volts, multiplied by a certain factor called the
power factor in those cases in which the circuit is inductive and
the current alternating.
Take first the simplest case of a non-inductive power-absorbing
circuit. If an electro-dynamometer, made as above described, has
its fixed circuit connected in series with the power-absorbing circuit
and its movable coil (wound with fine wire) connected across the
terminals of the power-absorbing circuit, then a current will flow
through the fixed coil which is the same or nearly the same as that
through the power-absorbing circuit, and a current will flow through
the high resistance coil of the wattmeter proportional to the potential
difference at the terminals of the power-absorbing circuit. The
movable coil of the wattmeter is normally suspended so that its
axis is at right angles to that of the fixed coil and is constrained by
the torsion of a spiral spring. When the currents flow through the
two coils, forces are brought into action compelling the coils to set
their axes in the same direction, and these forces can be opposed by
another torque due to the control of a spiral spring regulated by
moving a torsion head on the instrument. The torque required to
hold the coils in their normal position is proportional to the mean
value of the product of the currents flowing through two coils
respectively, or to the mean value of the product of'tne current in
the power-absorbing circuit and the potential difference at its ends,
that is, to the power taken up by the circuit. Hence this power
can bo measured by the torsion which must be applied to the
movable coil of the wattmeter to hold it in the normal position
against the action of the forces tending to displace it. The
wattmeter can therefore be calibrated so as to give direct
readings of the power reckoned in watts, taken up in the circuit;
hence its name, wattmeter. In those cases in which the power-
absorbing circuit is inductive, the coil of the wattmeter connected
across the terminals of the power-absorbing circuit must have
an exceedingly small inductance, else a considerable correction
may become necessary. This correcting factor has the follow-
ing value: If Ts stands for the time-constant of the movable
circuit of the wattmeter, commonly called the potential coil, the
time constant being defined as the ratio of the inductance to the
resistance of that circuit, and if T R is the time-constant similarly
defined of the power-absorbing circuit, and if F is the correcting
factor, and p = 2v times the frequency , then, 1
F__LIs!
~i+/>TyiY
Hence an electrody namic wattmeter, applied to measure the electrical
power taken up in a circuit when employing alternating currents,
gives absolutely correct readings only in two cases (i.) when the
potential circuit of the wattmeter and the power-absorbing circuit
nave negligible inductances, and (ii.) when the same two circuits
have equal time-constants. If these conditions are not fulfilled,
the wattmeter readings, assuming the wattmeter to have been
calibrated with continuous currents, may be either too high or too
low when alternating currents are being used.
In order that a wattmeter shall be suitable for the measurement
of power taken up in an inductive circuit certain conditions of
construction must be fulfilled. The framework and case of the
instrument must be completely non-metallic, else eddy currents
induced in the supports will cause disturbing forces to act upon
the movable coil. Again the shunt circuit must have practically
zero inductance and the series or current coil must be wound or
constructed with stranded copper wire,- each strand being silk
covered, to prevent the production of eddy currents in the mass
of the conductor. Wattmeters of this land have been devised by
J. A. Fleming, Lord Kelvin and W. Duddell and Mather. W. E.
Sumpner, however, has devised forms of wattmeter of the dyna-
mometer type in which iron cores are employed, and has defined
the conditions under which these instruments are available for
accurate measurements. See " New Alternate Current Instruments,"
Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng., 41, 227 (1908).
There are methods of measuring electrical power by means of
electrostatic voltmeters, or of quadrant electrometers adapted for
the purpose, which when so employed may be called electrostatic
wattmeters. If the quadrants of an electrometer (q.v.) are con-
nected to the ends of a non-inductive circuit in series with the
power-absorbing circuit, and if the needle is connected to the end
of this last circuit opposite to that at which the inductionless re-
sistance is connected, then the deflexion of the electrometer will be
proportional to the power taken up in the circuit, since it is pro-
portional to the mean value of (A-B) )C- J (A+ B)(, where A and
B are the potentials of the quadrants and C is that of the needle.
This expression, however, measures the power taken up in the
power-absorbing circuit. In the case of tie voltmeter method of
measuring power devised by W. E. Ayrton and W. E. Sumpner in
1891, an electrostatic voltmeter is employed to measure the fall of
potential Vi down any inductive circuit in which it is desired to
1 For the proof of this formula see J. A. Fleming, The Alternate
Current Transformer in Theory and Practice, i. 1 68.
WATTS, A. A. WATTS, G. F.
420
measure the power absorption, and also the volt-drop Vj down an
inductionless resistance R in series with it, and also the volt-drop V s
down the two together. The power absorption is then given by the
expression (V 8 J Vi 2 W)/2R. For methods of employing the
heating power of a current to construct a wattmeter see a paper
by J. T. Irwin on " Hot-wire Wattmeters," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng.
For 'the details of these and many other methods of employing
wattmeters to measure the power absorption in single and polyphase
circuits the reader is referred to the following works : J. A. Fleming,
Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room (1903);
Id., The Alternate Current Transformer in Theory and Practice
(1905); G. Aspinall Parr, Electrical Engineering Measuring Instru-
ments (1903); A. Gray, Absolute Measurements in Electricity and
Magnetism (1900); E. Wilson, " The Kelvin Quadrant Electrometer
as a Wattmeter," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1898), 62, 356; J. Swinburne,
"The Electrometer as a Wattmeter," Phil. Mag. (June 1891);
W. E. Ayrton and W. E. Sumpner, " The Measurement of the Power
given by an Electric Current to any Circuit," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1891),
49, 424; Id., " Alternate Current and Potential Difference Analogies
in the Method of Measuring Power," Phil. Mag. (August 1891);
W. E. Ayrton, " Electrometer Methods of Measuring Alternating
Current Power," Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. (1888), 17, 164; T. H.
Blakesley, " Further Contributions to Dynamometry or the Measure-
ment of Power," Phil. Mag. (April 1891); G. L. Addenbrooke,
"The Electrostatic Wattmeter and its Calibration and Adaptation
for Polyphase Measurements," Electrician (1903), 51, 811; W. E.
Sumpner, " New Iron-cored Instruments for Alternate Current
Working," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng., 36, 421 (1906). (J. A. F.)
WATTS, ALARIC ALEXANDER (1797-1864), English
journalist and poet, was the son of John Mosley Watts and
grandson of William Watts, a Leicester pkysician of repute.
After leaving school he made his living for a short time by teach-
ing, and in 1818 joined the staff of the New Monthly Magazine
in London, becoming about the same time a contributor to the
Literary Gazette. In 1822 he was made editor of the Leeds
Intelligencer, in the columns of which he was one of the first
to advocate measures for protecting workers in factories against
accidents from machinery. In 1823 he published his first volume
of verse, Poetical Sketches, and in 1824 he became the editor of
the Literary Souvenir, of which he also became the proprietor
two years later, and in the conduct of which he secured the
co-operation of some of the most famous men of letters of the
period. In' 1825 he went to Manchester as editor of the Man-
chester Courier, a position which he resigned a year later; in
1827 he assisted in founding the Standard, of which the first
editor was Stanley Lees Giffard; and in 1833 he started the
United Service Gazette, which he edited for several years. Watts
was also interested in a number of provincial Conservative
newspapers which were not financially successful, and he became
bankrupt' in 1850, but was awarded a civil service pension by
Lord Aberdeen in 1854. In 1856 he edited the first edition of
Men of the Time. Watts died in London on the $th of April
1864. In 1867 a collection of his poems was published in a
volume entitled The Laurel and the. Lyre.
See A. A. Watts, AlarU Watts (2 vols., London, 1884).
WATTS, GEORGE FREDERICK (1817-1904), English painter
and sculptor, was born in London on the 23rd of February 1817.
While hardly more than a boy he was permitted to enter the
schools of the Royal Academy; but his attendance was short-
lived, and his further art education was confined to persona:
experiment and endeavour, guided and corrected by a constant
appeal to the standard of ancient Greek sculpture. There are
portraits of himself, painted in 1834; of Mr James Weale
about 1835; of his father, " Little Miss Hopkins," and Mr
Richard Jarvis, painted in 1836; and in 1837 he was already
far enough advanced to be an exhibitor at the Academy with ;
picture of " The Wounded Heron " and two portraits. Hi
first exhibited figure-subject, " Cavaliers," appeared on the
Academy walls in 1839, and was followed in 1840 by " Isabella e
Lorenzo," in 1841 by " How should I your true love know? " anc
in 1842 by a scene from Cymbeline and a portrait of Mrs lonides
The Royal Commission appointed for the decoration of the new
Houses of Parliament offered prizes in 1842 to those artists
whose cartoons for frescoes should be adjudged best adapted to
its object, and at the exhibition in Westminster Hall next year
Watts secured a prize of 300 for a design of " Caractacus lee
n triumph through the streets of Rome." This enabled him
visit Italy in 1844, and he remained there during the greater
portion of the three following years, for the most part in Florence,
where he enjoyed the patronage and personal friendship of Lord
Holland, the British ambassador. For him he painted a portrait
of Lady Holland, exhibited in 1848, and in his Villa Careggi,
near the city, a fresco, after making some experimental studiei
n that medium, fragments of which are now in the Victoria
and Albert Museum. To Lord Holland's encouragement, also
t was chiefly due that in 1846 the artist took part in another
competition, the third organized by the Royal Commissioners,
who on this occasion announced a further list of prizes for works
n oil. Watts sent in a cartoon depicting " Alfred inciting his
subjects to prevent the landing of the Danes, or the first naval
victory of the English," which, after obtaining a first-class prize
of 500 at the exhibition in Westminster Hall, was purchased
ay the government, and hangs in one of the committee rooms of
the House of Commons. It led, moreover, to a commission for
the fresco of " St George overcomes the Dragon," which, begun
in 1848 and finished in 1853, forms part of the decorations
the Hall of the Poets in the Houses of Parliament. He next
proposed to adorn gratuitously the interior of the Great Hall
of Euston railway station with a series of frescoes illustrai '
The Progress of the Cosmos," but the offer was refused. A
similar proposition made shortly afterwards to the Benchers of
Lincoln's Inn was received in a less commercial spirit, and
followed by the execution of the fresco, " Justice: a Hemicycl
of Lawgivers," on the north side of their hall.
While this large undertaking was still in progress, Watts
working steadily at pictures and portraits. In 1849 the firs
two of the great allegorical compositions which form the m<
characteristic of the artist's productions were exhibited " Life':
Illusions," an elaborate presentment of the vanity of huma:
desires, and " The people that sat in darkness," turning eager!
towards the growing dawn. In 1850 he first gave public ex
pression to his intense longing to improve the condition o:
humanity in the picture of " The Good Samaritan " bending ovi
the wounded traveller; this, as recorded in the catalogue of thi
Royal Academy, was " painted as an expression of the artist'
admiration and respect for the noble philanthropy of Thorn;
Wright, of Manchester," and to that city he presented the wor
In 1856 Watts paid a visit to Lord Holland at Paris, where he w;
then ambassador, and through him made the acquaintance an
painted the portraits of Thiers, Prince Jerome Bonaparte an
other famous Frenchmen; while other celebrities who sat to hir
during these years were Guizot (1848), Colonel Rawlinson, C.B.
Sir Henry Taylor and Thomas Wright (1851), Lord Jol
Russell (1852), Tennyson (1856, and again in 1850), Jol
Lothrop Motley the historian (1859), the duke of Argyll (1860)
Lord Lawrence and Lord Lyndhurst (1862), Lord Wensleyda:
(1864), Mr Gladstone (1858 and 1865), Sir William Bowman an
Swinburne (1865), Panizzi (1866) and Dean Stanley and
Joachim in 1867. Notable pictures of the same period a:
" Sir Galahad " (1862), " Ariadne in Naxos " (1863), " Time an
Oblivion " (1864), originally designed for sculpture to be carrii
out " in divers materials after the manner of Pheidias," an
" Thetis " (1866).
In spite of these and many other evidences of his importan
it was not until 1867 that Watts was elected an Associate _
the Royal Academy, but the council then conferred upon hi:
the rare distinction of promoting him, in the course of the sa:
year, to full Academicianship. Thenceforward he continued
exhibit each year, with a few exceptions, at the Academy, evi
after his retirement in 1896, and he was also a frequent coi
tributor to the Grosvenor Gallery, and subsequently to the Ne
Gallery, at which last a special exhibition of his works was hi '
in the winter of 1896-1897. Though he travelled abroad to sol
extent, going to Asia Minor in 1857 with the expedition sent
investigate the ruins of Halicarnassus, and visiting in later y<
Italy, Greece and Egypt, the greater part of his life was passed i
the laborious seclusion of his studio either at Little Holland Hoi
Melbury Road, Kensington, where he settled in 1859, or in
t
I
*
WATTS, G. F.
421
country at Limnerslease, Compton, Surrey. Apart from his art,
his life was happily uneventful, the sole facts necessary to record
being his marriage in 1886 with Miss Mary Fraser-Tytler, an
early union with Miss Ellen Terry having been dissolved many
years before; his twice receiving (1885 and 1894), but respectfully
declining, the offer of a baronetcy; and his inclusion in June
1902 in the newly founded Order of Merit. He died on the ist
of July 1904.
The world is exceptionally well provided with opportunities of
judging of the qualities of G. F. Watts's art, for with a noble gene-
rosity he presented to his country a representative selection of the
best work of his long life. A prominent element in_ it, and one
which must prove of the greatest value to posterity, is the inesti-
mable series of portraits of his distinguished contemporaries, a series
no less remarkable for its artistic than for its historical interest. A
glance through the list of his subjects shows the breadth of his sym-
pathies and his superiority to creed or party. Among politicians are
the duke of Devonshire (1883), Lords Salisbury (1884), Sherbrooke
(1882), Campbell (1882), Cowper (1877), Ripon (1896), Dufferin
(1897) and Shaftesbury (1882), Mr Gerald Balfour (1809) and Mr
John Burns (1897); poets Tennyson, Swinburne (1884), Browning
(1875), Matthew Arnold (1881), Rossetti (1865, and subsequent
replica) and William Morris (1870); artists himself (1864, 1880,
and eleven others), Lord Leighton (1871 and 1881), Calderon (1872),
Prinsep (1872), Burne-Jones (1870), Millais (1871), Walter Crane
(i89i),'and Alfred Gilbert (1896); literature is represented by John
Stuart Mill (exhibited 1874), Carlyle (1869), George Meredith (1893),
Max Miiller (1895) and Mr Lecky (1878); music, by Sir Charles
Halle; while among others who have won fame in diverse paths
are Lords Napier (1886) and Roberts (1899), General Baden-Powell
(1902), Garibaldi, Sir Richard Burton (1882), Cardinal Manning
(1882), Dr Martineau (1874), Sir Andrew Clark (1894), George Pea-
body, Mr Passmore Edwards, Claude Montefiore (1894). Even more
significant from an artistic point of view is the great collection of
symbolical pictures in the Tate Gallery which forms the artist's
message to mankind. Believing devoutly in the high mission of
didactic art, he strove ever to carry put his part of it faithfully.
To quote his own words: " My intention has not been so much to
paint pictures that charm the eye, as to suggest great thoughts that
will appeal to the imagination and the heart, and kindle all that is
best and noblest in humanity "; and his tenet is that the main ob-
ject of the painter should be " demanding noble aspirations, con-
demning in the most trenchant manner prevalent vices, and warning
in deep tones against lapses from morals and duties."
There are not wanting critics who radically dissent from this view
of the proper functions of art. It must be admitted that there is
force in their objection when the inner meaning of a picture is found
to be exceedingly obscure, if not incomprehensible, without a verbal
explanation. In the female figure, for instance, bending blindfolded
on the globe suspended in space and sounding the sole remaining
string upon her lyre, while a single star shines in the blue heavens,
it is not obvious to every one that the idea of " Hope " (1885) is
suggested. There can be few, nevertheless, who will maintain that
his aim is not a lofty one; and the strongest evidence of the artist's
greatness, to those who accept his doctrine, is the fact that he has
not only striven untiringly for his own ideals, but has very often
gloriously attained them. Moreover, in so doing he has not failed
on occasion to impart to his work much of that very charm which is
to him a secondary consideration, or to exhibit an assured and
accomplished mastery of the technical achievement which is to some
the primary object and essential triumph of painting. It was, in
short, the rare combination of supreme handicraft with a great
imaginative intellect which secured to Watts his undisputed place
in the public estimation of his day. The grandeur and dignity of his
style, the ease and purposefulness of his brushwork, the richness and
harmoniousness of his colouring qualities partly his own, partly
derived from his study of Italian masters at an early and impression-
able age are acknowledged even by those to whom his elevated
educational intentions are a matter of indifference, if not of absolute
disapprobation; while many, to whom his exceptional artistic
attainment is a sealed book, have gathered courage or consolation
from the grave moral purpose and deep human sympathy of his
teaching. He expresses his ideas for the most part in terms of
beauty, an idealized, classical beauty of form, a glowing, Venetian
beauty of colour, though his conviction of the deadly danger of
heaped-up riches, which he vindicated in his life as well as in his
work, has, in such cases as " The Minotaur " (exhibited in 1896),
" Mammon " (1885) and " Jonah " (1895), where the unveiled
vileness of Cruelty and Greed is fearlessly depicted, driven him to
the presentment of sheer ugliness or brutality. Far oftener a vast,
all-embracing tenderness inspires his work; it is the sorrow, not
the sin, that stirs him. When he would rebuke the thoughtless
inhumanity which sacrifices its annual hecatombs of innocent
birds to fashionable vanity and grasping commerce, it is not upon
the blood and cruelty that he dwells, but the pity of it that he
typifies in " Dedication " or " The Shuddering Angel " (1892)
weeping over the altar spread with Woman's spoils.
Yet it is as a teacher that the artist is seen at his highest: he
would sooner point out the true way to those who seek it than
admonish those who have wandered. He never wearies of em-
phasizing the reality of the power of Love, the fallacy underlying
the fear of Death. To the early masters Death was a bare and
ghastly skeleton, above all things to be shunned; to Watts it
is a grand, impressive figure, awful indeed but not horrible, irre-
sistible but not ruthless, a bringer of rest and peace, not to be
rashly sought but to be welcomed when the inevitable hour shall
strike. "Sictransit" (1892) conveys most completely, perhaps.Watts's
lesson on the theme of death. Stretched on a bier and reverently
sheeted lies a corpse; strewn neglected on the ground lie the ermine
robe of worldly rank, the weapons of the warrior, the lute of the
musician, the book of human learning, the palmer's robe of late
repentance and the roses of fleeting pleasures; the laurel crown
remains as the one thing worth the winning, and the inscription
" What I spent I had; what I saved I lost; what I gave I have,"
points the moral. Such is the significance of the still more masterly
Court of Death " (finally completed 1902 and now in the Tate
Gallery). To the same early masters Love was usually a mere
distributor of sensual pleasures, a tricksy spirit instinct with malice
and bringing more harm than happiness to humanity, though
neither was of much moment. Watts has not altogether ignored
this view, and in " Mischief " (1878) has portrayed Man, love-led,
entangled among the thorns of the world; but, in the main, Love to
him is the chief guide and helper of mankind along the barren, rock-
strewn path of life, through whom alone he can attain the higher
levels, and who triumphs in the end over Death itself. To these
views on the all-importance of love a trilogy of pictures in the Tate
Gallery gives full expression. In the first, " Love and Life," ex-
hibited in 1885, a replica of an earlier picture in the Metro-
politan Museum, New York, and of another version presented
by him to the Luxembourg, Paris, Love, a figure in the prime of
manhood, leads and supports the slender, clinging girl who symbolizes
Life up to the craggy mountain-top, while he partly shields her from
the blast under a broad wing. Of this he himself said, " Probably
' Love and Life ' best portrays my message to the age. Life, re-
presented by the female figure, never could have reached such
heights unless protected and guided by Love " ; * and in theprefatory
note to the exhibition of his works in 1896 he wrote, " The slight
female figure is an emblem of the fragile quality in humanity, at
once its weakness and its strength; sensibility, aided by Love,
sympathy, tenderness, self-sacrifice, and all that the range of the
term implies, humanity ascends the rugged path from brutality to
spirituality." The limitations of earthly love are shown in the
second " Love and Death," one version of which was exhibited in
1877 and others in 1896, &c. In this, Love, a beautiful boy, striving
vainly to bar the door to the mighty figure of Death, is thrust back
with crushed wings powerless to stay the advance; but that the
defeat is merely apparent and temporary is suggested rather than
asserted by the third " Love Triumphant " (1898), where Time, with
broken scythe, and Death lie prostrate, while the same youth, with
widespread wings and face and arms upraised to heaven, stands
between them on tiptoe as if preparing to soar aloft. Though the
purely symbolical is the most distinctive side of Watts's art, it is by
no means the only one. He has drawn inspiration largely from both
the Old and New Testaments, more rarely from the poets and
classical myths; still more rarely he has treated subjects of modern
life, though even in these he has not abandoned his moral purpose,
but has sought out such incidents, whether fictitious or historical,
as will serve him in conveying some lesson or monition. The three
pictures of the story of Eve in the Tate Gallery, " She shall be
called woman " (1892), " Eve Tempted " and " Eve Repentant "
(both exhibited in 1896), and " The Curse of Cain " (1872) in the
Diploma Gallery, may be cited as examples of the first; " For he
had great possessions" (1894) of the second; "Sir Galahad"
(1862), " Orpheus and Eurydice " and " Psyche " (1880), of the
third; and " The Irish Famine " (about 1847) and " A Patient Life
of Unrewarded Toil " (1890), of the last of these. Never has he treated
religion from a sectarian point of view.
Watts is before all things a painter with a grave and earnest
purpose, painting because that form of expression was easier to him
than writing, though he has published some few articles and pam-
phlets, chiefly on art matters; but he, top, has his lighter side, and
has daintily treated the humorously fanciful in " Good luck to your
fishing " (1889); " The habit does not make the monk " (1889), in
which Cupid, half-hidden under the frock, taps maliciously at a
closed door; and " Trifles Light as Air " (exhibited 1901), a swarm
of little amorini drifting in the summer air like a cloud of gnats;
while in " Experientia docet B.C." (1890), a primeval woman watching
with admiration, not unmixed with anxiety, the man who has first
swallowed an oyster, he condescends, not very successfully, to the
frankly comic. These must be regarded, however, as merely the
relaxations of the serious mind that has left its impress even on the
relatively few, but very admirable, landscapes he produced, in
which, as for instance " The Carrara Mountains from Pisa " (1881),
a sober dignity of treatment is conspicuous.
Watts's technique is as individual as his point of view. It is
chiefly remarkable for its straightforwardness and simplicity, and
1 G. F. Watts, R~A., by Charles T. Bateman.
422
its lack of any straining after purely technical effects. The idea
to be expressed is of far higher importance to him than the manner
of expressing it. The statement of it should be a matter of good,
sound workmanship, not of artistic agility or manual dexterity.
To say what he has to say as clearly and briefly as may be is his
aim, and when he has achieved the effect he desires, the method of
his doing so is of no further moment. In the use of paint as paint,
in the intrinsic beauties of surface and handling, he would seem in
his later years to take no delight. Thus in parts of the picture the
rough, coarse canvas he prefers may be so thinly covered that every
fibre of the material can be seen, while in others a richly modelled
impasto loads the surface. He employs, as far as possible, pure
colours laid on in direct juxtaposition or broken into and across
each other, not blended and commingled on the palette. He eschews
all elaboration of detail and, except in portraiture, works rarely
from the living model, neglecting minor delicacies of form or passages
of local colour, conventionalizing to a standard of his own rather
than idealizing a process not always unproductive of faults of
drawing and proportion, as in the figure of " Faith " (1896), or of
singularities of tint, as in the curious leaden face and prismatic
background in " The Dweller in the Innermost " (1886). He avoids,
as a rule, the use of definite outline, leaving the limits of his forms
to melt imperceptibly into the background; nor does texture
interest him greatly, and a uniform fresco-like surface is apt to
represent flesh and foliage, distance and foreground alike. He
intends deliberately that the things he depicts, be they what they
may, shall be symbols, useful for their meaning alone, and he makes
no attempt at conferring on them an accurate actuality, which might
distract the attention from the paramount idea. That this reticence
is intentional may be learned from an examination of his earliest
works, in which the accessories are rendered with a precise, if some-
times a dry, truthfulness of observation; that it is not due to
carelessness or indifference is shown by the inexhaustible patience
with which each picture has been executed. His earlier pictures
are unsurpassed in the art of England for fine technical qualities of
colour and delicacy of handling. Though working unceasingly, Watts
never hurried the completion of any canvas. Of two slightly differing
versions of " Fata Morgana," both begun in 1847, the first was not
finished before 1870, the second not until ten years later. Even
after finishing a picture sufficiently for exhibition, he often subse-
quently worked further upon it. The portrait of Lord Leighton,
exhibited in 1881, was repainted in 1888; the version of " Love and
Death," exhibited in 1877, and 1883, and all the pictures presented to
the Tate Gallery in 1897, were more or less retouched when hung
there. Furthermore, he painted more than one version of several of
his favourite subjects, a circumstance which, combined with the fact
that he rarely added the year to his signature and kept no record
of his annual production, makes the task of precisely dating his
pictures for the most part impossible, while it renders any attempt to
dispose his works in periods untrustworthy and artificial, since even
the growth and inevitable decay of artistic power are to a considerable
extent obscured.
Founded admittedly on the Grecian monuments, there is a sculp-
turesque rather than pictorial quality in most of his compositions,
a regulated disposition which, though imparting often a certain air
of unreality and detachment, inspires them nevertheless with that
noble impressiveness which forms their most conspicuous character-
istic. It is natural, therefore, that in sculpture itself he should also
take a high place. A taste for this he acquired as a boy ; he was a
constant visitor to the studio of Behnes, where he not infrequently
made drawings from the casts, though he was never in any sense
his pupil. Among his works in this branch of art are a bust of
" Clytie " (1868), monuments to the marquis of Lothian, Bishop
Lonsdale and Lord Tennyson, a large bronze equestrian statue of
" Hugo Lupus " at Eaton Hall (1884), and a colossal one of a man
on horseback, emblematical of " Physical Energy," originally in-
tended for a place on the Embankment, but destined to stand
among the Matoppo Hills as an enduring evidence of the artist's
admiration for Cecil Rhodes; a replica has been placed in Kensington
Gardens. It was the practical idealism of Rhodes that appealed to
him, and in this quality Watts himself was by no means lacking.
Much of his time and attention was given to the promotion of the
Home Arts and Industries Association; he assisted Mrs Watts with
both money and advice in the founding of an art pottery at Compton,
and in the building at the same place of a highly decorated mortuary
chapel, carried out almost entirely by local labour; and it was
entirely due to his initiative that the erection in Postmen's Park,
Aldersgate Street, London, of memorial tablets to the unsung heroes
of everyday life was begun.
AUTHORITIES. M. H. Spielmann, "The Works of Mr G. F.
Watts, R.A., with a Catalogue of his Pictures," Pall Mall Gazette
"Extra" (1886); Julia Cartwright (MrsAdy), " G. F. Watts,
Royal Academician, His Life and Work," Art Journal, Extra
Number (1896) ; W. E. T. Britten, "The Work of George Frederick
Watts, R.A., LL.D.," Architectural Review (1888 and 1889) ; Cosmo
Monkhouse, British Contemporary Artists (1889); Charles T. Bate-
man, G. F. Watts, R.A., Bell's Miniature Series of Painters (1901);
" Mr G. F. Watts, R.A., Character Sketch," The Review of Reviews
(June 1902). (M. BE.)
WATTS, I. WATTS-DUNTON
WATTS, ISAAC (1674-1748), English theologian and hymn
writer, son of a clothier, was born at Southampton on th
I7th of July 1674. The father, who afterwards had a boarding-
school at Southampton, also wrote poetry, and a number of his
pieces were included by mistake in vol. i. of the son's Posthumous
Works. Isaac Watts is stated to have begun to learn Latin
when only in his fifth year, and at the age of seven cr eight to
have composed some devotional pieces to please his mother.
His nonconformity precluded him from entering either of the
universities, but in his sixteenth year he went to study at the
nonconformist academy at Stoke Newington, of which the Rev.
Thomas Rowe, minister of the Independent meeting at Girdlers'
Hall, was then president. On leaving the academy he spent
more than two years at home, and began to write his hymns,
but in the autumn of 1696 he became tutor in the family of Sir
John Hartopp at Stoke Newington, where he probably prepared
the materials of his two educational works Logick, or the Right
Use of Reason in the Enquiry after Truth (1725), and The Know-
ledge of the Heavens and the Earth made easy, or the First Principles
of Geography and Astronomy Explained (1726). In his twenty-
fourth year Watts was chosen assistant to Dr Isaac Chauncy
(1632-1712), pastor of the Independent congregation in. Mark
Lane, London, and two years later he succeeded as sole pastor.
The state of his health, which he had injured by overwork, led
to the appointment of an assistant in 1703. In 1704 the con-
gregation removed to Pinner's Hall, and in 1708 they built a new
meeting-house in Bury Street. In 1712 Watts was attacked by
fever, which incapacitated him for four years from the per-
formance of his duties. In 1712 he went to live with Sir Thomas
Abney of Abney Park, where he spent the remainder of his life,
the arrangement being continued by Lady Abney after her
husband's death. Watts preached only occasionally, devoting
his leisure chiefly to the writing of hymns (see HYMNS), the
preparation of his sermons for publication, and the composition of
theological work. In 1 706 appeared his Horae Lyricae, of which
an edition with memoir by Robert Southey forms vol. ix. of
Sacred Classics (1834); in 1707 a volume of Hymns', in 1719
The Psalms of David; and in 1720 Divine and Moral Songs for
Children. His Psalms are free paraphrases, rather than metrical
versions, and some of them (" O God, our help in ages past," for
instance) are amongst the most famous hymns in the language.
His religious opinions were more liberal in tone than was at
that time common in the community to which he belonged; his
views regarding Sunday recreation and labour were scarcely of
puritanical strictness; and his Calvinism was modified by his
rejection of the doctrine of reprobation. He did not hold the
doctrine of the Trinity as necessary to salvation, and he wrote
several works on the subject in which he developed views not far
removed from Arianism. He died on the 2Sth of November 1 748,
and was buried at Bunhill Fields, where a tombstone was erected
to his memory by Sir John Hartopp and Lady Abney. A
memorial was also erected to him in Westminster Abbey, and a
memorial hall, erected in his honour at Southampton, was opened
in 1875.
Among the theological treatises of Watts, in addition to volumes
of sermons, are Doctrine of the Trinity (1722); Discourses on the
Love of God and its Influence on all the Passions (1729); Catechisms
for Children and Youth (1730) ; Essays towards a Proof of a Separate
State for Souls (1732); Essay on the Freedom of the Will (1732):
Essay on the Strength and Weakness of Human Reason (1737); Essay
on the Ruin and Recovery of Mankind (1740); Glory of Christ as
God-Man Unveiled (1746); and Useful and Important Questions
concerning Jesus, the Son of God (1746). He was also the author of
a variety of miscellaneous treatises. H is Posthumous Works appeared
in 1773, and a further instalment of them in 1779. The Works of. . .
Issac Watts (6 vols.), edited by Dr Jennings and Dr Doddridge, with
a memoir compiled by G. Burder, appeared in 1810-1811. His
poetical works were included in Johnson's English Poets, where
they were accompanied by a Life, and they appear in subsequent
similar collections. See also The Life, Times and Correspondence of
Isaac Watts (1834) by Thomas Milner.
WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE (1832-
English man of letters, was born at St Ives. Huntingdon, on
the 1 2th of October 1832, his family surname being Watts, to
which he added in 1897 his mother's name of Dunton. He was
WAUGH, B. WAURIN
423
originally educated as a naturalist, and saw much of the East
Anglian gypsies, of whose superstitions and folk-lore he made
careful study. Abandoning natural history for the law, he
qualified as a solicitor and went to London, where he practised
for some years, giving his spare time to his chosen pursuit of
literature. He contributed regularly to the Examiner from 1874
and to the Athenaeum from 1875 until 1898, being for more than
twenty years the principal critic of poetry in the latter journal.
His article on " Poetry " in the ninth edition of the Ency. Brit.
(vol. xix., 1885) was the principal expression of his views on
the first principles of the subject, and did much to increase his
reputation, which was maintained by other articles he wrote for
the Encyclopaedia Britannica and for the chief periodicals and
reviews. Mr Watts-Dunton had considerable influence as the
friend of many of the leading men of letters of his time; he
enjoyed the confidence of Tennyson, and contributed an appre-
ciation of him to the authorized biography. He was in later
years Rossetti's most intimate friend. He was the bosom
friend of Swinburne (?..), who shared his home for nearly thirty
years before he died in 1909. The obituary notices and apprecia-
tions of the poets of the time, which he contributed to the
Athenaeum and other periodicals, bore testimony to his sympathy,
insight and critical acumen. It was not, however, until 1897
that he published a volume under his own name, this being his
collection of poems called The Coming of Love, portions of which
he had printed in periodicals from time to time. In the following
year his prose romance Aylwin attained immediate success, and
ran through many editions in the course of a few months.
Both The Coming of Love and Aylwin set forth, the one in poetry,
the other in prose, the romantic and passionate associations of
Romany life, and maintain the traditions of Borrow, whom Mr
Watts-Dunton had known well in his own early days. Imagina-
tive glamour and mysticism are their prominent characteristics,
and the novel in particular has had its share in restoring the
charms of pure romance to the favour of the general public.
He edited George Borrow's Lavengro (1893) and Romany Rye
(1900); in 1903 he published The Renascence of Wonder, a
treatise on the romantic movement; and his Studies of Shake-
speare appeared in 1910. But it was not only in his published
work that Mr Watts-Dunton's influence on the literary life of
his time was potent. His long and intimate association with
Rossetti and Swinburne made him, no doubt, a unique figure
in the world of letters; but his own grasp of metrical principle
and of the historic -perspective of the glories of English poetry
made him, among the younger generation, the embodiment of
a great tradition of literary criticism which could never cease
to command respect. In 1905 he married. His life has been
essentially one of devotion to letters, faithfully and disinter-
estedly followed.
WAUGH, BENJAMIN (1830-1008), English social reformer,
was born at Settle, Yorkshire, on the 2oth of February 1839.
He passed the early years of his life in business, but in 1865
entered the congregational ministry. Settling at Greenwich
he threw himself with ardour into the work of social reform,
devoting himself especially to the cause of the children. He
served on the London School Board from 187010 1876. In 1884
he was responsible for the establishment of the London society for
the prevention of cruelty to children, which four years later was
established on a national basis. He was elected its honorary
secretary, and it was largely owing to information obtained by
him that the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885 was passed,
while by his personal effort he secured the insertion of a clause giving
magistrates power to take the evidence of children too young to
understand the nature of an oath. In 1889 he saw the work
accomplished by his society (of which he had been made director
the same year) recognized by the passing of an act for the pre-
vention of cruelty to children, the first stepping-stone to the act
of 1908 (see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO). In 1895 a charter of
incorporation was conferred on the society, but in 1897 it was the
object of a serious attack on its administration. An inquiry was
demanded by Waugh, and the commission of inquiry, which
included Lord Herschell and others, completely vindicated the
society and its director. Waugh had given up pastoral work
in 1887 to devote his whole time to the society, and he retained
his post as director until 1005, when the state of his health com-
pelled his retirement. He remained consulting director until his
death at< Westcliff, near Southend, Essex, on the nth of
March 1008. Waugh edited the Sunday Magazine from 1874
to 1896, but he had otherwise little leisure for literary work.
His The Gaol Cradle, who rocks it? (1873) was a plea for the
abolition of juvenile imprisonment.
WAUGH, EDWIN (1817-1890), known as "The Lancashire
Poet," was born at Rochdale, on the zgth of January 1817, the
son of a shoemaker. For several years he earned his living as
a journeyman printer in various parts of the country. In 1855
he published his first book, Sketches of Lancashire Life and
Localities, following this up with reprinted Poems and Songs
(1859). His rendering of the Lancashire dialect was most happy,
and his rude lyrics, full of humour and pathos, were great
favourites with his countrymen. He died on the 3oth of April
1890.
See Milner's Memoir in an edition of Waugh's selected works
(1892-1893).
WAUKEGAN, a city and the county-seat of Lake county,
Illinois, U.S.A., on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, about 36 m.
N. of Chicago. Pop. (1800) 4915; (1900) 9426, of whom 2506
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,069. It is served by the
Elgin, Joliet & Eastern (of which it is a terminus) and the Chicago
& North Western railways, by an interurban electric line, and by
lake steamers. In 1880 the United States government under-
took the formation of an artificial harbour with a channel 13 ft.
deep, and in 1002-1904 the depth was increased to 20 ft. The
main portion of the city is situated about 100 ft. above the level
of the lake. There are a number of parks and mineral springs,
and along the lake front a fine driveway, Sheridan Road. The
city is a residential suburb of Chicago. The principal buildings
are the Federal building, the Court House, a Carnegie library,
the Masonic Temple and McAlister Hospital. At the village
of North Chicago (pop. in 1910, 3306), about 3 m. S. of Waukegan,
there is a United States Naval Training Station. Waukegan is
the commercial centre of an agricultural and dairying region,
and has various manufactures. The total value of the factory
product in 1905 was $3,961,513. Waukegan was settled about
1835, and until 1849 was known as Little Fort, which is supposed
to be the English equivalent of the Indian name Waukegan.
It became the county-seat of Lake county in 1841, was in-
corporated as a town in 1849, and first chartered as a city in 1859.
WAUKESHA, a city and the county-seat of Waukesha
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 19 m. W. of Milwaukee on the
Little Fox river. Pop. (1890) 6321; (1900) 7419, including 1408
foreign-born; (1905 state census) 6049; (1910) 8740. Waukesha
is served by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the
Chicago & North-Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St
Paul railways, and by interurban electric railways connecting
it with Milwaukee, Oconomowoc and Madison. The medicinal
mineral springs (Bethesda, White Rock, &c.) are widely known.
Among the public buildings are the county court house and the
public library. Waukesha is the seat of the State Industrial
School for Boys (established as a house of refuge in 1860) and of
Carroll College (Presbyterian, co-educational, 1846). Waukesha
was first settled in 1834, was named Prairieville in 1839, was
incorporated as a village under its present name (said to be a
Pottawatomi word meaning " fox ") in 1852, and chartered as
a city in 1896. In 1851 the first railway in the state was com-
pleted between Milwaukee and Waukesha, but the village re-
mained only a farming community until the exploitation of the
mineral springs was begun about 1868. About 15 m. S. of
Waukesha, near Mukwonago (pop. in 1910.615), in 1844-1845,
there was an unsuccessful communistic agricultural settle-
ment, the Utilitarian Association, composed largely of London
mechanics led by Campbell Smith, a London bookbinder.
WAURIN (or WAVRIN), JEHAN (or JEAN DE) (d. c. 1474),
French chronicler, belonged to a noble family of Artois, and was
present at the battle of Agincourt. Afterwards he fought for
424
WAUSAU WAVE
the Burgundians at Verneuil and elsewhere, and then occupying
a high position at the court of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy,
was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1463. Jehan wrote, or rather
compiled, the Recuett des croniques et anchiennes istories de la
Grant Brelaigne, a collection of the sources of English history
from the earliest times to 1471. For this work he borrowed from
Froissart, Monstrelet and others; but for the period between
1444 and 1471 the Recueil is original and valuable, although
somewhat untrustworthy with regard to affairs in England itself.
From the beginning to 688 and again from 1399 to 1471 the text
has been edited for the Rolls Series (5 vols., London, 1864-1891),
by W. and E. L. C. P. Hardy, who have also translated the greater
part of it into English. The section from 1325 to 1471 has been
edited by L. M. E. Dupont (Paris, 1858-1863).
WAUSAU, a city and the county-seat of Marathon county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both banks of the Wisconsin river, about
185 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 9253; (1900) 12,354,
of whom 3747 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,560.
There is a large German element in the population, and two
German semi-weekly newspapers are published here. Wausau
is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul and the Chicago
& North-Western railways. The city is built for the most part
on a level plateau above the river and extends to the top of high
bluffs on either side. It has a fine city hall, a Carnegie library,
the Marathon County Court House, a hospital, built by the Sisters
of the Divine Saviour, and a Federal Building. In Wausau
are a U.S. land office, the Marathon County Training School
for Teachers, the Marathon County School of Agriculture and
Domestic Science, and a County Asylum for the Chronic Insane.
Valuable water-power furnished by the Big Bull Falls of the
Wisconsin (in the city) is utilized for manufacturing, and in
1910 water-power sites were being developed on the Wisconsin
river immediately above and below the city. In 1905 the factory
products were valued at $4,644,457. Wausau had its origin in
a logging-camp, established about 1838. In 1840 a saw-mill was
built here, and in 1858 the village was incorporated under its
present name. After 1880, when Wausau was chartered as a
city, its growth was rapid.
WAUTERS, EHILE (1848- ), Belgian painter, was born
in Brussels, 1848. Successively the pupil of Portaels and
Gerome; he produced in 1868 " The Battle of Hastings: the
Finding of the body of Harold by Edith," a work of striking,
precocious talent. A journey was made to Italy, but that the
study of the old masters in no wise affected his individuality
was proved by " The Great Nave of St Mark's " (purchased by
the king of the Belgians). As his youth disqualified him for the
medal of the Brussels Salon, which otherwise would have been
his, he was sent, by way of compensation, by the minister of fine
arts, as artist-delegate to Suez for the opening of the canal
a visit that was fruitful later on. In 1870, when he was yet only
twenty-two years of age, Wauters exhibited his great historical
picture of " Mary of Burgundy entreating the Sheriffs of Ghent
to pardon the Councillors Hugonet and Humbercourt " (Liege
Museum) which created a veritable furore, an impression which
was confirmed the following year at the London International
Exhibition. It was eclipsed by the celebrated " Madness of
Hugo van der Goes " (1872, Brussels Museum), a picture which
led to the commission for the two large works decorating the
Lions' staircase of the H6tel de Vilie " Mary of Burgundy
swearing to respect the Communal Rights of Brussels, 1477 "
and " The Armed Citizens of Brussels demanding the Charta
from Duke John IV. of Brabant." His other large compositions
comprise " Sobieski and his Staff before Besieged Vienna "
(Brussels Museum) and the harvest of a journey to Spain and
Tangiers, " The Great Mosque," and " Serpent Charmers of
Sokko," and a souvenir of his Egyptian travel, " Cairo, from the
Bridge of Kasr-el-Nil " (Antwerp Museum). His vast panorama
probably the noblest and most artistic work of this class ever
produced" Cairo and the Banks of the Nile " (1881), 380 ft.
by 49 ft., executed in six months, was exhibited with extra-
ordinary success in Brussels, Munich, and the Hague. Wauters
is equally eminent as a portraitist, in his earliest period exhibiting,
as in his pictures, sober qualities and subtle grip, but later on
developing into the whole range of a brilliant, forceful palette,
and then into brighter and more delicate colours, encouraged
thereto, in his more recent work, by his adoption of pastel as
a medium even for life-size portraits, mainly of ladies. His
portraits, numbering over two hundred, include many of the
greatest names in Belgium, France, and America (Wauters having
for some years made Paris his chief home). Among these may
be named the Baron Goffinet, the Baroness Goffinet, Madame
Somzee (standing at a piano), Master Somzee (on horseback by
the sea-shore), the Princess Clementine of Belgium (Brussels
Museum), Lady Edward Sassoon, Baron de Bleichroder, Princess
de Ligne, Miss Lorillard, a likeness of the artist in the Dresden
Museum, and M. Schollaert (president of the Chamber of Deputies)
the last named an amazing example of portraiture, instinct
with character and vitality. The vigour of his male, and the
grace and elegance of his female, portraits are unsurpassable,
the resemblance perfect and the technical execution such as to
place the artist in the front rank. Between 1889 and 1900 the
painter contributed to the Royal Academy of London. Few
artists have received such a succession of noteworthy distinctions
and recognitions. His " Hugo van der Goes," the work of a youth
of twenty-four, secured the grand medal of the Salon. He has
been awarded no fewer than six " medals of honour " at Paris
in 1878 and 1889; Munich, 1879; Antwerp, 1885; Vienna,
1888; and Berlin, 1883. He is a member of the academy of
Belgium, and honorary member of the Vienna, Berlin, and
Munich academies, and corresponding member of the Institut
de France and of that of Madrid. He has received the order of
merit of Prussia, and is Commander of the order of Leopold,
and of that of St Michael of Bavaria, officer of the Legion of
Honour, &c.
See M. H. Spielmann, Magazine of Art (1887); A. J. Wauters,
Magazine of Art (1894); Joseph Anderson, Pall Mall Magazine
(1896); G. Serae (" Wauters as a Painter of Architecture ") Archi-
tectural Record (1901). (M. H. S.)
WAVE. 1 It is not altogether easy to frame a definition which
shall be precise and at the same time cover the various physical
phenomena to which the term " wave " is common!}' applied.
Speaking generally, we may say that it denotes a process in
which a particular state is continually handed on without change,
or with only gradual change, from one part of a medium to
another. The most familiar instance is that of the waves which
are observed to travel over the surface of water in consequence
of a local disturbance; but, although this has suggested the
name 1 since applied to all analogous phenomena, it so happens
that water-waves are far from affording the simplest instance
of the process in question. In the present article the principal
types of wave-motion which present themselves in physics are
reviewed in the order of their complexity. Only the leading
features are as a rule touched upon, the reader being referred
to other articles for such developments as are of interest mainly
from the point of view of special subjects. The theory of water-
waves, on the other hand, will be treated in some detail.
I. Wave-Propagation in One Dimension.
The simplest and most easily apprehended case of wave-motion
is that of the transverse vibrations of a uniform tense string. The
axis of x being taken along the length of the string in its undisturbed
position, we denote by y the transverse displacement at any point.
This is assumed to be infinitely small; the resultant lateral force
on any portion of the string is then equal to the tension (P, say)
multiplied by the total curvature of that portion, and therefore in
the case of an element 5* to Py'Sx, where the accents denote dif-
ferentiations with respect to x. Equating this to pSx.y, where p is
the line-density, we have
y=c*y' (i)
where c = V(P/p) (2)
1 The word " wave," as a substantive, is late in English, not
occurring till the Bible of 1551 (Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1910). The proper
O. Eng. word was w&%, which became wawe in M. Eng. ; it is cognate
with Ger. Wage, and is allied to " wag," to move from side to side,
and is to be referred to the root wegh, to carry, Lat. where, Eng.
" weigh, "&c. TheO. Eng. wafian,M. Eng. waven,to fluctuate, to waver
in mind, cf. waefre, restless, is cognate with M.H.G. wabelen, to
move to and fro, cf. Eng. " wabble " of which the ultimate root is
seen in " whip," and in " quaver."
WAVE
425
The general solution of (i) was given by J. le R. d'Alembert in 1747;
jr=/(c<-x)+F(c/+x) (3)
where the functions /, F are arbitrary. The first term is unaltered
in value when x and ct are increased by equal amounts; hence this
term, taken by itself, represents a wave-form which is propagated
without change in the direction of x-positive with the constant
velocity c. The second term represents in like manner a wave-form
travelling with the same velocity in the direction of x-negative;
and the most general free motion of the string consists of two such
wave-forms superposed. In the case of an initial disturbance con-
fined to a finite portion of an unlimited string, the motion finally
resolves itself into two waves travelling unchanged in opposite
directions. In these separate waves we have
y=*rcy' (4)
as appears from (3), or from simple geometrical considerations. It
is to be noticed, in this as in all analogous cases, that the wave-
velocity appears as the square root of the ratio of two quantities,
one of which represents (in a generalized sense) the elasticity of the
medium, and the other its inertia.
The expressions for the kinetic and potential energies of any
portion of the string are
where the integrations extend over the portion considered. The
relation (4) shows that in a single progressive wave the total energy
is half kinetic and half potential.
When a point of the string (say the origin O) is fixed, the solution
takes the form
y=f(ct-x)-J(ct+x) (6)
As applied (for instance) to the portion of the string to the left of O,
this indicates the superposition of a reflected wave represented by
the second term on the direct wave represented by the first. The
reflected wave has the same amplitudes at corresponding points as
the incident wave, as is indeed required by the principle of energy,
but its sign is reversed.
The reflection of a wave at the junction of two strings of unequal
densities p, p' is of interest on account of the optical analogy. If
A, B be the ratios of the amplitudes in the reflected and transmitted
waves, respectively, to the corresponding amplitudes in the incident
wave, it is found that
where M, = V(P'/P). is the ratio of the wave- velocities. This is on the
hypothesis of an abrupt change of density; if the transition be
gradual there may be little or no reflection.
The theory of waves of longitudinal vibration in a uniform straight
rod follows exactly the same lines. If denote the displacement of
a particle whose undisturbed position is x, the length of an element
of the central line is altered from Sx to 8x+6, and the elongation
is therefore measured by {'. The tension across any section is
accordingly Ew{', where ta is the sectional area, and E denotes
Young's modulus for the material of the rod (see ELASTICITY). The
rate of change of momentum of the portion included between two
consecutive cross-sections is po>4x.{, where p now stands for the
volume-density. Equating this to the difference of the tensions on
these sections we obtain
{ = *" (8)
where
e = V(E/p). . .... (9)
The solution and the interpretation are the same as in the case of
(i). It may be noted that in an iron or steel rod the wave-velocity
given by (9) amounts roughly to about five kilometres per second.
The theory of plane elastic waves in an unlimited medium, whether
fluid or solid, leads to differential equations of exactly the same type.
Thus in the case of a fluid medium, if the displacement normal to
the wave-fronts be a function of / and x, only, the equation of
motion of a thin stratum initially bounded by the planes x and
x+x is
3-fc ;. <"
where p is the pressure, and po the undisturbed density. If p de-
pends only on the density, we may write, for small disturbances,
P=po+ks (II)
where s, = (p-po)po, is the " condensation," and k is the coefficient
of cubic elasticity. Since s=>-d/dx, this leads to
<*sa (12)
with
(13)
The latter formula gives for the velocity of sound in water a value
(about 1490 metres per second at 15 C.) which is in good agreement
with direct observation. In the case of a gas, if we neglect variations
of temperature, we have k = po by Boyle's Law, and therefore
f = VWPO). This result, which is due substantially to Sir I. Newton,
gives, however, a value considerably below the true velocity of
sound. The discrepancy was explained by P. S. Laplace (about
1806?). The temperature is not really constant, but rises and falls
as the gas is alternately compressed and rarefied. When this is
allowed for we have k=ypo, where y is the ratio of the two specific
heats of the gas, and therefore c = Vd^o/po). For air, 7=1-41,
and the consequent value of c agrees well with the best direct de-
terminations (332 metres per second at o C.).
The potential energy of a system of sound waves is Jfcj 2 per unit
volume. As in all cases of propagation in one dimension, the
energy of a single progressive system is half kinetic and half potential.
In the case of an unlimited isotropic elastic solid medium two
types of plane waves are possible, viz. the displacement may be
normal or tangential to the wave-fronts. The axis of x being
taken in the direction of propagation, then in the case of a normal
displacement the traction normal to the wave-front is (\+2n)d/dx,
where \, M are the elastic constants of the medium, viz. M is the
" rigidity," and X = A-j/i, where k is the cubic elasticity. This
leads to the equation
-*" ....... (H)
where
a=V|(X+2 M )/p|=VIO+iM)/p). (15)
The wave-velocity is greater than in the case of the longitudinal
vibrations of a rod, owing to the lateral yielding which takes place
in the latter case. In the case of a displacement ij parallel to the
axis of y, and therefore tangential to the wave-fronts, we have a
shearing strain dyjdx, and a corresponding shearing stress
This leads to
with
(16)
(17)
In the case of steel (* = 1-841 . 10", ^ = 8-19. 10", = 7-849 C.G.S.)
the wave- velocities a, b come out to be 6-1 and 3-2 kilometres per
second, respectively.
If the medium be crystalline the velocity of propagation of plane
waves will depend also on the aspect of the wave-front. For any
given direction of the wave-normal there are in the most general
case three distinct velocities of wave-propagation, each with its
own direction of particle-vibration. These latter directions are
perpendicular to each other, but in general oblique to the wave-
front. For certain types of crystalline structure the results simplify,
but it is unnecessary to enter into further details, as the matter is
chiefly of interest in relation to the now abandoned elastic-solid
theories of double-refraction. For the modern electric theory of
light see LIGHT, and ELECTRIC WAVES.
Finally, it may be noticed that the conditions of wave-propagation
without change of type may be investigated in another manner.
If we impress on the whole medium a velocity equal and opposite
to that of the wave we obtain a " steady " or " stationary " state in
which the circumstances at any particular point of space are constant.
Thus in the case of the vibrations of an inextensible string we may,
in the first instance, imagine the string to run through a fixed smooth
tube having the form of the wave. The velocity c being constant
there is no tangential acceleration, and the tension P is accordingly
uniform. The resultant of the tensions on the two ends of an
element Ss is PSs/R, in the direction of the normal, where R denotes
the radius of curvature. This will be exactly sufficient to produce
the normal acceleration c l /R in the mass p&, provided c* = P/p.
Under this condition the tube, which now exerts no pressure on the
string, may be abolished, and we have a free stationary wave on a
moving string. This argument is due to P. G. Tait.
The method was applied to the case of air-waves by W. J. M.
Rankine in 1870. When a gas flows steadily through a straight
tube of unit section, the mass m which crosses any section in unit
time must be the same ; hence if u be the velocity we have
pu = m ....... (18)
Again, the mass which at time t occupies the space between two
fixed sections (which we will distinguish by suffixes) has its momen-
tum increased in the time U by (mitr-mu,) 8/, whence
pi-pt = m(ttt-ui) ..... (19)
Combined with (18) this gives
pi+m*/pi=pi+m*/(*. . . . (20)
Hence for absolutely steady motion it is essential that the ex-
pression p+m'/P should have the same value throughout the wave.
This condition is not accurately fulfilled by any known substance,
whether subject to the "isothermal" or " adiabatic " condition;
but in the case of small variations of pressure and density the
relation is equivalent to
m> = itdpldp ...... (21)
and therefore by (18), if c denote the general velocity of the current,
k/p ..... (22)
in agreement with (13). The fact that the condition (20) can only
be satisfied approximately shows that some progressive change of
type must inevitably take place in sound-waves of finite amplitude.
This question has been examined by S. D. Poisson (1807), Sir G. G.
Stokes (1848), B. Riemann (1858), S. Earnshaw (1858), W. J. M.
Rankine (1870), Lord Rayleigh (1878) and others. It appears that
426
WAVE
the more condensed portions of the wave gain continually on the
less condensed, the tendency being apparently towards the pro-
duction of a discontinuity, somewhat analogous to a " bore " in
water-waves. Before this stage can be reached, however, dissipative
forces (so far ignored), such as viscosity and thermal conduction,
come into play. In practical acoustics the results are also modified
by the diminution of amplitude due to spherical divergence.
2. Wave-Propagation in General.
We have next to consider the processes of wave-propagation in
two or three dimensions. The simplest case is that of air-waves.
When terms of the second order in the velocities are neglected, the
dynamical equations are
du dp dv dp dw dp , ,
^- = - = - l
and the " equation of continuity " (see HYDROMECHANICS) is
dp . /du . dv , dw}
If we write p=po(i +s), p = p<,-{-ks, these may be written
aw
d_u__ 2
dt C dx'
where c is given by i (13), and
,ds dw _ 2 oi
dt dy' dt dz'
dt
dv dw
(2)
(3)
(4)
the latter equation expressing that the condensation i is diminishing
at a rate equal to the " divergence " of the vector (u, v, w) (see
VECTOR ANALYSIS). Eliminating u, v, w, we obtain
f?-V* (5)
where V 2 stands for Laplace's operator d 1 /dx 1 +d*/dy 1 +d t /dz 1 .
This, the general equation of sound-waves, appears to be due to
L. Euler (1759). In the particular case where the disturbance is
symmetrical with respect to a centre O, it takes the simpler form
dP ' dr 2 .......
where r denotes distance from O. It is easily deduced from (i) that
in the case of a medium initially at rest the velocity (u, v, w) is now
wholly radial. The solution of (6) is
... (7)
This represents two spherical waves travelling outwards and in-
wards, respectively, with the velocity c, but there is now a progressive
change of amplitude. Thus in the case of the diverging wave re-
presented by the first term, the condensation in any particular part
of the wave continually diminishes as i/r as the wave spreads. The
potential energy per unit volume [ I (5)] varies as s*, and so
diminishes in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from
O. It may be shown that as in the case of plane waves the total
energy of a diverging (or a converging) wave is half potential and
half kinetic.
The solution of the general equation (5), first given by S. D.
Poisson in 1819, expresses the value of s at any given point P at
time t, in terms of the mean values of i and S at the instant t=o
over a spherical surface of radius ct described with P as centre, viz.
where the integrations extend over the surface of the aforesaid sphere,
dia is the solid angle subtended at P by an element of its surface,
and f(ct), F(ct) respectively denote the original values of i and s at
the position of the element. Hence, if the disturbance be originally
confined to a limited region, the agitation at any point P external
to this region will begin after a time n/c and will cease after a time
ri/c, where fi, r are the least and greatest distances of P from the
boundary of the region in question. The region occupied by the
disturbance at any instant / is therefore delimited by the envelope
of a family of spheres of radius ct described with the points of the
original boundary as centres.
One remarkable point about waves diverging in three dimensions
remains to be noticed. It easily appears from (3) that the value of
the integral fsdt at any point P, taken over the whole time of transit
of a wave, is independent of the position of P, and therefore equal to
zero, as is seen by taking P at an infinite distance from the original
seat of disturbance. This shows that a diverging wave necessarily
contains both condensed and rarefied portions. If initially we have
zero velocity everywhere, but a uniform condensation s throughout
a spherical space of radius a, it is found that we have ultimately
a diverging wave in the form of a spherical shell of thickness 20,
and that the value of s within this shell varies from Js<>a/r at the
anterior face to Jxoa/r at the interior face, r denoting the mean
radius of the shell.
The process of wave-propagation in two djmensions offers some
peculiarities which are exemplified in cylindrical waves of sound,
in waves on a uniform tense plane membrane, and in annular waves
on a horizontal sheet of water of (relatively) small depth. The
equation of motion is in all these cases of the form
(9)
where yi' = d t /dx : >+d 1 /dy 2 . In the case of the membrane s denotes
the displacement normal to its plane;
in the application to water-waves it
represents the elevation of the surface
above the undisturbed level. The sol-
ution of (9), even in the case of sym-
metry about the origin, is analytically
much less simple than that of (6). It
appears that the wave due to a transient
local disturbance, even of the simplest
type, is now not sharply defined in the
rear, as it is in the front, but has an B*
indefinitely prolonged "tail." This is illus-
trated by the annexed figures which
represent graphically the time-variations
in the condensation s at a particular
point, as a wave originating in a local
condensation passes over this point. The
curve A represents (in a typical case) the
effect of a plane wave, B that of a
cylindrical wave, and C that of a
spherical wave. The changes of type
from A to B and from B to C are accounted
for by the increasing degree of mobility
of the medium.
FIG. i. 1
The equations governing the displacements u, v, w of a uniform
isotropic elastic solid medium are
where
dtt ai> cta>
From these we derive by differentiation
where
and
to dv du dw dv du
'' *~dy dz' dz dx' dx dy'
. - do)
. . (n)
. . (12)
. - (13)
. . (14)
. . (15)
as in i. It appears then that the " dilatation " A and the " rota-
tions " , 17, f are propagated with the velocities a, b, respectively.
By formulae analogous to (8) we can calculate the values of A, , i), f
at any instant in terms of the initial conditions. The subsequent
determination of u, v, w is a merely analytical problem into which
we do not enter ; it is clear, however, that if the original disturbance
be confined to a limited region we have ultimately two concentric
spherical diverging waves. In the outer one of these, which travels
with the velocity a, the rotations , i), f vanish, and the wave is
accordingly described as " irrotational," or " condensational."
In the inner wave, which travels with the smaller velocity b, the
dilatation A vanishes, and the wave is therefore characterized as
" equivoluminal " or " distortional." In the former wave the
directions of vibration of the particles tend to become normal, and
in the latter tangential, to the wave-front, as in the case of plane
elastic waves ( i).
The problems of reflection and transmission which arise when a
wave encounters the boundary of an elastic-solid medium, or the
interface of two such media, are of interest chiefly in relation to the
older theories of optics. It may, however, be worth while to remark
that an irrotational or an equivoluminal wave does not in general
give rise to a reflected (or transmitted) wave of single character;
thus an equivoluminal wave gives rise to an irrotational as well as
an equivoluminal reflected wave, and so on.
Finally, in a limited elastic solid we may also have systems of
waves of a different type. These travel over the surface with a
definite velocity somewhat less than that of the equivoluminal
waves above referred to; thus in an incompressible solid the velocity
> s -95546; in a solid such that X=M it is -91946. The agitation due
to these waves is confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the
surface, diminishing exponentially with increasing depth,
theory of these surface waves was given by Lord Rayleieh in 1885.
In the modern theory of earthquakes three phases of the disturbance
'Figures i, 2, 4, 6, 7 and 8 are from Professor Horace Lamb's
Hydrodynamics, by permission of the Cambridge University Press.
WAVE
427
at a station distant from the origin are recognized ; the first corre-
>pi>iuls to the arrival of condensational waves, the second to that of
rtional waves, and the third to that of the Rayleigh waves (see
STICITY).
The theory of waves diverging from a centre in an unlimited
crystalline medium has been investigated with a view to optical
theory by G. Green (1839), A. L. Cauchy (1830), E. B. Christoffel
-') and others. The surface which represents the wave-front
consists of three sheets, each of which is propagated with its own
special velocity. It is hardly worth while to attempt an account
In rr of the singularities of this surface, or of the simplifications
which occur for various types of crystalline symmetry, as the subject
has lost much of its physical interest now that the elastic-solid
theory of light is practically abandoned.
3. Water-Waves. Theory of " Long " Waves.
The simplest type of water-waves is that in which the motion of
the particles is mainly horizontal, and therefore (as will appear)
sensibly the same for all particles in a vertical line. The most
conspicuous example is that of the forced oscillations produced by
the action of the sun and moon on the waters of the ocean, and it
has therefore been proposed to designate by the term " tidal " all
cases of wave-motion, whatever their scale, which have the above
characteristic property.
Beginning with motion in two dimensions, let us suppose that the
axis of x is drawn horizontally, and that of y vertically upwards.
If we neglect the vertical acceleration, the pressure at any point
will have the statical value due to the depth below the instantaneous
position of the free surface, and the horizontal pressure-gradient
dpldx will therefore be independent of y. It follows that all particles
which at any instant lie in a plane perpendicular to Ox will retain
this relative configuration throughout the motion. The equation of
horizontal motion, on the hypothesis that the velocity () is in-
finitely small, will be
where rj denotes the surface-elevatipn at the point x. Again, the
equation of continuity, viz.,
~&t* ' ;T7 ^' ...... \z)
gives
du
if the origin be taken at the bottom, the depth being assumed to be
uniform. At the surface we have y = h+ii, and v = dn/dt, subject to
an error of the second order in the disturbance. To this degree of
approximation we have then
'dl = ~ h 'dx W
If we eliminate u between (i) and (4) we obtain
c 2 ^- ,.)
c ^A,-2' Vw'
h (6)
The solution is as in i, and represents two wave-systems travelling
with the constant velocity V(eA), which is that which would be
acquired by a particle falling freely through a space equal to half
the depth.
Two distinct assumptions have been made in the foregoing
investigation. The meaning of these is most easily understood if
we consider the case of a simple-harmonic train of waves in which
with
flcosk(ct x), u
k(ct-x), .
(7)
where k is a constant such that 2irjk is the wave-length X. The first
assumption, viz. that the vertical acceleration may be neglected in
comparison with the horizontal, is fulfilled if kh be small, i.e. if the
wave-length be large compared with the depth. It is in this sense
that the theory is regarded as applicable only to " long " waves.
The second assumption, which neglects terms of the second order in
forming the equation (i), implies that the ratio rj/A of the surface-
elevation to the depth of the fluid must be small. The formulae
(7) indicate also that in a progressive wave a particle moves forwards
or backwards according as the water-surface above it is elevated or
depressed relatively to the mean level. It may also be proved that
the expressions
T = J P A/.Ai*, V = \gpfjfdx, .... (8)
for the kinetic and potential energies per unit breadth are equal in
the case of a progressive wave.
It will be noticed that there is a very close correspondence between
the theory of " long " water-waves and that of plane waves of
sound, e.g. the ratio ij/A "corresponds exactly to the " condensation "
in the case of air-waves. The theory can be adapted, with very
slight adjustment, to the case of waves propagated along a canal of
any uniform section, provided the breadth, as well as the depth,
be small compared with the wave-length. The principal change is
that in (6) h must be understood to denote the mean depth. The
theory was further extended by G. Green (1837) and by Lord
Rayleigh to the case where the dimensions of the cross-section are
variable. If the variation be sufficiently gradual there is no sensible
reflection, a progressive wave travelling always with the velocity
appropriate to the local mean depth. There is, however, a variation
of amplitude; the constancy of the energy, combined with the
equation of continuity, require that the elevation 17 in any particular
part of the wave should vary as 6~iA~J, where b is the breadth of
the water surface and h is the mean depth.
Owing to its mathematical simplicity the theory of long waves
in canals has been largely used to illustrate the dynamical theory of
the tides. In the case of forced waves in a uniform canal, the
equation (i) is replaced by
where X represents the extraneous force. In the case of an equatorial
canal surrounding the earth, the disturbing action of the moon,
supposed (for simplicity) to revolve in a circular orbit in the plane
of the equator, is represented by
X= ~- sin 2(<rt+ +), .... (10)
where a is the earth's radius, H is the total range of the tide on the
" equilibrium theory," and a is the angular velocity of the moon
relative to the rotating earth. The corresponding solution of the
equations (4) and (9) is
The coefficient in the former of these equations is negative unless
the ratio h/a exceed a*a/g, which is about 1/311. Hence unless the
depth of our imagined canal be much greater than such depths as
are actually met with in the sea the tides in it would be inverted,
i.e. there would be low water beneath the moon and at the antipodal
point, and high water on the meridian distant 00 from the moon.
This is an instance of a familiar result in the theory of vibrations,
viz. that in a forced oscillation of a body under a periodic force the
phase is opposite to that of the force if the imposed frequency exceed
that of the corresponding free vibration (see MECHANICS). In the
present case the period of the free oscillation in an equatorial canal
11,250 ft. deep would be about 30 hours.
When the ratio itjh of the elevation to the depth is no longer
treated as infinitely small, it is found that a progressive wave-
system must undergo a continual change of type as it proceeds,
even in a uniform canal. It was shown by Sir G. B. Airy (1845) that
the more elevated portions of the wave travel with the greater
velocities, the expression for the velocity of propagation being
approximately. Hence the slopes will become continually steeper
in front and more gradual behind, until a stage is reached at which
the vertical acceleration is no longer negligible, and the theory
ceases to apply. The process is exemplified by sea-waves running
inwards in shallow water near the shore. The theory of forced
periodic waves of finite (as distinguished from infinitely small)
amplitude was also discussed by Airy. It has an application in
tidal theory, in the explanation of " overtides " and " compound
tides " (see TIDE).
4. Surface-Waves.
This is the most familiar type of water-waves, but the theory is
not altogether elementary. We will suppose in the first instance
that the motion is in two dimensions *, y, horizontal and vertical
respectively. The velocity-potential (see HYDROMECHANICS) must
satisfy the equation
and must make d<t>/dy = o at the bottom, which is supposed to be
plane and horizontal. The pressure-equation is, if we neglect the
square of the velocity,
P f><t>
c - = -g[gy+ const (2)
Hence, if the origin be taken in the undisturbed surface, we may
write, for the surface-elevation,
8],-. (3)
with the same approximation. We have also the geometrical
condition
_
at- ayJ,_o. -
The general solution of these equations is somewhat complicated.
428
WAVE
and it is therefore usual to fix attention in the first place on the case
of an infinitely extended wave-system of simple-harmonic profile,
say
r,=psin k(x-ct) (5)
The corresponding value of <t> is
gg cos h k(y+h) ],(x-cO (6)
*" kc cos h kh
where h denotes the depth; it is in fact easily verified that this
satisfies (i), and makes d<t>/dy=o, for y h, and that it fulfils the
pressure-condition (3) at the free surface. The kinematic condition
(4) will also be satisfied, provided
C 2 = | tan hfeA=|^tan h , .... (7)
X denoting the wave-length 2-r/k. It appears, on calculating the
component velocities from (6), that the motion of each particle is
elliptic-harmonic, the semi-axes of the orbit, horizontal and vertical,
being
a cos h k(y+h) sin h k(y+h) , ,
p sinhkh ' p sin h kh ' ' '
where y refers to the mean level of the particle. The dimensions of
the orbits diminish from the surface downwards. The direction of
motion of a surface-particle is forwards when it coincides with a
crest, and backwards when it coincides with a trough, of the waves.
When the wave-length is anything less than double the depth
we have tan h kh = i, practically, and the formula (6) reduces to
-a
(*-ct) (9)
(10)
with
the same as if the depth were infinite. The orbits of the particles
are now circles of radii /8e*. When, on the other hand, X is moderately
large compared with h, we have tan h kh = kh, and c = V(gft), in
agreement with the preceding theory of " long " waves. These
results date from G. Green (1839) and Sir G. B. Airy (1845).
The energy of our simple-harmonic wave-train is, as usual, half
kinetic and half potential, the total amount per unit area of the free
surface being igp/S 2 . This is equal to the work which would be
required to raise a stratum of fluid, of thickness equal to the surface-
amplitude ft, through a height 5/8.
It has been assumed so far that the upper surface is free, the
pressure there being uniform. We might also consider the case of
waves on the common surface of two liquids of different densities.
For wave-lengths which are less than double the depth of either
liquid the formula (10) is replaced by
|X p-V
2ir'p+p"
where p, p' are the densities of the lower and upper fluids respec-
tively. The diminution in the wave-velocity c has, as the formula
indicates, a twofold cause ; the potential energy of a given deforma-
tion of the common surface is diminished by the presence of the
upper fluid in the ratio (P P')/P, whilst the inertia is increased in
the ratio (p+p')/p. When the two densities are very nearly equal
the waves have little energy, and the oscillations of the common
surface are very slow. This is easily observed in the case of paraffin
oil over water.
To examine the progress, over the surface of deep water, of a
disturbance whose initial character is given quite arbitrarily it
would be necessary to resolve it by Fourier's theorem into systems
of simple-harmonic trains. Since each of these is propagated
with the velocity proper to its own wave-length, as given by (10),
the resulting wave-profile will continually alter its shape. The case
of an initial local impulse has been studied in detail by S. D. Poisson
(1816), A. Cauchy (1815) and others. At any subsequent instant
the surface is occupied on either side by a train of waves of varying
height and length, the wave-length increasing, and the height
diminishing, with increasing distance (x) from the origin of the
disturbance. The longer waves travel faster than the shorter, so
that each wave is continually being drawn out in length, and its
velocity of propagation therefore continually increases as it ad-
vances. If we fix our attention on a particular point of the surface,
the level there will rise and fall with increasing rapidity and in-
creasing amplitude. These statements are all involved in Poisson's
approximate formula
( cos -._ s inf-) (12)
W
which, however, is only valid under the condition that x is large
compared with %gf. This shows moreover that the occurrence of
a particular wave-length X is conditioned by the relation
The foregoing description applies in the first instance only to the
case of an initial impulse concentrated upon an infinitely narrow
band of the surface. The corresponding results for the more practical
case of a band of finite breadth are to be inferred by superposition.
The initial stages of the disturbance at a distance x, which is large
compared with the breadth b of the band, will have the same char-
acter as before, but when, owing to the continual diminution of the
length of the waves emitted, X becomes comparable with or smaller
than b, the parts of the disturbance which are due to the various
parts of the band will no longer be approximately in the same
phase, and we have a case of ' interference " in the optical sense.
The result is in general that in the final stages the surface will be
marked by a series of groups of waves of diminishing amplitude
separated by bands of comparatively smooth water.
The fact that the wave-velocity of a simple-harmonic train varies
with the wave-length has an analogy in optics, in the propagation
of light in a dispersive medium. In both cases we have a contrast
with the simpler phenomena of waves on a tense string or of light-
waves in vacua, and the notion of " group-velocity," as distinguished
from wave-velocity, comes to be important. If in the above analysis
of the disturbance due to a local impulse we denote by U the velocity
with which the locus of any particular wave-lengths X travels, we
see from (13) that U = |c. The actual fact that when a limited
group of waves of approximately equal wave-length travels over
relatively deep water the velocity of advance of the group as a
whole is less than that of the individual waves composing it seems
to have been first explicitly remarked by J. Scott Russell (1844).
If attention is concentrated on a particular wave, this is seen to
progress through the group, gradually dying out as it approaches
the front, whilst its former place in the group is occupied in suc-
cession by other waves which have come forward from the rear.
General explanations, not restricted to the case of water-waves,
have been given by Stokes, Rayleigh, and others. If the wave-
length X be regarded as a function of x and /, we have
ax . T .ax
(14)
since X does not vary in the neighbourhood of a geometrical point
travelling with velocity U, this being in fact the definition of U.
Again, if we imagine a second geometrical point to move with the
waves, we have
ax ?x_a _ <fc f|x . ,
the second member expressing the rate at which two consecutive
wave-crests are separating from one another. Comparing (14) and
(15), we have
(16)
If a curve be constructed with X as abscissa and c as ordinate, the
group-velocity U will be represented by the intercept made by the
tangent on the axis of c. This is illustrated
by the annexed figure, which refers to the
case of deep-water waves; the curve is a
parabola, and the intercept is half the
ordinate, in accordance with the relation
U = yc, already remarked. The physical
importance of the motion of group-velocity
was pointed out by O. Reynolds (1877), who
showed that the rate at which energy is pro-
pagated is only half that which would be
required for the transport of the group as
a whole with the velocity c.
The preceding investigations enable us
to infer the effect of a pressure-disturb-
ance travelling over the surface of still
constant velocity c in the direction of
normal pressure being
FIG. 2.
water with, say, a
^-negative. The ab-
supposed concentrated on an infinitely
narrow band of the surface, the elevation rj at any point P may
be regarded as due to a succession of infinitely small impulses de-
livered over bands of the surface at equal infinitely short intervals
of time on equidistant lines parallel to the (horizontal) axis of z.
Of the wave-systems thus successively generated, those only will
combine to produce a sensible effect at P which had their origin
in the neighbourhood of a line Q
whose position is determined by the
consideration that the phase at P is
" stationary " for variations in the
position of Q. Now if / be the time
which the source of disturbance has
taken to travel from Q to its actual
position O, it appears from (12) that
the phase of the waves at P,
originated at Q, is gP/^x+lv, where
3C = QP. The condition for station-
ary phase is therefore
X = 2X/t. . . (17)
In this differentiation, O and P are
to be regarded as fixed; hence x=c, and therefore
We have already seen that the wave-length at P is such
FIG. 3.
= U*, where U is the corresponding group- velocity.
that
Hence the
WAVE
4.29
wave-
FIG. 4.
e-length X at points to the right of O is uniform, being that
proper to a wave-velocity c, viz. \ = 2rc t /g. The disturbance is
therefore followed by a train of waves of approximately simple-
harmonic profile, of the length indicated. An approximate calcula-
tion shows that, except in the immediate neighbourhood of the
source of disturbance, the surface-elevation is given by
T>=-j2fsin&, (18)
where x is now measured from O, and Pt>(=fpdx) represents the
integral of the disturbing surface pressure over the (infinitely small)
breadth of the band
on which it acts. The
case of a diffused
pressure can be in-
ferred by integration.
The annexed figure
gives a representation
of a particular case,
obtained by a more
exact process. The
pressure is here sup-
posed uniformly distributed over a band of breadth AB.
A similar argument can be applied to the case of finite depth (h),
but since the wave-velocity cannot exceed V (2gh) the results are
modified if the velocity c of the travelling pressure exceeds this
limit. There is then no train of waves generated, the disturbance
of level being purely local. It hardly needs stating that the in-
vestigation applies also to the case of a stationary surface disturbance
on a running stream, and that similar results follow when the
disturbance consists in an equality of the bottom. In both cases we
have a train of standing waves on the down-stream side, of length
corresponding to a wave-velocity equal to that of the stream.
The effect of a disturbance confined to the neighbourhood of a
point of the surface (of deep water) was also included in the in-
vestigations of Cauchy and Poisson already referred to. The
formula analogous to (12), in the case of a local impulse, is
where r denotes distance from the source. The interpretation is
similar to that of the two-dimensional case, except that the amplitude
of the annular waves diminishes outwards, as was to be expected, in
a higher ratio.
The effect of a pressure-point travelling in a straight line over
the surface of deep water is interesting, as helping us to account
in some degree for the peculiar system of waves which is seen to
accompany a ship. The configuration of the wave-system is shown
by means of the lines of equal phase in the annexed diagram, due to
V. W. Ekman (1906), which
differs from the drawing origin-
ally given by Lord Kelvin (1887)
in that it indicates the differ-
ence of phase between the
transverse and diverging waves
at the common boundary of the
two ser ' es ' The two s y stems f
waves are due to the fact that
at any given instant there are
too previous positions of the
moving pressure-point which
have transmitted vibrations of
Alter V. Walfrid Ekman, On Stationary stationary phase to any given
Waw in Running Water. mt p ^thin the range of the
FIG. 5- figure. When the depth is finite
the configuration is modified, and if it be less than c'/, where c is
the velocity of the disturbance, the transversal waves disappear.
The investigations referred to have a bearing on the wave-resistance
of ships. This is accounted for by the energy of the new wave-
groups which are continually being started and left behind. Some
experiments on torpedo boats moving in shallow water have indi-
cated a falling off in resistance due to the absence of transversal
waves just referred to. For the effect of surface-tension and the
theory of " ripples " see CAPILLARY ACTION.
5. Surface-Waves of Finite Height.
The foregoing results are based on the assumption that the
amplitude may be treated as infinitely small. Various interesting
investigations have been made in which this restriction is, more or
less, abandoned, but we are far from possessing a complete theory.
A system of exact equations giving a possible type of wave-
motion on deep water was obtained by F. ]. v. Gerstner in 1802, and
rediscovered by W. ]. M. Rankine in 1863. The orbits of the
particles, in this type, are accurately circular, being defined by the
equations
b-k- l e tl > cosk(a-ct), . (l)
where (a, t) is the mean position of the particle, =2r/X; and the
wave-velocity is
..... (2)
The lines of equal pressure, among which is included of course the
surface-profile, are trochoidal curves. The extreme form of wave-
profile is the cycloid, with the cusps turned upwards. The mathe-
FIG. 6.
matical elegance and simplicity of the formulae (i) are unfortunately
counterbalanced by the fact that the consequent motion of the
fluid elements proves to be " rotational " (see HYDROMECHANICS),
and therefore not such as could be generated in a previously quiescent
liquid by any system of forces applied to the surface.
Sir G. Stokes, in a series of papers, applied himself to the deter-
mination of the possible " irrotatipnal " wave-forms of finite height
which satisfy the conditions of uniform propagation without change
of type. The equation of the profile, in the case of infinite depth, is
obtained in the form of a Fourier series, thus
y=acoskx+$ka t cos2kx+lk i a*cos3kx+ . . ., . (3)
the corresponding wave-velocity being approximately
where X = 2i/fe. The equation (3), so far as we have given the de-
velopment, agrees with that of a trochoid (fig. 7). As in the case of
Gerstner's waves the
outline is sharper near
the crests and flatter ~:
in the troughs than in
the case of the simple- FIG. 7.
harmonic curve, and
these features become accentuated as the ratio of the amplitude to
the wave-length increases. It has been shown by Stokes that the
extreme form of irrotational waves differs from that of the rotational
Gerstner waves in that the crests form a blunt angle of 120. Ac-
cording to the calculations of J. H. Michell (1893), the height is
then about one-seventh of the wave-length, and the wave-velocity
exceeds that of very low waves of the same length in the ratio 6:5.
It is to be noticed further that in these waves of permanent type
the motion of the water-particles is not purely oscillatory, there
being on the whole a gradual drift at the surface in the direction of
propagation. These various conclusions appear to agree in a general
way with what is observed in the case of sea-waves.
In the case of finite depth the calculations are more difficult,
and we can only here notice the limiting type which is obtained when
the wave-length is
supposed very great
compared with the
depth (h). We have
then practically the
" solitary wave " to
which attention was
first directed by J.
Scott Russell (1844)
FIG. 8.
from observation. The theory has been worked out by ]. Boussmesq
(1871) and Lord Rayleigh. The surface-elevation is given by
n=c sec h !(*/&) ...... (5)
provided
t=A'(A-(-o)/3o, ..... (6)
and the velocity of propagation is
c-VU(*+o)) ...... (7)
In the extreme form a = h and the crest forms an angle of 120*.
It appears that a solitary wave of depression, of permanent type, is
impossible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Experimental researches: E. H. u. W. Weber,
Wellenlehre (Leipzig, 1825) ; ]. Scott Russell, " Report on Waves,"
Brit. Assoc. Rep. (1844). Theoretical works : S. D. Poisson, " Memoire
sur la theorie du son," /. de I'icole polyt. 7 (1807); " Mem. sur la
theorie des ondes," Mem. de I'acad. roy. des sc. I (1816); A. Cauchy,
" Mem. sur la theorie des ondes," Iffm. de I'acad. roy. des sc. I
(1827) ; Sir G. B. Airy, " Tides and Waves," Encycl. Metrop. (1845).
Many classical investigations are now most conveniently accessible
430
WAVELLITE WAXWING
in the following collections: G. Green, Math. Papers (Cambridge,
1871); H. v. Helmholtz, Gesammelte Abhandlungen (Leipzig, 1882-
1895); Lord Rayleigh, Scientific Papers (Cambridge, 1899-1903);
W. J. M. Rankine, Misc. Scientific Papers (London, 1881); Sir G. G.
Stokes, Math, and Phys. Papers (Cambridge, 1880-1905). Numerous
references to other writers will be found in the articles by P. Forch-
heimer (" Hydraulik "), H. Lamb (" Schwingungen elastischer
Korper, insb. Akustik "), and A. E. H. Love (" Hydrodynamik ")
in various divisions of the fourth volume of the Encykl. d. math.
Wiss. ; and in H. Lamb's Hydrodynamics (3rd ed., Cambridge,
1906). (H. LB.)
WAVELLITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated aluminium
phosphate, A1 3 (OH)3(PO 4 )2 + 4|H 2 O, crystallizing in the ortho-
rhombic system. Distinct crystals are of rare occurrence, the
mineral usually taking the form of hemispherical or globular
aggregates with an internal radiated structure. It is translucent
and varies in colour from grey or white to greenish, yellowish, &c.
The hardness is 3!, and the specific gravity 2-32. It was first
found, at the end of the i8th century, by Dr W. Wavell near
Barnstaple in Devonshire, where it lines crevices in a black
slaty rock. It has also been found in Ireland (Tipperary and
Cork), Arkansas, &c. (L. J. S.)
WAVERLY, a village of Tioga county, New York, U.S.A.,
about 18 m. S.E. of Elmira, on the Cayuta Creek, near the
Chemung and the Susquehanna rivers, which unite several
miles S. of the village. Pop. (1890) 4123; (1900) 4465, of whom
295 were foreign-born; (1905) 4915; (1910) 4855. It is served
by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, the Erie and the
Lehigh Valley railways. With South Waverly (pop. in 1910
1084) separated from Waverly only by the state line and really
a part of the village Sayre, and Athens, Pennsylvania, it is
connected by electric railway and the three form practically
an industrial unit. Waverly is also connected by electric line
with Elmira. The village is a railway centre of some importance,
distributes coal from the Wyoming Valley mines, and ships
the dairy products of a large farming district and small fruits
and garden products. Waverly was settled about 1804 by
settlers from Connecticut and the Hudson River Valley, and was
incorporated as a village in 1854.
WAVRE, a town of Belgium, in the province of Brabant,
14 m. S.E. of Brussels. Pop. (1904) 8517. It. was on this
place that Grouchy advanced on the day of Waterloo, gaining
a useless success here over a Prussian corps while the fate of
the campaign was being decided elsewhere. The Prussians
erected here a fine monument by Van Oemberg in 1859.
WAX, a solid fatty substance of animal and vegetable origin,
allied to the fixed oils and fats. From these it is distinguished
by the fact that while oils and fats are glycerides, a true wax
contains no glycerin, but is a combination of fatty acids with
certain solid monatomic alcohols (see OILS).
WAX FIGURES. Beeswax is possessed of properties which
render it a most convenient medium for preparing figures and
models, either by modelling or by casting in moulds. At ordinary
temperatures it can be cut and shaped with facility; it melts
to a limpid fluid at a low heat; it mixes with any colouring
matter, and takes surface tints well; and its texture and con-
sistency may be modified by the addition of earthy matters and
oils or fats. When molten, it takes the minutest impressions
of a mould, and it sets and hardens at such a temperature that
no ordinary climatic influences affect the form it assumes, even
when it is cast in thin laminae. The facilities which wax offers
for modelling have been taken advantage of from the remotest
times. Figures in wax of their deities were used in the funeral
rites of the ancient Egyptians, and deposited among other
offerings in their graves; many of these are now preserved in
museums. That the Egyptians also modelled fruits can be
learned from numerous allusions in early literature. Among
the Greeks during their best art period, wax figures were largely
used as dolls for children; statuettes of deities were modelled
for votive offerings and for religious ceremonies, and wax images
to which magical properties were attributed were treasured by
the people. Wax figures and models held a still more important
place among the ancient Romans. The masks (effigies or
imagines') of ancestors, modelled in wax, were preserved by
patrician families, this jus imagtnum being one of the privileges
of the nobles, and these masks were exposed to view on ceremonial
occasions, and carried in their funeral processions. The closing
days of the Saturnalia were known as Sigillaria, on account of
the custom of making, towards the end of the festival, presents
of wax models of fruits and waxen statuettes which were fashioned
by the Sigillarii or manufacturers of small figures in wax and other
media. The practice of wax modelling can be traced through
the middle ages, when votive offerings of wax figures were made
to churches, and the memory and lineaments of monarchs and
great personages were preserved by means of wax masks as in
the days of Roman patricians. In these ages malice and supersti-
tion found expression in the formation of wax images of hated
persons, into the bodies of which long pins were thrust, in the
confident expectation that thereby deadly injury would be
induced to the person represented; and this belief and practice
continued till the I7th century. Indeed the superstition still
survives in the Highlands of Scotland, where as recently as 1885
a clay model of an enemy was found in a stream, having been
placed there in the belief that, as the clay was washed away, so
would the health of the hated one decline. With the renaissance
of art in Italy, modelling in wax took a position of high im-
portance, and it was practised by some of the greatest of the
early masters. The bronze medallions of Pisano and the other
famous medallists owe their value to the art qualities of wax
models from which they were cast by the cire perdue process;
and indeed all early bronzes and metal work were cast from
wax models. The tete de cire in the Wicar collection at Lille
is one of the most lovely examples of artistic work in this
medium in existence. Wicar, one of Napoleon's commissaries,
brought this figure from Italy. It represents the head and
shoulders of a young girl. It has been claimed as a work of
Greek or Roman art, and has been assigned to Leonardo da Vinci
and to Raphael, but all that can be said is that it probably
dates from the Italian Renaissance. In 1909 Dr Bode, the
director of the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin, purchased
in England, for (it was stated) 8000, a life-sized half-length
female figure in wax, which he attributed to Leonardo da Vinci
or his school. The figure was shown to have once been in the
possession of Richard Cockle Lucas (1800-1883), a sculptor
and worker in ivory, wax, &c. It was claimed that the figure
was really Lucas's work and was a reproduction in wax of a
picture of " Flora" attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, now in the
possession of the Morrison family at Basildon Park, near Pang-
bourne; this view was repudiated by Dr Bode, but was generally
accepted in England (see The Times, Oct.-Dec. 1909; and
particularly the Burlington Magazine, May, June, August, 1910).
Till towards the close of the i8th century modelling of medallion
portraits and of relief groups, the latter frequently polychromatic,
was in considerable vogue throughout Europe. About the end
of the i8th century Flaxman executed in wax many portraits
and other relief figures which Josiah Wedgwood translated
into pottery for his jasper ware. The modelling of the soft
parts of dissections, &c., for teaching illustrations of anatomy
was first practised at Florence, and is now very common. Such
preparations formed part of a show at Hamburg in 1721, and from
that time wax-works, on a plane lower than art, have been
popular attractions. These exhibitions consist principally of
images of historical or notorious personages, made up of waxen
masks on lay figures in which sometimes mechanism is fitted
to give motion to the figure. Such an exhibition of wax-works
with mechanical motions was shown in Germany early in the
1 8th century, and is described by Steele in the Taller. The
most famous modern wax-work exhibition is that of Madame
Tussaud (q.v.) in London.
WAX-TREE, WAX MYRTLE, CANDLEBERRY, popular names of
species of Myrica, especially M. cerifera, a North American
plant, the fruits of which have a waxy covering and are used as
a source of vegetable wax. M. Gale is the native British gale
(q.v.) or sweet-gale.
WAXWING, a bird first so called apparently by P. J. Selby in
1825 (Illustr. Brit. Ornithology, p. 87), having been before known
WAYCROSS WAYLAND THE SMITH
as the " silk-tail " (Philos. Transactions, 1685, p. 1161) a literal
rendering of the German Seidenschwanz or "chatterer"
the prefix " German," " Bohemian " or " waxen " being often
also applied. Selby's convenient name has now been generally
adopted, since the bird is readily distinguished from almost all
others by the curious expansion of the shaft of some of its wing-
feathers at the tip into a flake that looks like scarlet sealing-wax,
while its exceedingly silent habit makes the name " chatterer "
wholly inappropriate, and indeed this last arose from a mis-
interpretation of the specific term garrulus, meaning a jay (from
the general resemblance in colour of the two birds), and not
referring to any garrulous quality. It is the Ampelis garruliis
of Linnaeus and of more recent ornithologists, and is the type of
tin- Passerine family Ampelidae.
The waxwing is a bird that for many years excited vast
interest. An irregular winter-visitant, sometimes in countless
hordes, to the whole of the central and some parts of southern
Europe, it was of old time looked upon as the harbinger of war,
plague or death, and, while its harmonious coloration and the
grace of its form were attractive, the curiosity with which its
irregular appearances were regarded was enhanced by the
mystery which enshrouded its birthplace, and until the summer
of 1856 defied the searching of any explorer. In that year,
however, all doubt was dispelled through the successful search
in Lapland, organized by John Wolley, as briefly described by
him to the Zoological Society (Proceedings, 1857, pp. 55, 56,
pi. cxxii.). 1 In 1858 H. E. Dresser found a small settlement of
the species on an island in the Baltic near Uleaborg, and with his
own hands took a nest. It is now pretty evident that the wax-
wing, though doubtless breeding yearly in some parts of northern
Europe, is as irregular in the choice of its summer-quarters as in
that of its winter-retreats. Moreover, the species exhibits the
same irregular habits in America. It has been found in Nebraska
in " millions," as well as breeding on the Yukon and on the
Anderson river.
Beautiful as is the bird with its full erectile crest, its cinnamon-
brown plumage passing in parts into grey or chestnut, and relieved
by black, white and yellow all of the purest tint the external
feature which has invited most attention is the " sealing-wax "
(already mentioned) which tips some of the secondary or radial
quills, and occasionally those of the tail. This is nearly as much
exhibited by the kindred species, A. cedrorum the well-known
cedar-bird of the English in North America which is easily dis-
tinguished by its smaller size, less black chin-spot; the yellower
tinge of the lower parts and the want of white on the wings. In
the A. phoenicopterus of southern-eastern Siberia and Japan, the
remiges and rectrices are tipped with red in the ordinary way without
dilatation of the shaft of the feathers.
Both the waxwing and cedar-bird seem to live chiefly on insects
in summer, but are marvellously addicted to berries during the
rest of the year, and will gorge themselves if opportunity allow.
They are pleasant cage-birds, quickly becoming tame. The erratic
habits of the waxwing are probably due chiefly to the supplies of
food it may require, prompted also by the number of mouths to be
fed, for there is some reason to think that this varies greatly from
one year to another, according to season. The flocks which visit
Britain and other countries outside the breeding range of the species
naturally contain a very large proportion of young birds. (A. N.)
WAYCROSS, a city and the county-seat of Ware county,
Georgia, U.S.A., about 96 m. S.W. of Savannah and about 60 m.
\V. of Brunswick. Pop. (1880) 628; (1800) 3364; (1900) 5919
2899 negroes) ; (1910)14,485. Waycross is served by the Atlanta,
Birmingham & Atlantic, and the Atlantic Coast Line railways,
several branches of the latter intersecting here. In the city is
the Bunn-Bell Institute (Baptist, opened in 1909). There are
large railway car construction and repair shops here, and Way-
cross is a commercial centre for the forest products (naval stores
and lumber) and the cotton, sugar cane, sweet potatoes, melons
and pears of the surrounding country. The municipality owns
the water-works, the water-supply being obtained from artesian
wells. Before the passage of the state prohibition law Waycross
secured virtual prohibition of the sale of intoxicating liquors by
requiring a large liquor license fee ($20,000 in 1883, increased
to $30,000 in 1892). Waycross was settled in 1870, was first in-
corporated in 1874 and became a city in 1909.
1 A fuller account of his discovery, illustrated by Hewitson, is
given in The Ibis (1861, pp. 92-106, pi. iv).
WAYLAND, FRANCIS (1796-1865), American educationist,
was born in New York City on the nth of March 1796. His
father was an Englishman of the same name, who was a Baptist
pastor. The son graduated at Union College in 1813 and studied
medicine in Troy and in New York City, but in 1816 entered
Andover Theological Seminary, where he was greatly influenced
by Moses Stuart. He was too poor to conclude his course in
theology, and in 1817-1821 was a tutor at Union College, to
which after five years as pastor of the First Baptist Church of
Boston he returned in 1826 as professor of natural philosophy.
In 1827 he became president of Brown University. In the
twenty-eight years of his administration he gradually built
up the college, improving academic discipline, formed a library
and gave scientific studies a more prominent place. He also
worked for higher educational ideals outside the college, writing
text-books on ethics and economics, and promoting the free
school system of Rhode Island and especially (1828) of Pro-
vidence. His Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the
United States (1842) and his Report to the Corporation of Brown
University of 1850 pointed the way to educational reforms,
particularly the introduction of industrial courses, which were
only partially adopted in his lifetime. He resigned the presidency
of Brown in 1855, and in 1857-1858 was pastor of the First
Baptist Church of Providence. He died on the 3oth of September
1865. He was an early advocate of the temperance and anti-
slavery causes, for many years was " inspector of the state
prison and Providence county jail," president of the Prison
Discipline Society, and active in prison reform and local charities.
He was one of the " law and order " leaders during the " Dorr
Rebellion " of 1842, and was called " the first citizen of Rhode
Island." His son Francis (1826-1904) graduated at Brown
in 1846, and studied law at Harvard; he became probate judge
in Connecticut in 1864, was lieutenant-governor in 1869-1870,
and in 1872 became a professor in the Yale Law School, of which
he was dean from 1873 to 1903.
Besides several volumes of sermons and addresses and the volumes
already mentioned, he published Elements of Moral Science (1835,
repeatedly revised and translated into foreign languages) ; Elements
of Political Economy (1837), in which he advocated free-trade;
The Limitations of Human Responsibility (1838); Domestic Slavery
Considered as a Scriptural Institution (1845); Memoirs of Harriet
Ware (1850); Memoirs of Adoniram Judson (1853); Elements oj
Intellectual Philosophy (1854); Notes on the Principles and Practices
of Baptist Churches (1857); Letters on the Ministry of the Gospel
(1863); and a brief Memoir of Thomas Chalmers (1864).
See The Life and Labors of Francis Wayland (2 vols., New York,
1867) by his sons Francis and Heman Lincoln; the shorter sketch
(Boston, 1891) by James O. Murray in the " American Religious
Leaders " series; and an article by G. C. Verplanck in vol. xiv. of
the A merican Journal of Education.
WAYLAND THE SMITH (Scand. Volundr, Ger. Wieland), hero
of romance. The legend of Wayland probably had its home
in the north, where he and his brother Egill 1 were the types of
the skilled workman, but there are abundant local traditions of
the wonderful smith in Westphalia and in southern England.
His story is told in one of the oldest songs of the Edda, the
V dlundarkviOa, and, with considerable variations, in the prose
P3reJbsaga (Thidrek's sage), while the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf and
Dear's Lament contain allusions to it. The tale of Wayland falls
naturally into two parts, the former of which contains obviously
mythical features. He was the son of the giant sailor Wate and
of a mermaiden. His grandfather was that Vilkinus, king of
Norway, who lent his name to the Vilkina- or pibrekssaga.
Three brothers Volundr, Egill and Slagfibr seized the swan-maidens
Hlajjgujr, Olrun and Hervor, who, divested of their feather
dresses, stayed with them seven or eight years as their wives.
The second part of the story concerns Volundr, lord of the elves,
the cunning smith, who, after learning his art from Mime, then
from the dwarfs, came to the court of King NfJ'oJ'r, and there
defeated in fight the smith Amilias. V6lundr's sword, Mimung,
with which he won this victory, was one of the famous weapons
in German epic poetry. In the Dietrich cycle it descended to
1 Egill was compelled to prove his skill as an archer by shooting
an apple off the head of his three- year-old son; he is thus the
prototype of William Tell.
432
WAYNE
Wayland's son Wittich, and was cunningly exchanged by Hilde-
brand for a commoner blade before Wittich's fight with Dietrich.
Nf J>o]r, in order to secure Volundr's services, lamed him by cutting
the sinews of his knees, and then established him in a smithy on a
neighbouring island. The smith avenged himself by the slaughter
of Ni^ojT's two sons and the rape of his daughter Bodvildr.
He then soared away on wings he had prepared. The story in
its main outlines bears a striking resemblance to the myth of
Daedalus. For the vengeance of Volundr there is a very close
counterpart in the medieval versions of the vengeance of the
Moorish slave on his master. The denouement of this tale,
which made its first appearance in European literature in the
De obedientia (Opera, Venice, 3 vols., 1518-1519) of Jovianus
Pontanus (d. 1 503) , is different, for the Moorish slave casts himself
down from a high tower. The Aaron of the Shakespearian play
of Titus Andronicus was eventually derived from this source.
Swords fashioned by Wayland are regular properties of
medieval romance. King Rhydderich gave one to Merlin, and
Rimenhild made a similar gift to Child Horn. English local
tradition placed Wayland Smith's forge in a cave close to the
White Horse in Berkshire. If a horse to be shod, or any broken
tool were left with a sixpenny piece at the entrance of the cave
the repairs would presently be executed.
The earliest extant record of the Wayland legend is the repre-
sentation in carved ivory on a casket of Northumbrian workman-
ship of a date not later than the beginning of the 8th century.
The fragments of this casket, known as the Franks casket, came
The Franks Casket.
into the possession of a professor at Clermont in Auvergne about
the middle of the last century, and was presented to the British
Museum by Sir A. W. Franks, who had bought it in Paris for a
dealer. One fragment is in Florence. The left-hand compartment
of the front of the casket shows Volundr holding with a pair of
tongs the skull of one of Nf)>oJ>r's children, which he is fashioning
into a goblet. The boy's body lies at his feet. Bodvildr and her
attendant also appear, and Egill, who in one version made
Volundr's wings, is depicted in the act of catching birds.
See also Vigffisson and Powell, Corpus poet. bar. (i. pp. 168-174,
Oxford, 1883); A. S. Napier, The Franks Casket (Oxford, 1901);
G. Sarrazin, Germanische Heldensage in Shakespere's Titus Androni-
cus (Herrig's Archiv, xcvii., Brunswick, 1896); P. Maurus, Die
Wielandsage in der Literatur (Erlangen and Leipzig, 1902); C. B.
Deppingand F. Michel, Velandle Forgeron (Paris, 1833). Sir Walter
Scott handled the Wayland legend in Kenilworth', there are dramas
on the subject by Borsch (Bonn, 1895), English version by A. Comyn
(London, 1898), August Demmin (Leipzig, 1880), H. Drachmann
(Copenhagen, 1898), and one founded on K. Simrock's heroic poem
on Wieland is printed in Richard Wagner's Gesammelte Schriften
(vol. iii. 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1887).
WAYNE, ANTHONY (1745-1796), American soldier, was born
in the township of Easttown, Chester county, Pennsylvania,
on the ist of January 1745, of a Yorkshire family. As a boy
he exhibited a marked bent toward a military life. He was
educated in Philadelphia, and was a surveyor in Pennsylvania
and (1765) in Nova Scotia, where he was agent for a propoi
colony. He married in 1766 and passed the next few years
on the Chester county farm inherited from his father, holding
some minor offices and after 1774 taking an active part upon
various patriotic committees. Having recruited and organized
the Fourth Pennsylvania battalion of Continental troops, he
first saw active service at its head in Canada during the retreat
of Benedict Arnold after the Quebec campaign. His excellent
behaviour at the skirmish of Three Rivers led Philip Schuyler
to place him for some months in command of Ticonderoga.
While at this post, on the 2ist of February 1777, he was com-
missioned brigadier-general. In April Washington ordered him
to take command of the " Pennsylvania Line " at Morristown,
and he rendered distinguished service at Brandywine and
Germantown, and by his coolness and courage at Monmouth,
after the retreat of General Charles Lee, did much to save
the day for the Americans. Later in 1778 political
necessity led to his being superseded by St Clair, his ranking
officer, in the command of the regular Pennsylvania troops, but
upon Washington's recommendation he organized a new Light
Infantry corps, with which he performed the most daring
exploit of the War of Independence the recapture of Stony
Point by a midnight attack (15-16 July 1779) at the point of
the bayonet. This well-planned enterprise aroused the greatest
enthusiasm throughout the country and won for Wayne the
popular soubriquet " Mad Anthony." Upon the disbanding of
the Light Infantry corps, Wayne, again in command of the
Pennsylvania line, rendered effective service in counteracting
the effect of Benedict Arnold's treason and of the mutiny of
the Pennsylvania troops. In 1781 he was sent south to join
General Nathanael Greene, but in Virginia was deflected to
aid Lafayette against Lord Coruwallis. After the American
success at Yorktown, Wayne served with such marked success
in Georgia, that the state rewarded him with a large rice planta-
tion (which proved a financial failure) and Congress breveted him
major-general. In 1792 Washington offered him the command
of the regular army with the rank of major-general to fight the
hostile Indians north-west of the Ohio, who had been rendered
insolent by their successes over General Josiah Harmar in 1790
and General Arthur St Clair in 1791, and indirectly to compel
the British to yield the posts they held on the American side of
the lakes. Wayne spent the winter of 1792-1793 in recruiting
his troops near Pittsburg and in drilling them for effective service
in the reorganized army. The government continued its efforts
to induce the Indians to allow white settlements beyond the
Ohio, but a mission in 1793 ended in a failure. Meanwhile
Wayne had transferred his troops toFort Washington (Cincinnati) ,
and upon learning of the failure of the negotiations, advanced
the greater part of his forces to Greenville, a post on a branch of
the Great Miami, about 80 m. north of Cincinnati. During the
winter he also established an outpost at the scene of St Clair's
defeat. The Indians attacked this post, Fort Recovery,
in June 1794, but were repulsed with considerable slaughter.
Late in July Wayne's legion of regulars, numbering about 2000,
was reinforced by about 1600 Kentucky militia under General
Charles Scott, and;the combined forces advanced to the junction
of the Auglaize and Maumee rivers, where Fort Defiance was
constructed. Here Wayne made a final effort to treat with the
Indians, and upon being rebuffed, moved forward and encountered
them on the 2oth of August in the battle of Fallen Timbers,
fought near the falls of the Maumee, and almost under the walls
of the British post Fort Miami. This decisive defeat, supple-
mented by the Treaty of Greenville, which he negotiated with
the Indians on the 3rd of August 1795, resulted in opening the
North-west to civilization. Wayne retained his position as com-
mander of the army after its reorganization, and he rendered
service in quelling the proposed filibustering expeditions from
Kentucky against the Spanish dominions, and also took the lead
in occupying the lake posts delivered up by the British. While
engaged in this service he died at Erie, Pennsylvania, on the isth
of December 1796, and was interred there. In 1809 his remains
were removed to St David's Churchyard, Radnor, Pennsylvania.
WAYNESBORO WAYNFLETE
433
See Charles J. Stilte, Major-General Anthony Wayne and the
Pennsylvania Line (Philadelphia, 1893); J. Munsell, (ed.), Wayne's
Orderly Book of the Northern Army at Fort Ticonderoea and Mount
Independence (Albany, 1859); Boyer, A Journal of Wayne's Cam-
paign (Cincinnati, 1866); William Clark, A Journal of Major-
General Anthony Wayne's Campaign against the Shawnee Indians
(MSS. owned by R. C. Ballard Thruston); H. P. Johnston, The
nine of Stony Point (New York, 1900); J. R. Spears, Anthony
Vayne (New York, 1903).
WAYNESBORO, a borough of Franklin county, Pennsylvania,
J.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 14 m. S.E. of Chambers-
burg, and about 65 m. S.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890) 381 1 ;
(190x3)5396; (1910)7199. Waynesboro is served by the Cumber-
ad Valley and the Western Maryland railways. It lies at the
ot of the South Mountain, and under the borough are many
and caverns. A settlement was made here about 1734;
: was called Mount Vernon for twenty years, and then Wallace-
own (in honour of an early settler) until the close of the War of
^dependence, when it was named Waynesborough in honour of
eneral Anthony Wayne; a village was platted in 1797; its
barter as a borough, granted in 1818, was repealed in 1824 but
> revived in 1830, the spelling being changed to " Waynesboro."
See Benjamin M. Nead, Waynesboro (Harrisburg, Pa., 1900).
WAYNFLETE, WILLIAM (1395-1486), English lord chancellor
nd bishop of Winchester, was the son of Richard Pattene or
Patyn, alias Barbour, of Wainfleet, Lincolnshire (Magd. Coll.
)xon. Reg. f. 84b), whose monumental effigy, formerly in the
church of Wainfleet, now in Magdalen College Chapel at Oxford,
as to be in the dress of a merchant. His mother was Margery,
aughterof SirWilliam Brereton of that ilk in Cheshire(Ormerod's
Cheshire, iii. 81). Of Waynflete's education it is only possible
i assert that he was at Oxford University. It has been alleged
hat he was a Wykehamist, a scholar at Winchester College and
College, Oxford. But unless he was, as is improbable,
he " Willelmus Pattney, de eadem, Sar. Dioc.," admitted in
he was not a scholar of Winchester, and in any case was
not a scholar of New College. Nor was he a commoner in college
at Winchester or at New College, as his name does not appear
in the Hall books, or lists of those dining in hall, at either college.
That he was a day-boy commoner at Winchester is possible,
but seems unlikely. He was never claimed in his lifetime by
either college as one of its alumni. That he was at Oxford, and
probably a scholar at one of the grammar schools there,
before passing on to the higher faculties, is shown by a letter
of the chancellor addressed to him when provost of Eton (Ep.
Acad. Oxf. Hist. Soc. i. 158) which speaks of the university
as his " mother who brought him forth into the light of knowledge
and nourished him with the alimony of all the sciences." He
is probably the William Barbour who was ordained acolyte by
Bishop Fleming of Lincoln on the 2ist of April 1420 and sub-
deacon on the 2ist of January 1421 ; and as " William Barbour,"
otherwise Waynflete of Spalding, was ordained deacon on the
:8th of March 1421, and priest on the zist of January 1426,
with title from Spalding Priory. He may have been the William
Waynflete who was admitted a scholar of the King's Hall,
Cambridge, on the 6th of March 1428 (Exch. Q. R. Bdle. 346,
no. 31), and was described as LL.B. when receiving letters of
protection on the isth of July 1429 (Proc. P.O. iii. 347) to enable
him to accompany Robert FitzHugh, D.D., warden of the hall,
on an embassy to Rome. For the scholars of the King's Hall
were what we should call fellows, as may be seen by the appoint-
ment to the hall on the 3rd of April 1360 of Nicholas of Drayton,
B.C.L.,and John Kent, B. A., instead of two scholars who had gone
off to the French wars without the warden's leave (Cal. Close
Rolls). William Waynflete, presented to the vicarage of
Skendleby, Lines, by the Priory of Bardney (Lincoln, Ep. Reg.
f. 34, Chandler, 16), on the I4th of June 1430, may also have been
our Waynflete. There was, however, another William Waynflete,
who was instituted rector of Wroxhall, Somerset, on the i7th of
May 1433 (Wells, Ep. Reg. Stafford), and was dead when his
successor was appointed on the i8th of November 1436 (Wells,
Ep. Reg. Stillington). A successor to the William Waynflete
at the King's Hall was admitted on the 3rd of April 1434.
Meanwhile, our Waynflete had become headmaster of Winchester ;
Mr William Wanneflete being paid 505. as Informator scolarium,
teacher of the scholars of the college, for the quarter beginning
on the 24th of June 1430 (Win. Coll. Bursars' Roll 8-9 Hen. VI.)
and so continuously, under many variants of spelling, at the rate
of 10 a year until Michaelmas 1441 (V.C.H., Bucks, ii. 154).
He was collated by Bishop Beaufort at some date unascertainable
(through the loss of the 2nd volume of Beaufort's Episcopal
Register) to the mastership of St Mary Magdalen's Hospital,
a leper hospital on St Giles' Hill, just outside the city of Win-
chester (Vet. Mon. iii. 5). The first recorded headmaster after
the foundation of the college, John Melton, had been presented
by Wykeham to the mastership of this hospital in 1393 shortly
before his retirement. Its emoluments, amounting to 9, 125.
a year, nearly doubled the headmaster's income.
Under the influence of Archbishop Chicheley, who had himself
founded two colleges in imitation of Wykeham, and Thomas
Bekynton, king's secretary and privy seal, and other Wyke-
hamists, Henry VI., on the nth of October 1440, founded, in
imitation of Winchester College, " a college in the parish church
of Eton by Windsor not far from our birthplace," called the
King's College of the Blessed Mary of Eton by Windsor, as " a
sort of first-fruits of his taking the government on himself."
The college was to consist of a provost, 10 priests, 6 choristers,
25 poor and needy scholars, 25 almsmen and a magister infor-
mator " to teach gratis the scholars and all others coming from
any part of England to learn grammar." Only two fellows,
4 choristers, 2 scholars and 2 almsmen were named in the charter
and probably were only colourably members. Waynflete was
not, as alleged (Diet. Nat. Biog.), named a fellow. On the sth
of March 1440-1441, the king endowed the college out of alien
priories with some 500 a year, almost exactly the amount of
the original endowment of Winchester. On the 3ist of July
1441 Henry VI. went for a week-end visit to Winchester College
to see the school for himself. Here he seems to have been so
much impressed with Waynflete, that at Michaelmas, 1441,
Waynflete*ceased to be headmaster of Winchester. In October
he appears dining in the hall there as a guest, and at Christmas
1442 he received a royal livery, five yards of violet cloth, as
provost of Eton, Though reckoned first headmaster of Eton,
there is no definite evidence that he was. The school building
was not begun till May 1442 (V.C.H., Bucks, ii. 154). William
Westbury, who left New College, " transferring himself to the
king's service," in May 1442, and appears in the first extant
Eton Audit Roll 1444-1445 as headmaster, was probably such
from May 1442. If Waynflete was headmaster from October
1441 to May 1442, his duties must have been little more than
nominal. As provost, Waynflete procured the exemption of
the college from archidiaconal authority on the 2nd of May,
and made the contract for completion of the carpenter's work
of the eastern side of the quadrangle on the 3Oth of November
1443. On the 2ist of December 1443 he was sworn to the
statutes by Bishop Bekynton and the earl of Suffolk, the king's
commissioners, and himself administered the oath to the other
members of the foundation, then only five fellows and eleven
scholars over fifteen years of age. He is credited with having
taken half the scholars and fellows of Winchester to Eton to
start the school there. In fact, five scholars and perhaps one
commoner left Winchester for Eton in 1443, probably in July,
just before the election. For three of them were admitted
scholars of King's College, Cambridge, on the i9th of July, that
college, by its second charter of the loth of July 1443 having been
placed in the same relation to Eton that New College bore to
Winchester; i.e. it was to be recruited entirely from Eton.
The chief part of Waynflete's duties as provost was the financing
and completion of the buildings and establishment. The number
of scholars was largely increased by an election of 25 new ones
on the 26th of September 1444, the income being then 946,
of which the king contributed 120 and Waynflete 18, or more
than half his stipend of 30 a year. The full number of 70 scholars
was not filled up till Waynflete's last year as provost, 1446-1447
(Eton Audit Roll). So greatly did Waynflete ingratiate himself
434
WAYNFLETE
with Henry that when Beaufort, bishop of Winchester, Henry's
uncle, died on the nth of April 1447, the same day Henry wrote
to the chapter of Winchester, the prior and monks of St Swithin's
cathedral, to elect Waynflete as his successor. On the i2th of
April he was given the custody of the temporalities, on the isth
of April he was elected, and on the loth of May provided to the
see by a papal bull. On the i3th of July 1447 he was consecrated
in Eton church, when the warden and fellows and others of his
old college gave him a horse at a cost of 6, 135. 4d., and 133. 4d.
to the boys. Subsequent visits to Winchester inspired Henry
with the idea of rebuilding Eton church on cathedral dimensions.
Waynflete was assigned as the principal executor of his " will "
for that purpose, and if there was any variance between the
executors, he was to determine it. From 1448 to 1450 3336
or some 100,000 of our money was spent on the church, of which
Waynflete with the marquis of Suffolk and the bishop of Salisbury
contributed 700 or 21,000. The troubles which began in 1450
put a stop to the work.
Waynflete, as bishop, lost no time in following the example of
Wykeham and his royal patron in becoming a college founder.
On the 6th of May 1448 he obtained licence in mortmain and on
the zoth of August founded at Oxford " for the extirpation of
heresies and errors, the increase of the clerical order and the
adornment of holy mother church, a perpetual hall, called
Seint Marie Maudeleyn Halle, for study in the sciences of sacred
theology and philosophy," to consist of a president and 50
scholars. Its site was not that of the present college, but of
two earlier halls called Boston and Hare, where the new schools
now are. Thirteen M.A.'s and seven bachelors, besides the
president, John Hornley, B.D., were named in the charter. The
dedication to Mary Magdalen was no doubt derived from the
hospital at Winchester of which the founder had been master.
On St Wolstan's Day, the igth of January 1448-1449, Waynflete
was enthroned in Winchester cathedral in the presence of the
king; and, probably partly for his sake, parliament was held
there in June and July 1449, when the king frequently attended
the college chapel, Waynflete officiating (Win. Coll. Reg. Vet.).
When Jack Cade's rebellion occurred in 1450 Waynflete was
employed with Archbishop Stafford, the chancellor, to negotiate
with the rebels at St Margaret's church, Southwark, close to
Winchester House. A full pardon was promised, but on the
ist of August Waynflete was one of the special commissioners to
try the rebels. On the 7th of May 1451 Waynflete, from " le
peynted chambre " in his manor house at Southwark, asserting
that his bishopric was canonically obtained and that he laboured
under no disqualification, but feared some grievous attempt
against himself and his see, appealed to the protection of the pope.
It is suggested (Diet. Nat. Biog.) that this was due to some
disturbances at Winchester (Proc. P.C. vi. 108), where one of
Cade's quarters was sent after his execution. But it is more
likely, as suggested by Richard Chandler (Life of Waynflete,
1811), that it was some Yorkist attack on him in progress in
the papal court, to meet which he appointed next day 19 proctors
to act for him. In the result nothing disturbed his peaceable
possession of the see. With the archbishop of Canterbury he
received Henry VI. on a pilgrimage to St Thomas a Becket on
the and of August 1451. When in November the duke of York
encamped near Dartford, Waynflete with three others was sent
from the king's camp at Blackheath to propose terms, which
were accepted. Edward, prince of Wales, was born on the i3th
of October 1453 and baptized by Waynflete the next day. This
year Waynflete acquired the reversion of the manor of Stanswick,
Berks, from Lady Danvers (Chandler, p. 87) for Magdalen Hall.
The king became insane in 1454. On the death of the chancellor,
John Kemp, archbishop of Canterbury, during the sitting of
parliament, presided over by the duke of York, commissioners,
headed by Waynflete, were sent to Henry, to ask him to name
a new chancellor, apparently intending that Waynflete should
be named. But no answer could be extracted from the king,
and after some delay Lord Salisbury took the seals. During
York's regency, both before and after the battle of St Albans,
Waynflete took an active part in the proceedings of the privy
council. With a view to an ampler site for his college, Waynflete
obtained on the 5th of July 1456 a grant of the Hospital of St
John the Baptist outside the east gate at Oxford and on the
1 5th of July licence to found a college there. Having obtained
a papal bull, he founded it by deed of the I2th of June 1458,
converting the hospital into a college with a president and six
fellows, to which college two days later Magdalen Hall surrendered
itself and its possessions, its members being incorporated into
" the New College of St Mary Magdalen."
Meanwhile Waynflete himself had been advanced to the highest
office in the state, the chancellorship, the seals being delivered
to him by the king in the priory of Coventry in the presence of
the duke of York, apparently as a person acceptable to both
parties. On the 27th of October 1457 he took part in the trial
and condemnation for heresy of Reginald Pecock, bishop of
Chichester, who had been ordained subdeacon and deacon on the
same day and by the same bishop as Waynflete himself. Only
Pecock's books and not the heretic were burnt. As the heresy
consisted chiefly in defending the clergy on grounds of reason
instead of authority, the proceeding does not show any great
enlightenment on Waynflete's part. It must have been at
this time that an addition was made by Waynflete to the Eton
college statutes, compelling the fellows to forswear the heresies
of John Wycliffe and Pecock. Waynflete presided as chancellor
at the parliament at Coventry in November 1459, which, after
the Yorkist catastrophe at Ludlow, attainted the Yorkist leaders.
It was no doubt because of this that, three days before the Yorkist
attack at Northampton, he delivered the great seal to the king
in his tent near Delapre abbey, a nunnery by Northampton,
on the 7th of July 1460 (Rot. Claus. 38 Hen. VI. m. 5 d). It was
taken with Henry and handed to the Yorkist, George Neville,
bishop of Exeter, brother of the kingmaker, earl of Warwick, in
London on 25th July following. Whether, as alleged by some,
Waynflete fled and hid himself during the period covered by the
battle of Wakefield and Edward's fiist parliament in 1461, is
very doubtful. A testimonial to his fidelity written by Henry
to the pope on the 8th of November 1460 (Chandler, 346) was
written while Henry was in Yorkist hands. The fact too that
complaints laid before Edward IV. himself in August 1461
of wrongful exaction of manorial rights from the tenants of the
episcopal manor of East Meon, Hants, were decided in the bishop's
favour in parliament in the December following (Rot. Parl. v.
475) also suggests that he was not regarded as an enemy to the
Yorkists, though a personal favourite of Henry's. A general
charter of confirmation to him and his successors of the property
and rights of the bishopric of Winchester on the ist of July 1462
(Pat. 2 Ed. IV.) points in the same direction. It is certain that
he took an active part in the restoration of Eton College, which
Edward annexed to St George's, Windsor, in 1463, depriving
it of a large part of its possessions. In the earliest Audit Rolls
after the restoration of the college in 1467 there are many entries
of visits of Provost Westbury to " the lord of Winchester,"
which in January 1468-1469 were for " beginning the work of the
church " " and providing money for them." Why a pardon was
granted to Waynflete on the ist of February 1469 (Pat. 8 Ed.
IV. pt. m. m. 16) does not appear. On the restoration of Henry
VI. on the 28th of September 1470 Waynflete welcomed him on
his release from the Tower, which necessitated a new pardon,
granted a month after Edward's reinstatement on the 3oth of
May 1471 (Pat. u. Ed. IV. pat. i. m. 24), and a loan to the king
of 2000 marks (1333, 6s. 8d.), or some 40,000 of our money.
In the years 1471-1472 to 1474 Waynflete was largely engaged
in completing the church, now called chapel, at Eton, his glazier
supplying the windows, and he contracted on the 1 5th of August
1475 for the rood-loft to be made on one side " like to the rode
lofte in Bishop Wykcham's college at Winchester," and on the
other like' that " of the college of St Thomas of Acres in London."
In 1479 he built the ante-chapel at the west-end, as it now stands,
of stone from Headington, Oxford.
In 1474 Waynflete, being the principal executor of Sir John
Fastolf, who died in 1459, leaving a much-contested will, pro-
cured the conversion of his bequest for a collegiate church of
WAYZGOOSE WAZIRISTAN
435
seven priests and seven almsmen at Caistor, Norfolk, into one for
seven fellows and seven poor scholars at Magdalen. In the same
year that college took possession of the alien priory of Sele,
Sussex, the proceedings for the suppression of which had been
going on since 1469. The new, now the old, buildings at Magdalen
were begun the same year, the foundation-stone being laid in the
middle of the high altar on the 5th of May 1474 (Wood, 207).
Licences on the ist of July, the 22nd of July 1477 and the I2th of
February 1479, authorized additions to the endowment. On the
23rd of August 1480, the college being completed, the great west
window being contracted to be made after the fashion of that
at All Souls' College, a new president, Richard Mayhew, fellow
of New College, was installed on the 23rd of August 1480, and
statutes were promulgated. The foundation is commonly
dated from this year and not from 1448, when Magdalen Hall
was founded, though if not dated from 1448 it surely dates from
1458, when that hall and St John's Hospital were converted into
Magdalen College. The statutes were for the most part a replica
of those of New College, members of which were, equally with
members of Magdalen, declared to be eligible for the presidency.
They provided for a head and 70 scholars, but the latter were
divided into 40 fellows and 30 scholars called demies, because
their commons were half those of the fellows. Magdalen College
School was established at the gates and as a part of the college,
to be, like Eton, a free grammar school, free of tuition fees for all
comers, under a master and usher, the first master being John
Ankywyll, a married man, with a salary of 10 a year, the same
as at Winchester and Eton. The renewal of interest in classical
literature was shown in the prohibition of the study of sophistry
by any scholar under the age of eighteen, unless he had been
pronounced proficient in grammaticals. On the 22nd of
September 1481 Waynflete received Edward IV. in state at the
college, where he passed the night, and in July 1483 he received
Richard III. there in even greater state, when Master William
Grocyn, " the Grecian," a fellow of New College, " responded,"
in divinity. In 1484 Waynflete gave the college the endowment
for a free grammar school at his name-place, Wainfleet, sufficient
to produce for the chantry-priest-schoolmaster 10 a year, the
same salary as the headmaster of Magdalen School, and built
the school which still exists almost untouched, a fine brick build-
ing with two towers, 76 ft. long by 26 ft. broad. The next year
saw the appropriation to the college of the Augustinian Priory
of Selborne, Hants.
On the 27th of April 1486, Waynflete, like Wykeham, made
his will at their favourite manor, South or Bishop's Waltham.
It is remarkable that he gives the same pecuniary bequests to
Winchester and New Colleges as to his own college of Magdalen,
but the latter he made residuary devisee of all his lands. He
died on the nth of May 1486, and was buried in the chantry
chapel of St Mary Magdalen behind the high altar in Winchester
cathedral, which he had erected in his lifetime. The effigy on it
may be taken to be an authentic portrait. (A. F. L.)
WAYZGOOSE, a term for the annual dinner and outing of
printers and their employ6s. The derivation of the term is
doubtful. It may be a misspelling for " wasegoose," from
wase, Mid. Eng. for " sheaf," thus meaning sheaf or harvest
goose, the bird that was fit to eat at harvest-time, the "stubble-
goose " mentioned by Chaucer in " The Cook's Prologue."
It is more probable that the merry-making which has become
particularly associated with the printers' trade was once general,
and an imitation of the grand goose-feast annually held at Waes,
in Brabant, at Martinmas. The relations of England and Holland
were formerly very close, and it is not difficult to believe that
any outing or yearly banquet might have grown to be called
colloquially a " Waes-Goose." It is difficult to explain why the
term should have only survived in the printing trade, though the
English printers owed much to their Dutch fellow-workers.
Certainly the goose has long ago parted company with the
printers' wayzgoose, which is usually held in July, though it
has no fixed season. An unlikely suggestion is that the original
wayzgoose was a feast given by an apprentice to his comrades
at which the bird formed the staple eatable.
WAZIR, or VIZIER (Arabic viazir), a minister, usually the
principal minister under a Mahommedan ruler. In India the
nawab of Oudh was long known as the nawab wazir, the title
of minister to the Mogul emperor having become hereditary in
the family.
WAZIRABAD, a town of British India, in Gujranwala district
of the Punjab, near the right bank of the river Chenab, 62 m.
N. of Lahore. Pop. (1901) 18,069. It is an important railway
junction. The main line of the North-Western railway here
crosses the Chenab by the Alexandra bridge, opened by the
prince of Wales in 1876. The branch to Sialkot has been ex-
tended to Jammu (51 m.); another branch follows the line
of the Chenab canal towards Multan. Boat-building and
manufactures of steel and iron are carried on.
WAZIRISTAN, a section of the mountain tract in the North-
West Frontier Province of India, lying between the Tochi river
on the north and the Gomal river on the south. The whole of
Waziristan lies within the British sphere of influence, the boundary
with Afghanistan having been demarcated in 1894. It forms
two political agencies, but only a portion, consisting of the Tochi
valley, with an area of about 700 sq. m. and a population (1903)
of 24,670, is directly administered. Northern Waziristan has
an area of about 2310 sq. m., and southern Waziristan an area
of about 2734 sq. m.
The Tochi and the Gomal rivers enclose Waziristan, their
affluents rising to the west of that country in the upland valleys
of Shawal and Birmal, and flowing north and south to a junction
with the main streams. Between the two rivers stretches the
central dominating range of Waziristan from north-east to south-
west, geologically connected with the great limestone ranges
of the Suliman hills to the south, and dominated by the great
peaks of Shuidar (Sheikh Haidar) and Pirghal, both of them
between n,ooo and 12,000 ft. above the sea, and hardly inferior
to the Khaisargarh peak of the Takht-i-Suliman. From these
peaks westwards a view is obtained across the grass slopes and
cedar woods of Birmal and Shawal (lying thousands of feet
below) to the long, serrated ridges of the central watershed which
shuts off the plains of Ghazni. To the eastward several lines of
drainage strike away for the Indus, breaking through parallel
folds and flexures of the mountains, of which the conformation
is here distinctly observable, although not so marked as it is
south of the Gomal. These lines of drainage are, as usual, the
main avenues of approach to the interior of the country. They
are the Khaisora and the Shakdu on the north, which, uniting,
join the Tochi south of Bannu, and the Tank Zam (which is also
called Khaisor near its head) on the south. The two former lead
from the frontier to Rasmak and Makin, villages of some local
importance, situated on the slopes of Shuidar; and the latter
leads to Kaniguram, the Waziri capital, and the centre of a con-
siderable iron trade. Kaniguram lies at the foot of the Pirghal
mountain.
Amongst the mountains of Waziristan there is much fine
scenery and a delightful climate. Thick forests of Hex clothe
many of the spurs, which reach down to the grassy deodar-
covered uplands of Birmal on the west ; and the spreading poplar
attains ma*gnificent dimensions amongst the flats and plateaus
of the eastern slopes. The indigenous trade of the country
is inconsiderable, although Waziri iron is much esteemed. The
agricultural products are poor, and the general appearance of
the priest-ridden people is significant of the endurance of
many hardships, even of chronic starvation. The most notable
product of the country is the Waziri breed of horses and donkeys.
The latter especially deserve to rank as the best of their kind
on the Indian frontier, if not in all India.
The geological formation of Waziristan is the same as that of
the contiguous frontier. Recent subaqueous deposits have been
disturbed by a central upheaval of limestone; the lower hills are
soft in composition and easily weather-worn, the slopes are rounded,
and large masses of detritus have collected in the nullah beds and
raised their level. Through these deposits heavy rain-floods have
forced their way with many bends and curves to the plains, enclosing
within each curve a " warn " or " raghza," which slopes gradually
to the hills and affords the only available space for irrigation ana
agriculture. A " warn " is a gently sloping open space, generally
43 6
WAZZAN WEALD, THE
raised but slightly above the river level. A " raghza " differs from
a " warn " in being on a higher level and often beyond the reach of
irrigation. Pasture is found abundantly in the hills, but cultivation
only on the borders of the main streams. Passing up and down these
mam water-courses, there is an appearance of great fertility and
wealth, which is entirely due to these thriving strips of verdure,
their restricted and narrow limits being hardly visible from the river
beds. From above, when viewed from the flanking ridges, the vast
rtent of hill country, neither high, nor imposing, nor difficult of
access, but invariably stony and rough, compares strongly with the
narrow bands of enclosed cultivation winding about like green
ribbons, and marking the course of the main strea*ns from the snow-
covered peaks to the plains. The physiography of Waziristan is
that of the Ku.ram to the north rather than that of the Suliman
hills to the south.
The Waziris are the largest tribe on the frontier, but their
state of civilization is very low. They are a race of robbers and
murderers, and the Waziri name is execrated even by the
neighbouring Mahommedan tribes. Mahommedans from a
settled district often regard Waziris as utter barbarians, and
seem inclined to deny their title to belong to the faith. They
have been described as being " free-born and murderous, hot-
headed and light-hearted, self-respecting but vain." The poverty
of their country and the effort required to gain a subsistence in
it have made the Waziris a hardy and enduring race. Their
physique is uncommonly good, and though on the average short
of stature, some extremely tall and large men are to be found
amongst them. They are generally deep-chested and compact
of build, with a powerful muscular development common to
the whole body, and not confined to the lower limbs as is the case
with some hill tribes of the Himalayas. As mountaineers the
Waziris would probably hold their own with any other Pathan
tribe of the frontier.
Except in a few of the highest hills, which are well- wooded,
the Waziri country is a mass of rock and stones, bearing a
poor growth of grass and thinly sprinkled with dark evergreen
bushes; progress in every direction except on devious paths
known to the natives is obstructed by precipices or by toilsome
stony ascents; and knowledge of the topography, a mere
labyrinth of intricate ranges and valleys, comes only as the result
of long acquaintance. Broken ground and tortuous ravines,
by making crime easy and precaution against attack difficult,
have fostered violence among the people and developed in them
an extraordinary faculty of prudence and alertness. In con-
sequence of his isolation the Waziri has become independent,
self-reliant and democratic hi sentiment. Through the in-
accessibility of his own country to lowlanders, combined with
the proximity of open and fertile tracts inhabited by races of
inferior stamina, he has developed into a confirmed raider;
and the passage through his country of mountain footpaths,
connecting India with Afghanistan, has made him by frequent
opportunity a hereditary highwayman as well. The women
enjoy more freedom than amongst most Pathan tribes, and are
frequently unfaithful. The ordinary punishment of adultery
is to put the woman to death, and to cut off half the right foot
of the man. Amongst Waziris also, as amongst other Pathans,
the blood-feud is a national institution.
The Waziris, who number some 40,000 fighting men altogether,
are divided into two main sections, the Darwesh Khel (30,000)
and the Mahsuds (8000) , with two smaller sections. The Darwesh
Khel, the more settled and civilized of the two, inhabit the lower
hills bordering on Kohat and Bannu districts, and the ground
lying on both sides of the Kurram river, between Thai on the
north and the Tochi Valley on the south. The Mahsuds, who
inhabit the tract of country lying between the Tochi Valley on
the north and the Gomal river on the south, have earned for
themselves an evil name as the most confirmed raiders on the
border; but they are a plucky race, as active over the hills
as the Afridis, and next to them the best-armed large tribe on
the frontier. The Mahsud country, especially that part within
reach of British posts, is more difficult even than Tirah. To
the south and east it is girt by an intricate belt of uninhabited,
generally waterless hills and ravines. To the north a zone of
Darwesh Khel territory, not less than 20 m. hi width, hilly
and difficult, separates the Mahsuds from the Tochi. The
Tochi Valley is inhabited by a degraded Pathan tribe, known
as Dauris, who have voluntarily placed themselves under
British protection since 1895. In dealing with the Mahsuds
it must be remembered that from Wana to Tank, from Tank
to Bannu, and from Bannu to Datta Khel, or for a distance of
over 200 m., British territory is open to Mahsud depredations.
This length of frontier is equal to the whole Thal-Kohat-Pesha-
war-Malakand line, covering the eight or ten tribes that took
part in the frontier risings of 1897. So that the Mahsuds should
really be compared with the whole of those ten tribes, and not
with any single one.
British expeditions were needed against various sections of
the Waziris hi 1852, 1859, 1860, 1880, 1881, 1894, 1897 and
1902.
The success of Sir Robert Sandeman in subduing the wild
tribes of Baluchistan had led to a similar attempt to open up
Waziristan to British civilization; but the Pathan is much
more democratic and much less subject to the influence of his
maliks than is the Baluchi to the authority of his chiefs; and
the policy finally broke down in 1894, when the Waziris made
a night attack upon the camp of the British Delimitation Com-
mission at Wana. The Commission had been appointed to
settle the boundary with the Afghans, and the Waziris regarded
it as the final threat to their independence. The attack was
delivered with such determination that the tribesmen penetrated
into the centre of the camp, and it was only with the greatest
difficulty that friend could be distinguished from foe. A large
force of 11,000 British troops subsequently traversed the tribal
country, destroyed then- towers and dictated terms, one of which
was that the Tochi Valley should be occupied by British garrisons.
But still there was trouble, which led to the Tochi expedition of
1897; and, in spite of the further lessons taught the Waziris
in two expeditions in 1902, the attempt to " Sandemanise "
Waziristan was given up by Lord Curzon. The British garrisons
in the Tochi and Gomal valleys were withdrawn, and two
corps of tribal militia, from 1300 to 1500 strong, were gradually
formed to replace the British troops.
See Grammar and Vocabulary of Waziri Pashto, by J. G. Lorimer
(Calcutta, 1902); Paget and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884);
Mahsud Waziri Operations (1902), Blue-book.
WAZZAN, a small hillside town, 60 m. N.W. by N. of Fez,
Morocco. It has a considerable trade with the country round,
and manufactures a coarse white woollen cloth with rough
surface from which the hooded cloaks (called jellabs) are made.
Its proudest name is Dar D'manah House of Safety as it is
sanctuary for any who gain its limits, on account of the tomb
of a sainted Idrisi Sharif, who lived there in 1727. It is the head-
quarters of his descendants.
WEALD, THE, a district in the south-east of England. It
includes the portions of Sussex, Kent and Surrey which are
enclosed between the North and South Downs a district of
Lower Cretaceous rocks encircled by Upper Cretaceous hills.
It extends from Frensham and Petersfield on the Hampshire
borders to the English Channel between Folkestone and East-
bourne. With the exception of the easternmost part, it drains
by rivers running northward and southward through gaps in the
Downs, the origin of which is considered under that heading.
The Weald was formerly covered by the forest of Andredesleah
or Andredsweald (" the wood or forest without habitations "),
which was 120 m. in length and about 30 in greatest breadth.
About 1660 the total area under forest was estimated at over
200,000 acres. The chief remains of the ancient forests are
Ashdown, St Leonards and Tilgate, and the nomenclature often
indicates the former extent of woodland, as in the case of Hurst-
pierpoint (hurst meaning wood), Midhurst, Fernhurst, Billings-
hurst, Ashurst and many others. The forests were interspersed
with lagoons; and the rainfall being very great caused marshes,
but it abated in consequence of the cutting down of the Wealden
forests for fuel in the extensive ironworks that formerly existed
in the district. The locality best preserving the ancient char-
acter of the Weald is the hilly district in the centre, forming a
WEALDEN WEALTH
437
LUC
S!
picturesque broken range running east and west under the name
of the Forest Ridges. This forms the main water-parting of the
Weald, dividing the Vale of Sussex from the Vale of Kent; and
was also the seat of the iron industry which was prosecuted by
the Romans and probably earlier, reached its highest importance
Jhe i6th and i7th centuries, and was maintained even till the
y years of the igth century. The Andredesleah had an early
orical interest as forming a physical barrier which kept the
South Saxons isolated from other Saxon kingdoms. Descending
from over sea upon the coastal district of Sussex, to which they
gave name, towards the close of the 5th century, they populated
it thickly, and maintained independence, in face of the accretions
of the West Saxon kingdom, for upwards of a hundred years.
WEALDEN, in geology, a thick series of estuarine and fresh-
water deposits of Lower Cretaceous age, which derives its name
from its development in the Weald of Kent and Sussex. In the
type area it is exposed by the denudation of a broad anticlinal
fold from which the higher Cretaceous beds have been removed.
The Wealden rocks lie in the central part of this anticline between
the escarpments of the North and South Downs; they extend
eastwards from the neighbourhood of Haslemere and Klland
Chapel to the west between Pevensey and Hythe. This forma-
tion is divisible into two portions, the Weald Clay above and
the Hastings Sands below. The Weald Clay which occupies the
central, upland part of the area from Horsham to the sea coast
consists of dark brown and blue clays and shales, occasionally
mottled in the neighbourhood of sandy lenticles, which together
with calcareous sandstones, shelly limestones and nodular iron-
stones take a subordinate place in the series. About Horsham
the Weald Clay is 1000 ft. thick, but it decreases in an eastward
direction; at Tunbridge it is only 600 ft. Certain subordinate
beds within the Weald Clay have received distinctive names.
" Horsham stone " is a calcareous flaggy sandstone, often ripple
marked, usually less than 5 ft. thick, which occurs at about 120 ft.
above the base of the Clay. " Sussex marble " is the name given
to more than one of the high limestone beds which are mainly
composed of a large form of Paludina (P.fluviorum) ; some of the
lower limestone layers contain a small species (P. sussexiensis).
The Sussex marble (proper) occurs about 100 ft. below the top
of the clays; it is the most important of the limestone bands,
and its thickness varies from 6 ft. to 2 in.; it is known also as
Bethersden marble, Petworth marble, Laughton stone, &c.
It has been widely used in the Weald district in church architec-
ture and for polished mantelpieces. The ironstones were
formerly smelted in the western part of the area.
The Hastings Sands are divisible into three main subdivisions:
the Tunbridge Wells Sand, the Wadhurst Clay and the Ashdown
Sand. Like the overlying Weald Clay this series thickens as a whole
towards the west. In the west, the Tunbridge WeMs Sand is sepa-
rated into an upper and lower division by the thickening of a bed of
clay the Grinstead Clay which in the east, about Rye, &c., is quite
thin; at Cuckfield a second clay bed IS ft. thick divides the upper
division. The upper beds of the lower Tunbridge Wells Sand cause
;ood landscapes around West Hoathly and near East Grinstead.
The Wadhurst Clay is very constant in character; near the base it
frequently contains clay-ironstone, which in former times was the
main source of supply for the Wealden iron industry. Much of the
higher portion of the Hastings Sand country is made of the Ashdown
Sands, consisting of sand, soft sandstones and subordinate clay
bends ; in the east, however, clay is strongly developed at the base
of this group, and at Fairlight is more than 360 ft. thick, while the
sandy portion is only 150 ft. These clays with sandy layers are
known as the Fairlight Clays. Beds of lignite are found in these
beds, and a calcareous sandstone, called Tilgate stone, occurs near
the top of the Ashdown Sands and in the Wadhurst Clay. The old
town of Hastings is built on Ashdown Sand, but St Leonards is
mainly on Tunbridge Wells Sand.
_ Wealden beds occur on the southern side of the Isle of Wight and
in the Isle of Purbeck in Dorsetshire. The Wealden anticline can
be traced across the Channel into the Bas Boulonnais. A separate
Wealden area exists in north Germany between Brunswick and
Bentheim, in the Ostervald and Teutoberger Wald, where the
Deister Sandstone (150 ft.) corresponds to the Hastings Sands and
the Wald :rthon (70-100 ft.) to the Weald Clay. The former contains
valuable .:oal beds, worked in the neighbourhood of Obernkirchen,
&c., and i. good building stone.
The fossils of the Wealden beds comprise freshwater shellfish,
Vnio, Patudina, Melanopsis, Cyrena; and estuarine and marine
K'<
T
forms such as Ostrea, Exogyra and Mytttus. An interesting series
of dinosaurs and pterodactyles has been obtained from the Wealden
of England and the continent of Europe, of which Iguanodon is the
best known a large number of almost entire skeletons of this genus
were discovered in some buried Cretaceous valleys at Bcrnissart in
Belgium ; other forms are Hettrosuchus, Ornithocheirus, Ornithopsis,
Cimoliosaurus and Titanosaurus. Among the plant remains are
Chara, Bennettites, Equisitites, Fittonia, Sagenopteris and Thuiites.
The fishes, plants and reptiles of these formations possess a decidedly
Jurassic aspect, and for this reason several authorities are in favour
of retaining the Wealden rocks in that system, and the close re-
lationship between this formation and the underlying Purbeckian,
both in England and in Germany, tends to support this view.
See CRETACEOUS, NEOCOMIAN, PURBECKIAN; also W. Topley,
" Geology of the Weald," Mem. Ceol. Survey (London, 1875).
(J. A. H.)
WEALTH, etymologically the condition of well-being, pros-
perity in its widest sense. The word does not appear in Old
English, but is a Middle English formation, welthe, on the O. Eng.
wela, well-being, from wel, well, cognate with Dan. vel, Ger.
wohl. The original meaning survives in the Prayer for the King's
Majesty of the English Book of Common Prayer, " Grant him in
health and wealth long to live," and in " commonwealth,"
i.e. good of the body politic, hence applied to the body politic
itself.
In economics, wealth is most commonly defined as consisting
of all useful and agreeable things which possess exchange value,
and this again is generally regarded as coextensive with all
desirable things except those which do not involve labour or
sacrifice for their acquisition in the quantity desired. On
analysis it will be evident that this definition implies, directly,
preliminary conceptions of utility and value, and, indirectly, of
sacrifice and labour, and these terms, familiar though they may
appear, are by no means simple and obvious in their meaning.
Utility, for the purposes of economic reasoning, is usually held
to mean the capacity to satisfy a desire or serve a purpose
(J. S. Mill), and in this sense is clearly a much wider term than
wealth. Sunshine and fresh air, good temper and pleasant
manners, and all the infinite variety of means of gratification,
material and immaterial, are covered by utility as thus defined.
Wealth is thus a species of utility, and in order to separate it
from other species some di/erentia must be found. This,
according to the general definition, is exchange value, but a little
reflection will show that in some cases it is necessary rather to
contrast value with wealth. " Value," says Ricardo, expanding
a thought of Adam Smith, " essentially differs from riches, for
value depends not on abundance but on the difficulty or facility of
production." According to the well-known tables ascribed to
Gregory King (1648-1712), a deficiency of a small amount in the
annual supply of corn will raise its value far more than in pro-
portion; but it would be paradoxical to argue that this rise in
value indicated an increase in an important item of national
wealth. Again, as the mines of a country are exhausted and its
natural resources otherwise impaired, a rise in the value of the
remainder may take place, and as the free gifts of nature are
appropriated they become valuable for exchange; but the
country can hardly be said to be so much the wealthier in con-
sequence. And these difficulties are rather increased than
diminished if we substitute for value the more familiar concrete
term " money-price " for the contrast between the quantity
of wealth and its nominal value becomes more sharply marked.
Suppose, for example, that in the total money value of the
national inventory a decline were observed to be in progress,
whilst at the same time, as is quite possible, an increase was
noticed in the quantity of all the important items and an
improvement in their quality, it would be in accordance with
common sense to say that the wealth of the country was in-
creasing and not decreasing.
So great are these difficulties that some economists (e.g.
Ricardo) have proposed to take utility as the direct measure of
wealth, and, as H. Sidgwick has pointed out, if double the
quantity meant double the utility this would be an easy and
natural procedure. But even to the same individual the increase
in utility is by no means simply proportioned to the increase in
quantity, and the utility of different commodities to different
WEAPON WEASEL
individuals, and a fortiori of different amounts, is proverbial.
The very same things may to the same individual be productive of
more utility simply owing to a change in his tastes or habits, and
a different distribution of the very same things, which make
up the wealth of a nation, might indefinitely change the quantity
of utility ; but it would be paradoxical to say that the wealth had
increased because it was put to better uses.
We thus seem thrown back on value as the essential
characteristic, allowance being made for any change in the
standard of value; but there are still difficulties to be overcome.
Some things that undoubtedly possess value or that can command
a price are immaterial, e.g. the advice of a lawyer or physician
or the song of a prima donna, and, although perhaps the skill
of a workman (in any grade of the social scale) might be considered
as attached to the man, as a coal mine is attached to a place,
it is more in accordance with popular usage to consider skill
as immaterial, whilst at the same time it seems equally natural
prima facie to confine the term wealth to material things in the
common sense. Again, the credit system of a country is a product
of great labour and sacrifice, it is most closely connected with the
production of its material wealth in the narrowest sense, and it
certainly commands a pecuniary value, and yet credit is more
generally held to be a representative rather than a part of wealth,
owing apparently to its insubstantial character. Apart from the
question of materiality some writers have insisted on relative
permanence and possibility of accumulation as essential attributes
of wealth, and have thus still further narrowed the scope of the
definition.
There can be no doubt that it is on many grounds desirable
in economics to use terms as far as possible in their popular
acceptations; but this rule must always be subordinate to the
primary object in view. In nearly every department of know-
ledge in which popular terms have been retained it has been found
necessary either constantly to use qualifying adjectives where
the context is not a sufficient guide, and in some cases, when
analysis discloses very different elements, to make a selection.
Sometimes it has been found convenient to use a term with
some variation in the definition according to the branch of the
subject in hand. 1 Applying these rules to the definition of wealth,
perhaps the best solution is that which is generally connected
with German economists (e.g. Adolf von Held). Wealth consists
of utilities, and in the first great department of economics
the consumption of wealth it is utility with which we are
principally concerned the idea of value, for example, being
overshadowed. The most general law of the consumption of
wealth is that successive portions of any stock give a diminishing
amount of utility when consumed. Then in the department
of the production of wealth the most important characteristics
are the labour and sacrifice necessary to put the utilities desired
into the things and to place the things where they are wanted.
The idea of value is again secondary and subordinate. We can
readily see the part played by nature, labour and capital re-
spectively in the production of any commodity without con-
sidering the effects on its value of the various factors; we can
understand the principles of division of labour and of the
relative productiveness of large and small industries without
entering into questions of value except in the most general
manner. In the department of the distribution of wealth the
fundamental conception is the right of appropriation; and
accordingly J. S. Mill very properly commences this part of
his subject by an account of the relative advantages of the
socialistic and individual systems of property. It is quite
possible under the former to conceive of all the distribution being
made without any exchange and with reference simply to the
wants or the deserts of the members of the society. Thus it is
not until we arrive at the department of the exchange of wealth
that the characteristic of value becomes predominant, although
of course value is closely connected with utility and labour and
sacrifice.
1 On the uses and difficulties of definitions in political economy
compare H. Sidgwick's Principles of Political Economy, bk. i. ch. ii.,
and J. N. Keynes's Scope and Method of Political Economy.
Usually, however, it will be found that in most cases anything
which can fairly be classed as wealth in one department is also
wealth in the others, and thus the definition is reached that
wealth in general consists of all " consumable utilities which
require labour for their production and can be appropriated
and exchanged." It only remains to add that " utilities " may
be divided into " inner " and " outer " (to translate the German
literally) the " inner " being such as are simply sources of
personal gratification to their possessor, e.g. a good ear for
music; the " outer " utilities again may be divided into " free "
and " economic," the former, as a rule, e.g. sunlight, not being
the result of labour and not capable of appropriation or exchange,
and the latter as a rule possessing each of these marks. It
is these " economic utilities " which constitute wealth in the
specific sense of the term, although its use may be extended
by analogy to include almost all utilities.
See A. Marshall, Principles of Economics (1907) ; J. B. Clark,
Philosophy of Wealth (1886) and Distribution of Wealth (1899);
W. E. Hearn, Plutology (1864); F. A. Walker, Political Economy
(1888); and J. S. Nicholson, Principles of Political Economy
WEAPON (O. Eng. w&pen, cf. Du. wapen, Ger. Wappe, also
Wappen, a coat of arms, heraldic shield), any instrument of
offence or defence, more usually a term confined to offensive
or attacking instruments. The general sketch of the history
and development of weapons of offence and defence is given
under ARMS AND ARMOUR; particular weapons are treated
under such heads as HALBERD, LANCE, SPEAR, SWORD, GUN,
PISTOL, RIFLE, ORDNANCE AND MACHINE-GUNS.
WEAR, a river of Durham, England, rising in the Pennine
chain near the Cumberland border, and traversing a valley
about 60 m. in length to the North Sea, with a drainage area
of 458 sq. m. A series of streams draining from the hills between
Killhope Law and Burnhope Seat (2452 ft.) are collected at
Wearhead, up to which point the valley is traversed by a branc
of the North-Eastern railway. Hence eastward, past the small
towns of St John's Chapel and Stanhope, and as far as that of
Wolsingham, Weardale is narrow and picturesque, sharply
aligned by high-lying moorland. Below, it takes a south-easterly
bend as far as Bishop Auckland, then turns northward and north-
eastward, the course of the river becoming extremely sinuous.
The scenery is particularly fine where the river sweeps round the
bold peninsula which bears the cathedral and castle of the city
of Durham. The valley line continues northerly until Chester-
le-Street is passed, then it turns north-east; and soon the river
becomes navigable, carrying a great traffic in coal, and having
its banks lined with factories. At the mouth is the large seaport
of Sunderland.
WEASEL (Putorius nivalis), the smallest European species
of the group of mammals of which the polecat and stoat are
well-known members (see CARNIVORA). The weasel is an elegant
little animal, with elongated slender body, back much arched,
head small and flattened, ears short and rounded, neck long and
flexible, limbs short, five toes on each foot, all with sharp, com-
pressed, curved claws, tail rather short, slender, cylindrical, and
pointed at the tip, and fur short and close. The upper-parts, out-
side of limbs and tail, are uniform reddish brown, the under-parts
white. In cold regions the weasel turns white in winter, but less
regularly and only at a lower temperature than the stoat or
ermine, from which it is distinguished by its smaller size and
the absence of the black tail-tip. The length of the head and
body of the male is usually about 8 in., that of the tail 2\ in.;
the female is smaller. The weasel is generally distributed through-
out Europe and Northern and Central Asia; and is represented
by a closely allied animal in North America. It possesses all
the active, courageous and bloodthirsty disposition of the rest
of the genus, but its diminutive size prevents it attac'iing and
destroying any but the smaller mammals and birds. Mice, rats,
water-rats and moles, as well as frogs, constitute its principal
food. It is generally found on or near the surface of the ground,
but it can not only pursue its prey through holes and crevices
of rocks and under dense tangled herbage, but follow it up the
!
WEATHER WEAVER-BIRD
439
stems and branches of trees, or even into the water, swimming
with perfect ease. It constructs a nest of dried leaves and
herbage, placed in a hole in the ground or a bank or hollow tree,
The Weasel (Putorius nivalis).
in which it brings up its litter of four to six (usually five) young
ones. The mother will defend her young with the utmost despera-
tion against any assailant, and has been known to sacrifice her
own life rather than desert them. (R. L.*)
WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic
languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. iieir, Icel. vedr, and Ger. Welter
and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is
derived " wind "), the condition of the atmosphere in regard to
its temperature, presence or absence of wind or cloud, its dry-
ness or humidity, and all the various meteorological phenomena
(see METEOROLOGY). The term " weathering " is used in geology
of the gradual action of the weather upon rocks, and is also
applied, in architecture, to the inclination or slope outwards
given to cornices, string courses and window sills, to throw off
the rain.
WEAVER, JAMES BAIRD (1833- ), American lawyer
and political leader, was born at Dayton, Ohio, on the izth of
June 1833. He studied law at Cincinnati, Ohio, and served on
the Federal side in the Civil War, becoming colonel in November
1862; he was mustered out in May 1864, and in March 1865
was breveted brigadier-general of volunteers. He was district-
attorney for the second Judicial District of Iowa in 1866-1870
and an assessor of internal revenue in Iowa in 1863-1873; and
was a representative in Congress in 1870-1881 and in 1885-1889,
being elected by a Greenback-Democratic fusion. In 1880 he
was the candidate of the Greenback party for president and
received a popular vote of 308,578; and in 1892 he was the
candidate of the People's party, and received 22 electoral votes
and a popular vote of 1,041,021.
WEAVER-BIRD, the name 1 by which a group of between
200 and 300 species are now usually called, from the elaborately
interwoven nests that many of them build, some of the structures
being of the most marvellous kind. By the older systematists
such of these birds as were then known were distributed among
the genera Oriolus, Loxia, Emberiza and Fringilla; and it. was
G. L. Cuvier who in 1817 first brought together these dissevered
forms, comprising them in a genus Ploceus. Since his time
others have been referred to its neighbourhood, and especially
1 First bestowed in this form apparently by
: entwining
of the cage in which it was kept with such vegetable fibres as it could
r, and hence in 1788 Gmelin named it Oriolus textor. In 1800
M. Daudin used the term " Tisserin " for several species of the
Linnaean genus Loxia, and this was adopted* some years later by
Cuvier as the equivalent of his Ploceus, as mentioned in the text.
the genus Vidua with its allies, so as to make of them a sub-
family Ploceinae, which in 1847 was raised by J. Cabanis to
the rank of a family Ploceidae a step the propriety of which
has since been generally admitted, though the grounds for taking
it are such as could not be held valid in any other order than
that of Passeres. The Ploceidae are closely related to the
FnngUlidae (see FINCH), and are now divided into two sub-
families, the Ploceinae and Viduinae, the former chiefly found
in Africa and its islands, the latter in the Ethiopian, Australian
and Indian regions.
Perhaps the most typical Ploceine weaver-bird is Hyphant-
ornis cucullata, an African species, and it is to the Ethiopian
Region that by far the greatest number of these birds belong,
and in it they seem to attain their maximum of development.
They are all small, with, generally speaking, a sparrow-like build;
but in richness of colouring the males of some are very conspicuous
glowing in crimson, scarlet or golden-yellow, set off by jet-
black, while the females are usually dull in hue. Some species
build nests that are not very remarkable, except in being almost
invariably domed others (such as the most typical Indian
weaver-bird, Ploceus baya) fabricate singular structures 2 of
closely and uniformly interwoven tendrils or fine roots, that
often hang from the bough of a tree over water, and, starting
with a solidly wrought rope, open out into a globular chamber,
and then contract into a tube several inches in length, through
which the birds effect their exit and entrance. But the most
wonderful nests of all, and indeed the most wonderful built by
birds, are those of the so-called sociable grosbeak, Philhetaerus
socius, of Africa. These are composed wholly of grass, and are
joined together to the number of 100 or 200 indeed 320 are
said to have been found in one of these aggregated masses, which
usually take the form of a gigantic mushroom,* affording a home
and nursery to many pairs of the birds which have been at the
trouble of building it. These nests, however, have been so often
described and figured by South African travellers that there
is no need here to dilate longer on their marvels. It may be
added that this species of weaver-bird, known to French writers
as the RepuUicain, is of exceptionally dull plumage.
The group of widow-birds, 4 Viduinae, is remarkable for the
extraordinary growth of the tail-feathers in the males at the
breeding-season. In the largest species, Vidua (sometimes
called Chera) progne, the cock-bird, which, with the exception
of a scarlet and buff bar on the upper wing-coverts, is wholly
black, there is simply a great elongation of the rectrices; but
in V. paradisea the form of the tail is quite unique. The middle
pair of feathers have the webs greatly widened, and through
the twisting of the shafts their inferior surfaces are vertically
opposed. These feathers are comparatively short, and end in a
hair-like filament. The next pair are produced to the length
of about a foot the bird not being so big as a sparrow and
droop gracefully in the form of sickle. But this is not all:
each has attached to its base a hair-like filament of the same
length as the feather, and this filament originally adhered to
and ran along the margin of the outer web, only becoming
detached when the feather is full grown. 6 In another species,
V. principalis, the middle two pairs of rectrices are equally
elongated, but their webs are convex, and the outer pair contains
the inner, so that when the margins of the two pairs are applied
1 These differ from those built by some of the ORIOLES (q.v.) and
other birds, whose nests may be compared to pensile pocket's, while
those of these weaver-birds can best be likened to a stocking hung up
by the " toe," with the " heel " enlarged to receive the eggs, while
access and exit are obtained through the " leg."
* But at a distance they may often be mistaken for a native hut,
with its grass-roof.
4 It has been ingeniously suggested that this name should be
more correctly written Whydah bird from the place on the West
Coast of Africa so named; but Edwards, who in 1745 figured one
of the species, states that he was informed that " the Portuguese call
this bird the widow, from its colour and long train" (Nat. Hist.
Birds, i. p. 86).
' This curious structure was long ago described by Brisson (Orni-
thologie, iii. p. 123), and more recently by Strickland (Contr. Orni-
thology (1850), pp. 88 and 149, pi. 59).
440
WEAVING
a sort of cylinder is formed. 1 The females of all the widow-birds
differ greatly in appearance from the males, and are generally
clothed in a plumage of mottled brown.
Usually classed with the weaver-birds is a vast group of small
seed-eating forms, often called Spermestinae, but for which Estreldinae
would seem to be a more fitting name. These comprehend the
numerous species so commonly seen in cages, and known as ama-
davats, Estrelda amandava, nutmeg-birds, Munia punctularia, wax-
bills, Pytelia melba and phoenicoptera, cutthroats, Amadina fasciata,
the Java sparrow, Munia oryzivora and many others. Many of
these genera are common to Africa and India, and some also to
Australia. (A. N.)
WEAVING. The process of weaving consists in interlacing,
at right angles, two or more series of flexible materials, of which
the longitudinal are called warp and the transverse weft.
Weaving, therefore, only embraces one section of the textile
industry, for felted, plaited, netted, hosiery and lace fabrics lie
outside this definition. Felting consists in bringing masses of
loose fibres, such as wool and hair, under the combined influences
of heat, moisture and friction, when they become firmly inter-
locked in every direction. Plaited fabrics have only one series
of threads interlaced, and those at other than right angles.
In nets all threads are held in their appointed places by knots,
which are tied wherever one thread intersects another. Hosiery
fabrics, whether made from one or many threads, are held together
by intersecting a series of loops; while lace fabrics are formed
by passing one set of threads between and round small groups
of a second set of threads, instead of moving them from side to
side. Notwithstanding the foregoing limitations, woven fabrics
are varied in texture and have an enormous range of application.
The demands made by prehistoric man for fabrics designed for
clothing and shelter were few and simple, and these were fashioned
by interlacing strips of fibrous material and grasses, which in
their natural condition were long enough for the purpose in
hand. But, as he passed from a state of savagery into a civilized
being, his needs developed with his culture, and those needs are
still extending. It no longer suffices to minister to individual
necessities; luxury, commerce and numerous industries must
also be considered.
The invention of spinning (q.v.) gave a great impetus to the
introduction of varied effects previously; the use of multicoloured
threads provided ornament for simple structures, but the demand
for variety extended far beyond the limits of colour, and different
materials were employed either separately or conjointly, together
with different schemes of interlacing. Eventually the weaver was
called upon to furnish articles possessing lustre, softness and
delicacy; or those that combine strength and durability with
diverse colourings, with a snowy whiteness, or with elaborate
ornamentation. In cold countries a demand arose for warm
clothing, and in hot ones for cooler materials; while commerce
and industry have requisitioned fabrics that vary from normal
characteristics to those that exceed an inch in thickness. In
order to meet these and other requirements the world has been
searched for suitable raw materials. From the animal kingdom,
wool, hair, fur, feathers, silk and the pinna fibre have long been
procured. From the vegetable kingdom, cotton, flax, hemp,
jute, ramie and a host of other less known but almost equally
valuable materials are derived. Amongst minerals there are
gold, silver, copper, brass, iron, glass and asbestos. In addition,
strips of paper, or skin, in the plain, gilt, silvered and painted con-
ditions are available as well as artificial fibres. All of the fore-
going may be used alone or in combination.
From such varied raw materials it is not surprising that woven
fabrics should present an almost endless variety of effects; yet
these differences are only in part due to the method of weaving.
The processes of bleaching (q.v.), mercerizing (q.v.), dyeing (q.v.),
printing (see TEXTILE PRINTING) and finishing (q.v.) contribute
almost as much to the character and effect of the resultant
product as do the incorporation in one fabric of threads spun in
different ways, and from fibres of different origin, with paper,
metal, beads or even precious stones.
1 Both these species seem to have been first described and figured
in 1600 by Aldrovandus (lib. xv. cap. 22, 23) from pictures sent
to him by Ferdinando de' Medici, duke of Tuscany.
INDUSTRIAL TECHNICOLOGY
All weaving schemes are reducible to a few elementary
principles, but no attempted classification has been quite
successful, for fabrics are constantly met with that possess
characteristics supposed to be peculiar to one class, but lack
others which are deemed equally typical. Nevertheless, since
some classification is essential, the following will be adopted,
namely: Group i, to include all fabrics made from one warp
and one weft, provided both sets of threads remain parallel in
the finished article and are intersected to give the requisite feel
and appearance. Group 2, to include (a) fabrics constructed
from two warps and one weft, or two wefts and one warp,
as in those that are backed, reversible and figured with extra
material; (b) two or more distinct fabrics built simultaneously
from two or more warps and wefts, as in two, three and other
ply cloths; (c) fabrics built by so intersecting two or more
warps and wefts that only one texture results, as in loom-made
tapestries and figured repps. Group 3, to include fabrics in which
a portion of the weft or warp rises vertically from the ground-
work of a finished piece, as in velveteens, velvets, plushes and
piled carpets. Groups 4, to embrace all fabrics in which one
portion of the warp is twisted partially, or wholly, round another
portion, as in gauzes and lappet cloths. Although some fabrics
do not appear to fall into any of the above divisions, and in
others the essential features of two or more groups are combined,
yet the grouping enumerated above is sufficiently inclusive for
most purposes.
The fabrics included in Group I are affected by the nature and
closeness of the yarns employed in their construction, by colour, or
by the scheme of intersecting the threads. The most important
section of this group is Plain Cloth, in which the warp and weft
threads are approximately equal in thickness and closeness, and
pass over and under each other alternately, as in fig. i, which shows
a design, plan and two sections of plain cloth. Such a fabric would,
therefore, appear to admit of but slight ornamentation, yet this is
by no means the case, for if thick and thin threads of warp and weft
alternate, the resultant fabric may be made to assume a corrugated
appearance on the face, while beneath it remains flat, as in popiins,
repps and cords. A plan and a longitudinal section of a repp cloth
is shown at fig. 2. Colour may also be employed to ornament plain
fabrics, and its simplest application produces stripes and checks.
But colour may convert these fabrics into the most artistic and
costly productions of the loom, as is the case with tapestries, which
FIG. I. Plain Cloth.
Repp Cloth.
are at once the oldest and most widely diffused of ornamented
textiles. Tapestries only differ from simple plain cloth in having
each horizontal line of weft made up of numerous short lengths of
parti-coloured thread. Many fine specimens of this art have been
recovered from ancient Egyptian and Peruvian tombs, and many are
still produced in the Gobelins and other celebrated manufactories
of Europe.
Twills are next in importance to plain cloth on account of their
wide range of application and great variety of effects; in elabor-
ately figured goods their use is as extensive as where they provide
the only ornament. Twills invariably form diagonal ribs in fabrics,
and these are due to the intervals at which the warp and weft are
intersected ; thus two or more warp threads are passed over or under
one or more than one weft thread in regular succession. Twills are
said to be equal when similar quantities of warp and weft are upon
the face of a fabric, unequal when one set of threads greatly pre-
ponderates over the other set, as in figs. 3, 4, which require four
warp and weft threads to complete the scheme of intersections.
If the ribs form angles of 45 degrees, the warp and weft threads per
inch are about equal in number, but for an unequal twill the material
most in evidence should be closest and finest. The angle formed may
be greater or less than 45 degrees, as in figs. 5, 6; if greater, the warp
preponderates, if less, the weft preponderates. Twills are simple
and fancy; both terms refer to the schemes of intersecting. In the
INDUSTRIAL TECHNICOLOGY]
WEAVING
441
former the same number of warp threads are placed successively
above or below each weft thread, and the ribs are of uniform width,
as in figs. 3, 4. In the latter more warp threads may be above one
p, G . 3- Four-thread J Twill. FIG. 4. Four-thread J Twill.
ck than another, the ribs may vary in width and small ornament
ay be introduced between the ribs, as in figs. 5, 6 and 7, where the
ark squares represent warp upon the surface. Twills may _ be
oken up into zigzags, lozenges, squares and other geometrical
aesigns; all of which may be produced by reversings in the diagonal
lines, or by reversing the weave of an unequal twill. Fig. 8 is a
-gzag, namely, a twill reversed in one direction. Fig. 9 is a diamond,
FIG. 5 Upright Twill.
FIG. 6. Reclining Twill.
or a twill reversed in two directions, and fig. 10 is a diaper, or an
unequal twill which gives a warp face in one place and a weft face
' i another. Satins and satteens form another important section of
3roup i. In a satin the bulk of the warp, and in a satteen the bulk
f the weft, is on the face of a fabric. If perfect in construction both
sent a smooth, patternless appearance, which is due in part to
scheme of intersections, in part to using fine material for the
FIG. 7. Fancy Twill.
FIG. 8. Zigzag.
surface threads and placing it close enough together to render 'the
points of intersection invisible; the threads of the other set being
coarser and lewer in number. Satins differ from twills in having
each warp thread lifted, or depressed, separately, but not successively.
From five to upwards of thirty threads of warp and weft are required
to complete the various schemes of intersecting. If the intervals
between the intersections are equal the weave is said to be perfect,
IJ!!IJZZIZI1ZZIIIJ-X
FIG. 9. Diamond.
FIG. 10. Diaper.
as in fig. 1 1 , but if the intervals are irregular it is said to be imperfect,
as in fig. 12. In Damasks a satin is combined with a satteen weave,
and since any desired size and shape of either weave may be pro-
duced, great facilities are offered for the development of all kinds
of ornamentation. But in combination neither the satin nor the
satteen can be perfect in construction, for one requires a preponder-
ance of warp, the other a preponderance of weft; as a sequence
every point of intersection is distinctly visible on both surfaces.
Brocades are fabrics in which both sets of threads may be floated
irregularly upon the surface to produce ornamental effects, and
they may be taken as typical of all one warp and one weft fabrics
that are figured by irregularly floated materials, whether the threads,
are uniformly or irregularly distributed, and whether one weave
or several weaves be employed.
Group 2 includes all backed and reversible fabrics, as well as
those ornamented with extra material and compounded. Cloths
intended for men's wear are often backed, the object of which is to
give weight and bulk to a thin texture without interfering with the
FIG. II. Five-thread
Satteen.
FIG. 12. Six-thread
Satteen.
face effects. Either warp or weft may be used as backing; if the
former there are two series of warp to one series of weft threads,
while in the latter there are two series of weft to one series of warp
threads. The face material is superposed upon that of the back,
but the ratio of face threads may be one or two to one of back. In
order to avoid disturbing the face weave, only those threads are
used to bind the backing that are hidden on the face, as in fig. 13,
which gives the design and a transverse section of a backed fabric;
A is face weft; B back weft, and the circles are warp threads; of
the latter C, D, are beneath both B and A. This diagram will serve
equally as a longitudinal section of a warp-backed fabric, if A
represents a thread of face warp, B a thread of back warp and the
circles are weft threads. Weft backing is capable of giving a more
spongy feel to a fabric than warp, because softer materials may be
used, but in these fabrics the length output of loom is reduced by
reason of the wefts being superposed. Warp-backed fabrics, whether
uniformly coloured or striped, do not materially reduce the output
of a loom, for every weft thread adds to the cloth length. Reversible
fabrics may have either two series of differently coloured wefts or
warps to one of the other series, in which
event they may be similarly figured on
both sides by causing the threads of the
double series to change places, as in the
design and transverse section, fig. 14; or,
by allowing one series to remain con-
stantly above the other, as in backed
cloths, both sides may be similar or dis-
similar in colour and pattern. Fabrics
figured with extra material may have two ,- ,, T ,. ,
series of warp or weft threads to one FlG - 1 3~ Weft-backed
series of the other set, and they may yield
Fabric.
reversible or one-sided cloths. A ground texture may have extra
material placed above or below it, as in fig. 15, where a design
and transverse section of the cloth are given; the waved lines and
circles represent a cross-section of plain cloth and A is a thread of
extra material; or ordinary and extra material may be used con-
jointly for figuring. Compound cloths must have at least two textures,
and be as distinct in character as if woven in separate looms; they
have many advantages over backed cloths, thus: the same design
and colouring may be produced on both sides ; where bulk and
weight are required a fine surface texture may be formed over a
ground of inferior material, and soft weft be passed between the
upper and lower textures. The fabric is more perfect and admits
of either simple or elaborate patterns being wrought upon the surface,
with simple ones beneath, as in piques and matelasscs. One texture
may be constantly above the other and connected at the selvages
only, as in hose pipes and pillow slips; or at intervals a thread may
pass from one texture into the other, in which event both are united,
as in many styles of bed-covers and vestings. If differently coloured,
FIG. 14. Weft Reversible
Fabric.
FIG. 15. Figuring with
Extra Weft.
the textures may change places at pleasure, as in Kidderminster
carpets; or, from three to twelve textures may be woven simultane-
ously, and united, as in belting cloth. There may be from one to
three threads of face warp to one of back, and the wefting may or
may not correspond with the warping. Fig. 16 shows the face and
442
WEAVING
[INDUSTRIAL TECHNICOLOGY
FIG. 16. Compound
Fabric.
FIG. 17. Tapestry with
Two Warps and Two
Wefts.
back weaves, the design, and a transverse section of a compound
cloth with two threads of face warp and weft to one of back, and
both are stitched together. The circles in the upper and lower
lines represent face and back warps respectively, and A, B, C are
weft threads placed in the upper and lower textures. Loom-made
tapestries and figured repps form another
section of Group 2. As compared with
true tapestries, the loom-made articles
have more limited colour schemes, and
their figured effects may be obtained from
warp as well as weft, whether interlaced
to form a plain face, or left floating more
or less loosely. Every weft thread, in
passing from selvage to selvage, is taken
to the surface where required, the other
portions being bound at the back. Some
specimens are reversible, others are one-
sided, but, however numerous the warps
and wefts, only one texture is produced. When an extra warp of
fine material is used to bind the wefts firmly together a plain or twill
weave shows on both sides. If a single warp is employed, two or
more wefts form the figure, and the warp seldom floats upon the
surface. Where warps do assist to form figure it rarely happens
that more than three can be used without overcrowding the reed.
Fig. 1 7 gives the design, and a transverse
section of a reversible tapestry in four
colours, two of which are warps and two
wefts. If either warp or weft is on the
surface, corresponding threads are be-
neath. The bent lines represent weft and
the circles warp. Figured repps differ
from plain ones in having threads of one,
or more than one, thick warp floated over
thick and thin weft alike; or, in having
several differently coloured warps from which a fixed number of
threads are lifted over each thick weft thread; the face of the
texture is then uniform, and the figure is due to colour.
Group 3. Piled Fabrics. In all methods of weaving hitherto
dealt with the warp and weft threads have been laid in longitudinal
and transverse parallel lines. In piled fabrics, however, portions of
the weft or warp assume a vertical position. If the former there are
two series of weft threads, one being intersected with the warp to
form a firm ground texture, the other being bound into the ground at
regular intervals, as in the design and transverse section of a velveteen,
fig. 18; the circles and waved lines form plain cloth, and the loose
thread A is a pile pick. After leaving
the loom all threads A are cut by push-
ing a knife lengthwise between the plain
cloth and the pile. As each pick is
severed both pieces rise vertically and the
fibres open out as at B. Since the pile
threads are from two to six times as
numerous as those of the ground, and rise
FIG. 18. Velveteen. from an immense number of places, a uni-
form brush-like surface is formed. Raised
figures are produced by carrying the threads A beneath the ground
cloth, where no figure is required, so that the knife shall only cut
those portions of the pile weft that remain on the surface. The effect
upon the face varies with the distribution of the binding points, and
the length of pile is determined by the distance separating one point
from another.
Chenille. When chenille is used in the construction of figured
weft-pile fabrics? it is necessary to employ two weaving operations,
namely, one to furnish the chenille, the other to place it in the final
fabric. Chenille is made from groups of warp threads that are
separated from each other by considerable intervals; then, multi-
coloured wefts are passed from side to side in accordance with a
predetermined scheme. This fabric is next cut midway between the
groups of warp into longitudinal strips, and, if reversible fabrics
such as table-covers and curtains are required, each strip is twisted
axially until the protruding ends of weft radiate from the core of
warp, and form a cylinder of pile. In the second weaving this
chenille is folded backward and forward in a second warp to lay the
colours in their appointed places and pile projects on both sides of
the fabric. If chenille is intended for carpets, the ends of pile weft
are bent in one direction, and then woven into the upper surface of a
strong ground texture.
Warp-piled Fabrics have at least two series of warp threads to one
of weft, and are more varied in structure than weft-piled fabrics,
because they may be either plain or figured, and have their surfaces
cut, looped or both.
Velvets and Plushes are woven single and double. In the former
case both ground and pile warps are intersected with the weft, but
at intervals of two or three picks the pile threads are lifted over a
wire, which is subsequently withdrawn; if the wire is furnished
with a knife at its outer extremity, in withdrawing it the pile threads
are cut, but if the wire is pointed a line of loops remains, as in terry
velvet. Fig. 19 is the design, and two longitudinal sections of a
Utrecht velvet. The circles at A are weft threads, and the bent
line is a pile thread, part of which is shown cut, another part being
looped over a wire. At B the circles are repeated to show how tl
ground warp intersects the weft.
Double Plushes consist of two distinct ground textures which a
kept far enough apart to ensure the requisite length of pile. As
weaving proceeds the pile threads are interlaced with each series of
weft threads, and passed from one to the other. The uniting pile
material is next severed midway between the upper and lower
textures, and two equal fabrics result. Fig. 20 gives three longi-
FIG. 19. Utrecht Velvet.
FIG. 20. Double Plush.
tudinal sections of a double pile fabric. The circles A, B are weft
threads in the upper and lower fabrics respectively; the lines that
interlace with these wefts are pile warp threads which pass vertically
from one fabric to the other. At C, D the circles are repeated to
show how the ground warps intersect the wefts, and at E the arrows
indicate the cutting point.
Figured Warp-pile Fabrics are made with regular and irregular
cut and looped surfaces. If regular, the effect is due to colour, and
this again may be accomplished in various ways, such as (a) by
knotting tufts of coloured threads upon a warp, as in Eastern carpets;
(b) by printing a fabric after it leaves the loom ; (c) by printing each
pile thread before placing it in a loom, so that a pattern shall be
formed simultaneously with a pile surface, as in tapestry carpets;
(d) by providing several sets of pile threads, no two of which are
similar in colour; then, if five sets are available, one-fifth of all the
pile warp must be lifted over each wire, but any one of five colours
may be selected at any place, as in Brussels and Wilton carpets.
Fig. 21 is the design, and a longitudinal
section of a Brussels carpet. The circles
represent two tiers of weft, and the lines
of pile threads, when not lifted over a
wire to form loops, are laid between the
wefts; the ground warp interlaces with
the weft to bind the whole together.
When the surface of a piled fabric is
irregular, also when cut and looped pile
are used in combination, design is no
longer dependent upon colour, for in the FIG. 21. Brussels Carpet,
former case pile threads are only lifted
over wires where required, at other places a flat texture is formed.
In the latter case the entire surface of a fabric is covered with pile,
but if the figure is cut and the ground looped the pattern will be
distinct.
Group 4. Crossed Weaving. This group includes all fabrics in
which the warp threads intertwist amongst themselves to give
intermediate effects between ordinary weaving and lace,
gauzes. Also those in which some warp threads are laid trans-
versely in a piece to imitate embroidery, as in lappets.
Plain Gauze embodies the principles that underlie the construction
of all crossed woven textiles. In these fabrics the twisting of two
warp threads together leaves large
interstices between both warp and
weft. But although light and open
in texture, gauze fabrics are the
firmest that can be made from a
given quantity and quality of
material. One warp thread from
each pair is made to cross the other
at every pick, to the right and to
the left alternately, therefore the
same threads are above every pick,
but since in crossing from side to
FIG. 22. Plain Gauze.
side they pass below the remaining threads, all are bound securely
together, as in fig. 22, where A is a longitudinal section and B a plan
of gauze.
Lena is a muslin composed of an odd number of picks of a plain
weave followed by one pick of gauze. In texture it is heavier than
gauze, and the cracks are farther apart transversely.
Fancy Gauze may be made in many ways, such as (a) by using
crossing threads that differ in colour or count from the remaining
threads, provided they are subjected to slight tensile strain; (b)
by causing some to twist to the right, others to the left simultane-
ously; (c) by combining gauze with another weave, as plain, twill,
satin, brocade or pile; (a) by varying the number of threads that
cross, and by causing those threads to entwine several ordinary
threads; (e) by passing two or more weft threads into each
crossing, and operating any assortment of crossing threads at
pleasure.
MACHINERY]
WEAVING
443
Lappet weaving consists in diapering the surface of a plain or
gauze fabric with simple figures. This is done by drawing certain
warp threads into a transverse
position and then lifting them
over a thread of weft to fix them
in the texture; after which they
are moved in the opposite direc-
tion and lifted over the following
pick. The material between one
binding point and another must
float loosely, and this limits the
usefulness of lappet figuring. In
fig- 2 3i the thick lines show a
lappet spot upon a plain texture.
Notwithstanding diverse struc-
ture, intricate mechanisms are
t ir,K not essential to the production of
IG. 23. Lappet Fabnc. ekher s{mple or com lex tex t ures ;
the most elaborate and beautiful specimens of the weaver's art
have been manufactured upon simple machinery.
Weaving Machinery.
The longitudinal threads of a fabric are called warp, caine,
twist and organzine, and the transverse threads are weft, shoot,
woof, filling and tram. A loom for intersecting these several
threads must provide for: (i) Shedding; namely, raising and
lowering the warp threads in a predetermined sequence so as to
form two lines between which the weft may be passed. (2)
Picking, or placing lines of weft between the divided warp.
(3) Beating-up, or striking each weft thread into its appointed
position in the fabric. (4) Letting-off , or holding the warp tense
and delivering it as weaving proceeds. (5) Taking-up, or drawing
away the cloth as manufactured. (6) Temples, for stretching
the fabric widthwise in order to prevent the edge threads of a
warp from injuring the reed, and from breaking. Power looms
require the above-named contrivances to act automatically,
and in addition: (7) A weft -fork, to stop a loom when the
weft becomes exhausted or breaks. (8) Mechanism for stopping
a loom when the shuttle fails to reach its appointed box. (9)
For weaving cross stripes, multiple shuttle boxes are needed
to bring different colours, or counts of weft, into use at the
pioper time. (10) In some looms a device for automatically
ejecting a spent cop, pirn or shuttle, and inserting a full one,
is requisite, (n) If a weaver has to attend to a greater number
of looms than usual, a device for stopping a loom when a warp
thread fails is essential.
The Hand-Loom. During the iyth and the first half of the i8th
centuries it was observed that wherever any branch of the textile
industry had been carried to a high state of excellence the looms
FIG. 24. Diagram of Hand-Loom.
used to manufacture a given fabric were similar in essentials, although
in structural details they differed greatly. Prior to the invention of
the fly shuttle by John Kay, in 1733, no far-reaching invention had
for generations been applied to the hand-loom, and subsequently
the Jacquard machine and multiple shuttle boxes represent the
chief changes. A hand-loom as used in Europe at the present time
(see fig. 24) has the warp coiled evenly upon a beam whose gudgeons
are laid in open steps formed in the loom framing. Two ropes are
coiled round this beam, and weighted to prevent the warp from
being given off too freely. From the beam the threads pass alter-
nately over and under two lease rods, then separately through the
eyes of the shedding harness, in pairs between the dents of a reed, and
finally they are attached to a cloth roller. For small patterns heald<?
are used to form sheds, but for large ones a Jacquard machine i-
required. Healds may be made of twine, of wire or of twine loops
into which metal eyes, called mails, are threaded. But they usually
consist of a number of strings which are secured above and below
upon wooden laths called shafts, and each string is knotted near
the middle to form a small eye. From two to twenty-four pairs of
shafts may be employed, but the healds they carry must collectively
equal the number of threads in the warp. These healds will be
equally or unequally distributed upon the shafts according to the
nature of the pattern to be woven, and the threads will be drawn
through the eyes in a predetermined order. The upper shafts are
suspended from pulleys or levers, and the lower ones are attached
directly or indirectly to treadles placed near the floor. The weaver
depresses these treadles with his feet in a sequence suited to the
pattern, and the scheme of drawing the warp through the healds.
When a treadle is pressed down, at least one pair of shafts will be
lifted above the others, and the warp threads will ascend or descend
with the healds to form a shed for a shuttle, containing weft, to be
passed through (see SHUTTLE). The reed (fig. 25) is the instrument
FIG. 25. Weaver's Reed.
by which weft is beaten into position in the cloth ; it also determines
the closeness of the warp threads, and guides a moving shuttle from
side to side. It is made by placing strips of flattened wire between
two half round ribs of wood, and binding the whole together by
passing tarred twine between the wires and round the ribs. Such
a reed is placed in the lower portion of a batten, which is suspended
from the upper framework of the loom. In front ol the reed, and
immediately below the warp, the projecting batten forms a race for
the shuttle to travel upon from side to side. Before Kay's invention
a shuttle was thrown between the divided warp and caught at the
opposite selvage, but Kay continued the projecting batten on both
sides of the warp space, and constructed boxes at each end. Over
each box he mounted a spindle, and upon it a driver, or picker.
Bands connected both pickers to a stick which the weaver held in
his right hand, while with the left hand he controlled the batten.
Thus: a treadle is pressed down by one foot to form a shed; the
batten is pushed back till a sufficient portion of the shed is brought
in front of the reed, and the depressed threads lie upon the shuttle
race; a clear way is thus provided for the shuttle. A quick move-
ment of the stick tightens the cord attached to a picker and projects
the shuttle from one box to the other. The batten is now drawn
forward, and the reed beats up the weft left by the shuttle. As the
next treadle is depressed to form another division of the warp for
the return movement of the shuttle, the last length of weft is en-
wrapped between intersecting warp threads, and the remaining
movements follow in regular succession (see fig. 26).
In cases where the weft forms parti-coloured stripes across a fabric,
also where different counts of welt are used, shuttles, equal in number
FIG. 26. Section of Plain Web in Process of Weaving on the Loom.
a, The warp beam. d, The reed in position for pick-
b, The lease rods by which the ing, and also for beating-up.
warp is divided and crossed, e, Woven cloth.
c,c, Two pairs of shafts containing /, The cloth beam,
healds.
to the colours, counts or materials, must be provided. By Robert
Kay's invention of multiple shuttle boxes, in 1760, much of the time
lost through changing shuttles by hand was prevented. His drop
boxes consist of trays formed in tiers and fitted into the ordinary'
shuttle boxes. Each tray is capable of holding a shuttle, and by
operating a lever and plug with the forefinger and thumb of the
left hand, the trays may be raised and lowered at pleasure to bring
that shuttle containing the colour next needed into line with the
picker.
The Draw Loom. Large figured effects were formerly produced
in draw looms, where the warp threads were so controlled by separate
strings that any assortment could be lifted when required. Thus:
to the lower end of each string a dead weight, called a lingoe, was
attached, and a few inches above the lingoe a mail was fixed for the
444
WEAVING
IMACHINER
FIG. 27. Diagram of Jacquard
Machine and Harness.
control of a warp thread. The strings passed through a drilled
board which held the mails and warp threads facing the proper reed
dents. Still higher up, groups of strings were connected to neck
cords; each group consisted of all strings required to rise and fall
together constantly. If, for example, in the breadth of a fabric
there were twelve repeats of a design, twelve strings would be tied
to the same neck cord, but taken to their respective places in the
comber board. The foregoing parts of a draw loom harness are
clearly shown in fig. 27 : A are lingoes, and the dots represent mails.
^^__^___ B is the comber board; between
B and C are mounting strings and
neck cords, two strings being
attached to each cord; and C is
the bottom board. Each neck cord,
after being led through a per-
forated bottom board C, and over
a grooved pulley, was threaded
through a ring on the top of a
vertical cord called the simple, and
passed horizontally to, and tied
upon a bar rigidly fixed near the
ceiling of the weaving room. The
simple cords were similarly at-
tached to a bar placed near the
floor. From one hundred to several
thousands of neck and simple cords
could be used in one harness. The
design to be reproduced in cloth
was read into the parallel lines of
the simple by looping a piece of
string round each cord that
governed warp threads to be lifted
for a given shed; after which all
the loops were bunched together.
By pulling at a bunch of loops the
simple cords were deflected and
they caused all warp threads con-
trolled by them to be lifted above
the level of those undisturbed.
Similar bunches of loops were
formed for every shed required for one repeat of a design, and
they were pulled in succession by the draw-boy, while the weaver
attended to the batten and picking.
The Jacquard machine is the most important invention ever
applied to the hand-loom, but it is not the work of one man; it
represents the efforts of several inventors whose labours extended
over three-quarters of a century. This apparatus has taken the
places of the simple, the loops, the pulleys and the draw-boy of the
older shedding motion, but other parts of the harness remain un-
changed. _In 1725 Basile Bouchon substituted for the bunches of
looped string an endless band of perforated paper by which the
simples for any shed could be selected. In 1728 M. Falcon con-
structed the machine since known as the Jacquard and operated it
through the medium of perforated cards, but it was attached to the
simple cords and required a draw-boy to manipulate it. In 1745
Jacques de Vaucanson united in one machine Bouchon's band of
paper and the mechanism of Falcon. He placed this machine where
the pulley box previously stood, and invented mechanism for
operating it from one centre.
It is said that about the year 1801 J. M. Jacquard was called upon
to_correct the defects of a certain loom belonging to the state, in
doing which he asserted that he could produce the desired effects
by simpler means, and this he undoubtedly accomplished. In or
about 1804 he discarded the simple and all but a few inches of the
vertical neck cords; he placed Falcon's apparatus immediately
over the centre of the loom and severally attached the upper portions
of the neck cords to the hooks; all of which Vaucanson had previ-
ously done. He then perforated each face of a quadrangular frame
used by Falcon to guide the cards to the draw-boy, and since known
as the cylinder and invented means whereby the cylinder could be
made to slide horizontally to and fro, and at each outward journey
make one-quarter of a revolution. Cards were so held upon this
cylinder by pegs that 'at each rotatory movement one was brought
into action and another moved away. By means of two treadles
placed beneath the warp one weaver could operate the entire loom.
The cylinder was controlled with one foot, the selecting parts with
the other, and both hands were free to attend to picking and beating-
up.
In a Jacquard machine the warp threads are raised by rows of
upright wires called hooks. See D, fig. 27. These are bent at both
extremities and are normally supported upon a bottom board C,
which is perforated to permit the neck cords from the harness
beneath to be attached to the hooks. Each of a series of horizontal
needles E one of which is shown enlarged and detached at the
foot of the drawing is provided with a loop and a coiled eye; the
former to permit of a to-and-fro movement, the latter to receive a
hook._ The straight ends of the needles protrude about one-quarter
of an inch through a perforated needle board G, but the looped ends
rest upon bars placed in tiers. A wire passed through all the loorjg
of the needles which form one vertical line limits the extent of their
lateral movement, and small helical springs, a, enclosed in a box F,
impinge upon the loops of the needles with sufficient force to press
them and their hooks forward. A frame H, called a griffe, is made
to rise and fall vertically by a treadle which the weaver actuates
with one foot. This frame contains a blade for each line of hooks,
and when the blades are in their lowest position the hooks are free
and vertical with their heads immediately over the blades, hence, an
upward movement given to the griffe would lift all the hooks and
thereby all the warp threads. Only certain hooks, however, must
be lifted with the griffe, and the selection is made by a quadrangular
block of wood, I, called a cylinder, and cards which are placed upon
it. Thus, each face of the cylinder has a perforation opposite each
needle, so that if the cylinder be pressed close to the needle board
the needle points will enter the holes in the cylinder and remain
undisturbed. But if a card, which is not perforated in every possible
place, is interposed between the cylinder and the needles, the un-
punctured parts of the card close up some of the holes in the
cylinder, and prevent corresponding needles from entering them.
Each needle so arrested is thrust back by the advancing card ; its
spiral spring a is contracted and its hook D is tilted as shown in the
figure. If at this instant the griffe H ascends, its blades will eng
the heads of all vertical hooks and lift them, but those dislocated
being tilted will remain unlifted So soon as the pressing force <
a card is removed from the needles the elasticity of the spring
restores both needles and hooks to their normal positions. Cards ar
perforated by special machinery from a painted design, after whic
they are laced into a chain and passed over conical pegs upon tl
cylinder; the number required to weave any pattern equals th
number of weft threads in that pattern. The cylinder is generally
drawn out and turned by each upward movement of the griffe
and restored to the needles by each downward movement, so tha
each face in succession is presented to the needles, and each rotator
movement brings forward a fresh card. As the griffe rises wit
vertical hooks a shed is formed, and a thread of weft is passed acros
the warp. The griffe then descends and the operation is repeate
but with a new combination of lifted threads for each card.
Jacquard may contain from 100 to 1200 hooks and needles, ar
two or more machines may be mounted upon the same loom.
Since Jacquard 's time attempts have been made to dispense wit
hooks, needles, springs, cards, the cylinder and several other parts
machines have also been specially designed for effecting economic
in the manufacture of certain fabrics; but although some of thes
devices are used in different sections of the industry, the single lif
Jacquard remains unchanged, except in its details, which have be
modified to give greater certainty of action to the moving par
The most far-reaching changes are directly due to efforts made
adapt the Jacquard to fast running power looms. Alfred Barlov
John and William Crossley, and others, devised means whereby t
hooks could control the same warp thread, and they provided th
machine with two griffes, each capable of actuating alternate row
of hooks. One griffe was caused to ascend as the other descended
therefore, if one of the two hooks that operate a warp thread i
lifted for the first shed, the other hook can begin to rise for a second
shed immediately the first begins to fall. About half the time
originally needed for shedding is thus saved , and as a result Jacquards
can now be run at 210 to 220 picks per minute.
Preparing Warp and Weft for Weaving. The power loom is only
one of a series of machines which revolutionized weaving. Although
early inventors of the power loom did much to perfect its various
movements, the commercial results were disappointing, chiefly
because means had not been devised for preparing warp and weft
in a suitable manner for such a machine. William Radcliffe, of
Stockport, perceived these shortcomings, and concluded that, by
division of labour, weaving could be brought into line with, the then
recently invented, spinning machinery. He, therefore, set himself
the task of solving the problems involved, and by inventing the
beam warper, the dressing sizing machine, the shuttle tongue, and
the pin cop, he enabled the power loom to become a factor in the
textile industry. The term preparation embraces winding, warping,
sizing, Yorkshire dressing, drawing-in, twisting and occasionally
other operations.
Weft Winding. Weft yarns invariably receive simpler treatment
than warp yarns ; in many cases none at all. Cops and ring spools
pass direct to the loom unless their dimensions are unsuited to the
shuttles, in which case they, together with wefts bleached or dyed
in hanks or used in a saturated condition, require winding upon
pirns, or into cops of suitable sizes. Pirn winders differ greatly in
construction, but the majority are furnished with conical shapers,
consisting either of slip cups, or of cone rollers mounted upon studs.
A pirn, whose head is coned to fit inside a shaper, is slipped over a
spindle, and both are passed, either vertically or horizontally,
through a shaper; the basal end of the spindle being flattened to
enter a rectangular hole in a wharve which is driven from a central
tin drum. A thread is attached to a rotating pirn, and a vibrating
guider leads it to and fro inside the shaper. Both spindle and pirn
recede from the shaper until the pirn is full, when they become
stationary. Hanks are carried by ryces, and cops and ring spools
by skewers. Cop winders are chiefly used for coarse yarns, which
they coil upon bare spindles. By this means a greater length of weft
can be placed in a shuttle than when pirns are used.
MACHINERY]
WEAVING
445
Warp winding consists in transferring yarn from cops, ring spools
or hanks, either to warpers, bobbins or cheeses (see COTTON-SPINNING
MACHINERY). Machines for this purpose are of two kinds, which
arc known respectively as spindle and drum. In the former each
bobbin is placed upon a vertical spindle and rotated by frictional
contact; a yarn guider meanwhile rises and falls far enough to lay
the threads in even coils between the bobbin flanges. In the latter
each bobbin, or tube, is laid upon a rotating drum and a thread
guide moves laterally to and fro; slowly for a bobbin, but quickly
for a tube.
Warping. The number of longitudinal threads in a web vary
according to their closeness and its breadth. It is the function of a
warper to provide a sufficient number of parallel threads for a web,
all of equal length, and to retain their parallelism. Warpers are of
thnv types, viz. mill, beam and sectional.
Mill warping is the oldest type now in extensive use. A mill
warper has a creel in which from 50 to upwards of 300 bobbins or
cheeses, are supported horizontally upon pegs, and the mill has a
vertical axis which carries three wheels, upon whose rims vertical
staves are fixed about I ft. apart to form a reel, from 5 to upwards
of 20 yds. in circumference. The threads from the creel are threaded
in succession through leasing needles, then passed in groups of four
to twenty threads between runners, and, finally, fastened by a peg
to the mill staves. The needles are mounted alternately in two
frames which may be moved up inclined planes; one to elevate
odd threads, the other even ones, and both separations thus formed
are retained upon separate pegs; this is the lease which enables
a weaver to readily fix the position of a broken thread. As the
mill rotates the threads form a tape about I in. wide, and the leasing
apparatus slides down a post to coil the threads spirally upon the
red. When the full length of warp has been made the mill is stopped,
a half beer lease is picked by hand from the divisions formed by the
runners, and also retained upon pegs. The mill next reverses its
direction of rotation, and as the leasing apparatus ascends the
threads are folded back upon themselves. Hence, if a reel is 20 yds.
in circumference, and 200 threads are in use to make a warp 600 yds.
long, and containing 2000 threads, the reel will make 30 revolutions
(600-5-20 = 30) also 10 reversals, for at each reversal 200 additional
threads will be added (2000-7-200 = 10). When a warp is complete,
strings are passed through the leases, and it is coiled into a ball,
loosely linked into a chain, or dropped into a sheet. If a mill has
its axis horizontal the leasing apparatus must slide horizontally.
Winding on Frame. After a ball warp has been bleached, dyed
or sized, the half beers are laid amongst the teeth of a coarse comb
to open out the threads to the necessary breadth, in which condition
they are coiled upon a loom beam.
Beam warping is the system most extensively used in the cotton
trade. The creels for these machines have an average capacity of
about 600 bobbins, and are often V-shaped in plan. In each leg of
the V the bobbins are arranged in tiers of 1 6 to 20, and row behind
row. The threads are drawn separately between the dents of an
adjustable reed, then under and over a series of rollers; from here
they are dropped amongst the teeth of an adjustable comb and led
down to a warpers beam, which rests upon the surface of a drum.
As the drum rotates the threads are drawn from the bobbins and
wrapped in even coils upon the beam. On most of these machines
mechanism is attached for arresting motion on the fracture of a
thread, and also for accurately measuring and recording the lengths
of warp made. When full, a warpers beam holds threads of much
greater length than are needed for any warp, but they are insufficient
in number. Thus: If 500 threads are in use, and warps of the
above-named particulars are required, four similar beams must be
filled (2000 -5-500 = 4) and the threads from all are subsequently
united. The chief parts of a beam warper may be used as a substitute
for a mill warper, provided that mechanism be employed to contract
the threads to the form of a loose rope and coil them into a cylindrical
ball, which will be subsequently treated as a mill warp. Or, one of
these warpers may be furnished with parts which, when the threads
are roped, links them loosely into a chain.
Sectional warping is chiefly employed for coloured threads and its
outstanding features consist in contracting the threads to form a
ribbon of from 3 in. to 12 in. wide. This ribbon is coiled upon a
block placed between flanges, and when completed is set aside until
a sufficient number of similar sections have been made; after
which they are slipped upon a shaft and by endlong pressure con-
verted into a compact mass. All the threads are then collected and
transferred in the form of a sheet to a loom beam; each section
contributing its own width to that of the warp. Sectional warps
are also made upon horizontal mills by superposing the coils of a
ribbon of yarn upon a portion of the staves. When the first section
is formed a second is wound against it, and the operation continued
until all the sections have been made; after which the yarn is run
upon a loom beam.
Yorkshire dressing is used to make striped warps from balled
warps which have been dyed in different colours. The operation is
as follows: The requisite number of threads of any colour is split
from a uniformly dyed ball and set aside until warps of the remaining
colours have been similarly treated. The split sections from the
several balls collectively contain as many threads as are needed for
a warp, but those threads have still to be placed in their proper
sequence. This is done by drawing them in groups of two or four
between the dents of a reed to a predetermined colour scheme, then
all are attached to a loom beam which is supported in a frame. The
beam is rotated by stepped cones and gearing, and winds the threads
upon itself. But in order to hold the threads taut they are passed
between weighted rollers and deflected by bars arranged ladder-
wise; in passing from one part of the machine to another they are
gradually opened out to the width of the beam.
Sizing. In cases where single yarns are made from short fibrous
materials, smooth surfaces are obtained by laying the outstanding
ends of fibres upon the thread, and fastening the fibres together to
impart sufficient strength to resist the strains of weaving. This is
accomplished either by coating a thread or by saturating it with an
adhesive paste. In hand-loom days the paste was applied by brushes
to successive stretches of warp while in a loom. But with the advent
of mechanical weaving it was found necessary to size a warp before
placing it in a loom. Two systems were evolved, the one invented
by William Radcliffe sizes, dries and beams a warp in one operation,
the yarn is made to pass in the form of a sheet between a pair of
rollers, the lower one being partly immersed in warm size. In
rotating this roller carries upon its surface a film of size which it
deposits upon the threads, while, by pressure, the upper roller
distributes the size evenly. Brushes acting automatically smooth
down the loose fibres and complete the distribution of size. As the
yarn advances it is separated by reeds and lease rods, so that in
passing over steam chests and fans the moisture contained in the
threads may be quickly evaporated. This machine is a duplex one,
for the warpers beams are divided into two setsand placed at opposite
ends of the machine. Both halves receive similar treatment as they
move to the centre, where the loom beam is placed.
The Ball Warp Sizer. While efforts were being made to perfect
Radcliffe's dressing machine a system of sizing ball warps was being
gradually evolved and this system is still largely employed. The
machine consists of a long trough, inside which a series of rollers are
fitted, either in one horizontal plane or alternately in two horizontal
planes; but over the front end of the trough a pair of squeezing:
rollers are mounted. The trough contains size, which is maintained
at a boiling temperature and in sufficient quantity to submerge the
rollers. Two warps, in the form of loose tapes, may be simultaneously
led over, under and between the rollers. As the warps advance the
threads become saturated with size, and the squeezing rollers press
out all but a predetermined percentage, the latter being regulated by
varying the pressure of the upper roller upon the lower one. If more
size be required than can be put into the threads during one passage
through the machine, they may be similarly treated a second time.
This process does not lay all the loose fibres, but the threads remain
elastic. After sizing, the warps are passed backward and forward,
and over and under, a set of steam-heated cylinders by which the
moisture contained in the threads is evaporated ; they are next either
rcballed, or wound upon a loom beam.
Slasher Sizing. For sizing cotton yarns Radcliffe's dressing
machine has to a large extent been displaced by the slasher, but in
some branches of the textile industry it is still retained under various
modifications. In a slasher the threads from a number of warping
beams are first combined into one sheet, then plunged into a trough
filled with size which is kept at a boiling temperature by perforated
steam pipes; and next squeezed between two pairs of rollers mounted
in the trough. The under surfaces of the sizing rollers are in the size,
but the upper squeezing rollers are covered with flannel, and rest by
gravitation upon the lower ones. On leaving the size trough the
sheet of yarn almost encircles two steam-heated cylinders whose
diameters are respectively about 6 ft. and 4 ft. ; these quickly expel
moisture from the yarn, but so much heat is generated that fans
have to be employed to throw cool airfamongst the threads. The
yarn is next measured, passed above and below rods which separate
threads that have been fastened together by size, smeared with piece
marks, and coiled upon a loom beam by means of a slipping friction
gear. The last-named is employed so that the surface speed of
winding shall not be affected by the increasing diameter of the loom
beam. By means of mechanism which greatly reduces the velocities
of the moving parts, much necessary labour may be performed
without actually stopping the machine; this relieves the yarn of
strain, and gives better sizing, yet slashed warps are less elastic than
dressed, or balled sized ones, and they lack the smoothness of dressed
warps.
Hank sizing is chiefly, but not exclusively, employed for bleached
and coloured yarns. Machines for doing this work consist of a tank
which contains size, flanged revolving rollers and two hooks. One
hook is made to rotate a definite number of times in one direction,
then an equal number the reverse way; the other has a weight
suspended from jts outer end and can be made to slide in and out.
Size in the tank is kept at the required temperature by steam pipes,
and " doles " of hanks are suspended from the rollers with about
one-third their length immersed in size. As the hanks rotate all parts
of the yarn enter the size, and when sufficiently treated they are
removed from the rollers to the hooks where they are twisted to
wring out excess, and force in required size. If sufficient size has
not been added by one treatment, when untwisted, the wrung-out
hanks are passed to a similar machine containing paste of greater
density than the first there to be again treated ; if necessary this may
WEAVING
[MACHINERY
be followed by a third passage. On the completion of sizing the
hanks are removed either to a drying stove or a drying machine. If
to the former, they are suspended from fixed, horizontal poles in a
specially heated and ventilated chamber. If to the latter, loose
poles containing hanks are dropped into recesses in endless chains,
and slowly carried through a large, heated and ventilated box, being
partially rotated the while. On reaching the front of the box they
are removed, brushed and made up into bundles. After which the
yarn is wound, warped and transferred to a loom beam.
Drawing-in, or entering, is the operation of passing warp threads
through the eyes of a shedding harness, in a sequence determined
by the nature of the pattern to be produced, and the order of lifting
the several parts. It is effected by passing a hook through each
harness eye in succession, and each time a thread is placed in the
hook by an attendant, it is drawn into an eye by the withdrawal of the
hook.
Twisting or looming consists in twisting, between the finger and
thumb, the ends of a new warp separately upon those of an old one,
the remains of which are still in the eyes of the shedding harness.
The twisted portions adhere sufficiently to permit of all being drawn
through the eyes simultaneously.
The Power Loom. Little is known of the attempts made before the
beginning of the 1 7th century to control all parts of a loom from one
centre, but it is certain the practical outcome was inconsiderable.
In the year 1661 , a loom was set up in Danzig, for which a claim was
made that it could weave four or six webs at a time without human
aid, and be worked night and day; this was probably a ribbon loom.
In order to prevent such a machine from injuring the poor people,
the authorities in Poland suppressed it, and privately strangled or
drowned the inventor. M. de Gennes, a French naval officer, in
1678 invented a machine whose chief features consisted in controlling
the healds by cams, the batten by cams and springs and the shuttle
by a carrier. From 1678 to 1745 little of importance appears to
have been done for the mechanical weaving of broadcloth. But in
the last-named year M. Vaucanson constructed a very ingenious, self-
acting loom, on which the forerunner of the Jacquard machine was
mounted; he also adopted de Gennes's shuttle carrier. All early
attempts to employ mechanical motive power for weaving failed,
largely because inventors did not realize that success could only be
reached through revolution. Mechanical preparing and spinning
machinery had first to be invented, steam was needed for motive
power, and the industry required reorganization, which included the
abolition of home labour and the introduction of the factory system.
During the last quarter of the i8th century it was generally
believed that, on the expiry of Arkwright's patents, so many spinning
mills would be erected as to render it impossible to consume at home
the yarns thus produced, and to export them would destroy the
weaving industry. Many manufacturers also maintained it to be
impossible to devise machinery which would bring the production of
cloth up to that of yarn. It was as a protest against the last-named
assertions that Dr Edmund Cartwright, a clergyman of the church
of England, turned his attention to mechanical weaving. More
fortunate than his predecessors, he attacked the problem after much
initial work had been done, especially that relating to mechanical
spinning and the factory system, for without these no power loom
could succeed. In 1785 Dr Cartwright patented his first power loom,
but it proved to be valueless. In the following year, however, he
patented another loom which has served as the model for later in-
ventors to work upon. He was conscious that for a mechanically
driven loom to become a commercial success, either one person
would have to attend several machines, or each machine must have
a greater productive capacity than one manually controlled. The
thought and ingenuity bestowed by Dr Cartwright upon the realiza-
tion of his ideal were remarkable. He added parts which no loom,
whether worked manually or mechanically, had previously been
provided with, namely, a positive let-off motion, warp and weft stop
motions, and sizing the warp while the loom was in action. With this
machine he commenced, at Doncaster, to manufacture fabrics, and
by so doing discovered many of its shortcomings, and these he
attempted to remedy: by introducing a crank and eccentrical
wheels to actuate the batten differentially; by improving the
picking mechanism; by a device for stopping the loom when a
shuttle failed to enter a shuttle box; by preventing a shuttle from
rebounding when in a box; and by stretching the cloth with temples
that acted automatically. In 1792 Dr Cartwright obtained his last
patent for weaving machinery ; this provided the loom with multiple
shuttle boxes for weaving checks and cross stripes. But all his efforts
were unavailing; it became apparent that no mechanism, however
perfect, could succeed so long as warps continued to be sized while a
loom was stationary. His plans for sizing them while a loom was in
operation, and also before being placed in a loom, both failed.
Still, provided continuity of action could be attained, the position
of the power loom was assuied, and means for the attainment of this
end were supplied in 1803, by William Radcliffe, and his assistant
Thomas Johnson, by their inventions of the beam warper, and the
dressing sizing machine.
For upwards of thirty years the power loom was worked under
numerous difficulties; the mechanism was imperfect, as were also
organization, and the preparatory processes. Textile workers were
unused to automatic machinery, and many who had been accustomed
to labour in their own homes refused employment in mills, owing to
dislike of the factory system and the long hours of toil which it
entailed, that spinners and manufacturers were compelled to procure
assistants from workhouses; this rendered mill life more distasteful
than it otherwise would have been to hand spinners and weavers.
Their resentment led them to destroy machinery, to burn down mills,
to ill-use mill workers and to blame the power loom for the distress
occasioned by war and political disturbances. Yet improvements in
every branch of the textile industry followed each other in quick
successions, and the loom slowly assumed its present shape. By
using iron instead of wood in its construction, and centring the batten,
or slay, below instead of above the warp line, the power loom became
more compact than the hand-loom.
Motion is communicated to all the working parts from a main
shaft A (fig. 28), upon which two cranks are bent to cause the slay
B to oscillate; by toothed wheels this shaft, drives a second shaft, C,
at half its own speed. For plain weaving four tappets are fixed upon
the second shaft, two, D, for moving the shuttle to and fro, and two
others, E, for moving the healds, L, up and down through the
medium of treadles M, M. For other schemes of weaving shedding
tappets are more numerous, and are either loosely mounted upon
the second shaft, or fixed upon a separate one. In either event
FIG. 28. Vertical Section of a Power Loom.
they are driven by additional gearing, for the revolutions of the
tappets to those of the crank shaft must be as one is to the number
of picks in the repeat of the pattern to be woven. Also, when two
or more shuttles are driven successively from the same side of a
loom, if the picking tappets rotate with the second shaft, those
tappets must be free to slide axially in order to keep one out of
action so long as the other is required to act. The warp beam F
is often put under the control of chains instead of ropes, as used in
hand looms, and the chains are attached to adjustably weighted
levers, G, whereby the effectiveness of the weights may be varied
at pleasure. In the manufacture of heavy fabrics, however, it may
be necessary to deliver the warp by positive gearing, which is either
connected, or otherwise, to the taking-up motion. The cloth is
drawn forward regularly as it is manufactured by passing it over
the rough surface of a roller, I, and imparting to the roller an inter-
mittent motion each time a pick of weft is beaten home. This
motion is derived from the oscillating slay, and is communicated
through a train of wheels. The loom is stopped when the weft
fails by a fork-and-grid stop motion, which depends for its action
on the lightly balanced prongs of a fork, N. These prongs come in
contact with the weft, between the selvage of the web and the
shuttle box each time the shuttle is shot to the side at which the
apparatus is fixed. If the prongs meet no thread they are not
depressed, and being unmoved a connexion is formed with a vibrating
lever, T; the latter draws the fork forward, and with it a second
lever O, by which the loom is stopped. On the other hand, if the
prongs are tilted, the loom continues in action. If more than one
shuttle is used it may be necessary to feel for each, instead of alternate
threads of weft. In such cases a fork is placed beneath the centre
of the cloth and lifted above a moving shuttle; if in falling it
meets with weft it is arrested, and the loom continues in motion,
but if the weft is absent the prongs fall far enough beneath the
MACHINERY]
WEAVING
447
shuttle race for a stop to act upon a lever and bring the loom to a
si. i nd. To prevent a complete wreck of the warp it is essential to
I the loom when a shuttle fails to reach its appointed box.
For this purpose there are two devices, which are known respectively
>t and loose reed stop motions. The first was invented in 1796
by Robert Miller, and its action depends upon the shuttle, as it
is a box, raising two blades, K, which if left down would strike
against stops, and so disengage the driving gear. The second was
invented in 1834 by VV. H. Hornby and William Kenworthy; it is
an appliance for liberating the lower part of a reed when a shuttle
remains in the warp, thus relieving it, for the time being, of its
function of beating up the weft. On the release of a reed from the
motion of the slay, a dagger stops the loom. Temples must keep a
fabric distended to the breadth of the warp in the reed, and be self-
adjusting. This is usually accomplished by small rollers whose
surfaces are covered with fine, closely set points. The rollers are
pl.n-fd near the selvages of a web which is prevented from contracting
xv it It h wise by being drawn tightly over the points.
Looms are varied in details to suit different kinds of work, but as
a rule fabrics figured with small patterns are provided with healds
for shedding as at L, while those with large patterns are provided
with the Jacquard and its harness. Healds may be operated either
by tappets or dobbies, but the range of usefulness in tappets is
generally reached with twelve shafts of healds and with patterns
having sixteen picks to a repeat; where they are unsuitable for
licakl shedding a dobby is used. A dobby may resemble, in con-
struction and action, a small Jacquard; if so the selection of healds
that rise and fall for any pick is made by cards. In other types of
dobbies the selection is frequently made by lags, into which pegs
are inserted to pattern in the same manner that cards are perforated.
By acting upon levers the pegs bring corresponding hooks into contact
with oscillating griffe bars, and these lift the required heald shafts.
Such machines are made single and double acting, and some have
rollers in place of pegs to form a pattern. When multiple shuttles
are required for power looms one of two types is selected, namely,
drop or rotating boxes; the former are applicable to either light
or heavy looms, but the latter are chiefly confined to light looms.
As previously stated, Robert Kay invented drop boxes in 1760,
but they were not successfully applied to the power loom until
1845, when Squire Diggle patented a simple device for operating
them automatically. Since his time many other methods have been
introduced, the most successful of these being operated indirectly
from the shedding motion. Revolving boxes v/ere patented in 1843
by Luke Smith. They consist in mounting a series of shuttles in
chambers formed in the periphery of a cylinder, and in moving the
cylinder far enough, in each direction, to bring the required shuttle
in line with the picker.
Automatic Weft Supply. Many devices have been added to power
looms with a view to reduce stoppages, amongst which those for
the automatic supply of weft are probably the most important.
These efforts originated with Charles Parker, who, in 1840, obtained
the first patent, but no marked success was achieved until 1894,
when J. ri. Northrop patented a cop changer. By his plan a
cylindrical hopper, placed over one shuttle box, is charged with
cops or pirns. At the instant fresh weft becomes necessary the
lowest cop in the hopper is pressed into a shuttle from above, the
spent one is pressed out from beneath, and the new weft is led into
the shuttle eye, while the loom is moving at its normal speed. The
mechanism is controlled by the weft fork, or by a feeler which acts
when only a predetermined quantity of weft remains inside a shuttle.
Many inventions are designed to eject an empty shuttle and intro-
duce a full one; others change a cop, but differ in construction and
action from the Northrop, yet, at the time of writing, they have not
been so successful as the last-named. By relieving a weaver of the
labour of withdrawing, filling, threading and inserting shuttles it
w.i- si-en that a large increase might be made in the number of
looms allotted to one weaver, provided suitable mechanism could be
devised for stopping a loom on the failure of a warp thread.
Warp Stopping Motions date from 1786, when Dr Cartwright
siis|K'iulcd an independent detector from each warp thread until
a fracture occurred, at which time a detector fell into the path of a
vibrator and the loom was arrested. The demand for warp stop
motions was, however, small until automatic weft supply mechanisms
were adopted. The majority of those devices now in use are con-
structed upon Dr Cartwright's lines, but some are so attached to
wire healds that, at one position in every shed, an unbroken thread
supports both hcald and detector until a thread fails, when a de-
tector is engaged by a vibrator, and the driving mechanism is dis-
located. In other warp stop motions pairs of threads are crossed
between the lease rods, and a wire passed between them is held
forward by the crossed threads until one breaks; the wire then
springs back, makes contact with a metal bar, and electro-mechanical
connexions stop the loom.
Smallware Looms. _A loom, which was for a long period operated
manually, but to which mechanical power could be applied, was
brought into use more than a century before Dr Cartwright's in-
vention. It was known as the Dutch engine loom, and was designed
to weave from eight to upwards of forty tapes or ribbons simultane-
ously. This machine may be regarded as a series of looms mounted
in one frame, each having a complete set of parts, and as the first
practical effort to connect and control all the motions of weaving
from one centre. The place and date of its invention are uncertain ;
but it is known that in some districts its use was entirely prohibited,
in others it was strictly limited, and that it was worked in Holland
about 1620. In England the first patent was obtained by John Kay
and John Snell, in 1745, for additions which enabled it to be worked
by hand, by water, or other force, and in 1760 John Snell appears
to have added the draw harness for weaving flowered ribbons. In
1765 a factory in Manchester was filled with ribbon looms which
were either invented by M. Vaucanson, or Kay and Snell, but one
weaver could only attend to one machine. When worked by hand
it was known as the bar loom, because the weaver oscillated by hand
a horizontal bar that set in motion all parts of the machine. The
shuttles and reeds are actuated from the batten, the former originally
by pegs, but later by a rack and pinion arrangement, which in action
shoot the shuttles simultaneously across a web, to the right and left
alternately, each into the place vacated by its next neighbour.
One small warp beam is required for each web, but tappets, dobbies,
or Jacquards are available for dividing the threads. Where differ-
ently coloured wefts are needed in one web the shuttles are mounted
in tiers and all raised or lowered at once to bring the proper colour
in line with the shed.
In Swivel Weaving similar shuttles are added to the battens of
broad looms in order to diaper small figure effects, in different
colours or materials, over the surface of broad webs.
Pile Weaving. Looms for weaving piled fabrics differ in certain
important respects from those employed for ordinary weaving;
they are also made to differ from each other to suit the type of
fabric to be manufactured, as, for example, double and single, plain
and figured, textures.
In Double Pile Looms the special features are those that control the
pile threads, and those that sever the vertical lines of pile. Two
ground warps are requisite, and unless they are kept a uniform
distance apart the piled effects will be irregular. For plain goods
the pile threads are wound upon two or more beams, and, as they
move from web to web, cloth-covered rollers deliver them in fixed
lengths. Meanwhile, a shuttle passes twice in succession through
each ground warp, and the pile threads in moving above or beneath
the wefts are bound securely. Both fabrics are furnished with
taking-up rollers which draw the pieces apart and so stretch the
uniting pile in front of a knife, which severs it, thus forming two
pieces at once. A knife may consist of a short blade that merely
moves to and fro across the webs, or of a disk mounted upon a
spindle, which, in moving from side to side, revolves; in either
case it is automatically sharpened. But if a knife is longer than the
breadth of a fabric it receives only a slight lateral movement, and
must be periodically removed for sharpening. In plain and printed
goods healds control all the warps ; but in figured goods, other than
those made from printed warps, a Jacquard is needed to lift, and a
creel to hold, the pile threads.
Single Pile Looms. The chief feature which renders most single
pile looms dissimilar from others is the mechanism by which wires
are woven upon, and withdrawn automatically from, a ground
texture. Wires are of two kinds, namely, without and with knives;
the former, being flattened and somewhat pointed, are woven above
the weft of a ground texture, but beneath the pile, hence, by with-
drawing them, looped pile is formed. A wire terminating in a knife
with a sloping blade, on being withdrawn, cuts the pile and produces
a brush-like surface. The mechanism for operating the wires is
placed at one end of a loom and consists of an arm which moves in
and out; at each inward movement a wire is inserted, and at each
outward movement one is withdrawn. In weaving tapestry carpets,
and certain other fabrics, a wire and a shuttle move simultaneously,
but a shuttle passes through the ground warp, while a wire passes
beneath the pile. After several wires have been woven upon the
ground texture the one first inserted is withdrawn by the vibrating
arm, and at the next inward movement the same wire enters the
warp near the reed, where it is beaten up with the weft, and, from
this point, the operation is continuous. Tapestry carpets require
three warps, one for the ground texture, a second, o_r stuffing warp,
to give bulk and elasticity to the tread, and a third to form the
pile. The last named is printed upon a large drum, thread by
thread to the colour scheme of the design, then, when the colours
have been fixed, and the threads^ccurately placed, they are wound
upon a beam, and all the warps are operated by healds. For figured
velvets, and Brussels and Wilton carpets, the pile warp beam is
replaced by a creel, in order that each thread of pile may be wound
upon a bobbin and separately tensioned. This is essential, because,
in the weaving of a design, it is probable that no two threads of
pile will be required in equal lengths. Creels are made in sections
called frames, each of which usually carries as many bobbins as
there are loops of pile across a web, and the number of sections
equal the number of colours. In weaving these fabrics healds are
used to govern the ground warp, but a Jacquard is needed for the
pile. It must form two sheds, the lower one to receive a shuttle,
the upper one to make a selection of threads beneath which the wire
is to pass.
Terry Looms. Looms for weaving piled textures, of the Turkish
towel type, have the reed placed under the control of parts that
prevent it from advancing its full distance for two picks out of every
WEAVING
[ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART
series that separate one line of loops from another. At such times
the weft is not beaten home, but a broad crack is formed. So soon
as the reed again moves through its normal space three picks of weft
are simultaneously driven home, thus closing the gap, and causing
part of the pile to loop upward, the remainder downward. The
system is available for plain and figured effects.
Gauze Textures are woven in looms having a modified shedding
harness, which, at predetermined intervals, draws certain warp
threads crosswise beneath others, and lifts them while crossed.
Also, a tensioning device to slacken the crossed threads and thus
prevent breakages due to excessive strain. At other times the
shedding is normal.
Lappet Looms have a series of needles fixed upright in laths, and
placed in a groove cut in the slay, in front of the reed. Each needle
carries a thread which does not pass through the reed, hence, by
giving the laths an endlong movement of varying extent, and lifting
the needles for each pick, their threads are laid crosswise in the web
to pattern. _ (T. W. F.)
ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART
The archaeology of shuttle-weaving shows that for ages the
use of a loom for weaving plain, as distinct from ornamental
or figured textiles,
whether of fibres
or of spun threads,
has been practically
universal, whilst
the essential points
of its construction
have been almost
uniform in charac-
ter. An early stage
in its development,
anterior probably
to that when the
spinning of threads
had been invented,
is represented by
the loom or frame
(see fig. 29) used by
a native of Sarawak
to make a textile
with shreds of
From Roth's Natives of Sarawak, by permission of
Truslove and Hanson.
FIG. 29. Loom from Sarawak. grass. As will be
seen, the shreds of
grass for the warp are divided into groups by a flat sword-shaped
implement which serves as the batten (Latin spatha). The
shuttle is passed above it, leaving a weft of grass in between
the warp; the batten is then moved upwards and compresses
the weft into the warp; this method of pressing the weft upwards
was usually employed by Egyptian and Greek weavers for their
linen textiles of beautiful quality. Fig. 30 gives us an Indian
FIG. 30. Indian Hill Tribesman's Loom.
Hill tribesman weaving with spun threads; but here we find
the loom fitted with rudely constructed headles, by which the
weaver lifts and lowers alternate ranks of warp threads so that
he may throw his shuttle-carried weft across and between them.
Besides the headles there is a hanging reed or comb, and between
the reeds of it the warp threads are passed and fastened to a
roller or cylinder. After throwing his shuttle once or twice
backwards and forwards, the weaver pulls the comb towards
himself, thereby pressing his weft and warp together, thus making
the textile which he
gradually winds from
time to time on to the
roller. This advance in
the construction of the
loom is also virtually
of undateable age; and
except for more sub-
stantial construction,
there is little difference
in main principles be-
tween it and the 1
medieval loom of fig.
31. With such looms,
and by arranging
coloured warp threads ,
in a given order and
then weaving into I
them coloured shuttle
or weft threads, simple j
textiles with stripes
and chequer patterns FIG. 31. Medieval Loom, from a Cut
could be, and were, by Jost Amman; middle of the i6th
produced; but textiles cel ur y-
of complex patterns and textures necessitated the mor
complicated apparatus that belongs to a later stage
the evolution of the loom. Fig. 32 is from a Chine
drawing, illustrating the description given in a Chinese book
published in 1210 on the art of weaving intricate desig
The traditions and records of such figured weavings are fa
older than the date of this book. As spun silken threads wer
brought into use, so the development of looms with increasing
numbers of headles and other mechanical facilities for this
sort of weaving seems to have started. But as far back as 269
B.C. the Chinese were the only cultivators of silk, 1 the delicacy
and fineness of which must have postulated possibilities in
FIG. 32. Chinese Loom for Figured Weaving (Photo).
weaving far beyond those of looms in which grasses, wools
and flax were used. It therefore is probably correct to credit
the Chinese with being the earlier inventors of looms for weaving
figured silks, which in course of time other nations (acquainted
only with wool and flax textiles) saw with wonder. At the
comparatively modern period of 300 B.C. Chinese dexterity in
fine-figured weaving had become matured and was apparently in
advance of any other elsewhere. Designs were being woven by the
Chinese of the earlier Han Dynasty 206 B.C. as elaborate almost
1 E. Pariset, Histoire de la soie (Paris, 1862).
ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART]
WEAVING
449
as those of the present day, with dragons, phoenixes, mystical
bird forms, flowers and fruits. 1 At that time even Egypt,
Assyria or Babylonia, Greece and Rome, seem to have been only
learning of the fact that there was such a material as silk. 1
Their shuttle-weaving had been and was then concerned with
spun wool and flax and possibly some cotton, whilst the orna-
mentation of their textiles, although sparkling on occasion with
golden threads, was dene apparently not by shuttle-weaving but
by either embroidery or a sort of compromise between darning
and weaving from which tapestry weaving descended (see
TAPESTRY). The range of their colours was limited, reds, purples
and yellows being the chief; and their shuttle- weaving was
principally concerned with plain stuffs, and in a much smaller
degree with striped, spotted and chequered fabrics. Remains
of these, whether made by Egyptians thousands of years B.C.,
by Scandinavians of the early Bronze Age, by lake dwellers,
by Aztecs or Peruvians long before the Spanish Conquest,
display little if any technical difference when compared with
those woven by nomads in Asia, hill tribes in India and natives
in Central Africa and islands of the Pacific. Such ornamental
effect as is seen in them depends upon the repetition of stripes
or very simple crossing forms, still this principle of repetition
is a prominent factor in more intricate designs which are shuttle-
woven in broad looms and lengths of stuff.
The world's apparent indebtedness to the Chinese for knowledge
of figured shuttle-weaving leads to some consideration of their early
overland commerce westwards. About 200 B.C. during the Han
Dynasty Chinese trade had extended beyond inner Asia to the
confines of the Graeco-Parthian empire, then at its zenith, and the
protection of the route by which the Seres (Chinese) sent their
merchandise was fully recognized as a matter of importance. Seventy
years later the emperor of China sent a certain Chang Kien on a
mission to the Indo-Scythians; and according to his records the
people as far west as Bactria (adjacent to the Graeco-Parthian
territory) were knowing traders, and amongst other things under-
stood the preparation of silk. Chinese weavings had for some time
been coming into Persia, and doubtless instigated the more skilled
weavers there to adapt their shuttle looms in course of time to the
weaving of stuffs with greater variety of effects than had been
hitherto obtained by them; and into Persian designs were intro-
duced details taken not only from Chinese textiles, but also from
sculptured, embroidered and other ornament of Graeco-Parthian and
earlier Babylonian styles. In A.p. 97 Chinese enterprise in still
furthering their trade relations with the Far West is at least sug-
gested by the fact that envoys from the emperor of China to Rome
actually reached the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, but
turned back frightened by the Parthian accounts of the terrors of
the sea voyage.
Early in the 3rd century A.D. Heliogabalus is reputed to have been
amongst the first of the Roman emperors to wear garments entirely
of silk (holosericum), which, if figured (as is not unlikely), were
probably of Syrian or Persian manufacture. Sidonius Apollinaris
(5th century) writes of Persian patterned stuffs, " Bring forth
brilliant cushions and stuffs on which, produced by a miracle of art,
we behold the fierce Parthian with his head turned back on a prancing
steed; now escaping, now returning to hurl his spear, by turns
fleeing from and putting to flight wild animals whom he pursues "
a description quite appropriate to such silk weaving as that in fig. 33.
A number of kindred pieces have been recovered of late years from
Egyptian burial-places of the Roman period. The Persians of the
Sassanian dynasty (3rd to 7th century) traded in silks with Romans
and Byzantines; King Chosroes (about 570) encouraged the trade,
and ornamental weaving seems to have been an industry of some
standing at Bagdad and other towns north, east and south, e.g.
Hamadan, Kazvin Kashan, Yezd Persepolis, &c. To the north-
west of Persia and north of Syria lay the Byzantine region of Anatolia
(now Asia Minor), some towns in which became noted for their fine
weavings: the mass of the population there was well off in the 6th
century, the country highly cultivated and prosperous, and justice
fairly administered, 8 thus affording favourable conditions for an
industry like ornamental weaving, which had been and was prosper-
ing in neighbouring Syrian districts.
1 See Chinese Art, by Stephen W. Bushell, C.M.G., B.Sc., M.D.
(London, 1906), vol. ii. p. 95.
1 Aristotle describes the silk-worm and its cocoon. Virgil- Martial
and late Roman writers (including Pliny) throw scarcely more light
upon the use of silken stuffs than that they were of rarity and
greatly prized by opulent Romans. Propertius (19 B.C.) writes of
silken garments of varied tissue," and of Cynthia that " perchance
she glistens in Arabian Silk."
'W. M. Ramsay, Studies in the History and Art of the Roman
Empire (University of Aberdeen, 1906).
xxvm. 15
Between the 1st and 6th centuries A.D., then, knowledge of silk
and its value in fine weaving was spreading itself, not only in the
further western regions of Southern Asia, but also in Egypt, where
Greek and Roman taste influenced the works of Copts or those
FIG. 33. Syrian or Persian Silk Weaving of the 5th Century,
natives who maintained old Egyptian traditions in technical handi-
crafts. Of peculiar interest in this connexion are fragments of flax
(yellow and brown) woven with a comparatively elaborate texture,
as well as in patterns (see fig. 34) which suggest an ordinary type
of Roman pavement designs (3rd century and earlier), the basis of
which is roundels linked together. Stuffs in which the style of
FIG. 34. Syrian and Coptic Flax Weaving of the 5th or 6th
Century.
patterns, though comparatively simple, is rather more Oriental, are
of flax and wool, and the official robes of Roman consuls seem to
have been of this character, and amongst other goods may have been
made with small technical difference at Rome * or at Fostat (Cairo)
4 In 369 by order of the emperors Valens and Valentinian the
making of textiles in which gold and silken threads were introduced
was limited to women's workrooms or gynecia (see Codex of Theo-
dosius, lib. x. tit. 21, lex i). In the 5th century the weaving of
silken tunics and mantles was prohibited (Codex Theodosius, lib. x.
tit. 21, lex 3).
450
WEAVING
or Alexandria or other towns in Lower Egypt as well as in Syria.
Contemporaneously the development of similar weaving appears to
FIG. 35. Syrian or Anatolian Silk Weaving of the 5th Century,
with Samson and the Lion (repeated).
have been proceeding in Byzantine provinces, though perhaps not in
so marked a way as when Justinian systematized sericulture 1 and
still further stimulated shuttle-weaving in the town of Byzantium
(Constantinople) itself
in A.D. 552.
For examples of the
elaborate figure weav-
ings at that time
we have to rely upon
such as have been
rescued in the service of
archaeology from the
oblivion of tombs and
burial - places. The
dates of some speci-
mens can be fixed with
almost certainty by
means of nearly con-
temporary records, e.g.
those of Sidonius
Apollinaris and later
Anastasius the Libra-
rian; comparison and
classification lead to
almost conclusive in-
ferences as to the dates
of other examples.
Broadly speaking, the
. I earlier of these remains
I (i.e. from about the
|j 4th to the 7th century)
' seem to be either of
r- j /- u Persian (Sassanian)
TI FlG -3 6 Byzantine Red Silk and Gold manufacture and de-
Thread Weaving of the iith Century. Pairs si or of s ian and
of lions and pairs of small birds. pSssibly Alexandrian
4 _ make. Christian sub-
jects were occasionally introduced into the designs. Between the
7th and the I3th centuries Byzantine manufactures come to the
fore, and it is difficult if not impossible now to draw a clear line
between those of Roman-Byzantine, Perso- Byzantine and Moslem-
1 This virtually was the starting of sericulture in Europe.
[ARCHAEOLOGY AND AR1
Byzantine styles, though one may do so in respect of certain Mosler
(Moorish and Saracenic) weavings, which have distinctive featur
FIG. 37. Part of Silk Wrapping of the Emperor Charlemagne,
possibly of Bagdad manufacture, gth Century, with Fanciful Elephant
and Sacred Tree device in a Roundel.
of design, and were produced in the south of Spain and in Sicil;
about a period from the loth century to the I3th.
Fig. 35, from a piece of sarcenet with repeated parallel series of
Samsons and lions (or gladiators?), is probably sth-century Syrian or
I
FIG. 38. Fragment of Byzantine Silk, mh Century, with Ogiva
Framing about pairs of Birds, &c.
Anatolian ; of the same date are pieces with scenes of the Annuncia-
tion repeated in roundels, and with artistic birds and lions, in the
treasury of the Sancta Sanctorum of the Chapel of St Lawrence : -
ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART]
WEAVING
the old Lateran Palace, Rome. Scriptural subjects 1 seem to be
,il of those which were condemned by Anatolian and Syrian
rs of the Christian church as early as in the late 4th century,
\steruis, bishop of Amasus, in denouncing the luxury of the rich
in flaunting themselves in such inappropriately decorated silks, has
Irft a most useful description of the subjects decorating them. A
ne long maintained in Syrian and Byzantine patterns was that
l>eatea roundels, within which other than scriptural subjects
were wrought, e.g. hunters on horseback (as in fig. 33), fantastic
animals and birds, singly or in pairs, confronting one another or back
framing, composed of animals, birds and the like, formally treated
and repeated vertically and horizontally, as in fig. 36, which is from a
silk and gold thread shuttle-weaving classified as Byzantine of the
nth century manufacture. But this style of composition also
occurs in a Sassanian or Syrian silk of the 5th century at Le Mans, 1
and again in the Cope of St Maxim at Chinon, which is powdered with
panthers. Conventional eagles (reminiscent perhaps of the Roman
Eagle), with scale patterns on their breasts and wings, are woven in
the wrappings reputed to have been given by the Empress Placidia
for the corpse of St Germain (448) preserved at the church of St
Eusebius at Auxerre. Some likeness
in style may be detected between
these latter and a fragment of one of
the wrappings of St Cuthbert (d. 688)
at Durham, though in this case the
elaborate ornamentation is set within
a roundel. Prior to the discovery of
woven silks in the Akhmin cemeteries,
the periods to which tradition and
association had ascribed the Auxerre
and Durham specimens were con-
sidered too early; but there now
seems to be far less reason to question
that ascription. Fig. 37 is from part
of a silken wrapping of Charlemagne
(early gth century) now at Aix-la-
Chapelle. It bears a Greek inscrip-
tion of the names of Peter, governor of
Negropont, and Michael, chamberlain
of the Imperial Chambers, and this is
taken by some authorities as evidence
that the weaving was made at Byzan-
tium. On the other hand, Eginhard,
Charlemagne's secretary, has written
of gifts, including rich textiles pre-
sented in his day by Haroun al
Raschid to the emperor, 4 and a fabric
like that in question might have been
made quite possibly even at Baghdad
in the 9th century or earlier. In the
nth century amongst the handicrafts-
men in the city of Byzantium were
many skilled native and foreign
weavers; and their designs generally
appear to reflect the style of earlier
Persianesque and Syrian taste.
|- About the I2th century the well-
used pattern scheme of roundels
became more or less superseded by
one of continuous ovals, of ogival
framings (see fig. 38), contemporary
with which are Saracenic patterns
based on hexagonal and star-shape
frames. Within these new varieties
of pattern framings recur the Byzan-
tine and Persianesque pairs of birds,
animals, &c. But distinct from these
is the more restricted style which has
been mentioned. It had arisen under
the influence for the most part of the
Fatimy Khalifs, not only in Syria and
Alexandria but also in Sicily and
Patterns of this
Moslem or Saracenic type are usually
FIG. 39. Specimens of various Small Loom Weavings between the 7th and 15th centuries.
A. Part of a narrow band or orphrey woven in gold and silk threads with a Latin inscription s ut; h ern Spam.
along the edges. German work of the I3th century. Moslem or Sarac
B. Part of a broad band or orphrey woven in gold and silk threads with figures of the Crucifixion composed of a succession of parallel
and the. Annunciation (?). It bears an inscription, Odilia me fecit. It is probably German bands narrow and wide containing
work of the I3th century. . Kui ? c inscriptions, groups of small
C and D. Specimens of Cologne orphreys woven in silk and gold threads; C bears a Latin inscrip- lntncate geometrical devices, and
tion, and the faces of the Virgin and Child are embroidered. occasionally conventional amma s
E. Part of a narrow band woven in gold and silk threads with chevron spaces filled with delicate and birds. A I2tn-centurvexample
scroll ornament, among which are occasional animal and bird devices. Possibly English or ; tn ' s cla s ' pattern has been given
French work of the I 3 th century. elsewhere (see BROCADE, fig. l).
F. Part of a narrow band or clavus from a Coptic tunic of the 9th or loth century. ,, Almena, Malaga, Grenada and
Seville were notable Moorish weav-
ing places in Spain for such patterned silks and stuffs as these;
and even after the Christian conquest of Grenada at the end of the
to back, frequently with a sacred tree device* between them. A
piece of Sassanian silk, probably of the 6th century, shows a gryphon
practically identical with that sculptured on the patterned saddle-
cloth of a king (Chosroes II.?) in the archway to the garden of the
king's palace at Kermchah.
Less common perhaps are patterns, without roundel or other
1 The silken wrappings of St Wilibald (700-786), a founder of the
church at Eichstatt, where they are still preserved, are woven with
repeated roundels, each enclosing a Daniel between two lions, and are
perhaps Byzantine of the 8th century.
1 See Sir George Birdwood's chapter on Knop and Flower pattern
in his Industrial Arts of India, in which this device of ancient
Assyrian art is discussed as well as its relation and that of the horn,
a fanlike symbol, to cognate ornament in Greek, Roman and even
Renaissance art.
1 5th century this city retained its celebrity for silks woven " 4 la
Moresque."
In Sicily no similar survival of Saracenic influence seems to have
been as strongly maintained, notwithstanding the numerous Saracen
weavers at work in the island for years before the Royal factory for
silk weaving came to be organized at Palermo under Norman
supremacy. According to the usual story, Roger of Sicily, or Roger
Guiscard, who in 1 147 made a successful raid on the shores of Attica,
and took Athens, Thebes and Corinth, carried off as prisoners a
number of Greek (Byzantine) weavers and settled them at Palermo in
the factory known as the H6tel des Tiraz. A mixture of Byzantine
' See Abfctdaire d'arctiMogie (June 1854).
4 Recherchfi, &c., by Francisque Michel, i. 40.
452
WEAVING
[ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART
and Saracenic styles of textile patterns ensued ; and this peculiarity portantpart, and possibly was applicable to early brocades. Carmoca
is demonstrated in many of the rich fabrics attributed to south and or Carmuk (Arab Kamkla, from the Chinese Kimka also brocade)
north Italian weavers from the 1 2th century onwards. From Palermo j was another handsome stuff corresponding in a way with Indian
Apparel of a Dalmatic woven in Venice late in the
with the Virgin in glory.
century,
B
Part of , Orphrey with
the Virgin and Child (Siena
weaving, 1425-1450).
c
Part of Orphrey, with
Annunciation (Florentine w
ing, late 15th century).-
the
FIG.
the art of ornamental weaving in this style soon extended into the
mainland, and from Apulia a bishop of St Evroul in Normandy is
mentioned as having obtained a number of silken goods in the I2th
century. From the I3th century onwards Lucca, Florence, Milan,
Genoa and Venice became important centres, using not only im-
ported silk, but also such as was being then cultivated in Italy, for
sericulture had become an Italian industry early in the I3th century.
Wandering Saracenic and Byzantine weavers even before that time
had strayed or been taken to work at places in Germany, France and
Britain, but the output of their productions in northern countries
was almost infinitesimal as compared with that of the | far greater
Italian output, nevertheless they were sowing the seeds of a harvest
to be reaped centuries later by these more northerly European
countries.
To the influence of these early sporadic weayings we seem to trace
a distinctive class of work, which was done by inmates of monasteries
and convents as well as by devout ladies, in little looms, for use as
stoles, maniples, orphreys and similar narrow bands. A rhyming
chronicler of the I3th century paraphrases the older record by Egin-
hard of the skill of Charlemagne's daughters in silk weaving, " ouvrer
en soie en taulieles " or small looms. 1 The illustrations in fig. 39
give varieties of this class of work between the 7th and isth centuries,
for which Cologne especially seems to have become famous in the
1 5th century. Venice also made work of corresponding character:
and the designs were evidently furnished by or directly adapted from
the compositions of such artists as those who produced the notable
German and Venetian woodcuts of the 15th century (fig. 40).
Whilst the bulk of the Italian patterned stuffs issuing in great
lengths from large looms were of silk, a good many also were woven
in wools, or wools intermixed with silks. The earlier of the silk
textiles Persian, Syrian and Byzantine were of the nature of
sarcenet and taffetas; later in development are satins, damask
satins, brocades, and still later (i.e. about the end of the I4th century)
come Italian velvets and cloths of gold, which quite transcended
the ancient and less substantial attalic cloths of the early Roman
period. Medieval inventories and records contain many names of
textiles, but the exact technical meaning of several of them is un-
certain. Csndal, Sandal, Syndonus seem to relate to such materials
as sarcenet or taffeta : zetani, from low Latin, is held by some writers
to be of the same class as samit or examite, so called because the weft
threads were only caught at every sixth thread of the warp; damask,
now regarded as a special class of textile, the ornamentation of which
depends upon contrasting sheens in the surface of the stuff, whether
of silk or linen, got its name from Damascus, much in the same way
as Baudekin comes from Baldak, or Baghdad. Baudekin, and an
apparently somewhat earlier word ciclatoun, seem to have been general
terms for rich-looking textiles, in which gold thread played an im-
1 See Recherches, &c., by Francisque Michel, i. 93-94.
40.
Kincobs. Velvet (Italian vellulo shaggy) is veluiau in French docu-
ments ot the I4th century, and is a finely piled material of silk, and on
that account may have been called Samit, as the German word
FIG. 41. Piece of North Italian Silk Weaving of the I4th century,
with pattern planned on an ogival basis with fantastic birds, some
of which are of a Chinese type, and Persianesque cone forms containing
sham Arabic inscriptions.
Sammet implies velvet, as does the Russian Axamitt. Diaper
(Italian diaspro, meaning patterned) was used not only to denote a
regular and geometric patterning but in some cases a special sort
of linen or silk. Muslin from Mosul, and gauze from Gaza., are two
ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART]
WEAVING
453
well-known and kindred textiles. Frequently one meets with odd
phrases such as " silk of Brydges " (Bruges), " silk dornex " (from
Dorneck), " sheets of raynes " (Rheims), and " fuschan in Appules "
(Naples fustian).
Many of the foregoing stuffs are identifiable by textures peculiar to
them; this is, however, not so as regards their ornamental patterns,
for these are frequently interchanged, the same class of patterns
iring in satin damasks, velvets and brocades. This is particu-
larly the case with I3th- and 14th-century Italian stuffs. In the
patterns of these, as previously suggested, are strong traces of Sara-
iviiic and Byzantine motives, intermingled with badges, heraldic
devices, human figures, eagles, falcons, hounds, lions, harts, boards,
leopards, rays of light, Persianesque pine cone and cloud forms, and
even Chinese mystical birds, symmetrically distributed, without
framings, as a rule, though elaborations of the ogival frame or scheme
are also met with, but less frequently (see fig. 41). Such fabrics,
m ide in the main by Lucchese weavers, appear to have been traded
in with other European countries. But besides trade records, there
are others relating to Lucchese weavers who left their own town under
stress of circumstances, civil wars and the like, to settle and work
elsewhere, as in France and Flanders, during the Ijjth century.
Nevertheless the northern parts of Italy were the fertile places for
producing fine types of patterned textiles used by Italian and other
FIG. 42. Damask and Brocade Silk Fabric,
facture of the I5th century.
Italian manu-
European courts and nobles: and if the art seriously dwindled in
the town of Lucca, it flourished conspicuously, from the end of the
I4th century and up to the beginning of the loth century, in Venice,
Bologna, Genoa, Florence and Milan. There was nothing similar
to compete with it in France, Germany or England. The identifica-
tion of its splendid varieties is made possible upon referring to
contemporary paintings by Orcagna, Cnvelli, Spinello Aretino and
later Italian masters, as well as to those of the Flemish School,
Gheraet David, Mabuse, &c.
Of a specially distinct class, very dignified in effect, are patterns
ol the I5th century based upon the repetition of conventional
pentagonally constructed leaf panels, clearly defined in outline, each
encircling a pomegranate or cone form around which radiate small
leaves or blossoms; though they were more richly developed in
superb velvets and cloths of gold, for which Florence, Venice and
Genoa were famed, this type of design is also woven in less costly
materials. A composite unusual and beautiful design of another
kind is given in fig. 42. Repeated large leaf shapes can just be
detected in it, but more remarkable are the bunches of radiating
stalks of wheat-ears and cornflowers within them ; whilst about them,
arranged in hexagonal trcllising, are leafy bars, small birds, crowns,
pomegranates and other daintily depicted plant forms. This piece
of damask combined with brocade weaving is of late I5th century
manufacture: and after the opening of the next century the
freedom towards realistic treatment, which we find here, enters
into many of the Italian patterns. In some of them, however, an
Ottoman or Anatolian feeling is apparent, as in fig. 43 from a figured
silk which is considered to have been made in Venice. The chained
dogs and birds in this design recall the rather more formal ones in
Lucchese patterns of a hundred and fifty years earlier, whereas the
lengthy serrated leaves and elongated flower devices charged with
carnations and hyacinths depicted on a smaller scale are unmis-
takably Ottoman. Persian fabrics of rather thin silk material or
taffetas like that of the original of this were also being woven with
varieties of floral designs, as well as others portraying Persian
stories. At this period there was considerable activity in weaving
sumptuous stuffs at Broussa and Constantinople (fig. 44). Arabic
and Turkish weavers often came over to be employed in Venice,
blending Italian and Oriental characteristics into their designs.
In Spain during the early i6th century we have traces of Hispano-
Moresque influence in the overlapping and interlocking nondescript
forms; but Spanish weavings are hardly comparable in quality
with the Italian of the same time. In the middle of this century
cloths of gold or of silver, with the pattern details raised in velvet
and brocatelles of similar
formal design were made
in greater quantities in
Italy for costumes of
men and women. The
frequent basis of most of
the designs is the ogival
framework already re-
ferred to, but it is much
elaborated with detail
and combined with the
cone device of a previous
century. The ornamenta-
tion of this style is purely
conventional throughout,
the various devices hav-
ing little of the appear-
ance of actual objects
like fruit, leaves, &c.
The time, however,
was close at hand when
a more general reaction |
was to set in, in the
direction of designs re-
presenting forms very
nearly as they actually
look, an example of
which occurs in fig. 45,
with its leaf forms and
crowns. This from a
class of silk damask or
lampas, which is kindred
to brocatelle; a feature
in lampas is that its
ground is different in
colour from that of the
ornament on it, and as
in the case of portions of
brocatelles its texture is
of taffeta or sarcenet
quality. 1 At the end of
the 1 6th century a pe-
culiar type of pattern
consists of repetitions in
different positions of the
same detail treated real-
istically or purely orna-
mentally, little if any-
thing of quite the same
character having been
previously designed. Of
such fig. 46, with its
repeated realistic leafy FIG. 43. Piece of Venetian Silk Weav-
logs variously placed, is ing showing Ottoman influence in the
an example. The prin- design (i6th century),
ciple in the composition
of -these patterns, but with a greater variety of conventional detail,
is followed in French iyth century examples. However, as soon as
figured weaving became well organized in France at this time, a
school of designers arose in that country who adopted a realism that
predominated in French patterns during the succeeding 150 years,
that is, from Louis XIV. to the end of the i8th century. Throughout
this period French figured stuffs seem to surpass those of other
countries. " If, " writes Monsieur Pariset, " any account is to be
taken of the weavers during the lith and I5th centuries who made
cloths and velvets of silk at Paris, Rouen, Lyons.Nimes and Avignon,
it must be remembered that they were almost solely Italian emigrants
from Lucca and Florence, who had fled their towns during troublous
times. " By a charter granted by Francis I. to Lyons, foreign and
native workmen were encouraged to promote the city's interests in
trade and manufacture; still, it is not until the i?th century- that
Lyons really asserts herself in producing fabrics possessing French
taste and ornamentation. The more important designs were supplied
by trained artists of whom Reval, a pupil of Le Brun, the first_principal
of the Academic des Beaux Arts founded by Colbert in Paris (1648),
Pillement and Philippe de la Salle in the i8th century, may be
'See Ornament in European Silks (London. 1899), p. 15-
454
WEAVING
[ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART
named. Their influence in the domain of fanciful, and at times
extravagant realistic, floral patterns was widespread. Soon after
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in consequence of which
thousands of Protestant weavers left France, factories for weaving
silks and mixed materials
with patterns imitating
the successive French
phases became organized
at Spitalfields, in
Cheshire, Yorkshire,
Norfolk and elsewhere
in England, as well as
in Germany at Crefeld,
Elberfeld, Barmen and
Weissen.
Entirely distinct from
what has already been
discussed is a branch of
artistic weaving con-
cerned with the decora-
tion of linens, that
flourished notably in
Italy towards the end
of the I5th century and
in the l6th century.
From early times long
and narrow Italian table-
cloths were enriched
with ornament of linen
or cotton threads of a
single colour, and
Signora Isabella Erera
has written at some
FIG. 44. Ottoman (Anatolian) Silk and
Gold Thread Weaving of the 1 6th century,
withogival framed ornament. The original
is stated to have come from a sultana's
tomb at Broussa or Constantinople.
Q
length about them, 1
illustrating the result of
her investigations with
several examples culled
from paintings by Pietro
Lorenzetto of Siena
In Leonardo da Vinci's
(1340), by Ghirlandaja (1447-1490), &c.
painting of the Last Supper, now in the Louvre, the border of the
tablecloth is very like many examples of this sort of textile in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Their char-
acteristic ornament, in rather heavy blue thread, consists of quaint
animals and birds in pairs, which are evident derivations of those so
often seen in Italo-Byzantine and Lucchese silks and brocades. Be-
larly with Perugia. In the i6th century, work of similar style was
produced, but it was lighter and flatter in texture and often done
FIG. 45. Italian Silk Damask or Lampas, with purple ground and
pattern of late i6th century.
sides animals and birds, reversed names and words were sometimes
introduced, e.g. " Amor " for " Roma," " Asoizarg " for " Graziosa "
and " Eroma " for " Amore," &c. The simpler of these table-cloth
patterns probably date from before the I4th century, whilst the
fuller ones were certainly made in considerable quantities in the isth
century. An inventory dated 1842 has an entry of two napkins or
cloths woven in cotton wi.th bands of dragons and lions a la Perugina,
which is suggestive that this type of weaving was associated particu-
1 See the Italian monthly art review, Emporium, vol. xxiii. (1906).
FIG. 46. Italian Silk Damask or Lampas of late l6th century,
with pattern of repeated leafy logs.
with red or yellow silk, and embroidery was sometimes added to 1
weaving.
The most important and probably the best known class of late
ornamental linen weaving is that of damask household napery, which,
as a reflection of satin damask, was developed in the flax-growing
regions of Saxony, Flanders and North France, during the late istn
or early i6th century; it was then rare and acquired for use by
wealthy persons only. 2 The style of design in the better of the old
linen damasks has some kinship with that of bold 15th- and 16th-
century woodcuts of the Flemish or German schools. To some
extent these damask figure subjects recall those of the colour
Cologne and Venetian orphreys for copes and apparels for dal-
matics. The early history of linen damask is obscure, but a great
many of its results are preserved in England. A napkin with the
royal shield of Henry VII., the supporters within the garte"
surmounted by the crown, is in the Victoria and Albert Museuri
where it is called Flemish. On the other hand it is possibly the
work of Flemings in England, since from the time of Edward I.
and for a hundred years " a constant stream of emigrants passed
from Flanders to England." 3 The Victoria and Albert Museun
contains an early 16th-century tablecloth in damask linen
German or Flemish manufacture with various subjects, chiefly
religious and moral: Gideon being shown as a kneeling knight, the
fleece of wool on the ground being near him, while from above the
dew falls on it ; below Gideon is the Virgin Mary and the unicorn,
and lower down an angel with seven dogs heads 'typifying
different virtues as shown in the lettering -fides, spes, charitas, &c.
In another which was probably made in England (at Norwich?)
by Flemings during the second half of the l6th century, we find
St George and the Dragon, the royal arms of Queen Anne Boleyn,
the badges of Queen Anne Boleyn and Queen Elizabeth, the
crowned Tudor Rose, and repeated portraits of Queen Elizabeth,
with the legend below, " God save the Queene." This specimen is
also in the Victoria and Albert Museum. A hundred years later
in date is a tablecloth on which is a view of old St Paul's (burnt
in 1666), while above and below occurs the wreathed shield of the
City of London. A different class of linen, with the design done in
blue, was evidently, from the inscriptions on it, the work of a
German or Fleming, and probably woven in Germany about
1730. Here we find the wreathed arms of the City of London,
a view of " London," and " George der II. Konig in Engelland "
mounted on horseback. In this specimen the design is repeated, and
2 The earl of Northumberland (1512) is said to have had but eight
linen cloths for his personal use, while his large retinue of servants
had but one, which was washed once a month. (See notes by Rev.
C. H. Evelyn White on damask linen. Proceedings of Society of
Antiquaries, second series, vol. xx. p. 132.)
3 See Rev. C. H. Evelyn White s paper on damask linen, Pro-
ceedings of Society of Antiquaries, second series, vol. xx. pp. 130-140.
WEB WEBER, C. VON
455
not reversed, as is the case with the earlier pieces. A large
collection of this German damask weaving with coloured thread
was formed under the auspices of the Royal Kunstgewerbe
Museum at Dresden. 1 The north-eastern Irish industry of damask
weaving owes much to French Protestant refugees, who settled
there towards the close of the iyth century, though linen manu-
facture had been established in the district by a colony of Scots
in 1634. Uunfermline in Scotland is said to produce as much
damask as the rest of Europe, but there are important manufactories
of it at Courtrai and Liege in Belgium, in Silesia, Austria and else-
where.
LITERATURE. The following are titles of a few works on weaving,
from which much important information on the subject may be
derived:]. Bezon, Dictionnaire des tissus (8 vols., Paris, 1859-
1863), more or less technical only, Dictionnaire des sciences (Pans,
175 1-1780), technical; Michel Fruncisque, Recherches sur le commerce,
lafibrication et I'usage des etofes de soie, d'or el d'argent (2 vols., Paris,
1852-1854), a well-known work full of erudition in resrject of the
archaeology of woven fabrics, their technical characteristics, &c. ;
James Yates, Textrinum antiquorum : an Account of the Art of
Weaving among the Ancients (London, 1843), a very valuable and
learned work of reference; Very Rev. Daniel Rock, D.D., Textile
Fabrics (London, 1870), with some few good illustrations; Panset,
Ilistoire de I soie (Paris 1862) ; Raymond Cax, L'Art de decorer les
tissus, &c. (Paris, 1000); lan Cole, Ornament in European Mks
(London, 1899), well illustrated; J. Lessing, Berlin konighche
Mttseen, Die Gewebe-Sammlung des k. Kunstgewerbe-Museums
(Berlin, 1900), a very fine series of phototype facsimiles of all kinds
of textiles; A. Riegl, Die dgyptischen Textil-Funde (Wien, 1889);
R. Forrer, Romische und byzantinische Seiden-Texlilien (Strassburg,
1891); A. Dupont Auberville, L'Ornament des tissus (Paris, 1877),
admirable illustrations; F. Fischbach, Die wichtigsten Webe-Orna-
mente (3 vols., Wiesbaden, 1901), admirable illustrations; Raymond
Cax, Le Musee historique des tissus . . . de Lyon (Lyon, 1902) ;
Nuremberg: Germanisches Museum, Katalog der Gewebesammlung
des germanischen National- Museums (Nuremberg, 1896).
(A. S. C.)
WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe,
Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh to weave),
that which is woven (see WEAVING). The word is thus applied
to anything resembling a web of cloth, to the vexillum of the
feather of a bird, to the membrane which connects the toes
of many aquatic birds and some aquatic mammals; it is particu-
larly used of the " cobweb," the net spun by the spider, the
Old English name for which was dtor-coppe, i.e. poison-head
(dtor, poison, and coppe, tuft or head). In architecture the term
" web " is sometimes given, in preference to " panel," to the
stone shell of a vault resting on the ribs and taking its winding
surface from the same; see VAULT.
WEBB, MATTHEW (1848-1883), English swimmer, generally
known as " Captain Webb," was born at Dawley in Shropshire
on the i8th of January 1848, the son of a doctor. While still
a boy he saved one of his brothers from drowning in the Severn,
and, while serving on board the training ship in the Mersey, he
again distinguished himself by saving a drowning comrade.
He served his apprenticeship in the East India and China trade,
shipped as second mate for several owners, and in 1874, was
awarded the first Stanhope gold medal by the Royal Humane
Society for an attempt to save a seaman who had fallen over-
board from the Cunard steamship " Russia." In 1875 Captain
Webb abandoned a sea-faring life and became a professional
swimmer. On the 3rd of July he swam from Blackwall Pier to
Gravesend, a distance of 20 m., in 4$ hours, a record which
remained unbeaten until 1899. In the same year, after one
unsuccessful attempt, he swam the English Channel, on the 24th
of August, from Dover to Calais in 21 J hours. For the next
few years Webb gave performances of diving and swimming
at the Royal Aquarium in London and elsewhere. Crossing
to America, he attempted, on the 24th of July 1883, to swim
the rapids and whirlpool below Niagara Falls. In this attempt
he lost his life.
WEBB, SIDNEY (1850- ), English socialist and author,
was bom in London on the i3th of July 1839. He was educated
at private schools in London and Switzerland, at the Birkbeck
Institute and the City of London College. From 1875 to 1878
he was employed in a city office, but he entered the civil service
by open competition as a clerk in the War Office in 1878, became
'See Leinendamastmuster des XVII. und XVIII. Jahrhunderts,
Emil Kumsch (Dresden, 1891).
surveyor of taxes in 1879, and in 1881 entered the colonial
office, where he remained until 1891. In 1885 he was called to
the bar at Gray's Inn. Mr Webb was one of the early members
of the Fabian Society, contributing to Fabian Essays (1889);
and he became well-known as a socialist, both by his speeches
and his writings. He entered the London County Council in
1892 as member for Deptford, and was returned at the head
of the poll in the successive elections of 1895, 1898, 1901 and
1904. He resigned from the civil service in 1891 to give his whole
time to the work of the Council (where he was chairman of the
Technical Education Board) and to the study of economics.
He served from 1903 to 1906 on the Royal Commission on Trade
Union Law and on other important commissions. He married
in 1892 Miss Beatrice Potter, herself a writer on economics and
sociology, the author of The Co-operative Movement in Great
Britain (1891) and a contributor to Charles Booth's L'fe and
Labour of the People (1891-1903). His most important works
are: a number of Fabian tracts; London Education (1904);
The Eight Hours Day (1891), in conjunction with Harold Cox;
and, with Mrs Sidney Webb, The History of Trade Unionism
[1894, new ed. 1902), Industrial Democracy (1897, new ed. 1902),
Problems of Modern Industry (1898), History of Liquor Licensing
(1903), English Local Government (1006), &c. Mrs Webb was
member of the Royal Commission on the Poor Law, and she
and her husband were responsible for the Minority Report
(see POOR LAW) and for starting the widespread movement in
its favour.
WEBB CITY, a city of Jasper county, Missouri, U.S.A.,
in the S.W. part of the state, about 160 m. S. of Kansas City.
Pop. (1890) S43' (i9) 9 20I i f whom 248 were foreign-born;
(1910 U.S. census) 11,817. It is served by the Missouri Pacific
and the St Louis & San Francisco railway systems, and is the
headquarters of the electric interurban railway connecting with
Carthage and Joplin, Missouri, Galena, Kansas and other
cities. With Carterville (pop. 1910, 4539). which adjoins it on
the E., it forms practically one city; they are among the most
famous and productive " camps " in the rich lead and zinc
region of south-western Missouri, and Webb City owes its
industrial importance primarily to the mining and shipping of
those metals. The value of the factory product increased from
$353,566 in 1900 to $637,965 in 1905. Webb City was laid out
and incorporated as a town in 1875, and first chartered as a
city in 1876. White lead was discovered here in 1873, on the
farm of John C. Webb, in whose honour the city is named;
and systematic mining began in 1877.
WEBBE, WILLIAM (fl. 1586), English literary critic, was
educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he took his
degree in 1572-1573. He was tutor to the two sons of Edward
Sulyard of Flemyngs, Essex, and later to the children of Henry
Grey of Pirgo in the same county. A letter from him is prefixed
to the 1592 edition of Tancred and Gismundo* written by his
friend, Robert Wilmot. In 1586 he published A Discourse of
English Poetrie, dedicated to his patron, Edward Sulyard.
Webbe argued that the dearth of good English poetry since
Chaucer's day was not due to lack of poetic ability, or to the
poverty of the language, but to the want of a proper system of
prosody. He abuses " this tinkerly verse which we call ryme,"
as of barbarous origin, and comments on the works of his con-
temporaries, displaying enthusiasm for Spenser's Shepheardes
Calendar, and admiration for Phaer's translation of Virgil.
He urged the adoption of hexameters and sapphics for English
verse, and gives some lamentable examples of his own com-
position.
The Discourse was reprinted in J. Haslewood's Ancient Critical
Essays (1811-1815), by E. Arber in 1869, and in Gregory Smith s
Elizabethan Critical Essays (1904)-
WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (1786-
1826), German composer, was born at Eutin, near Ltibeck, on
the i8th of December 1 786, of a family that had long been devoted
to art. His father, Baron Franz Anton von Weber, a military
* The original play, Gismonde of Salerne, was by five authors, and
was produced in the Queen's presence at the Inner Temple in 1568.
456
WEBER, C. VON
officer in the service of the palgrave Karl Theodor, was an
excellent violinist, and his mother once sang on the stage. His
cousins, Josepha, Aloysia, Constanze and Sophie, daughters
of Franz Anton's brother Fridolin, attained a high reputation
as vocalists. The great composer, Mozart, after having been
rejected by Aloysia, married Constanze, and thus became
Franz Anton's nephew by marriage. Fridolin played the violin
nearly as well as his brother; and the whole family displayed
exceptional talent for music. Franz Anton von Weber was a
man of thriftless habits and culpable eccentricity. Having been
wounded at Rosbach, he quitted the army, and in 1758 he was
appointed financial councillor to Clement August, elector of
Cologne, who for nine years overlooked his incorrigible neglect
of duty. But the elector's successor dismissed him in 1768;
and for many years after this he lived in idleness at Hildesheim,
squandering the property of his wife, Anna de' Fumetti, and
doing nothing for the support of his children until 1778, when he
was appointed director of the opera at Liibeck. In 1779 the
prince bishop of Eutin made him his kapellmeister, and not
long afterwards his wife died of a broken heart. Five years
later he went to Vienna, placed two of his sons under Michael
Haydn, and in 1785 married the young Viennese singer Genovefa
von Brenner. In the following year Carl Maria von Weber was
born a delicate child, afflicted with congenital disease of the
hip- joint.
On his return from Vienna, Franz Anton, finding that a new
kapellmeister had been chosen in his place, accepted the humbler
position of " Stadt Musikant." This, however, he soon relin-
quished; and for some years he wandered from town to town,
giving dramatic performances, in conjunction with the children
of his first wife, wherever he could collect an audience. The
. effect of this restless life upon the little Carl Maria's health and
,education was deplorable; but, as he accompanied his father
everywhere, he became familiarized with the stage from his
earliest infancy, and thus gained an amount of dramatic experience
that laid the foundation of his future greatness. Franz Anton
hoped to see him develop into an infant prodigy, like his cousin
Mozart, whose marvellous career was then rapidly approaching
its close. In furtherance of this scheme, the child was taught
to sing and place his fingers upon the pianoforte almost as soon
as he could speak, though he was unable to walk until he was
four years old. Happily his power of observation and aptitude
for general learning were so precocious that he seems, in spite
of all these disadvantages, to have instinctively educated him-
self as became a gentleman. In 1798 Michael Haydn taught
him gratuitously at Salzburg. In the March of that year his
mother died. In April the family visited Vienna, removing
in the autumn to Munich. Here the child's first composition
a set of " Six Fughettas" was m-Mished, with a pompous
dedication to his half-brother Edmund; and here also he took
lessons in singing and in composition. Soon afterwards he began
to play successfully in public, and his father compelled him to
write incessantly. Among the compositions of this period were
a mass and an opera Die Macht der Liebe und des Weins now
destroyed. A set of " Variations for the Pianoforte," composed
a little later, was lithographed by Carl Maria himself, under the
guidance of Alois Senefelder, the inventor of the process, in
which both the father and the child took great interest.
In 1800 the family removed to Freiberg, where the Ritter von
Steinsberg gave Carl Maria the libretto of an opera called Das
Waldmadchen, which the boy, though not yet fourteen years
old, at once set to music, and produced in November at the
Freiburg theatre. The performance was by no means successful,
and the composer himself was accustomed to speak of the
work as " a very immature production " ; yet it was afterwards
reproduced at Chemnitz, and even at Vienna.
Carl Maria returned with his father to Salzburg in 1801,
resuming his studies under Michael Haydn. Here he composed
his second opera, Peter Schmoll und seine Nachbarn, which was
unsuccessfully produced at Nuremberg in 1803. In that year
he again visited Vienna, where, though Joseph Haydn and
Albrechtsberger were both receiving pupils, his father preferred
placing him under Abt Vogler. Through Vogler's instrument-
ality Carl Maria was appointed conductor of the opera at Breslau,
before he had completed his eighteenth year. In this capacity
he greatly enlarged his experience of the stage, so that he ranks
among the greatest masters of stage-craft in musical history;
but he lived a sadly irregular life, contracted debts, and lost his
beautiful voice through accidentally drinking an acid used in
lithography a mishap which nearly cost him his life. Thes
hindrances, however, did not prevent him from beginning a nev
opera called Riibezahl, the libretto of which was "romantic"
to the last degree, and Weber worked at it enthusiastically,
but it was never completed, and little of it has been preserve
beyond a quintet and the masterly overture, which, re-written
in 1811 under the title of Der Beherrscher derGeister,novr ranks
among its author's finest instrumental compositions.
Quitting Breslau in 1806, Weber removed in the following
year to Stuttgart, where he had been offered the post of private
secretary to Duke Ludwig, brother of Frederick, king of
Wiirtemberg. The appointment was a disastrous one. The
stipend attached to it was insufficient to meet the twofold
demands of the young man's new social position and the thrift-
lessness of his father, who was entirely dependent upon him for
support. Court life at Stuttgart was uncongenial to him, though
he yielded to its temptations. The king hated him and his
practical jokes. He fell hopelessly into debt, and, worse than all,
became involved in a fatal intimacy with Margarethe Lang,
a singer at the opera. Notwithstanding these distractions he
worked hard, and in 1809 re-modelled Das Waldmadchen, under
the title of Sylvana, 1 and prepared to produce it at the court
theatre. But a dreadful calamity prevented its performance.
Franz Anton had misappropriated a large sum of money placed
in the young secretary's hands for the purpose of clearing a
mortgage upon one of the duke's estates. 2 Both father and son
were charged with embezzlement, and, on the gth of February
1810, they were arrested at the theatre, during a rehearsal of
Syhana, and thrown by the king's order into prison. No one
doubted Weber's innocence, but after a summary trial he and his
father were ordered to quit the country, and on the 27th of
February they began a new life at Mannheim.
Having provided a comfortable home for his father, and begun
a new comic opera, in one act, called Abu Hassan, Weber re-
moved to Darmstadt in order to be near his old master Abt
Vogler, and his fellow-pupils Meyerbeer and Gansbacher.
On the i6th of September 1810, he reproduced Sylvana at
Frankfort, but with very doubtful success. A bu Hassan was com-
pleted at Darmstadt in January 1811, after many interruptions,
one of which (his attraction to the story of Der Freischulz see
below) exercised a memorable influence upon his later career.
Weber started in February 1811 on an extended artistic tour,
during which he made many influential friends, and on the 4th
of June brought out Abu Hassan with marked success at Munich.
His father died at Mannheim in 1812, and after this he had no
settled home, until in 1813 his wanderings were brought to an
end by the unexpected offer of an appointment as kapellmeister
at Prague, coupled with the duty of entirely remodelling the
performances at the opera-house. The terms were so liberal
that he accepted at once, engaged a new company of performers,
and directed them with uninterrupted success until the autumn
of 1816. During this period he composed no new operas, but he
had already written much of his best pianoforte music, and played
it with never-failing success, while the disturbed state of Europe
inspired him with some of the finest patriotic melodies in exist-
ence. First among these stand ten songs from Korner's Leyer
und Schwerdt, including " Vater, ich rufe dich," and " Liitzow's
wilde Jagd " ; and in no respect inferior to these are the splendid
choruses in his cantata Kampf und Sieg, which was first per-
formed at Prague, on the 22nd of December 1815.
Weber resigned his office at Prague on the 3oth of September
1 As the MS. of Das Waldmadchen has been lost, it is impossible
now to determine its exact relation to the later work.
2 Spitta gives a different account of the occurrence, and attributes
the robbery to a servant.
WEBER, C. VON
457
1816, and on the 2ist of December, Frederick Augustus, king of
Saxony, appointed him kapellmeister at the German opera at
Dresden. The Italian operas performed at the court theatre
were superintended by Morlacchi, whose jealous and intriguing
disposition gave endless trouble. The king, however, placed the
two kapellmeisters on an exact equality both of title and salary,
and Weber found ample opportunity for the exercise of his
remarkable power of organization and control. He now gave
his close attention to the story of Der Freischiitz, which he had
previously meditated turning into an opera, and, with the assist-
ance of Friedrich Kind, he produced an admirable libretto, under
the title of Des Jtigers Brant. No subject could have been better
fitted than this to serve as a vehicle for the new art-form which,
under Weber's skilful management, developed into the type
of "romantic opera." He had dealt with the supernatural in
Rubczahl, and in Syltiana with the pomp and circumstance of
chivalry; but the shadowy impersonations in Riibezahl are
scarcely less human than the heroine who invokes them; and
the music of Sylvana might easily have been adapted to a story
of the igth century. But Weber now knew better than to let
the fiend in Der Freischiitz sing; with three soft strokes of a
drum below an unchanging dismal chord he brings him straight
to us from the nether world. Every note in Euryanthe breathes
the spirit of medieval romance; and the fairies in Oberon have
an actuality quite distinct from the tinsel of the stage. This un-
compromising reality, even in face of the unreal, forms the
strongest characteristic of the pure " romantic school," as
Weber understood and created it. It treats its wildest subjects in
earnest, and without a doubt as to the reality of the scenes
it ventures to depict, or the truthfulness of their dramatic
interpretation.
Weber wrote the first note of the music of Der Freischiitz
on the and of July beginning with the duet which opens the
second act. But so numerous were the interruptions caused
by Morlacchi's intrigues, the insolence of unfriendly courtiers,
and the attacks of jealous critics that nearly three years elapsed
before the piece was completed. In the meantime the per-
formances at the opera-house were no less successfully remodelled
at Dresden than they had already been at Prague, though
the work of reformation was far more difficult; for the new
kapellmeister was surrounded by enemies who openly subjected
him to every possible annoyance, and even the king himself
was at one time strongly prejudiced against him. Happily,
he no longer stood alone in the world. Having, after much
difficulty, broken off his liaison with Margarethe Land, he married
the singer Carolina Brandt, a noble-minded woman and con-
summate artist, who was well able to repay him for the part he
had long played in her mental development. The new opera
was completed on the I3th of May 1820, on which day Weber
wrote the last note of the overture which it was his custom
to postpone until the rest of the music was finished. There is
abundant evidence to prove that he was well satisfied with the
result of his labours; but he gave himself no rest. He had engaged
to compose the music to Wolff's Gipsy drama, Preciosa. Two
months later this also was finished, and both pieces ready for
the stage.
In consequence of the unsatisfactory state of affairs at Dresden,
it had been arranged that both Preciosa and Der Freischiitz
no longer known by its original title, Des Jtigers Braut should
be produced at Berlin. In February 1821 Sir Julius Benedict
was accepted by Weber as a pupil; and to his pen we owe a
delightful account of the rehearsals and first performance of his
master's chef-d'ceuvre. Preciosa was produced with great success
at the old Berlin opera-house on the I4th of June 1821. On
the 1 8th of June, the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo, the
opening of the new " Schauspielhaus " was celebrated by the
production of Der Freischiitz. Much anxiety was caused by
unforeseen difficulties at the rehearsals; yet, so calm was Weber's
mind that he devoted his leisure time to the composition of his
Concertstiick in F minor one of his finest pianoforte pieces.
Until the last moment his friends were anxious; the author was
not ; and the result justified his confidence in his own powers.
The success of the piece was triumphant. The work was received
with equal enthusiasm at Vienna on the 3rd of October, and at
Dresden on the 26th of January 1822. Yet Weber's position
as kapellmeister was not much improved by his success, though,
in order to remain faithful to his engagements, he had refused
tempting offers at Berlin and Cassel, and, at the last-named
place, had installed Ludwig Spohr in a position much more
advantageous than his own.
For his next opera Weber accepted a libretto based, by Frau
Wilhelmine von Chezy, on the story of Euryanthe, as originally
told in the I3th century, in Gilbert de Montreuil's Roman de la
Violette, and repeated with alterations in the Decamerone, in
Shakespeare's Cymbeline, and in several later forms. In place
of the ghostly horrors of Der Freischiitz, the romantic element
was here supplied by the chivalric pomp of the middle ages.
The libretto is in one respect superior to that of Der Freischutz,
inasmuch as it substitutes elaborate recitative for the spoken
dialogue peculiar to the German " Schauspiel " and French
" opera comique. " It is, in fact, a " grand opera " in every
sense of the words, the prototype of the " music drama "
perfected fifty years later by Wagner. The overture as usual,
written last presents a feature that has never been imitated.
During its performance the curtain temporarily rises, to exhibit,
in a tableau vivant, the scene in the sepulchral vault upon which
the whole story turns. This direction is now rarely carried out;
but Weber himself well knew how much the interest of the piece
depended on it. The work was produced at the Karntnerthor
theatre in Vienna, on the zsth of October 1823, and received with
enthusiasm.
Weber's third and last dramatic masterpiece was an English
opera, written for Covent Garden theatre, upon a libretto
adapted by Planche from Wieland's Oberon. It was disfigured
by the spoken dialogue abandoned in Euryanthe; but in musical
beauty it is quite equal to it, while its fairies and. mermaids
are as vividly real as the spectres in Der Freischiitz. Though
already far gone in consumption, Weber began to compose the
music on the 23rd of January 1825. Charles Kemble had offered
him 1000 for the work, and he could not afford to rest. He
finished the overture in London, at the house of Sir George
Smart, soon after his arrival, in March 1826; and on the I2th
of April the work was produced with triumphant success. But
it cost the composer his life. Wearied out with rehearsals and
performances of the opera, and concerts at which he was received
with rapturous applause, he grew daily perceptibly weaker;
and, notwithstanding the care of his kind host, Sir George Smart,
and his family, he was found dead in his bed on the morning of
the sth of June 1826. For eighteen years his remains rested in
a temporary grave in Moorf?!ds chapel; but in 1844 they were
removed and placed in the family vault at Dresden, Wagner
making an eloquent speech.
Besides his three great dramatic masterpieces and the other
works already mentioned, Weber wrote two masses, two symphonies,
eight cantatas, and a large number of songs, orchestral and pianoforte
pieces, and music of other kinds, amounting altogether to more than
250 compositions. (W. S. R.)
Weber's style rises, in his three greatest works, to heights
which show his kinship with the great classics and the great
moderns. His intellect was quick and clear; but yet finer was
the force of character with which he overcame the disadvantages
of his feeble health, desultory education and the mistakes of his
youth. With such gifts of intellect and character, every moment
of his short life was precious to the world; and it is impossible
not to regret the placing of his training in the hands of Abt
Vogler. Weber's master was an amiable charlatan, whose
weakness as a teacher was thoroughly exposed, in perfect
innocence, by his two illustrious pupils. Meyerbeer wished
to be famous as the maker of a new epoch in opera. Weber
could not help being so in reality. But he was sadly hampered
by his master's inability to teach realities instead of appearances;
and to this impediment alone must we assign the fact that hi?
masterpieces do not begin earlier in his career. With extra-
ordinary rapidity and thoroughness he learnt English a year
before his death in order to compose Oberon^ with the result
458
WEBER, W. E. WEBER'S LAW
that there is only one obvious mistake in the whole work, and
the general correctness of declamation is higher than in most
of his German works. This is typical-of Weber's general culture,
mental energy and determination; points in which, as in many
traits in his music, he strikingly resembles Wagner. But all
his determination could not quite repair the defects of his purely
musical training, and though his weaknesses are not of glaring
effect in opera, still there are moments when even the stage
cannot explain them away. Thus the finale of Der Freischtttz
breaks down so obviously that no one thinks of it as anything
but a perfunctory winding-up of the story, though it really
might have made quite a fine subject for musical treatment. In
Euryanthe Weber attained his full power, and his inspiration
did not leave him in the lurch where this work needed large
musical designs. B ut the libretto was full of absurdities ; especially
in the last act, which not even nine remodellings under Weber's
direction could redeem. Yet it is easy to see why it fascinated
him, for, whatever may be said against it from the standpoints
of probability and literary merit, its emotional contrasts are
highly musical. Indeed it is through them that the defects invite
criticism.
Oberon is spoilt by the old local tradition of English opera
according to which its libretto admitted of no music during
the action of the drama. Thus Weber had in it no opportunity
for his musical stage-craft; apart from the fact that the action
itself is entirely without dramatic motive and passion, since
the characters are simply shifted from Bordeaux to Bagdad
whenever Oberon waves his wand.
Many attempts have been made to improve the libretti of
Euryanthe and Oberon, but none are quite successful, for Weber
has taken a great artist's pains in making the best of bad material.
All that can be said against Weber's achievements only reveals
the more emphatically how noble and how complete in essentials
was his success and his claim to immortality. His pianoforte
works, while showing his helplessness in purely musical form,
more than bear out his contemporary reputation as a very great
pianoforte player. They have a prbnounced theatrical tendency
which, in the case of such pieces of gay romanticism as the
Invitation a la danse and the Concertstttck, is amusing and by
no means inartistic. In orchestration Weber is one of the
greatest masters. His treatment of the voice is bold and
interesting, but very rash; and his declamation of words
is often incorrect. His influence on the music of his own day
is comparable to his influence on posterity; for he was not only
a most efficient director but a very persuasive journalist; and
(in spite of the inexperience that made him disapprove of
Beethoven) for all good music other than his own he showed a
growing enthusiasm that was infectious. (D. F. T.)
WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891), German physicist,
was born at Wittenberg on the 24th of October 1804, and was
a younger brother of Ernst Heinrich Weber, the author of Weber's
Law (see below). He studied at the university of Halle, where
he took his doctor's degree in 1826 and became extraordinary
professor of physics in 1828. Three years later he removed to
Gottingen as professor of physics, and remained there till 1837,
when he was one of the seven professors who were expelled from
their chairs for protesting against the action of the king of
Hanover (duke of Cumberland) in suspending the constitution.
A period of retirement followed this episode, but in 1843 he
accepted the chair of physics at Leipzig, and six years later
returned to Gottingen, where he died on the 23rd of June 1891.
Weber's name is especially known for his work on electrical
measurement. Until his time there was no established system
either of stating or measuring electrical quantities; but he showed,
as his colleague K. F. Gauss did for magnetic quantities, that
it is both theoretically and practically possible to define them,
not merely by reference to other arbitrary quantities of the same
kind, but absolutely in terms in which the units of length,
time, and mass are alone involved. He also carried on extensive
researches in the theory of magnetism; and it is interesting that
in connexion with his observations in terrestrial magnetism he
not only employed an early form of mirror galvanometer, but
also, about 1833, devised a system of electromagnetic telegraphy,
by which a distance of some 9000 ft. was worked over. In
conjunction with his elder brother he published in 1825 a well-
known treatise on waves, Die Wellenlehre auf Experimente
gegrundet; and in 1833 he collaborated with his younger brother,
the physiologist Eduard Friedrich Weber (1806-1871), in an
investigation into the mechanism of walking.
WEBER'S LAW, in psychology, the name given to a principle
first enunciated by the German scientist, Ernst Heinrich Weber
(1795-1878), who became professor at Leipzig (of anatomy,
1818, of physiology, 1840). He was specially famous for his
researches into aural and cutaneous sensations. His law, the
purport of which is that the increase of stimulus necessary to
produce an increase of sensation in any sense is not a fixed
quantity but depends on the proportion which the increase
bears to the immediately preceding stimulus, is the principal
generalization of that branch of scientific investigation which
has come to be known as psycho-physics (q.ii.).
According to Gustav Fechner (q.v.), who has done most to prosecute
these inquiries and to consolidate them under a separate name,
" psycho-physics is an exact doctrine of the relation of function or
dependence between body and soul." In other words, it is through-
out an attempt to submit to definite measurement the relation of
physical stimuli to the resulting psychical or mental facts, and forms
an important department of experimental psychology. It 'deals with
the quantitative aspects of mental facts their intensity or quantity
proper and their duration. Physical science enables us, at least in the
case of some of the senses, to measure with accuracy the objective
amount of the stimulus, and introspection enables us to state the
nature of the subjective resujt. Thus we are able to say whether a
stimulus produces any psychical result, and can fix in that way the
minimum sensibiie or " threshold of consciousness " for each of the
senses. In like manner (though with less accuracy, owing to the dis-
turbing nature of the conditions) we can fix the sensational maxi-
mum, or upper limit of sensibility, in the different senses, that is to
say, the point beyond which no increase of stimulus produces any
appreciable increase of sensation. We thus determine, as Wundt puts
it, the limit-values between which changes of intensity in the stimulus
are accompanied by changes in sensation. But the central inquiry of
psycho-physics remains behind. Between the quantitative mini-
mum and the quantitative maximum thus fixed can we discover any
definite relation betwee.n changes in the objective intensity of the
stimuli and changes in the intensity of the sensations as estimated by
consciousness. The answer of psycho-physics to this inquiry n
given in the generalization variously known as " Weber's law,"
Fechner's law," or the " psycho-physical law," which professes to
formulate with exactitude the relations which exist between change
of stimulus and change of sensation.
As we have no means of subjectively measuring the absolute
intensity of our sensations, it is necessary to depend upon the ir.ental
estimate or comparison of two or more sensations. Comparison
enables us to say whether they are equal in intensity, or if unequal
which is the greater and which is the less. But as they approach
equality in this respect it becomes more and more difficult to detect
the difference. By a series of experiments, therefore, it will 1 e
possible, in the case of any particular individual, to determine the
feast observable difference in intensity between two sensations of any
particular sense. This least observable difference is called by
Fechner the Unterschiedsschwelle or " difference-threshold," that is
to say, the limit of the discriminative sensibility of the sense in
question. That such a "threshold," or least observable difference,
exists is plain from very simple examples. Very small increases may
be made in the objective amount of light, sound or pressure that is,
in the physical stimuli applied to these senses without the subject
on whom the experiment is made detecting any change. It is further
evident that, by means of this Unterschiedsschwelle, it is possible to
compare the discriminative sensibility of different individuals, or of
different senses, or (as in the case of the skin) of different parts of the
same sense organ : the smaller the difference observable the finer the
discriminative sensibility. Thus the discrimination of the muscular
sense is much more delicate than that of the sense of touch or pressure,
and the discriminative sensibility of the skin and the retina varies
very much according to the parts of the surface affected. Various
methods have been adopted with a view to determine these minima
of discriminative sensibility with an approach to scientific precision.
The first is that employed by Weber himself, and has been named
the method of just observable differences. It consists either in
gradually adding to a given stimulus small amounts which at first
cause no perceptible difference in sensation but at a certain point do
cause a difference to emerge in consciousness, or, vice versa, in gradu-
ally decreasing the amount of additional stimulus, till the differenc-
originally perceived becomes imperceptible. By taking the averag
of a number of such results, the minimum may be determined with
tolerable accuracy. The second method is called by Fechner thr
method of correct and incorrect instances. When two stimuli ar
WEBSTER, A. WEBSTER, D.
459
very nearly equal the subject will often fail to recognize which is the
greater, saying sometimes that A is greater, sometimes that B is
greater. When in a large number of trials the right and Wrong
guesses exactly balance one another we may conclude that the
difference between the two stimuli is not appreciable by the sense.
On the other hand, as soon as the number of correct guesses definitely
exceeds half of the total number of cases, it may be inferred that
there is a certain subjective appreciation of difference. This
method was first employed by Vierordt. The third method, that of
average errors, is very similar to the one just explained. Here a
certain weight (to take a concrete example) is laid upon the hand of
the person experimented upon, and he is asked, by the aid of sub-
jective impression alone, to fix upon a second weight exactly equal
to the first. It is found that the second weight sometimes slightly
exceeds the first, sometimes slightly falls below it. Whether aoove
or below is of no consequence to the method, which depends solely
on the amount of the error. After a number of experiments, the
different errors are added together, and the result being divided by
the number of experiments gives us the average error which the
subject may be calculated upon to make. This marks the amount
of stimulus which is just below the difference-threshold for him.
This method was first employed by Fechner and Volkmann. The
different methods were first named, and the theory of their applica-
tion developed by Fechner in his Elemente der Psychophysik (1860).
A number of experimental variations have since been devised
by Wundt and others, but they are all reducible to the two
types of the " gradation " and " error " methods. These methods
have been chiefly applied to determine the relation of the
difference-threshold to the absolute magnitude of the stimuli
employed. For a very little reflection tells us that the smallest
perceivable difference is not an amount whose absolute intensity is
constant even within the same sense. It varies with the intensity
of the stimuli employed. We are unable, for example, to recognize
slight differences in weight when the weights compared are heavy,
though we should be perfectly able to make the distinction if the
weights compared were both light. Ordinary observation would
lead us, therefore, to the conclusion that the greater the intensity
of the original stimulus at work the greater must be the increase of
stimulus in order that there may be a perceptible difference in the
resulting sensation. Weber was the first (after a prolonged series of
experiments) to clothe this generality with scientific precision by
formulating the law which has since gone by his name. He showed
that the smallest perceptible difference is not absolutely the same,
but remains relatively the same, that is, it remains the same fraction
of the preceding stimulus. For example, if we can distinguish 16 oz.
and 17 oz., we shall be able to distinguish 32 oz. and 34 oz., but not
32 oz. and 33 pz., the addition being in each case fa of the preceding
stimulus. This fraction (supposing it to be the difference-threshold
of the muscular sense) remains a constant, however light or however
heavy the weights compared. The law may be formulated thus:
The difference between any two stimuli is experienced as of equal
magnitude, in case the mathematical relation of these stimuli
remains unaltered. Or, otherwise expressed, in order that the
intensity of a sensation may increase in arithmetical progression
the stimulus must increase in geometrical progression. It is also
expressed by Fechner in the form The sensation increases as the
logarithm of the stimulus.
Thelawhasbeen variously interpreted. Fechner himself designated
it the psycho-physical law, and treated it as the fundamental formula
of the relation between body and mind, thus assigning to it an
pntological dignity and significance. But in this " psycho-physical "
interpretation of his results he has not had a numerous following.
Wundt interprets the law in a purely " psychological " sense, making
it a special instance of the general law of relativity which governs
our mental states. Introspection can give us no information as to
the absolute intensity of the stimulus; fora stimulus is' known in
consciousness only through its sensational resultant. Hence, he
argues, we can only compare one psychical state with another, and
pur standard of measurement is therefore necessarily a relative one ;
it depends directly upon the preceding state with which we compare
the present. Others (e.g. G. E. Miiller) have attempted to give the
law a purely physical or " physiological " explanation. Instead of
holding with Fechner that the law expresses a recondite relation
between the material and the spiritual world, they prefer to regard
the quantitative relation between the last physical antecedent in
the brain and the resultant mental change as prima facie one of
simple proportion, and to treat Weber's law as holding between the
initial physical stimulus and the final action of the nerve-centres.
According to this interpretation, the law would be altogether due
to the nature of nervous action. As a nerve, says Sully, after a
temporary degree of stimulation temporarily loses its sensibility,
so the greater the previous stimulation of a nerve the greater is the
additional stimulus required to produce an appreciable amount of
sensation.
Weber's law, it must be added, holds only within certain limits.
In the " chemical " senses of taste and smell experiments are almost
impossible. It is not practicable to limit the amount of the stimulus
with the necessary exactitude, and the results are further vitiated
by the long continuance of the physiological effects. The same con-
siderations apply with still more force to the organic sensations, and
the results in the case of temperature sensations are completely
uncertain. The law is approximately true in the case of sight, hearing
pressure, and the muscular sense most exactly in the case of sound.
As this is the sense which affords the greatest facilities for measuring
the precise amount of the stimulus, it may perhaps be inferred that,
if we could attain the same exactitude in the other senses, with the
elimination of the numerous disturbing extraneous influences at work,
the law would vindicate itself with the same exactitude and certainty.
It is further to be noted, however, that even in those senses in which
it has been approximately verified, the law holds with stringency
only within certain limits. The results are most exact in the middle
regions of the sensory scale; when we approach the upper or lower
limit of sensibility they become quite uncertain.
LITERATURE. Weber's investigations were published as " Der
Tastsinn und das Gemeingefiihl," in Wagner's Handle orterbuch der
Physiologie r u\. (1846). Fechner's Elemente der Psychophysik (1860)
contains an elaborate exposition of the whole st-bject. He replied
to his critics in two later works, In Sachen der Psychophysik (1877)
and Revision der Hauptpunkte der Psychophysik (1882). Delbceuf's
Etude psychophysique (1873), Examen critique delaloi psychophysique
(1883), and Elements de psychophysique generate et speciale (1883),
and G. E. Miiller's Zur Grundlegung der Psychophysik (1878) are
also important documents; and the subject is fully treated in
Wundt's Qrundziige der physiologischen Psychologie (ed. 1902-1903),
and " Uber die Methode d. Minimalanderungen," in Philos. Stud.
(Leipzig, 1883), or, more popularly, in his Human and Animal
Psychology (2nd ed., 1892), Lectures 2, 3, 4. See also Ladd's Physio-
logical Psychology (1887), which is based upon Wundt; Meinong. in
Zeitschr. fur Psychologie, xi. (1896); Ziehen, Leitfaden der physio-
logischen Psychologie (7th ed., Jena, 1906) ; E. B. Titchener, Experi-
mental Psychology (ii., 1905) ; Professor James Ward's " Attempt to
Interpret Fechner's Law," in Mind, i. 452 sqq.; and generally text-
books of psychology, e.g. G. F. Stout's Manual of Psychology, bk. ii.
ch. 7 (following Meinong); James's Principles of Psychology, ch. 13;
Kiilpe's Outlines of Psychology, part i. chap. I and 3. (A. S. P.-P.)
WEBSTER, ALEXANDER (1707-1784), Scottish writer and
minister, son of James Webster, a covenanting minister, was
born in Edinburgh in 1707. Having become a minister in the
church of Scotland, he propounded a scheme in 1742 for provid-
ing pensions for the widows of ministers. The tables which he
drew up from information obtained from all the presbyteries
of Scotland were based on a system of actuarial calculation that
supplied a precedent followed by insurance companies in modern
times for reckoning averages of longevity. In 1755 the govern-
ment commissioned Webster to obtain data for the first census
of Scotland, which he carried out in the same year. In 1753
he was elected moderator of the General Assembly; in 1771
he was appointed a dean of the Chapel Royal and chaplain to
George III. in Scotland; and he died on the zsth of January
1784.
Webster published in 1748 his Cakulations, setting forth the
principles on which his scheme for widows' pensions was based; he
also wrote a defence of the Methodist movement in 1742, and Zeal
for the Civil and Religious Interests of Mankind Commended (1754)-
WEBSTER, BENJAMIN NOTTINGHAM (1797-1882), English
actor, manager and dramatic writer, was born in Bath on the
3rd of September 1797, the son of a dancing master. First
appearing as Harlequin, and then in small parts at Drury Lane,
he went to the Haymarket in 1829, and was given leading
comedy character business. He was the lessee of the Haymarket
from 1837; he built the new Adelphi theatre (1859); later the
Olympic, Princess's and St James's came under his control;
and he was the patron of all the contemporary playwrights and
many of the best actors, who owed their opportunity of success
to him. As a character actor he was unequalled in his day,
especially in such parts as Triplet in Masks and Faces, Joey
Ladle in No Thoroughfare, and John Peerybingle in his own
dramatization of The Cricket on the Hearth. He wrote, trans-
lated or adapted nearly a hundred plays. Webster took his
formal farewell of the stage in 1874, and he died on the 3rd of
July 1882. His daughter, Harriette Georgiana (d. 1897), was
the first wife of Edward Levy-Lawson, ist baron Burnham;
and his son, W. S. Webster, had three children Benjamin
Webster (b. 1864; married to Miss May Whitby), Annie (Mrs
A. E. George) and Lizzie (Mrs Sydney Brough) all well known
on the London stage, and further connected with it in each case
by marriage.
WEBSTER, DANIEL (1782-1852), American statesman,
was born in Salisbury (now Franklin), New Hampshire, on the
460
WEBSTER, D.
1 8th of January 1782. He was a descendant of Thomas Webster,
of Scottish ancestry, who settled in New Hampshire about 1636.
His father, Ebenezer Webster (1730-1806), was a sturdy frontiers-
man; when, in 1763, he built his log cabin in the town of Salis-
bury there was no habitation between him and Canada. He
was a member of Rogers' Rangers in the Seven Years' War,
served in the War of Independence, was for several years a
member of the New Hampshire legislature, was a delegate to
the New Hampshire convention which ratified the Federal
constitution, and was a justice of the court of common pleas for
his county. Daniel was a frail but clever child, and his family
made great sacrifices to give him and his elder brother Ezekiel
a good education. He attended Phillips Exeter Academy
about nine months in 1794, was further prepared for college
by Dr Samuel Wood, the minister at Boscawen, and graduated
at Dartmouth College in 1801. He was chosen Fourth of July
orator in Hanover, the college town, in 1800, and in his speech
appears the substance of the political principles for the develop-
ment of which he is chiefly famous. After graduation he began
the study of law in his native town. When in the following
winter money had to be earned to enable Ezekiel to remain in
college, Daniel accepted the principalship of the academy at
Fryeburg, Maine; but he resumed his law studies in the follow-
ing year, and in 1804, with Ezekiel's assistance, he was enabled
to go to Boston -and conclude his studies under Christopher
Gore (1758-1827), later governor of Massachusetts (1800-1810)
and a U.S. senator (1813-1816). Admitted to the bar in Boston
in 1805, Webster began the practice of law at Boscawen, but his
father died a year later, and Webster removed in the autumn
of 1807 to Portsmouth, then one of the leading commercial
cities of New England. Here he rose rapidly to eminence both
at the bar and in politics.
His political career began in earnest at the opening of the War
of 1812. He led the opposition in his state to the policy of
Madison's administration, was elected by the Federalists a
member of the National House of Representatives, and took
his seat in May 1813. Henry Clay, the speaker, appointed him
a member of the Committee on Foreign Relations, of which
John C. Calhoun was chairman, and for some forty years these
three constituted a great triumvirate in American politics.
Webster had been hi the House less than three weeks when he
greatly embarrassed the administration by introducing a set
of resolutions asking for information relating to the immediate
cause of the war. In January 1814, when a bill to encourage
enlistments was before the House, he attacked the conduct of
the war in his first great speech. An even more forcible speech,
delivered later in the same session, in support of a bill for repeal-
ing the embargo and non-importation acts, marked him as one
of the foremost men in Congress. He successfully opposed a
bill providing for what would have been practically an irredeem-
able currency, and he voted against the bill for chartering the
second United States bank, although it provided for the redemp-
tion of bank notes in specie, because he objected to permitting
the government to have so large a share in its management.
Webster removed to Boston in June 1816. This cost him his
seat in Congress after the 4th of March 1817, and for the next six
years he was engaged chiefly in the practice of law in the courts
of Massachusetts and before the U.S. Supreme Court.
His first leading case before the Supreme Court was the
Dartmouth College Case. In 1815, when the Dartmouth board
of trustees was rent by factions, the majority, who were Federal-
ists and Congregationalists, removed the president, John
Wheelock, who was a Presbyterian, and appointed Francis
Brown in his place. Wheelock appealed to the legislature in
the following year, when it was strongly Republican, and that
body responded by passing acts which virtually repealed the
charter received from George III., created a state university,
placed Wheelock at its head, and transferred to it the property
of the college. The case came before the Supreme Court of New
Hampshire in May 1817. Jeremiah Mason (1768-1848), a lawyer
of the first rank, Jeremiah Smith and Webster appeared for
the college, and argued that these acts were invalid because
they were not within the general scope of the legislature's power,
because they violated provisions of the state constitution and
because they violated the clause of the Federal Constitution
which prohibits a state from impairing the obligation of contracts
but the court decided against them. On the last point, however,
the case was carried to the Supreme Court of the United States,
and there Webster, presenting principally arguments of his
colleagues at the state trial and making a powerful appeal to
the emotions of the court, won the case for the college and for
himself the front rank at the American bar. The result, too,
vindicating as it did the supremacy of the Constitution of the
United States, was a substantial gain for that nationalism which
Webster advocated in his first Fourth of July oration at Hanover,
and the promotion of which was for the remainder of his career
his principal service to his country. His next great case was that
of M'Culloch v. Maryland Maryland had imposed a tax upon
the Baltimore branch of the Bank of the United States. The
Maryland Court of Appeals sustained the validity of this act.
Webster, supported by William Pinkney and William Wirt,
argued in February 1819, (i) that the power to establish a bank
was to be implied from the general power given to Congress to
administer the financial affairs of the nation, and was a means
of administering the finances which was appropriate and within
the discretion of Congress; (2) that " the power to tax is the power
to destroy," and that a state had not the constitutional power
to impose a tax upon any instrumentality of the government
of the United States. The Supreme Court sustained these argu-
ments and the act of Maryland was held to be void. Four years
later (1823) Webster argued the case of Gibbons v. Ogden. The
state of New York, in order to reward the enterprise of Robert
R. Livingston and the inventive genius of Robert Fulton in the
application of the steam engine to traffic on the water, had given
to them a monopoly of all transportation by steam within the
waters of New York. The highest court of that state sustained
the validity of the monopoly. Gibbons, who had begun to run
a steamboat from New Jersey, appealed to the Supreme Court.
Webster argued that the Federal Constitution gave to Congress
control over interstate commerce, and that any interference .
by the legislature of a state with this commerce was unconstitu-
tional and void. The Supreme Court so held; its opinion,
written by Chief Justice Marshall, being little else than a recital
of Webster's argument. In the case of Ogden v. Sounders,
heard in 1824 and reheard in 1827, in which the question was the
validity or invalidity of the insolvent laws of the several states,
Webster argued that the clause prohibiting a state from impairing
the obligation of contracts applied to future as well as to past
contracts, but the court decided against him.
Meanwhile Webster had come to be recognized as the first
American orator. His oration at Plymouth, on the 22nd of
December 1820, on the second centennial anniversary of the
landing of the Pilgrims, placed him in this rank. No man
mastered more thoroughly the fundamental principles of govern-
ment and the currents of feeling which influence the destiny of
nations. His oration in 1825 at the laying of the corner stone
of the Bunker Hill monument contained perhaps the clearest
statement to be found Aywhere of the principles underlying
the American War of Independence. In the following year
Webster delivered his oration in commemoration of the second
and third presidents of the United States John Adams and
Thomas Jefferson who died on the 4th of July 1826; it is
particularly remarkable for Adams's imaginary reply in the
Continental Congress to the arguments against a Declaration
of Independence, beginning with the familiar quotation: " Sink
or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I gave my hand and
my heart to this vote." Webster's physical endowments as
an orator were extraordinary. Thomas Carlyle thus describes
him as he appeared in London in 1839.
" Not many days ago I saw at breakfast the notablest of your
notabilities, Daniel Webster. He is a magnificent specimen. You
might say to all the world, ' This is our Yankee Englishman ; such
limbs we make in Yankee land! ' As a logic fencer, or parliamentar
Hercules, one would be inclined to back him at first sight against a
the extant world. The tanned complexion, that amorphous crag-lik
WEBSTER, D.
461
face; the dull black eyes under the precipice of brows, like dull
anthracite furnaces, needing only to be blown; the mastiff mouth
accurately closed; I have not traced so much of silent Berserkir
rage that I remember in any man."
In 1820 Webster took an important part in the convention
called to revise the constitution of Massachusetts, his arguments
in favour of removing the religious test, in favour of retaining
property representation in the Senate, and in favour of
increasing the independence of the judiciary, being especially
notable. He was a member of the National House of Repre-
sentatives from 1823 to 1827 and of the Senate from 1827 to
1841. Soon after returning to the House he supported in a
notable speech a resolution to send a commissioner to Greece,
then in insurrection.
The tariff was to him a distasteful subject, and he was governed
in his attitude toward it largely by the wishes of the majority
of his constituents. He opposed the tariff bill of 1816 and in
1824, and he repudiated the name of " American system,"
claimed by Clay for his system of protection. When, however,
the tariff bill of 1828, which was still more protective, came up
for discussion, Webster had ceased to oppose protection; but
he did not attempt to argue in favour of it. He stated that
his people, after giving warning in 1824 that they would consider
protection the policy of the Government, had gone into protected
manufactures, and he now asked that that policy be not reversed
to the injury of his constituents. In later speeches, too, he
defended protection rather as a policy under which industries
had been called into being than as advisable if the stage had been
clear for the adoption of a new policy.
The tariff of 1828 aroused bitter opposition in South Carolina,
and called from Vice-President Calhoun the statement of the
doctrine of nullification which was adopted by the South Carolina
legislature at the close of the year and is known as the South
Carolina Exposition. Senator Robert Y. Hayne, from the same
state, voiced this doctrine in the Senate, and Webster's reply
was his most powerful exposition of the national conception
of the Union. The occasion of this famous Webster-Hayne
debate was the introduction by Senator Samuel A. Foote (1780-
1846) of Connecticut of a resolution of inquiry into the expediency
of restricting the sales of the Western lands. This was on the
2Qth of December 1829, and after Senator Benton of Missouri
had denounced the resolution as one inspired by hatred of the
East for the West, Hayne, on the igth of January 1830, made
a vigorous attack on New England, and declared his opposition
to a permanent revenue from the public lands or any other
source on the ground that it would promote corruption and the
consolidation of the government and " be fatal to the sovereignty
and independence of the states." Webster's brief reply drew
from Hayne a second speech, in which he entered into a full
exposition of the doctrine of nullification, and the important
part of Webster's second reply to Hayne on the 26th and 27th
of January is a masterly exposition of the Constitution as in
his opinion it had come to be after a development of more
than forty years. He showed the revolutionary and unpractical
character of any doctrine such as nullification (q.v.) based on the
assumption that the general government was the agent of the
state legislatures. It placed the general government, he said,
in the absurd position of a " servant of four-and-twenty masters,
of different wills and different purposes, and yet bound to obey
all." He then argued at length that the correct assumption was
that both the general government and the state government
were " all agents of the same supreme power, the people," that
the people had established the Constitution of the United
States and that in the Supreme Court, established under that
Constitution, was vested the final decision on all constitutional
questions. Whatever may be said of the original creation of
the Constitution, whether by the states or by the people, its
development under the influences of a growing nationalism
was a strong support to Webster's argument, and no other
speech so strengthened Union sentiment throughout the North;
its keynote was " Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and
inseparable." South Carolina, however, insisted that its doctrine
was sound, and in November 1832 passed an ordinance declaring
the revenue laws of the United States null and void. President
Jackson responded with a proclamation denying the right of
nullification, and asked Congress for authority to collect the
revenue in South Carolina by force if necessary. A bill, known
as the Force Bill, was introduced in the Senate, and in the
debate upon it Webster had an encounter with Calhoun. His
reply to Calhoun, printed as " The Constitution not a compact
between sovereign States," is one of his closest legal arguments,
but somewhat overmatched by the keen logic of his adversary.
Webster's support of President Jackson in the South Carolina
trouble helped to drive Calhoun into an alliance with Clay; and
Clay, whose plan of preserving the Union was by compromise,
came forward with a bill for greatly reducing the tariff. Webster,
strongly opposed to yielding in this way, made a vigorous speech
against the bill, but it passed and South Carolina claimed a
victory. In the same year (1833) the Whig party began to take
definite form under the leadership of Clay, in opposition, chiefly,
to President Jackson's bank policy, and Webster joined the
ranks behind Clay with an aspiration for the presidency. He
was formally nominated for that office by the Massachusetts
legislature in 1835, and received the electoral vote of that state,
but of that state only. Four years later his party passed him
by for William Henry Harrison, the hero of Tippecanoe, and
Webster refused the proffered nomination for vice-president.
President Harrison appointed Webster secretary of state but
died one month after taking office. John Tyler, who succeeded
to the presidency, was soon " read out of his party," and all
his cabinet except Webster resigned. Webster hesitated, but
after consultation with a delegation of Massachusetts Whigs
decided to remain. Although he was severely criticized there
were good reasons for his decision. When he entered office the
relations between the United States and Great Britain were
critical. The M'Leod case 1 in which the state of New York
insisted on trying a British subject, with whose trial the Federal
government had no power to interfere, while the British govern-
ment had declared that it would consider conviction and execu-
tion a casus belli; the exercise of the hateful right of search by
British vessels on the coast of Africa; the Maine boundary,
as to which the action of a state might at any time bring the
Federal government into armed collision with Great Britain
all these at once met the new secretary, and he felt that he had
no right to abandon his work for party reasons. With the special
commissioner from Great Britain, Lord Ashburton, he concluded
the treaty of 1842 known as the Webster-Ashburton Treaty.
Differences arising out of the M'Leod case were adjusted by extend-
ing the principle of extradition. The question of the suppression
of the African slave trade, with which was connected the right
of search, was settled by an agreement that each nation should
keep in service off the coast of Africa a squadron carrying not
fewer than eighty guns, and that the two squadrons should act
in concert when necessary. The North-east boundary dispute
was settled by a compromise which allowed Maine about 5500
sq. m. less than she had claimed, and allowed Great Britain
about as much less on her claim, and by an agreement on the
part of the government of the United States to pay to Maine
and Massachusetts " in equal moieties " the sum of $30x3,000
for their assent (see MAINE).
Immediately after the treaty had been concluded the Whigs
insisted that Webster should leave the cabinet. He refused,
for a time, to be driven, but because of their continued attacks,
together with his ambition to become president, and because
Tyler favoured the annexation of Texas while he was opposed
to it, he resigned in May 1843. He was forgiven by his party
in the following year, but not until the opposition, provoked
by the retention of his position under Tyler, had ruined whatever
1 This case grew out of the Canadian rebellion of 1837. Alexander
M'Leod boasted in November 1840 that he was one of a Canadian
party who, on the 29th of December 1837, had captured and burned
a small American steamboat, the " Caroline," and in the course of
the attack had shot Amos Durfee. The Canadian commander
had regarded the " Caroline " as being in the service of the insurgents
and had asked for volunteers to destroy her (see SEWARD, W. H.).
462
WEBSTER, J.
chance he might have had in that year of receiving the presidential
nomination. In June 1843, on the occasion of the completion
of the Bunker Hill monument, Webster delivered another classic
oration. In February 1844 he argued the Girard Will Case
before the United States Supreme Court. Stephen Girard (q.v.)
had devised and bequeathed the residue of his estate for the
establishment and maintenance of Girard College, in which no
minister of the Gospel of any sect or denomination whatever
should be admitted. The suit was brought to break the will,
and Webster, for the plaintiffs, after stating that the devise
could stand only on condition that it was a charity, argued
that it was not a charity because no teaching was such except
Christian teaching. He made an eloquent plea for Christianity,
but his case was weak in law, and the court sustained the will.
Webster was returned to the Senate in 1845. He opposed the
annexation of Texas and the Mexican War, and was, as before,
the recognized spokesman of his party. At the beginning of the
quarrel of the North and the South over the organization of the
territory acquired from Mexico, Calhoun contended that the
Constitution of the United States extended over this territory
and carried slavery with it, but Webster denied this on the
ground that the territory was the property of, not part of, the
. United States, and Webster's view prevailed. The whole mattei
had, therefore, to be adjusted by Congress, and as the growing
intensity of the quarrel revealed the depth of the chasm between
the sections, Clay came forward with the famous compromise of
1850, and Webster's last great speech " The Constitution and the
Union," or as it is more commonly known " The Seventh of March
Speech " was in support of this Compromise. It was a noble
effort to secure a lasting settlement of the slavery question, but
he was bitterly denounced throughout the north as a renegade. In
July 1850 Webster again became secretary of state, in the cabinet
of President Fillmore. Perhaps the most important act of his
second term was obtaining the release of Kossuth and other Hun-
garian refugees who had fled to Turkey, and whose surrender had
been demanded by the Austrian government. He died at his
home in Marshfield, Massachusetts, on the 24th of October 1852.
Webster was twice married first in 1808 to Grace, daughter
of Rev. Elijah Fletcher, a New Hampshire clergyman. She died
in 1828, leaving two sons, Daniel Fletcher, killed in the second
battle of Bull Run, and Edward, a major in the United States
army, who died while serving in the Mexican War, and a daughter
Julia, who married Samuel Appleton. Webster's second wife was
Caroline Le Roy, daughter of Jacob Le Roy, a New York
merchant. He was married to her in 1829 and she survived him.
The universal expression of respect and admiration at the time
of Webster's death showed that he had retained the confidence
of his people. Never, since the death of Washington, had there
been in the United States such a universal expression of public
sorrow and bereavement. It is not too much to say that the
conviction of the justice of their cause that carried the northern
states successfully through the Civil War was largely due to the
arguments of Webster. He had convinced the majority of the
people that the government created by the Constitution was not
a league or confederacy, but a Union, and had all the powers
necessary to its maintenance and preservation. He had con-
vinced the Supreme Court, and established the principle in
American jurisprudence, that whenever a power is granted by a
Constitution, everything that is fairly and reasonably involved
in the exercise of that power is granted also. He established the
freedom of the instrumentalities of the national government
from adverse legislation by the states; freedom of commerce
between the different states; the right of Congress to regulate
the entire passenger traffic through and from the United States,
and the sacredness of public franchises from legislative assault.
The establishment of these principles was essential to the integrity
and permanence of the American Union.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Works of Daniel Webster (6 vols., Boston,
1851) contain a biographical memoir by Edward Everett; G. T.
Curtis, Life of Daniel Webster (2 vols., New York, 1870) is the most
complete biography, but it is written wholly from an admirer's
point of view. See also J. W. Mclntyre (ed.), Writings and Speeches
of Daniel Webster (18 vols., Boston, 1903); Fletcher Webster (ed.),
Daniel Webster's Private Correspondence (2 vols., Boston, 1857) ; H. C.
Lodge, Daniel Webster (Boston, 1899) ; J. B. McMaster, Daniel Webster
(New York, 1902) ; E. P. Wheeler, Daniel Webster, the Expounder
of the Constitution (New York, 1905); S. W. McCall, Daniel Webster
(Boston, 1902); and Norman Hapgood, Daniel Webster (Boston
1899). (E. P. W.; X.)
WEBSTER, JOHN (fl. 1602-1624), English dramatist, was
writer for the stage in the year 1602, when he had a share in three
plays noted by Philip Henslow, and he published in 1624 the
city pageant for that year, " invented and written by John
Webster, merchant-tailor." In the same year a tragedy by
Ford and Webster, A late Murther of the Sonn upon the Mother,
was licensed for the stage; it is one of the numberless treasures
now lost to us through the carelessness of genius or the malignity
of chance. Beyond the period included between these two dates
there are no traces to be found of his existence; nor is anything
known of it with any certainty during that period, except that
seven plays appeared with his name on the title page, three of
them only the work of his unassisted hand. He was the author
of certain additions to Marston's tragi-comedy of The Malcontent
(1604); these probably do not extend beyond the induction, a
curious and vivacious prelude to a powerful and irregular work
of somewhat morbid and sardonic genius. Three years later, in
1607, two comedies and a tragedy, " written by Thomas Dekker
and John Webster," were given to the press. The comedies are
lively and humorous, full of movement and incident; but the
beautiful interlude of poetry which distinguishes the second
scene of the fourth act of Westward Hot is unmistakably and
unquestionably the work of Dekker; while the companion
comedy of Northward Hoi is composed throughout of homespun
and coarse-grained prose. The Famous History of Sir Thomas
Wyatt is apparently a most awkward and injurious abridgment
of an historical play in two parts on a pathetic but undramatic
subject, the fate of Lady Jane Grey. In this lost play of Lady
Jane (noted by Henslow in 1602) Heywood, Dekker, Chettle and
Smith had also taken part; so that even in its original form it
can hardly have been other than a rough piece of patchwork.
There are some touches of simple eloquence and rude dramatic
ability in the mangled and corrupt residue which is all that
survives of it; but on the whole this " history " is crude, meagre,
and unimpressive. In 1612 John Webster stood revealed to the
then somewhat narrow world of readers as a tragic poet and
dramatist of the very foremost rank in the very highest class.
The White Devil, also known as Vittoria Corombona, 1 is a tragedy
based on events then comparatively recent on a chronicle
of crime and retribution in which the leading circumstances
weie altered and adapted with the most delicate art and the most
consummate judgment from the incompleteness of incomposite
reality to the requisites of the stage of Shakespeare. By him
alone among English poets have the finest scenes and passages of
this tragedy been ever surpassed or equalled in the crowning
qualities of tragic or dramatic poetry in pathos and passion,
in subtlety and strength, in harmonious variety of art and
infallible fidelity to nature. Eleven years had elapsed when the
twin masterpiece of its author if not indeed a still greater or
more absolute masterpiece was published by the poet who had
given it to the stage seven years before. The Duchess of Malfy 2
(an Anglicized version of Amalfi, corresponding to such designa-
tions as Florence, Venice and Naples) was probably brought on
the stage about the time of the death of Shakespeare; it was
first printed in the memorable year which witnessed the first
publication of his collected plays. This tragedy stands out among
its compeers as one of the imperishable and ineradicable land-
marks of literature. All the great qualities apparent in The While
Devil reappear in The Duchess of Malfy, combined with a yet more
perfect execution, and utilized with a yet more consummate
1 The White Divel; or, The Tragedy of Paulo Giordano Ursini,
Duke of Brachiano, with the Life and Death of Vittoria Corombona,
the famous Venetian Curtizan (1612). Other editions, with varying
title-pages, 1631, 1665, 1672.
2 The Dutchess of Malfey, A Tragedy. As it was approi<edly well
acted at Blackfriers . . . (1623). The plot is taken from a novel
by Bandello, and is also the subject of a tragedy by Lope de Vega,
El Mayor Domo de la duquessa d Amalfi.
WEBSTER, N. WEBSTER, T.
463
skill. No poet has ever so long and so successfully sustained
at their utmost height and intensity the expressed emotions and
the united effects of terror and pity. The transcendent imagina-
tion and the impassioned sympathy which inspire this most
tragic of all tragedies save King Lear are fused together in the
fourth act into a creation which has hardly been excelled for
unflagging energy of impression and of pathos in all the dramatic
or poetic literature of the world. Its wild and fearful sublimity
of invention is not more exceptional than the exquisite justice
and tenderness and subtlety of its expression. Some of these
executive merits may be found in an ill-constructed and ill-con-
ditioned tragi-comedy which was printed in the same year; but
few readers will care to remember much more of The Devil's Law
Case than the admirable scenes and passages which found favour
in the unerring and untiring sight of Webster's first and final
interpreter or commentator, CharlesLamb. Thirty-one yearslater
(1654) the noble tragedy of Appius and Virginia was given to the
world a work which would alone have sufficed to perpetuate
the memory of its author among all competent lovers of English
poetry at its best. Seven years afterwards an unprincipled
and ignorant bookseller published, under the title of Two New
Playes: viz. A Cure for a Cuckold: a Comedy. The Thracian
Wonder, A Comical History. As it hath been several times acted
with great Applause, two plays of which he assigned the authorship
to John Webster and William Rowley. This attribution may
or may not be accurate; the former play is a mixture of coarsely
realistic farce and gracefully romantic comedy. An elegy on
Henry, prince of Wales, and a few slight occasional verses, com-
pose the rest of Webster's remaining extant works.
[Edward Phillips, in his Theatrum poelarum, wrongly attri-
buted to him a share in The Weakest goes to the Wall. The play
of Guise, mentioned by Webster himself in the introduction to
The Devil's Law Case, is lost.]
Webster's claims to a place among the chief writers of his
country were ignored for upwards of two centuries. In 1830
the Rev. Alexander Dyce first collected and edited the works
of a poet who had found his first adequate recognition twenty-
two years earlier at the pious and fortunate hands of Lamb.
But we cannot imagine that a presentiment or even a fore-
knowledge of this long delay in the payment of a debt so long
due from his countrymen to the memory of so great a poet would
seriously have disturbed or distressed the mind of the man who
has given us the clue to his nature in a single and an imperishable
sentence " I rest silent in my own work." (A. C. S.)
See The Works of John Webster; with some Account of the Author
and Notes, by Alexander Dyce (new ed., 1857) ; The Dramatic Works
of John Webster, edited by William Hazlitt the younger (1857);
The Best Plays of Webster and Tourneur, edited by J. A. Symonds
fr the" Mermaid "series (1888-1903) ; Love's Graduate . . . (Oxford,
1885), in which Webster's supposed share in A Cure for a Cuckold is
presented separately by S. Spring-Rice, with an introduction by
EJmund Gosse. See also E. Gosse, Seventeenth-Century Studies
(1883); and especially an exhaustive treatise by E. E. Stoll, John
Webster, The Periods of his Work as determined by his Relations to the
Drama of his Day (Boston, Massachusetts, 1905). Mr Stoll's account
1 1. 42) shows that the additional biographical suggestions made by
Mr Sidney Lee in his article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. are not supported.
WEBSTER, NOAH (1758-1843), American lexicographer
and journalist, was born at West Hartford, Connecticut, on the
i6th of October 1758. He was descended from John Webster
of Hartford, governor of Connecticut in 1656-1657, and on his
mother's side from Governor William Bradford of Plymouth.
He entered Yale in 1774, graduating in 1778. He studied law,
and was admitted to the bar at Hartford in 1781. In 1782-1783
he taught in a classical school at Goshen, New York, and became
convinced of the need of better textbooks of English. In 1783-
1 785 he published at Hartford A Grammatical Institute of the
English Language, in three parts, a spelling-book, a grammar and
a reader. This was the pioneer American work in its field, and it
soon found a place in most of the schools of the United States.
During the twenty years in which Webster was preparing his
dictionary, his income from the spelling-book, though the royalty
was less than a cent a copy, was enough to support his family;
and before 1861 the sale reached more than a million copies a
year. The wide use of this book contributed greatly to uni-
formity of pronunciation in the United States, and, with his
dictionary, secured the general adoption in the United States of
a simpler system of spelling than that current in England. In
1 785 he published Sketches of American Policy, in which he argued
for a constitutional government whose authority should be vested
in Congress. This he regarded as the first distinct proposal
for a United States Constitution, and when in 1787 the work of
the commissioners was completed at Philadelphia, where Webster
was then living as superintendent of an academy, he wrote in
behalf of the constitution an Examination of the Leading Principles
of the Federal Constitution. In 1 788 he started in New York the
American Magazine, but it failed at the end of a year, and he
resumed the practice of law at Hartford. In 1793, in order to
support Washington's administration, he removed to New York
and established a daily paper, the Minerva (afterwards the
Commercial Advertiser), and later a semi-weekly paper, the Herald
(afterwards the New York Spectator). In 1798 he removed to
New Haven. He served in the Connecticut House of Represen-
tatives in 1800 and 1802-07, and as a county judge in 1807-11. In
1807 he published A Philosophical and Practical Grammar of the
English Language. In 1806 he had brought out A Compendious
Dictionary of the English Language, and in 1807 he began work
on his dictionary. While engaged on it he removed in 1812 to
Amherst, Massachusetts, where he was president of the Board of
Trustees of the Academy and assisted in founding Amherst Col-
lege. He was also a member of the General Court of Massa-
chusetts. In 1822 he returned to New Haven, and the next
year he received the degree of LL.D. from Yale. He spent a
year (1824-1825) abroad, working on his dictionary, in Paris and
at the university of Cambridge, where he finished his manuscript.
The work came out in 1828 in two volumes. It contained
12,000 words and from 30,000 to 40,000 definitions that had not
appeared in any earlier dictionary. An English edition soon
followed. In 1840 the second edition, corrected and enlarged,
came out, in two volumes. He completed the revision of an
appendix a few days before his death, which occurred in New
Haven on the 28th of May 1843.
The dictionary was revised in 1847 under the editorship of Professor
Chauncey A. Goodrich and published in one volume. In 1859 a
pictorial edition was issued. In 1864 it was revised mainly under
the direction of Professor Noah Porter, and again in 1890 under the
same direction, the latter revision appearing with the title of the
International Dictionary of the English Language. The latter was
again issued in 1900, with a supplement of 25,000 words and phrases,
under the supen ision of William Torrey Harris, who edited another
revision, in 1909, under "-he title of the New International Dictionary
of the English Language, u has frequently been abridged.
Among Webster's other works are Dissertations on the English
Language (1789), a course of lectures that he had given three years
before in some of the chief American cities; Essays (1790); The
Revolution in France (1794); A Brief History of Epidemics and
Pestilential Diseases (1799), in two vpls. ; The Rights of Neutral
Nations in Time of War (1802); Historical Notices of the Origin and
State of Banking Institutions and Insurance Offices (1802); and A
Collection of Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral Subjects (1843),
which included " On the Supposed Change in the Temperature of
Winter," a treatise showing long and careful research. He
aiso published Governor John Winthrqp's Journal in 1790. ami
wrote a History of the United States, of which a revised edition ap-
peared in 1839.
See Memoir of Noah Webster by his son-in-law, Professor Chauncey
A. Goodrich, in the quarto editions of the Dictionary, also Noon
Webster (1882), by 'Horace E. Scudder, in " American Men of
Letters."
WEBSTER, THOMAS (1773-1844), British geologist, was born
in the Orkney Isles in 1773, and was educated at Aberdeen. He
subsequently went to London and studied architecture, the
Royal Institution in Albemade Street being built from his design.
In 1826 he was appointed house-secretary and curator to the
Geological Society of London, and for many years he rendered
important services in editing and illustrating the Transactions of
the Society. In 1841-1842 he was professor of geology in Univer-
sity 'College, London. He was distinguished for his researches
on the Tertiary formations of the Isle of Wight, where he recog-
nized the occurrence of both fresh-water and marine strata; he
continued his observations on trie mainland of Hampshire, and
WEBSTER, T. WEDDERBURN
subsequently in Dorsetshire, where he described the Purbeck and
Portland rocks. To him Sir Henry C. Englefield (1752-1822)
was indebted for the geological descriptions and the effective
geological views and sections of the Isle of Wight and Dorset
that enriched his Description of the Principal Picturesque Beauties,
Antiquities and Geological Phenomena of the Isle of Wight (1816).
The mineral Websterite was named after him. He died in
London on the 26th of December 1844.
WEBSTER, THOMAS (1800-1886), English figure painter, was
born at Ranelagh Street, Pimlico, London, on the 2oth of March
1800. His father was a member of the household of George III.;
and the son, having shown an aptitude for music, became a
chorister in the Chapel Royal, St James's. He, however,
developed a still stronger love for painting, and in 1821 he was
admitted student of the Royal Academy, to whose exhibition he
contributed, in 1824, portraits of " Mrs Robinson and Family."
In the following year he gained the first medal in the school of
painting. Till 1 879 he continued to exhibit in the Royal Academy
work of a genial and gently humorous character, dealing com-
monly with subjects of familiar incident, and especially of child
life. Many of these were exceedingly popular, particularly his
" Punch " (1840), which procured in 1841 his election as A.R.A.,
followed five years later by full membership. He became an
honorary retired academician in 1877, and died at Cranbrook,
Kent, on the 23rd of September 1886. His " Going into School,
or the Truant" (1836), and his "Dame's School" (1845) are
in the National Gallery, and five of his works are in the South
Kensington Museum.
WEBSTER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the French river, about 16 m. S.S.W. of Worcester.
Pop. (1890) 7031; (1900) 8804, of whom 3562 were foreign-
born; (1910 census), 11,509. Land area (1906), 12-19 S Q- m -
Webster is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and
the Boston & Albany railways, and by interurban electric lines.
In the township is Lake Chaubunagungamaug, a beautiful sheet
of water about 2 sq. m. in area. The manufacture of textiles
and of boots and shoes is the principal industry; the total
value of the factory product in 1905 was $5,867,769. Webster
was founded by Samuel Slater (1768-1835), who in 1812 built
cotton-mills and in 1815-1816 began the manufacture of woollen
cloth. The township, named in honour of Daniel Webster, was
erected in 1832 from common lands and from parts of Dudley
and Oxford townships, which before the cotton-mills were built
here were almost uninhabited.
See Holmes Ammidown, Historical Collections (New York, 1874),
vol. i. pp. 461-524.
WECKHERLIN, GEORG RUDOLF (1584-1653), German
poet, was born at Stuttgart on the isth of September 1584.
After studying law he settled at Stuttgart, and, as secretary to
the Duke Johann Friedrich of Wiirttemberg, was employed on
diplomatic missions to France and England. Between 1620
and 1624 he lived in England in the service of the Palatinate,
and seems also to have been employed by the English govern-
ment. In 1644 he was appointed " Secretary for Foreign
Tongues " in England, a position in which, on the establishment
of the Commonwealth, he was followed byMilton. He died in
London on the i3th of February 1653. Weckherlin was the
most distinguished of the circle of South German poets who
prepared the way for the Renaissance movement associated in
Germany with Martin Opitz. Two volumes of his Oden und
Gesdnge appeared in 1618 and 1619; his collected Geistliche
und weltlkhe Gedichte in 1641. His models were the poets
of the French PUiade, and with his psalms, odes and sonnets
he broke new ground for the German lyric. An epic poem on
the death of Gustavus Adolphus, in alexandrines, seems to have
won most favour with his contemporaries.
Weckherlin's Gedichte have been edited by H. Fischer for the
SluttgarlerLiterarischerVerein(vo\s. cxcix.-cc., 1894-1895). Selections
were published by W. Muller (1823) and K. Goedeke (1873). See
also C. P. Conz, Nachrichten von dem Leben und den Schriften Weckher-
lins (1803) ; E. Hopfner, G. R. Weckherlins Oden und Gesange (1865) ;
H. Fischer, Beitrage zur Literaturgeschichte Schivabens (1891), and the
same author's article in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1896).
WEDDERBURN, JAMES (i495?-i533), JOHN (1500-1556)
and ROBERT (i5io?-?i556), Scottish poets and religious re-
formers, were natives of Dundee, where their father James
Wedderburn was a prosperous merchant. All three brothers
studied at St Andrews University. James Wedderburn, who
had gone to St Andrews in 1514, was for a time in France prepar-
ing for a mercantile career. On his return to Dundee in 1514
he received instruction in the Reformed faith from Friar Hewat,
a Dominican monk. He composed a play on the beheading
of St John the Baptist, and another, a morality satirizing church
abuses, in the setting of episodes from the story of Dionysius
the Tyrant, both of which were performed in 1540 in the play-
field of Dundee. Neither of these nor a third ascribed to him
by Calderwood, the historian, are extant. A charge cf heresy
was brought against him, but he escaped to France, and established
himself as a merchant at Rouen or Dieppe, where he lived un-
molested until his death in 1553, although attempts were made
by the Scottish community there to bring further charges against
him.
John Wedderburn graduated M.A. at St Andrews in 1528.
He took priests' orders and appears to have held the chaplaincy
of St Matthews, Dundee, but in March 1539 he was accused of
heresy, apparently for having, in conjunction with his brothers,
written some anti-Catholic ballads. He escaped to Wittenberg,
where with other of his compatriots he received the teaching of
the German reformers. There he gained an acquaintance with
the Lutheran hymns, which he turned to account on his return
to Scotland. The death of James V. and the known leanings
of the regent, the earl of Arran, to reform, encouraged many
exiles, Wedderburn among them, to revisit Scotland. It is
probable that he was the author of the greater portion of the
Compendious Book of Psalms and Spiritual Songs which contains
a large number of hymns from the German. The enormous
influence of the collection, with its added Gude and Godlie
Ballalis, on Scottish reform, is attested by the penalties enacted
against the authors and printers of these books. John Wedder-
burn was in Dundee as late as 1546, when he was obliged to flee
to England. John Johnston in his Coronis mar ty rum says he
died in exile in 1556.
Robert Wedderburn, who graduated M.A. in 1530, was
ordained priest, and succeeded his uncle John Barry as vicar of
Dundee; but before he came into actual possession he also was
suspected of heresy, and was compelled to flee to France and
Germany. He returned to Scotland in 1546. He appears to
have been actual vicar of Dundee in 1552. His sons were
legitimized in January 1553.
The earliest known edition of the Compendious Book of Psalms and
Spiritual Songs (of which an unique copy is extant) dates back to
1567, though the contents were probably published in broad sheets
during John Wedderburn's lifetime. It consists of a calendar and
almanac, a catechism, hymns, many of them translations from the
German, metrical versions of the Psalms, and a collection of ballads
and satirical poems against the Catholic church and clergy. The
separate shares of the brothers in this compilation cannot be settled,
but Robert is said to have edited the whole and added the sect ion of
" gude and godlie ballatis." Many of these ballads are adapted from
secular songs. Editions of the book appeared in 1578 (printed by
John Ros), in 1600 (by Robert Smith), in 1621 (by Andro Hart);
selections were published by Lord Hailes (1765) and by Sibbald
(1802) ; a reprint of the 1621 volume was edited by Sir J. G. Dalyell
in Scotish Poems of the Sixteenth Century (1801); and of the 1578
volume by David Laing in 1868. In 1897 Professor A. F. Mitchell
reprinted the 1 567 volume (expurgated) for the Scottish Text Society.
" Vedderburn's " Complainte of Scotlande (1549) has been variously
assigned to Robert Wedderburn, to Sir David Lyndsay and to Sir
James Inglis, who was chaplain of the Abbey of Cambuskenneth
from about 1508 to 1550. It is a prose treatise pleading for the
maintenance of the Scottish alliance with France, written by a
determined enemy of England and of the English party in Scotland.
It is dedicated to Mary of Guise, and consists of the " Dreme " of
Dame Scotia and her complaint against her three sons. These two
sections are connected by a " Monologue Recreatif," in which the
author displays his general knowledge of popular songs, dances and
tales, of astronomy, natural history and naval matters. Four copies
of this work are extant, but in none is the title-page preserved. In
the Harleian catalogue the book is entered as Vedderburn's Complainte
of Scotlande, wyth ane Exortatione to the thre Estaits to be vigilante
in the Dejfens of their Public Veil (1549) (Calalogus Bibliothecae
WEDDING WEDGWOOD
465
Harleianae, vol. i. no. 8371). This title, which is repeated with varia-
tions in spelling in vol. iv. no. 12070, bears every mark of authenticity.
The book appears to have been printed in France, and the idea
of Dame Scotia's exhortations to her sons, the Three Estates, is
borrowed from Alain Chartier's Quadrilogue invectif, some passages
uf which are appropriated outright. Other passages are borrowings
from Octavien de Saint Gelais and Sir David Lyndsay. There are
strong arguments against Robert Wedderburn's authorship, as
maintained by Laing and others. It is not likely that he would write
in support of Cardinal Beaton's policy, and the dialect is an ex-
aggerated form of Latinized Middle Scots, differing materially from
the language of the Compendious Book. Some of the orthographical
and typographical peculiarities are due to the fact that the book
was set up by Parisian printers. Sir I. A. H. Murray inclines to
11 it to Sir James Inglis, or an unknown priest of the name of
Ulerburn.
The text of the Complaynt was first edited by Leyden in 1801.
Murray's edition for the E.E.T.S. appeared in 1872. The intro-
duction to the latter requires revision in the light of later discoveries
as to the plagiarisms in the text. See the paper by W. A. Neilson in
The Journal oj Germanic Philology (iv.), the note by W. A. Craigie in
The Modern Quarterly of Language and Literature (i. 267), Gregory
Smith's Specimens oj Middle Scots (1902), p. 135 et seq., and the
article by J. T. T. Brown in the Scottish Historical Review (January
1904).
WEDDING, the common term for the marriage ceremony.
The verb " to wed " is properly to engage by a pledge (O. Eng.
wed, a pledge, wager; cf. Lat. vas, vadis; M. Dutch wedde, pledge,
pawn; Swed. vad, bet, &c.). The term " wedlock " (O. Eng.
wedldc; from lac, a gift), used of the state of marriage, or the
vows and sacrament of marriage, properly means a gift given
as a pledge; cf. Ger. Morgengabe, the gift to the bride on the
morning after the marriage.
See MARRIAGE and FAMILY.
WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch
wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside
Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion
with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root
wegh, to lift, carry, draw, cf. Lat. vehere, whence " vehicle,"
&c.), a piece of wood or metal, broad and thick at one end, and
inclined to a thin edge or point at the other, used as a means for
splitting wood, rorks, &c., of keeping two closely pressing surfaces
apart, or generally for exerting pressure in a confined space.
The " wedge " has sometimes been classed as one of the simple
mechanical powers, but it is properly only an application of
the inclined plane.
In meteorology, the term " wedge " is used of a narrow area
of high pressure between two adjacent cyclonic systems, which
takes the form of a wedge or tongue, as do the isobars represent-
ing it on a weather-chart. A wedge moves along between the
rear of a retreating cyclone and the front of one advancing, and
may be regarded as a projection from an anticyclonic system
lying to one side of the course of the cyclones. As the crest of
the wedge (i.e. the line of highest pressure) passes over any point
the wind there changes suddenly from one direction almost to
the opposite, while the clearing weather of the retreating cyclone
and the temporary fine weather after its passing are quickly
succeeded by a break indicating the approach of the following
cyclone. Conditions exactly opposite to those accompanying
a wedge are provided by a " V-shaped depression."
WEDGWOOD, JOSIAH (1730-1795), the most distinguished
of English manufacturers of pottery, came of a family many
members of which had been established as potters in Stafford-
shire throughout the I7th century and had played a notable
part in the development of the infant industry. Dr Thomas
Wedgwood of Burslem was one of the best of the early salt-
glaze potters. Josiah, born in 1730, was the youngest child
of another Thomas Wedgwood, who owned a small but thriving
pottery in Burslem. At a very early age he distinguished
himself by keen powers of observation and interest in all that
was curious and beautiful. Soon after the death of his father in
1739. Josiah, then scarcely ten years of age, was taken away
from school and set to learn the art of " throwing " clay, i.e.
shaping pottery vessels on the thrower's wheel, at which he soon
became extraordinarily skilful.
In 1744 he was apprenticed to his eldest brother, who had
succeeded to the management of his father's pottery; and in
1752, shortly after the term of his apprenticeship had expired,
he became manager of a small pottery at Stoke-upon-Trent,
known as Alder's pottery, at a very moderate salary. Within
a year or two he became junior partner with Thomas Whieldon
of Fenton, then the cleverest master-potter in Staffordshire.
Many of Whieldon's apprentices afterwards became noted
potters, and there can be little doubt that Wedgwood gained
greatly at this period of his life by his association with Whieldon.
But he was too original to remain long content with a subordinate
position, and the pottery business was developing so rapidly
that he had every inducement to commence work on his own
account.
In 1759 he leased the Ivy House pottery in Burslem from
some relatives, and like a sensible man he continued to make
only such pottery as was being made at the period by his fellow-
manufacturers. Salt-glaze and green and yellow glaze seem to
have been his first staples. In 1762 he also leased the Brick-
House, alias " Bell " works, at Burslem. The fine white English
earthenware was just reaching perfection, and Wedgwood was
soon one of its best-known makers. He was most active and
energetic in his efforts, not only for the improvement of Stafford-
shire pottery, but almost equally so for the improvement of
turnpike roads, the construction of a canal (the Trent & Mersey)
and the founding of schools and chapels. Almost the first step
in his public career outside his native district was the presenta-
tion of a service of his improved cream-coloured earthenware
to Queen Charlotte in 1762. The new ware was greatly
appreciated, and Wedgwood was appointed potter to the queen
and afterwards to the king. He gave the name of Queen's
Ware to his productions of this class, and this judicious royal
patronage awarded to a most deserving manufacturer un-
doubtedly helped Wedgwood greatly. Having laid the founda-
tions of a successful business in his admirable domestic pottery
the best the world had ever seen up to that time he turned
his attention to artistic pottery, and the European renaissance of
classic art fostered by the discovery of Pompeii and the recovery
of Greek painted vases from the ancient graves in Campania
and other parts of Italy being at its height it was natural that
Wedgwood should turn to such a source of inspiration. Although
every European country was affected by this neo-classical
revival it may be claimed that England absorbed it more com-
pletely than any other country, for the brothers Adam (the
architects) and Josiah Wedgwood brought it into absolute
correspondence with modern tastes and ideas. Wedgwood was
particularly successful in this direction, for his " dry " bodies
some of which, like the black and cane bodies, had long been
known in the district, others, such as the famous Jasper bodies,
which he invented after years of laborious effort lent themselves
particularly well to the reproduction of designs based on the
later phases of Greek art. If our increased appreciation and
knowledge of Greek and Roman art makes us at times impatient
with the mechanical perfection of the works of Wedgwood
and his contemporaries, the fault is even more the fault of a
nation and a period than that of any individual, however com-
manding. It will always remain to Wedgwood's credit that he
was the most successful and original potter the world has ever
seen the only one, through all the centuries, of whom it can
be truthfully said that the whole subsequent course of pottery
manufacture has been influenced by his skill.
Of the externals of his life a few facts will suffice. He married
his cousin, Sarah Wedgwood, in 1764, and they had a numerous
family of sons and daughters. One of these daughters was the
mother of the famous naturalist Charles Darwin. Some time
after his marriage (viz. 1768) he entered into a partnership with
Thomas Bentley of Liverpool, a man of considerable taste and
culture. Bentley, who was a handsome, courtly man, attended
largely to the London sales. In 1760 they opened splendid
new works, near Hanley, that with their classic leanings they
christened" Etruria." TheycontinuedapracticeofWedgwood'sin
employing able artists to produce designs, and the most famous of
these was John Flaxman, whose name will for ever be associated
with the firm's productions. Bentley died in 1 780 and Wedgwood
4 66
WEDMORE WEEKS
remained sole owner of the Etruria works until 1790, when he
took some of his sons and a nephew, named Byerley, into partner-
ship. He died on the 3rd of January 1791;, rich in honours and
in friends, for besides being a great potter he was a man of high
moral worth, and was associated with many noted men of his
time, amongst whom should be mentioned Sir Joseph Banks,
Joseph Priestley and Erasmus Darwin. His descendants have
carried on the business at Etruria to this day, and have lately
established at the works a Wedgwood museum of great interest.
See CERAMICS. For detailed accounts of his life see Eliza Metyeard,
Life of Wedgwood (1865-1866); Jewitt, Life of Wedgwood (1865);
Rathbone, Old Wedgwood (1893); Church, Josiah Wedgwood:
Master-Potter (1894; new ed., 1903); Burton, History and Descrip-
tion of English Earthenware and Stoneware (1904) ; J. C. Wedgwood,
A History of the Wedgwood Family (1909). (W. B.*)
WEDMORE, FREDERICK (1844- ), English art critic
and man of letters, was born at Richmond Hill, Clifton, on the
gth of July 1844, the eldest son of Thomas Wedmore of Druids
Stoke, Stoke Bishop. His family were Quakers, and he was
educated at a Quaker private school and then in Lausanne
and Paris. After a short experience of journalism in Bristol
he came to London in 1868, and began to write for the Spectator.
His early works included two novels, but the best examples of
his careful and artistic prose are perhaps to be found in his
volumes of short stories, Pastorals of France (1877), Renunciations
(1893), Orgeas and Miradou (1896), reprinted in 1903 as A
Dream of Provence. In 1900 he published another novel, The
Collapse of the Penitent. As early as 1878 he had begun a long
connexion with the London Standard as art critic. He began
his studies on etching with a noteworthy paper in the Nineteenth
Century (1877-1878) on the etchings of Charles Meryon. This
was followed by The Four Masters of Etching (1883), with
original etchings by Sir F. S. Haden, Jules Ferdinand jacque-
mart, J. M. Whistler, and Alphonse Legros; Etching in England
(1895); an English edition (1894) of E. Michel's Rembrandt; and
a study and a catalogue of Whistler's Etchings (1899). His
other works include Studies in English Art (2vols., 1876-1880),
The Masters of Genre Painting (1880), English Water Colour
(1902), Turner and Ruskin ( 2 vols., 1900).
WEDNESBURY, a market town and municipal and parlia-
mentary borough of Staffordshire, England, in the Black Country,
121 m. N.W. from London by the London & North-Western
railway, and on the northern line of the Great Western. Pop.
(1901) 26,554. An overhead electric tramway connects with
Walsall, 33 m. N. The town is ancient, but of modern growth
and appearance as an industrial centre. The church of St
Bartholomew, however, is a fine Perpendicular building, standing
high. It is traditionally supposed to occupy the site of a place
of the worship of Woden or Odin, and the name of the town to
be derived from this god through the form Wodensborough.
A church was built, probably in the nth century, and from
1301 to 1535 the advowson, tithes, &c., belonged to the abbot
of Halesowen. The present church was several times restored
in the i8th and igth centuries. The chief public buildings are
the town hall (1872), art gallery (1891), and free library (1878).
Coal, limestone and ironstone are mined. A special kind of
coal, giving an intense heat, is largely used in forges. There are
great iron and steel works, producing every kind of heavy goods
used by railway and engineering works, such as boiler plates,
rails, axles, tubes, bolts and nuts. Stoneware potteries are
also important. Similar industries, with brick-making, are
practised at DARLASTON, an urban district (pop. 15,395), within
the parliamentary borough. Wednesbury returns one member
to parliament. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen,
and 12 councillors. Area, 2287 acres.
Here Ethelfleda, widow of Jithelred of Mercia, in 916 constructed
a castle. The place is not mentioned in Domesday, but appears
to have belonged to the barony of Dudley. After the Conquest
it became a demesne of the crown, and it was bestowed by Henry
II. on the Heronvilles. It received parliamentary representation
in 1867, and became a municipal borough in 1886.
WEED, THURLOW (1797-1882), American journalist and
politician, was born in Cairo, Greene county, New York, on the
ith of November 1797. He began to earn his own living
the age of eight. From 1811 to 1818 he worked as an apprentice
and journeyman printer in Onondaga Hollow, Utica, Auburn,
Cooperstown, Albany and New York City. His first independent
enterprises, the Republican Agriculturist, established at Norwich,
N.Y., in 1818, and the Onondaga County Republican, established at
Manlius, N.Y., in 1821, proving unsuccessful, he became editor
of the Rochester Telegraph in 1822. Entering politics as an
opponent of the Democratic machine, which he termed the Albany
Regency, Weed was in 1824 elected to the Assembly on the
John Quincy Adams ticket, serving for a single session (1825).
Two years later, during the excitement over the disappearance
of William Morgan (see ANTI-MASONIC PARTY), he retired from
the Telegraph and threw himself with enthusiasm into the
attack on the Masonic order, editing for a time the Anti-Masonic
Enquirer. In 1830 he established and became editor of the
Albany Evening Journal, which he controlled for thirty-five
years. Supporting the Whigs and later the Republicans,
it was one of the most influential anti-slavery papers in the north-
east; and Thurlow Weed himself became a considerable force
in politics. In 1863 he retired from the Journal and settled
in New York City. In 1867 he assumed editorial control of the
Commercial Advertiser, but was soon compelled to resign on
account of ill-health. He died in New York City on the 22nd of
November 1882.
See The Life of Thurlow Weed (vol. i., Autobiography, edited by
his daughter, Harriet A. Weed; vol. ii., Memoir, by his grandson,
Thurlow Weed Barnes, Boston and New York, 1884). The Memoir is
especially full for the period 1850-1867.
WEEHAWKEN, a township of Hudson county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the Hudson river,
adjoining Hoboken and opposite the city of New York. Pop.
(1890) 1943; (1900) 5325; (1910 census), 11,228. It is served
by the New York, Ontario & Western, and the West Shore
railways (being a terminus of the latter), and by suburban
electric lines, and is connected with New York City by steam
ferries. The township consists of a narrow strip of land along
the western bank of the Hudson, and at the southern extremity
of the Palisades. The extensive water-front is lined with wharves,
some of which can accommodate the largest ocean steamers.
On a ledge below the crest of the Palisades is the famous duelling
ground, where New York citizens and others once settled their
quarrels. Originally a part of Hoboken and North Bergen,
the township of Weehawken was separately incorporated in 1859,
Its name is an Indian word said to mean " maize land."
WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *viikon, probably = change,
turn), the name given to periods of time, varying in length in
different parts of the world, but shorter than a " month." The
month may be divided in two ways: a fractional part may be
taken (decad or pentad), as in East Africa or Ancient Egypt
(moon-week), or the week may be settled without regard to the
length of the month (market-week, &c.). The seven-day week
(see CALENDAR) originated in West Asia, spread to Europe and
later to North Africa (Mahommedan). In other parts of Africa
three, four (especially in the Congo), five, six and eight (double
four) day weeks are found, and always in association with the
market; the same applies to the three-day week of the Muyscas
(S. America), the four-day week of the Chibchas, the five-day
week of Persia, Malaysia, Java, Celebes, New Guinea and Mexico;
in ancient Scandinavia a five-day period was in use, but markets
were probably unknown. That the recurrence of the market
determined the length of the week seems clear from the Wajagga
custom of naming the days after the markets they visit, as well
as from the fact that on the Congo the word for week is the same
as the word for market. Among agricultural tribes in Africa
one day of the week, which varies from place to place, is often
a rest-day, visiting the market being the only work allowed.
Lasch in Zts. fur Spcialwissenschaft, ix. 619 seq., and N.W. Thomas
in Journ. Comparative Legislation, xix. 90 seq., refer to the week in
connexion with the market. (N. W. T.)
WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1840-1903), American artist, was
born at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1849. He was a pupil of
Leon Bonnat and of J. L. G6r6me, at Paris. He made many
WEENIX WEEVIL
467
voyages to the East, and was distinguished as a painter of
oriental scenes. In 1895 he wrote and illustrated a book of
travels, From the Black Sea through Persia and India, and two
years later he published Episodes of Mountaineering. He died
on the 1 7th of November 1903. He was a member of the Legion
of Honour, France, an officer of the Order of St Michael, Germany,
and a member of the Secession, Munich.
WEENIX, JAN BAPTIST (1621-1660), Dutch painter, the
son of an architect, was born in Amsterdam, and studied first
under Jan Micker, then at Utrecht under A. Bloemaert, and at
Amsterdam under Moijaert, and finally, between 1643 and 1647,
in Rome. In that city he acquired a great name and worked
for Pope Innocent and Cardinal Pamphili. He returned to his
native country in 1649, in which year he became master of
the gild of St Luke at Utrecht, where he died in 1660.
He was a very productive and versatile painter, his favourite
subjects being landscapes with ruins and large figures, seaports,
and, later in life, large still-life pictures of dead game. Now
and then he attempted religious genre, one of the rare pieces
of this kind being the " Jacob and Esau " at the Dresden
Gallery. At the National Gallery, London, is a " Hunt-
ing Scene " by the master, and the Glasgow Gallery has a char-
acteristic painting of ruins. Weenix is represented at most of
the important continental galleries, notably at Munich, Vienna,
Berlin, Amsterdam, and St Petersburg. His chief pupils were
his son Jan, Berchem, and Hondecoeter.
His son, JAN WEENIX (1640-1719), was born at Amsterdam
and was a member of the Utrecht gild of painters in 1664 and
1668. Like his father he devoted himself to a variety of sub-
jects, but his fame is chiefly due to his paintings of dead game
and of hunting scenes. Indeed, many of the pictures of this
genre, which were formerly ascribed to the elder Weenix, are
now generally considered to be the works of his son, who even at
the early age of twenty rivalled, and subsequently surpassed,
his father in breadth of handling and richness of colour. At
Amsterdam he was frequently employed to decorate private
houses with wall-paintings on canvas; and between 1702 and
1712 he was occupied with an important series of large hunting
pictures for the Prince Palatine Johann Wilhelm's castle of
Bensberg, near Cologne. Some of these pictures are now at
Munich Gallery. He died at Amsterdam in 1719. Many of
his best works are to be found in English private collections,
though the National Gallery has but a single example, a painting
of dead game and a dog. Jan Weenix is well represented at
the galleries of Amsterdam, The Hague, Haarlem, Rotterdam,
Berlin, and Paris.
WEEVER, JOHN (1576-1632), English poet and antiquary, a
native of Lancashire, was born in 1576. He was educated at
Queens' College, Cambridge, where he resided for about four
years from 1594, but he took no degree. In 1599 he published
Epigrammes in the Oldest Cut and Newest Fashion, containing
a sonnet on Shakespeare, and epigrams on Samuel Daniel,
Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, William Warner and Christopher
Middleton, all of which are valuable to the literary historian.
In 1601 he published The Mirror of Martyrs or The Life and
Death of . . . Sir John Oldcastle, which he calls in his preface the
" first trew Oldcastle," perhaps on account of the fact that
Shakespeare's FalstafE first appeared as Sir John Oldcastle.
In the fourth stanza of this long poem, in which Sir John is his
own panegyrist, occurs a reminiscence of Shakespeare's Julius
Caesar which serves to fix the date of the play. After travelling
in France, the Low Countries and Italy, Weever settled in Clerken-
well, and made friends among the chief antiquaries of his time.
The result of extensive travels in his own country appeared in
Ancient Funerall Monuments (1631), now valuable on account of
the later obliteration of the inscriptions.
The Huth Library contains a unique copy of a thumb-book Agnus
Dei (1606), containing a history of Christ. The Mirror of Martyrs has
been reprinted for the Roxburghe Club (1872).
WEEVER. The weevers (Trachinus) are small marine fishes
which are common on the coasts of Europe, and which have
attained notoriety from the painful and sometimes dangerous
wounds they are able to inflict upon those who incautiously handle
them. They belong to a family of spiny-rayed fishes (Tra-
chinidae), and are distinguished by a long low body with two
dorsal fins, the anterior of which is composed of six or seven spines
only, the posterior being long and many-rayed; their anal
resembles in form and composition the second dorsal fin. The
ventral fins are placed in advance of the pectorals, and consist
of a spine and five rays. The caudal fin has the hind margin not
excised. The body is covered with very small scales, sunk in and
firmly adherent to the skin, but the upper surface of the head is
bony, without integument. The head, like the body, is com-
pressed, with the eyes of moderate size and placed on the side
of the head; the mouth is wide, oblique, and armed with bands
of very small teeth.
Several species of weevers are known, but two only occur on the
British coasts, viz., the Greater Weever (Trachinus draco) and the
Lesser Weever (7". vipera); the former is frequently found of a
length of 12 in., and possesses some thirty rays in the second dorsal
fin, whilst the latter grows only to about half that length, and has
about ten rays less in the dorsal. The coloration of both is plain,
but the short first dorsal fin is always of a deep black colour. The
weevers are bottom fish, burying and hiding themselves in the sand
or between shingle the lesser species living close inshore and the
greater preferring deeper water, and being found sometimes floating
on the surface at a distance of several miles from the shore. Al-
though weevers, especially the lesser, are in the habit of burying
themselves in the sand, and are abundant in some localities much
resorted to by bathers, accidents from stepping upon them are much
more rare than from incautiously handling them after capture.
They probably make their escape on perceiving the approach of a
person. The wounds are inflicted by the dorsal and opercular spines,
are very painful, and sometimes cause violent local inflammation.
The spines are deeply grooved, and the poisonous fluid which is
lodged in the grooves is secreted by small glands at their base. The
flesh is not bad eating, and great numbers of the larger species (7*.
draco) are brought to the Pans market. On the poisonous properties,
cf. G. J. Allman, Ann. and Mag. N.H., vi. (1841), p. 161 ; L. Gressin,
Contribution a I'elude de I'appareil a venin chtz les poissons du genre
Vive (Paris, 1884); W. N. Parker, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1888), p. 359;
C. Phisalix, Bull. Mus. Paris (1899), p. 256; A. Briot, C. R. Soc. Biol.,
liv. (1902), pp. 1169 and 1197, and Iv. (1903), p. 623.
WEEVIL, Anglo-Saxon wifel, a term now commonly applied to
the members of a group of Coleoptera termed the Rhyncophora.
This group is characterized by the prolongation of the head into
a rostrum or proboscis, at the end of which the mouth, with
its appendages, is placed. The antennae are usually elbowed,
and often end in a club-shaped swelling. The basal portion
of the antennae frequently lies in a depression at the side of the
rostrum, and this gives the antennae the appearance of emerging
half-way along the rostrum. The mouth appendages are small;
the mandibles, however, are stout. The palps are very short and
conical as a rule. The body is usually small; in shape it varies
very much. The elytra are very hard, and in some cases fused
with one another, rendering flight impossible. The larvae are
white, fleshy, apodal grubs, with a series of tubercles along each
side of the body; the head is round, and bears strong jaws,
and sometimes rudimentary ocelli. They are exclusively
phytophagous. The Rhyncophora embrace four families,
(i) the Curculionidae, or true weevils, (2) the Scolytidae, or bark-
beetles, (3) the Brenthidae, (4) the Anthribidae.
The Curculionidae form one of the largest families amongst the
Coleoptera, the number of species described exceeding 20,000,
arranged in 1150 genera. The antennae are elbowed, and clavate,
with the basal portion inserted in a groove. The third tarsal joint
is generally bilobed. Over 400 species exist in Great Britain, few
of which exceed half an inch in length. The genera PhyUobius
and Polydrosus include some of the most beautiful insects found in
Britain their brilliancy, like that of the Lepidoptera, being due to
the presence of microscopic scales. The diamond beetle of South
America, Entimus imperialis, is another singularly beautiful weevil;
its colour is black, studded with spangles of golden green. The
immense family of the Curculionidae includes members which
differ greatly from one another in size, colour, and appearance;
even the rostrum, the most striking common characteristic, varies
greatly. The form of the body is very various: some are rounded
or oval, others elongated, almost linear; some are covered with
warty protuberances, .whilst others are smooth and shining, often
with a metallic lustre.
One of the commonest members of this family in Great Britain
is the nut weevil, Balaninus nucum. It is of a brownish colour,
WEGSCHEIDER WEIGHING MACHINES
varied with yellow, the legs reddish. Its rostrum is unusually long,
being five-sixths of the body length in the female, and slightly shorter
in the male. The antennae are 7-jointed. The first three joints are
much longer than thick; the four following are shorter, and the
seventh not longer than thick. The larva is very common in hazel
nuts and filberts. When the nuts are about half-grown, the female
bores, with its rostrum, a minute hole in the still comparatively soft
nut-shell, and deposits an
egg within the nut. The
egg is said to be pushed in
by means of the long ros-
trum. As the nut grows the
slight puncture becomes
almost obliterated, so that
it is unnoticed by all but
the most observant eye.
The larva is a thick white
grub with a brownish head,
bearing fleshy tubercles
along its side. It feeds
upon the substance of the
nut. The nuts which are
infested by this insect are
usually the first to fall to
the ground; the larva then
bores a round hole through
the nut shell, by means of
its jaws, and creeps out.
It hides itself in the ground
during the winter, and in
1. Balaninus glandium, magnified. the spring it passes into the
2. The same, natural size.
3. The larva, magnified.
4. The same, natural size.
5. Head and snout of the female,
magnified.
6. The same parts of the male, magni-
fied, to show arrangement of
antennae.
pupa stage, from which it
emerges about August as
the full-grown insect. A
nearly allied form, Balan-
inus glandium, attacks both
hazel nuts and acorns.
In an unobtrusive way
weevils do jmmense harm
to vegetation. This is
effected not so much by their numbers and their powers of con-
sumption, as amongst caterpillars, but by their habits of attack-
ing the essential parts of a plant, and causing by their injuries the
death of the plant affected. They destroy the young buds, snoots and
fruits, and attack the young plants in their most delicate organs.
Many of them devour seed, as the corn weevils, Calandra granaria
and C. oryzae, and in this way vegetation is severely injured, and its
spread seriously checked. Others cause much damage in forests, by
boring under the bark and through the wood of trees, whilst some
even burrow in the tissue of the leaves.
The Brenthidae, Anthribidae and Scolytidae are described in the
article COLEOPTERA.
The Bruchidae are often called " weevils," but they have no close
affinity with the Rhynchophora, being nearly allied to the Chryso-
melidae or leaf beetles. The antennae are straight, and inserted upon
the head just in front of the eyes; they are 1 1 -jointed, and serrated
or toothed in the inside. Bruchus pisi causes considerable damage
to pease ; during the spring the beetle lays its eggs in the young pea,
which is devoured by the larva which hatches out in it.
(A. E. S. ; G. H. C.)
WEGSCHEIDER, JULIUS AUGUST LUDWIG (1771-1849),
German theologian, was born at Kiibelingen, Brunswick, on the
I7th of September 1771, studied theology at Helmstadt, was
tutor in a Hamburg family 1795-1805, Repetent at Gottingen,
professor of theology at Rinteln in Hesse (1806-1815), and a t Halle
from 1815. In 1830 he (with his colleague Wilhelm Gesenius)
was threatened with deposition for teaching rationalism, and
though he retained his office he lost his influence, which passed to
F. A. Tholuck and Julius Muller. He died on the 27th of January
1849.
His chief works were ffber die von der neuesten Philosophic geforderte
Trennung der Moral von der Religion (180^.); Einleitung in das
Evangelium Johannis (1806); and Instituliones theologicae dog-
maticae (1815), to which W. Steiger's Kritik des Rationalismus in
Wegscheider's Dogmatik (1830) was a reply.
WEIGHING MACHINES. Mechanical devices" for determining
weights or comparing the masses of bodies may be classi-
fied as (a) equal-armed balances, (6) unequal-armed balances,
(c) spring balances and (d) automatic machines. Equal-armed
balances may be divided into (i) scale-beams or balances in
which the scale-pans are below the beam; (2) counter machines
and balances on the same principle, in which the scale-pans are
above the beam. Unequal-armed balances may be divided into
(i) balances consisting of a single steelyard; (2) balances formed
by combinations of unequal-armed levers and steelyards, such
as platform machines, weighbridges, &c.
Equal-armed Balances.
Scale-beams are the most accurate balances, and the most
generally used. When constructed for purposes of extreme
accuracy they will turn with the one-millionth part of the load
weighed, though to ensure such a result the knife-edges and
their bearings must be extremely hard (either hardened steel
or agate) and worked up with great care. The beam must be
provided with a small ball of metal which can be screwed up and
down a stem on the top of the beam for the purpose of accurately
adjusting the position of the centre of gravity, and there should
be a small adjustable weight on a fine screw projecting horizon-
tally from one end of the beam for the purpose of accurately
balancing the arms.
The theory of the scale-beam is stated by Weisbach in his Mechanics
of Machinery and Engineering, as follows: In fig. i D is the fulcrum
of the balance, S the centre
of gravity of the beam
a'one without the scales,
chains or weights; A and
B the points of suspension ,,
of the chains. If the '
length of the arms
AC = BC=/,CD=o,SD = i, 4- FIG. .
the angle of deviation of f '*' z
the balance from the horizontal =<j>, the weight of the beam alone
= G, the weight on one side = P, that on the other = P+Z, and lastly
the weight of each scale with its appurtenances = Q then
-
From this it is inferred that the deviation, and therefore the sensitive-
ness, of the balance increases with the length of the beam, and de-
creases as the distances, a and s, increase ; also, that a heavy balance
is, celeris paribus, less sensitive than a light one, and that the sensitive-
ness decreases continually the greater the weight put upon the scales.
In order to increase the sensitiveness of a balance, the line AB joining
the points of suspension and the centre of gravity of the balance must
be Drought nearer to each other. Finally, if a is made extremely
small, so that practically tan <t> = Zl/Gs, the sensitiveness is inde-
pendent of the amount weighed by the balance. Weisbach also
shows that if Gy* is the moment of inertia of the beam, the time, /,
of a vibration of the balance is
g\2 (P+Q) a+GiJ
This shows that the time of a vibration increases as P, Q and /
increase, and as a and i diminish. Therefore with equal weights a
balance vibrates more slowly the more sensitive it is, and therefore
weighing by a sensitive balance is a slower process than with a less
sensitive one.
The conditions which must be fulfilled by a scale-beam in proper
adjustment are: (i) The beam must take up a horizontal position
when the weights in the two scale-pans are equal, from nothing to
the full weighing capacity of the machine. (2) The beam must take
up a definite position of equilibrium for a given small difference of
weight in the scale-pans. The sensitiveness, i.e. the angle of devia-
tion of the beam from the horizontal after it has come to rest, due to
a given small difference of weight in the scale-pans, should be such as
is suited to the purposes for which the balance is intended. Bearing
in mind that with ordinary trade balances there is always a possi-
bility of the scale-pans and chains getting interchanged, these
conditions require; (a) That the beam without the scale-pans and
chains must be equally balanced and horizontal ; (6) that the two
scale- pans with their chains must be of equal weight; (c) that the
arms of the beam must be exactly equal in length; i.e. the line
joining the end knife edges must be exactly bisected by a line drawn
perpendicular to it from the fulcrum knife-edge. By testing the
beam with the scale-pans attached and equal weights in the pans,
and noting carefully the position which it takes up; and then inter-
changing the scale-pans, &c., and again noting the position which
the beam takes up, a correct inference can be drawn as to the causes
of error; and if after slightly altering or adjusting the knife-edges
and scale-pans in the direction indicated by the experiment, the
operation is repeated, any required degree of accuracy may be ob-
tained by successive approximations. The chief reason for testing
balances with weights in the scale-pans rather than with the scale-
pans empty, is that the balance might be unstable with the weights
though stable without them. This is not an infrequent occurrence,
and arises from the tendency on the part of manufacturers to make
balances so extremely sensitive that they are on the verge of in-
stability. In fig. 2 Iet.ABCD be the beam of a scale-beam, Z the
EQUAL-ARMED]
WEIGHING MACHINES
469
FIG. 2.
fulcrum knife-edge, and X, Y the knife-edges on which the scales are
hung. In order to ensure a high degree of sensitiveness, balances are
sometimes constructed so that Z is slightly below the line joining X
and Y, and is only
slightly above H, the
centre of gravity of the
beam with the scale-
pans and chains
attached. The addition
of weights in the scales
will have the effect of
raising the point H till it gets above Z, and the balance, becoming
unstable, will turn till it is brought up by a stop of some kind.
Fig. 3 represents a precision balance constructed to weigh with
great accuracy. The beam is of bronze in a single deep casting,
cored out in the middle so as to allow the saddle at the top of the
stand to pass through the beam and afford a continuous bearing for
the fulcrum knife-edge. The knife-edge and its bearing are both of
stui-1 or agate, and the bearing surface is flat. The end knife-edges
also are of steel or agate, and have continuous bearing on flat steel
or agate surfaces at the upper part of the suspension links. To
relieve the knife-edges from wear when the balance is not being used
a triangular frame is provided, which is lifted and lowered by a cam
action at the bottom, and moves vertically in guides fixed on the
stand. By its upward movement the tops of the screw studs near
its ends are first received by the projecting studs on each side of the
suspension links, and the suspension links are lifted off the end
knife-edges; and next, as the sliding frame continues its upward
motion, the horizontal studs at the two ends of the beam are received
in the forks at the ends of the sliding frame, and by them the fulcrum
of the beam is lifted off its bearing. To keep the beam truly in its
place, which is very necessary, as all the bearings are flat, the re-
From Airy, " On Weighing Machines," Institution of Civil Engineers, 1892.
FIG. 3. Precision Balance.
cesses for the ends of the studs are formed so as to draw the beam
without strain into its true position every time that it is thrown out of
gear by the sliding frame. The end knife-edges are adjusted and
tightly jammed into exact position by means of wedge pieces and set
screws, and the beam is furnished with delicate adjusting weights at
its top. The position of the beam with respect to the horizontal is
shown by a horizontal pointer (not shown) projecting from one end
of it, which plays past a scale, each division of which corresponds
to the Ath or liuth of a erain according to the size and delicacy
of the machine. A first-class chemical balance would be made in
this manner, but in all places where there are acids and gases
the knife-edges and bearings must be made of agate, as the fumes
attack and corrode steel.
For the weighing of very small quantities with balances of great
delicacy, the following method is adopted: If the balance be in
perfect adjustment, and / be the length of each arm, and w a very
minute difference of the. weights in the two scale-pans, by which the
beam is deflected from the horizontal by a very small angle <t>, it can
easily be shown that tan <t>, or </>, varies as wXl. Therefore the angle
of deflection which would be produced by grain weight hung at the
distance //io (for example) from the centre is the same as would be
produced by t^th of a grain in the scale-pan at the distance /.
Therefore by graduating the top of the beam and shifting a rider
grain weight till the beam is horizontal, it is easy to ascertain the
small difference of weight in the scale-pans which caused the de-
flection to the T fo)th or T^imth part of a grain without using a weight
smaller than a grain.
The fitting of the knife-edges is of great importance. In ordinary
trade balances a triangular piece of hard steel, with a finely-ground
edge, is driven through a triangular hole in the beam and jammed
tight. This forms the knife-edge, and the scale-pans are hung from
the two projecting ends of the piece of steel. Similarly the two
projecting ends of the central piece of steel which forms the fulcrum
take bearing on two cheeks of the stand, between which the beam
sways. It is clear that errors will arise if the pieces of steel are
not truly perpendicular to the plane of the beam, and the adjust-
ment of great accuracy would be very tedious. Therefore for
balances of precision the end knife-edges are fixed on the top of
the beam so as to present a continuous unbroken knife-edge, and
the fulcrum knife-edge is also made continuous, the beam being
cored out or cut away to admit of the introduction of the stand
bearing. With this arrangement the knife-edges can be easily
adjusted and examined, and the system is now rapidly extending
to the better class of trade balances.
The knife-edges of weighing machines are the parts that wear
out soonest, but very little is known about them experimentally,
and the knife-edges made by different makers vary extremely in their
angles. Those made by some of the best makers for the most
delicate machines are formed to an angle of about 80 between the
sides, with the finished edge ground to an angle varying from 1 10
to 120. The following may be taken as the maximum loads per in.
of acting or efficient knife-edge allowed by the best makers:
1. For scale-beams of the highest accuracy From ilb per in.
for a machine of i ft capacity, to 25 Ib per in. for a machine of 80 Ib
capacity.
2. For ordinary trade scale-beams, counter machines, and dead-
weight machines From 20 Ib per in. for a machine of 7 Ib capacity,
to 600 Ib per in. for a machine of i ton capacity.
3. For platform machines and weighbridges From 120 ft per in.
for a machine of 4 c.wt. capacity, to I ton per in. for a machine of
25 tons capacity.
The sensitiveness of scale-beams depends entirely upon the skill
and care used in their construction. With balances of the highest
precision it may be as high as nnrinnth of the load weighed,
while with trade balances when new it would be about ni^th of
the load.
In Emery's testing machine there are no knife-edges, but their
function is performed by thin steel plates, which are forced under a
very heavy pressure into slots formed in the parts that are to be
connected, so that the parts are united by the plate. In this case
there is no friction and no sensible wear, so that very great perman-
ency of condition and constancy of action might be expected. But
the resistance to bending of the steel plates would render this arrange-
ment unsuitable for scale-beams, in which the movement is large.
In some respects it would appear to be very suitable for weighbridges,
in which the movement of the lever is very small, but for general
convenience of adjustment the knife-edges appear preferable.
In the comparison of standard weights, or in any weighing opera-
tions where great accuracy is required, it is necessary to use many
precautions. The comparison of standard weights has to be con-
ducted at the standard temperature, and the room must be brought
to that temperature and maintained at it. The balance must be
enclosed in a glass case to protect it from draughts of air or from the
heat of the body of the operator. And the operations of placing
and shifting the weights must be effected by mechanism which will
enable this to be done without opening the case or exposing the
machine.
When the weights which are to be compared are of different metals
further complications arise, for the volumes of equal weights of
different metals will be different, and therefore the quantity of air
displaced by them will be different, and the difference of the weights
of air displaced by the two weights must be allowed for. And the
weight of air displaced depends upon the density of the air at the
time of weighing, and therefore the barometer reading must be
taken. For this correction an exact knowledge of the specific
gravities of the metals under comparison is required. In this way
an exact comparison of the weights in vacua can be computed, but
of course the simplest way of arriving at the result would be by the
construction of a strong air-tight case which can be completely
exhausted of air by an air-pump, and in which the weighing can
then be effected in vacua. The difficulty about weighing in vacua
is that it is found almost impossible to exhaust the case entirely, or
even to maintain a constant degree of exhaustion, by reason of the
leakage connected with the weighing operations, and in consequence
weighing in vacua is not much in favour. Whatever method is
adopted, very exact weighing is a difficult and troublesome work.
Counter machines have an advantage over scale-beams in not
being encumbered* with suspension chains and the beam above.
They are usually made with two beams, each with its three knife-
edges, rigidly tied together or cast in one piece and some distance
apart, so that the scale-pans being carried on two knife-edges, each is
prevented from tipping over sideways. To prevent them from
tipping over in the direction of the beams a vertical leg is rigidly
fastened to the under side of each pan, the lower end of which is
loosely secured by a horizontal stay to a pin in the middle of the
frame. In using these machines there is seldom any question of
determining the weight to any great nicety, and rapid action is
generally of high importance. Hence they are very commonly made
unstable, or " accelerating," i.e. they are constructed with the
fulcrum knife-edges lower than the line joining the end knife-edges,
and they are arranged so that the beam is horizontal when the stop
of the weights-pan is hard down on its bearings. This arrangement
470
WEIGHING MACHINES
[UNEQUAL-ARMED
is well adapted for weighing out parcels of goods of a definite weight,
though not for ascertaining the correct weight of a given article.
For the latter purpose machines are used of which the beams are
made stable, or " vibrating," by constructing them with the fulcrum
knife-edges above the line joining the end knife-edges.
" Accelerating " machines can be used to the advantage of the
vendor in two ways. Firstly, in using them to determine the weight
FIG. 4.
of a given article. For with unstable balances, although the smallest
excess of weight in the goods-pan will cause it to descend till it is
brought up by its stop, yet being in this position, a very much greater
weight than the difference which brought it there will be required
in the weights-pan to enable it to mount again. If W be the weight
in each pan when the goods-pan commenced to sink, / the length of
each arm, m the distance of the fulcrum below the line joining the
end knife-edges, and ft the angle at the fulcrum which defines the
range of sway of the beam, it can easily be shown that w, the ad-
ditional weignt required in the weights-pan to enable the goods-pan
to rise from its stop, is given by the equation ai = W2> tan /3/L
m tan 0. So that if, for example, a fishmonger uses such a machine
to ascertain the weight of a piece of fish which he places in the goods-
pan, and thereby depresses it down upon its stop, and then places
weights in the weights-pan till the goods-pan rises, the customer is
charged for more than the real weight of the fish. Secondly, in using
them out of level, with the goods end of the machine lower than the
weights end. If 6 be the angle of tilt of the machine, and the other
symbols be as before, it may be shown that the additional weight, w
FIG. 5.
which is needed in the weights-pan to enable the goods-pan to rise
off its stop, is given by the equation w= W 2m tan (/3 0)/L m tan
03 8). When 8 is negative, as it is when the goods end of the
machine is lower than the weights end, the value of w may be very
appreciable. With " vibrating " machines the value of m is in general
so extremely small that w is of no practical importance in either of
the above cases.
If a counter machine be made with a large flat goods-pan, as in
fig. 4, an error may be caused by placing the goods eccentrically
on the pan, as at D or E. Using the symbols of the diagram, it
can be shown that the effect of placing the weight W at E instead of
F is to cause the end of the beam to descend, as if under the action
of an additional weight, w, at F such that
The condition that must exist in order that the balance may weigh
correctly for all positions of the weight W is w = o, or tan 8= mlr*;
that is, the stay KG must be adjusted parallel to the line joining
the points A and C. From the equation for w, it is seen that
the larger h is the smaller w will be. Therefore for the larger
counter machines, where it is not convenient to have the scaje-pans
raised high above the counter, and for " dead-weight " machines on
the same principle, where it is not convenient to have the scale-pans
raised high above the floor, there is an advantage in adopting the
" inverted counter machine " arrangement (fig. 5)1 because the
vertical leg can be produced upwards as high as is required. This
arrangement is very common. As will be readily understood from
the construction of the machines, there is more friction in counter
machines than in scale-beams. The "sensitiveness " error allowed
by the Board of Trade for counter machines is five times as great as
that allowed for scale-beams.
The torsion balance made by the United States Torsion Balance
and Scale Company of New York is a counter machine made with-
out knife-edges, and is very sensitive. It is constructed with two
similar beams, one above the other, which are coupled together
at the ends to form a parallel motion for carrying the pans up-
right. The coupling is effected by firmly clamping the ends of the
beams upon the top and bottom respectively of a loop of watch-
spring, which is tightly stretched round the casting carrying the pan,
as is shown in the end view in fig. 6. At their middles the beams are
similarly clamped upon the top and ^_________^____
bottom of a loop of watch-spring
which is tightly stretched round a
casting which is bolted upon the
bed-plate. When the case which
holds the machine is adjusted hori-
zontally by means of its foot-
screws, and the weights in the
pans are equal, the beams remain
perfectly horizontal; but with the
slightest difference of weight in the
pans the beams are tilted, and the
elastic resistance of the springs to
torsion allows the beams to take
up a definite position of equi-
librium. The lower beam carries on
a saddle a scale which is raised FIG. 6.
nearly to the top of the glass case
in which the machine is enclosed, and as the beams sway this scale
plays past a scratch on the glass, which is so placed that when
the zero point on the scale coincides with the scratch the beams
are horizontal. With proper care this machine should be very per-
manent in its action.
Unequal-armed Balances.
Steelyards are simple, trustworthy and durable, but unless
special contrivances are introduced for ascertaining the position
of the travelling poise with very great accuracy, there will be
a little uncertainty as to the reading, and therefore steelyards are
not in general so accurate as scale-beams. When carefully
nicked they are well-adapted for weighing out definite quantities
of goods, such as i Ib, 2 Ib, &c., as in such cases there is no
question of estimation. The ordinary way of using a steelyard is
to bring it into a horizontal position by means of movable
weights, and to infer the amount of the load from the positions of
these. But it is sometimes convenient to use a fixed weight
on the long arm, and to infer the amount of the load from the
position of the steelyard. The rule for graduation is very simple.
The simplest form is that which has a single travelling poise.
The more elaborate ones are made either with a heavy travelling
poise to measure the bulk of the load with a. light travelling poise
for the remainder, or else with a knife-edge at the end of the steel-
yard, on which loose weights are hung to measure the bulk of
the load, the remainder being measured with a light travelling
poise. The advantage of the first arrangement is that the
weights on the steelyard are always the same, and inconsistencies
of indication are avoided, while in the second arrangement the
loose weights are lighter and handier, though they must be very
accurate and consistent among themselves, or the error will be
considerable, by reason of the great leverage they exert.
Steelyards, like other weighing machines, will be "accelerating,"
or " vibrating " according to the arrangement of the knife-edges.
UNEQUAL-ARMED]
WEIGHING MACHINES
47'
In fig. 7 let Z be the fulcrum knife-edge, X the knife-edge on which
the load R is hung, and H the centre of gravity of the weights to the
right of Z, viz. the weight, VV, of the steelyard acting at its centre
ofgravity; G, the travelling poise; P, acting at M ; and the weights,
Q, hung on the knife-edge at V. Then if Z be below the line joining
X and H, the steelyard will be " accelerating " ; i.e. with the smallest
excess of moment on the left-hand side of the fulcrum, the end C of
the steelyard will rise with accelerating velocity till it is brought up
by a stop of some sort ; and with the smallest excess of moment
on the right-hand side of the fulcrum, the end C of the steelyard will
drop, and will descend with accelerating velocity till it is brought
up by a similar stop. If Z be above the line XH, the steelyard is
" vibrating "; i.e. it will sway or vibrate up and down, ultimately
coming to rest in its position of equilibrium. Steelyards, again, are
frequently arranged as counter machines, having a scoop or pan
resting on a pair of knife-edges at the short end, which is prevented
? -V ~H
1
_J^
1
1 ,
W 1
I
FIG. 7.
from tipping over by a stay arrangement similar to that of other
counter machines.
Steelyards are largely used in machines for the automatic weighing
out of granular substances. The principle is as follows: The
weighing is effected by a steelyard with a sliding poise which is set
to weigh a definite weight of the material, say I ID. A pan is carried
on the knife-edges at the short end, and is kept from tipping over by
stays. A packet is placed on the pan to receive the material from
the shoot of a hopper. A rod, connected at its lower end with the
steelyard, carries at its upper end a horizontal dividing knife, which
cuts off the flow from the shoot when the steelyard kicks. When the
filled packet is removed, the steelyard resumes its original position,
and the filling goes on automatically.
The automatic personal weighing machine found at most railway
stations operates by means of a steelyard carrying a fixed weight on
its long arm, the load on the platform being inferred from the position
of the steelyard. In fig. 8 the weight on the platform is transferred
by levers to the vertical
steel band, A, which is
wrapped round an arbor
on the axle of the disk-
wheel, B, to which is
rigidly attached the
toothed segment, C. The
weight, D, is rigidly
attached to the axle of the
wheel, B, and the counter-
balance, E, is hung from
the wheel, B, by means of
a cord wrapped round it.
When the pull of the band,
A, comes upon the wheel,
B, it revolves through a
certain angle in the direc-
tion of the arrow until the
three forces, viz. the pull of
A, the weight, D, and the
counterbalance, E, are in
equilibrium. The toothed
segment, C, actuates the
pinion, F, which carries
the finger, G, and this
finger remains fixed in
position so long as the
person is standing on the
platform. If now a small
weight, as a penny, be
passed through the slot, H,
it falls into the small box, I,
and causes the lever, J, to
FIG. 8.
turn; the lever, J, which turns in friction wheels at K, and is
counterbalanced at O, carries a toothed segment, L, which
actuates a small pinion on the same axle as F, and is free to
turn on that axle by a sleeve. This small pinion carries a finger,
M, which is arranged to catch against the finger, G, when moved up
to it. Consequently as the lever, J, turns, the finger, M, revolves,
and is stopped when it reaches G. The sleeve of the pinion which
carries M also carries the dial finger, and if the dial is properly
graduated its finger will indicate the weight. The box, I, has a
hinged bottom with a projecting click finger which, as the box de-
scends, plays idly over the staves of a ladder arc. When the weight
is removed from the platform, the counterbalance, E, causes the
finger, G, to run back to its zero position, carrying with it the finger
M, and causing the click finger of the box, I, to trip open the bottom
of the box and let the penny fall out. The lever, J , regains its zero
position, and all is ready for another weighing. Since so small a
weight as a penny has to move the lever, J, together with the dial
finger, &c., it is evident that the workmanship must be good and the
friction kept very low by means of friction wheels.
Some of thejargest and most accurate steelyards are those made
for testing machines for tearing and crushing samples of metals and
other materials. They are sometimes made with a sliding poise
weighing I ton, which has a run of 200 in., and the steelyard can exert
a pull of 100 tons.
Balances are frequently used as counting machines, when the
articles to be counted are allot the same weight or nearly so, and
this method is both quick and accurate. They are also used as trade
computing machines, as in the case of the machine made by the
Computing Scale Company, Dayton, Ohio, U.S.A. In this machine
the goods to be priced are placed on the platform of a small platform
machine whose steelyard is adjusted to balance exactly the weight
of the platform, levers and connexions. The rod which transmits
the pull of the long body lever of the platform machine to the knife-
edge at the end of the short arm of the steelyard is continued up-
wards, and by a simple mechanical arrangement transmits to an
upper steelyard any additional pull of the long body lever due to the
weight of goods placed on the platform. This upper steelyard is
arranged as in fig 9, where A is the point where the pull of the long
body lever due to the weight of the goods on the platform comes upon
the steelyard; C is the fulcrum of the steelyard, which with the
steelyard can be slid to and fro on the frame of the machine; and Q
M-*-?.f-
' e o K>
*f
\
a
T t A
= *-'.C
i
FIG. 9.
is a poise which can be slid along the upper bar of the steelyard.
The steelyard is exactly in balance when there is no weight on the
platform and Q is at the zero end of its run, at O. Suppose that
the weight of the goods on the platform is (p) lb, and that -th
n
of this weight is transmitted by the long body lever to the point
A, so that * ft is the pull at A. Let the lower bar of the steel-
yard be graduated in equal divisions of length, d, each of which
represents one penny, so that the distance CA = qXd represents
q pence. Then the number PXq represents the total value of
the goods on the platform. If Q lb be the weight of the poise Q,
the position of Q when the steelyard is exactly in balance is
given by the equation xg.d = QXOQ, or OQ=pXqX-7)- If
^Q-
therefore the upper bar be graduated in divisions, each of which
is -QI the indication of the poise Q, viz. pXq graduations, gives
correctly the value of the goods. Thus to ascertain the value of
goods on the platform of unknown weight at a given price per lb,
it is only necessary to slide the steelyard till the weight acts at
the division which represents the price per lb, and then to move
the poise Q till the steelyard is in balance; the number of the
division which defines the position of the poise Q will indicate the
sum to be paid for the goods. When the load on the platform is
large, so that the value of the goods may be considerable, it is
convenient to measure the larger part of the value by loose weights
which, when hung at the end of the steelyard, represent each a
certain money value, and the balance of the value is determined by
the sliding poise Q.
In the machines commonly used to weigh loads exceeding 2 cwt.
the power is applied at the end of the long arm of the steelyard and
multiplied by levers from 100 to 500 times, so that the weights used
are small and handy. The load is received upon four knife-edges, so
that on the average each knife-edge receives only one-fourth of the
load, and, as will be seen, it is immaterial whether the load is received
equally by the four knife-edges or not, which is essential to the useful
application of these machines.
In fig. 10 AB is the steelyard. The platform and the load upon it
are carried on four knife-edges, two of which, Xi and Xi, are shown,
and the load is transferred to the steelyard by thetwoleversshown,
the upper one CD being known as the " long body," and the lower
one EF as the " short body." If Zix 1 =z t x,, and i/=z-y. tnen tne
leverage of any portion of the load applied at x, will be the same as
the leverage of any part of the load applied_at *i, and the pressure
produced at y\ will be the same for equal portions of the load, whether
they were originally applied at *i or x. Platform machines, like
steelyards, may be arranged either on the " accelerating " principle
or on the " vibrating " principle. If in fig. 10 fi be the centre of
472
WEIGHING MACHINES
[UNEQUAL- ARMED
gravity of the long body CD, and hi be the centre of gravity of the
three vertical forces acting downwards at the points x\, t and gi,
considered as weights collected at those points; then if hi be above
the line z\yi it can be shown that this arrangement of the knife-edges
of CD favours the " acceleration " principle, and is suited to act with
and assist an " accelerating " steelyard, and similarly if the point ht
be above the line Ziyi in the case of the short body EF. If the knife-
edges be placed so that hi and fc are below the lines Xiy\ and x 2 yi
respectively, the arrangement will favour the " vibration " principle,
and is suited to act with and assist a " vibrating " steelyard.
It is very important that platform machines should be truly level.
With accelerating machines a small amount of tilt in any direction
considerably affects the accuracy of the weighing, and when the
amount of tilt is considerable the action may be changed, so that a
machine which was intended to act as an accelerating machine acts
like a vibrating one. Vibrating machines are only slightly affected
by being out of level in comparison with accelerating machines,
and in this matter they have a distinct advantage. When a platform
machine is in true adjustment, and the loose weights which are
intended to be hung at the end of the steelyard are correct and
consistent among themselves, a good and new machine, whose
capacity is 4 cwt., should not show a greater error than 4 oz. when
fully loaded. Platform machines are slightly affected by changes of
temperature. In some cases they are made " self-recording " by
the following arrangement: The steelyard is provided with a large
and a small travelling poise. Each of these poises carries a horizontal
strip of metal, which is graduated and marked with raised figures
corresponding to those on the steelyard itself. These strips pass
FIG. 10.
under a strong punching lever arranged on the frame of the machine.
A card prepared for the purpose is introduced through a slit in the
frame between the punch and the strips. When the poises have been
adjusted to weigh a load on the platform the punch is operated by a
strong pull, and the impression of the raised figures is left on the card.
Thus the weight is recorded without reading the positions of the
poises. In another arrangement the self-recording parts are entirely
enclosed in the travelling poise itself.
Fig. II shows the ordinary arrangement of the parts of a plat-
form machine, but there are many types which differ greatly in
detail though not in principle.
When the goods to be weighed are very heavy, portable weigh-
bridges or platform machines are inapplicable and it is necessary
to erect the weighbridge on a solid foundation. Some weigh-
bridges are arranged in a manner similar to that of the platform
machines already described, but having the long body lever turned
askew, so that the end of it projects considerably beyond the side
of the weighbridge casing, and the pillar and steelyard which receive
its pull are clear of the wagon on the platform. In another arrange-
ment two similar triangular levers take bearing on opposite sides of
an intermediate lever which communicates their pressures to the
steelyard ; this is a very sound and simple arrangement for ordinary
long weighbridges. Lastly, when the weighbridge is very long; and
they are sometimes made 40 ft. long, and are arranged to weigh up
to I op tons or more it is practically composed of two platform
machines end to end, each having its four knife-edges to receive the
load, and the two long bodies take bearing on the opposite sides of an
intermediate horizontal lever, the end of which is connected with the
steelyard. When skilfully made they are very accurate and durable.
A useful application of weighbridges is to ascertain the exact
weights on the separate wheels of locomotive engines, so that they
may be properly adjusted. For this purpose a number of separate
weighbridges of simple construction are erected, one for each wheel of
the engine, with their running surfaces in exactly the same horizontal
plane. The engine is moved on to them, and the pressures of all
the wheels are taken simultaneously, each by its own weighbridge.
There are many lands of weighing machines depending for their
action on combinations of levers, and arranged to meet special
requirements. Such are coal platform machines for weighing out
coal in sacks, the levers of which are arranged as in the ordinary
platform machines, but for the sake of compactness the steelyard is
returned back over the long body, and when loaded with the proper
weight indicates the correct weight of the coal in the sack by its end
Elevation.
Section on AB.
Section on
CD.
FIG. ii.
Section on
EF.
kicking up. Crane machines are used to weigh goods as they are
hoisted by a crane; the lever arrangement is shown in fig. 12.
A crane machine of peculiar construction, well adapted for weigh-
ing heavy loads, and extremely simple and compact, which does not
properly come under any of the heads under which the machines
have been classified, is the hydrostatic weighing machine. This
machine is constructed with an open top cylinder, a stirrup strap
being provided by which it may be suspended from a crane. The
SPRING BALANCES]
WEIGHING MACHINES
473
cylinder, which is filled with oil or other liquid, is fitted with a piston
having a piston-rod passing downwards and terminating in an
attachment for the goods to be weighed. As the goods are lifted by
the crane the whole of their weight is taken by the liquid in the
FIG. 12.
cylinder, and the pressure on the liquid, as indicated by a pressure
gauge, gives the weight. The gauge has a plain dial, marked off to
indications given by the application of standard tons and cwts. ; it
could probably be read to about J % of the load weighed.
Spring Balances.
For many purposes spring balances are the most convenient
of all weighing machines. They are rapid in action, the indica-
tion is in general clear, and there is no need of loose weights except
for testing the machine occasionally. Their action depends upon
the extension of one or more spiral springs, and as the extension
is proportionate to the weight which causes it the graduation
is very simple. The accuracy of spring machines depends upon
the accuracy of the springs and the workmanship of the machines.
The springs in general are very accurate and uniform in their
extension, and are very permanent when fairly well used; but
their indications are apt to vary from fatigue of the springs if
they are kept extended by a weight for a long time. Their in-
dications also vary with the temperature, so that for good work
it is advisable that spring balances should be frequently checked
with standard weights. For the sake of compactness and con-
venience of reading the extension of the springs, and conse-
quently the load, is frequently indicated on a dial, by means of
a small rack and pinion, which give motion to a finger on the
dial-plate, but the regularity and correctness of the indications
of the finger will depend upon the condition of the rackwork
and upon the friction, and these will vary with the wear of the
machine. For the above reasons spring balances are nbt in
general so accurate as knife-edge rnachines. It is found that
when a spiral spring is extended by a weight it has a tendency
to turn a little round its axis. Therefore an index pointer attached
to the bottom of the spring, and moving past a scale would rub
slightly against the case. To correct this tendency the spring
is usually made half with right-hand spiral and half with left-
hand spiral.
The extension of a spiral spring is given by the formula:
Extension = W4nR s /Er 4 , in which W = weight causing extension,
in Ibs ; n number of coils ; R = radius of spring, from centre of coil
to centre of wire, in inches; r = radius of wire of which the spring is
made, in inches; E =coefficient of elasticity of wire, in Ibs per square
inch. The value of E depends upon the tempering of the wire and
will vary accordingly: for the springs of trade balances E will
usually be about 10,500,000. For the application of the above formula
it is necessary to measure (R) and (r) very accurately, by reason of
the high powers involved, but when this has been carefully done the
formula may be relied upon. Thus in the case of a spring for which
the values of the quantities were W = 7 ft, = 5i, R = -3Oin., r = -038
in., = 10,500,000, the formula gives extension = 1-764 in., while
direct experiment gave extension = 1-75 in. And with a very long
and weak spring for which the values of the quantities were W = J oz.,
B = 2 33. R = '35 in-, r = -oo8s in., = 10,500,000, the formula gives
extension = 22 -78 in., while direct experiment with the spring gave
23-5 in.
Automatic Weighing Machines.
of the
During the last few years great efforts have been made to
expedite the operation of weighing machines by the introduction
of machinery, more or less complicated, which renders the
machines to a great extent self-acting. The object aimed at
varies very much with different machines. Sometimes the object
is to weigh out parcels of goods in great numbers of the same
definite weight. Sometimes the object is to weigh out parcels
of goods, of unknown weight, as in ordinary retail dealing,
and to give the exact value of each parcel at different rates
per Ib. Sometimes the object is to weigh many loads in succes-
sion, the loads being of varying weight, and to present the total
weight at the end of a day's work; this is the case with machines
for weighing coal and other minerals. Of course the introduction
of automatic mechanism introduces friction and other complica-
tions, and it is difficult to construct automatic machines that
shall be as accurate in their weighing as the simpler weighing
machines, but in many weighing operations a moderate degree
of accuracy will suffice, and speed is of great importance. It
is to meet such cases that the greater number of automatic weigh-
ing machines have been invented. Some examples of these
machines will now be .given.
Automatic Computing Spring Weighing Machine for Retail Purposes
(fig. 13). A light and carefully balanced drum with its axis horizontal
is enclosed within a cylindrical casing, and rotates freely in bearings
formed in the ends of the casing. The casing is fixed in supports on
the top of a strong frame, which also carries a small platform machine
of ordinary construction on which the goods to be weighed are
placed. The pull of the load is transmitted to a hook which hangs
freely from the middle of a horizontal bar below the drum casing.
At each end of the drum casing is attached a vertical spiral spring,
and by the extension of these springs the weighing of the goods is
effected. There are also two vertical racks, one at each end
casing, in connexion with *
the two springs, and
these actuate pinions on
the axle of the drum and
cause it to revolve as the
springs extend. The
horizontal bar which
receives the pull of the
load is connected at its
ends with the two spiral
springs and pulls verti-
cally upon them. Above
the horizontal bar, and
parallej with it, is a rod
which is connected at its
ends with the lower ends
of the vertical racks, and
at its middle with the
horizontal bar. The con-
nexion with the hori-
zontal bar is through the
medium of an adjustable
cam. This cam can be
turned by hand in a
vertical plane by means
of a worm and wheel
movement, and by turn-
ing the worm the vertical
distance between the bar
which is attached to the
springs and the rod which
is attached to the racks
can be increased or
diminished, and thus the
racks can be moved rela-
tively to the springs. By
this means the zero of the
scale on the drum can be
adjusted to the fixed
index on the casing when
there are no goods on the
platform. There is also
a compensation arrange-
ment for effecting automatically the same adjustment for changes
of temperature. To deaden the vibration of the springs after a load
has been placed on the platform, and thus to enable the weights and
values of the goods to be read rapidly, the piston of a glycerin
cylinder is attached to the end of the lever which pulls upon the
hook of the horizontal bar and is worked by it in the glycerin.
From the Notice issued by the Standards Depart-
ment of the Board of Trade, by permission of the
Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 13. Price-computing Spring
Weighing Machine.
474
WEIGHING MACHINES
[AUTOMATIC
On the outer surface of the drum are printed the weight of the
goods in tb and oz., and the money value of the goods corresponding
to the different rates per Ib. The side of the casing which is next
to the seller is pierced centrally by two slots, one a vertical slot
through which the weight is read on the drum, and the other a
horizontal slot, half of it on each side of the vertical slot, through
which the money values of the goods, corresponding to the different
rates per tb, are read. The weight of the goods is recorded by means
of an index pointer fixed to the casing on one side of the vertical
slot, and the money values are opposite the figures defining the rates
per Ib, which are marked on the edge of the casing below the hori-
values are indicated on the chart by the toothed edge of the index
arm. On the customer's side of the machine the weight of the
goods is indicated on a pair of arcs by a separate index arm precisely
in the same manner as on the seller's side.
In weighing, the goods are placed in the pan of an ordinary lever
machine (see fig. 14), and the end of the lever rests on the stirrup,
end of a short vertical rod. The upper end of this rod is formed into
a loop, and this loop pulls upon a knife-edge which is fixed to a
short lateral arm rigidly attached to a vertical disk, and this disk
turns in bearings formed in the frame of the machine. The same
disk carries the index arm, which is rigidly fixed to it and indicates
the weight and value of the goods, and also carries the
pendulum, which is rigidly attached to it, and regulates the
position of the index arm according to the position which
it takes up and the leverage which it exerts when swayed
out of the vertical position by the action of the lever of the
lever machine. This lever is so counterbalanced that when
there is no weight in the pan the pendulum is vertical, and
the index arm should then stand at zero. The zero adjust-
ment is effected by means of levelling screws in the base of
the frame. In order to deaden the vibrations of the index
arm when weighing goods a vertical rod is attached to the
lever from the lever machine near its left-hand end, and this
rod carries on its lower end a plunger which works in a closed
cylindrical dash-pot containing oil or glycerin.
Automatic Computing Weighing Machine (even balance and
pendulum) for Retail Purposes (fig. 15). This is an equal-armed
inverted counter machine (see fig. 5) arranged to weigh up to
14 Ib with great accuracy. Up to 2 Ib the weight of theload is
registered automatically on the chart in much the same
manner as in the case of the automatic computing weighing
machine already described. When the load exceeds 2 Ib one
or more 2-lb weights are placed in the weights-pan, and the
value of the portion of the goods corresponding to these
2-lb weights is computed, at the rate per Ib, in the ordinary
manner; and the value of the balance of the weight of the
goods is read off the chart, and the two are added together.
The advantage of this is that a very open scale is obtained
for reading the value of the balance of the load. Thus, for
weighing up to the full load of 14 Ib, six 2-lb weights are
required and no others.
The manner in which the balance of the load is weighed
is as follows: Near the bottom of the vertical leg from
the goods-pan, a projecting piece is rigidly attached to
it, and as the pan descends with the balance of the load
this piece pulls by a hook on a thin band of steel, which
From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of H. M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 14. Price-computing Weighing Machine.
zontal slot. On the side of the casing which is next to the buyer
there is a vertical slot through which the weight of the goods can be
read on the drum.
Automatic Computing Weighing Machine for Retail Purposes
(fig. 14). The action of the machine shown in fig. 14 depends upon
the displacement of a loaded pendulum. And the machine is
arranged to weigh goods up to 8 ft with the fixed weight only on
the pendulum, and up to 16 Ib with an additional weight which can
be readily slipped on to the pendulum rod. The weights and money
values are arranged on a vertical chart, the sides of which converge
towards the pivoting centre of an index arm which is actuated by
the weighing mechanism. The two outer arcs of the chart are
occupied by the scales for the weight of the goods in Ib and oz.,
and the_ rest of the chart is occupied by a series of 25 concentric
arcs which show the money values of the goods for 25 rates per Ib.
The rates per Ib are inscribed on the index arm at points corre-
sponding to the values on the concentric arcs of the chart, and the
is led upwards and wraps round the surface of a disk to which
it is firmly secured. This disk rotates by rocking on a pair of
knife-edges whose bearings are rigidly attached to the frame.
The disk carries a weighted brass cylinder rigidly attached to it,
which is pulled into an oblique position by the steel band until
equilibrium is established. And the disk also carries the index
arm which plays past the vertical face of the chart, and indicates
the weight and price up to 2-lb weight. The disk also carries a
second and corresponding index arm which indicates the weight on
the purchaser's side of the machine. At the bottom of the vertical
leg from the goods-pan there is also a projecting piece which is
attached to the top of a vertical piston rod, the piston of which
plays in a dash-pot of glycerin as the beam sways, and deadens the
vibrations of the index arm.
Automatic Tea Weighing Machine (fig. 16). This machine is
designed to weigh out tea in quantities of J Ib each, which are done
up in separate packets by hand. A large number of movements
AUTOMATIC]
WEIGHING MACHINES
475
have to be provided for, and the machinery is complicated, so that
a general description of the action of the machine is all that will
be here given.
The tea is fed into a hopper, which has a large opening at the
urn, and this opening is entirely closed by two cylindrical
brushes, which are mounted end to end
on ,i horizontal shaft. As they revolve
these brushes engage the tea in the
hopper, draw it out by degrees, and
drop it into' a compartment of a
circular drum which hangs on one end
of a scale-beam. The crushes have
the same diameter, but one is much
longer than the other, and they move
independently of one another. For the
bulk of the filling both brushes are in
operation, but when the load is nearly
complete the longer brush is stopped
and the filling is completed by the
shorter brush only. When the load is
complete the shorter brush also is
stopped while the compartment of the
drum is emptied. And the action is
then renewed. All these operations
are effected automatically.
The circular drum is divided into
four equal compartments by radial
diaphragms. And in a pan at the
other end of the beam (which is counter-
balanced for the weight of the
drum) is a i-lb weight to weigh the
tea. As the uppermost compartment
fills, the weights end of the beam rises,
and by means of a vertical rod suc-
cessively operates on detents connected
with the rotation of the two brushes,
and stops them in turn. And when
the short brush is stopped a rod from
the shaft frees a spring detent which
keeps the drum in position and tips it
over. The tea is shot out and falls into
a receptacle below, and the drum
makes a quarter of a revolution, and
is again held in position by the detent
with an empty compartment at top
ready for the next filling.
The power is applied by a belt round
a pulley, which is mounted on the end
of the horizontal shaft which carries
the brushes. The brushes are carried
by sleeves which run loosely on the
shaft, and to each sleeve is rigidly fixed
a ratchet wheel. Next the ratchet
wheel is a disk which is keyed on to
the shaft. The ratchet wheel and the
disk are automatically connected by
clutch mechanism in order to effect
the rotation of the brushes. The clutch
mechanism is freed at the proper time
by the action of the vertical rod at the
end of the beam, and the brushes then
is placed in the weights-pan of the balance, and is the only loose
weight used with the machine. The pair of beams are hung centrally
by rods and hooks from knife-edges in the forked end of a strong
beam, which is carried at its fulcrum by the top plate of the frame
of the machine. This beam is heavily counterbalanced at its further
extremity. Underneath the top
plate of the machine, and
strongly framed to it, is a box,
which contains the horizontal
rods to the ends of which are
attached the slides which regu-
late the flow of sugar from the
bottom of the hopper. The?e
rods pass through holes in the
front and back plates of the box,
and are furnished with spiral
springs, which (when the rods
are forced back by hand) are in
compression between the back
plate of the box and shoulders
on the rods. The rods are held
in this position by detents which
take hold of the shoulders of the
rods, and are acted upon from
the front end of the upper beam
and the weights-pan end of the
lower beam respectively, in order
to release the rods at the proper
times and reduce orcut off theflow
of sugar from the hopper. The
upper slide has the shape of a
truncated cone, and it reduces the
orifice of flow so as to render the
flow of the sugar more manage-
able. The lower slide is simply a
cut-off slide. When it is desired
to use the machine, a 4-lb bag is
placed under the orifice of the
hopper upon the goods-pan of
the balance, and the slide rods
are thrust back by hand till they
are held by their detents, and
the sugar flows rapidly into the
bag. When the bag is nearly
charged to the weight of 4 Ib, the
weight of the bag of sugar over-
comes the resistance of the
counterbalance of the upper
beam, and its front end drops a
certain distance. In dropping it
dislodges the detent of the
reducing slide, and the slide
springs forward and reduces the
flow of the sugar. The dim-
inished stream of sugar con-
tinues to flow till the 4-R> weight
in the weights-pan is lifted (the
end of the upper beam being
for the time brought up against
the frame and unable to descend
further), and in lifting it dis-
f WT-r *
fcw_l
From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of H. M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 15. Price-computing Weighing Machine even Balance and Pendulum.
stand still while the load is discharged. The beam then recovers its
original position and the action of the machine is renewed.
Automatic Sugar Weighing Machine (fig. 17). This machine is
adapted for weighing out granulated white sugar in parcels of i-lb,
2-lb and 4-lb weight. The sugar is run into a conical hopper and is
delivered into the open mouth of a bag which is placed on the goods-
pan of a balance. The balance consists of a pair of equal-armed beams
rigidly connected together and acting as a single beam. A 4-lb weight
lodges the detent of the cut-off slide7 The slide springs forward and
cuts off the flow. The filled bag is then removed and replaced by an
empty bag and the action is renewed.
In order to ensure the correct weight of the bag it is necessary to
consider that when the cut-off slide acts, a certain quantity of sugar
is in transitu and has not at that moment taken its place in the bag.
This is allowed for by means of a rider weight, which is arranged so as
automatically to add its weight to that of the sugar in the bag while
WEIGHING MACHINES
[AUTOMATIC
the4-R> weight is being lifted. But at the same instant that the cut-
off takes place the rider weight is lifted off the end of the balance by a
From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by
permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 16. Automatic Tea Weighing Machine.
self-acting arrangement, and the sugar in transitu takes its place in
the bag. And, if the rider weight has been correctly adjusted, the
bag of sugar will be
shown to weigh exactly
4 ft by the beam vibra-
ting in equipoise.
Automatic Coal
Weighing Machine (fig.
18). This machine
weighs the coal de-
livered into factories,
&c., by charges up to
20 cwt. at a time, and
records and sums up
the weights of the
charges so as to ex-
hibit the total weight
delivered. The whole
of this work is effected
automatically.
The coal is dropped
into a hopper by a
grab. The hopper is
carried on two knife-
edges, one on each side,
and is prevented from
tipping over fore and
aft by a pair of parallel
motion bars on each
side. The knife-edges
I on which the hopper
rests are on two hori-
zontal levers, one on
each side oi the hop-
From the Notice issued by the Standards Department
per. These levers are
rrom tne INOUCC issued oy tne standards uepanment _ j L i, ;t i
of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller carried by knife-edge
fulcra in bearings on
the frame of the ma-
chine, and transmit the
weight of the hopper
intermediate lever and a vertical rod to the
of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 17. Automatic Sugar Weighing
Machine.
by means of an
indicator lever. And the long arm of the indicator lever pulls
vertically upon the spring of an ordinary spring balance, which
registers the load, and with the addition of suitable counting
mechanism sums up the weights of any number of successive loads.
The charges of coal fall into the hopper with a heavy shock, and in
order to save the knife-edges there is a strong pin in each side of the
hopper below the knife-edge, which, before the charge of coal is
dropped into the hopper, is acted on by a strong horizontal flitch-
Elate, which heaves the hopper off the knife-edges and relieves them
om the shock. The heaving-up of the flitch-plate and hopper is
effected by a cam on the end of a horizontal shaft which runs along
the back of the machine behind the hopper. The flitch-plate rests at
one end on the top of this cam, and at the other end is shackled to the
horizontal arm of a bell-crank lever which is pivoted on the frame.
When a charge of coal is dropped into the hopper, the bell-crank
lever receives a violent jerk from the shackle of the flitch-plate, and
this jerk by means of suitable mechanical arrangements throws a
pinion on the cam shaft into gear with a wheel on a counter shaft
From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by
permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 18. Automatic Coal Weighing Machine.
which is kept constantly running by means of a belt and pulley
driven by an engine. The cam shaft and the cam then begin to
revolve, and the flitch-plate is gradually lowered till the knife-edge
bearings of the hopper are received on the knife-edges of the main
measuring levers, and the load is then weighed by the levers and the
spring-balance. Shortly after this is done the mechanism at the
back of the hopper automatically opens the doors at the bottom of
the hopper, and the coal drops out. The rotation of the cam shaft
continues till the cam has again heaved up the flitch-plate, when the
pinion on the cam shaft is thrown out of gear with the wheel on the
counter shaft, and the cam remains steady till another charge of coal
is dropped into the hopper and the action is renewed. The coal when
dropped out of the hopper runs down a shoot into a receptacle, from
whence it is lifted by a Jacob's Ladder and distributed to the boilers,
&c., of the factory.
Automatic Coal Weighing Machine (fig. 19). This machine is
designed to weigh and total up the weight of materials passed over
it during a considerable course of operations. The trucks or other
receptacles containing the coal, &c., are drawn upon the platform of
the machine, and the pull of the load is transferred by a vertical rod
at the left-hand end of the machine to the knife-edge on the short
arm of the steelyard, whose fulcrum is carried on bearings in the
frame. Behind the pulley at the top of the machine and on the same
shaft is a spur wheel, which drives both of the spur wheels shown in
the diagram. The small spur wheel is mounted on the steelyard, and
this wheel and the one that drives it are so arranged that their line of
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
477
pressure shall exactly coincide with the line of the fulcrum knife-
edge; the object of this is that the pressure may not influence the
sway of the steelyard, which must depend entirely upon the poise.
By means of a pair of mitre wheels the small spur wheel causes a
screwed shaft, which runs along the middle of the steelyard, to
clutch with a shaft in the same line, on which are keyed a sprocket
wheel and a ratchet wheel. The sprocket wheel is connected by a
chain with a similar sprocket wheel which is keyed on the same shaft
as that of the left-hand pulley. The ratchet wheel is acted upon by
a pawl which is shown on the diagram. When the poise is at the
zero end, and there is no load on the
platform, the end of the steelyard is
down, and has locked the ratchet wheel
by means of the pawl; the shaft being
thus locked, the sprocket wheels are
stopped, the drum-shall runs free by the
friction clutch, and the two pulleys
| which are connected by the crossed band
are running idle. When the load to be
weighed comes upon the platform, the
end of the steelyard rises and unlocks
the ratchet wheel through the pawl;
the sprocket gearing is driven by the
friction clutch, and drives the axle of
the left-hand small pulley. The mitre
wheels come into operation and the
poise is carried along till the end of the
steelyard drops, and locks the ratchet
From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of wheel. By means of a horizontal rod the
H.M. Stationery Office. ,,-. , , same drop of the steelyard also locks
FIG. 19. Automatic Coal Weighing Machine. together by clutch gearing the left-hand
revolve, and as it revolves it carries the large poise along the steel-
yard. Thus, if the poise be at the zero end of the steelyard at the
left-hand side of the machine, when the load comes upon the platform
the screwed shaft carries the poise along the steelyard till equilibrium
is established, and the end of the steelyard drops. By the first part
of this drop the movement of the poise is suddenly stopped, as will be
explained below, and the travel of the poise alone the steelyard,
which measures the load on the platform, is recorded by the amount
of rotation of the large spur wheel, and this is suitably shown on a
dial in connexion with the wheel. By the second part of the drop the
motion of the poise is reversed and the poise is run back to the zero
/\J\
e'o'
From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by
permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery OrBce.
FIG. 20. Automatic Luggage Weighing Machine.
end in readiness for the next load. All of this is effected auto-
matically as follows :
The machine is driven continuously by a belt from a motor which
wraps round the large drum at the right-hand side of the machine.
On the same axle as the drum and behind it is a small pulley which is
keyed upon the axle and is connected with the small pulley (which
runs idle on its shaft) at the left-hand side of the machine by a
crossed belt. Thus these two small pulleys are always running, but
in opposite directions. The drum-shaft is connected by a friction
pulley and the adjacent sprocket wheel, and the pulley drives the
sprocket wheel in the opposite direction to that which it had before.
Consequently the motion of the mitre wheels is reversed and the
poise is run back to zero. When the poise arrives at zero it frees
the clutch which connects the pulley and the sprocket wheel, and
the machine is then ready for the next load. The poise having
arrived at the end of its run and unable to go further, the mitre
wheels and the sprocket gearing are stopped, and the two pulleys and
the cross belt run idle till the next load comes upon the platform.
Automatic Luggage Weighing Machine (fig- 20). This machine is
intended for the weighing of personal luggage at railway stations.
It consists ol a platform which is carried by levers arranged in the
manner of an ordinary platform machine, which are connected with
the registration mechanism by a vertical rod. This rod is continued
upwards by a pair of thin nickel bands which are led right and left
over two horizontal cylinders, round which they partly wrap,_and
to which they are firmly 'attached. The diameter of the middle
part of the cylinders is greater than that of the ends, and the bands
from the vertical rod are led over the middle part. To each cylinder
a pair of similar nickel bands are led downwards from the top of a
casting which is bolted to the frame The lower ends of these bands
pass round the under side of the end portions of the cylinders,
wrapping close round them, and are firmly attached to them. To
the bottom of each cylinder is rigidly attached a heavy solid cylinder
of lead, and these are the regulators of the position of equilibrium
of the cylinders when they rotate under the action of the load.
When the load comes upon the platform the pull of the vertical
rod is transmitted by the nickel bands to the cylinders around
which they are wrapped, and causes them to revolve. As they
rotate they roll themselves up the pairs of bands which are attached
to the top of the casting, and at the same time cause the leaden
weights attached to the bottoms of the cylinders to take up a lateral
position, where they exercise a leverage opposing the_ motion of
the cylinders, and bringing them up in a definite position corre-
sponding to the pull of the vertical rod. By the rolling of the
cylinders up the vertical bands from the casting the cylinders are
raised vertically through a space defined by the position of the
leaden regulators. By means of suitable and simple mechanism
this vertical movement of the cylinders works plunger pistons in a
pair of cylinders which contain glycerin, ana _these deaden the
vibrations of the machinery while weighing is going on. The same
vertical movement also actuates the index finger of a large dial,
on which the weight of their luggage can be easily read by passengers
standing near while their luggage is being weighed.
AUTHORITIES. Julius Weisbach, Mechanics of Machinery and
Engineering (London, 1848); Ernest Brauer, Die Konstruktion der
Waage (V '
(London,
vol. cviii. ...
Engineers, vol. for 1890. (W. AY.)
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. This subject may be most
conveniently considered under three aspects I. Scientific;
II. Historical; and III. Commercial.
I. SCIENTIFIC
~i. Units. In the United Kingdom two systems of weights
and measures are now recognized the imperial and the metric.
The fundamental units of these systems are of length, the
yard and metre; and of mass, the pound and kilogram.
The legal theory of the British system of weights and measures
is (a) the standard yard, with all lineal measures and their
478
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[SCIENTIFIC
squares and cubes based upon that; (b) the standard pound
of 7000 grains, with all weights based upon that, with the troy
pound of 5760 grains for trade purposes; (c) the standard
gallon (and multiples and fractions of it), declared to contain
10 Ib of water at 62 F., being in volume 277-274 cub. in., which
contain each 252-724 grains of water in a vacuum at 62, or
252-458 grains of water weighed with brass weights in air of
62 with the barometer at 30 in. Of the metric units international
definitions have been stated as follows:
(a) The unit of volume for determinations of a high degree of
accuracy is the volume occupied by the mass of I kilogram of pure
water at its maximum density and under the normal atmospheric
pressure; this volume is called litre.
(b) In determinations of volume which do not admit of a high
degree of accuracy the cubic decimetre can be taken as equivalent
to the litre; and in these determinations expressions of volumes
based on the cube of the unit of linear measure can be substituted
for expressions based on the litre as denned above.
(c) The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of
the international prototype of the kilogram. 1
(d) The term " weight " denotes a magnitude of the same nature
as a force; the weight of a body is the oroduct of the mass of the
body by the acceleration of gravity; in particular, the normal
weight of a body is the product of the mass of the body by the
normal acceleration of gravity. The number adopted for the value
of the normal acceleration of gravity is 980-965 cm/sec 2 .
2. Standards, The metre (melre-a-lraits) is represented by
the distance marked by two fine lines on an iridio-platinum bar
(l=o C.) deposited with the Standards Department. This
metre (m.) is the only unit of metric extension by which all other
metric measures of extension whether linear, superficial or
solid are ascertained.
The kilogram (kg.) is represented by an iridio-platinum
standard weight, of cylindrical form, by which all other metric
weights, and all measures having reference to metric weight,
are ascertained in the United Kingdom.
From the above four units are derived all other weights and
measures (W. and M.) of the two systems.
The gallon is the standard measure of capacity in the imperial
system as well for liquids as for dry goods.
In the United Kingdom the metric standard of capacity is the
litre, represented (Order in Council, igth May 1890) by the
capacity of a hollow cylindrical brass measure whose internal
diameter is equal to one-half its height, and which at o C.,
when filled to the brim, contains one kg. of distilled water of
the temperature of 4 C., under an atmospheric pressure equal
to 760 millimetres at o C. at sea-level and latitude 45; the
weighing being made in air, but reduced by calculation to a
vacuum. In such definition an attempt has been made to avoid
former confusion of expression as to capacity, cubic measure,
and volume; the litre being recognized as a measure of capacity
holding a given weight of water.
For the equivalent of the litre in terms of the gallon, see below
III. Commercial.
In the measurement of the cubic inch it has been found that 2
the specific mass of the cubic inch of distilled water freed from
air, and weighed in air against brass weights (A = 8-i3), at the
temperature of 62 F., and under an atmospheric pressure
equal to 30 in. (at 32 F.), is equal to 252-297 grains weight
of water at its maximum density (4 C.). Hence a cubic foot of
water would weigh 62-281 Ib avoir., and not 62-321 Ib as at
present legally taken.
For the specific mass of the cubic decimetre of water at 4 C.,
under an atmospheric pressure equal to 760 mm., Guillaume
and Chappuis of the Comite International des Poids et Mesures
at Paris (C.I.P.M.) have obtained 0-9999707 kg., 3 which has been
accepted by the committee.
The two standards, the cubic inch and the cubic decimetre,
may not be strictly comparable owing to a difference in the
normal temperature (Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales) of the
two units of extension, the metre and the yard.
1 Troisieme Conference Generate des Poids et Mesures (Paris, 1901).
Metric Units Com. Roy. Soc. (1898).
"Phil. Trans. (1892); and Proc. Roy. Soc. (1895), p. 143.
_ ' Proc. Verb. Com. Intern, des Poids et Mesures (1900), p. 84.
Congres International de Physique r6uni a Paris en 1900.
For the weight of the cubic decimetre of water, as deduced from
the experiments made in London in 1896 as to the weight of the
cubic inch of water, D. Mendelfieff (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1895) has obtained
the following results, which have been adopted in legislative enact-
ments in the United Kingdom :
Temperature on
the Hydrogen
Thermometer
Scale.
Weight of Water in vacua.
Of a Cubic
Decimetre in
Grammes.
Of a Cubic
I.ich in
Grains.
Of a Cubic
Inch in
Russian Dolis.
C.
F.
4
15
i6
2O
32-0
39-2
59-o
62-0
68-0
999-716
999-847
998-979
998-715
998-082
252-821
252-854
252-635
252-568
252-407
368-686
368-734
368-414
368-316
368-083
In this no account is taken of the compressibility of water that
is to say, it is supposed that the water is under a pressure of one
atmosphere. The weight of a cubic decimetre of water reaches
1000 grammes under a pressure of four atmospheres; but in vacua,
at all temperatures, the weight of water is less than a kilogram.
3. National Standards. National standards of length are not
legally now referred to natural standards or to physical con-
S
T
u
ction of bar. Section at a a'.
f
lo o|
FIG. I. Present Imperial Standard Yard, 1844.
Total length of bronze bar, 38 in.; distance a a', 36 in., or the
imperial yard; a a', wells sunk to the mid-depth of the bar, at the
bottom of each of which is inserted a gold stud, having the defining
line of the yard engraved on it.
slants, 4 but it has been shown by A. A. Michelson that a standard
of length might be restored, if necessary, by reference to the
measurement of wave-lengths of light. Preliminary experiments
have given results correct to o-5 micron, and it appears
probable that by further experi-
ments, results correct to *i-ojt
may be obtained. That is to say,
the metre might be redetermined
or restored as to its length within
one ten-millionth part, by reference
to, e.g., 1553163-5 wave-lengths of
the red ray of the spectrum of cad-
mium, in air at 15 C. and 760 mm.
In all countries the national
standards of weights and measures j
are in the custody of the state, or "r-
of some authority administering the
government of the country. The
standards of the British Empire,
so far as they relate to the imperial
and metric systems, are in the
custody of the Board of Trade.
Scientific research is not, of course,
bound by official standards.
For the care of these national
standards the Standards Department
was developed, under the direction of
a Royal Commission 5 (of which the
"O.
FIG. 2. Imperial Standard
Pound, 1844.
Platinum pound avoirdu-
late Henry Williams Chisholm was a pois, of cylindrical form, with
leading member), to conduct all com- groove at a for lifting the
parisons and other operations with weight,
reference to weights and measures in
aid of scientific research or otherwise, which it may be the duty of
the state to undertake. Similar standardizing offices are established
4 Valeur du Metre, A. A. Michelson (Paris, 1894); Units, Everett,
Illustrations of C.G.S. System; Unites et Etalons, Guillaume (Paris,
1890); Lupton's Numerical Tables, 1892; Metric Equivalent Cards,
1901; Dictionary of Metric Measures, L. Clark (1891); Glazebrook
and Shaw's Physics (1901).
6 Report Standards Commission, 1870.
SCIENTIFIC]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
479
in other countries (see STANDARDS). Verified " Parliamentary
( upies " of the imperial standard are placed at the Royal Mint,
with the Royal Society, at the Royal Observatory, and in the
Westminster Palace.
The forms of the four primary standards representing the
four units of extension and mass are shown in figs, i to 4.
A secondary standard measure for dry goods is the bushel of
1824, containing 8 imperial gallons, represented by a hollow
bronze cylinder having a plane base, its internal diameter being
double its depth.
The imperial standard measure of capacity is a hollow cylinder
(fig. 5) made of brass, with a plane base, of equal height and
diameter; which when filled to the brim, as determined by a
plane glass disk, contains 10 Ib weight of water at 1=62 F.B.
= 30 in., weighed in air against brass weights.
4. Atmospheric Pressure, and Materials. In the verification of a
precise standard of length there may be taken into account the
influence of the variation of
atmospheric pressure. Taking the
range of the barometer in Great
Britain from 28 to 31 in., giving a
difference of 3 in. (76 millimetres),
which denotes a variation of 103
grammes per square centimetre
in flic pressure of the atmosphere,
the change caused thereby in the
length of a standard of linear
measurement would appear to be
as follows:
For the yard measure of the
form shown in fig. I a difference
of length equal to 0-000002 in. is
caused by the variation of atmo-
spheric pressure from 28 to 31 in.
For the metre of the form shown
in fig. 3 the difference in length
for a variation of 76 mm. in the
barometer would be 0-000048 mm.
on the metre.
With reference to the materials
of which standards of length
are made, it appears that the
Matthey alloy iridip-platinum
(90% platinum, 10% iridium) is
probably of all substances the
least affected by time or circum-
stance, and of this costly alloy,
therefore, a new copy of the im-
perial yard has been made. There
appears, however, to be some
Iridio-platinum bar of Tresca objection to the use of iridio-
section as shown at A. The two platinum for weights, as, owing
microscopic lines are engraved to its great density ( = 21-57),
on the measuring axis of the bar the slightest abrasion will make an
at b, one near to each end of the appreciable difference in a weight ;
bar. The standard metre (mktre- sometimes, therefore, quartz or
a-traits) was supplemented by rock-crystal is used ; but to this
the delivery to Great Britain, also there is some objection, as
in 1898, of an end standard owing to its low density (A = 2-65)
metre (mktre-a-bouts) also made there is a large exposed surface
of iridio-platinum, and also of the mass. For small standard
verifiedbytheC.I.P.M. Acorn- weights platinum ( = 21-45) a "d
parison of the yard with the aluminium ( = 2-67) are used, and
metrewasmadebytheC.I.P.M. also an alloy of palladium (60%)
in 1896, and of the pound and and silver (40%) (A = n-oo).
kilogram in 1883-1885 (see III. For ordinary standards of
Commercial). length Guillaume's alloy (invar) of
FIG. 3. National Standard
Metre, 1897.
is used, as it is a metal that can
of receiving fine graduations. Its coefficient ot linear expansion is
only 0-0000008 for 1 C. 1
5. Electrical Standards. Authoritative standards and instru-
ments for the measurement of electricity, based on the funda-
mental units of the metric system, have been placed in the
Electrical Laboratory of the Board of Trade. 2 These include
Current measuring J The standard ampere, and sub-standards
instruments. ( from I to 2500 amperes.
Potential measuring
instruments.
Resistance measuring
instruments.
The standard volt, and sub-standards
for the measurement of pressure from
25 to 3000 volts.
The standard ohm, sub-standards up
to 100,000 ohms, and below i ohm to
T^T ohm.
Rapport du Yard, Dr Benoit (1896).
'Orders in Council (1894).
6. Temperature. In the measurement of temperature the
Fahrenheit scale is still followed for imperial standards, and the
Centigrade scale for metric standards. At the time of the con-
struction of the imperial standards
in 1844, Sheepshanks's Fahrenheit
thermometers were used; but it
is difficult to say now what the
true temperature then, of 62 F.,
may have been as compared with
62 F., or 16-667 C., of the
present normal hydrogen scale.
For metrological purposes the
C.I. P.M. have adopted as a normal
thermometric scale the Centigrade
scale of the hydrogen thermometer,
having for fixed points the tempera-
ture of pure melting ice (o) and
that of the vapour of boiling dis-
tilled water (100), under a normal
atmospheric pressure; hydrogen
being taken under an initial mano-
metric pressure of i metre, that is
to say, at VW = 1-3158 times the
normal atmospheric pressure. This
latter is represented by the weight
of a column of mercury 760 mm.
in height; the specific gravity of
mercury being now taken as
I 3'59S after Volkmann and
Marek, and at the normal in-
tensity followed under this pres-
sure. The value of this intensity is l ' IG ' 4 : National Standard
equal to that of the force of gravity
Kilogram, 1897.
at the Bureau International, Paris (at the level of the Bureau),
divided by 1-000332; a co-efficient which allows for theoretical
reduction to the latitude 45 and to the level of the sea. The
length of the metre is independent of the thermometer so far
that it has its length at a definite physical point, the temperature
of melting ice (o C.), but there is the practical difficulty that for
ordinary purposes measurements cannot be always carried out
at o C.
The International Geodetic Committee have adopted the
metre as their unit of measurement. In geodetic measurements
the dimensions of the triangles vary with the temperature of
the earth, but these variations in the same region of the earth
are smaller than the variations of the temperature of the air,
less than 10 C. Adopting as a co-efficient of dilatation of the
earth's crust 0-000002, the variations of the distances are smaller
than the errors of measurement (see GEODESY).
7. Standardizing Institutions. Besides the State departments
dealing with weights and measures, there are other standardizing
institutions of recent date.
In Germany, e.g. there is
at Charlottenburg ( Berlin)
a technical institute
(Physikalisch - technische-
Reichsanstalt) established
under Dr W. Forster in
1887, which undertakes
researches with reference
to physics and mechanics,
particularly as applied to
technical industries.* In
England a National
Physical Laboratory
FIG. 5 Present Imperial Standard
Gallon, 1824
(N.P.L.) has been established, based on the German institute,
and has its principal laboratory at Bushey House, near
Hampton, Middlesex. Here is carried out the work of
standardizing measuring instruments of various sorts in use
1 WisienschafUiche Abhandlungen der physikalischen Reiehsan-
stalt, Band ii. (Berlin, 1000); Denkschrift betreffend die Tdtigkeit
der K. Norm.-Aichungs Kommn. (1869-1900).
480
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[ANCIENT HISTORICAL
by manufacturers, the determination of physical constants
and the testing of materials. The work of the Kew Observa-
tory, at the Old Deer Park, Richmond, has also been placed
under the direction of the N.P.L. (see III. Commercial). 1
The C.I. P.M. at Paris, the first metrological institution, also
undertakes verifications for purely scientific purposes. A
descriptive list of the verifying instruments of the Standards
Department, London, has been published. 2 In the measurement
of woollen and other textile fabrics, as to quality, strength,
number of threads, &c., there exists at Bradford a voluntary
standardizing institution known as the Conditioning House
(Bradford Corporation Act 1887), the work of which has been
extended to a chemical analysis of fabrics.
8. Ancient Standards of England and Scotland. A " troy
pound " and a new standard yard, as well as secondary standards,
were constructed by direction of parliament in '1758-1760, and
were deposited with the Clerk of the House of Commons. When
the Houses of Parliament were burned down in 1834, the pound
was lost and the yard was injured. It may here be mentioned
that the expression " imperial " first occurs in the Weights and
Measures Act of 1824. The injured standard was then lost
sight of, but it was in 1891 brought to light by the Clerk of the
Journals, and has now been placed in the lobby of the residence
of the Clerk of the House, together with a standard " stone "
of 14 Ib. 3
In the measurement of liquids the old " wine gallon " (231
cub. in.) was in use in England until 1824, when the present
imperial gallon (fig. 5) was legalized; and the wine gallon of
1707 is still referred to as a standard in the United States.
Together with the more ancient standard of Henry VII. and of
Queen Elizabeth, this standard is deposited in the Jewel Tower
at Westminster. They are probably of the Norman period, and
were kept in the Pyx Chapel at Westminster, now in the custody
of the Commissioners of Works. A sketch of these measures is
given in fig. 6. 4
Besides these ancient standards of England (1495, 1588,
1601) there are at the council chambers of Edinburgh and
chant's pound of 7200 grains, from France and Germany, also super-
seded. (" Avoirdepois " occurs in 1336, and has been thence con-
tinued: the Elizabethan standard was probably 7002 grains.)
Ale gallon of 1601 =282 cub. in., and wine gallon of 1707=231 cub.
in., both abolished in 1824. Winchester corn bushel of 8X268.8
cub. in. and gallon of 274j are the oldest examples known (Henry
FIG. 7. The Scots Choppin
or Half-Pint, 1555.
FIG. 8. Lanark Stone
Troy Weight, 1618.
VII.), gradually modified until fixed in 1826 at 277.274, or 10 pounds
of water.
French Weights and Measures Abolished. Often needed in reading
older works.
lignc,
08883 in.
grain,
8197 gr.
12
pouce,
1-0658
72=gros,
59-021
12= pied,
12-7892
8 = once,
472-17
6 = toise,
76-735
o=marc,
3777-33
20oo=lieue de poste.
2-42219 miles.
2=poids de marc.
1-0792 Ib.
Rhineland foot, much used in Germany, = 12-357 in. =the foot of the
Scotch or English cloth ell of 37-06 in., or 3 X 12-353. (H. J. C.)
II. ANCIENT HISTORICAL
Though no line can be drawn between ancient and modern
metrology, yet, owing to neglect, and partly to the scarcity of
materials, there is a gap of more than a thousand years over
which the connexion of units 6 of measure is mostly guess-work.
Hence, except in a few cases, we shall not here consider
any units of the middle ages. A constant difficulty in
studying works on metrology is the need of distin-
guishing the absolute facts of the case from the web
of theory into which each writer has woven them often
the names used, and sometimes the very existence of the
units in question, being entirely an assumption of the
writer. Again, each writer has his own leaning: A.
Bockh, to the study of water-volumes and weights,
even deriving linear measures therefrom; V. Queipo,
FIG. 6 A, Winchester Bushel of Henry VII.; B, Standard Hundred- to the connexion with Arabic and Spanish measures;
weight (112 Ib) of Elizabeth; C, Ale Gallon of Henry VII.; D, the old Wine J. . Brandis, to the basis of Assyrian standards;
Gallon. Mommsen, to coin weights; and P. Bortolotti to
Linlithgow some of the interesting standards of Scotland, as Egyptian units; but F. Hultsch is more general, and appears
the Stirling jug or Scots pint, 1618; the choppin or half-pint, to give a more equal representation of all sides than do other
J SSS (fig- 7); the Lanark troy and tron weights of the same
periods (fig. 8). 6
English Weights and Measures Abolished. The yard and handful,
or 40 in. ell, abolished in 1439. The yard and inch, or 37 in. ell (cloth
measure), abolished after 1553; known later as the Scotch ell =
37-06. Cloth ell of 45 in., used till 1600. The yard of Henry VII. =
35'963 in. Saxon moneyers pound, or Tower pound, 5400 grains,
abolished in 1527. Mark, f pound =3600 grains. Troy pound in
use in 1415, established as monetary pound 1527. Troy weight was
abolished, from the 1st of January 1879, by the Weights and Measures
Act 1878, with the exception only of the Troy ounce, its decimal parts
and multiples, legalized in 1853, 16 Viet. c. 29, to be used for the sale
of gold and silver articles, platinum and precious stones. Merchant's
pound, in 1270 established for all except gold, silver and medicines
= 675 O grains, generally superseded by avoirdupois in 1303. Mer-
1 Treasury Committee on National Physical Laboratory, Parlia-
mentary Paper, 1898.
1 Descriptive List of Standards and Instruments, Parliamentary
Paper, 1892.
* Report on Standards deposited in House of Commons, 1st
November 1891.
S. Fisher, The Art Journal, August 1900.
* Buchanan, Ancient Scotch Standards.
authors. In this article the tendency will be to trust far more
to actual measures and weights than to the statements of ancient
writers; and this position seems to be justified by the great in-
crease in materials, and their more accurate means of study.
The usual arrangement by countries has been mainly abandoned
in favour of following out each unit as a whole, without recurring
to it separately for every locality.
The materials for study are of three kinds, (i) Literary, both
in direct statements in works on measures (e.g. Eliasof Nisibis),
medicine (Galen) and cosmetics (Cleopatra), in ready-reckoners
(Didymus), clerk's (katib's) guides, and like handbooks, and in
indirect explanations of the equivalents of measures mentioned
by authors (e.g. Josephus). But all such sources are liable to
the most confounding errors, and some passages relied on have
in any case to submit to conjectural emendation. These author
are of great value for connecting the monumental information
* In the absence of the actual standards of ancient times the unit
of measure and of weight have to be inferred from the other remains;
hence unit in this division is used for any more or less closely define
amount of length or weight in terms of which matter was measur
ANCIENT HISTORICAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
481
but must yield more and more to the increasing evidence of
actual weights and measures. Besides this, all their evidence
is but approximate, often only stating quantities to a half or
quarter of the amount, and seldom nearer than 5 or 10%;
hence they are entirely worthless for all the closer questions of
the approximation or original identity of standards in different
countries; and it is just in this line that the imagination of
writers has led them into the greatest speculations, unchecked
by accurate evidence of the original standards. (2) Weights and
measures actually remaining. These are the prime sources, and
as they increase and are more fully studied, so the subject will
be cleared and obtain a fixed basis. A difficulty has been in
the paucity of examples, more due to the neglect of collectors
than the rarity of specimens. The number of published weights
did not exceed 600 of all standards in 1880; but the collections
from Naucratis (28) ,' Defenneh (29) and Memphis (44) have
supplied over six times this quantity, and of an earlier age than
most other examples, while existing collections have been more
thoroughly examined. It is above all desirable to make allow-
ances for the changes which weights have undergone; and, as
this has only been done for the above Egyptian collections and
that of the British Museum, conclusions as to the accurate
values of different standards will here be drawn from these
rather than continental sources. (3) Objects which have been
made by measure or weight, and from which the unit of construc-
tion can be deduced. Buildings will generally yield up their
builder's foot or cubit when examined (Inductive Metrology,
p. 9). Vases may also be found bearing such relations to one
another as to show their unit of volume. And coins have long
been recognized as one of the great sources of metrology valu-
able for their wide and detailed range of information, though
most unsatisfactory on account of the constant temptation to
diminish their weight, a weakness which seldom allows us to
reckon them as of the full standard. Another defect in the
evidence of coins is that, when one variety of the unit of weight
was once fixed on for the coinage, there was (barring the deprecia-
tion) no departure from it, because of the need of a fixed value,
and hence coins do not show the range and character of the real
variations of units as do buildings, or vases, or the actual
commercial weights.
PRINCIPLE or STUDY. i. Limits of Variation in Different
Copies, Places and Times. Unfortunately, so very little is
known of the ages of weights and measures that this datum
most essential in considering their history has been scarcely
considered. In measure, Egyptians of Dynasty IV. at Gizeh on
an average varied i in 350 between different buildings (27).
Buildings at Persepolis, all of nearly the same age, vary in unit
i in 450 (25). Including a greater range of time and place, the
Roman foot in Italy varied during two or three centuries on an
average -j-J-jj from the mean. Covering a longer time, we find an
average variation of -5-^ in the Attic foot (25), y^ in the English
foot (25), Y^TS m tne English itinerary foot (25). Se we may say
that an average variation of f^ by toleration, extending to
double that by change of place and time, is usual in ancient
measures. In weights of the same place and age there is a far
wider range; at Defenneh (29), within a century probably, the
average variation of different units is fa, fa, and fa, the range
being just the same as in all times and places taken together.
Even in a set of weights all found together, the average variation
is only reduced to fa, in place of fa (29). Taking a wider range
of place and time, the Roman libra has an average variation of
fa in the examples of better period (43) , and in those of Byzantine
a (5 e fa (**) Altogether, we see that weights have descended
from original varieties with so little intercomparison that no
rectification of their values has been made, and hence there is as
much variety in any one place and time as in all together.
Average variation may be said to range from fa to fa in different
units, doubtless greatly due to defective balances.
2. Rate of Variation. Though large differences may exist, the
rate of general variation is but slow excluding, of course, all
monetary standards. In Egypt the cubit lengthened -j-Jj-^ in
1 These figures refer to the authorities at the end of this section.
XXVIH. 16
some thousands of years (25, 44) . The Italian mile has lengthened
pj ff since Roman times (2) ; the English mile lengthened
about gjiy in four centuries (31). The English foot has not
appreciably varied in several centuries (26). Of weights there are
scarce any dated, excepting coins, which nearly all decrease;
the Attic tetradrachm, however, increased fa in three centuries
(28), owing probably to its being below the average trade
weight to begin with. Roughly dividing the Roman weights,
there appears a decrease of fa from imperial to Byzantine times
(43).
3. Tendency of Variation. This is. in the above cases of
lengths, to an increase in course of time. The Roman foot is
also probably jJu larger than the earlier form of it, and the later
form in Britain and Africa perhaps another yfa larger (25) . Prob-
ably measures tend to increase and weights to decrease in trans-
mission from time to time or place to place.
4. Details of Variation. Having noticed variation in the gross,
we must next observe its details. The only way of examining these
is by drawing curves (28, 29), representing the frequency of occur-
rence of all the variations of a unit ; for instance, in the Egyptian
unit the kat counting in a large number how many occur
between 140 and 141 grains, 141 and 142, and so on; such
numbers represented by curves show at once where any particular
varieties of the unit lie (see Naukratis, i. 83). This method is only
applicable where .there is a large number of examples; but there
is no other way of studying the details. The results from such
a study of the Egyptian kat, for example show that there are
several distinct families or types of a unit, which originated in
early times, have been perpetuated by copying, and reappear
alike in each locality (see Tanis, ii. pi. 1.). Hence we see that if
one unit is derived from another it may be possible, by the
similarity or difference of the forms of the curves, to discern
whether it was derived by general consent and recognition from
a standard in the same condition of distribution as that in which
we know it, or whether it was derived from it in earlier times
before it became so varied, or by some one action forming it from
an individual example of the other standard without any varia-
tion being transmitted. As our knowledge of the age and
locality of weights increases these criteria in curves will prove
of greater value; but even now no consideration of the
connexion of different units should be made without a graphic
representation to compare their relative extent and nature
of variation.
5. Transfer of Units. The transfer of units from one people
to another takes place almost always by trade. Hence the value
of such evidence in pointing out the ancient course of trade and
commercial connexions (17). The great spread of the Phoenician
weight on the Mediterranean, of the Persian in Asia Minor and
of the Assyrian in Egypt are evident cases; and that the decimal
weights of the laws of Manu (43) are decidedly not Assyrian or
Persian, but on exactly the Phoenician standard, is a curious
evidence of trade by water and not overland. If, as seems
probable, units of length may be traced in prehistoric remains,
they are of great value; at Stonehenge, for instance, the earlier
parts are laid out by the Phoenician foot, and the later by the
Pelasgo-Roman foot (26). The earlier foot is continually to be
traced in other megalithic remains, whereas the later very
seldom occurs (25). This bears strongly on the Phoenician
origin of our prehistoric civilization. Again, the Belgic foot of
the Tungri is the basis of the present English land measures,
which we thus see are neither Roman nor British in origin, but
Belgic. Generally a unit is transferred from a higher to a less
civilized people; but the near resemblance of measures in different
countries should always be corroborated by historical considera-
tions of a probable connexion by commerce or origin (Head,
Historia Numorum, xxxvii.). It should be borne in mind that
in early times the larger values, such as minae, would be trans-
mitted by commerce, while after the introduction of coinage the
lesser values of shekels and drachmae would be the units; and
this needs notice, because usually a borrowed unit was multiplied
or divided according to the ideas of the borrowers, and strange
modifications thus arose.
5
482
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[ANCIENT HISTORIC/
6. Connexions of Lengths, Volumes and Weights. This is the
most difficult branch of metrology, owing to the variety of con-
nexions which can be suggested, to the vague information we
have, especially on volumes, and to the liability of writers to ration-
alize connexions which were never intended. To illustrate how
easy it is to go astray in this line, observe the continual reference
in modern handbooks to the cubic foot as 1000 oz. of water; also
the cubic inch is very nearly 250 grains, while the gallon has actu-
ally been fixed at 10 Ib of water; the first two are certainly
mere coincidences, as may very probably be the last also, and
yet they offer quite as tempting a base for theorizing as any
connexions in ancient metrology. No such theories can be
counted as more than coincidences which have been adopted,
unless we find a very exact connexion, or some positive state-
ment of origination. The idea of connecting volume and weight
has received an immense impetus through the metric system,
but it is not very prominent in ancient times. The Egyptians
report the weight of a measure of various articles, amongst others
water (6), but lay no special stress on it; and the fact that there
is no measure of water equal to a direct decimal multiple of the
weight-unit, except very high in the scale, does not seem as if
the volume was directly based upon weight. Again, there are
many theories of the equivalence of different cubic cubits of water
with various multiples of talents (2, 3, 18, 24, 33) ; but connexion
by lesser units would be far more probable, as the primary use
of weights is not to weigh large cubical vessels of liquid, but rather
small portions of precious metals. The Roman amphora being
equal to the cubic foot, and containing 80 librae of water, is
one of the strongest cases of such relations, being often men-
tioned by ancient writers. Yet it appears to be only an approxi-
mate relation, and therefore probably accidental, as the volume
by the examples is too large to agree to the cube of the length
or to the weight, differing -fa, or sometimes even iV 1
Another idea which has haunted the older metrologists,
but is still less likely, is the connexion of various measures
with degrees on the earth's surface. The lameness of the Greeks
in angular measurement would alone show that they could not
derive itinerary measures from long and accurately determined
distances on the earth.
7. Connexions with Coinage. From the 7th century B.C.
onward, the relations of units of weight have been complicated
by the need of the interrelations of gold, silver and copper
coinage; and various standards have been derived theoretically
from others through the weight of one metal equal in value
to a unit of another. That this mode of originating standards
was greatly promoted, if not started, by the use of coinage
we may see by the rarity of the Persian silver weight (derived
1 Relative to the uncertain connexion of length, capacity and
weight in the ancient metrological systems of the East, Sir Charles
Warren, R.E., has obtained by deductive analysis a new equivalent
of the original cubit (Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly, April,
July, October 1899). He shows that the length of the cubit arose
through the weights; that is to say, the original cubit of Egypt was
based on the cubic double cubit of water and from this the
several nations branched off with their measures and weights. For
the length of the building cubit Sir C. Warren has deduced a length
equivalent to 20-6169 English inches, which compares with a mean
Pyramid cubit of 20-6015 m- as hitherto found. By taking all the
ancient cubits, there appears to be a remarkable coincidence through-
out with 20-6109 m.
Sir C. Warren has derived a primitive unit from a proportion of the
human body, by ascertaining the probable mean height of the ancient
people in Egypt, and so thereby has derived a standard from the
stature of man. The human body has furnished the earliest measure
for many races (H. O. Arnold-Forster, The Coming of the Kilogram,
1898), as the foot, palm, hand, digit, nail, pace, ell (ulna), &c. It
seems probable, therefore, that a royal cubit may have been derived
from some kingly stature, and its length perpetuated in the ancient
buildings of Egypt, as the Great Pyramid, &c.
So far this later research appears to confirm the opinion of Bockh (2)
that fundamental units of measure were at one time derived from
weights and capacities. It is curious, however, to find that an ancient
nation of the East, so wise in geometrical proportions, should have
followed what by modern experience may be regarded as an inverse
method, that of obtaining a unit of length by deducing it through
weights and cubic measure, rather than by deriving cubic measure
through the unit of length.
ne
\
from the Assyrian standard), soon after the introduction of
coinage, as shown in the weights of Defenneh (29). The relative
value of gold and silver (17, 21) in Asia is agreed generally to
have been 13! to i in the early ages of coinage; at Athen
in 434 B.C. it was 14:1; in Macedon, 350 B.C., I2:i;
Sicily, 400 B.C., 15:1, and 300 B.C., 12:1; in Italy
in ist century, it was 12:1, in the later empire 13-9:1, and
under Justinian 14-4:1. Silver stood to copper in Egypt
80:1 (Brugsch), or 120:1 (Revillout); in early Italy and
Sicily as 250:1 (Mommsen),or 120:1 (Soutzo), under the empire
120:1, and under Justinian 100:1. The distinction of the us
of standards for trade in general, or for silver or gold in particular,
should be noted. The early observance of the relative values
may be inferred from Num. vii. 13, 14, where silver offerings
are 13 and 7 times the weight of the gold, or of equal value and
one-half value.
8. Legal Regulations of Measures. Most states have preserved
official standards, usually in temples under priestly custody.
The Hebrew "shekel of the sanctuary" is familiar; the standard
volume of the apet was secured in the dromus of Anubis at
Memphis (35); in Athens, besides the standard weight, twelve
copies for public comparison were kept in the city; also standard
volume measures in several places (2); at Pompeii the block with
standard volumes cut in it was found in the portico of the
forum (33); other such standards are known in Greek cities
(Gythium, Panidum and Trajanopolis) (11, 33); at Rome
the standards were kept in the Capitol, and weights also in the
temple of Hercules (2); the standard cubit of the Nilometer
was before Constantine in the Serapaeum, but was removed
by him to the church (2). In England the Saxon standards
were kept at Winchester before A.D. 950 and copies were legally
compared and stamped; the Normans removed them to West-
minster to the custody of the king's chamberlains at the ex-
chequer; and they were preserved in the crypt of Edward
the Confessor, while remaining royal property (9). The oldest
English standards remaining are those of Henry VII. Many
weights have been found in the temenos of Demeter at
Cnidus, the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and in a temple
of Aphrodite at Byblus (44); and the making or sale of
weights may have been a business of the custodians of the
temple standards.
9. Names of Units. It is needful to observe that most names of
measures are generic and not specific, and cover a great variety of
units. Thus foot, digit, palm, cubit, stadium, mile, talent, mina,
stater, drachm, obol, pound, ounce, grain, metretes, medimnus,
modius, bin and many others mean nothing exact unless qualified
by the name of their country or city. Also, it should be noted
that some ethnic qualifications have been applied to different
systems, and such names as Babylonian and Euboic are
ambiguous; the normal value, of a standard will therefore
be used here rather than its name, in order to avoid confusion,
unless specific names exist, such as kat and ulrii.
All quantities stated in this article without distinguishing
names are in British units of inch, cubic inch or grain.
Standards of Length. Most ancient measures have been derived
from one of two great systems, that of the cubit of 20-63 '" r the
digit of -729 in.; and both these systems are found in the earliest
remains.
20-63 in. First known in Dynasty IV. in Egypt, most accurately
20-620 in the Great Pyramid, varying 20-51 to 20-71 in Dyn. IV. to
VI. (27). Divided decimally in locths; but usually marked in
Egypt into 7 palms of 28 digits, approximately; a mere juxtaposition
(for convenience) of two incommensurate systems (25, 27). The
average of several cubit rods remaining is 20-65, a S e m general
about icoo B.C. (33). At Philae, &c., in Roman times 20-76 on the
Nilometers (44). This unit is also recorded by cubit lengths scratched
on a tomb at Beni Hasan (44), and by dimensions of the tomb of
Ramessu IV. and of Edfu temple (5) in papyri. From this cubit,
mahi, was formed the xylon of 3 cubits, the usual length of a walking-
staff ; fathom, nent, of 4 cubits, and the khet of 40 cubits (18); also
the schoenus of 12 ,000 cubits, actually found marked onthe Memphis-
Faium road (44).
Babylonia had this unit nearly as early as Egypt. The divide
plotting scales lying on the drawing boards of the statues of Gude
(Nature, xxviii. 341) are of \ 20-89, or a span of 10-44, which i
divided in 16 digits of -653, a fraction of the cubit also found in Egypt
01 .
h :
ANCIENT HISTORICAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
483
Buildings in Assyria and Babylonia show 20-5 to 20-6. The Baby-
lonian system was sexagesimal, thus (18)
uban. 5 = qat, 6-ammat. 6-qanu, 6o = sos, 3o-parasang, 3-kaspu.
69 inch 3'44 20-6 114 74J 3J3,ooo 446,000
Asia Minor had this unit in early times in the temples of Ephesus
20-55, Samos 20-62 ; Hultsch also claims Priene 20-90, and the stadia
ol Yphrodisias 20-67 and Laodicea 20-94. Ten buildings in all give
20-6} mean (18, 25) ; but in Armenia it arose to 20-76 in late Roman
times, like the late rise in Egypt (25). It was specially divided into
{th, the foot of fths being as important as the cubit.
12-45 in This was especially the Greek derivative of the 20-63
\ cubit. It originated in Babylonia as the foot of that
[2075. S y s t em (24), in accordance with the sexary system
applied to the early decimal division of the cubit. In Greece it is
the most usual unit, occurring in the Propylaea at Athens 12-44,
temple at Aegina 12-40, Miletus 12-51, the Olympic course 12-62,
&c. (18); thirteen buildings giving an average of 12-45, mean
lion -06 (25), =| of 20-75, rn. vac. -10. The digit = l palaeste,
-i foot of 12-4; then the system is
font J I J -cubit, 4-orguia ..................... . . . . ....... I0 9~ I gtadion.
*' 1 10 ........................ -acaena, lo-plethron, 6- J
I3'4 in. 187 747 4'S "45 747O
In Etruria it probably appears in tombs as 12-45 (25); perhaps
in Roman Britain; and in medieval England as 12-47 (25).
1VR in This foot is scarcely known monumentally. On three
; Egyptian cubits there is a prominent mark at the 19th
!o 7" digit or 14 in., which shows the existence of such a
measure (33). It became prominent when adopted by Philetaerus
about 280 B.C. as the standard of Pergamum (42), and probably it
had been shortly before adopted by the Ptolemies for Egypt. From
that time it is one of the principal units in the literature (Didymus,
&c.), and is said to occur in the temple of Augustus at Pergamum as
13-8 (18). Fixed by the Romans at 16 digits (13$ = Roman foot),
or its cubit at ij Roman feet, it was legally =13-94 at 123 B.C.
t42); and 7j Philetaerean stadia were = Roman mile (18). The
multiples of the 20-63 cubit are in late times generally reckoned in
these feet of f cubit. The name " Babylonian foot " used by
|{<x-kh (2) is only a theory of his, from which to derive volumes and
weights; and no evidence for this name, or connexion with Babylon,
is to be found. Much has been written (2, 3, 33) on supposed cubits
of about 17-18 in. derived from 20-63 mainly in endeavouring to
get a basis for the Greek and Roman feet ; but these are really con-
nected with the digit system, and the monumental or literary
evidence for such a division of 20-63 W 'U not bear examination.
17-30 There is, however, fair evidence for units of 17-30 and
I -730 or ^j of 20-76 in Persian buildings (25); and the
!0 ' 76> same is found in Asia Minor as 17-25 or | of 20-70. On the
Egyptian cubits a small cubit is marked as about 17 in., which may
well be this unit, as f of 20-6 is 17-2 ; and, as these marks are placed
before the 23rd digit or 17-0, they cannot refer to 6 palms, or 17-7,
which is the 24th digit, though they are usually attributed to that
(33).
We now turn to the second great family based on the digit.
This has been so usually confounded with the 20-63 family, owing
to the juxtaposition of 28 digits with that cubit in Egypt, that it
should be observed how the difficulty of their incommensurability
.has been felt. For instance, Lepsius (3) supposed two primitive
cubits of 13-2 and 20-63, to account for 28 digits being only 20-4
when free from the cubit of 20-63 the first 24 digits being in some
cases made shorter on the cubits to agree with the true digit standard,
while the remaining 4 are lengthened to fill up to 20-6. In the
727 in Dynasties IV. and V. in Egypt the digit is found in tomb
sculptures as -727 (27); while from a dozen examples
in the later remains we find the mean -728 (25). A length of 10 digits
is marked on all the inscribed Egyptian cubits as the lesser span "
(33). In Assyria the same digit appears as -730, particularly at
Nimrud (25); and in Persia buildings show the lo-digit length of
7-34 (25). In Syria it was about -728, but variable; in eastern
Asia Minor mere like the Persian, being -732 (25). In these cases
the digit itself, or decimal multiples, seem to have been used.
18'23 The pre-Greek examples of this cubit in Egypt, men-
... tioned by Bockh (2), give 18-23 as a mean, which is
72 9- 25 digits of -729, and has no rejation to the 20-63 cubit.
This cubit, or one nearly equal, was used in Judaea in the times of
the kings, as the Siloam inscription names a distance of 1758 ft. as
roundly 1200 cubits, showing a cubit of about 17-6 in. This is also
evidently the Olympic cubit; and, in pursuance of the decimal
multiple of the digit found in Egypt and Persia, the cubit of 25 digits
was } of the orguia of 100 digits, the series being
old digit, 2 ;^ Cut- 4 ^foixuia, io=amma, lo-stadion.
729 inch l8'2 73-9 729 7296.
Then, taking J of the cubit, or J of the orguia. as a foot, the Greeks
arrived at their foot of 12-14; tn ' s - though very well known in
literature, is but rarely found, and then generally in the form of
the cubit, in monumental measures. The Parthenon step, cele-
brated as 100 ft. wide, and apparently 225 ft. long, gives by Stuart
12-137, by Penrose 12-165, y Paccard 12-148, differences due to
scale and not to slips in measuring. Probably 12-16 is the nearest
value. There are but few buildings wrought on this foot in Asia
Minor, Greece or Roman remains. The Greek system, however,
adopted this foot as a basis for decimal multiplication, forming
foot,
I2'i6 inches
io=- acaena,
121
10 plcthron,
1216
which stand as Jth of the other decimal series based on the dijnt.
This is the agrarian system, in contrast to the orguia system, which
was the itinerary series (33).
Then a further modification took place, to avoid the inconveni-
ence of dividing the foot in i6| digits, and a new digit was formed
longer than any value of the old digit of -fa of the foot, or -760,
so that the series ran
.... ( iolichas
C9O ....... "orguia, lo^a
76 inch 76 -
72-9
729
10 stadion.
7296.
This formation of the Greek system (25) is only an inference from
the facts yet known, for we have not sufficient information to prove
it, though it seems much the simplest and most likely history.
11'62 Seeing the good reasons for this digit having been ex-
, - ported to the West from Egypt from the presence of the
ioX'2t>. 18-23 cubit in Egypt, and from the -729 digit being the
decimal base of the Greek long measures it is not surprising to find
it in use in Italy as a digit, and multiplied by 16 as a foot. The more
so as the half of this foot, or 8 digits, is marked off as a measure on
the Egyptian cubit rods (33). Though Queipp has opposed this con-
nexion (not noticing the Greek link of the digit), he agrees that it
is supported by the Egyptian square measure of the plethron, being
equal to the Roman actus (33). The foot of n-6 appears probably
first in the prehistoric and early Greek remains, and is certainly
found in Etrurian tomb dimensions as 11-59 (25). Dorpfeld con-
siders this as the Attic foot, and states the foot of the Greek metro-
logical relief at Oxford as 11-65 ( r n-6i, Hultsch). Hence we see
that it probably passed from the East through Greece to Etruria,
and thence became the standard foot of Rome; there, though
divided by the Italian duodecimal system into 12 unciae, it always
maintained its original 16 digits, which are found marked on some
of the foot-measures. The well-known ratio of 25:24 between the
12-16 foot and this we see to have arisen through one being i of ipo
and the other 16 digits 16 : 16 being as 25 : 24, the legal ratio.
The mean of a dozen foot-measures (1) gives 11-616^-ooS, and of
long lengths and buildings u-6o7= t -oi. In Britain and Africa,
however, the Romans used a rather longer form (25) of about n-68,
or a digit of -730. Their series of measures was
also
digitals, 4 = palmus, 4 = pes,
-726 inch 2 go u'62
passus, 125 stadium,
58*1 7262
railliare;
58,100
uncia -968= ,', pes, palmipes I4'52 = s palmi, cubitus I7'43 6 palmi.
Either from its Pelasgic or Etrurian use or from Romans, this foot
appears to have come into prehistoric remains, as the circle of
Stonehenge (26) is loo ft. of n-68 across, and the same is found
in one or two other cases. 11-60 also appears as the foot of some
medieval English buildings (25).
We now pass to units between which we cannot state any con-
nexion.
25' 1. The earliest sign of this cubit is in a chamber at Abydos
(44) about 1400 B.C.; there, below the sculptures, the plain wall is
marked out by red designing lines in spaces of 25- 13 -03 in., which
have no relation to the size of the chamber or to the sculpture.
They must therefore have been marked by a workman using a cubit
of 25-13. Apart from medieval and other very uncertain data,
such as the Sabbath day's journey being 2000 middling paces for
2000 cubits, it appears that Josephus, using the Greek or Roman
cubit, gives' half as many more to each dimension of the temple
than does the Talmud; this shows the cubit used in the Talmud
for temple measures to be certainly not under 25 in. Evidence of
the early period is given, moreover, by the statement in I Kings
(vii. 26) that the brazen sea held 2000 baths; the bath being about
2300 cub. in., this would show a cubic of 25 in. The corrupt text in
Chronicles of 3000 baths would need a still longer cubit; and, if a
lesser cubit of 21-6 or 18 in be taken, the result for the size of the
bath would be impossibly small. For other Jewish cubits see 18-2
and 21-6. Oppert (24) concludes from inscriptions that there was
in Assyria a royal cubit of J the U cubit, or 25-20; and four monu-
ments show (25) a cubit averaging 25-28. For Persia Queipo (33)
relies on, and develops, an Arab statement that the Arab hashama
cubit was the royal Persian, thus fixing it at about 25 in. ; and the
Persian guerze at present is 25, the royal guerze being I J times this,
or 37 J in. As a unit of 1-013, decimally multiplied, is most com-
monly to be deduced from the ancient Persian buildings, we may
take 25-34 as the nearest approach to the ancient Persian unit.
2T6. The circuit of the city wall of Khorsabad (24) is minutely
stated on a tablet as 24,740 ft. (U), and from the actual size the
is therefore 10-806 in. Hence the recorded series of measures on the
Senkereh tablet are valued (Oppert) as
j^. <20-(palm), 3-U. 6 = qanu, -sm, s-(), n-us, jo-kmsbu.
iSinch ""y6 lo'to 64-8 129-6 648 7778 123,280
Other units are the suklum or JU-5-4, and cubit of 2U = 2i-9.-
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[ANCIENT HISTORIC/
which are not named in this tablet. In Persia (24) the series on
the same base was
vitasti, 2=arasni, 36o=asparasa, 3o=parathafiha, 2=g5v;
10-7 inches 21-4 774 231,120 462,240
probably
yava, 6=angusta io = vitasti; and gama = g arasni; also b5zu = 2 arasni.
iSioch 1-07 10-7 12-8 21-4 428 21-4
The values here given are from some Persian buildings (25), which
indicate 21-4, or slightly less; Oppert's value, on less certain data,
is 21-52. The Egyptian cubits have an arm at 15 digits or about
10-9 marked on them, which seems like this same unit (33).
This cubit was also much used by the Jews (33), and is so often
referred to that it has eclipsed the 25-1 cubit in most writers. The
Gemara names 3 Jewish cubits (2) of 5, 6 and 7 palms; and, as
Oppert (24) shows that 25-2 was reckoned 7 palms, 21-6 being 6
palms, we may reasonably apply this scale to the Gemara list, and
read it as 18, 21-6 and 25-2 in. There is also a great amount of
medieval and other data showing this cubit of 21-6 to have been
familiar to the Jews after their captivity ; but there is no evidence
for its earlier date, as there is for the 25-in. cubit (from the brazen
sea) and for the i8-in. cubit from the Siloam inscription.
From Assyria also it passed into Asia Minor, being found on the
city standard of Ushak in Phrygia (33), engraved as 21-8, divided
into the Assyrian foot of 10-8, and half and quarter, 5-4 and 2-7.
Apparently the same unit is found (18) at Heraclea in Lucania,
21-86; and, as the general foot of the South Italians, or Oscan foot
(18), best defined by the 100 feet square being ^ of the jugerum,
and therefore = 10-80 or half of 21-60. A cubit of_2i -5 seems certainly
to be indicated in prehistoric remains in Britain, and also in early
Christian buildings in Ireland (25).
22-2. Another unit not far different, but yet distinct, is found
apparently in Punic remains at Carthage (25), about 11-16 (22-32),
and probably also in Sardinia as 11-07 (22-14), where it would
naturally be of Punic origin. In the Hauran 22-16 is shown by a
basalt door (British Museum), and perhaps elsewhere in Syria (25).
It is of some value to trace this measure, since it is indicated by some
prehistoric English remains as 22-4.
20-0. This unit may be that of the pre-Semitic Mesopotamians,
as it is found at the early temple of Mujfayyir (Ur) ; and, with a few
other cases (25), it averages 19-97. It is described by Oppert (24),
from literary sources, as the great U of 222 susi or 39-96, double of
19-98; from which was formed a reed of 4 great U or 159-8. The
same measure decimally divided is also indicated by buildings in
Asia Minor and Syria (25).
19-2. In Persia some buildings at Persepolis and other places
(25) are constructed on a foot of 9-6, or cubit of 19-2; while the
modern Persian arish is 38-27 or 2X19-13. The same is found
very clearly in Asia Minor (25), averaging 19-3; and it is known in
literature as the Pythic foot (18, 33) of 9-75, or J of 19-5, if Cen-
sorinus is rightly understood. It may be shown by a mark (33) on
the 26th digit of Sharpe's Egyptian cubit = 19-2 in.
13-3. This measure does not seem to belong to very early times,
and it may probably have originated in Asia Minor. It is found
there as 13-35 in buildings. Hultsch gives it rather less, at 13-1,
as the " small Asiatic foot." Thence it passed to Greece, where it
is found (25) as 13-36. In Romano-African remains it is often
found, rather higher, or 13-45 average (25). It lasted in Asia
apparently till the building of the palace at Mashita (A.D. 620),
where it is 13-22, according to the rough measures we have (25).
And it may well be the origin of the dira* Stambuli of 26-6, twice
I3'3- Found in Asia Minor and northern Greece, it does not appear
unreasonable to connect it, as Hultsch does, with the Belgic foot
of the Tungri, which was legalized (or perhaps introduced) by
Drusus when governor, as | longer than the Roman foot, or 13-07;
this statement was evidently an approximation _by an increase of 2
digits, so that the small difference from 13-3 is not worth notice.
Further, the pertica was 12 ft. of 18 digits, i.e. Drusian feet.
Turning now to England, we find (25) the commonest building
foot up to the 1 5th century averaged 13-22. Here we see the Belgic
foot passed over to England, and we can fill the gap to a considerable
extent from the itinerary measures. It has been shown (31) that
the old English mile, at least as far back as the 1 3th century, was
of 10 and not 8 furlongs. It was therefore equal to 79,200 in., and
divided decimally into 10 furlongs 100 chains, or looo fathoms.
For the existence of this fathom (half the Belgic pertica) we have
the proof of its half, or yard, needing to be suppressed by statute (9)
in 1439, as " the yard and full hand," or about 40 in., ^evidently
the yard of the most usual old English foot of 13-22, which would
be 39-66. We can restore then the old English system of long
measure from the buildings, the statute-prohibition, the surviving
chain and furlong, and the old English mile shown by maps and
itineraries, thus:
foot, 3=yard, 2 = fathom, io=chain, io=furlong, io=mile.
13-22 39-66 7932 793 7932 79,320
Such a regular and extensive system could not have been put into
use throughout the whole country suddenly in 1250, especially as
it must have had to resist the legal foot now in use, which was
enforced (9) as early as 950. We cannot suppose that such a system
would be invented and become general in face of the laws enforcing
the 12-in. foot. Therefore it must be dated some time before th
loth century, and this brings it as near as we can now hope to th_
Belgic foot, which lasted certainly to the 3rd or 4th century, and
is exactly in the line of migration of the Belgic tribes into Britain.
It js remarkable how near this early decimal system of Germany and
Britain is the double of the modern decimal metric system. Had it
not been unhappily driven out by the 12-in. foot, and repressed
by statutes both against its yard and mile, we should need but a
small change to place our measures in accord with the metre.
The Gallic leuga, or league, is a different unit, being 1-59 British
miles by the very concordant itinerary of the Bordeaux pilgrim.
This appears to be the great Celtic measure, as opposed to the old
English, or Germanic, mile. In the north-west of England and in
Wales this mile lasted as 1-56 British miles till 1500; and the percl
of those parts was correspondingly longer till this century (31)
The " old London mile " was 5000 ft., and probably this was th
mile which was modified to 5280 ft., or 8 furlongs, and so became th
British statute mile.
STANDARDS OF AREA. We cannot here describe these in detail.
Usually they were formed in each country on the squares of the Ion
measures. The Greek system was
foot, 36 = hexapodes
100= acaena, 25=aroura, 4=plethron.
1.027 sq. ft. 36-06 102.68 2567 10,268
The Roman system was
pes, ioo=decempeda, 36=clima, 4=actus, 2 = jugerum,
94 sq.ft. 94 3384 13,536 27,072
jugerum, 2 = heredium, ioo=centuna, 4=saltus.
6205 acre 1-241 124-1 496-4
STANDARDS OF VOLUME. There is great uncertainty as to th
exact values of all ancient standards of volume the only precis
data being those resulting from the theories of volumes derive
from the cubes of feet and cubits. Such theories, as we have notice)
are extremely likely to be only approximations in ancient time
even if recognized then; and our data are quite inadequate fo
clearing the subject. If certain equivalences between volumes
different countries are stated here, it must be plainly understo
that they are only known to be approximate results, and not
give a certain basis for any theories of derivation. All the actua
monumental data that we have are alluded to here, with the
amounts. The impossibility of safe correlation of units necessitate
a division by countries.
Egypt. The hon was the usual small standard ; by 8 vases whic
have contents stated in hons (8, 12, 20, 22, 33, 40) the mean is 29-:
cub. in. =*= -6; by 9 unmarked pottery measures (30) 29-1 =*=-i6, ar
divided by 20; by 18 vases, supposed multiples of hon (1), 32-1 ="=
These last are probably only rough, and we may take 29-2 cub. ir
="= -5. This was reckoned (6) to hold 5 utens of water (uten.-. 1471
grains), which agrees well to the weight; but this was probably an
approximation, and not derivative, as there is (14) a weight callec'
shet of 4-70 or 4-95 uten, and this was perhaps the actual weight of ;
hon. The variations of hon and uten, however, cover one anpthe
completely. From ratios stated before Greek times (35) the series <
multiples was
ro, 8=hon, 4 honnu, io=apet ( 10= (Theban) , io=sa.
or besha ( 4=tama
3-65 cub. in. 29-2 116-8 1168 4672 11,680 116,800
(Theban) is the " great Theban measure."
In Ptolemaic times the artaba (2336-), modified from the Persian
was general in Egypt, a working equivalent to the Attic metretes-
value 2 apet or J tama; medimnus = tama or 2 artabas, and fraction
down to rJjj artaba (35). In Roman times the artaba remainei
(Didymus), but $ was the usual unit (name unknown), and this
was divided down to ^ or T tt artaba (35) thus producing by *'
artaba a working equivalent to the xestes and sextarius (35). Ali
a new Roman artaba (Didymus) of 1540- was brought in. Besid
the equivalence of the hon to 5 utens weight of water, the mathe-
matical papyrus (35) gives 5 besha = | cubic cubit (Revillout'r
interpretation of this as I cubit 8 is impossible geometrically; se
Rev. Eg., 1881, for data); this is very concordant, but it is ver
unlikely for 3 to be introduced in an Egyptian derivation, and
probably therefore only a working equivalent. The other ratio ol
Revillout and Hultsch, 320 hons = cubit 3 , is certainly approximate. _
Syria, Palestine ana Babylonia. Here there are no monuments'
data known; and the literary information does not distinguish tb
closely connected, perhaps identical, units of these lands. Mon
over, none of the writers are before the Roman period, and many
relied on are medieval rabbis. A large number of their statement?
are rough (2, 18, 33), being based on the working equivalence o
the bath or epha with the Attic metretes, from which are sometime
drawn fractional statements which seem more accurate than they ar<
This, however, shows the bath to be about 2500 cub. in. There ar
two better data (2) of Epiphanius and Theodoret Attic medimnu
= 1 1 baths, and saton (J bath) = I f modii ; these give about 2240 an
2260 cub. in. The best datum is in Josephus (Ant. iii. 15, 3), when
10 baths = 41 Attic or 31 Sicilian medimni, for which it is agreed w
must read modii (33); hence the bath = 2300 cub. in. Thus thea
three different reckonings agree closely, but all equally depend on the
Greek and Roman standards, which are not well fixed. The Sicilian
modius here is ^, or slightly under J, of the bath, and so probably :
ANCIENT HISTORICAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
485
Punic variant of the J bath or saton of Phoenicia. One close datum,
if trustworthy, would be log of water = Assyrian mina .-. bath about
2200 cub. in. The rabbinical statement of cub. cubit of 21-5 holding
320 logs puts the bath at about 2250 cub. in.; their log-measure,
holding six hen's eggs, shows it to be over rather than under this
amount ; but their reckoning of bath = J cubit cubed is but approxi-
mate; by 21-5 it is 1240, by 25-1 it is 1990 cubic in. The earliest
Hebrew system was
(log.
kab) .......... 3-Un, 6 ) _ < bath, or > < homer wet.
issaron ........... iof I epha ) Jorkor dry.
128 330
31 cub. in. 128 330 283 2300 33,ooo
Usuron (" tenth-deal ") is also called gomer. The log and kab are
not found till the later writings; but the ratio of hin to 'issaron is
practically fixed in early times by the proportions in Num. xv. 4-9.
Eptpbanius stating great hin = 18 xestes, and holy hin = 9, must refer
to Syrian xestes, equal to 24 and 12 Roman; this makes holy hin as
above, and great hin a double hin, i.e. seah or saton. His other
statements of saton = 56 or 50 sextaria remain unexplained, unless
this be an error for bath =56 or 50 Syr. sext. and .-. =2290 or 2560
cub. in. The wholesale theory of Revillout (35) that all Hebrew and
Syri.m measures were doubled by the Ptolemaic revision, while
retaining the same names, rests entirely on the resemblance of the
names apet and epha, and of log to the Coptic and late measure lok.
But there are other reasons against accepting this, besides the im-
probability of such a change.
The Phoenician and old Carthaginian system was (18)
log, 4kab, 6 saton, 30 corus,
31 cub. in. 113 740 22,200
valuing them by 31 Sicilian =41 Attic modii (Josephus, above).
The old Syrian system was (18)
cotyle, 2 Syr. xestes, 18 sabitha or saton, ij collathon, 2 = bath-artaba;
jl cub. in. 41 740 mo 2220
also
Syr. xestes, 45 = man's, 2 metretesor artaba.
41 1850 3700
The later or Scleucidan system was (18)
cotyle, 2 Syr. xestes, go Syr. metretes,
12 44 4000
the Syrian being I J Roman sextarii.
The Babylonian system was very similar (18)
(1), 4-capitha,|||^ mans cphat I0 _homer, 6 -achane.
33 cub. in. 132 1980 2380 23,800 142,800
The approximate value from capitha = 2 Attic choenices (Xenophon)
warrants us in taking the achane as fixed in the following system,
which places it closely in accord with the preceding.
In Persia Hultsch states
74'4 cub. id. 1983 3570 142,800
the absolute values being fixed by artaba = 51 Attic choenices
(Herod, i. 192). The maris of the Pontic system is J of the above,
and the Macedonian and Naxian maris f a of the Pontic (18). By
the theory of maris = i of 2O-6 3 it is 1755-; by maris = Assyrian
talent, 1850, in place of 1850 or 1980 stated above; hence the more
likely theory of weight, rather than cubit, connexion is nearer to
the facts.
Aeginetan System. This is so called from according with the
Aeginetan weight. The absolute data are all dependent on the Attic
and Roman systems, as there are no monumental data. The series of
names is the same as in the Attic system (18). The values are
I J Xthe Attic (Athenaeus, Theophrastus, &c.) (2, 18), or more closely
II to 12 times i of Attic. Hence, the Attic cotyle being i7-5cub. in.,
the Aeginetan is about 25-7. The Boeotian system (18) included the
achane; if this = Persian, then cotyle = 24-7. Or, separately through
the Roman system, the mnasis of Cyprus (18) = 170 sextarii; then
the cotyle = 24-8. By the theory of the metretes being ij talents
Aeginetan, the cotyle would be 23-3 to 24-7 cub. in. by the actual
weights, which have tended to decrease. Probably then 25-0 is the
best approximation. By the theory (18) of 2 metretes = cube of the
18-67 cubit from the 12-45 foot, the cotyle would be about 25-4.
within -4; but then such a cubit is unknown among measures, and
not likely to be formed, as 12-4 is f of 20-6. The Aeginetan system
then was
cotyle, 4=choenix.
as cub. in. 100
300 800
3200
4800
This was the system of Sparta, of Boeotia (where, the aporryma
= 4 choenices, the cophinus = 6 choenices, and saites or saton or
hecteus = 2 apprrymae, while 30 medimni= achane, evidently
Asiatic connexions throughout), and of Cyprus (where 2 choes =
Cyprian medimnus, of which 5 = medimnus of Salamis, of which 2
= mnasis (18)
Attic or Usual Greek System. The absolute value of this system
is far from certain. The best data are three stone slabs, each with
several standard volumes cut in them (11, 18), and two named vases.
The value of the cotyle from the Naxian slab is 15-4 (best, others
14-6-19-6); from a vase about 16-6; from the Panidum slab 17-1
(var. 16-2-18-2); from a Capuan vase 17-8; from the Ganus slab
17-8 (var. 1718-). From these we may take 17-5 as a fair approxi-
mation. It is supposed that the Panathenaic vases were intended as
metretes; this would show a cotyle of 14-4-17-1. The theories of
connexion give, for the value of the cotyle, metretes = Aeginetan
talent, .-. 15-4-16-6; metres J of 12-16 cubed, . -.16-6; metretes = 1}
of 12-16 cubed, .-. 16-8; medimnus = 2 Attic talents, hecteus=2O
minae, choenix = 2j minae, .-. 16-75; metretes = 3 cub. spithami
(J cubit=9-i2), .-. 17-5; 6 metretes = 2 ft. of 12-45 cubed, .'. 17-8
cub. in. for cotyle. But probably as good theories could be found for
any other amount; and certainly the facts should not be set aside, as
almost every author has done, in favour of some one of half a dozen
theories. The system of multiples was for liquids
cyathus, il-oxybapbon, 4-cotyle, 12-cnous, u-metretes,
3-9 cub. in. 4'4 I7'5 "o 2520
with the tetarton (8-8), 2=cotyle, 2=xestes (35-), introduced from
the Roman system. For dry measure
cyathus, 6-cotyle, 4-choenu, 8-hecteu3, 6-medimnus,
2'9 cub. in. I7'5 70 560 3360
with the xestes, and amphoreus (1680) = J medimnus, from the
Roman system. The various late provincial systems of division
are beyond our present scope (18).
System of Gythium. A system differing widely both in units and
names from the preceding is found on the standard slab of Gythium
in the southern Peloponnesus (Rev. Arch., 1872). Writers have
unified it with the Attic, but it is decidedly larger in its uiiit, giving
19-4 (var. 19-1-19-8) for the supposed cotyle. Its system :'
4 hemihecton, 4 chous, 3 ().
232 932 2706
cotyle,
58 cub. in.
And with this agrees a pottery cylindrical vessel, with official stamp
on it (AHMOSION, &c.), and having a fine black line traced round
the inside, near the top, to show its limit; this seems to be probably
very accurate, and contains 58-5 cub. in., closely agreeing with the
cotyle of Gythium. It has been described (Rev. Arch., 1872) as an
Attic choenix. Gythium being the southern port of Greece, it seems
not too far to connect this 58 cub. in. with the double of the Egyptian
n = 58-4, as it is different from every other Greek system.
Roman System. The celebrated Farnesian standard congius of
bronze of Vespasian, " mensurae exactae in Capitolio P. X., " con-
tains 206-7 cub. in. (2), and hence the amphora 1654. By the
sextarius of Dresden (2) the amphora is 1695; by the congius of
Ste Genevieve (2) 1700 cub. in.; and by the ponderarium measures
at Pompeii (33) 1540 to 1840, or about 1620 for a mean. So the
Farnesian congius, or about 1650, may best be adopted. The
system for liquid was
quart anus,
'6 cub. in.
4 -sextarius,
344
6 = congius,
206
4>=urna,
825
2= amphora,
1630
for dry measure 16 sextarii = modius, 550 cub. in.; and to both
systems were added from the Attic the cyathus (2-87), acetabulum
(4-3) and hemina (17-2 cub. in.). The Roman theory of the amphora
being the cubic foot makes it 1569 cub. in., or decidedly less than the
actual measures; the other theory of its containing 80 librae of
water would make it 1575 by the commercial or 1605 by the monetary
libra again too low for the measures. Both of these theories there-
fore are rather working equivalents than original derivations; or at
least the interrelation was allowed to become far from exact.
Indian and Chinese Systems. On the ancient Indian system see
Numismata Orientalia, new ed., i. 24; on the ancient Chinese, Nature,
xxx. 565, and xxxv. 318.
STANDARDS OF WEIGHT. For these we have far more complete
data than for volumes or even lengths, and can ascertain in many
cases the nature of the variations, and their type in each place.
The main series on which we shall rely here are those (i) from
Assyria (38) about 800 B.C.; (2) from the eastern Delta of Egypt
(29) (Defenneh) ; (3) from western Delta (28) (Naucratis) ; (4) from
Memphis (44) all these about the 6th century B.C., and therefore
before much interference from the decreasing coin standards; (5)
from Cnidus; (6) from Athens; (7) from Corfu; and (8) from Italy
(British Museum) (44). As other collections are but a fraction of the
whole of these, and are much less completely examined, little if any
good would be done by including them in the combined results,
though for special types or inscriptions they will be mentioned.
146 grains. The Egyptian unit was the kat, which varied between
138 and 155 grains (28,29). There were several families or varieties
within this range, at least in the Delta, probably five or six in all (29).
The original places and dates of these cannot yet be fixed, except for
the lowest type of 138-140 grains; this belonged to Heliopolis (7), as
two weights (35) inscribed of " the treasury of An " show 139-9 and
140-4, while a plain one from there gives 138-8; the variety 147-149
may belong to Hermopolis (35), according to an inscribed weight.
The names of the kat and tema are fixed by being found on weights,
the uten by inscriptions; the series was
(*). I0-kat,
14 6 grs. 146
o = uten,
1460
10 m tema.
14.600.
The tema is the same name as the large wheat measure (35), which
was worth 30,000 to 19,000 grains of copper, according to Ptolemaic
receipts and accounts (Rev. Eg., 1881, 150), and therefore very
likely worth 10 utens of copper in earlier times when metals were
scarcer. The kat was regularly divided into 10 ; but another division,
for the sake of interrelation with another system, was in i andi,
486
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[ANCIENT HISTORICAL
scarcely found except in the eastern Delta, where it is common
(29); and it is known from a papyrus (38) to be a Syrian weight.
The uten is found -5-6=245, in Upper Egypt (rare) (44). Another
division (in a papyrus) (38) is a silver weight of ^ kat = about 88
perhaps the Babylonian siglus of 86. The uten was also binarily
divided into 128 peks of gold in Ethiopia; this may refer to another
standard (see 129) (33). The Ptolemaic copper coinage is on two
bases the uten, binarily divided- and the Ptolemaic five shekels
(1050), also binarily divided. (This result is from a larger number
than other students have used, and study by diagrams.) The theory
(3) of the derivation of the uten from j^n, cubic cubit of water
would fix it at 1472, which is accordant; but there seems no authority
either in volumes or weights for taking 1500 utens. Another theory
(3) derives the uten from I5 Vo of the cubic cubit of 24 digits, or better
? of 20-63 1 that, however, will only fit the very lowest variety of the
uten, while there is no evidence of the existence of such a cubit.
The kat is not unusual in Syria (44), and among the haematite
weights of Troy (44) are nine examples, average 144, but not of ex-
treme varieties.
129 ers 258 ers "^ ne f reat standard of Babylonia became the
77r i=; soo- P arent f several other systems; and itself
>5 S * ' and its derivatives became more widely spread
than any other standard. It was known in two
forms one system (24) of
um, 6o=sikhir, 6=shekel, io=stone, 6 maneh, 6o=talent;
36 grs. 21-5 129 1290 7750 465,000
and the other system double of this in each stage except the talent.
These two systems are distinctly named on the weights, and are
known now as the light and heavy Assyrian systems (19, 24). (It
is better to avoid the name Babylonian, as it has other meanings
also.) There are no weights dated before the Assyrian bronze lion
weights (9, 17, 19, 38) of the nth to 8th centuries B.C. Thirteen
of this class average 127-2 for the shekel; 9 haematite barrel-shaped
weights (38) give 128-2; 16 stone duck-weights (38), 126-5. A
heavier value is shown by the precious metals the gold plates
from Khorsabad (18) giving 129, and the gold daric coinage (21, 35)
of Persia 129-2. Nine weights from Syria (44) average 128-8. This
is the system of the " Babylonian " talent, by Herodotus = 70 minae
Euboic, by Pollux = 70 minae Attic, by Aelian = 72 minae Attic, and,
therefore, about 470,000 grains. In Egypt this is found largely at
Naucratis (28, _29), and less commonly at Defenneh (29). In both
places the distribution, a high type of 129 and a lower of 127, is like
the monetary and trade varieties above noticed; while a smaller
number of examples are found, fewer and fewer, down to 118 grains.
At Memphis (44) the shekel is scarcely known, and a J mina weight
was there converted into another standard (of 200). A few barrel
weights are found at Karnak, and several egg-shaped shekel weights
at Gebelen (44) ; also two cuboid weights from there (44) of I and 10
utens are marked as 6 and 60, which can hardly refer to any unit but
the heavy shekel, giving 245. Hultsch refers to Egyptian gold rings
of Dynasty XVI 1 1. of 125 grains. That this unit penetrated far to the
south in early times is shown by the tribute of Kush (34) in Dynasty
XVIII.; this is of 801, 1443 and 23,741 kats, or 15 and 27 manehs
and 7} talents when reduced to this system. And the later Ethiopic
gold unit of the pek (7), or T J 8 of the uten, was 10-8 or more, and may
therefore be the J sikhir or obolos of 21-5. But the fraction j^ff, or a
continued binary division repeated seven times, is such a likely mode
of rude subdivision that little stress can be laid on this. In later
times in Egypt a class of large glass scarabs for funerary purposes
seem to be adjusted to the shekel (30). Whether this system or the
Phoenician of 224 grains was that of the Hebrews is uncertain.
There is no doubt but that in the Maccabean times and onward 218
was the shekel; but the use of the word darkemon by Ezra and
Nehemiah, and the probabilities of their case, point to the darag-
maneh, J"B maneh or shekel of Assyria; and the mention of $ shekel
by Nehemiah as poll tax nearly proves that the 129 and not 218
grains is intended, as 218 is not divisible by 3. But the Maccabean
use of 218 may have been a reversion to the older shekel; and this is
strongly shown by the fraction J shekel (i Sam. ix. 8), the continual
mention of large decimal numbers of shekels in the earlier books,
and the certain fact of 100 shekels being = mina. This would all be
against the 129 or 258 shekel, and for the 218 or 224. There is,
however, one good datum if it can be trusted : 300 talents of silver
(2 Kings xviii. 14) are 800 talents on Sennacherib's cylinder (34),
while the 30 talents of gold is the same in both accounts. Eight
hundred talents on the Assyrian silver standard would be 267 or
roundly 300 talents on the heavy trade or gold system, which is
therefore probably the Hebrew. Probably the 129 and 224 systems
coexisted in the country ; but on the whole it seems more likely that
129 or rather 258 grains was the Hebrew shekel before the Ptolemaic
times^-especially as the loo shekels to the mina is paralleled by the
following Persian system (Hultsch)
t . . 5 so=mina 6o=talent of gold
* ( 60= mina 6o=talent of trade,
129 grs. 64507750 387,000 465.000
the Hebrew system being
gerah, 20 shekel, ioo = manch, so-talent,
12-9 grs. 258? 25.800 774,000
and, considering that the two Hebrew cubits are the Babylonian and
Persian units, and the volumes are also Babylonian, it is the more
likely that the weights should have come with these. From the
east this unit passed to Asia Minor; and six multiples of 2 to 20
shekels (av. 127) are found among the haematite weights of Troy
(44), including the oldest of them. On the Aegean coast it often
occurs in early coinage (17) at Lampsacus 131-129, Phocaea 256-
254, Cyzicus 252-247, Methymna 124-6, &c. In later times it was a
main unit of North Syria, and also on the Euxine, leaden weights
of Antioch (3), Callatia and Tomis being known (38). The mean
of these eastern weights is 7700 for the mina, or 128. But the leaden
weights of the west (44) from Corfu, &c., average 7580, or 126-3 ; this
standard was kept up at Cyzicus in trade long after it was lost in
coinage. At Corinth the unit was evidently the Assyrian and not the
Attic, being 129-6 at the earliest (17) (though modified to double
Attic, or 133, later) and being -=-3, and not into 2 drachms. And this
agrees with the mina being repeatedly found at Cprcyra, and with the
same standard passing to the Italian coinage (17) similar in weight, and
in division into 3 the heaviest coinages (17) down to 400 B.C. (Terina,
Velia, Sybaris, Posidonia, Metapontum, Tarentum, &c.) being none
over 126, while later on many were adjusted to the Attic, and rose to
134. Six disk weights from Carthage (44) show 126. It is usually the
case that a unit lasts later in trade than in coinage; and the promin-
ence of this standard in Italy may show how it is that this mina (18
unciae = 7400) was known as the " Italic " in the days of Galen and
Dioscorides (2).
126 ers ^ variation on the main system was made by forming a
6 wo ' m ' na f 5 shekels. This is one of the Persian series (gold),
> and the i of the Hebrew series noted above. But it is
most striking when it is found in the mina form which distinguishes
it. Eleven weights from Syria and Cnidus (44) (of the curious
type with two breasts on a rectangular block) show a. mina of 6250
(125-0); and it is singular that this class is exactly like weights
of the 224 system found with it, but yet quite distinct in standard.
The same passed into Italy and Corfu (44), averaging 6000 divided
in Italy into unciae (^), and scripulae Osij), and called litra (in
Corfu?). It is known in the coinage of Hatria (18) as 6320. And
a strange division of the shekel in 10 (probably therefore connected
with this decimal mina) is shown by a series of bronze weights (44)
with four curved sides and marked with circles (British Museum,
place unknown), which may be Romano-Gallic, averaging 125-7-10.
This whole class seems to cling to sites of Phoenician trade, and to
keep clear of Greece and the north perhaps a Phoenician form of the
129 system, avoiding the sexagesimal multiples.
If this unit have any connexion with the kat, it is that a kat of
gold is worth 15 shekels or i mina of silver; this agrees well with
the range of both units, only it must be remembered that 129 was
used as gold unit, and another silver unit deduced from it. More
likely then the 147 and 129 units originated independently in Egypt
and Babylonia.
-- From 129 grains of gold was adopted an equal value
1 of silver = 1720, on the proportion of 1:131, and this
was divided in 10 = 172 which was used either in
} - this form, or its half, 86, best known as the siglus (17).
Such a proportion is indicated in Num. vii., where the gold spoon of
10 shekels is equal in value to the bowl of 130 shekels, or double that of
70, i.e. the silver vessels were 200 and 100 sigli. The silver plates at
Khorsabad (18) we find to be 80 sigli of 84-6. The Persian silver
coinage shows about 86-0; the danak was j of this or 28-7, Xeno-
phon and others state it at about 84. As a monetary weight it seems
to have spread, perhaps entirely, in consequence of the Persian
dominion; it varies from 174- downwards, usually 167, in Aradus,
Cilicia and on to the Aegean coast, in Lydia and in Macedonia (17).
The silver bars found at Troy averaging 2744, or J mina of 8232, have
been attributed to this unit (17) ; but no division of the mina in J is
to be expected , and the average is rather low. Two haematite weights
from Troy (44) show 86 and 87-2. The mean from leaden weights
of Chios, Tenedos (44), &c., is 8430. A duck-weight of Camirus,
probably early, gives 8480; the same passed on to Greece and Italy
(17), averaging 8610; but in Italy it was divided, like all other units,
into unciae and scripulae (44). It is perhaps found in Etrurian coin-
age as 175-1 72 (17). By the Romans it was used on the Danube (18),
two weights of the first legion there showing 8610; and this is the
mina of 20 unciae (8400) named by 'Roman writers. The system
obnl, 6=siglus, ioo=mina, 6o=talent.
14-3 grs. 86 8600 516,000
A derivation from this was the J of 172, or 57-3, the so-called
Phocaean drachma, equal in silver value to the J of the gold 258
grains. It was used at Phocaea as 58-5, and passed to the colonies
of Posidonia and Velia as 59 or 1 18. The colony of Massilia brought
it into Gaul as 58-2-54-9.
224 That this unit (commonly called Phoenician) is derived
i 200*' * rom * ne I29 svstein can nar dly be doubted, both being
fi-M nnn so intimately associated in Syria and Asia Minor. The
072,000. re i at ; on i s 258 :229 ::9:8; but the exact form in which
the descent took place is not settled: s"j or 129 of gold is worth
57 of silver or a drachm, J of 230 (or by trade weights 127 and 226) ;
otherwise, deriving it from the silver weight of 86 already formed,
the drachm is J ofthe stater, 172, or double of the Persian danak of
28-7, and the sacred unit of Didyma in Ionia was this half-drachm,
27; or thirdly, what is indicated by the Lydian coinage (17), 86 of
ANCIENT HISTORICAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
487
gold was equal to 1150 of silver, 5 shekels or -}$ mina. Other pro-
posed derivations from the kat or pek are not satisfactory. In actual
use this unit varied greatly: at Naucratis (29) there are groups of it
at 231, 223 and others down to 208; this is the earliest form in which
we can study it, and the corresponding values to these are 130 and
1 26, or the gold and trade varief.es of the Babylonian, while the lower
tail down to 208 corresponds to the shekel down to 1 18, which is just
what is found. Hence the 224 unit seems to have been formed from
the 129, after the main families or types of that had arisen. It is
scarcer at Defenneh (29) and rare at Memphis (44). Under the
Ptolemies, however, it became the great unit of Egypt, and is very
prominent in the later literature in consequence (18, 35). The
average of coins (21) of Ptolemy I. gives 219-6, and thence they
gradually diminish to 210, the average (33) of the whole series of
Ptolemies being 218. The "argenteus" (as Revillout transcribes a
sign in the papyri) (35) was of 5 shekels, or 1090; it arose about 440
B.C., and became after 160 B.C. a weight unit for copper. In Syria, as
early as the I5th century B.C., the tribute of the Kutennu, of Naha-
raina, Megiddo, Anaukasa, &c. (34), is on a basis of 454-484 kats, or
300 shekels (j^ talent) of 226 grains. The commonest weight at
Troy (44) is the shekel, averaging 224. In coinage it is one of the
commonest units in early times; from Phoenicia, round the coast
to Macedonia, it is predominant (17) ; at a maximum of 230 (lalysus),
it is in Macedonia 224, but seldom exceeds 220 elsewhere, the earliest
Lydian of the yth century being 219, and the general average of coins
218. The system was
7grs.
8 =dr;iclirn,
56
4= shekel,
224
25 -mina,
5600
1 20 "talent.
672,000
From the Phoenician coinage it was adopted for the Maccabean.
It is needless to give the continual evidences of this being the later
Jewish shekel, both from coins (max. 223) and writers (2, 18, 33);
the question of the early shekel we have noticed already under 129.
In Phoenicia and Asia Minor the mina was specially made in the
form with two breasts (44), 19 such weights averaging 5600 ( =224) ;
and thence it passed into Greece, more in a double value of 11,200
( = 224). From Phoenicia this naturally became the main Punic
unit; a bronze weight from lol (18), marked 100, gives a drachma
of 56 or 57 (224-228) ; and a Punic inscription (18) names 28 drachmae
= 25 Attic, and .-. 57 to 59 grains (228-236); while a probably later
series of 8 marble disks from Carthage (44) show 208, but vary from
197 to 234. In Spain it was 236 to 216 in different series (17), and
it is a question whether the Massiliote drachmae of 58-55 are not
Phoenician rather than Phocaic. In Italy this mina became
naturalized, and formed the " Italic mina " of Hero, Priscian, &c.;
also its double, the mina of 26 unciae or 10,800, = 50 shekels of 216;
the average of 42 weights gives 5390 ( = 215-6), and it was divided
both into 100 drachmae, and also in the Italic mode of 12 unciae and
288 scripulae (44). The talent was of 120 minae of 5400, or 3000
shekels, shown by the talent from Herculaneum, TA, 660,000 and by
the weight inscribed PONDO cxxv. (i.e. 125 librae) TALENTUM
SICLORVM. iii., i.e. talent of 3000 shekels (2) (the M being omitted;
just_as Epiphanius describes this talent as 125 librae, or 6 ( = 9)
nomismata, for 9000). This gives the same approximate ratio 96:
loo to the libra as the usual drachma reckoning. The Alexandrian
talent of Festus, 12,000 denarii, is the same talent again. It is
believed that this mina -r 12 unciae by the Romans is the origin of
the Arabic ratl of 12 uklyas, or 5500 grains (33), which is said to
have been sent by Harun al-Rashid to Charlemagne, and so to have
originated the French monetary pound of 5666 grains. But, as this
is probably the same as the English monetary pound, or tower
pound of 5400, which was in use earlier (see Saxon coins), it seems
more likely that this pound (which is common in Roman weights)
was directly inherited from the Roman civilization,
go __ Another unit, which has scarcely been recognized in
4000 " metr l8y hitherto, is prominent in the weights from
400000 ^8ypt some 50 weights from Naucratis and 15 from
Defenneh plainly agreeing on this and on no other basis.
Its value varies between 76-5 and 81-5 mean 79 at Naucratis (29)
or 8 1 at Defenneh (29). It has been connected theoretically with a
binary division of the 10 shekels or " stone " of the Assyrian systems
(28), 1290-1-16 being 80-6; this is suggested by the most usual
multiples being 40 and 80 = 25 aru * 5 shekels of 129; it is thus akin
to the mina of 50 shekels previousjy noticed. The tribute of the Asi,
Rutennu, Khita, Assaru, &c., to Thothmes III. (34), though in un-
even numbere of kats, comes out in round thousands of units when
reduced to this standard. That this u'nit is quite distinct from the
Persian 86 grains is clear in the Egyptian weights, which maintain a
wide gap between the two systems. Next, in Syria three inscribed
weights of Antioch and Berytus (18) show a mina of .about 16,400,
or 200X82. Then at Abydus, or more probably from Babylonia,
there is the large bronze lion-weight, stated to have been originally
400,500 grains; this has been continually * 60 by different writers,
regardless of the fact (Rev. arch., 1862, 30) that it bears the numeral
loo; tlm therefore is certainly a talent of 100 minae of 4005; and
as the mina is generally 50 shekels in Greek systems it points to a
weight of 80- 1. Farther west the same unit occurs in several Greek
weights (44) which show a mina of 7800 to 8310, mean 8050-5-100 =
80-5. Turning to coinage, we find this often, but usually overlooked
as a degraded form of the Persian 86 grains siglos. But the earliest
coinage in Cilicia, before the general Persian coinage (17) about
380 B.C., is Tarsus, 164 grains; Soli, 169, 163, 158; Nagidus, 158,
161-153 later; Issus, 166; Mallus, 163-154 all of which can only by
straining be classed as Persian; but they agree to this standard,
which, as we have seen, was used in Syria in earlier times by the
Khita, &c. The Milesian or " native " system of Asia Minor (18) is
fixed by Hultsch at 163 and 81-6 grains the coins of Miletus (17)
showing 160, 80 and 39. Coming down to literary evidence, this is
abundant. Bockh decides that the "Alexandrian drachma" was
J of the Solonic 67, or= 80-5, and shows that it was not Ptolemaic,
or Rhodian, or Acginetan, being distinguished from these in in-
scriptions (2). Then the " Alexandrian mina " of Dioscorides and
Galen (2) is 20 unciae = 8250; in the " Analecta " (2) it is 150 or
158 drachmae = 8ioo. Then Attic: Euboic or Aeginetan:: 18:25
in the metrologists (2), and the Eubo?c talent = 7000 Alexandrian
drachmae; the drachma therefore is 80-0. The "Alexandrian"
wood talent: Attic talent : :6:s (Hero, Didymus), and. -.480,000,
which is 60 minae of 8000. Pliny states the Egyptian talent at
80 librae = 396,000 ; evidently =the Abydus lion talent, which
is -MOO, and the mina is. -.3960, or 50X79-2. The largest weight is
the "wood" talent of Syria (18) =6 Roman talents, or 1,860,000,
evidently 120 Antioch minae of 15,500 or 2X7750. This evidence
is too distinct to be set aside; and, exactly confirming as it does
the Egyptian weights and coin weights, and agreeing with the early
Asiatic tribute, it cannot be overlooked in future. The system was
drachm,
Sogrs.
2= stater,
1 60
5O = mma,
8000
3-taIent.
oo-Greek talent.
400,000 480.000
>nt , ^ ion This system, the Aeginetan, one of the most im-
o6> portant to the Greek world, has been thought to
57Q cob ? Degradation of the Phoenician (17, 21), sup-
posing 220 grains to have been reduced in primitive
Greek usage to 194. But we are now able to prove that it was an
independent system (i) by its not ranging usually over 200 grains
in Egypt before it passed to Greece; (2) by its earliest example,
perhaps before the 224 unit existed, not being over 208; and (3) by
there being no intermediate linking on of this to the Phoenician
unit in the large number of Egyptian weights, nor in the Ptolemaic
coinage, in which both standards are used. The first example (30)
is one with the name of Amenhotep I. (l7th century B.C.) marked as
" gold 5," which is 5X207-6. Two other marked weights are from
Memphis (44), showing 201 -8 and 196-4, and another Egyptian 191-4.
The range of the (34) Naucratis weights is 186 to 190, divided in two
groups averaging 190 and 196, equal to the Greek monetary and
trade varieties. Ptolemy I. and II. also struck a series of coins (32)
averaging 199. In Syria haematite weights are found (30) averaging
198-5, divided into 99-2, 49-6 and 24-8; and the same division
is shown by gold rings from Egypt (38) of 24-9. In the medical
papyrus (38) a weight of J kat is used, which is thought to be Syrian;
now i kat =92 to 101 grains, or just this weight which we have
found in Syria; and the weights of J and $ kat are very rare in
Egypt except at Defenneh (29), on the Syrian road, where they
abound. So we have thus a weight of 207-191 in Egypt on marked
weights, joining therefore completely with the Aeginetan unit in
Egypt of 199 to 1 86, and coinage of 199, and strongly connected
with Syria, where a double mina of Sidon (18) is 10,460 or 5oX
209-2. Probably before any Greek coinage we find this among the
haematite weights of Troy (44), ranging from 208 to 193-2 (or 104-
96-6), i.e. just covering the range from the earliest Egyptian down
to the early Aeginetan coinage. Turning now to the early coinage,
we see the fuller weight kept up (17) at Samos (202), Miletus (201),
Calymna (too, 50), Methymna and Scepsis (99, 49),' Ionia (197);
while the coinage of Aegina, (17, 12), which by its wide diffusion
made this unit best known, though a few of its earliest staters go up
even to 207, yet is characteristically on the lower of the two groups
which we recognize in Egypt, and thus started what has been
considered the standard value of 194, or usually 190, decreasing
afterwards to 184. In later times, in Asia, however, the fuller
weight, or higher Egyptian group, which we have just noticed in
the coinage, was kept up (17) into the series of cistopnori (196-191),
as in the Ptolemaic series of 199. At Athens the old mina was fixed
by Solon at 150 of his drachmae (18) or 9800 grains, according to the
earliest drachmae, showing a stater of 196; and this continued to
be the trade mina in Athens, at least until 160 B.C., but in a reduced
form, in which it equalled only 138 Attic drachmae, or 9200. The
Greek mina weights show (44), on an average of 37,9650 ( = stater of
193). varying from 186 to 199. In the Hellenic coinage it varies
(18) from a maximum of 200 at Pharae to 192, usual full weight;
this unit occupied (17) all central Greece, Peloponnesus and most of
the islands. The system was
obol,
16 grs.
6 drachm,
06
3 stater,
192
50 mina,
0600
60 -talent.
576,000
1 That this unit was used for gold in Egypt, one thousand years
before becoming a silver coin weight in Asia Minor, need not be
dwelt on, when we see in the coinage of Lydia (17) gold pieces and
silver on the same standard, which was expressly formed for silver
alone, i.e. 84 grains. The Attic and Assyrian standards were used
indifferently for either gold or silver.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[COMMERCIAL
It also passed into Italy, but in a smaller multiple of 35 drachmae,
or J of the Greek mina; 12 Italian weights (44) bearing value marks
(which cannot therefore be differently attributed) show a libra of
2400 or J of 9600, which was divided in unciae and sextulae, and
the full-sized mina is known as the 24 uncia mina, or talent of 120
librae of Vitruvius and Isidore (18) =9900. Hultsch states this to
be the old Etruscan pound.
.., With the trade mina of 9650 in Greece, and recognized
in Italy, we can hardly doubt that the Roman libra is
495 g"- the half of this mina. At Athens it was 2X4900, and
on the average of all the Greek weights it is 2X4825, so that 4950
the libra is as close as we need expect. The division by 12 does
not affect the question, as every standard that came into Italy was
similarly divided. In the libra, as in most other standards, the
value which happened to be first at hand for the coinage was not
the mean of the whole of the weights in the country ; the Phoenician
coin weight is below the trade average, the Assyrian is above, the
Aeginetan is below, but the Roman coinage is above the average of
trade weights, or the mean standard. Rejecting all weights of the
lower empire, the average (44) of about 100 is 4956; while 42 later
Greek weights (nomisma, &c.) average 4857, and 16 later Latin
ones (solidus, &c.) show 4819. The coinage standard, however, was
always higher (18); the oldest gold shows 5056, the Campanian
Roman 5054, the consular gold 5037, the aurei 5037, the Constantine
solidi 5053 and the Justinian gold 4996. Thus, though it fell in
the later empire, like the trade weight, yet it was always above that.
Though it has no exact relation to the congius or amphora, yet it
is closely =49/7 grains, the 5*0 of the cubic foot of water. If, however,
the weight in a degraded form, and the foot in an undegraded form,
come from the East, it is needless to look for an exact relation be-
tween them, but rather for a mere working equivalent, like the
loco ounces to the cubit foot in England. Bockh has remarked
the great diversity between weights of the same age those marked
" Ad August! Temp " ranging 4971 to 5535, those tested by the fussy
praefect Q. Junius Rusticus vary 4362 to 5625, and a set in the
British Museum (44) belonging together vary 4700 to 5168. The
series was
siliqui, 6=scr!pulum, 4 seitula, 6 = uncia, I2 = libra,
2-87 grs. 17-2 68-7 412 4950
the greater weight being the centumpondium of 495,000. Other
weights were added to these from the Greek system
obolus, 6 = drachma, 2 sicilicus, 4 uncia;
8 6 grs. 51-5 103 411 y
,and the sextula after Constantine had the name of solidus as a
coin weight, or nomisma in Greek, marked N on the weights. A
beautiful set of multiples of the scripulum was found near Lyons
(38), from I to 10X17-28 grains, showing a libra of 4976. In
Bryzantine times in Egypt glass was used for coin- weights (30),
averaging 68-0 for the solidus = 4896 for the libra. The Saxon and
Norman ounce is said to average 416-5 (Num. Chron., 1871, 42),
apparently the Roman uncia inherited.
,- , The system which is perhaps the best known, through
"7 *> r *- its adoption by Solon in Athens, and is thence called
0700; Atti c or Solonic, is nevertheless far older than its intro-
402,000. jugtion i n to Greece, being found in full vigour in Egypt
in the 6th century B.C. It has been usually reckoned as a rather
heavier form of the 129 shekel, increased to 134 on its adoption
by Solon. But the Egyptian weights render this view impossible.
Among them (29) the two contiguous groups can be discriminated
by the 129 being multiplied by 30 and 60, while the 67 or 134 is
differently X25, 40, 50 and 100. Hence, although the two groups
overlap owing to their nearness, it is impossible to regard them as
all one unit. The 129 range is up to 131-8, while the Attic range
is 130 to 138 (65-69). Hultsch reckons on a ratio of 24:25 between
them, and this is very near the true values; the full Attic being
67-3, the Assyrian should be 129-2, and this is just the full gold
coinage weight. We may perhaps see the sense of this ratio through
another system. The 8o-grain system, as we have seen, was prob-
ably formed by binarily dividing the 10 shekels, or " stone "; and
it had a talent (Abydus lion) of 5000 drachmae; this is practically
identical with the talent of 6000 Attic drachmae. So the talent of
the 8o-grain system was sexagesimally divided for the mina which
was afterwards adopted by Solon. Such seems the most likely
history of it, and this is in exact accord with the full original weight
of each system. In Egypt the mean value at Naucratis (29) was
66-7, while at Defenneh (29) and Memphis (44) probably rather
earlier- it was 67-0. The type of the grouping is not alike in different
places, showing that no distinct families had arisen before the
diffusion of this unit in Egypt; but the usual range is 65-5 to 69-0.
Next it is found at Troy (44) in three cases, all high examples of
68-2 to 68-7; and these are very important, since they cannot be
dissociated from the Greek Attic unit, and yet they are cf a variety
as far removed as may be from the half of the Assyrian, which ranges
there from 123-5 to I 3 I : thus the difference of unit between Assyrian
and Attic in these earliest of all Greek weights is very strongly
marked. At Athens a low variety of the unit was adopted for the
coinage, true to the object of Solon in depreciating debts; and the
' first coinage is of only 65-2, or scarcely within the range of the trade
weights (28) ; this seems to have been felt, as, contrary to all other
I
states, Athens slowly increased its coin weight up to 66-6, or but
little under the trade average. It gradually supplanted the Aeginetan
standard in Greece and Italy as the power of Athens rose; and it
was adopted by Philip and Alexander (17) for their great gold
coinage of 133 and 66-5. This system is of ten known as the " Euboic,"
owing to its early use in Euboea, and its diffusion by trade from thence.
The series was
chalcous, 8=obolus, 6="drachma, Ioo=mina, 6o = talanton.
1-4 grs. 11-17 67 6700 402,000
Turning now to its usual trade values in Greece (44), the mean of
113 gives 67-15; but they vary more than the Egyptian examples,
having a sub-variety both above and below the main body, which
itself exactly coincides with the Egyptian weights. The greater
part of those weights which bear names indicate a mina of double
the usual reckoning, so that there was a light and a heavy system,
a mina of the drachma and a mina of the stater, as in the Phoenician
and Assyrian weights. In trade both the minae were divided in J,
J, i, i, and f , regardless of the drachmae. This unit passed also
into Italy, the libra of Picenum and the double of the Etrurian
and Sicilian libra (17) ; it was there divided in unciae and scripulae
(44), the mean of 6 from Italy and Sicily being 6600; one weight
(bought in Smyrna) has the name " Leitra " on it. In literature
it is constantly referred to; but we may notice the " general mina "
(Cleopatra), in Egypt, 16 unciae = 6600; the Ptolemaic talent, equal
to the Attic in weight and divisions (Hero, Didymus) ; the Antiochian
talent, equal to the Attic (Hero) ; the treaty of the Romans with
Antiochus, naming talents of 80 librae, i.e. mina of 16 unciae; the
Roman mina in Egypt, of 15 unciae, probably the same diminished;
and the Italic mina of 16 unciae. It seems even to have lasted in
Egypt till the middle ages, as Jabarti and the " katib's guide "
both name the ratl misri (of Cairo) as 144 dirhems = 67&o.
AUTHORITIES. (1) A. Aures, Metrologie egyptienne (1880); (2)
A. Bockh, Metrologische Untersuchungen (1838) (general); (3) P.
Bortolotti, Del primitive cubito egizio (1883); (4) J. Brandis,
Munz-, Mass-, und Gewicht-Wesen (1866) (specially Assyrian); (5)
H. Brugsch, in Zeits. dg. Sp. (1870) (Edfu); (6) M. F. Chabas,
Determination metrique (1867) (Egyptian volumes); (7) Id., Re-
cherches sur les poids, mesures, et monnaies des anciens Egyptiens ;
(8) Id., Ztschr.f. dgypt. Sprache (1867, p. 57; 1870, p. 122) (Egyptian
volumes); (9) H. W. Chisholm, Weighing and Measuring (1877)
(history of English measures); (10) Id., Ninth Rep. of Warden of
Standards (1875) (Assyrian); (11) A. Dumont, Mission en Thrace
(Greek volumes); (12) Eisenlohr, Ztschr. dg. Sp. (1875) (Egyptian
hon); (13) W. Golcnischeff, in Rev. egypt. (1881), 177 (Egyptian
weights) ; (14) C. W. Goodwin, in Ztschr. dg. Sp. (1873), P- 16 fchet) ;
(IS) B. V. Head, in Num. Chron. (1875); (16) Id., Jour. Inst. of
Bankers (1879) (systems of weight); (17) Id., Historia numorum
(1887) (essential for coin weights and history of systems); (18) F.
Hultsch, Griechische und romische Metrologie (1882) (essential for
literary and monumental facts); (19) Ledrain, in Rev. egypt. (1881),
p. 173 (Assyrian); (20) Leemans, Monumens egyptiens (1838)
(Egyptian hon) ; (21) T. Mommsen, Histoire de la monnaie romaine;
(22) Id., Monuments divers (Egyptian weights); (23) Sir Isaac
Newton, Dissertation upon the Sacred Cubit (1737); (24) J. Oppert,
Elalon des mesures assyriennes (1875); (25) W. M. F. Petrie,
Inductive Metrology (1877) (principles and tentative results); (26)
Id., Stonehenge (1880); (27) Id., Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh
(1883); (28) Id., Naukratis, i. (1886) (principles, lists, and curves of
weights); (29) Id., Tanis, ii. (1887) (lists and curves); (30) Id., Arch.
Jour. (1883), 419 (weights, Egyptian, &c.); (31) Id., Proc. Roy. Soc.
Edin. (1883-1884), 254 (mile); (32) R. S. Poole, Brit. Mus. Cat. of
Coins, Egypt; (33) Vazquez Queipo, Essai sur les systemes metriques
(1859) (general, and specially Arab and coins); (34) Records of the
Past, vols. i., ii., vi. (Egyptian tributes, &c.); (35) E. Revillout, in
Rev. eg. (1881) (many papers on Egyptian weights, measures, and
coins); (36) E. T. Rogers, Num. Chron. (1873) (Arab glass weights);
(37) M. H. Sauvaire, in Jour. As. Soc. (1877), translation of Elias
of Nisibis, with notes (remarkable for history of balance) ;Schillbach
(lists of weights, all in next) ; (38) M. C. Soutzo, Etalons ponderaux
primitifs (1884) (lists of all weights published to date) ; (39) Id.,
Systbmes monetaires primitifs (1884) (derivation of units); (40)
G. Smith, in Zeits. dg. Sp. (1875); (41) L. Stern, in Rev. eg. (1881),
171 (Egyptian weights); (42) P. Tannery, Rev. arch. xli. 152; (43)
E. Thomas, Numismata orientalia, pt. i. (Indian weights); (44) a
great amount of material of weighings of weights of Troy (supplied
through Dr Schliemann's kindness), Memphis.atthe British Museum,
Turin? &c. (W. M. F. P.)
III. COMMERCIAL
i. Denominations. The denominations of trade weights and
measures at present used in the United Kingdom are represented
by " Board of Trade standards," by which are regulated the
accuracy of the common weights and measures handled in
shops, &C.: 1
Imperial Measures of Length. 100 feet, 66 feet or a chain of
100 links, rod, pole, or perch, measures from 10 feet to I foot;
1 Board of Trade Model Regulations, 1892; Weights and Measures
Acts, 1878. 1889, 1-892, 1893.
COMMERCIAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
489
18 inches; yard of 36 inches, J, }, J, -fc yard, nail, inch, and duodeci-
mal, decimal and binary parts of the inch.
Imperial Measures of Capacity. Liquid measures from 32 gallons
to i gallon, quart, pint, J pint, gill, i gill, 1 gill. Dry measures
of bushel, \ bushel, peck, gallon, quart, pint, J pint.
Apothecaries' Measures. 40 fluid ounces to J fl. oz., 16 fluid
drachms to i fl. dr., 60 minims to I minim.
Avoirdupois Weights. Cental (100 Ib), 56 Ib (i cwt.), 28 Ib, 14 Ib
(stone), 7, 4, 2, I ft; 8, 4, 2, I, J ounce (8 drams); 4, 2, i, J drams.
Troy Weights. The ounce (480 gr.) and multiples and decimal
parts of the ounce troy from 500 ounces to o-ooi oz.
Apothecaries' Weights. 10 oz. to I oz. (480 gr.); 4 drachms to
!oz.; 2, i drachms; 2 scruples to J scruple; and 6 grains to
grain.
Pennyweights. 20 dwt. (480 grains), 10, 5, 3, 2, i dwts.
Grain Weights. 4000, 2000, looo gr. (making 7000 gr. or i Ib),
500 to o-oi gr.
2. The international trade metric weights and measures
(1897) handled in shops, &c., of which there are also Board
of Trade standards, are set out as follows:
IMPERIAL TO METRIC
i yard
i square yard
I cubic inch
I gallon 1
i pound (7000 grains)
I ounce troy (480 gr.)
i fluid drachm
i fluid ounce
i metre (m.) at o C.
i square metre (m 2 .)
i cubic decimetre (c.d.)
or
looo cubic centimetres (c.c.)
i litre (1.)
I kilogram (kg.)
i gramme (g.)
0-9I4399 m.
0-836126 m*.
16-387 c.c.
4-545963I I-
0-45359243 kg.
3' ''035 grammes.
= 3-552 millilitres (ml.).
= 2-84123 centilitres (cl.).
METRIC TO IMPERIAL
= 39-370H3inchesat62 <> P.
10-7639 square feet.
61-024 cubic inches.
'7598 pints.
2-2046223 Ib avoir.
15-4323564 grains
or
0-7716 scruple.
METRE DIVIDED INTO DECIMETRES, CENTIMETRES. AND MILLIMETRES.
w-
TnrtMiilimTimlmin-rrr
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 '
DRAWN t SCALE
M ' I I I I I '
mil rr
Mill
DECIMETRE
DOUBLE DECIMETRE
* Add
CD
FIG. 9. International Metric Trade Weights and Measures, 1897. A, linear; B, capacity; C, and D, weights.
Length. Decametre or 10 metres; doubte metre; metre or 1000
millimetres; decimetre or o-l metre; centimetre or o-oi metre;
millimetre.
Capacity. 20 litres; 10 litres or decalitre; 5, 2, i, 0-5, 0-2,
o-i (decilitre); 0-05, 0-02, o-oi (centilitre); 0-005, 0-002, o-ooi
(millilitre) litres.
Cubic Measures. 1000 (litre), 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 cubic
centimetres, i c.c. or looo cubic millimetres.
Weights. 20, 10, 5, 2, i kilograms; 500 to I gramme; 5 to i
decigram; 5 to i centigram; 5 to i milligram. (Series 5, 2, 2, 1 i, i.e.
with a duplicate weight of " 2.")
3. Equivalents. The metric equivalents of the units of the
metric system in terms of the imperial system, as recalculated
in 1897, are as follows: *
1 Metric Equivalents, King's Printers (1898).
2 The equivalent of the litre in gallons may also be derived as
follows:
Let f(ipfd)=P l (l-p/d'), where P is the weight of the water
contained in the gallon when weighed in London g. London =g.
Paris (45) Xi -000577.
The correction For temperature, 62 F., is 0-0906 in.; hence
29-9094 inches. One inch = 25-4 mm.; also 29-9094X25-4
= 759-69876; and 759-6o876i-Xi-ooo577 = 76o-i37 mm. P l is the
weight of the brass weights (10 Ib) A = 8-I43.
P, the density (o-ooi 2 1 8738) of dry air, containing 4 vols. of carbonic
acid in 10,000 vols.; / = 16-667 C. ; 8 = 760-137 mm. of mercury at
o, lat. 45, and at sea-level. Coefficient of expansion of air
=0-00367; A mercury at o C. = 13-595. <* ' s the density of water
at 62 F. (16-667 C.) =0-9988611. d 1 , the density of the brass as
above. 10 Jb = 4-5359243 kg.
From the above it follows that P = 4-5407857 kg. Therefore
i gallon = P/o-99886i I =4-5459631 litres.
490
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[COMMERCE
The equivalents of the Russian weights and measures, in terms
also of the imperial and metric weights and measures, were re-
calculated in 1897.' The following are the leading equivalents:
f 0-025 pood.
i Russian pound = > 96 zolotniks.
[ 9216 dolis.
= 0-40951240 kg.
=0-90282018 ft avoir.
{ 0-00066 yerst.
0- 3 | sagene.
1 6 vercnoks.
280 liniias.
=0-711200 metre.
= 0777778 yard.
, ,, f 10 schtoffs
ivedro ={ = iootcharkas
= 12-299 litres
= 2-7056 gallons.
I tchetverte =8 tchetveriks
= 2-0991 hectolitres
= 5 m 77i9 bushels.
4. Local Control. The necessary local inspection and verifica-
tion of weights and measures in use for trade (as distinct from
the verbal and written use of weights and measures) is in the
United Kingdom undertaken by inspectors of weights and
measures, who are appointed by the local authorities, as the
county and borough councils. An inspector is required to hold
a certificate of qualification, and for his guidance general regula-
tions are made by his local authority as to modes of testing
weights, measures and weighing instruments. 2 In Europe
the local inspection is generally carried out through the State,
and a uniform system of local verification is thereby maintained.
5. Errors. In the verification of weights and measures a margin
of error is permitted to manufacturers and scale-makers, as it is found
to be impossible to make two weights, or two measures, so identical
that between them some difference may not be found either by the
balance or the microscope. For common weights and measures
this margin (tolerance, remedy or allowance, as it is also called)
has been set out by the Board of Trade for all the various kinds of
weights and measures in use for commercial purposes in the United
Kingdom, and similar margins of error are recognized in other
countries. For instance, on I Ib avoir, weight made of brass, 2
grains in excess are allowed; on I oz. troy or apothecaries' weight,
+0-2 grain is allowed ; on I pint pot, 4 fluid drachms is permitted ;
on i brass yard, 0-05 inch in excess or 0-02 inch in deficiency in length
is allowed for ordinary trade purposes.
6. Foreign Weights and Measures. Throughout the British
Empire the imperial system of weights and measures is legal.
In Russia, as in the United Kingdom and the United States,
the national weights and measures are followed (3 above),
although the use of metric weights and measures is permissive.
In India the native weights, &c., ancient and arbitrary,
are still followed. In 1889 the British yard was adopted for
the whole of India (Measures of Length Act) at a normal tempera-
ture of 85 F. as standardized to the imperial yard at 62 F.
The metric system was also introduced, mainly for railway
purposes, in 1870 and 1871 (Indian Acts). Certified measures
of the yard, foot and inch are kept by the Commissioners of
Police at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.
In standardizing a weight for use in India, correction has to be
made for the weight of air displaced by the material standard, and
for such purpose the normal temperature of 85, atmospheric pressure
29-8 inches, latitude 22 35' 6-5' (Calcutta), g = {? 5 <> 0-9982515!
are taken. _ The " tola " (180 grains) is properly the Government
unit of weight for currency; and 80 tolas make the " Government
seer."
7. Customary Weights and Measures. In some districts of
the United Kingdom, as well as in provincial districts of other
countries, old local and customary denominations of weights
and measures are still found to be in use, although their use
may have been prohibited by law. So powerful is custom
with the people.*
8. Legislation. In everyday transactions with reference to
weights and measures, the British legislature also exercises
1 C.I.P.M. Proces-verbaux (1897), p. 155.
1 Regulations, Birmingham, Glasgow, London, Manchester, &c.
1 Report Select Committee (1892); Merchant's Handbook, W. A.
Browne (1892); Reports H.M. Representatives Abroad, Foreign
Office, 1900-1901.
control in industrial pursuits. For instance, in weighing li\_
cattle, owners of markets are now required to provide adequat
accommodation. 4 Useful statutes have also been passed to pro-
tect the working class, as in checking the weighing instruments
used in mines in Great Britain, over which instruments wages
are paid, and in the inspection of similar instruments used
in factories and workshops. The Merchandise Marks Act 1887
makes it an offence also to apply in trade a false description,
as to the number, quantity, measure, gauge or weight of
sold; and this Act appears to reach offences that the Weigh
and Measures Acts may perhaps not reach.
9. Pharmaceutical Weights and Measures. By the Medical
Act of 1858, and the Act of 1862, the General Council of Medical
Education and Registration of the United Kingdom are authorized
to issue a " Pharmacopoeia " with reference to the weights and
measures used in the preparation and dispensing of drugs, &c.
The British Pharmacopoeia issued by the Council in 1898 makes
no alteration in the imperial weights and measures required
to be used by the Pharmacopoeia of 1864. For all pharmaceutical
purposes, however, the use of the metric system alone is employed
in all paragraphs relating to analysis, whether gravimetric or
volumetric. For measures of capacity the Pharmacopoeia
continues to use imperial measuring vessels graduated at the
legal temperature of 62 F. The official names of the metric
capacity units are defined at 4 C., as generally on the Continent.
The new Pharmacopoeia also follows foreign practice, and
employs metric measures of capacity and volumetric vessels
graduated at 15-5 C., or 60 F. Specific gravity bottles are,
also adjusted at 60 F., the figures indicating specific gravities
being quotients obtained by dividing in each instance the weight
of the solid or liquid by the weight of an equal bulk of water,
both taken at 60 F. 6
10. Gauges. " Gauges,''' as understood at one time, included only
those used in the measurement of barrels, casks, &c., and hence
the term " gauger." For engineering and manufacturing purposes
the more important linear gauges are, however, now used, adjusted
to some fundamental unit of measure as the inch; although in
certain trades, as for wires and flat metals, gauges continue to be
used of arbitrary scales and of merely numerical sizes, having no
reference to a legal unit cf measure; and such are rarely accurate.
A standard gauge, however, exists (Order in Council, August 1883),
based on the inch, but having numbered sizes from 7/0 (0-5 inch) to
No. 50 (o-ooi inch) to meet the convenience of certain trades. 6
11. Screws. The screw is an important productive measuring
instrument, whether used as a micrometer-screw of less than an
inch in length, or as a master-screw of 20 feet in length. The probable
errors and eccentricities of small micrometer-screws have been care-
fully investigated to =0-00001 inch; but the accuracy cf leading
screws used in workshops has not been sufficiently verified. For
some engineering purposes it would appear to be desirable to produce
master-screws to an accuracy of sii V of an inch to the foot of screw,
so as to serve indirectly for the verification of " guiding screws
for general use in workshops. 7 Attempts in this direction were
originally made by Whitworth, Clement, Donkin, Rogers, Bond and
others, but we still need a higher accuracy in screw-threads.
12. Educational. Ordinary arithmetic books often contain refer-
ences to local and customary weights and measures and to obsolete
terms of no practical use to children. It appears to be desirable,
as the Committee of Council on Education have done, to recognize
only the legal systems of weights and measures the imperial and
metric. The Education Code of Regulations for 1900 prescribes
that the tables of weights and measures to be learned include those
only which are in ordinary use, viz. in all classes or forms above
the third the tables of
( Weight ton, cwt, stone, ft, oz. and dr.,
-j Length mile, furlong, rod or pole, chain, yd., ft. and inch,
[Capacity quarter, bushel, pk., gall., cjt. and pt.
In Code standards above the fifth, in addition to the foregoing, th
tables of
("Area sq. mile, acre, rood, pole, yd., ft. and inch,
I Volume cubic yard, foot and inch.
Instruction in the principles of the metric system, and in the ad
vantages to be gained from uniformity in the method of formin
multiples and sub-multiples of the unit, are, under this Code, to b
4 Markets and Fairs (Cattle) Acts 1887, 1891 ; Coal Mines Regula
tion Act 1887; Factory and Workshop Act 1878.
6 Pharmacopoeia (1901); Calendar Pharmaceutical Society, 1902
6 Order in Council, 26th August 1881.
* Systematique des vis horlogeres, Thury (Geneva, 1878). Bulletin
3oc. d'Encouragement pour 1'Industrie Nationale, Paris, 1894
Report of British Association on Screw-threads, 1900.
COMMERCIAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
491
given to the scholars in Standards IV., V., VI. and VII. Asaprepara-
tion for this it is stated in the Code that it will be useful to give in
Standard III. (arithmetic) elementary lessons on the notation of
decimal fractions. (See ARITHMETIC.)
Table of the Principal Foreign Weights and Measures now in use, and
of their Equivalents in Imperial or in Metric Weights and Measures.
Almude . . . Portugal
Anoman (Ammo- Ceylon
mam, Amomam)
Ara .... Italy .
Archin, or Ar- Turkey
shin
Archin .
Bulgaria .
Archine, or Ar-
Russia
chinne
Ardeb . . .
Egypt .
Are ....
Area ....
Arpent .
Spain
France .
if
Canada .
;{
Arroba . . .
Portugal .
Spain
,
Artaba .
Persia
Aune . . .
Belgium .
France
Barilo . . .
Jersey
Rome
Bat, or Tical .
Siam .
Batman .
Persia
m
Turkey .
Behar . . .
Arabia
Berri
Turkey .
Boisseau .
Belgium .
f
Boutylka . .
Russia
Braca
Braccio .
Portugal .
Spain
Rome
t
Brasse .
France .
Braza
Argentina
Bu, or tsubo
Bushel .
Japan
U. States
1 r
Canada .
J
Bunder
Cabot
Candy
Netherlands.
Jersey . .
Bombay .
Madras .
Turkey .
Italy . .
Persia
China
N. Borneo
Siam .
Madras .
U. States
Canada .
Centigramme .
Centilitre
Centimetre
Centimetre, cubic (c.c.) .
Centimetre, square
Cantar .
Cantara piccolo
Capicha .
Catty . . .
Cawnie
Cental
Centner
Chain . . .
Chang .
Chapah .
Chee. See Tahil.
Chek . . .
Chenica .
Ch'ien .
Ch'ih
Austria .
Denmark
Switzerland
Canada .
Cyprus .
China
Siam .
N. Borneo
Hong Kong
Persia
China
China
16-8 litres.
0-699 quarter (dry measure), 5-60
bushels.
i metric are, 119.6 sq. yds.
I new archin (Law 1881) = I
metre (39-37 inches) = 10 par-
maks (decimetres) 100 knats
(centimetres), i mill = 1000 ar-
chins (kilometre). Pharoagh =
10 mil's. Another pharoagh =
2 hours' journey.
0-758 metre (masons).
0-680 metre (tailors).
28 inches, or 0-7112 metre.
5-447 bushels (Customs). 5
bushels (old measure).
= loo sq. metres = 1 19-6 sq. yds.
i metric are.
Legal arpent was.equal to 100 sq.
perches = 51 -07 metric ares.
in Quebec = 180 French feet.
14-68 to 15 kilogrammes.
Mayor = 3-55gallons,or i cantara.
1-809 bushel.
Menor = 2-7& gallons (liquids).
i metre. Formerly 1-312 yard.
1-885 metre (1812).
4 feet.
12-834 gallons.
234 grains.
6J lb av. ; varies locally.
= 10 ocks.
439-45 lb av., nearly.
1-084 mile (old measure).
15 litres.
1-353 P> n t (wine bottle).
2-22 metres.
0-670 metre (commercial).
Braccio-d'ara =29-528 inches.
5-328 feet.
5-682 feet.
3-0306 square metres.
2150-42 cubic inches, about
0-96944 imperial bushel. I
bushel = 8 gallons = 32 quarts =
64 pints.
2-471 acres (old hectare).
IO pots, or $ gallons, I quart 3
gills imperial measure.
560 lb av.
493-7 lb av.
124-7 ft av - ('d weight).
74-771 ft av.
0-58 gallon,
i i ft av. See Tad.
i J ft av.
2-675 ft av., or s ' hap.
1-322 acre.
100 ft av. (As in Great Britain.)
= T i s grin. =0-1 54 grain.
= !$(, litre = o-07 gill.
= 0-394 inch = ,i m.
= 0-061 cubic inch, or i c.c.
= 0-155 square inch.
50 kilogrammes = 110-231 ft. av.
50 kilogrammes = 110-231 ft. av.
50 kilogrammes = 110-231 ft.
66 feet.
0-33 pic.
10 ch ih = 1 1 ft. 9 inches (Treaty).
2-675 ft-
i * ft av.
14! inches.
0-289 gallon.
S8J grains (silver weight).
Varies throughout China from 1 1
to 15-8 inches. For Customs
purposes the Treaty ch'ih =
14-1 inches, and 5 ch'ih = I pu.
Ch'ih
Peking .
( P UD '' C wor ^ s -
Chilogramme
Chin or Catty
Ching . .
Ch'ing .
Chittack. .
Ch'ok . .
Chtto . .
Chupah
Chupak . . .
Collothun . .
Coss . . . .
Covado .
Covid, or Cubit
Covido .
Covidp (Great)
Cuartillo
= 12-4 statistics.
= 12-6 architects.
= 12-7 common.
= 13-1 tribunal of mathematics.
Shanghai . = 13-2 Board of Revenue.
= 14- 1 Customs.
Italy ... I kilogramme.
China . . I J ft av. (Treaty).
China . . 121 sq. feet (Treaty).
China . . 72,600 sq. feet (Treaty).
Bengal . . 5 tolas, or 900 grains.
Corea . . 7! in. (linear); I2j in. (build-
ing).
China . . 1815 sq. feet (Treaty).
Singapore . 1-66 Ibav. of water at 62 F., as a
measure of capacity.
Malacca . . 144 oz. av. of water.
Straits Settle- i quart.
ments
Persia . . 1-809 gallon.
Bengal . . 1-136 metre.
Portugal . . 0-66 metre.
Madras . . 18 to 21 inches.
Bombay . . 18 inches.
Siam . . .18 inches.
Arabia . . 1 8 inches approximately.
27 inches.
Spain . . 1-16 litre (dry); 0-504 litre
liquid.
Daktylon (Royal) Greece
Daribah . . Egypt
Decagramme ....
Decalitre
Decametre
D6c.'iatina . . Russia
Decigramme ....
Decilitre
Decimetre
Decimetre, cubic
Decimetre, square
Denaro . . . Rome
Deunam . . Turkey
Diraa^orDraa, j gypt
Turkey
Dirhem . . . Egypt
i
Djerib . . . Turkey . .
Doha, or Dola . Russia . . ]
Drachma . . Netherlands.
Turkey .
D r achm6 (Royal) Greece
Constantinople
Dram. See Oke.
Ducat . . . Vienna .
Duim Netherlands.
Eimer
El . . .
Ell . . .
Ella . . .
Elle . . .
Endaseh, or
Hindazi
Faltche . .
Fanega .
Pass .
Feddan
Fen .
Fjerdingkar.
Fod .
Foglietto
Foot . . .
Austria .
Netherlands.
Jersey
N. Borneo
Switzerland
Egypt .
Moldavia
Argentina
Portugal .
Spain
Peru . .
Germany
Egypt
China
Denmark
Denmark
Norway .
Rome
U. States
Canada .
Amsterdam .
South Africa
Old Rhenish
I centimetre.
43-58 bushels (Customs).
= 10 grms. = 5-64 drams av.
= 10 litres = 2-2 gallons.
= 10-936 yards.
= 2400 square sagenes=z 7
acres.
= i"j grm. =1-54 grain.
= J 1 litre =0-176 pint.
= 3-937 inches = 0-1 metre.
= looo c.c. =61-024 cub. in.
= 100 sq. centm. = 15-5 sq. in
18-17 grains (old weighty.
I metric are.
27 inches usually.
21-3 inches Nile measure.
27 inches (old measure of pike).
1-761 dram av. (Customs).
3-0884 grammes (Cairo).
i hectare.
0-686 grain.
96 doli = i zolotnick.
3-906 grammes.
154-324 grains.
i gramme (gold weight).
= 57-871 grains. See Oct.
53' 8 73 grains.
I centimetre.
12-448 gallons.
i metre. (Old ell =27-08 inches).
4 feet.
i yard.
0-6561 yard.
Usually 25 inches.
i hectare, 43 ares, 22 centiares.
3-773 bushels.
55-364 litres.
1-526 bushel.
I 1 bushel.
1-615 acre, but varies locally.
I hectolitre.
1-038 acre (Masri). Also 1-127
acre locally.
1.266 acre (old).
5-83 grains (silver weight).
0-9564 bushel.
1-0297 foot-
0-3137 metre.
0-8 pint.
12 inches.
French foot = 12-8 inches.
Jll-I 4 7in.| old
12-356 in.J
measure.
492
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Fot ....
Sweden . .
1 1 -689 in. to fot = i stong. i ref Korn-tonde. .
Sweden .
= 10 stanger. i mil = 360 ref.
Korn-top Maal
Norway .
Founte, or Funt
Russia
0-90282 ft av.
Korrel . . .
Netherlands .
or Livre
Kotyle (Royal) .
Greece
Foute, or Pied .
Russia
i English foot.
Kouza .
Cyprus .
Frasco .
Argentina
2| litres.
Koyan .
Straits Setts .
Fuss ....
Vienna .
12 zolls = 1-037 foot.
Krina
Bulgaria .
Switzerland
3$ fuss = I metre.
Kung . .
China
SeeSto&.
Kup ....
Siam .
Gallon .
U. States
'231 cubic inches = 8-3389 ft av.
Kwan or Kuwan
Kyat
Japan
Burma
Canada . .
of water at t. 39-8 Fahr. At
1
62 Fahr. =0-8325 imp. gallon.
Lak't . . .
Bulgaria .
Gantang . .
Straits Settle-
32 gallons.
Last ....
Netherlands .
ments
Leang
China
N. Borneo
144 oz. av. weight of water as
LekhS . . .
Bulgaria .
measure of capacity.
Li ....
China
Garnetz .
Russia
0-3607 peck.
Gin. See Kali.
Gisla . . .
Zanzibar .
Measure of 360 ft av. of rice.
Liang
China . .
Go ....
Japan
180-39 cubic centimetres.
Libbra .
Italy . . .
Grain
Russia
0-960 grain (apothecaries).
Libra
Argentina
Gramme (gr.) .
= i5-4323564 grains av. troy.
Libra (Castilian)
Spain, Mexico
= 0-2572 drachm, or 0-7716
Libra, or Arratel
Portugal .
scruple.
Line or Ligne .
Paris . . .
= 0-03215 oz. troy.
Liniia
Russia
Gramme^ (Royal)
Greece
i millimetre.
Litra (Royal) .
Greece
Gramo .
Spain
i gramme.
Litre . . -.
Cyprus .
Grano
Rome
0-757 grain.
Litre (metric) .
Grao
Portugal .
0-768 grain; also measure o- 1 8 in.
Litro.
Spain
Grein
Netherlands .
= 0-065 gramme.
Italy . . .
Guz, or Gudge .
India: Bengal
36 inches.
Livre (ft)
Russia
,, Bombay
27 inches.
,, Madras .
33 inches, Government Survey.
Belgium
Persia
The guz, gueza or zer varies from
Livre-poids .
France
24 to 44 inches. A guz of 40-95
inches (Guz, Azerbaijan)is com-
Loth. . . .
Germany
mon. Government standard
Switzerland
guz = 3&J inches. There is a
Vienna .
Arabia
guz for retail trade of 25 inches.
25 inches to 37 inches (Bassorah).
Maass . . .
Austria .
Switzerland .
Hat'h, or Moo- J
Bengal .
1 8 inches.
Maatze .
Netherlands .
lum, or Cubit \
Bombay .
1 8 inches, or cubit.
Mace
China . .
Hectare
= 100 ares, or 2-471 acres.
N Borneo
loo grm.= 3-53 oz. av.
100 litres = 2 -75 bushels.
Mahud .
Maik . . .
Arabia
Burmah .
Hectolitre .
.
Hectometre
.
= 109-36 yards.
Marc, or Mark .
France
Hiyaka-me . . Japan .
5797-198 grains.
Sweden .
Hiyak-kin . . . Japan .
1325 ft av.
Vienna .
Hoon. See Tahil.
Marco . . .
Portugal .
Hu . . . .
China
12 i gallons, nearly.
Spain
Immi
Switzerland
1-5 litre.
Maund .
India
Joch . . . .
Austria-Hun-
1-422 acre.
gary
(.
Kaima .
Sweden .
0-576 gallon.
Kan . . .
Netherlands
i litre.
Hong Kong
ij ft av.
Kanne or Kanna
Germany
i litre, or formerly 1-762 pint.
Megametre (as-
....
Sweden .
0-576 pint.
tronomy)
Kantar, or Can-
Egypt . .
99-0492 ft av. = 100 rotls (Cus-
Metre (m.) .
U. States .
taro
toms). 45 kilogrammes of
Great Britain
cotton. 44-5 kilogrammes other
Metre, cubic
produce.
Metre, square .
Karwar . .
Persia
100 batman.
Kassabah
Kati, Catty or }
Egypt . .
China, Straits
3-8824 yards (Customs).
1 _ i v
Metro . . .
Spain
Italy . . .
Gin \
Settlements
> IJ ID av.
Metz. . . .
Austria .
Kcili or Pishi
Zanzibar
Measure of 6 ft av. of rice.
Ken ' . . .
Kerat . . .
Japan
Turkey . .
5-965 ft., 1-81 metre,
ij inch measure (old).
3-09 grains weight (old)
Miglio .
Miile . . .
Mil, or Mill . .
Rome
Netherlands .
Turkey .
Kette, or Chain
Germany
14-994 ellen, or 10-936 yards.
Denmark
Keu ...
Siam .
40 inches.
Mile ....
France .
Khat (New) .
Turkey . .
i centimetre.
Germany
Kile ....
Cyprus .
8 gallons.
Mile (postal)
Austria .
Killow . . .
Turkey . .
0-97 bushel.
Milha . . .
Portugal .
Kilogramme
= 1000 grm. =2-2046223 ft av.
Miile . . .
France .
Kilometre
= 0-6214 mile.
Milligramme
....
Kin
Tanan f^hina
0-601 kilogramme = i -325 ft-
Millilitre .
Ivlll . * .
K'after
Austriti
= 2 -0740 yards.
Switzerland
1-9685 yard.
Miscal .
Persia
Koddi . . .
Arabia
1-67 gallon.
Mkono .
East Africa .
Koilon (Royal) .
Greece
i hectolitre. Old koilon = 33-i6
Mna ....
Greece
litra.
Momme .
Japan
Koku
Japan . .
= 39-7033 galls. =4-9629 bushels.
Morgen .
Denmark.
Kon . . .
Corea
ij ft av.
Norway .
Korn-tonde .
Norway .
138-97 litres.
Prussia .
[COMMERCIAL
3-821 bushels.
1 60 litres.
i decigramme.
I decilitre.
9 quarts.
5333 i ft av.
12-8 litres.
78-96 inches (Treaty).
10 inches.
8-281 ft = 3>75652 kilogrammes,
zoo kyats = 3-652 ft av.
0-650 metre.
30 hectolitres.
583! grains (silver weight).
229-83 sq. metres.
about $ mile = 360 pu. Varies
with length of ch'ih.
A small weight 0-583 grain.
i$ oz. 1 6 Hang = i chin = ij Ibav.
0-7477 ft av.
1-0127 ft av.
1-014 ft-
1-012 ft av.
-fa point, or 0-089 inch,
o-l inch. I archine = 28o liniias.
i litre = 100 mystra.
2| quarts.
= 1-7598 pint
| i litre.
0-90282 ft av. Apoth. livre =
11-5204 oz. troy.
Kilogramme.
0-4895 kilogramme.
New loth = i decagramme. Old
loth, nearly 5 oz. av.
15-625 grammes.
270-1 grains. Postal loth, 257-2
grains.
1-245 quart.
2-64 gallons.
I decilitre.
58$ grains.
93! ft av.
2-04 ft av.
3 maik = cubit = 19! inches.
0-2448 kilogramme (old weight)
0-4645 ft ay.
4331-37 grains = 24 karato.
= 8 oncas = 229-5 grammes.
3550-54 grains.
82-286 ft av., Government.
72^ ft (old bazaar).
74-67 ft av., factory.
28 ft nearly, Bombay.
25 ft nearly, Madras.
37 to 44 ft, Juggerat.
Local maunds vary on either side
of 80 ft.
1,000,000 metres.
39-37 inches.
39-370113 inches = I m.
= 1000 c.d. =35-315 cubic feet.
= 100 square decimetres = 10-764
cjiiiafd (ctfti-
square feet.
i metre.
1-691 bushel.
= ns 1 B5 millimetre.
0-925 mile.
I kilometre.
1000 archins (new mil).
4-680 miles.
Nautical mile = 1852 metres.
4-714 miles.
1-296 mile.
1-949 kilometre.
= HsVii gramme = o-oi5 grain.
= Tt 1 <!T[ litre.
= 0-03937 inch^sta m.
71 grains.
45-72 centimetres.
li kilogramme = 1-172 oka
TJ'JJB kwan.
0-631 acre.
COMMERCIAL)
Mou .
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Mud .
China . . Commonly 806-65 sq. yds. Varies
locally. Shanghai = 6600 sq. ft.
(Municipal Council). By Cus-
toms Treaty = 920-417 sq. yds.,
based on ch'ih of 14-1 inches.
Netherlands . I hectolitre.
Myriagramme =10 kilogrammes = 22-O46 ft av.
Ngoma .
Nin . . .
Obolos
Ock .
Octavillo
Oitavo .
Oke . .
East Africa
Siam .
Greece
Turkey .
Onca
Once
Oncia
Onze
Ounce
Spain
Portugal .
Bulgaria .
Cyprus . .
Egypt . .
Greece .
Turkey . .
Portugal .
France .
Rome
Netherlands
U. States
Packen . . . Russia
Palam6 (Royal) Greece .
Palm . . . Holland .
Palmo . . . Portugal .
Spain
Para N. Borneo
Parah . . . Ceylon
Parasang. See Persakh.
Parmak. See Archvn.
Passeree . . Bengal .
Pe . . . . Portugal .
Pecheus (Royal) Greece
Pecul . . . China
Perche . . . France .
Canada .
Persakh, or Para- Persia
sang
Pfund . . . Germany
Prussia .
Switzerland
Pharoagh.
Pic . .
Picul
Picki
Vienna .
See Archin.
. Cyprus .
. Japan
Straits Settle-
ments, Hong
Kong . .
North Borneo
7i kcilas.
\l inch.
i decigramme.
Legal ock (1881) = 100 drachmas.
New batman = 10 ocks, and
kantar=lo batmans ock = i
kilogramme.
0-29 litre.
1-730 litre.
1-28 litre (for liquids).
1-282 kilogramme (old).
2f lb. av. =400 drams (Cyprus).
2-751 lb av. (Customs). 2-805
ID (Alexandria).
2-80 lb = 1-282 kilogramme.
1-33 litre.
1-1518 pint. 2-834 lb av. (old
weight).
28-688 grammes.
30-59 grammes (old).
436-165 grains.
i hectogramme. 10 or.zen =pond.
Av. ounce = 437 -5 grains.
1083-382 lb av.
i decimetre.
I decimetre.
0-22 metre.
8-346 inches.
90 rb av.
5-59 pints.
5 seers.
} metre (old).
1 metre = 1-543 ld pecheuse.
I33i ft av.
22 square pieds de roi. In Quebec
1 8 French feet.
Probably 3-88 miles = 6000 guz.
16 unzen =
I -01 tO I -2_
Zoll. pfund (1872) =500 grammes.
Old zoll. ft = 1-1023 ft av.
500 grammes = l6 unze.
Apoth. pf. =375 grammes.
Pfund = 560-06 grammes.
Zoll. pfund (1871) =500 grammes.
2 feet.
. Greece
China .
Pie .... Rome
Pie de Burgos . Spain
Pied . . . Belgium .
Canada .
Pied de Roi . . Paris . .
Pike .... Turkey .
Pint . . . U. States
Pinte . . . France .
Pipa . . . Portugal .
Pipe . . . Gibraltar.
Pishi. See Keila.
Poide de Marc . France .
Polegada . . Portugal . ,
Pond . Netherlands
Pot .
Denmark
Switzerland
Belgium .
Norway .
i33i ft av.
A measure of 180 ft weight of
water.
0-648 metre.
25 gallons (dry measure).
11-73 inches.
11-13 inches.
11-81 inches = 10 pounces.
12-79 inches.
0-3248 metre.
See Dir'aa.
0-8325 imperial pint.
0-931 litre.
534 litres fOporto).
420 litres (Lisbon).
500 litres (officially).
105 to 126 gallons.
0-2448 kilo = 8 onces.
27-77 millimetres.
i kilogramme. Apothecaries
pond =375 grammes.
1-7 pint =4 paegle.
2-64^ pints or 1-5 litre,
i i litre (dry), i litre (liquid).
0-965 litre.
Pouce . . .
Poud, or Pood .
Pound .
France .
Russia
Russia
U. States
Russia
Jersey
Pu .
Puddee . . .
China
Madras .
Pulgada .
Fund. . . .
Spain
Denmark
Norway .
Sweden .
Quart . . .
Quarto .
Quintal .
Huintal (metric)
uintale
U. States
Rome
Portugal .
Spain
Portugal .
Argentina
France .
Italy . . .
Ratel . . .
Rattel, or Rottle
Persia
Arabia
Ri . . . .
Japan
Rode
Roede . . .
Rotl, or Rottolo
Denmark
Netherlands .
Egypt . .
Cairo.
Alexandria
Rottol . . .
Rubbio .
Turkey . .
Spain
Sagene . . .
Scheffel . . .
Russia
Germany
Schepel .
Schoppen
Se . . . .
Seer ....
Netherlands .
Germany
Switzerland .
Japan . .
India
Ceylon .
Persia
Note. In Ind
Seidel
Sen ....
Ser . . . .
Shaku . . .
considerably
Austria .
Siam .
India
Japan . .
Sheng
Shih ....
Shod
Skaal-pund .
China
China
Japan
Sweden .
Norway .
Skeppe .
Skjeppe . . .
Stab ....
Stadron (Royal)
Stere (metric) .
Stero . . .
Streepe .
Stremma . .
Denmark
Norway .
Germany
Greece
Italy i
Holland . .
Greece ,
Strich . . .
Striche . . .
Stunde . . .
Germany
Switzerland .
Germany
493
i -066 inch (old measure).
i inch.
0-016122 ton =36 lb.
Standard troy ft = 5760 grains.
Avoir, lb = 7000 grains.
0-90282 lb av. (0-4095 kilogramme).
7561 grains =16 oz. Jersey = i
livre.
70-5 inches = 5 ch'ih.
2-89 pints. 100 cubic inches =
Government puddee.
0-927 inch.
1-1023 lb av., or 500 gramme*.
0-4981 kilogramme.
6560 grains. Varies locally.
5500-5 grains (apoth.).
See Bushel.
2-024 bushels.
3-46 litres.
100 libras (Castilian) = '01-4 lb.
58-752 kilograi>imes, or 129} Ibav,
100 libras, or 101-27 "' av -
= 100 kilogrammes = I -968 cwt.
i metric quintal.
1-014 ft a v -
I -02 ft av., nearly (dry measure).
17-219 lb av. weight.
2-440 miles (itinerary). 2-118
miles (natural).
3-762 metres.
i dekametre.
0-9905 ft av. (Customs). 0-9805
ft av. (Govt.).
2-206 ft great rottolo.
0-715 ft less rottolo.
2-124 ft great rottolo. Rottolo
mina = f oka.
2-513 pints (old measure).
1-012 quarter (dry measure).
7 feet.
50 litres, formerly 14-56 metzen
(Prussia).
I decalitre.
J litre, formerly o-ll gallon.
0-375 litre.
118-615 square yards (-9918 are).
Government seer = 2^ ID av.
Bengal, 80 tolas weight of rice
(heaped measure), about 60
cubic inches (struck measure).
Southern 1 ndia = weight of 24
current rupees.
Madras, 25 ft nearly.
Juggerat, weight of 40 local
rupees.
Bombay, old seer, about 28 lb.
Measure of 1-86 pint.
16 miscals, or 1136 grains weight
(Sihr).
0-6224 P' nt -
44-4 miles, nearly.
i litre (Indian Law, 1871).
0-30 metre, also 9-18273 square
decimetres; also 18-039 cubic
centimetres.
1-813 pint.
160 ft.
i -804 litre.
435-076 grammes, or 0-959 lb av.
0-4981 kilogramme, or officially
i kilogramme.
17-39 Ijtres.
17-37 litres.
metre, or 3- i old fuss, but varied.
kilometre.
cubic metre.
metric stere.
millimetre.
metric are. 238-1 square
pecheus (Constantinople).
I millimetre.
3! strich = i millimetre.
Old itinerary measure, 2-3 to 3-4
miles.
494
Stunde
Sultchek
Sung
Tael .
Tahil .
Tarn . .
Tan . .
Tang .
Tang-sun
Tank .
Tcharka
Tchetverte
Teng .
WEIGHT-THROWING WEI-HAI- WEI
Switzerland .
Turkey .
Corea . .
Siam .
Hong Kong .
China
Japan
(No current
Straits Settle
ments
Hong Kong
China
Burma
China
Bombay
Russia
Russia
Burma .
Thanan
Siam .
Thangsat
Siam .
To .
Japan
Toise
France .
Tola.
India
Tomand
Arabia
Ton .
U. States
Tonde
Denmark
Tonne, or Millier France .
Germany
Tonne (metric)
Tonnelada .
Portugal .
Tonos
Greece .
Tou .
China
Tovar
Bulgaria .
T'sun
China . .
Tu .
China . .
4- 8 kilometres. Stunder = 5 stu n-
den, or 24 kilometres.
Cubic measure (1881) whose sides
equal a parmak (decimetre).
4 Ib av., nearly.
936^ grains.
i i oz. av.
Silver weight, 1 3 oz. av.
10 momme.
coin of the tael.)
1 J oz. av. = 10 chee = 100 hoon.
133 \ Ibav.
= 25 gallons. Also 1 33i Ib weight.
2 miles, nearly.
About 3| miles = 10 li.
17^8 grains, or 72 tanks = 30 pice.
0-866 gill =0-218 pint.
5-772 bushels = 8 tchetveriks, or
2-099 hectolitres.
Burmese measures of capacity de-
pend on the teng or basket.
Officially a basket is 2218-2
cubic inches, but the teng varies
locally :
Akyab = 23 Ib of rice.
Bassein = 51 Ib of rice.
Moulmein =48 Ib of rice.
Rangoon =48 to 50 Ib of rice.
1-5 pint.
4-688 gallons.
18-0391 litres =3-9703 galls. =
1-98 pecks.
2-1315 yards.
1 80 grains. Legal weight of
rupee.
187-17 Ibav. of rice.
2240 ro av., also a net tonof 2000 Ib.
131-392 litres (liquid measure).
139-121 litres (dry measure).
looo kilogrammes.
1000 kilogrammes =0-9842 ton.
793-15 kilogrammes.
29-526 cwt.
1 8 pints approximately.
128-2 kilogrammes.
1-41 inch (Treaty measure).
100-142 miles = 25 li, based on the
ch'ih of 14-1 inches.
Vara ...
Peru . . .
33 inches.
Spain
2-782 feet.
Argentina
2-841 feet.
Portugal .
I'll metre.
Vat .
Holland . .
i hectolitre.
Vedro . . .
Russia
2- 756 gallons = io schtoffs, or
12-3 litres.
Bulgaria .
12-8 litres.
Verchok . , .
Russia
I -75 inch.
Versta, or Verst .
Russia
0-66288 mile.
Vierkanteroede .
Holland . .
i metric are.
Viertel . . .
Denmark
1-7 gallon.
Switzerland .
15 litres.
Viss . . . .
Rangoon
3^ Ibav.
Wa . . . .
Siam .
80 inches.
Wigtje . . .
Netherlands .
i gramme.
Wisse ....
Netherlands .
i metric stere.
Yard . . .
U. States
36 inches.
Mexico .
838 centimetres.
Zac .
Netherlands. .
I hectolitre.
Zer (Persia). See
Guz.
Zoll . . . .
Switzerland .
3 j zoll = i decimetre. Old zoll
Zolotnik . . Russia
nearly one inch.
Pfund.)
65-8306 grains, or 96 doli.
(H.J.C.)
WEIGHT-THROWING, the athletic sport of hurling heavy
weights either for distance or height. Lifting and throwing
weights of different kinds have always been popular in Great
Britain, especially Scotland and Ireland, and on the continent
of Europe, particularly in Germany, Switzerland and Austria-
Hungary. No form of throwing weights is included in the
British athletic championship programme, although " putting
the shot " (q.v.) and " hammer-throwing " (q.v.) are recognized
championship events. In America throwing the 56-lb weight
for distance belongs to the championship programme. It was
once a common event in Great Britain at all important athletic
meetings, the ordinary slightly conical half-hundredweight
being used and thrown by the ring attached to the top; the
ring, however, was awkward to grip, and a triangular handle was
afterwards substituted. In America the s6-lb weight is a ball
of iron or lead with a triangular or pear-shaped handle. The
weight used to be thrown standing, but since 1888 it has been
thrown from a 7-ft. circle with a raised edge, like that used for
the hammer and shot in America.
In throwing the athlete stands slightly stooping, with his feet
about 18 in. apart and grasping the handle with both hands opposite
his thighs. The weight is swung round and back past the right leg
as far as possible, then up, over and round the head, as in the
hammer-throw. One complete swing round the head is usually
enough, as too much momentum is apt to throw the athlete off his
balance. The weight is then swung round together with the whole
body as rapidly as possible, as in hammer-throwing. The athlete
works himself to the front of the circle just before the moment of
delivery and begins the final heave with his back towards the direction
in which he wishes to throw the weight. This heave is accomplished
by completing the final spin cf the body, giving the legs, back and
arms a vigorous upward movement at the same time, and following
the weight through with the uplifted arms as it leaves the hands,
but taking care not to overstep the circle. With one hand a smoother
swing can be made but much less power applied. In throwing for
height the athlete stands beside the nigh-jump uprights and casts the
weight over the cross-piece, making the swing and spin in a more
vertical direction with a heave upward at the moment of delivery.
Throwing for height and with one hand were formerly events in the
American championship programme, but have been discontinued.
The record for throwing the 56-lb weight for height is 15 ft. 6| in.,
made by the American-Irishman J. S. Mitchell. The record for
distance, 38 ft. 8 in., was made in 1907 by the American-Irishman
John Flanagan. In throwing weights large and heavy men have an
advantage over small, brute strength being the chief requisite,
while a heavy body makes a better fulcrum while revolving than a
light one.
WEI-HAI-WEI, a British naval and coaling station, on the
N.E. coast of the Shan-tung peninsula, China, about 40 m. E.
of the treaty port of Chi-fu and 115 m. from Port Arthur. It
was formerly a Chinese naval station strongly fortified, but was
captured by the Japanese in February 1895, and occupied by their
troops until May 1898, pending the payment of the indemnity.
Port Arthur having in the spring of that year been acquired by
the Russian government under a lease from China, a similar
lease was granted of Wei-hai-wei to the British government,
and on the withdrawal of the Japanese troops the British fleet
took possession, the flag being hoisted on the 24th of May 1898.
No period was fixed for the termination of the lease, but it was
stipulated that it should continue so long as Russia continued
to hold Port Arthur. The lease of Port Arthur having been
ceded to Japan in September 1905, the British lease of Wei-hai-
wei was made to run for as long as Japan held Port Arthur.
The harbour is formed by an island named Liu-kung-tao
running east and west across the mouth of a small bay, leaving
an entrance at each end. Towards the mainland the water
shoals, and the best anchorage is under the lee of the island.
The native city is walled, and has a population of about 2000.
The chief port is named Port Edward; it has good anchorage
with a depth of 45 ft. of water. The leased area comprises,
besides the harbour and island, a belt of the mainland, 10
English miles wide, skirting the whole length of the bay. The
coast line of the bay is some 10 m., and the area thus leased
extends to 285 sq. m. Within -this area Great Britain has exclu-
sive jurisdiction, and is represented by a commissioner under
the colonial office; and has, besides, the right to erect fortifica-
tions, station troops and take any other measures necessary
for defensive purposes at any points on or near the coast in
that part of the peninsula east of 121 40' E. Within that zone,
which covers 1505 sq. m., Chinese administration is not interfered
with, but no troops other than Chinese and British are allowed
there. The territory consists of rugged hills rising to 1600 ft.
and well-cultivated valleys. The hills also, as far as possible,
WEILBURG WEIMAR
495
are terraced for cultivation and in some instances are planted
with dwarf pine and scrub oak. It contains some 310 villages
and a population of about 150,0x30. Chinese war-vessels are
at liberty to use the anchorage, notwithstanding the lease;
and Chinese jurisdiction may continue to be exercised within the
w:illcd city of Wei-hai-wei, so far as not inconsistent with military
requirements. Wei-hai-wei was made the headquarters of a
n;it ive Chinese regiment in the pay of Great Britain, and organized
and led by British officers; but this regiment was disbanded in
1902. Wei-hai-wei is used by the China squadron as a sana-
torium and exercising ground. Its excellent climate attracts
many visitors. Wei-hai-wei being a free port no duties of any
kind are collected there. The import trade consists of timber,
maize, paper, crockery, sugar, tobacco, kerosene oil, &c. Gold
has been found in the territory, and silver, tin, lead and iron
are said to exist. In each of the years 1903-1909 the expenditure
exceeded the revenue (about $70,000 in 1909-1910), deficits
being made good by grants from the British parliament.
WEILBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hesse-Nassau, picturesquely situated on the Lahn, just above
the confluence of the Weil, 50 m. N.E. from Coblenz by the rail-
way to Giessen. Pop. (1905) 3828. The old town, built on and
around a rocky hill almost encircled by the river, contains a
castle of the i6th century, formerly the residence of the dukes
of Nassau- Weilburg, and later of the grand-dukes of Luxemburg.
It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, the former,
the Stadtkirche, containing the burial vaults of the princes
of Nassau, a gymnasium and an agricultural college. Its
industries include wool-spinning, mining, tanning and dyeing.
In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castles of Merenberg
and Freienfels. Weilburg was in the nth century the property
of the bishops of Worms, from whom it passed to the house of
Nassau. From 1355 to 1816 it was the residence of the princes
of Nassau- Weilburg, a branch of this house.
See C. C. Sp:clmann, Fuhrer durch Weilburg und Umgebung
(Weilburg, 1804); and Geschichte der Stadt und Herrschaft Weilburg
(Weilburg, 1896).
WEIMAR, a city of Germany, the capital of the grand-duchy
of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. It is situated in a fertile valley on
the Ilm, a small tributary of the Saale, 50 m. S.W. of Leipzig
and 141 m. S.W. of Berlin, on the main line of railway to Bebra
and Frankfort-on-Main, and at the junction of three lines to
Jena, Gera and Berka and Rastenberg. Pop. (1885) 21,565,
(1905) 31,121. Weimar owes its importance not toany industrial
development, which the grand-dukes discourage within the
limits of their Residenz, but to its intimate association with the
classical period of German literature, which earned for it the
title of the " poets' city " and " the German Athens." The
golden age of Weimar, covered by the reign of Charles Augustus
(q.n.) from- 1775 to 1828, has left an indelible impress on the
character of the town.
In spite of its classical associations and of modern improve-
ments, Weimar still retains much of its medieval character.
The walls survive, indeed, only in isolated fragments, but the
narrow winding streets of the older part of the town, and the
market-place surrounded by houses with high-pitched gables
and roofs are very picturesque. Of the churches the Stadtkirche
(parish church), of which Herder became pastor in 1776, is a
Gothic building dating from about 1400, but much altered in
detail under " classical " influences. It contains the tombs of
the princes of the house of Saxe- Weimar, including those of the
elector John Frederick the Magnanimous and his wife, and of
Duke Bernhard of Weimar, a hero of the Thirty Years' War.
The altar-piece is a triptych, the centre-piece representing the
Crucifixion; beside the cross Luther is represented, with t%open
Bible in his hand, while the blood from the pierced side of the
Saviour pours on to his head. The picture is regarded as the
masterpiece of Lucas Cranach (q.v.), who lived for a time at
Weimar, in the Bruck'sckes Hauson the market-place. In front
of the church is a statue of Herder, whose house still serves as
the parsonage. The other church, the Jakabs- or Hofkirche
(court church) is also ancient; its disused churchyard contains
the graves of Lucas Cranach and Musaeus. The most important
building in Weimar is the palace, a huge structure forming three
sides of a quadrangle, erected (1789-1803) under the super-
intendence of Goethe, on the site of one burned down in 1774.
A remnant of the old palace, with a tower, survives. The interior
is very fine, and in one of the wings is a series of rooms dedicated
to the poets Goethe, Schiller, Herder and Wieland, with appro-
priate mural paintings. Of more interest, however, is the house
in which Goethe himself lived from 1782 to 1832. It was built
by the duke as a surprise present for the poet on his return from
his Italian tour, and was regarded at the time as a palace of art
and luxury. It has therefore a double interest, as the home of
the poet, and as a complete example of a German nobleman's
house at the beginning of the igth century, the furniture and
fittings (in Goethe's study and bedroom down to the smallest
details) remaining as they were when the poet died. 1 The house
is built round a quadrangle, in which is the coach-house with
Goethe's coach, and has a beautiful, old-fashioned garden.
The interior, apart from the scientific and art collections made by
Goethe, is mainly remarkable for the extreme simplicity of its
furnishing. The Goethe-Schiller Museum, as it is now called,
stands isolated, the adjoining houses having been pulled down
to avoid risk of fire.
Of more pathetic interest is the Schillerhaus, in the SchUler-
strasse, containing the humble rooms in which Schiller lived and
died. The atmosphere of the whole town is, indeed, dominated
by the memory of Goethe and Schiller, whose bronze statues, by
Rietschel, grouped on one pedestal (unveiled in 1857) stand in
front of the theatre. The theatre, built under Goethe's super-
intendence in 1825, memorable in the history of art not only for
its associations with the golden age of German drama, but as
having witnessed the first performances of many of Wagner's
operas and other notable stage pieces, was pulled down and
replaced by a new building in 1007. The most beautiful monu-
ment of Goethe's genius in the town is, however, the park, laid
out in the informal " English " style, without enclosure of any
kind. Of Goethe's classic " conceits " which it contains, the stone
altar round which a serpent climbs to eat the votive bread upon
it, inscribed to the " genius hujus loci," is the most famous.
Just outside the borders of the park, beyond the Ilm, is the
" garden house," a simple wooden cottage with a high-pitched
roof, in which Goethe used to pass the greater part of the summer.
Finally, in the cemetery is the grand ducal family vault, in which
Goethe and Schiller also lie, side by side.
Wieland, who came to Weimar in 1772 as the duke's tutor, is also
commemorated by a statue (1857), and his house is indicated by a
tablet. The town has been embellished by several other statues,
including those of Charles Augustus (1875); Lucas Cranach (i86J;
Marie Seibach (1889); the composer Hummel (1895) and Franz
Liszt (1904). Among the other prominent buildings in Weimar are
the Grunes Schloss (i8th century), containing a library of 200,000
volumes and a valuable collection of portraits, busts and literary
and other curiosities; the old ducal dower-house (Wittumspalais);
the museum, built in 1863-1868 in the Renaissance style with some
old masters and Preller's famous mural paintings illustrating the
Odyssey. In 1896 the Goethe-Schiller Arcniy, an imposing building
on the wooded height above the Ilm, containing MSS. by Goethe,
Schiller, Herder, Wieland, Immermann, Fritz Reuter, Morike, Otto
Ludwig and others, was opened. Weimar possesses also archaeo-
logical, ethnographical and natural science collections and the
Liszt Museum (in the gardener's house in the park, for many years
the musician's hcme). Among the educational establishments are
a gymnasium, and Rcalschule, the Sophienstift (a large school for
girls of the better class, founded by the grand-duchess Sophia),
the grand-ducal school of art, geographical institutes, a technical
school, commercial school, music school, teachers' seminaries, and
dea f and dumb and blind asylums. An English church was opened
in 1899. There are a few industries, printing, tanning and cloth-
weaving.
Various points in the environs of Weimar are also interesting from
their associations. A broad avenue of chestnuts, about 2 m. in
length, leads southwards from the town to the grand-ducal chateau
1 To be strictly accurate, they thus remained until the death of
Goethe's last descendant in 1884. The house, which had been left
to the grand-duke for the nation, was then found to be so structurally
rotten that the interior had to be largely reconstructed. Everything
was, however, replaced in the exact position it had previously
occupied.
49 6
WEINHEIM WEIR
of Belvedere, in the gardens of which the open-air theatre, used in
Goethe's day, still exists. To the north-east, at about the same
distance from the town, are the tiny chateau and park of Tiefurt,
on the banks of the Ilm, the scene of many pastoral court revels in
the past. To the north-west is the Ettersberg, with the Ettersburg,
a chateau which was another favourite resort of Charles Augustus
and his friends.
The history of Weimar, apart from its association with Charles
Augustus and his court, is of little general interest. The town
is said to have existed so early as the 9th century. Till 1140 it
belonged to the counts of Orlamimde; it then fell to Albert the
Bear and the descendants of his second son. In 1247 Otto III.
founded a separate Weimar line of counts. In 1345 it became
a fief of the landgraves of Thuringia, to whom it escheated in
1385 with the extinction of the line of Otto III. At the partition
of Saxony in 1485 Weimar, with Thuringia, fell to the elder,
Ernestine, branch of the Saxon house of Wettin, and has been the
continuous residence of the senior branch of the dukes of this
line since 1572. Under Charles Augustus Weimar became a
centre of Liberalism as well as of art. It had previously narrowly
escaped absorption by Napoleon, who passed through the town
during the pursuit of the Prussians after the battle of Jena
in 1806, and was only dissuaded from abolishing the duchy by
the tact and courage of the duchess Louisa.
The traditions of Charles Augustus were well maintained by
his grandson, the grand-duke Charles Alexander (1818-1901),
whose statue now stands in the Karlsplatz. The grand-duke's
connexion with the courts of Russia and Holland his mother
was a Russian grand-duchess and his wife, Sophia Louisa (1824-
1897), a princess of the Netherlands tended to give the Weimar
society a cosmopolitan character, and the grand-duke devoted
himself largely to encouraging men of intellect, whether Germans
or foreigners, who came to visit or to settle in the town. The art
school, founded by him in 1848, has had a notable series _ of
eminent painters among its professors, including Preller, Bocklin,
Kalckreuth, Max Schmidt, Pauwels, Heumann, Verlat and
Thedy. Under the patronage of Charles Alexander, also,
Weimar became a famous musical centre, principally owing
to the presence of Franz Liszt, who from 1848 to 1886 made
Weimar his principal place of residence. Other notable con-
ductors of the Weimar theatre orchestra were Eduard Lassen
and Richard Strauss.
See Scholl, Weimar's Merkwiirdigkeiten einst und jetzt (Weimar,
1857); Springer, Weimar's klassische Statten (Berlin, 1868);
Ruland, Die Schdtze des Goethe National-Museums in Weimar
(Weimar and Leipzig, 1887) ; Francke, Weimar und Umgebungen
(3rd ed., Weimar, 1900); Kuhn, Weimar in Wort und BtW(4thed.,
Jena, 1905).
WEINHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden,
pleasantly situated on the Bergstrasse at the foot of the Odenwald,
ii m. N. of Heidelberg by the railway to Frankfort-on-Main.
Pop. (1905) 12,560. It is still in part surrounded by the ruins
of its ancient walls. The Gothic town hall; the ruins of the
castle of Windeck and the modern castle of the counts of Berck-
heim; the house of the Teutonic Order; and three churches are
the principal buildings. The town has various manufactures,
notably leather, machinery and soap, and cultivates fruit and
wine. It is a favourite climatic health resort and a great tourist
centre for excursions in the Odenwald range. Weinheim is
mentioned in chronicles as early as the 8th century, when it was
a fief of the abbey of Lorsch, and it was fortified in the I4th
century. In the Thirty Years' War it was several times taken
and plundered, and its fortifications dismantled.
See Hegewald, Der Luftkurort Weinheim an der Bergstrasse (Wein-
heim, 1895); Ackermann, Fuhrer durch Weinheim und Umgebung
(Weinheim, 1895); and Zinkgraf, Bilder aus der Geschichte der
Stadt Weinheim (Weinheim, 1904).
WEINSBERG, a small town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wiirttemberg, pleasantly situated on the Sulm, 5 m. E. from
Heilbronn by the railway to Crailsheim. Pop. (1905) 3097. It
has an ancient Romanesque church, a monument to the re-
former Oecolampadius (q.v.), and a school of viticulture, which
is the chief occupation of the inhabitants. On the Schlossberg
above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Weibertreu, and at
its foot is the house once inhabited by Justinus Kerner (?..),
with a public garden and a monument to the poet.
The German king Conrad III. defeated Count Welf VI. ot
Bavaria near Weinsberg in December 1140, and took the town,
which later became a free imperial city. In 1331 it joined the
league of the Swabian cities, but was taken by the nobles in
1440 and sold to the elector palatine, thus losing its liberties.
It was burnt in 1525 as a punishment for the atrocities com-
mitted by the revolted peasants. The famous legend of Weiber-
treu (" women's faithfulness "), immortalized in a ballad by
Chamisso, is connected with the siege of 1 140, although the story
is told of other places. It is said that Conrad III. allowed the
women to leave the town with whatever they could carry, where-
upon they came out with their husbands on their backs.
See Bernheim, " Die Sage von den treuen Weibern zu Weinsberg "
(in the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, vol. xv., Gottingen,
1875); Merk, Geschichte der Stadt Weinsberg und ihrer Burg Weiber-
treu (Heilbronn, 1880).
WEIR, ROBERT WALTER (1803-1889), American portrait
and historical painter, was born at New Rochelle, New York,
on the i8th of June 1803. He was a pupil of Jarvis, was elected
to the National Academy of Design in 1829, and was teacher of
drawing at the United States Military Academy at West Point
in 1834-1846, and professor of drawing there in 1846-1876.
He died in New York City on the ist of May 1889. Among his
better-known works are: " The Embarkation of the Pilgrims "
(in the rotunda of the United States Capitol at Washington, D.C.) ;
" Landing of Hendrik Hudson "; " Evening of the Crucifixion";
" Columbus before the Council of Salamanca "; " Our Lord on
the Mount of Olives "; " Virgil and Dante crossing the Styx," and
several portraits, now at West Point, and " Peace and War " in
the Chapel there.
His son, JOHN FERGUSON WEIR (b. 1841), painter and sculptor,
became a Member of the National Academy of Design in 1866,
and was made director of the Yale University Art School in 1868.
Another son, JULIAN ALDEN WEIR (b. 1852), studied under his
father, and under J. L. Ge'r&me, and became a distinguished
portrait, figure and landscape painter. He was one of the
founders of the Society of American Artists in 1877, and became
a member of the National Academy of Design (1886) and of the
Ten American Painters, New York.
WEIR (from O. Eng. wer, a dam; cognate with werian, to
defend, guard; cf. Ger. Wehr, defence), a barrier placed across
rivers to raise the water-level for catching fish, for mills, for
navigation or for irrigation, the discharge of the river taking
place over the crest or through openings made for the purpose.
Rough weirs, formed of stakes and twigs, were erected across
English rivers in Saxon times for holding up the water and
catching fish, and fish-traps, with iron-wire meshes and eel
baskets, are still used sometimes at weirs. Weirs are essential
for raising the head of water for water-wheels at mills, and for
diverting some of the flow of a river into irrigation canals;
but they have received their greatest and most varied extension
in the canalization of rivers for navigation. There are three
distinct classes of weirs, namely, solid weirs, draw-door weirs,
including regulating sluices for irrigation, and movable weirs,
which retain the water above them for navigation during the
low stage of the river, and can be lowered or removed so as to
leave the channel quite open in flood-time.
Solid Weirs. The simplest form of weir is a solid, watertight dam
of firm earthwork or rubble stone, faced with stone pitching, with
cribs filled with rubble, with fascine mattresses weighted with stone,
or with masonry, and protected from undermining by sheet piling
or one or more rows of well foundations. These weirs, if solidly
constructed, possess the advantages of simplicity, strength and
durability, and require no superintendence. They, however, block
up the river channel to the extent of their height, and consequently
raise the flood-level above them. This serious defect of solid weirs,
where the riparian lands are liable to be injured by inundations, can
be slightly mitigated by keeping down the crest of the weir some-
what below the required level, and then raising the water-level at
the low stage of the river by placing a row of planks along the top
of the weir.
Waste weirs resemble ordinary solid weirs in providing for the
surplus discharge from a reservoir of an impounded river or mountain
stream over their crest ; but in reality they form part of a masonry
WEIR
497
reservoir dam for storing up water for water-supply or irrigation,
ki-pt purposely lower than the rest of the dam to allow the excess
of water to escape down the valley (see WATER-SUPPLY). _
Draw-door Weirs. The discharge of a river at a weir can be
jgulated as required and considerably increased in flood-time by
ntroducing a series of openings in the centre of a solid weir, with
iliiice-gates or panels which slide in grooves at the sides of upright
nes or masonry piers erected at convenient intervals apart,
^\\\\w^\\\\\\^\^\\\\\^^^
FIG. i. Lifting-gate Weir and Foot-bridge at Richmond, Surrey.
and which can be raised or lowered as desired from a foot-bridge.
This arrangement has been provided at several weirs on the Thames,
to afford control of the flood discharge, and reduce the extent of the
inundations; the largest of these composite weirs on that river is
at the tidal limit at Teddington, where the two central bays, with a
total length of 242$ ft., are closed by thirty-five draw-doors sliding
between iron frames supporting a foot-bridge, from which the doors
are raised by a winch. 1 Ordinary draw-doors, sliding in grooves of
moderate size and raised
against a small head of water,
can be readily worked in
spite of the friction of the
sides of the doors against
their supports; but with
large draw-doors and a con-
siderable head, the friction
of the surfaces in contact
offers a serious impediment
in raising them. This fric-
tion has been greatly re-
duced by making the draw-
doors, or sluice-gates, slide
on each side against a verti-
cal row of free-rollers sus-
pended by an encircling
chain; and the working
is much facilitated by
counterpoising the doors.
By these arrangements the
large draw-door weir across
FIG. 2. Mechanism of Lifting-gate,
Richmond.
the Thames at Richmond, with three spans of 66 ft. closed by
lifting doors, each 12 ft. high and weighing 32 tons, can be fully
opened in seven minutes by two men raising each door from the
arched double foot-bridge (figs. I, 2 and 3). This weir retains the
river above it at half-tide level, in order to cover the mud-banks
which had been bared at low tide between Richmond and Teddington
by the lowering of the low-water level, owing to the removal of
various obstructions in the river below. The weir is raised
FIG. 3. Plan of Works at Richmond.
out of the river as soon as the flood-tide on its lower side has
risen to half-tide level, so as not to impede the flow and ebb
of the tide up to Teddington above that level, and is not lowered
till the tide has fallen again to the same level. In order that
the doors when raised may not impede the view under the arches,
1 L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Rivers and Canals, 2nd edition, p. 114,
and plate iii. figs. 15 and 16.
the doors are rotated automatically at the top by grooves at
the sides of the piers, so as to assume a horizontal position and
pass out of sight in the central space between the two foot-ways
(fig. 2). The barrage at the head of the Nile delta, and the
regulating sluices across the Nile at Assiut and Esna in Upper
Egypt below Assuan, are examples of draw-door weirs, with their
numerous openings closed by sluice-gates sliding on free rollers,
which control the discharge of water from the river for irrigation.
Movable Weirs. There are three main types of movable weirs,
namely frame weirs, shutter weirs and drum weirs, which, however,
present several variations in their arrangements.
The ordinary form of frame weir consists of a series of iron frames
placed across a river end on to the current, between 3 and 4 ft.
apart, hinged to a masonry apron on the bed of the _
nver and carrying a foot-bridge along the top, from which
the actual barrier, resting against the frames and cross-
bars at the top and a sill at the bottom, is put into place or removed
for closing or opening the weir. The barrier was originally formed
of a number of long
square , wooden spars
which oiiiM be readily
handled by one man,
being inclined slightly
from the vertical and
placed close together for
shutting the weir; but
SCALE 200.
FIG. 4. Needle Weir, River Moldau.
panels of wood or sheet-
iron closing the space
between adjacent
frames and sliding in
grooves at the sides,
and rolling-up curtains
composed of a series of
horizontal wooden laths
connected by leathern
hinges, have also been
employed. The needle weir, so called from the long, slender spars
being termed aiguilles in France, had the merit of simplicity
in its earliest form; and by means of some ingenious contrivances,
comprising a hook, winch, lever and rotating bar, for assisting the
weir-keepers in placing and releasing the needles, the system has been
applied successfully to the weirs of greater height required on the
Meuse, the Main and the Moldau (fig. 4). The needle weir has,
however, attained its greatest development in the United States
across the Big Sandy river at Louisa, where, instead of needles
3 to 4 in. square, beams 12 in. square and l8J ft. long have been
resorted to, provided with a steel eye at the top and a ring near the
centre of gravity to enable them to be worked (fig. 5). The needles
are put in place one by one against the raised frames, or trestles, by
a derrick on a barge lifting them by their ring, whilst a man on the
foot-bridge, taking hold of the eye at the top, arranges them in
position close together. The weir is opened by joining the needles
of each bay by a chain passed through the eyes at the top and a
line of wire through
the central rings, so . ^ * eo< - Bi_
that when released at
the top by the tilting
of the escape bar by
the derrick, they float tf
down as a raft, and are
caught by a man in a
boat, or, when the cur-
rent is strong, they arc, OK ,, to
drawn to the bank
attached
rope
to
them previously to
their release. The
trestles of this weir
are, as usual, hinged
to the apron, so that
in flood-time they can
be completely lowered
into a recess across the
apron by means of
SCALE
FIG. 5. Spar Weir, Louisa, Big Sandy
River, U.S.A.
chains actuated by a winch, leaving the channel perfectly open for
the discharge of floods and for the passage of vessels when the lock
is submerged. Whereas, however, ordinary frames placed nearer
together than their height overlap one another when lowered on to
the apron, the trestles of the Louisa weir lie clear of each other
quite flat on the apron.
The frame weir closed by sliding panels or rolling-up curtains
(fig. 6) possesses the advantage that the panels or laths can be
diminished in thickness towards the top in proportion to the reduced
water-pressure; whereas the needles, I icing of uniform cross-section,
have to be made stout enough to sustain the maximum bottom
pressure.
An objection has occasionally' been urged against frames lowered
on to the bed of a river that tfiey are liable to be covered over by
detritus or drift brought down by floods, and consequently are
subject to injury or impediments in being raised. In order to
498
WEIR
frame
weir.
obviate this, the frames have, in a few instances, been suspended
from an overhead foot-bridge. The system was first proposed in
view of the canalization of the Rhone, which brings
down large quantities of shingle and gravel; but it was
first adopted for two weirs on the lower Seine under quite
different conditions (fig. 7). The frames hang vertically
from the bottom of the overhead bridge, and rest against a sill at
the bottom when the weir is in operation, the openings between
the frames being closed below the water-level by rolling-up curtains
or sliding panels, which are lowered or raised by a travelling winch
carried by a small foot-bridge formed by hinged brackets at the
oack of the frames, and situated a little above the highest flood-
level. The weir is opened by removing the sliding panels or rolling
SCALE too.
FIG. 6. Frame Weir with Rolling-up Curtain, Port Villez, Lower
Seine.
up the curtains, and then lifting the hinged frames to a horizontal
position under the overhead bridge by means of chains worked by
a winch on the bridge. This system, which has been employed for
the lowest weir on the Moldau, and for a weir at the upper end of the
Danube canal near Vienna to shut out floods and floating ice, aj
well as on the Seine, possesses the merits of raising all the movable
parts of the weir out of water in flood-time, and rendering the
working of the weir very safe and easy. On the other hand, it
involves the expense of a wide foot-bridge for raising the frames,
and wide and high river piers, especially for the navigable passes
where the bridge has to be raised high enough to afford the regulation
headway for vessels at the highest navigable flood-level (fig. 7), so
that its adoption should be restricted to positions where the con-
ditions are quite exceptional.
SECTION or wcm.
-*' 4"
ELEVATION.
Shatter
weir.
FIG. 7. Suspended Frame Weir, Poses, River Seine.
The earliest form of shutter weir, known as a bear-trap, intro-
duced in the United States in 1818, and subsequently erected across
the Marne in France, consists of two wooden gates, each
turning on a horizontal axis laid across the apron, inclined
towards one another and abutting together at an angle
in the centre when the weir is closed ; the up-stream one serves as
the weir, and the down-stream one forms its support, and both fall
flat upon the apron for opening the weir. 1 This weir is raised by
admitting water under pressure beneath the gates through culverts
in connexion with the upper pool; and is lowered by unfastening
the raised gates and letting the water under them escape into the
lower pool. This old form of bear-trap has been used for closing an
opening 52 ft. wide to provide for the escape of drift at the Davis
1 Rivers and Canals, p. 132 and plate iv. fig. 15.
Island weir across the Ohio. Improvements, however, in the bear-
trap have been introduced in the United States, one of the best
novel forms being shown in fig. 8, whereby the pass of a weir 80 ft.
in width can be readily closed, opened or partially opened under a
maximum head of 16 ft. by means of chains worked by a winch.*
The shutter weir, introduced on the upper Seine about the middle of
the igth century and subsequently adopted for weirs across several
rivers in France, Belgium and the United States, consists of a row of
wooden or iron shutters turning on a horizontal axis a little above
their centre of pressure, borne by an iron trestle at the back of each
shutter, which is hinged to the apron of the weir, and supported
when raised by an iron prop resting against an iron shoe fastened
on the apron (fig. 9). The weir is opened by releasing the iron
props from their shoes, either by a sideways pull of a tripping bar
with projecting teeth laid on the apron and worked from the bank,
SCALE aob.
SCALE aob.
FIG. 8. Bear-trap Weir, U.S.A.
or by pulling the props clear of their shoes by chains fastened to the
bottom of the shutters; the unsupported trestles and shutters fall
flat on the apron on the top of the props, as shown by dotted lines
in fig. 9. The weir is raised again by pulling up the shutters to a
horizontal position by their bottom chains from a special boat, or
from a foot-bridge on movable frames, together, with their trestles
and the props which are replaced in their shoes. The discharge at
the weir whilst it is raised is effected either by partially tipping
some of the shutters by chains from a foot-bridge, or by opening
butterfly valves resembling small shutters in the upper panels of
the shutters. The addition of a foot-bridge greatly facilitates the
raising and lowering of these shutter weirs, and also aids the re-
gulation of the discharge; but it renders this form of weir much
more costly than the ordinary frame weir, and where large quantities
of drift come down with sudden floods, the frames of the bridge are
liable to be carried away, and therefore boats must be relied on for
working the weir.
The drum weirs erected across shallow, regulating passes on the
river Marne in 18571867 comprise a series of upper and under
wrought-iron paddles, which can make a quarter of a
revolution round a central axis laid along the sill of the
weir. The straight, upper paddles form the weir, and can
be raised against the stream by making the water from the upper
pool press upon the upper faces of the slightly larger lower paddles,
Drum
weir.
SCALE aoo.
FIG. 9. Shutter Weir with Foot-bridge, Port a 1'Anglais, Upper
Seine.
crooked for the purpose, causing them to revolve in a quadrant of a
cylinder under the sill, known as the drum; and they can be readily
lowered by cutting off the flow from the upper pool and putting
the drum in communication with the lower pool, which connexions
can be adjusted by see-saw sluice-gates, so as to put the upper
paddles in any intermediate position between vertical and horizontal
(fig. 10). The merits of this weir in being easily raised against a
strong current and in allowing of the perfect regulation of the
discharge, are unfortunately, under ordinary conditions, more than
counterbalanced by the necessity of carrying the drum and its
foundations to a greater depth below the sill of the weir than the
height of the weir above it. Accordingly, for several years its use
was restricted to the Marne; but in 1883-1886 drum weirs were
2 Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. cxxix., p. 258 and plate vi., fig. 2.
WEISMANN WEISSENBURG
499
adopted for closing the timber passes alongside the needle weirs
il across the Main, with a single upper paddle 39$ ft. long and
5 ft. 7 in. high in each case; and a still larger drum weir was erected
about the same time for closing; the navigable pass of a weir across
the Spree at Charlottenburg, with an upper paddle 32! ft. long and
9J ft. high (fig. 10).
A peculiar and cheaper form of drum weir has been constructed
across ten bays each 75 ft. wide on the Osage river near its confluence
with the Missouri, where a hollow, wooden, cylindrical sector,
stillVned inside by iron framing and revolving on an axis laid along
the crest of the solid part of the weir, fits into a drum at the back
29 6"
FIG. 10. Drum Weir, Charlottenburg, River Spree.
lined with planking, having a radius of 9 ft. The weir is raised by
admitting water from the upper pool into a wedge-shaped space left
below the sector when it is lowered in the drum, which by its pressure
lids the sector out of the drum, forming a barrier, 7 ft. high, closing
each bay of the weir. Provision has also been made for rendering
the sector buoyant by forcing air into it, so that it can be raised
when the head of water is insufficient to lift it by the pressure of the
water from the upper pool. In spite of its high cost, the drum weir
furnishes a valuable hydraulic contrivance for situations where it
is very important to be able to close a weir of moderate height
against a strong current and to regulate with ease and precision the
discharge past a weir. (L. F. V.-H.)
WEISMANN, AUGUST (1834- ), German biologist, was
born at Frankfort-on-Main, on the iyth of January 1834, and
studied medicine in Gottingen. After spending three years
in Rostock, he visited successively Vienna (1858), Italy (1859)
and Paris (1860), and from 1861 to 1862 he acted as private
physician to the archduke Stephen of Austria at Schaumburg
Palace. In 1863 he went to Giessen to devote himself to biological
study under Leuckart, and in 1866 he was appointed extra-
ordinary professor of zoology at Freiburg, becoming ordinary
professor a few years later. His earlier work was largely con-
cerned with purely zoological investigations, one of his earliest
works dealing with the development of the Diptera. Micro-
scopical work, however, became impossible to him owing to
impaired eyesight, and he turned his attention to wider problems
of biological inquiry. Between 1868 and 1876 he published a
series of papers in which he attacked the question of the vari-
ability of organisms; these were published in an English trans-
lation by R. Meldola in 1882, under the title Studies in the
Theories of Descent, Darwin himself contributing a preface in
which the importance of the nature and cause of variability in
individuals was emphasized. Weismann's name, however, is
best known as the author of the germ-plasm theory of heredity,
with its accompanying denial of the transmission of acquired
characters a theory which on its publication met with consider-
able opposition, especially in England, from orthodox Darwinism.
A series of essays in which this theory is expressed was collected
and published in an English translation (Essays upon Heredity
and Kindred Biological Problems, vol. i. 1889, vol. ii. 1892).
Weismann published many other works devoted to the exposition
of his biological views, among them being Die Dauer des Lebens;
Vererbung; Ewigkeit des Lebens; Die Kontinuitat des Keim-
plasmas als Grundlage einer Theorie der Vererbung; Das Keim-
plasma; Die Allmacht der Naturzuchiung; Aussert Einfliisse
als Entwicklung'sreize; Neue Gedanken zur Vererbungsfrage,
and Germinal-Selektion.
For an account of his doctrines the reader is referred to the articles
on HEREDITY, REGENERATION and REPRODUCTION.
WEISS, BERNHARD (1827- ), German Protestant New
Testament scholar, was born at Konigsberg on the 2oth of June
1827. After studying theology at Konigsberg, Halle and
Berlin, he became professor extraordinarius at Konigsberg
in 1852, and afterwards professor ordinarius at Berlin. In
1 880 he was made superior consistorial councillor. An opponent
of the Tubingen School, he published a number of important
works, which are well known to students in Great Britain and
America.
He edited and revised Matthew (the 9th ed., 1897), Mark and Luke
(the 9th ed., 1901), John (the gth ed., 1902), Romans (the 9th ed.,
1899), the Epistles to Timothy and Titus (the 7th ed., 1902), Hebrews
(the 6th ed., 1897), the Epistles of John (the 6th ed., 1900). His
other works include: Lehrbuch der biblischen Theologie des Neuen
Testaments (1868, gth ed., 1903; Eng. trans., 1883), Das Leben
Jesu (1882, 4th ed., 1902; Eng. trans., 1883), Lehrbuch der Ein-
leitung in das Neue Testament (1886; 3rd ed., 1897; Eng. trans.
1888), Das Neue Testament: Berichtigter Text (3 vols., 1902), and
Die Quellen des Lukasevangeliums (1907). He was also the reviser
of commentaries on the New Testament in the series of H. A. W.
Meyer.
WEISSE, CHRISTIAN HERMANN (1801-1866), German
Protestant religious philosopher, was born at Leipzig on the
loth of August 1801. He studied at Leipzig, and at first belonged
to the Hegelian school of philosophy. In course of time, how-
ever, his ideas approximating to those of Schelling in his later
years, he elaborated with I. H. v. Fichte a new speculative
theism, and became an opponent of Hegel's pantheistic idealism.
In his addresses on the future of the Protestant Church (Redcn
iiber die Zukunft der evangelischen Kirche, 1849), he finds the
essence of Christianity in Jesus's conceptions of the heavenly
Father, the Son of Man and the kingdom of Heaven. In his
work on philosophical dogmatics (Philosopkische Dogmatik
oder Philosophie des Christentums, 3 vols. 1855-1862) he seeks,
by idealizing all the Christian dogmas, to reduce them to natural
postulates of reason or conscience. He died on the igth of
September 1866.
His other works include: Die Idee der Gottheit (1833), Die fhilo-
sophische Geheimlehre von der Unsterblichkeit des menscUichen
Individuums (1834), BucUein von der Auferstehung (1836), Die
evangelische Geschichte, kritisch und philosophisch bearbeitet (2 vols.,
1838), and Psycholoeie und Unsterblichkeitslehre (edited by R.
Seydel, 1869). See 0. Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890) ;
and cf. R. Seydel, Christ. Herm. Weisse (1866), and Religion und
Wissenschaft (1887).
WEISSENBURG, a town of Germany, in the imperial province
of Alsace-Lorraine, district of Lower Alsace, on the Lauter,
at the foot of the eastern slope of the Vosges Mountains, 42 m.
N.E. of Strassburg by the railway Basel-Strassburg-Mannheim.
Pop. (1900) 6946. The beautiful Roman Catholic abbey church
of SS. Peter and Paul, dating from the i3th century, contains
some fine early stained glass. The industries include the manu-
facture of paper, matches, stockings and beer, and hops and wine
are also extensively cultivated. Weissenburg grew up round a
Benedictine abbey which was founded in the 7th century by
Dagobert II. and became the seat of a famous school. Here
Otfrid, who was a native of the district, completed (c. 868)
his Old High German Gospel book (see GERMAN LITERATURE).
The town became a free imperial city in 1305. It has been the
scene of two memorable battles. The famous " Weissenburg
lines," consisting of entrenched works erected by Villars in 1 706
along the Lauter, and having a length of 12 m., were stormed in
October 1793 by the Prussians and Saxons under the Austrian
general Wurmser. The Allies were in their turn dispossessed
by Pichegru in December and forced to retreat behind the Rhine.
These lines, as well as the fortifications of Weissenburg, are
now dismantled. On the 4th of August 1870 the Germans under
the crown prince of Prussia, afterwards the emperor Frederick,
gained the first victory of the war over a French corps (part of
the army commanded by MacMahon) under General Douay,
who was killed early in the engagement.
500
WEISSENBURG-AM-SAND WELDING
The name Weissenburg occurs in three other places; the town
of Wcissenburg-am-Sand in Bavaria (g.f.); a Swiss invalid resort
in the Niedersimmental, above Lake Thun, with sulphate of lime
springs, beneficial for bronchial affections; also a Hungarian comitat
(Magyar Fejervar), with Stuhlweissenburg as capital.
WEISSENBURG-AM-SAND, a town of Germany, in the
Bavarian district of Middle Franconia, situated in a pleasant
and fertile country at the western foot of the Franconian Jura,
13(50 ft. above the sea, and 33 m. by rail S.W. of Nuremberg
by the railway to Munich. Pop. (1905) 6709. It is still sur-
rounded by old walls and towers, and has two Gothic churches
and a Gothic town-hall. The town has a mineral spring, connected
with which is a bathing establishment. A Roman castle has
recently been discovered, and there is a collection of antiquities
in the modern school. The old fortalice of Wulzburg (2060 ft.)
overlooks the town. Gold and silver fringe, bricks, cement
wares, beer and cloth are manufactured. Weissenburg dates
from the 8th century, and in the i4th was made a free imperial
town. It passed to Bavaria in 1806.
See C. Meyer, Chronik der Stadt Weissenburg in Bayern (Munich,
1904); and Fabricius, Das Kastell Weissenburg (Heidelberg, 1906).
WEISSENFELS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, situated on the Saale 20 m. S.W. of Leipzig and 19 m.
S. of Halle by the main line to Bebra and Frankfort-on-Main.
Pop. (1905) 30,894. It contains three churches, a spacious
market-place and various educational and benevolent institu-
tions. The former palace, called the Augustusburg, built in
1664-1690, lies on an eminence near the town; this spacious
edifice is now used as a military school. Weissenfels manu-
factures machinery, ironware, paper and other goods, and has
an electrical power-house. In the neighbourhood are large
deposits of sandstone and lignite. Weissenfels is a place of
considerable antiquity, and from 1656 till 1746 it was the capital
of the small duchy of Saxe- Weissenfels, a branch of the electoral
house of Saxony, founded by Augustus, second son of the elector
John George I. The body of Gustavus Adolphus was embalmed
at Weissenfels after the battle of Ltitzen.
See Sturm, Chronik der Stadt Weissenfels (Weissenfels, 1846); and
Gerhardt, Geschichte der Stadt Weissenfels (Weissenfels, 1907).
WEIZSACKER, KARL (1822-1899), German Protestant
theologian, was born at Oehringen near Heilbronn in Wiirttem-
berg, on the nth of December 1822. After studying at Tubingen
and Berlin, he became Privatdozent at Tubingen in 1847 and
eventually (1861) professor of ecclesiastical and dogmatic
history. From 1856 to 1878 he helped to edit the Jahrbiicher
fitr deutsche Theologie; and his elaborate studies Untersuchungen
iiber die evangelische Geschichte, ihre Quellen und den Gang ihrer
Entwicklung (1864) and Das apostolische Zeitalter der christl.
Kirche (1886, 2nd ed. 1893; Engl. trans. 1894-1895) made
him widely known and respected. He died on the I3th of
August 1899. His son, Karl von Weizsacker (b. 1853), was
appointed in 1900 Kultusminister for Wurttemberg.
Weizsacker's other works include Zur Kritik des Barnabas-
briefs (1863) and Ferdinand Christian Baur (1892). Cf. Hegler,
Zur Erinnerung an Karl Weizsacker (1900).
WEKERLE, SANTOR [ALEXANDER] (1848- ), Hungarian
statesman, was born on the i4th of November 1848 at Moor,
in the comitat of Stuhlweissenburg. After studying law at the
university of Budapest he graduated doctor juris. He then
entered the government service, and after a period of probation
was appointed to a post in the ministry of finance. He still,
however, continued an academic career by lecturing on political
economy at the university. In 1886 Wekerle was elected to
the House of Deputies, became in the same year financial
secretary of state, and in 1889 succeeded Tisza as minister of
finance. He immediately addressed himself to the task of
improving the financial position of the country, carried out
the conversion of the State loans, and succeeded, for the first
time in the history of the Hungarian budget, in avoiding a deficit.
In November 1892 Wekerle succeeded Count Szapary as premier,
though still retaining the portfolio of finance. At the head
of a strong government he was enabled, in spite of a powerful
opposition of Catholics and Magnates, to carry in 1894 the Civil
Marriage Bill. The continued opposition of the clerical party,
however, brought about his resignation on the 22nd of December
1894, when he was succeeded by Banff y. On the ist of January
1897 he was appointed president of the newly created judicial
commission at Budapest, and for the next few years held aloof
from politics, even under the ex-lex government of Fejervary.
On the reconciliation of the king-emperor with the coalition
he was therefore selected as the most suitable man to lead the
new government, and on the 8th of April 1906 was appointed
prime minister, taking at the same time the portfolio of finance.
He resigned the premiership on the 27th of April 1909, but was
not finally relieved of his office until the formation of the Khuen-
Hedervary cabinet on the i7th of January 1910.
WELCKER, FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB (1784-1868), German
philologist and archaeologist, was born at Griinberg in the
grand duchy of Hesse. Having studied classical philology at
the university of Giessen, he was appointed (1803) master in
the high school, an office which he combined with that of lecturer
at the university. In 1806 he journeyed to Italy, and was for
more than a year private tutor at Rome in the family of Wilhelm
von Humboldt, who became his friend and correspondent.
Welcker returned to Giessen in 1808, and resuming his school-
teaching and university lectures was in the following year appointed
the first professor of Greek literature and archaeology at that or
any German university. After serving as a volunteer in the
campaign of 1814 he went to Copenhagen to edit the posthumous
papers of the Danish archaeologist Georg Zoega (1755-1809),
and published his biography, Zo'egas Leben (Stutt. 1819). His
liberalism in politics having brought him into conflict with the
university authorities of Giessen, he exchanged that university
for Gottingen in 1816, and three years later received a chair
at the new university of Bonn, where he established the art
museum and the library, of which he became the first librarian.
In 1841-1843 he travelled in Greece and Italy (cf. his Tagebuch,
Berlin, 1865), retired from the librarianship in 1854, and in
1861 from his professorship, but continued to reside at Bonn until
his death. Welcker was a pioneer in the field of archaeology,
and was one of the first to insist, in opposition to the narrow
methods of the older Hellenists, on the necessity of co-ordinating
the study of Greek art and religion with philology.
Besides early work on Aristophanes, Pindar, and Sappho,
whose character he vindicated, he edited Alcman (1815),
Hipponax (1817), Theognis (1826) and the Theogony of Hesiod
(1865), and published a Sylloge epigrammatum Graecorum (Bonn,
1828). His Griechische Gotterlehre (3 vols., Gottingen, 1857-1862)
may be regarded as the first scientific treatise on Greek religion.
Among his works on Greek literature the chief are Die Aschy-
leische Trilogie (1824, 6), Der epische Zyklus oder die Homerischen
Gedichte (2 vols. 1835, 49), Die griechischen Tragddien mil
Riicksicht auf den epischen Zyklus geordnet (3 vols., 1839-1841).
His editions and biography of Zoega, his Zeitschrift fur Geschichte
und Auslegung der alien Kunst (Gottingen, 1817, 8) and his
Alte Denkmaler (5 vols., 1849-1864) contain his views on ancient
art.
See Kekule, Das Leben F. G. Welckers (Leipzig, 1880); W. von
Humboldts Briefe an Welcker (ed. R. Haym, Berlin, 1859); J. E.
Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (vol. Hi., pp. 216, 7, Cam-
bridge, 1908).
WELDING (i.e. the action of the verb " to weld," the same
word as " to well," to boil or spring up, the history of the word
being to boil, to heat to a high degree, to beat heated iron;
according to Skeat, who points out that in Swedish the compound
verb uppTialla means to boil, the simple valla is only used in the
sense of welding), the process of uniting metallic surfaces by
pressure exercised when they are in a semi-fused condition.
It differs therefore from brazing and soldering, in which cold
surfaces are united by the interposition of a fused metallic
cementing material. The conditions in which welding is a
suitable process to adopt are stated in the article FORGING.
The technique of the work will be considered here.
The conditions for successful welding may be summed up as
clean metallic surfaces in contact, a suitable temperature and
rapid closing of the joint. All the variations in the forms of
welds are either due to differences in shapes of material, or to
WELDING
the practice of different craftsmen. The typical weld is the
scarf. If, for instance, a bar has to be united to another bar
or to an eye, the joint is made diagonally (scarfed) because that
gives a longer surface in contact than a weld at right angles
(a butt weld), and because the hammer can be brought into
play better. Abutting faces for a scarfed joint are made slightly
convex; the object is to force out any scale or dirt which might
otherwise become entangled in the joint at the moment of closing
and which would impair its union. The ends are upset (enlarged)
previous to welding, in order to give an excess of metal that
will permit of slight corrections being effected around the joint
(" swaging ") without reducing the diameter below that of the
remainder of the bar. These principles are seen in other joints
of diverse types, in the butt, the vee and their modifications.
Joint faces must be clean, both chemically, i.e. free from oxides,
and mechanically, i.e. free from dust and dirt, else they will
not unite. The first condition is fulfilled by the use of a fluxing
agent, the second by ordinary precautions. The flux produces
with the oxide a fluid slag which is squeezed out at the instant
of making the weld. The commonest fluxes are sand, used
chiefly with wrought iron, and borax, used with steel; they are
dusted over the joint faces both while in the fire and on the
anvil. Mechanical cleanliness is ensured by heating the ends
in a clean hollow fire previously prepared, and in brushing off
any adherent particles of fuel before closing the weld. The
scarf, the butt and the vee occur in various modifications in
all kinds of forgings, but the principles and precautions to be
observed are identical in all. But in work involving the use
of rolled sections, as angles, tees, channels and joists, important
differences occur, because the awkwardness of the shapes to
be welded involves cutting and bending and the insertion of
separate welding pieces (" gluts ") Welds are seldom made
lengthwise in rolled sections, nor at right angles, because union
is effected in such cases by means of riveted joints. But welding
is essential in all bending of sections done at sharp angles or
to curves of small radius. It is necessary, because a broad
flange cannot be bent sharply; if the attempt be made when
it is on an outer curve it is either ruptured or much attenuated,
while on an inner curve it is crumpled up. The plater's smith
therefore cuts the flanges in both cases, and then bends and
welds them. If it is on an inner curve, the joint is a lap weld;
if it is on an outer one, a fresh piece or glut is welded in. Gluts
of rectangular section are used for cylindrical objects and rings
of various sections. The edges to be united may or may not
be scarfed, and the gluts, which are plain bars, are welded
against the edges, all being brought to a welding heat in separate
furnaces. The furnace tubes of boilers and the cross tubes
are welded in this way, sometimes by hand, but often with a
power hammer, as also are all rings of angle and other sections
on the vertical web.
The temperature for welding is very important. It must
be high enough to render the surfaces in contact pasty, but must
not be in excess, else the metal will become badly oxidized
(burnt) and will not adhere. Iron can be raised to a temperature
at which minute globules melt and fall off, but steel must not be
heated nearly so much, and a moderate white heat must not
be exceeded. Welds in steel are not so trustworthy nor so readily
made as those in iron.
Thermit Welding. The affinity of finely powdered aluminium
for metallic oxides, sulphides, chlorides, &c., may be utilized to
effect a reduction of metals with which oxygen, sulphur or
chlorine combine. C. Vautin in 1894 found that when aluminium
in a finely divided state was mixed with such compounds and
ignited, an exceedingly high temperature, about 3000 C., was
developed by the rapid oxidation of the aluminium. He found
that metals which are ordinarily regarded as infusible were readily
reduced, and in a very high degree of purity. These facts were
turned to practical account by Dr H. Goldschmidt, who first
welded two iron bars by means of molten iron produced by the
process, to which the name of " thermit " is now commonly
applied. The method has also been applied to the production
of pure metals for alloying purposes, as of chromium free from
carbon, used in the manufacture of chrome steel, of pure man-
ganese for manganese steel, of molybdenum, ferro-vanadium,
ferro-titanium and others used in the manufacture of high speed
steels.
Thermit as a welding agent is produced by mixing iron oxides with
finely granulated aluminium, in a special crucible lined with mag-
nesia. On ignition, the chemical reactions proceed so rapidly that
the contents would be lost over the edges unless the crucible were
closed with a covera The result of the reaction is that two layers are
produced, the bottom one of pure iron, the top one of oxide of
alumina or corundum. If the contents are poured over the edge,
the slag follows first, and is followed by the metal. But m welding
the metal is poured first through the bottom upon the joint. It is
practically pure wrought iron in a molten state, at 3000 C., or
5400 F. The heat is so intense that it is possible thus to burn a
clean hole through a I in. wrought iron plate. The joints are pre-
pared by abutting them, and provision is madewith clamps to gnp
and retain them in correct positions. Often, but not always, the
part to be welded is enclosed in a mould, into which the thermit is
tapped from the crucible. The applications of thermit welding are
numerous. A wide field is that of tramway rails, of which large
numbers have been successfully welded. Steel girders have been
welded, as also have broken and faulty steel and iron castings,
broken shafts, broken sternposts (for which crucibles 6 ft. in height
with a capacity of 7 cwt. have been constructed), and wrought iron
pipes. Another application is to render steel ingots sound, by
introducing thermit in a block on an iron rod into the mould, which
prevents or greatly lessens the amount of piping in the head, due to
shrinkage and occlusion of gases. (J- G. H.)
Electric Welding. In electric welding and metal working the
heat may be communicated to the metal by an electric arc,
or by means of the electric resistance of the metal, as ^
in the Thomson process. Arc welding is the older we iatag.
procedure, and it appears to have been first made use
of by de Meritens in 1881 for uniting the parts of storage-battery
plates. The work-piece was placed upon a support or table, and
connected with the positive pole of a source of current capable of
maintaining an electric arc. The other pole was a carbon rod
directed by the hand of the operator so as first to make contact
with the work-piece, and then to effect the proper separation
to maintain the arc. The heat of the arc was partly communi-
cated to the work and partly dissipated in the hot gases escaping
into the surrounding air. The result was a fusion of the metallic
lead of the storage-battery plate which united various parts of
the plate. The process was somewhat similar to the operation of
lead-burning by the hydrogen and air blowpipe, as used in the
formation of joints in chemical tanks made of sheet-lead. The
method of de Meritens has been modified by Bernardos and
Olszewski, Slavienoff, Coffin and others.
In the Bernardos and Olszewski process the work is made
the negative pole of a direct current circuit, and an arc is drawn
between this and a carbon rod, to which a handle is attached for
manipulating. As this rod is the positive terminal, particles
of carbon may be introduced as a constituent of the metal taking
part in the operation, making it hard and brittle, and causing
cracks in the joint or filling; the metal may, in fact, become
very hard and unworkable. The Slavienoff modification of the
arc-welding process consists in the employment of a metal
electrode in place of the carbon rod. The metal electrode
gradually melts, and furnishes fused drops of metal for the
filling of vacant spaces in castings, or for forming a joint between
two parts or pieces.
In arc welding, with a current source at practically constant
potential, a choking resistance in series with the heating arc is
needed to secure stability in the arc current, as in electric arc lighting
from constant potential lines. Little effective work can be done by
the Bernardos and Olszewski method with currents much below 150
amperes in the arc, and the value in some cases ranges above 500
amperes. The potential must be such that an arc of 2 to 3 in. in
length is steadily maintained. This may demand a total of about
150 volts for the arc and the choking resistance together. In the
Slavienoff arc the potential required will be naturally somewhat
lower than when a carbon electrode is used, and the current strength
will be, on the other hand, considerably greater, reaching, it appears,
in certain cases, more than 4000 amperes. In some recent applica-
tions of the arc process the polarity of the work-piece and the arc-
controlling electrode has, it is understood, been reversed, the work
being made the positive pole and the movable electrode the negative.
More heat energy is thus delivered to the work for a given total of
electric energy expended.
5 02
WELDING
The arc method is essentially a fusing process, though with due
care it is used for heating to plasticity the edges of iron sheets to be
welded by pressure and hammering. It has been found applicable
in special cases to the filling of defective spots in iron castings, by
fusing into blow-holes or other spaces small masses of similar metal,
added gradually, and melted into union with the body of the piece
by the heat of the arc. Similarly, a more or less complete union
between separate pieces of iron plate J to \ in. in thickness has been
effected by fusing additional metal between them. The range of
operations to which the arc process is applicable is naturally some-
what limited, and depends to a large extent upon the skill acquired
by the operator, who necessarily works with his eyes well screened
from the glare of the large arc. Unless the space in which the work
is carried on is large, the irritating vapours which rise from the arc
stream add to the difficulty. Strong draughts of air which would
disturb the arc must also be avoided. These factors, added to the
relative slowness of the work and the uncertainty as to its result,
have tended to restrict the application of arc welding in practice.
Moreover, much heat-energy is dissipated in the arc flame and
passes into the air, while, owing to the time required for the work,
the metal undergoing treatment loses much heat by radiation. Yet
the method requires little special machinery. The current may be
taken from existing electric lighting and power circuits of moderate
potential without transformation, and may be utilized with simple
appliances, consisting chiefly of heavy wire leads, a carbon or metal
electrode with a suitable handle for its manipulation, a choking or
steadying resistance, and screen of dark glass for the operator's
eyes.
In 1874 Werdermann proposed to use, as a sort of electric blow-
pipe, the flame gases .of an electric arc blown or deflected by an
air jet or the like a suggestion subsequently revived by Zerener for
arc welding. The arc in this instance is deflected from the space
between the usual carbon electrodes by a magnetic field. The
metal to be heated takes no part in the conduction of current,
the heat is communicated by the gases of the arc, and, to a small
extent, by the radiation from the hot carbon electrodes between
which the arc is formed. The process is scarcely to be called electric
in any true sense. Another curious operation, resembling in some
respects the arc methods, has been proposed for the heating of metal
pieces before they are brought under the hammer for forging or
welding. The end of a metal bar is plunged into an electrolytic bath
while connected with the negative pole of a lighting or other electric
circuit having a potential of 100 to 150 volts. The positive pole is
connected with a metal plate as an anode immersed in the electrolyte,
or forming the side of the containing vat or tank. A solution of
sodium or potassium carbonate is a suitable electrolyte. That part
of the bar which is immersed acts as a cathode of limited surface,
and is at once seen to be surrounded by a luminous glow, with gas
bubbles arising from it. The immersed end of the bar rapidly heats,
and may even melt under the liquid of the bath. It is probable
that an arc forms between the surface of the metal and the adjacent
liquid layer, the intense heat of which is in part communicated to
the metal and in part lost in the solution, causing thereby a rapid
heating of the bath. This singular action appears to have been first
made known by Holio and Lagrange. It is distinctly a form of
electric heating, having no necessary relation to such subsequent
operations as welding, and is, moreover, wasteful of energy, as the
heat is largely carried off in the liquid bath.
The process of Elihu Thomson first brought to public notice
in 1886, has since that time been applied commercially on a
large scale to various metal-welding operations. The
metal pieces to be united are held in massive clamps and
pressed together in firm contact; and a current is
made to traverse the proposed joint, bringing it to the welding
temperature. The union is effected by forcing the pieces together
mechanically. The characteristic feature of the process is the
fact that the heat is given out in the body of the metal.
The voltage does not usually exceed two or three, though it
may reach four or five volts; but as the resistance of the metal
pieces to be joined is low, the currents are of very large values,
sometimes reaching between 50,000 and 100,000 amperes. Even for
the joining of small wires the current is rarely less than 100 amperes.
Such currents cannot, of course, be carried more than a few feet
without excessive loss, unless the conductors are given very large
section. With alternating currents, also, the effectiveness of the
work speedily diminishes, on account of the inductive drop in the
leads, if they are of any considerable length. The carrying of the
welding currents over a distance of several feet may, in fact, lead
to serious losses. These difficulties are overcome in the Thomson
welding transformer, which resembles the step-down transformers
used in electric lighting distribution by alternating currents, with
the exception that the secondary coil or conductor, which forms part
of the welding circuit, usually consists of only one turn of great
section, S S (fig. l). This is often made in the form of a copper
casing, which surrounds or encloses the primary coil P P in whole
or in part. The primary coil is of copper wire of many turns. The
secondary casing, with the primary enclosed, is provided with the
Thomson
process.
usual laminated iron-transformer core, I, constituting a closed iron-
magnetic circuit threading both primary and secondary electric
circuits. The terminals of the single-turn secondary serve as con-
nexions and supports for the welding clamps C D, which hold the
work. The clamps are variously modified to suit the size, shape and
character of the metal pieces, MN, to be welded, and the proportions
of the transformer itself are made proper for the conditions existing
in each case. The potential of the primary circuit may be selected
at any convenient value, provided the winding of the coil P P is
adapted thereto, but usually 300 volts is employed, and the periodicity
is about 60 cycles. Inasmuch as only the proposed joint and a
small amount of metal on each side of it are concerned in the opera-
tion, the delivery of energy is closely localized. The chief electrical
resistance in the welding circuit is in the projections between the
clamps, where the electric energy is delivered and appears as heat.
A portion of the energy is, as usual, lost in the transformation and
in the resistance of the circuits elsewhere, but, by proper proportion-
FIG. I. Thomson Welding Transformer.
ing, the loss may be kept down to a moderate percentage of the total,
as in other electric work.
The pieces are set firmly in the welding clamps, with the ends
to be joined in abutment and in electric contact. The projection of
each piece from the clamp varies with the section of the pieces, their
form and the nature of the metal, and the time in which a joint is
to be made; but it rarely exceeds the thickness or diameter of the
pieces, except with metals of high heat conductivity such as copper.
When the pieces are in place the current is turned into the primary
coil of the transformer, sometimes suddenly and in full force, but
more often gradually. Switches and regulating devices in the
primary circuit permit complete and delicate control. At least one
of the clamps, D (fig. i), is movable through a limited range towards
and from the other, and is thus the means of exerting pressure for
forcing the softened metal into complete union. In large work the
motion is given by a hydraulic cylinder and piston, under suitable
control by valves. At about
the time the current is cut
off, it is usual to apply
increased pressure. The
softened metal is upset or
pressed outwards at the joint
and forms a characteristic
burr, which may be removed
by filing or grinding, or be
hammered down while the
metal is still hot. Sometimes the burr is not objectionable, and
is allowed to remain. Lap welds may be made, but butt welds are
found to be satisfactory for most purposes. The appearance of
round bars in abutment before welding is shown in fig. 2 at A ; and
at B they are represented as having been joined by an electric butt
weld, with the slight upset or burr at the joint. Before the intro-
duction of the Thomson process a few only of the metals, such as
platinum, gold and iron, were regarded as weldable; now nearly
all metals and alloys may be readily joined. Such combinations as
tin and lead, copper and brass, brass and iron, iron and nickel, brass
and German silver, silver and copper, copper and platinum, iron and
German silver, tin and zinc, zinc and cadmium, &c., are easily made;
even brittle crystalline metals like bismuth and antimony may
be welded, as well as different metals and alloys whose fusing or
softening temperatures do not differ too widely.
If the meeting ends conduct sufficiently to start the heating, it is
not necessary that they should fit closely together, nor is it necessary
that they should be quite clean, the effect of the incipient heating
being to confer conductivity upon the scale and oxide at the joint.
FIG. 2.
WELDING
503
In some cases the application of a flux, such as borax, enables the
welding to be accomplished at a lower temperature, thus avoiding
risk of injury by excessive heating. While the pieces are heating,
the increase of temperature may raise the specific resistance of the
metal so that the current required will be lessened per unit of area,
while on the other hand the growing perfection of contact during
welding, by increasing the conducting area at the joint, compensates
for this in that it tends to the increase of current. With some
alloys like brass and German silver, which have a low temperature
coefficient, this compensating effect is nearly absent. The increase
of specific resistance of the metals with increase of temperature
FIG. 3. Automatic Welder.
has another valuable effect in properly distributing the heating
over the whole section of the joint. Any portion which may be for
the moment at a lower temperature than other portions will neces-
sarily have a lower relative resistance, and more current will be
diverted to it. This action rapidly brings any cooler portion into
equality of temperature with tne rest. It also prevents the over-
heating of the interior portions which are not losing heat by radiation
and convection. The success of the electric process in welding
metals which were not formerly regarded as weldable is probably
due in a measure to this cause, and also to the ease of control of the
operation, for the operator may work within far narrower limits
>f plasticity and fusibility than with the forge fire or blowpipe.
The mechanical pressure may be automatically applied and the
current automatically cut off after the completion of the weld. In
some more recent types of welders the clamping and releasing of the
pieces are also accomplished automatically, and nothing is left for
the operator to do but to feed the pieces into the clamps. Repetition-
work is thus rapidly and accurately done. The automatic welder
represented in fig. 3 has a capacity of nearly 1000 welds per day.
The pressure required is subject to considerable variation : the more
rigid the material at the welding temperature, the greater is the
necessary pressure. With copper the force may be about 600 pounds
per square inch of section; with wrought iron, I2OO pounds; and
with steel, 1800 pounds. It is customary to begin the operation with
a much lighter pressure than that used when all parts of the pieces
at the joint have come into contact. The pressure exerted in com-
pleting the weld has the effect of extruding from the joint all dross
and slag, together with most of the metal which is rendered plastic
by the heat. The strongest electric welds are those effected by this
extrusion from the joint, in consequence of heavy pressure quickly
applied at the time of completion of the weld. Tne unhammered
weld, as ordinarily made by the electric process, has substantially
the same strength as the annealed metal of the bar, the break
under tensile strain, when the burr at the weld is left on, usually
occurring a little to one side of the joint proper, where the metal
has been annealed by heating. Hammering or forging the joint while
the metal cools, in the case of malleable metals such as iron or copper,
will usually greatly toughen the metal, and it should be resorted to
where a maximum of strength is desired. The same object is
partially effected by placing the weld, while still hot, between dies
pressed forcibly together so as to give to the weld some desired form,
as in drop-forging.
The amount of electric energy necessary for welding by the
Thomson process varies with the different metals, their electric
conductivity, their heat conductivity, fusibility, the shape of the
pieces, section at the joint, &c. In the following table are given
some results obtained in the working of iron, brass and copper.
The figures are of course only approximate, and refer to one condition
alone of time-consumption in the making of each weld. The more
rapidly the work is done, the less, as a rule, is the total energy
required ; but the rate of output of the plant must be increased with
increase of speed, and this involves a larger plant, the consequent
expense of which is often disadvantageous. If in the following
table the watts for a given section be multiplied by the time, the
relation between the total energy required for different sections of
the same metal, or for the same section of the different metals, is
obtained. These products are given under the head of watt-seconds.
It will be seen that the energy increases more rapidly than the
sections of the pieces doubtless because the larger pieces take a
longer time in welding, with the result of an increased loss by con-
duction of heat along the bars back from the joint. If the time of
welding could be made the same for various sections, it is probable
that the energy required would be more nearly in direct proportion
to the area of section for any given metal. This relation would
however, only hold approximately, as there is a greater relative loss
of heat by radiation and convection into the air from the pieces of
smaller section. The total energy in watt-seconds for any g^ven
section of copper will be found to be about half as much again as
that for the same section of iron, while the amounts of energy
required for equal sections of brass and iron do not greatly differ.
ENERGY USED IN ELECTRIC WELDING
Iron and Steel.
Section, Sq. In.
Watts in Prim-
ary of Welder.
Time in
Sees.
Watt-seconds.
0-5 .
8,500
33
280,500
l-o .
16,700
45
751-500
i-5
23-500
55
1,292,500
2-0 .
29,000
65
1,885,000
2-5 -
34,000
70
2,380,000
3-o .
39,000
78
3,042,000
3-5
44,000
8S
3,740,000
4-0 .
50,000
90
4,500,000
Brass.
25
7-5oo
17
127,500
5
13-500
22
297,000
75
19,000
29
551.000
I-O
25,000
33
825,000
1-25
31,000
38
1,178,000
i-5
36,000
42
1,512,000
i-75
40,000
45
1,800,000
2-0
44,000
48
2,112,000
Copper.
125.
6,000
8
48,000
25 .
14,000
IT
154,000
375-
19,000
13
247,000
5
25,000
16
400,000
625. . .
31,000
IS
558,000
75
36,500
21
766,500
875. . .
43,000
22
946,000
I-O .
49,000
23
1,127,000
In practice, joints in solid bars or in wires are the most common,
but the process is applicable to pieces of quite varied form. Joints
in iron, brass, or lead pipe are readily made; strips of sheet metal
are joined, as in band saws; bars or tubes are joined at various
angles ; sheet metal is joined to bars, &c. One of the more interesting
of the recent applications of electric welding is the longitudinal
seaming of thin steel pipe. The metal or skelp is in long strips, bent
to form a hollow cylinder or pipe, and the longitudinal seam moves
through a special welder, which passes a current across it. The
work is completed by drawing the pipe through dies. The welding
of a ring formed by bending a short bar into a circle affords an
excellent illustration of the character of the currents employed in
the Thomson process. Notwithstanding the comparatively free
path around the ring through the full section of the bent bar, the
current heats the abutted ends to the welding temperature. In
this way waggon and carriage wheel tyres, harness rings, pail and
barrel hoops, and similar objects are extensively produced. The
process is also largely applied to the welding of iron and copper
wires used for electric lines and conductors, of steel axles, tyres and
metal frames used in carriage work, and of such parts of bicycles as
pedals, crank hangers, seat posts, forks, and steel tubing for the
frames. The heat, whether it be utilized in welding or brazing, is so
sharply localized that no damage is done to the finish of surfaces a
short distance from the weld or joint. Parts can be accurately formed
and finished before being joined, as in the welding of taper shanks to
drills, the lengthening of drills, screw taps, or augers, and the like.
Electric welding is applicable to forms of pieces or to conditions of
work which would be impracticable with the ordinary forge fire or
gas blowpipe. A characteristic instance is the wire bands which hold
in place the solid rubber tyres of vehicles. The proximity of the
rubber forbids the application of the heat of a fire or blowpipe, but
by springing the rubber back from the proposed joint and seizing
the ends of wire by the electric welding clamps, the union is rapidly
and easily made. When the rubber of the tyre is released, it cover*
504
WELDON WELL
the joint, regaining its complete form. Special manufactures have
in some cases arisen based upon the use of electric welding.
The welding clamps, and the mechanical devices connected with
them, vary widely in accordance with the work they have to do. A
machine for forming metal wheels is so constructed that the hubs are
made in two sections, which when brought together in the welder
are caused to embrace the radiating iron or steel spokes of the wheel.
The two sections are then welded, and hold the spokes in solid union
with themselves. Another machine, designed for the manufacture
of wire fences.makes several welds automatically and simultaneously
Galvanized iron wires are fed into the machine from reels in several
parallel lines about a foot apart, and at intervals are crossed at
right angles by wire sections cut automatically from another reel
of wire. As the wire passes, electric welds are termed between the
transverse and the parallel lines. The machine delivers a continuous
web of wire fencing, which is wound upon a drum and removed from
time to time in large rolls. In the United States, street railway
rails are welded into a continuous metal structure. A huge welding
transformer is suspended upon a crane, which is borne upon a car
arranged to run upon the track as it is laid. The joint between the
ends of two contiguous rails is made by welding lateral strap pieces,
covering the joint at each side and taking the place of the ordinary
fish-plates and bolts. The exertion of a greatly increased pressure
at the finish of the welding seems to be decidedly favourable to the
permanence and strength of the joints. When properly made, the
joint is strong enough to resist the strains, of extension and com-
pression during temperature changes. For electric railways the
welded joint obviates all necessity for " bonding " the rails together
with copper wires to convert them into continuous lines of return
conductors for the railway current. In railway welding the source
of energy is usually a current delivered from the trolley line itself to
a rotary converter mounted on the welding car, whereby an alter-
nating current is obtained for feeding the primary circuit of the weld-
ing transformer. Power from a distant station is thus made to
produce the heat required for track welding, and at exactly the place
where it is to be utilized. In this instance the work is stationary
while the welding apparatus is moved from one joint to the next.
Welding transformers are sometimes used to heat metal for annealing,
for forging, bending, or shaping, for tempering, or for hard soldering.
Under special conditions they are well adapted to these purposes,
on account of the perfect control of the heating or energy delivery,
and the rapidity and cleanliness of the operation.
Divested of its welding clamps, the welding transformer has
found a unique application in the armour-annealing process cf
Lemp, by means of which spots or lines are locally annealed
in hard-faced ship's armour, so that it can be drilled or
cut as desired. Before the introduction of this process,
1 "*' it was practically impossible to render any portion of the
hardened face of such armour workable by cutting tools without
detriment to the hardness of the rest. A very heavy electric current
is passed through the spot or area which it is desired to soften, so
that, notwithstanding the rapid conduction of heat into the body
of the plate, the metal is brought to a low red heat. In order that
the spot shall not reharden, it is requisite that the rate of cooling
shall be slower than when the heating current is cut off suddenly,
the current therefore undergoes gradual diminution, under control
of the operator. The welding transformer has for its secondary
terminals simply two copper blocks fixed in position, and mounted
at a distance of an inch or more apart. These are placed firmly
against the face of the armour plate, with the spot to be annealed
bridging the contacts, or situated between them. As in track
welding, the transformer is made movable, so that it can be brought
into any position desired. When the annealing is to be done along
a line, the secondary terminals, with the transformer, are slowly
and steadily slid over the face of the plate, new portions of the plate
being thus continually brought between the terminals, while those
which had reached the proper heat are slowly removed from the
terminals and cool gradually. (E. T.)
WELDON, WALTER (1832-1885), English technical chemist,
was born at Loughborough on the 3ist of October 1832. In
1854 he began to work as a journalist in London in connexion
with the Dial, which was afterwards incorporated in the Morning
Star, and in 1860 he started a monthly magazine, Weldon's
Register of Facts and Occurrences relating to Literature, the
Sciences and the Arts, which was discontinued after about three
years' existence. Though he was without practical knowledge
of the science, Weldon turned to industrial chemistry, and in the
course of a few years took out the patents which led to his
" manganese-regeneration " process (see CHLORINE). This was
put into operation about 1869, and by 1875 it was being used
by almost every chlorine manufacturer of importance throughout
Europe. He continued to work at the production of chlorine
in connexion with the processes of alkali-manufacture (q.v.), and
became a leading authority on the subject, but none of his later
proposals not even the Weldon-Pechiney magnesia process,
which was established on a commercial scale only a year or two
before his death met with equal success. He died at Burstow,
Surrey, on the 2oth of September 1885. He professed Sweden-
borgian principles and was a believer in spiritualism.
His son, WALTER FRANK RAPHAEL WELDON (1860-1906), was
appointed in 1899 Linacre professor of comparative anatomy
at Oxford.
WELF or GUELPH, a princely family of Germany, descended
from Count Warin of Altorf (8th century), whose son Isenbrand
is said to have named his family Welfen, i.e. whelps. From his
son Welf I. (d. 824) were descended the kings of Upper Burgundy
and the elder German line of Welf. Welf III. (d. 1055) obtained
the duchy of Carinthia and the March of Verona. With him
the elder tine became extinct, but his grandson in the female
line, Welf IV. (as duke, Welf I.), founded the younger line, and
became duke of Bavaria in 1070. Henry the Black (d. 1126), by
his marriage with a daughter of Magnus, duke of Saxony, ob-
tained half of the latter's hereditary possessions, including
Luneburg, and his son Henry the Proud (q.v.) inherited by
marriage the emperor Lothair's lands in Brunswick, &c., and
received the duchy of Saxony. The power which the family
thus acquired, and the consequent rivalry with the house of
Hohenstaufen, occasioned the strife of Guelphs and Ghibellines
(q.v.) in Italy. Henry the Lion lost the duchies of Bavaria and
Saxony by his rebellion in 1180, and Welf VI. (d. 1191) left his
hereditary lands in Swabia and his Italian possessions to the
emperor Henry VI. Thus, although one of the Welfs reigned as
the emperor Otto IV., there remained to the family nothing but
the lands inherited from the emperor Lothair, which were made
into the duchy of Brunswick in 1235. Of the many branches
of the house of Brunswick that of Wolfenbiittel became extinct
in 1884, and that of Luneburg received the electoral dignity of
Hanover in 1692, and founded the Hanoverian dynasty of
Great Britain and Ireland in 1714. For its further history see
HANOVER. The Hanoverian legitimists in the German Reichs-
tag are known as Welfen.
See Sir A. Halliday, History of the House of Guelph (1821) ; R. D.
Lloyd, Origin of the Guelphs; F. Schmidt, Die Anfdnge des welfischen
Geschlechts (Hanover, 1900).
WELHAVEN, JOHANN SEBASTIAN CAMMERMEYER (1807-
1873), Norwegian poet and critic, was born at Bergen, the son
of a pastor, in 1807. He first studied theology, but from 1828
onwards devoted himself to literature. In 1840 he became
reader and subsequently professor of philosophy at Christiania,
and delivered a series of impressive lectures on literary subjects.
In 1836 he visited France and Germany; and in 1858 he went
to Italy to study archaeology. His influence was extended by.
his appointment as director of the Society of Arts. He died at
Christiania on the 2ist of October 1873. Welhaven made his
name as the representative of conservatism in Norwegian litera-
ture. In a violent attack on Wergeland's poetry he opposed
the theories of the extreme nationalists. He desired to see
Norwegian culture brought into line with that of other European
countries, and he himself followed the romantic tradition, being
most closely influenced by J. L. Heiberg. He represented clear-
ness and moderation against the extravagances of Wergeland.
He gave an admirable practical exposition of his aesthetic creed
in the sonnet cycle Norges Daemring (1834). He published
a volume of Digte in 1839; and hi 1845 Nyere Digte. The collec-
tions of old Norse poetry made by Asbjornsen and Moe influenced
his talent, and he first showed his full powers as a poet in Nyere
Digte. His descriptive poetry is admirable, but his best work
was inspired by his poems on old Norse subjects, in which he
gives himself unreservedly to patriotic enthusiasm. Other poems
followed in 1848, 1851 and 1859.
His critical work includes Ewald og de norske Digiere (1863), On
LudwigHolberg(i854). Welhaven's Samlede Skrifter were published
in 8 vols. at Copenhagen (1867-1869).
WELL, the name given to an artificial boring in the earth
through which water can be obtained. Two classes may be
distinguished: shallow or ordinary wells, sunk through a per-
meable stratum until an impermeable stratum is reached; and
deep and Artesian wells (q.v.), the latter named from Artois
WELL
505
in France, which are sunk through an impermeable stratum down
into a water-bearing stratum which overlies an impermeable
stratum. Obviously ordinary wells can supply water very cheaply,
but, since impurities readily reach them, there is great risk of
contamination. The same does not apply to deep wells, such
water being usually free from organic impurities. In ordinary
wells, and in deep wells, the water requires pumping to the sur-
face; in artesian wells, on the other hand, the water usually
spouts up to a greater or less height above it.
The Secondary and Tertiary geological formations, such as those
underneath London and Paris, often present the appearance of
immense basins, the boundary or rim of the basin having been formed
by .in upheaval of the subjacent strata. In these formations it often
lupl>ens that a porous stratum is included between two impermeable
layers of clay, so as to form a flat porous U tube, continuous from
side to side of the valley, the outcrop on the surrounding hills
forming the mouth of the tube. The rain filtering down through the
porous layer to the bottom of the basin forms there a subterranean
pool, which with the liquid or semi-liquid column pressing upon it
constitutes a sort of huge natural hydrostatic bellows. It is obvious
then, that when a hole is bored down through the uppr impermeable
la\vr to the surface of the lake, the water will be forced up by this
pressure to a height above the surface of the valley greater or less
according to the elevation of the level in the feeding column, thus
forming a natural fountain.
In the Tertiary formations, the porous layers are not so thick as
in the Secondary, and consequently the occurrence of underground
lakes is not on so grand a scale; but there being a more frequent
alternation of these sandy beds, we find a greater number of them,
and often a series of natural fountains may be obtained in the same
valley, proceeding from water-bearing strata at different depths, and
rising to different heights.
It does not follow that all the essentials for an artesian well are
present, though two impermeable strata with a porous one between
may crop out round a basin. There must also be continuity of the
permeable bed for the uninterrupted passage of the water, and no
breach in either of the confining layers by which the water might
escape. It has occasionally happened that on] deepening the bore,
with the hope of increasing the flow of water, it has ceased alto-
gether, doubtless from the lower confining layer being pierced, and
the water allowed to escape by another outlet. The subterranean
pool is frequently of small extent, and of the nature of a channel
rather than of a broad sheet of water; and the existence of one
spring is no guarantee that another will be found by merely boring
to the same depth in its neighbourhood. Faults also have an effect
on the supply, which in many cases has been found to increase by
cutting headings or adits. The most suitable strata in England are
the Chalk, Oolite, New Red Sandstone and Lower Greensand;
London is in part supplied by the Chalk, whilst Liverpool utilizes
the New Red. The theoretical determination of the existence of
artesian conditions can be arrived at only by a thorough acquaint-
ance with the geology of the district. Although water from deep
wells is free from organic matter, it usually contains salts such as
calcium bicarbonate, &c., which make the water unsuitable for wash-
ing and certain manufacturing purposes although it is fit fordrinking.
The mechanical appliances employed in boring for water are
practically the same as in boring for petroleum (q.v.). The
upper part of a deep well may be of brick, the continuation
being lined with steel pipes, or, better, it may be lined with metal
for its entire length.
One of the most remarkable artesian wells is at Crenelle, near
Paris. The operation of boring extended from 1834 to 1841 ; after a
depth of 1254 ft. had been reached (May 1837), a length of 270 ft.
of the boring rods broke and fell to the bottom of the hole, and
nearly fifteen months' constant labour was required to pick it up
again. Discouraged by the delay, the French government was to
have abandoned the project after a depth of 1500 ft. had been reached
without any satisfactory result; but Arago prevailed on them to
prosecute the work, and an additional depth of about 300 ft. proved
the correctness of Arago's theory. On the 26th February 1841, at
a depth of 1798 ft., the boring rods suddenly sank a few yards, and
within a few hours a vast column of water spouted up at the rate of
600 gallons per minute, and at a temperature of nearly 82 F.
Prior to this no artesian boring had reached even looo ft.; and that
of Crenelle was the deepest executed till the completion (i2th August
1850) of the salt-spring at Kissingcn, in Bavaria, which throws up a
column of water to the height of 58 ft. from a depth of 1878$ ft.
The most remarkable feature of this spring is that the projecting
force is due, not to hydrostatic pressure, but to that of carbonic acia
gas generated at the junction of the gypsum with the magnesian
limestone, about 1680 ft. down. Modern mechanical improvements
have enabled engineers to exceed these Artesian dimensions con-
siderably, and at a greatly diminished cost. The well at Passy, near
Paris, which is supplied from the same water-bearing stratum as
that of Crenelle, was bored by Kind in a very short time, having
been begun on 1 5th September 1855, and carried to a depth of 1732
ft. by March 1857. Its total depth is now about 1923 ft. with the
diameter of 2 ft. 4 in. at the bottom; and it throws up a con-
tinuous stream of water at the rate of five and a half million
gallons per day to a height of 54 ft. above the ground.
Among other deep wells sunk in the Paris basin subsequently to
those of Crenelle and Passy, the following may be mentioned. A
gigantic bore, 5 ft. 7 in. in diameter, was begun in January 1866 at
La Chapelle, and by November 1869 had reached a depth of 181 1 ft.,
the intention being to extend it to a depth of 2950 ft. A bore of
19 in. diameter was carried down to a depth of 1570 ft. in about
two and a half years (1864-1867), for the purpose of obtaining a
water-supply for the sugar refinery of Say in Paris; and the same
engineer who executed this work (Dru) began in 1866 an artesian
boring of the huge diameter of 6J ft. at the part of Paris named
Butte aux Cailles, to be carried down to a depth of 2600 to 2900 ft.
In the Paris basin there are a great many other wells, varying from
300 to 400 ft. in depth, and from 2 to 8 in. in the diameter of the
bore-hole.
The Tertiary chalk strata over which London stands have been
riddled with artesian borings for the sake of pure water supply.
Many of the large London factories, railways, institutions are
supplied by artesian wells over 300 ft. deep. At Merton in Surrey,
at Brighton, at Southampton, all along the east coast of Lincolnshire,
and in the low district between the chalk wolds near Louth and the
Wash, artesian borings have long been known, and go by the name
of blow-wells among the people of the district. The general level to
which the water rises in the London district has been very sensibly
lowered by the immense number of perforations that have been
made; and in several wells where the water formerly rose to the
surface, it now requires to be pumped up.
None of the artesian borings in England approach the depths
frequent on the Continent and in America. The average depth of
the water-bearing stratum around Paris is six times that of the
London chalk beds; and in some parts of Germany and of America,
wells have been sunk to even double the depth of the Parisian wells
of Crenelle and Passy. In Chicago there are several wells more
than 2000 ft. deep; and at West Chicago in Dupage county,
Illinois, there is one 3081 ft. deep. In the city of St Louis, Missouri,
there is an artesian well 3843$ ft. deep, yielding a few gallons of
salty water (temperature, 105 F.) a minute; boring was stopped in
September 1868. Among the deepest borings in the world are:
a well in Putnam Heights, Windham county, Connecticut, 6004 ft.
deep and 6 in. in diameter, yielding 2 gallons per minute with water
rising to 4 ft. from the surface; one at Schladenbach (5735 ft.),
near Leipzig; one 12 m. south-east of Pittsburg, which is 5575 ft.
deep and 6J in. in diameter; one in Lawrence county, Alabama,
5120 ft. deep and 6 in. in diameter, yielding gas, oil and salt water;
and one (about 4200 ft.) at Sperenberg 20 m. from Berlin, sunk
for the purpose of obtaining a supply of rock salt, the salt deposit
here is 3907 ft. thick.
The following are some of the other most important artesian
sinkings that have been made. At Louisville, Kentucky, a bore of
3 in. was carried to a depth of 2086 ft. between April 1857 and the
summer of 1858; it yields 264 gallons a minute and its fountain
rises 170 ft. high. At Charleston, South Carolina, there are: one
well 2050 ft. deep and 4 in. in diameter, yielding 450 gallons a
minute; another 1945 ft. deep and 5 in. in diameter, yielding 695
gallons a minute; and three more each exceeding 1900 ft. in depth.
In 1858 a well at Neusalwerk, near Minden, had reached the depth
of 2288 ft. At Bourne, Lincolnshire, there is a well 95 ft. deep, which
yields over half a million gallons of water per day, the pressurebeing
sufficient to supply the town and force the water to the tops of the
highest houses. There is one in Philadelphia (Mount Vernon and
I3th sts.), 3031 ft. deep and 8 in. in diameter, yielding 2600 gallons a
minute. There are several deep wells in South Dakota: in Aberdeen
City there are two 1300 ft. deep with flows of 1350 and 1000 gallons,
respectively, per minute. Two artesian wells at Croydon supply a
million gallons of water per day; and Brighton draws over a million
gallons from artesian sinkings. There is a well at Bages, near
Perpignan, which gives 330 gallons per minute; and one at Tours,
which jets about 6 ft. above ground, and gives 237 gallons per minute.
The boring of wells in the great desert of Sahara is a very ancient
industry; and some oases are supplied with water wholly from
artesian wells. The average depth of these is from 160 to 200 ft.,
and the upper strata have only to be pierced to give a constant
stream. With their primitive methods of boring, the Arabs often
labour for years before they reach the wished-for pool; and with
only palm wood as a casing, they have great difficulty in keeping
the bore-hole from closing up by the drifting of the sand, and they
require to scour them out periodically. Since 1858 an immense
number of perforations have been made by French engineers, and
the fertilising effect upon the sandy desert plains has already made
itself apparent. The importance of deep wells in such cases cannot
be over-estimated.
Artesian wells have been made to supply warm water, for keeping
hospitals, &c., at a constant temperature. Invariably the tempera-
ture of water from great depths is higher than that at the surface.
The temperature of the water in the well at Crenelle is 82 F., and
that of Passy the same, showing that they have a common source.
Kissingen well has a temperature, of 66 F., that of St Louis
WELLES WELLESLEY, MARQUESS
one of 73-4 F. that of Louisville 76i F., and that of Charleston
87 F. The average rate of increase of temperature is i for a
descent of from 40 to 55 ft. In Wiirttemberg the water of artesian
wells is employed to maintain in large manufactories a constant
temperature of 47 when it is freezing outside. Artesian waters
have also been employed to reduce the extreme variations of
temperature in fish-ponds.
WELLES, GIDEON (1802-1878), American political leader,
was born at Glastonbury, Connecticut, on the ist of July 1802.
He studied for a time at Norwich University, Vermont, but did
not graduate. From 1826 to 1837 he edited the Hartford Times,
making it the official organ of the Jacksonian Democracy in south-
ern New England. He served in the state House of Representatives
in 1827, 1829-30, 1832 and 1834-35, was state comptroller in 1835
and 1842-43, was postmaster at Hartford in 1835-42, and was
chief of the bureau of provisions and clothing in the Navy Depart-
ment at Washington in 1846-1849. Leaving the Democratic
party on the Kansas-Nebraska issue, he assisted in the formation
of the Republican party in Connecticut, and was its candidate for
governor in 1856; he was a delegate to the Republican national
conventions of 1856 and 1860. On the inauguration of President
Lincoln in 1861 he was appointed secretary of the navy, a position
which he held until the close of President Andrew Johnson's
administration in 1869. Although deficient in technical training,
he handled with great skill the difficult problems which were
presented by the Civil War. The number of naval ships was
increased between 1861 and 1865 from 90 to 670, the officers
from 1300 to 6700, the seamen from 7500 to 51,500, and the
annual expenditure from $12,000,000 to $123,000,000; important
changes were made in the art of naval construction, and the
blockade of the Confederate ports was effectively maintained.
Welles supported President Johnson in his quarrel with Congress,
took part in the Liberal Republican movement of 1872, and
returning to the Democratic party, warmly advocated the
election of Samuel J. Tilden in 1876. He died at Hartford,
Connecticut, on the nth of February 1878.
In 1874 Welles published Lincoln and Seward, in which he refutes
the charge that Seward dominated the Administration during the
Civil War. His Diary, which appeared in the Atlantic Monthly
(1909-1911), is extremely valuable for the study of the Civil War
and Reconstruction. See also Albert Welles, History of the Welles
Family (New York, 1876).
WELLESLEY, RICHARD COLLEY WESLEY (or WELLESLEY),
MARQUESS (1760-1842), eldest son of the ist earl of Mornington,
an Irish peer, and brother of the famous duke of Wellington,
was born on the 2oth of June 1760. He was sent to Eton,
where he was distinguished as a classical scholar, and to Christ
Church, Oxford. By his father's death in 1781 he became earl
of Mornington, taking his seat in the Irish House of Peers. In
1784 he entered the English House of Commons as member for
Beeralston. Soon afterwards he was appointed a lord of the
treasury by Pitt. In 1793 he became a member of the board
of control over Indian affairs; and, although he was best
known by his speeches in defence of Pitt's foreign policy, he
was gaining the acquaintance with Oriental affairs which made
his rule over India so effective from the moment when, in 1797,
he accepted the office of governor-general. Wellesley seems to
have caught Pitt's large political spirit during his intercourse
with him from 1793 to 1797. That both had consciously formed
the design of acquiring a great empire in India to compensate for
the loss of the American colonies is not proved; but the rivalry
with France, which in Europe placed England at the head of
coalition after coalition against the French republic and empire,
made Wellesley's rule in India an epoch of enormous and rapid
extension of English power. Clive won and Warren Hastings
consolidated the British ascendancy in India, but Wellesley
extended it into an empire. On the voyage outwards he formed
the design of annihilating French influence in the Deccan. Soon
after his landing, in April 1798, he learnt that an alliance was
being negotiated between Tippoo Sultan and the French republic.
Wellesley resolved to anticipate the action of the enemy, and
ordered preparations for war. The first step was to effect the
disbandment of the French troops entertained by the Nizam
of Hyderabad. The invasion of Mysore followed in February
1799, and the campaign was brought to a rapid close by the
capture of Seringapatam. In 1803 the restoration of thepeshwa
proved the prelude to the Mahratta war against Sindhia and the
raja of Berar. The result of these wars and of the treaties
which followed them was that French influence in India was
extinguished, that forty millions of population and ten millions
of revenue were added to the British dominions, and that the
powers of the Mahratta and all other princes were so reduced that
England became the really dominant authority over all India.
He found the East India Company a trading body, he left it
an imperial power. He was an excellent administrator, and sought
to provide, by the foundation of the college of Fort William,
for the training of a class of men adequate to the great work of
governing India. In connexion with this college he established
the governor-general's office, to which civilians who had shown
talent at the college were transferred, in order that they
might learn something of the highest statesmanship in the
immediate service of their chief. A free-trader, like Pitt, he
endeavoured to remove some of the restrictions on the trade
between England and India. Both the commercial policy of
Wellesley and his educational projects brought him into hostility
with the court of directors, and he more than once tendered his
resignation, which, however, public necessities led him to post-
pone till the autumn of 1805. He reached England just in time
to see Pitt before his death. He had been created an English
peer in 1797, and in 1799 an Irish marquess.
On the fall of the coalition ministry in 1807 Wellesley was
invited by George III. to join the duke of Portland's cabinet,
but he declined, pending the discussion in parliament of certain
charges brought against him in respect of his Indian administra-
tion. Resolutions condemning him for the abuse of power
were moved in both the Lords and Commons, but defeated by
large majorities. In 1809 Wellesley was appointed ambassador
to Spain. He landed at Cadiz just after the battle of Talavera,
and endeavoured, but without success, to bring the Spanish
government into effective co-operation with his brother, who,
through the failure of his allies, had been compelled to retreat
into Portugal. A few months later, after the duel between
Canning and Castlereagh and the resignation of both, Wellesley
accepted the post of foreign secretary in Perceval's cabinet.
He held this office until February 1812, when he retired, partly
from dissatisfaction at the inadequate support given to Wellington
by the ministry, but also because he had become convinced that
the question of Catholic emancipation could no longer be kept
in the background. From early life Wellesley had, unlike his
brother, been an advocate of Catholic emancipation, and with
the claim of the Irish Catholics to justice he henceforward
identified himself. On Perceval's assassination he refused to
join Lord Liverpool's administration, and he remained out of
office till 1821, criticizing with severity the proceedings of the
congress of Vienna and the European settlement of 1814, which,
while it reduced France to its ancient limits, left to the other great
powers the territory that they had acquired by the partition of
Poland and the destruction of Venice. He was one of the peers
who signed the protest against the enactment of the Corn
Laws in 1815. In 1821 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of
Ireland. Catholic emancipation had now become an open
question in the cabinet, and Wellesley's acceptance of the vice-
royalty was believed in Ireland to herald the immediate settle-
ment of the Catholic claims. The Orange faction was incen
by the firmness with which their excesses were now repre
and Wellesley was on one occasion mobbed and insulted. But
the hope of the Catholics still remained unfulfilled. Lor
Liverpool died without having grappled with the problem.
Canning in turn passed away; and on the assumption of office
by Wellington, who was opposed to Catholic emancipation, his
brother resigned the lord-lieutenancy. He had, however, the
satisfaction of seeing the Catholic claims settled in the next year
by the very statesmen who had declared against them. In 1833
he resumed the office of lord-lieutenant under Earl Grey, but
the ministry soon fell, and, with one short exception, Wellesley
did not further take part in official life. He died on the
WELLESLEY WELLINGTON, IST DUKE OF
507
a6th of September 1 84 2 . He had no successor in the marquisate ,
but the earldom of Mornington and minor honours devolved on
his brother William, Lord Maryborough, on the failure of whose
issue in 1863 they fell to the 2nd duke of Wellington.
See Montgomery Martin, Despatches of the Marquess Wellesley
(1840); W. M. Torrens, The Marquess Wellesley (1880); W. H.
Hutton, Lord Wellesley (" Rulers of India " series, 1893) ; and G. B.
Malleson, Wellesley (Statesmen " series, 1895).
WELLESLEY, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., 14 m. S.W. of Boston. Pop. (1800) 3600, (1900) 5072,
of whom 1306 were foreign-born and 17 were negroes, (1910
census) 5413. Area, 10-4 sq. m. Wellesley is served by
the Boston & Albany railway, and is connected with Natick
(3 m. W.), Newton, Needham, Boston and Worcester by electric
lines. The north-eastera boundary of the township is the Charles
river, which divides it from the city of Newton. The surface
of the township is hilly and abundantly wooded, with many
small streams and lakes; the two principal villages are Wellesley
Hills and Wellesley, and smaller villages are Wellesley Falls,
Wellesley Farms and Wellesley Fells. The highest point is
MaugusHill Ui6ft.), near Wellesley Hills village. In the northern
part of Wellesley and extending into Weston is a large forest
tract known as " The Hundreds." Within the township' are
parts of two of the reservations of the Metropolitan Park system,
66-07 acres of the Charles river reservation, and 4-58 acres of
Hemlock Gorge. Hunnewell Park is the former home of Dr
\V. T. G. Morton, who discovered the anaesthetic properties of
sulphuric ether. West of Wellesley village, among the hills, lie
Morses Pond and Lake Waban, on which are beautiful Italian
gardens and (on the north side) the buildings and extensive
grounds (350 acres) of Wellesley College (undenominational,
1875) for women, which was established by Henry Towle Durant
(1822-1881), a prominent Boston lawyer. In 1910 the college
had 130 instructors and 1319 students. The library (65,200
volumes in 1910) was endowed by Eben N. Horsford, the chemist
and ethnologist; it contains a library of American linguistics
collected by Major J. W. Powell and Mr Horsford, and the
Frances Pearson Plimpton library of early Italian literature.
There are about 30 buildings, of which twelve are residential
halls or cottages. Instruction is in classical, literary and scientific
branches, and the degrees of A.B. and A.M. are awarded.
Wellesley was settled about 1640, being then within the limits
of Dedham. When the township of Needham was set off from
Dedham in 1711, Wellesley was included within the new territory,
and in 1774 was organized as the west parish cf Needham or
West Needham. In 1881 it was incorporated under its present
name.
See J. E. Fiske in D. H. Kurd's History of Norfolk County (Boston,
1884).
WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS (1844- ), German biblical scholar
and Orientalist, was born at Hameln on the Weser, Westphalia,
on the I7th of May 1844. Having studied theology at the
university of Gottingen under Heinrich Ewald, he established
himself there in 1870 as privat-docent for Old Testament history.
In 1872 he was appointed professor ordinarius of theology in
Greifswald. Resigning in 1882 owing to conscientious scruples,
he became professor extraordinarius of oriental languages in the
faculty of philology at Halle, was elected professor ordinarius
at Marburg in 1885, and was transferred to Gottingen in 1892.
Wellhausen made his name famous by his critical investigations
into Old Testament history and the composition of the Hexateuch,
the uncompromising scientific attitude he adopted in testing its
problems bringing him into antagonism with the older school of
biblical interpreters. The best known of his works are De
genlibus et familiis Judaeis (Gfittingen, 1870); Der Text der
BUcher Samuells untersuchl (Gottingen, 1871); Die Pharisaer
und SadducSer (Greifswald, 1874); Prolegomena zur Geschichte
Israels (Berlin, 1882; Eng. trans., 1885; 5th German edition,
1899; first published in 1878 as Geschichte Israels); Mvhammed
in Medina (Berlin, 1882); Die Komposition des Hexateuchs und
der historischen Bticher des Alien Testaments (1889, 3rd ed. 1899);
Israelilische und jtidische Geschichte (1894, 4th ed. 1901);
Reste arabischen Heidenlums (1897); Das arabische Reich und
sein Stun (1902); Skizzen und Vorarbeiten (1884-1899); and
new and revised editions of F. Bleek's Einleitung in das Alte
Testament (4-6, 1878-1893). In 1906 appeared Die chrislliche
Religion, mil EinscUuss der israelitisch-judischen Religion, in col-
laboration with A. Julicher, A. Harnack and others. He also
did useful and interesting work as a New Testament commentator.
He published Das Evangelium Marci, iibersetzt und erklart in
1903, Das Evangelium Matthai and Das Evangelium Lucae in
1904, and Einleitung in die drei ersten Evangelien in 1905.
WELLINGBOROUGH, a market town in the eastern parlia-
mentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 63$ m. N.N.W.
from London by the Midland railway; served also by the London
& North-Westem railway. Pop. of urban district (1001), 18,41 2.
It lies on the declivity of a hill near the junction of the Ise with
the Nene, in a pleasant well-wooded district. The church of St
Luke is a beautiful building with Norman and Early English
portions, but is mainly Decorated, with a western tower and
spire. The grammar-schools, founded in 1594 and endowed
with the revenues of a suppressed gild, include a school of the
second and a school of the third grade, the former a building of
red brick in the Renaissance style erected in 1880, and the latter
an old Elizabethan structure. Another educational endowment
is Freeman's school, founded by John Freeman in 1711. There
are also several charities. The principal public building is
the corn exchange. The town is of some importance as a centre
of agricultural trade; but the staple industry is in leather. A
great impulse to the prosperity of the town was given by the
introduction of the boot and shoe trade, especially the manu-
facture of uppers. Smelting, brewing and iron-founding are also
carried on, as well as the manufacture of portable steam-engines,
and iron ore is raised in the vicinity.
In 948 Edred gave the church at WeUingborough to Crowland
Abbey, and the grant was confirmed by King Edgar in 966.
In the reign of Edward II. the abbot was lord in full. The town
received the grant of a market in 1201. It was formerly famed
for the chalybeate springs to which it owes its name, and in 1621
was visited by Charles I. and his queen, who resided in tents
during a whole season while taking the waters. It was after
its almost total destruction by fire in 1738 that the town was
built on its present site on the hill.
WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, IST DUKE OF (1769-
1852), was the fourth son of Garrett (1735-1781) Wellesley or
Wesley, 2nd baron and ist earl of Mornington, now remem-
bered only as a musician. He was descended from the family
of Colley or Cowley, which had been settled in Ireland for two
centuries. The duke's grandfather, Richard Colley, ist Baron
Mornington (d. 1758), assumed the name of Wesley on succeeding
to the estates of Garrett Wesley, a distant relative of the famous
divine. In Wellington's early letters the family name is spelt
Wesley; the change to Wellesley seems to have been made
about 1790. Arthur (born in Ireland in 1769*) was sent to
Eton, and subsequently to a military college at Angers. He
entered the army as ensign in the 73rd Highlanders in 1787,
passed rapidly through the lower ranks (in five different regi-
ments), became major of the 33rd (now duke of Wellington's
West Riding), and purchased the lieutenant-colonelcy of that
regiment in 1793 with money advanced to him by his eldest
brother. But in all these changes he did little regimental duty,
for he was aide-de-camp to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland for
practically the whole of these years. Before reaching full age
he was returned to the Irish parliament by the family borough
of Trim. Little is known of his history during these years;
but neither in boyhood nor in youth does he appear to have made
any mark among his contemporaries.
His first experience of active service was in the campaign of
1794-1795, when the British force under the duke of York was
driven out of Holland by Pichegru. In 1 796 he was sent with his
regiment to India, being promoted colonel by brevet about the
same time. It was thus as a commanding officer that he leamt
1 At 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, or at Dungan Castle,
Meath, on the 29th of April or on 1st May ; but both place and date
are uncertain.
508
WELLINGTON, IST DUKE OF
for the first time the details of regimental duty. He mastered
them thoroughly, gained a minute acquaintance with every
detail of the soldier's life, learned the precise amount of food
required for every mouth, the exact weight that could be carried,
the distances that could be traversed without exhaustion, the
whole body of conditions in short which govern the military
activity of man and beast. It was to the completeness of his
practical knowledge that Wellington ascribed in great part his
later success. It is probable, moreover, that he at this time made
a serious study of the science and history of war. His formal
training at Angers was altogether too slight to account for his
great technical knowledge; no record, however, exists of the
stages by which this was acquired except that as soon as he
landed in India he began to devote fixed hours to study, giving
up cards and the violin. This study was directed chiefly to the
political situation of India, and when on his advice his eldest
brother, Lord Mornington, afterwards Marquess Wellesley,
accepted the governor-generalship of India, he became his
trusted though unofficial adviser. In the war with Tippoo Saib
the 33rd was attached to the Nizam's contingent, and Colonel
Wellesley commanded this division in the army of General (Lord)
Harris. Though his military services in this short campaign
were not of a striking character, he was appointed by his brother
to the supreme military and political command in Mysore, in
spite of the claims of his senior, Sir David Baird.
His great faculties now for the first time found opportunity
for their exercise. In the settlement and administration of
the conquered territory he rapidly acquired the habits and
experience of a statesman, while his military operations against
Doondiah, a robber chief, were conducted with extraordinary
energy and success, Doondiah being killed and his army scattered.
More important, however, than the military side of these opera-
tions was their political character. When pressed in Mysore,
Doondiah moved into Mahratta territory, whither Wellesley
followed him. Here, negotiating and bargaining with the
Mahratta chiefs, Wellesley acquired a knowledge of their affairs
and an influence over them such as no other Englishman possessed.
Simple and honourable himself, he was shrewd and penetrating
in his judgment of Orientals; and, unlike his great predecessor
Clive, he rigidly adhered to the rule of good faith in his own
actions, however depraved and however exasperating the
conduct of those with whom he had to deal. The result of
Wellesley's singular personal ascendancy among the Mahrattas
came into full view when the Mahratta War broke out. In the
meantime, however, his Indian career seemed likely to be
sacrificed to the calls of warfare in another quarter. Wellesley
was ordered in December 1800 to take command of a body of
troops collected for foreign service at Trincomalee, in Ceylon.
It was at first intended that these troops should act against
Java or Mauritius; their destination was, however, altered to
Egypt, with a view to co-operation with Sir Ralph Abercromby's
expedition, and Baird was placed in command. Though deeply
mortified at the loss of the command, Wellesley in his devotion
to duty moved the troops on his own responsibility from Trinco-
malee to Bombay, from the conviction that, if they were to be
of any use in Egypt, it was absolutely necessary that they should
provision at Bombay without delay. But at Bombay Wellesley
was attacked by fever, and prevented from going on. The
troop-ship in which he was to have sailed went down with all on
board.
He returned in May 1801 to Mysore, where he remained until
the Mahratta War broke out. The power of the Peshwa, nomin-
ally supreme in the Mahratta territory, had been overthrown
by his rivals Holkar and others, and he had himself fled. The
Indian government undertook to restore his authority. Welles-
ley, now a major-general, was placed in command of a division of
the army charged with this task. Starting from Seringapatam,
he crossed the frontier on March 12, 1803, and moved through
the southern Mahratta territory on Poona. The march was
one unbroken success, thanks to Wellesley's forethought and
sagacity in dealing with the physical conditions and his personal
and diplomatic ascendancy among the chieftains of the district.
No hand was raised against him, and a march of 600 m.
conducted without even a skirmish. Wellesley had intend
to reach Poona on the 23rd of April. On the night of the i8th
he heard that a rival of the Peshwa intended to burn the city.
At once Wellesley pressed on with the cavalry and an infantry
battalion in light order, and after a forced march of 32 hours
entered Poona on the afternoon of the 2oth, in time to save the
city. The Peshwa was now restored, and entered into various
military obligations with Wellesley, which he very imperfectly
fulfilled.
In the meantime Sindhia and Holkar, with the raja of Berar,
maintained a doubtful but threatening aspect farther north.
It was uncertain whether or not a confederacy of the northern
Mahrattas had been formed against the British government.
In these critical circumstances Wellesley was charged with " the
general direction and control of military and political affairs in
the territories of the Nizam, the Peshwa and the Mahratta states
and chiefs." Armed with these powers, he required Sindhia, as
a proof of good faith, to withdraw to the north of the Nerbudda.
Sindhia not doing so, war was declared on the 6th of August
1803. Wellesley marched northwards, captured Ahmadnagar
on the nth, crossed the Godavery ten days later, and moved
against the combined forces of Sindhia and the raja of Berar.
Colonel Stevenson was meanwhile approaching with a second
division from the east, and it was intended that the two should
unite. On the 23rd of September Wellesley supposed himself
to be still some miles from the enemy; he suddenly found that
the entire forces of Sindhia and the raja of Berar were close in
front of him at Assaye. Weighing the dangers of delay, of
retreat, and of an attack with his single division of 4500 men,
supported only by 5000 native levies of doubtful quality, Welles-
ley convinced himself that an immediate attack, though against
greatly superior forces (30,000 horse, 10,000 European-drilled
infantry and 100 well-served guns) in a strong position, was the
wisest course. He threw himself upon the Mahratta host, and,
carrying out a bold manoeuvre under an intense fire, ultimately
gained a complete victory, though with the loss of 2500 men out
of a total probably not much exceeding 7000. In comparison
with the battle of Assaye, all fighting that had hitherto taken
place in India was child's play. Wellesley himself had two
horses killed under him. Uniting with Stevenson's division, the
conqueror followed up the pursuit, and brought the war to a
close by a second victory at Argaum on the 2oth of November,
and the storming of Gawilghur on the I5th of December. The
treaties with Sindhia and the raja of Berar, which marked the
downfall of the Mahratta power, were negotiated and signed by
Wellesley (who was made K.B. in Sept. 1804) in the course
of the following month. Not yet thirty-five years old, he had
proved himself a master in the sphere of Indian statesmanship
and diplomacy as on the field of battle. Had his career ended
at this time, his Indian despatches alone would have proved
him to have been one of the wisest and strongest heads that have
ever served England in the East.
His ambitions now led him back to Europe, and in the spring
of 1 805 he quitted India. On his return home he was immediately
sent on the abortive expedition to Hanover. In 1806 he was
elected M.P. for Rye, in order to defend his brother, the governor-
general, in the House, and in the following year he was Irish
secretary for a few months. He was then employed in the
expedition against Copenhagen, in which he defeated the Danes
in the action of Kjoge (2pth Oct.). In 1808, however, began
the war (see PENINSULAR WAR) in which his military renown was
fully established. In April he was promoted lieutenant-general
and placed in command of a division of the troops destined to
operate against the French in Spain or Portugal. The conduct
of events is narrated in a separate article, and need only be
summarized here. Finding that the junta of Corunna wished
for no foreign soldiery, he followed his alternative instructions
to act against Junot at Lisbon. He landed at Mondego Bay in
the first week of August, and moved southwards, driving in
the enemy at Rolica on the i7th of August. On the 2ist the
battle of Vimeiro was fought and won. In the midst of this
WELLINGTON, IST DUKE OF
509
engagement, however, Sir Harry Burrard landed, and took over
the command. Burrard was in turn superseded by Sir Hew
D;drymple, and the campaign ended with the convention of
Cintra, which provided for the evacuation of Portugal by the
French, but gave Junot's troops a free return to France. So
great was the public displeasure in England at the escape of the
enemy that a court of inquiry was held. After the battle of
Corunna, Wellesley, who had in the meantime resumed his
duties as Irish secretary, returned to the Peninsula as chief in
command. He drove the French out of Oporto by a singularly
bold and fortunate attack, and then prepared to march against
Madrid by the valley of the Tagus. He had the support of a
Spanish army under General Cuesta; but his movements were
delayed by the neglect of the Spanish government, and Soult
was able to collect a large force for the purpose of falling upon
the English line of communication. Wellesley, unconscious of
Soult's presence in force on his flank, advanced against Madrid,
and defeated his immediate opponent, King Joseph, at Talavera
de la Reina (q.v.) on the ayth-aSth of July. The victory of Tala-
vera, however, brought prestige but nothing else. Within the
next few days Soult's approach on the line of communication
was discovered, and Wellesley, disgusted with his Spanish allies,
had no choice but to withdraw into Portugal and there stand
upon the defensive.
A peerage, with the title of Viscount Wellington and Baron
Douro, was conferred upon him for Talavera. He was also made
marshal-general of the Portuguese army and a Spanish captain-
general. But his conduct after the battle was sharply criticized
in England, and its negative results were used as a weapon
against the ministry. Even on the defensive, Wellington's task
was exceedingly difficult. Austria having made peace, Napoleon
was at liberty to throw heavy forces into the Peninsula. Welling-
ton, foreseeing that Portugal would now be invaded by a very
powerful army, began the fortification of the celebrated lines of
Torres Vedras (see FORTIFICATION). The English army wintered
about Almeida. As summer approached Wellington's anticipa-
tions were realized. Massena moved against Portugal with an
army of 70,000 men. Wellington, unable to save Ciudad Rodrigo,
retreated down the valley of the Mondego, devastating the
country, and at length halted at Busaco and gave battle. The
French attack was repelled, but other roads were open to the
invader, and Wellington continued his retreat. Massena followed,
but was checked completely in front of the lines. He sought in
vain for an unprotected point. It was with the utmost difficulty
that he could keep his army from starving. At length, when the
country was exhausted, he fell back to Santarem, where, Welling-
ton being still too weak to attack, he maintained himself during
the winter. But in the spring of i8ri Wellington received
reinforcements and moved forward. Massena retreated, de-
vastating the country to check the pursuit, but on several
occasions his rearguard was deeply engaged, and such were the
sufferings of his army, both in the invasion and in the retreat,
that the French, when they re-entered Spain, had lost 30,000 men.
Public opinion in England, lately so hostile, now became con-
fident, and Wellington, whose rewards for Talavera had been
opposed in both Houses, began to gain extraordinary popularity.
In the meantime Soult, who was besieging Cadiz, had moved
to support Massena. But after capturing Badajoz, Soult leamt
that Massena was in retreat, and also that his own forces at
Cadiz had been beaten. He in consequence returned to the
south. Wellington, freed from pressure on this side, and believing
Massena to be thoroughly disabled, considered that the time
had come for an advance into Spain. The fortresses of Almeida,
Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz barred the roads. Almeida was
besieged, and Wellington was preparing to attack Badajoz when
Massena again took the field, and marched to the relief of
Almeida. The battle of Fuentes d'Onoro followed, in which
Wellington was only able to extricate the army from a dangerous
predicament which " if Boney had been there " would have been
a disaster. The garrison of Almeida too escaped, after blowing
up part of the fortress. In the south, in spite of the hard-won
victory of Albuera, the English attack on Badajoz had to be
given up. The same misfortune attended a fresh stroke against
Ciudad Rodrigo, and at the end of a campaign in which he had
used all his skill and care to compensate for inferior numbers,
lie withdrew behind the Coa. He had meanwhile been given the
local rank of general and had also received the Portuguese title
of Conde de Vimeiro.
Wellington had from the first seen that, whatever number of
men Napoleon might send against him, it was impossible, owing
to the poverty of the country, that any great mass of troops
could long be held together, and that the French, used to " making
war support war," would fare worse in such conditions than his
own troops with their organized supply service. It was so at the
end of 1811. Soult had to move southwards to live, and the
English were again more than a match for the enemy in front of
them. Wellington resumed the offensive, and on the ipth of
January 1812 Ciudad Rodrigo was taken by storm. Again,
suddenly altering the centre of gravity, Wellington invested
Badajoz in the middle of March. It was necessary at whatever
cost to anticipate the arrival of Soult with a relieving army,
and on the 6th of April Wellington ordered the assault. The
fearful slaughter which took place before the British were
masters of the defences caused Wellington to be charged with
indifference to loss, but a postponement of the attack would
merely have resulted in more battles against Soult. Of all
generals Wellington was the last to waste a single trained man,
and the sight of the breaches of Badajoz after the storm for a
moment unnerved even his iron sternness.
The advance from Ciudad Rodrigo into Spain was now begun.
Marmont, who had succeeded Massena, fell back to the Douro,
but there turned upon his assailant, and, by superior swiftness,
threatened to cut the English off from Portugal. Wellington
retreated as far as Salamanca (q.v.), and there extricated himself
from his peril by a most brilliant victory (July 22). The French
fell back on Burgos. Instead of immediately following them,
Wellington thought it wise to advance upon the Spanish capital.
King Joseph retired, and the English entered Madrid in triumph.
The political effect was great, but the delay gave the French
northern army time to rally. " The vigorous following of a beaten
enemy was not a prominent characteristic of Lord Wellington's
warfare," as Napier says. Burgos offered an obstinate defence.
Moreover, Soult, raising the siege of Cadiz, and gathering other
forces to his own, pressed on towards Madrid. Wellington was
compelled once more to retire into Portugal. The effect of
the campaign was, however, that the southern provinces were
finally cleared of the invader. During this retreat he announced
in general orders that the demoralization and misconduct
of the British army surpassed anything that he had ever
witnessed. Such wholesale criticism was bitterly resented, but
indeed throughout his career Wellington, cold and punctilious,
never secured to himself the affections of officers and men as
Marlborough or Napoleon did. He subjugated his army and gave
it brilliant victories, but he inspired few disciples except the
members of his own staff. To the end of his life his relations
with the principal generals who served under him were by no
means intimate.
Wellington had been made an earl after the fall of Ciudad
Rodrigo, and the Spanish government created him duke of
Ciudad Rodrigo about the same time. For Salamanca his
reward was a marquessate, and a grant of 100,000 for the
purchase of an estate. He was also made Duque da Victoria by
the Portuguese regency, and before the opening of the campaign
of 1813, which was to crown his work, he was given both the
Garter and the Golden Fleece.
He was now invested with the supreme command of the Spanish
armies. He visited Cadiz in December 1812, and offered counsels
of moderation to the democratic assembly, which were not
followed. During the succeeding months he was occupied with
plans and preparations, and at length, in May 1813, the hour
for his final and victorious advance arrived. The Russian dis-
asters had compelled Napoleon to withdraw some of his best
troops from the Peninsula. Against a weakened and discouraged
adversary Wellington took the field with greatly increased
WELLINGTON, IST DUKE OF
numbers and with the utmost confidence. The advance of the
allied army was irresistible. Position after position was evacu-
ated by the French, until Wellington, driving everything before
him, came up with the retreating enemy at Vittoria (?..), and
won an overwhelming victory (June 2ist). Soult's combats in
the Pyrenees, and the desperate resistance of St Sebastian,
prolonged the struggle through the autumn, and cost the English
thousands of men. But at length the frontier was passed, and
Soult forced back into his entrenched camp at Bayonne. Both
armies now rested for some weeks, during which interval Welling-
ton gained the confidence of the inhabitants by his unsparing
repression of marauding, his business-like payment for supplies,
and the excellent discipline which he maintained. In February
1814 the advance was renewed. The Adour was crossed, and
Soult was defeated at Orthes. At Toulouse, after the allies had
entered Paris, but before the abdication of Napoleon had become
known, the last battle of the war was fought. Peace being
proclaimed, Wellington took leave of his army at Bordeaux,
and returned to England, where he was received with extra-
ordinary honours, created duke of Wellington, and awarded a
fresh grant of 400,000.
After the treaty of Paris (May 30) Wellington was appointed
British ambassador at the French capital. During the autumn
and winter of 1814 he witnessed and reported the mistakes of
the restored Bourbon dynasty, and warned his government of
the growing danger from conspiracies and from the army, which
was visibly hostile to the Bourbons. His insight, however, did
not extend beyond the circumstances immediately before and
around him, and he failed to realize that the great mass of the
French nation was still with Napoleon at heart. He remained in
France until February 1815, when he took Lord Castlereagh's
place at the congress of Vienna. All the great questions of the
congress had already been settled, and Wellington's diplomatic
work here was not of importance. His imperfect acquaintance
with French feeling was strikingly proved in the despatch which
he sent home on learning of Napoleon's escape from Elba. " He
has acted," he wrote. " upon false or no information, and the king
(Louis XVIII.) will destroy him without difficulty and in a short
time." Almost before Wellington's unfortunate prediction could
reach London, Louis had fled, and France was at Napoleon's feet.
The ban of the congress, however, went out against the common
enemy, and the presence of Wellington at Vienna enabled the
allies at once to decide upon their plans for the campaign. To
Wellington and Bliicher were committed the invasion of France
from the north, while the Russians and Austrians entered it from
the east. Wellington, with the English troops and their Dutch,
German and Belgian allies, took his post in the Netherlands,
guarding the country west of the Charleroi road. Bliicher, with
the Prussians, lay between Charleroi, Namur and Liege. In
the meantime Napoleon had outstripped the preparations of his
adversaries. By the I3th of June he had concentrated his main
army on the northern frontier, and on the I4th crossed the
Sambre. The four days' campaign that followed, and the crown-
ing victory of the i8th of June, are described in the article
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN. Wellington's reward was a fresh grant
of 200,000 from parliament, the title of prince of Waterloo and
great estates from the king of Holland, and the order of the
Saint-Esprit from Louis XVIII.
Not only the prestige of his victories, but the chance circum-
stances of the moment, now made Wellington the most influential
personality in Europe. The emperors of Russia and Austria
were still far away at the time of Napoleon's second abdication,
and it was with Wellington that the commissioners of the
provisional government opened negotiations preliminary to the
surrender of Paris. The duke well knew the peril of delaying
the decision as to the government of France. The emperor
Alexander was hostile to Louis XVIII. and the Bourbons
generally; the emperor Francis might have been tempted to
support the cause of Napoleon's son and his own grandson, who
had been proclaimed in Paris as Napoleon II.; and if the
restoration of Louis which Wellington believed would alone
restore permanent peace to France and to Europe was to be
effected, the allies must be confronted on their arrival in Paris
with the accomplished fact. He settled the affair in his usual
downright manner, telling the commissioners bluntly that they
must take back their legitimate king, and refusing perhaps
with more questionable wisdom to allow the retention of the
tricolour flag, which to him was a ; ' symbol of rebellion." At the
same time the opposition of the most influential member of the
commission and the most powerful man in France, Fouche,
was overcome by his appointment, on Wellington's suggestion,
as minister of police. The result was that when the emperor
Alexander arrived in Paris he found Louis XVIII. already in
possession, and the problem before the allies was merely how to
keep him there.
In the solution of this problem the common sense of Wellington
and of Castlereagh, with whom the duke worked throughout in
complete harmony, played a determining part; it was mainly
owing to their influence that France escaped the dismemberment
for which the German powers clamoured, and which was ad-
vocated for a while by Lord Liverpool and the majority of the
British cabinet. Wellington realized the supreme necessity, in
the interests not only of France but of Europe, of confirming
and maintaining the prestige of the restored monarchy, which
such a dismemberment would have irretrievably damaged. It
was this conviction that inspired his whole attitude towards
French affairs. If he unwillingly refused to intervene in favour
of Marshal Ney, it was because he believed that so conspicuous
an example of treason could not safely be allowed to go un-
punished. If he bore in silence the odium that fell upon him
owing to the break-up of the collection of the Louvre, it was
because he knew that it would be fatal to allow it to be known
that the first initiative in the matter had come from the king.
In the same spirit he carried out the immense and unique trust
imposed upon him by the allies when they placed him in com-
mand of the international army by which France was to be
occupied, under the terms of the second peace of Paris, for five
years. By the terms of his commission he was empowered to
act, in case of emergency, without waiting for orders; he was,
moreover, to be kept informed by the French cabinet of the
whole course of business. His power was immense, and it was
well and wisely used. If he had no sympathy with revolutionary
disturbers of the peace, he had even less with the fatuous extra-
vagances of the comte d'Artois and his reactionary entourage,
and his influence was thrown into the scale of the moderate
constitutional policy of which Richelieu and Decazes were the
most conspicuous exponents. The administrative duties con-
nected with the army of occupation would alone have taxed to
the uttermost the powers of an ordinary man. 1 Besides this,
his work included the reconstruction of the military frontier
of the Netherlands, and the conduct of the financial negotiations
with Messrs Baring, by which the French government was able
to pay off the indemnities due from it, and thus render it possible
for the powers to reduce the period of armed occupation from
five years to three. He was consulted, moreover, in all matters
of International importance, notably the affairs of the Spanish
colonies, in which he associated himself with Castlereagh in
pressing those views which were afterwards carried into effect
by George Canning.
The length of time during which France was to be occupied
by the allies practically depended upon Wellington's judgment.
On the loth of December 1816 Pozzo di Borgo wrote to the duke
enclosing a memorandum in which the emperor Alexander of
Russia suggested a reduction in the army of occupation: " no
mere question of finance, but one of general policy, based on
reason, equity and a severe morality"; at the same time he
left the question of its postponement entirely to Wellington. To
1 Isolated fortresses were still holding out for Napoleon in
September 1815, e.g. Longwy, which surrendered on the 2Oth.
Much trouble was caused by the behaviour of some of the allied
troops, notably the Prussians. Detailed reports of the condition of
the country for the first months of the occupation are contained in
the Bulletins de la correspondance de I'Interieur, copies of which are
preserved in the Foreign Office records (F.O. Congress. Paris.
Castlereagh, August, &c., 1815).
WELLINGTON, IST DUKE OF
Wellington the proposal seemed premature; he would prefer to
wait till " the assembly had published its conduct by its acts ";
for if the new chambers were to prove as intractable as the
dissolved Chambre introuvable, the monarchy would not be' able
to dispense with its foreign tutors. To Castlereagh he wrote
(December n, 1816) that although he believed that the common
people of the departments occupied," particularly those occupied
by us," were delighted to have the troops and the money spent
among them, among the official and middle classes the feeling
was very different. In view of the weakness of the king's
government, to reduce the army would be to expose the excitable
elements of the population to the temptation of attacking it.
" Suppose I or my officers were forced to take military action.
Suppose this were to happen in the Prussian cantonments. The
whole Prussian army would be put in motion, and all Europe
would resound with the alarm of the danger to be apprehended
from the Jacobins in France." *
The events of the next few months considerably modified his
opinions in this matter. The new chambers proved their trust-
worthy quality by passing the budget, and the army of occupa-
tion was reduced by 30,000 men. Wellington now pressed for the
total evacuation of France, pointing out that popular irritation
had grown to such a pitch that, if the occupation were to be
prolonged, he must concentrate the army between the Scheldt
and the Meuse, as the forces, stretched in a thin line across France,
were no longer safe in the event of a popular rising. But such a
concentration would in itself be attended with great risk, as the
detachments might be destroyed piecemeal before they could
combine. These representations determined the allies to make
the immediate evacuation of France the principal subject of
discussion at the congress which it was arranged to hold at Aix-
la-Chapelle in the autumn of 1818. Here Wellington supported
the proposal for the immediate evacuation of France, and it was
owing to his common-sense criticism that the proposal of Prussia,
supported by the emperor Alexander and Metternich, to establish
an " army of observation " at Brussels, was nipped in the bud.
The conduct of the final arrangements with Messrs Baring and
Hope, which made a definitive financial settlement between
France and the allies possible, was left entirely to him.
On Wellington's first entry into Paris he had been received
with popular enthusiasm, 2 but he had soon become intensely
unpopular. He was held responsible not only for the occupation
itself, but for every untoward incident to which it gave rise;
even Blucher's attempt to blow up the Pont de Jena, which he
had prevented, was laid to his charge. His characteristically
British temperament was wholly unsympathetic to the French,
whose sensibility was irritated by his cold and slightly con-
temptuous justice. Two attempts were made to assassinate him.*
After the second the prince regent commanded him to leave
Paris and proceed to the headquarters at Cambrai. 4 For the
first time the duke disobeyed orders; the case, he wrote, was
one in which he was l; principally and personally concerned,"
and he alone was in a position to judge what line of action he
ought to pursue. 6 His work in Paris, however, was now finished,
and on the 3Oth of October, in a final " order of the day," he took
leave of the international troops under his command. On the
23rd of October, while still at Aix, he had received an offer from
Lord Liverpool of the office of master-general of the ordnance,
with a seat in the cabinet. He accepted, though with some
reluctance, and only on condition that he should be at liberty, in
the event of the Tories going into opposition, to take any line
he might think proper.
For the next three years " the Duke " was little before the
world. He supported the repressive policy of Liverpool's cabinet,
and organized the military forces held ready in case of a Radical
rising. It was his influence with George IV. that led to the
1 F. O. Continent; Paris; Wellington (No. 32).
1 See the interesting letter of Lord Castlereagh to Lord Liverpool
preserved in the Foreign Office Records (Congress; Paris; Viscount
Castlereagh, July 7-20, 1815), dated July 8, 1815.
* Maxwell, Life, ii. 1 14 ff.
1 Suppl. Despatches, xii. 326.
Suppl. Despatches, ii. 335.
readmittance of Canning to the cabinet after the affair of the
royal divorce had been settled. It was only in 1822, however, that
the tragic death of his friend Londonderry (Castlereagh) brought
him once more into international prominence. Londonderry had
been on the eve of starting for the conference at Vienna, and the
instructions which he had drawn up for his own guidance were
handed over by Canning, the new foreign secretary, to Wellington,
who proceeded in September to Vienna, and thence in October to
Verona, whither the conference had been adjourned. Welling-
ton's official part at the congress is outlined elsewhere (see
VERONA, CONGRESS OF). Unofficially, he pointed out to the
French plenipotentiaries, arguing from Napoleon's experience,
the extreme danger of an invasion of Spain, but at the same time
explained, for the benefit of the duke of Angouleme, the best way
to conduct a campaign in the Peninsula.
Wellington's intimate association for several years with the
sovereigns and statesmen of the Grand Alliance, and his ex-
perience of the evils which the Alliance existed to hold in check,
naturally led him to dislike Canning's aggressive attitude towards
the autocratic powers, and to view with some apprehension his
determination to break with the European concert. He realized,
however, that in the matter of Spain and the Spanish colonies
the British government had no choice, and in this question he
was in complete harmony with Canning. This was also at first
the case in respect to the policy to be pursued in the Eastern
Question raised by the war of Greek independence. Both
Canning and Wellington were anxious to preserve the integrity
of Turkey, and therefore to prevent any isolated intervention of
Russia; and Wellington seemed to Canning the most suitable
instrument for the purpose of securing an arrangement between
Great Britain and Russia on the Greek question, through which
it was hoped to assure peace in the East. In February 1826,
accordingly, the duke was sent to St Petersburg, ostensibly to
congratulate the emperor Nicholas I. on his accession, but more
especially to use Wellington's own words " to induce the
emperor of Russia to put himself in our hands." 6 In this object
he signally failed. He was, indeed, received in St Petersburg
with all honour; but as a diplomatist the " Iron Duke " whom
Nicholas, writing to his brother Constantine, described as " old
and broken (cassl)" was no match for the " Iron Tsar." As
for the Greeks, the emperor said bluntly that he took no interest
in " ces messieurs," whom he regarded as " rebels "; his own
particular quarrel with Turkey, arising out of the non-fulfilment
of the treaty of Bucharest, was the concern of Russia alone;
the ultimatum to Turkey had, indeed, been prepared before
Wellington's arrival, and was despatched during his visit. Under
stress of the imminence of the peril, which Nicholas was at no
pains to conceal, the duke was driven from concession to con-
cession, until at last the tsar, having gained all he wanted,
condescended to come to an arrangement with Great Britain
in the Greek question. On the 4th of April was signed the
Protocol of St Petersburg, an instrument which as events Were
to prove fettered the free initiative not of Russia, but of Great
Britain (see TURKEY: History; GREECE: History). 7
After the death of the duke of York on the sth of December
1826 the post of commander-in-chief was conferred upon Welling-
ton. His relations with Canning had, however, become increas-
ingly strained, and when, in consequence of Lord Liverpool's
illness, Canning in April 1827 was called to the head of the
administration, the duke refused to serve under him. On the
day after the resignation of his seat in the cabinet he also resigned
his offices of master of the ordnance and Commander-in-chief,
giving as his reason " the tone and temper of Mr Canning's
letters," though it is difficult to see in these letters any adequate
reason for such a course (see Maxwell's Life, ii. 109). The
effect of his withdrawal was momentous in its bearing upon
Eastern affairs. Canning, freed from Wellington's restraint,
carried his intervention on behalf of Greece a step further, and
Memorandum to Canning of January 26, 1826 (Well. Desp. Hi.)
7 An interesting account of Wellington s negotiations in St Peters-
burg, based on unpublished documents in the Russian archives, is
given in T. Schiemann's Geschichte Russlands unter Nikolaus I. (Berlin,
1908), ii. 126-138.
WELLINGTON
concluded, on the 27th of July, the treaty of London, whereby
France, England and Russia bound themselves to put an end
to the conflict in the East and to enforce the conditions of the
St Petersburg protocol upon the belligerents. Against this treaty
Wellington protested, on the ground that it " specified means of
compulsion which were neither more nor less than measures of
war." His apprehensions were fulfilled by the battle of Navarino.
Canning died on the 8th of August 1827, and was succeeded
as premier by Lord Goderich. The duke was at once again
offered the post of commander-in-chief, which he accepted on
the 1 7th of August. On the fall of Lord Goderich 's cabinet five
months later Wellington became prime minister. He had declared
some time before that it would be an act of madness for him to
take this post; but the sense of public duty led him to accept it
when it was pressed upon him by the king. His cabinet included
at the first Huskisson, Palmerston and other followers of
Canning. The repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts having
been carried in the House of Commons in the session of 1828,
Wellington, to the great disappointment of Tories like Lord
Eldon, recommended the House of Lords not to offer further
resistance, and the measure was accordingly carried through.
Soon afterwards a quarrel between the duke and Huskisson led
to the retirement from the ministry of all its more liberal members.
It was now hoped by the so-called Protestant party that Welling-
ton, at the head of a more united cabinet, would offer a steady
resistance to Catholic emancipation. Never were men more
bitterly disappointed. The Clare election and the progress of
the Catholic Association convinced both Wellington and Peel
that the time had come when Catholic emancipation must be
granted; and, submitting when further resistance would have
led to civil war, the ministry itself brought in at the beginning
of the session'of 1829 a bill for the relief of the Catholics. Well-
ington, who had hitherto always opposed Catholic emancipation,
explained and justified his change of front in simple and im-
pressive language. His undoubted seriousness and his immense
personal reputation did not, however, save him from the excesses
of calumny and misinterpretation; and in order to impose some
moderation upon his aspersers the duke thought it necessary
to send a challenee to one of the most violent of these, the earl of
Winchelsea. No mischief resulted from the encounter.
Catholic emancipation was the great act of Wellington's
ministry; in other respects his tenure of office was net marked
by much success. The imagination and the breadth of view
necessary to a statesman of the highest order were not part of
his endowment, nor had he the power of working harmoniously
with his subordinates. His Eastern policy was singularly
short-sighted. There might have been good reason, from
Wellington's point of view, for condemning Canning's treaty of
London; but when, in consequence of this treaty, the battle of
Navarmo had been fought, the Turkish fleet sunk, and the
independence of Greece practically established, it was the weakest
of all possible courses to withdraw England from its active
intervention, and to leave to Russia the gains of a private and
isolated war. This, however, was Wellington's policy; and,
having permitted Russia to go to war alone in 1828, nothing
remained for him but to treat Greece as a pawn in Russia's hands,
and to cut down the territory of the Greek kingdom to the
narrowest possible limits, as if the restoration to the sultan of
an inaccessible mountain-tract, inhabited by the bitterest of his
enemies, could permanently add to the strength of the Ottoman
empire. The result was the renunciation of the Greek crown
by Prince Leopold; and, although, after the fall of Wellington's
ministry, a somewhat better frontier was given to Greece, it was
then too late to establish this kingdom in adequate strength,
and to make it, as it might have been made, a counterpoise to
Russia's influence in the Levant. Nor was the indulgence shown
by the cabinet towards Dom Miguel and the absolutists of
Portugal quite worthy of England. That Wellington actively
assisted despotic governments against the constitutional move-
ments of the time is not true. He had indeed none of the sym-
pathy with national causes which began to influence British
policy under Canning, and which became so powerful under
Palmerston; but the rule which he followed in foreign affair
so far as he considered it possible, was that of non-interventic
As soon as Catholic emancipation was carried, the demand for
parliamentary reform and extension of the franchise agitated
Great Britain from end to end. The duke was ill informed as
to the real spirit of the nation. He conceived the agitation for
reform to be a purely fictitious one, worked up by partisans and
men of disorder in their own interest, and expressing no real want
on the part of the public at large. Met with a firm lesistance,
it would, he believed, vanish away, with no worse result than the
possible plunder of a few houses by the city mobs. Wholly
unaware of the strength of the forces which he was provoking,
the duke, at the opening of the parliament which met after the
death of George IV., declared against any parliamentary reform
whatever. This declaration led to the immediate fall of his
government. Lord Grey, the chief of the new ministry, brought
in the Reform Bill, which was resisted by Wellington as long as
anything was to be gained by resistance. W T hen the creation of
new peers was known to be imminent, howevei, Wellington was
among those who counselled the abandonment of a hopeless
struggle. His opposition to reform made him for a while un-
popular. He was hooted by the mob on the anniversary of
Waterloo, and considered it necessary to protect the windows
of Apsley House with iron shutters.
For the next two years the duke was in opposition. On the
removal of Lord Althorp to the House of Lords in 1834, William
IV. unexpectedly dismissed the Whig ministry and requested
Wellington to form a cabinet. The duke, however, recommended
that Peel should be at the head of the government, and served
under him, during the few months that his ministry lasted, as
foreign secretary. On Peel's later return to power in 1841
Wellington was again in the cabinet, but without departmental
office beyond that of commander-in-chief. He supported Peel
in his Corn-Law legislation, and throughout all this later period
of his life, whether in office or in opposition, gained the admira-
tion of discerning men, and excited the wonder of zealots, by his
habitual subordination of party spirit and party connexion to
whatever appeared to him the reel interest of the nation. On
Peel's defeat in 1846 the duke retired from active public life.
He was now nearly eighty. His organization of the military force
in London against the Chartists in April 1848, and his letter to
Sir John Burgoyne on the defences of the country, proved that
the old man had still something of his youth about him. But
the general character of Wellington's last years was rather
that of the old age of a great man idealized. To the unbroken
splendours of his military career, to his honourable and con-
scientious labours as a parliamentary statesman, life unusually
prolonged added an evening of impressive beauty and calm.
The passions excited during the stormy epoch of the Reform Bill
had long passed away. Venerated and beloved by the greatest
and the lowliest, the old hero entered, as it were, into the
immortality of his fame while still among his countrymen.
Death came to him at last in its gentlest form. He passed away
on the i4th of September 1852, and was buried under the dome
of St Paul's, in a manner worthy both of the nation and of the
man. His monument, by Alfred Stevens (?..) , stands in the nave
of the cathedral.
AUTHORITIES. The Wellington Despatches, edited by Gurwood;
Supplementary Despatches; and Wellington Despatches, New Series,
edited by the second duke of Wellington. Unlike Napoleon's
despatches and correspondence, everything from Wellington's pen
is absolutely trustworthy: not a word is written for effect, and no
fact is misrepresented. Almost all the political memoirs of the
period 1830-1850 contain more or less about Wellington in his
later life. Those of Greville and Croker have perhaps most of
interest. A good deal of information, from the unpublished Russian
archives, is given in F. F. de Martens' Kecueil des traites conclus par la
Russie. See also Sir Herbert Maxwell, Life of Wellington (2 vols.,
London, 1900), and the literature of the Peninsular War (q.v.),
Waterloo Campaign (g..).
WELLINGTON, a town of Wellington county, New South
Wales, Australia, 248 m. by rail N.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901)
2988. The river Macquarie is here spanned by a fine railway
bridge. There are rich gold-bearing reefs in the vicinity of the
WELLINGTON WELLS, C. J.
5*3
town and gold dredging is a growing industry; wheat growing
is the most considerable agricultural pursuit, but fruit trees and
vines are cultivated with success. Stock-rearing also is exten-
sively followed on account of the fine pasturage in the district.
In the vicinity are the beautiful Wellington caves.
WELLINGTON, a market town in the Wellington (Mid)
parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, toj m. by rail
E. of Shrewsbury. Pop. of urban district (1901), 6283. It is an
important junction on the London & North-Western and Great
Western railways, being 152 m. N.W. from London by the former
line. The Shropshire Union canal connects it with the Severn.
The neighbourhood is picturesque, the Wrekin, about ij m.
from the town, rising to a height of 1335 ft. The church of
All Saints dates from 1790. The manufacture of agricultural
implements and nails, iron and brass founding and malting are
carried on. The Roman Watling Street, running near the town,
gives its name to a suburb of Wellington.
Before the Conquest Wellington (Weliton, Welintun) belonged
to Earl Edwin of Mercia, and after his forfeiture in 1071 was
granted to Roger, earl of Shrewsbury. It came into the king's
hands in 1102 through the attainder of Robert de Belesme.
King John in 1212 granted Wellington to Thomas de Erdington
' as a reward for services rendered in Rome at the time of the
Interdict." Among the numerous subsequent lords of the manor
were the families of Burnell and Lovell, the present owner being
Colonel Sir Thomas Mayrick, Bart. Like many other towns in
Shropshire, Wellington appears to have grown into importance as
a border town, and possibly had some manner of corporate
community in 1177, when it paid three marks to an aid, but its
privileges seem to have disappeared after the annexation of
Wales, and it was never incorporated. Markets are held on
Thursday and Saturday under a charter of 1691-1692 to William
Forester, but the Thursday market was first granted in 1 244 to
Giles de Erdington. Wellington has never been represented in
parliament.
WELLINGTON, a market town in the Wellington parlia-
mentary division of Somersetshire, England, at the foot of the
Blackdown hills, and near the river Tone, 170^ m. W. by S. of
London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901), 7283. The isth-century church of St John has a fine
Perpendicular tower and chancel; while the clerestoried nave
is Early English. There is a magnificent altar-tomb to Sir J.
Popham, Lord Chief Justice under Elizabeth and James I.
The chief buildings include the West Somerset County School
and a 17th-century hospital for the aged poor, founded by Sir
J. Popham. A tower, which stands on the highest peak of the
Blackdowns, 2^ m. S., was erected in honour of the duke of
Wellington. The town has woollen manufactures, iron foundries
and brick and tile works.
WELLINGTON, the capital of New Zealand, the seat of
government and of a bishop. Pop. (1901) 43,638; (1906)
58,563, and including suburbs, 63,807. It lies on the south-
western shore of North Island, on the inner shore of Port Nichol-
son, an inlet of Cook's Strait, the site affording a splendid
harbour, walled in by abrupt hills. The original flat shore
is occupied by massive walls constructed for the reclaiming
of land, as the hills prevent an inland extension of the city.
Wood was originally in favour as a building material, owing
to the prevalence of earthquakes, but brick and stone subse-
quently took its place in the construction of the principal build-
ings. The main street is a winding thoroughfare named in
different parts Thorndon Quay, Lambton Quay, Willis Street
and Manners Street. It runs parallel to the shore, but the
quays properly so called are separated from it by blocks of
buildings. It is traversed by an electric tramway. There are
two railway stations in the town and one in the southern suburb
of Te Aro. Two main lines leave the town, one following the
west coast, the other an inland route to Napier. The principal
buildings are governmental; the houses of parliament, formerly
a wooden erection, are rebuilt in brick and stone; there are
also the residence of the governor and court house. The fine
town hall was founded by the prince of Wales in 1901. There
xxvin. 17
are several fine churches, and among educational institutions
the chief is the Victoria University. An excellent school of
art and several public libraries are provided, the latter including
that in the house of parliament. The museum contains a
beautiful Maori house of carved woodwork, and biological
collections. There are several public parks and gardens on
well-chosen elevated sites, the principal being the Botanical
Garden, from which the city and port are well seen. Shipping
is controlled by a harbour board (1880). The extensive wharves
are amply served by hydraulic machinery and railways. Welling-
ton was founded in 1840, being the first settlement of New
Zealand colonists, and the seat of government was transferred
here from Auckland in 1865. The town is under municipal
government.
WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (i798?-i879), English poet,
was born in London, probably in the year 1798. He was
educated at Cowden Clarke's school at Edmonton, with Tom
Keats, the younger brother of the poet, and with R. H. Home.
He became acquainted with John Keats, and was the friend
" who sent me some roses," to whom Keats wrote a sonnet
on the 29th of June 1816:
" When, O Wells! thy roses came to me,
My sense with their deliciousness was spelled ;
Soft voices had they, that, with tender plea,
Whisper'd of peace and truth and friendliness unquelled."
Unfortunately, Wells soon afterwards played a cruel practical
joke on the dying Tom Keats, and reappears in the elder poet's
correspondence as " that degraded Wells." Both with Keats
and Reynolds, Wells was in direct literary emulation, and his
early writings were the result of this. In 1822 he published
Stories after Nature or rather, in the manner of Boccaccio,
tempered by that of Leigh Hunt a curious little volume of
brocaded prose. At the close of 1823, under the pseudonym
of H. L. Howard, appeared the Biblical drama of Joseph and
his Brethren (dated 1824). For the next three years Wells saw
Hazlitt, as he said, " every night," but in 1827 the two men
were estranged. When Hazlitt died, in September 1830, Wells
took Home to see his dead friend, and afterwards raised a monu-
ment to the memory of Hazlitt in the church of St Anne's, Soho.
His two books passed almost unnoticed, and although Hazlitt
said that Joseph and his Brethren was " more than original,
aboriginal, and a mere experiment in comparison with the
vast things " Wells could do, he forbore to review it, and even
dissuaded the young poet from writing any more. Wells was
now practising as a solicitor in London, but he fancied that
his health was failing and proceeded to South Wales, where
he occupied himself with shooting, fishing and writing poetry
until 1835, when he removed to Broxbourne, in Hertfordshire.
In 1840 he left England, never to set foot in it again. He
settled at Quimper, in Brittany, where he lived for some years.
A story called Claribel appeared in 1845, and one or two slight
sketches later, but several important tragedies and a great deal
of miscellaneous verse belonging to these years are lost. Wells
stated in a letter to Home (November 1877) that he had com-
posed eight or ten volumes of poetry during his life, but that,
having in vain attempted to find a publisher for any of them,
he burned the whole mass of MSS. at his wife's death. The
only work he had retained was a revised form of Joseph and his
Brethren, which was praised in 1838 by Wade, and again, with
great warmth, by Home, in his New Spirit of the Age, in 1844.
The drama was then once more forgotten, until in 1863 it was
read and vehemently praised by D. G. Rossetti. The tide
turned at last; Joseph and his Brethren became a kind of
shibboleth a rite of initiation into the true poetic culture
but still the world at large remained indifferent. Finally,
however, Swinburne wrote an eloquent study of it in the Fort-
nightly Renew in 1875, and the drama itself was reprinted
in 1876. The old man found it impossible at first to take his
revival seriously, but he woke up at length to take a great
interest in the matter, and between 1876 and 1878 he added
various scenes, which are in the possession of Mr Buxton Forman,
who published one of them in 1895. After leaving Quimper,
WELLS, D. A. WELLS
Wells went to reside at Marseilles, where he held a professorial
--hair. He died on the lythof February 1879.
From R. H. Home, the author of Orion, the present writer
received the following account of the personal appearance of
Wells in youth. He was short and sturdy, with dark red hair,
a sanguine complexion, and bright blue eyes; he used to call
himself " the cub," in reference to the habitual roughness of his
manners, which he was able to resolve at will into the most
taking sweetness and good-humour. Wells's wife who had been
a Miss Emily Jane Hill, died in 1874. Their son, after his
father's death, achieved a notoriety which was unpoetical,
although recorded in popular song, for he was the once-famous
" man who broke the bank at Monte Carlo."
The famous Joseph and his Brethren, concerning which criticism
has recovered its self-possession, is an overgrown specimen
of the pseudo- Jacobean drama in verse which was popular
in ultra-poetical circles between 1820 and 1830. Its merits are
those of rich versification, a rather florid and voluble eloquence
and a subtle trick of reserve, akin to that displayed by Webster
arid Cyril Tourneur in moments of impassioned dialogue. Swin-
burne has said that there are lines in Wells " which might more
naturally be mistaken, even by an expert, for the work of the
young Shakespeare, than any to be gathered elsewhere in the
fields of English poetry." This may be the case, but even
the youngest Shakespeare would have avoided the dulness of
subject-matter and the slowness of evolution which impede
the reader's progress through this wholly undramatic play.
Joseph and his Brethren, in fact, although it has been covered
with eulogy by the most illustrious enthusiasts, is less a poem
than an odd poetical curiosity.
In 1909 a reprint was published of Joseph and his Brethren, with
Swinburne's essay, and reminiscences by T. Watts-Dunton. (E. G.)
WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828-1898), American economist,
was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, on the I7th of June 1828.
He graduated at Williams College in 1847, was on the editorial
staff of the Springfield Republican in 1848, and at that time
invented a machine for folding newspapers and book-sheets.
He then removed to Cambridge, graduated at the Lawrence
Scientific School in 1851, and published in 1850-1865 with George
Bliss (1793-1873) an Annual of Scientific Discovery. In 1866 he
patented a process for preparing textile fabrics. His essay on the
national debt, Our Burden and Our Strength (1864), secured him
the appointment in 1865 as chairman of the national revenue
commission, which laid the basis of scientific taxation in the
United States. In 1866-1870 he was special commissioner of
revenue and published important annual reports; during these
years he became an advocate of free trade, and he argued that
the natural resources of the United States must lead to industrial
supremacy without the artificial assistance of a protective tariff
which must produce an uneven development industrially. The
creation of a Federal Bureau of Statistics in the Department
of the Treasury was largely due to Wells's influence. In 1871
he was chairman of the New York State Commission on local
taxation which urged the abolition of personal taxes, except of
moneyed corporations, and the levy of a tax on the rental value
of dwellings to be paid by the occupant; and in 1878 he reported
on New York canal tolls. In 1877 he was president of the
American Social Science Association. He died in Norwich,
Connecticut, on the 5th of November 1898.
He edited many scientific text-books, and wrote The Creed of the
Free Trader (1875), Robinson Crusoe's Money (1878), Our Merchant
Marine ( 1 882) , The Primer of Tariff Reform ( 1 884) , Practical Economics
(1885), Principlesof Taxation(l8&6) , Recent Economic Changes (1889).
WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866- ), English novelist
was bom at Bromley, Kent, on the 2ist of September 1866, the
son of Joseph Wells, a professional cricketer. He was educated
at Midhurst grammar school and at the Royal College of Science,
where he was trained in physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology
and biology. He graduated B.Sc. of London University in 1888
with first-class honours, taught science in a private school, and
subsequently did private coaching. In 1 893 he began to write for
the Pall Mall Gazette, of which he was dramatic critic in 1895.
He also wrote for Nature and the Saturday Review. After the
egave
success of his fantastic story The Time Machine (1895) he ]
his time chiefly to the writing of romances, in which the newest
scientific and technical discoveries were used to advance his
views on politics and sociology. But he did not confine himself
to fiction. His Anticipations (1902) showed his real gift for
sociological speculation. Beginning with a chapter on the
means of locomotion in the 2oth century, it went on to discuss
war, the conflict of languages, faith, morals, the elimination of
the unfit, and other general topics, with remarkable acuteness
and constructive ability. In The Discovery of the Future (igo2),
Mankind in the Making (1903), A Modern Utopia (1905) and
New Worlds for Old (1908) his socialistic theories were further
developed. As a novelist, meanwhile, he had taken a very high
place. Some earlier stories, such as The Wheels of Chance
(1896) and Love and Mr Lewisham (1900), had proved his talent
for drawing character, and pure phantasies like The War of the
Worlds (1898) his abundant invention; but Kipps (1905) and
Tono-Bungay (1909) showed a great advance in artistic power.
The list of his works of fiction includes The Stolen Bacillus and
other Stories (1895), The Wonderful Visit (1895), The Island
of Doctor Moreau (1896), The Plaltner Story and Others (1897),
When the Sleeper Wakes (1899), The First Men in the Moon (1901),
The Food of the Gods (1904), In the Days of the Comet (1906),
The War in the Air (1908), Anne Veronica (1909), The History
of Mr Polly (1910).
WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, IST BART. (1818-1897),
English surgeon, was bom at St Albans on the 3rd of February
1818, and received his medical education in Leeds, Dublin and
St Thomas's Hospital, London (M.R.C.S. 1841). From 1841 to
1848 he served as a surgeon in the navy, and in 1848 he went to
Paris to study pathology. In 1853 he settled in London, and
took up ophthalmic surgery, interrupting his work to go out to the
East in the Crimean War. In 1854 he became surgeon to the
Samaritan Free Hospital for Women and Children, London.
His reputation in surgery had obtained for him in 1844 the fellow-
ship of the Royal College of Surgeons, and he subsequently be-
came a member of council, Hunterian professor of surgery and
pathology (1878), President (1882) and Hunterian Orator (1883).
In 1883 he was made a baronet. His name is best known in con-
nexion with his successful revival of the operation of ovariotomy,
which had fallen into disrepute owing to the excessive mortality
attending it; and in his skilful hands, assisted by modern
surgical methods, the operation lost almost all its danger. His
book on Diseases of the Ovaries was published in 1865. Sir
Spencer Wells married in 1853 Miss Elizabeth Wright, and
had a son and daughters. He died on the 3ist of January
1897. His estate at Golder's Hill, Hampstead, was sold
after his death to the London County Council and converted
into a public park.
WELLS, a city, municipal borough and market town in the
Wells parliamentary division of Somerset, England, 20 m. S
of Bristol, on the Great Western and Somerset & Dorset
railways. Pop. (1901) 4849. It is a quiet, old-fashioned place,
lying in a hollow under the Mendip Hills, whose spurs rise on all
sides like islands. The city is said to have derived its name from
some springs called St Andrew's Wells, which during the middle
ages were thought to have valuable curative properties. During
Saxon times Wells was one of the most important towns of
Wessex, and in 905 it was made the seat of a bishopric by King
Edward the Elder. About the year 1091-1092 Bishop John de
Villula removed the see to Bath; and for some years Wells
ceased to be an episcopal city. After many struggles between the
secular clergy of Wells and the regulars of Bath, it was finally
arranged in 1139 that the bishop should take the title of " bishop
of Bath and Wells," and should for the future be elected by
delegates appointed partly by the monks of Bath and partly by
the canons of Wells. The foundation attached to the cathedral
church of Wells consisted of a college of secular canons of St
Augustine, governed by a dean, sub-dean, chancellor and other
officials. The diocese covers the greater part of Somerset. The
importance of the city is almost wholly ecclesiastical; and the
theological college is one of the most important in England.
WELLSTON WELS
Wells is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area 720 acres.
The cathedral, one of the most magnificent of all the secular
churches of England, was executed principally by Bishops
Reginald Fitz-Jocelyn (1171-1191), Savaricus (1192-1205) and
Jocelyn (i 206-1242). According to the usual medieval practice,
the eastern part of the church was begun first, and the choir was
consecrated for use long before the completion of the nave, the
western part of which, with the magnificent series of statues on
t he facade, is commonly attributed to Bishop Jocelyn. With him
was associated a famous architect in Elias de Derham, who was
his steward in 1236, and died in 1245. The upper half of the two
western towers has never been built. The noble central tower,
160 ft. high, was built early in the I4th century; the beautiful
octagonal chapter-house on the north side, and the lady chapel
at the extreme east, were the next important additions in the
same century. The whole church is covered with stone groining
of various dates, from the Early English of the choir to the fan
vaulting of the central tower. Its plan consists of a nave (161 ft.
in length and 82 in breadth) and aisles, with two short transepts,
each with a western aisle and two eastern chapels. The choir and
its aisles are of unusual length (103 ft.), and behind the high
altar are two smaller transepts, beyond which is the very rich
Decorated lady chapel, with an eastern semi-octagonal apse.
On the north of the choir is the octagonal chapter-house, the
vaulting of which springs from a slender central shaft; as the
church belonged to secular clergy, it was not necessary to place it
in its usual position by the cloister. The cloister, 160 by 150 ft.,
extends along the whole southern wall of the nave. The extreme
length of the church from east to west is 383 ft. The oak stalls
and bishop's throne in the choir are magnificent examples of 15th-
century woodwork, still well preserved.
The glory of the church, and that which makes it unique among
the many splendid buildings of medieval England, is the wonderful
series of sculptured figures which decorate the exterior of the west
front. The whole of the facade, 150 ft. wide, including the two
western towers, is completely covered with this magnificent series;
there are nine tiers of single figures under canopies, over 600 in
number, mostly large life size, with some as much as 8 ft. in height,
and other smaller statues; these represent angels, saints, prophets,
kings and queens of the Saxon, Norman and Plantagenet dynasties,
and bishops and others who had been benefactors to the see. There
are also forty-eight reliefs with subjects from Bible history, and
immense representations of the Last Judgment and the Resurrection,
the latter alone containing about 150 figures. The whole com-
position is devised so as to present a comprehensive scheme of
theology and history, evidently thought out with much care and
ingenuity. As works of art, these statues and reliefs are of high
merit; the faces are noble in type, the folds of the drapery very
gracefully treated with true sculpturesque simplicity, and the pose
of the figures remarkable for dignity. A great variety of hands and
much diversity of workmanship can be traced in this mass of
sculpture, but in very few cases does the work fall conspicuously
below the general level of excellence.
The interior of the central tower presents an interesting example
of the skilful way in which the medieval builders could turn an
unexpected constructional necessity into a beautiful architectural
feature. While it was being built the four piers of the great tower
arches showed signs of failure, and, therefore, in order to strengthen
them, a second lower arch was built below each main arch of the
tower; and on this a third inverted arch was added. Thus the
piers received a steady support along their whole height from top
to bottom, and yet the opening of each archway was blocked up in
the smallest possible degree. The contrasting lines of these three
adjacent arches on each side of the tower have a very striking and
graceful effect; nothing similar exists elsewhere.
On the south side of the cathedral stands the bishop's palace, a
moated building, originally built in the form of a quadrangle by
Bishop Jocelyn, and surrounded by a lofty circuit wall. The hall and
chapel are beautiful structures, mostly of the I4th century.
The vicars' college was a secular foundation for two principals
and twelve vicars; fine remains of this, dating from the isth century,
and other residences of the clergy stand within and near the cathedral
close; some of these are among the most beautiful examples of
medieval domestic architecture in England.
The church of St Cuthbert is one of the finest of the many fine
parochial churches in Somersetshire, with a noble tower and spire
at the west end. It was originally an Early English cruciform
building, but the central tower fell in during the i6th century, and
the whole building was much altered during the Perpendicular period.
Though much damaged, a very interesting reredos exists behind the
high altar; it consists of a " Jesse tree " sculptured in relief, erected
in 1470. Another beautiful reredos was discovered in 1848, hidden
in the plaster on the east wall of the lady chapel, which is on the
north side.
There was a Roman settlement at Wells (Theorodunum,
Fonticvli, Tidington, Welliae, Welle), this site being chosen on
account of the springs from which the town takes its name,
and the Roman road to Cheddar passed through Wells. King
Ine founded a religious house there in 704, and it became an
episcopal see in 910. To this latter event the subsequent growth
of Wells is due. There is evidence that Wells had become
a borough owned by the bishops of Wells before 1160, and in that
year Bishop Robert granted the first charter, which exempted
his burgesses from certain tolls. Other charters granted by
Bishop Reginald before 1180 and by Bishop Savaric about 1201
gave the burgesses of Wells the right to jurisdiction in their own
disputes. These charters were confirmed by John in 1201, by
Edward I. in 1290, by Edward III. with the grant of new privileges
in 1334, 1341, 1343 and 1345, by Richard II. in 1377, by Henry
IV. in 1399 and by Henry VI. in 1424. Wells obtained charters
of incorporation in 1589, 1683, 1688 and 1835. It was represented
in parliament from 1295 to 1868. Fairs on March 3, October 14
and November 30 were granted before 1160, and in 1201 fairs
on May 9, November 25 and June 25 were added. They were
important in the middle ages for the sale of cloth made in the
town, but the fairs which are now held on the first Tuesdays in
January, May, July, November and December are noted for the
sale of cheese. The market days for the sale of cattle and provi-
sions are Wednesdays and Saturdays. Silk-making, stocking-
making and gloving replaced the cloth trade in Wells, but have
now given place to brush-making, corn and paper milling, which
began early in the igth century.
See Victoria County History, Somerset; Thomas Serel, Lectures
on Wells (1880).
WELLSTON, a city of Jackson county, Ohio, U.S.A., about
30 m. S.E. of Chillicothe. Pop. (1880) 952; (1890) 4377;
(1900) 8045, of whom 311 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
6875. Land area (1906), 6-62 sq. m. Wellston is served by
the Baltimore & Ohio South-western, the Hocking Valley, the
Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Detroit, Toledo & Iron-
ton railways, and is connected by an electric line with Jackson
(pop. in 1910, 5468), the county-seat, about 10 m. S.W. Immedi-
ately N. of the city is Lake Alma Park. Wellston is situated in a
coal and iron mining country; among the city's manufactures
are iron and cement, and in 1905 the value of the factory product
was $1,384,295, 41-4% more than in 1900. The municipality
owns and operates its water-works and its electric lighting plant.
Wellston (named in honour of Harvey Wells, its founder) was
settled in 1871, and was chartered as a city in 1876.
WELLSVILLE, a city of Columbiana county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
about 35 m. S. of Youngstown, on the Ohio river. Pop. (1890)
5247; (1900) 6146 (475 being foreign-born and 113 negroes);
(1910) 7769. Wellsville is served by the Pennsylvania railway,
and by an interurban electric line connecting with Rochester,
Pa., and Steubenville, Ohio. It is in a region which has rich
deposits of coal, natural gas, oil and clay; and there are various
manufactures. The neighbourhood was first settled in 1795
by one James Clark of Washington county, Pennsylvania, who
bought a tract of 304 acres here and who transferred it a year
afterwards to his son-in-law, William Wells, in whose honour the
settlement was named in 1820 when it was platted. From 1832
to 1852 Wellsville was an important shipping point on the Ohio,
with daily steamboats to Pittsburg; it was incorporated as a
village in 1848, and was chartered as a city in 1890.
WELS, a town of Austria, in Upper Austria, 17 m. S.S.W.
of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 12,187. It is situated on the river
Traun and possesses an interesting parish church, in Gothic
style, rebuilt in the isth century, but the oldest part supposed to
date from the 9th century. The town draws a supply of natural
gas, used for lighting, heat and motive power, from deep artesian
borings first made in 1891". It has an important trade in corn,
timber, horned cattle, pigs and horses, fowls, dairy produce and
lard; and considerable manufactures, including machinery,
5 i6
WELSER (FAMILY) WEM
cast-iron, copper and brass goods, calico, gunpowder, oil, paper,
articles in felt, flour, leather and biscuits. Wels stands on the
site of the Roman Ovilaba, and was in the 8th century the
residence of the dukes of Lambach-Wels. The actual town
dates from the nth century.
WELSER, the name of a famous family of German merchants,
members of which held official positions in the city of Augsburg
during the I3th century. The family first became important
during the 1 5th century, when .the brothers Bartholomew and
Lucas Welser carried on an extensive trade with the Levant
and elsewhere, and had branches in the principal trading centres
of south Germany and Italy, and also in Antwerp, London and
Lisbon. The business was continued by Antony (d. 1518), a
son of Lucas Welser, who was one of the first among the Germans
to use the sea route to the East, which had been discovered by
Vasco da Gama. The Welsers were also interested in mining ven-
tures; and, having amassed great wealth, Antony's son Bar-
tholomew (1488-1561) lent large sums of money to Charles V.,
receiving in return several marks of the imperial favour.
Bartholomew and his brother Antony, however, are chiefly
known as the promoters of an expedition under Ambrose
Dalfinger (d. 1532), which in 1528 seized the province of Caracas
in Venezuela. With the consent of Charles V., this district was
governed and exploited by the Welsers; but trouble soon arose
with the Spanish government, and the undertaking was abandoned
in 1555. After Bartholomew's death the business was carried
on by three of his sons and two of his nephews; but the firm
became bankrupt in 1614. Bartholomew's niece Philippine
(1527-1580), the daughter of his brother Francis (1497-1572),
married the Archduke Ferdinand, son of the emperor
Ferdinand I.
Perhaps the most famous member of the Welser family was
Antony's grandson, Marcus (1558-1614). Educated in Italy,
Marcus became burgomaster of Augsburg, but was more dis-
tinguished for his scholarship and his writings. The most im-
portant of his many works is his Rerum Boicarum libri quinque,
dealing with the early history of the Bavarians, which was
translated into German by the author's brother Paul (d. 1620).
His works, Marci Velseri opera historica et philologica, were
collected and published with a biography of Marcus by C. Arnold
(Nuremberg, 1682). The Augsburg branch of Welsers became
extinct in 1797, and a branch which settled at Nuremberg in
1878; but the Ulm branch of the family is still flourishing.
See K. Habler, Die uberseeischen Unternehmungen der Welser
(Leipzig, 1903); W. Boheim, Philippine Welser (Berlin, 1894);
and A. Klemschmidt, Augsburg, Niirnberg und ihre Handelsfiirsten
(Cassel, 1881).
WELSH LAWS, or LEGES WALLIAE. There is, comparatively
speaking, no great distance of time between the leges barbarorum
and the Laws of Wales, while the contents of the latter show a
similar, nay almost the same, idea of law as the former; and,
apart from the fact that Wales became permanently connected
at the end of the I3th century with a Teutonic people, the
English, it has been noticed that in Wales Roman and Germanic,
but no traces of a specific Welsh, law are found. King Howel
Dda (i.e. the Good), who died in 950, is the originator of the
Welsh code. 1 In the preface it is stated that Howel, " seeing
the laws and customs of the country violated with impunity,
summoned the archbishop of Menevia, ether bishops and the
chief of the clergy, the nobles of Wales, and six persons (four
laymen and two clerks) from each comot, to meet at a place
called Y Ty Gwyn ar Dav, or the white house on the river Tav,
repaired thither in person, selected from the whole assembly
twelve of the most experienced persons, added to their number
a clerk or doctor of laws, named Bllgywryd, and to these thirteen
confided the task of examining, retaining, expounding and
abrogating. Their compilation was, when completed, read to
1 There is no historical foundation for the legendary laws of a
prince Dymal (or Dyvnwal) Moel Mud, nor for the Laws of Marsia,
which are said to belong to a period before the Roman invasion,
even so early as 400 years before Christ. An English translation by
the side of the Welsh text of the so-called triads of Dyvnwal Moel
Mud is given by Owen, in The Ancient Laws of Wales.
the assembly, and, after having been confirmed, proclaimed.
Howel caused three copies to be written, one of which was to
accompany the court for daily use, another was deposited in
the court at Aberfraw, and a third at Dinevwr. The bishops
denounced sentence of excommunication against all transgressors,
and soon after Howel himself went to Rome attended by the
archbishop of St David's, the bishops of Bangor and St Asaph and
thirteen other personages. The laws were recited before the
pope and confirmed by his authority, upon which Howel and his
companions returned home." All this could not have been
effected before Howel had subjected Wales to his own rule,
therefore not before 943. We have three different recensions of
the code, one for Venedotia or North Wales, another for Dimetia
or South Wales, a third for Gwent or North-east Wales. We
do not know how far these recensions were uniform in the begin-
ning; but a variance must have occurred shortly after, for the
manuscripts in which the codes are preserved differ greatly from
each other. The code was originally compiled in Welsh, but we
have no older MSS. than the I2th century, and even the earliest
ones (especially those of the Venedotia recension) contain many
interpolations. The Latin translations of the cod.e would seem
to be very old, though even here we have no earlier MSS. (belong-
ing to the Dimetia recension) than the I3th century. The
Latin text is much shorter than the Welsh, but we do not know
whether this abridgment was made on purpose, or whether the
translation is an imitation of an earlier text. The texts present
only a few traces of Roman law, which, however, are evidently
additions of a later period.
The whole body of Welsh laws was published in one volume by
Aneurin Owen under the direction of the commissioners on the
public records as Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales (London,
1841). The text of Howel's laws has been edited by A. W. Wade-
Evans as Welsh Medieval Law (London, 1909).
WELSHPOOL (or Welchpool, so called because Pool, its
old name, led to confusion with Poole, in Dorsetshire; Welsh
Trallwm), a market town and municipal and contributary
parliamentary borough of Montgomeryshire, N. Wales, in
the upper Severn valley, on the Montgomeryshire canal and the
Cambrian railway, 8 m. N. of Montgomery, and 182 m. from
London. Pop. (1901) 6121. Its buildings and institutions
include the old Gothic church of St Mary, the Powysland Museum,
with local fossils and antiquities, and a library, vested (with
its science and art school) in the corporation in 1887. Powis
Castle (about a mile S.W. of the town) is the seat of Earl Powis,
and has been in the possession of the Herberts for many genera-
tions. The flannel manufacture has been transferred to Newtown,
but Welshpool has tweeds and woollen shawls, besides a fair
trade in agricultural produce, malting and tanning. The town
returned a member to parliament from 1536 to 1728, was again
enfranchised in 1832, and now (with Llanfyllin, Llanidloes,
Montgomery, Machynllethand Newtown) forms the Montgomery
district of parliamentary boroughs. A charter was granted
to the town by the lords of Powis, confirmed by James I. (1615),
and enlarged by Charles II. The castle was begun, in or about
1109, by Cadwgan ab Bleddyn ab Cynfyn (Cynvyn), and finished
by Gwenwynwyn; in 1196 it was besieged, undermined and
taken by Hubert, archbishop of Canterbury. Retaken by
Gwenwynwyn in 1197, it was dismantled by Llewelyn, prince
of N. Wales, in 1233. It then remained for several years in the
hands of the lords of Powis. During the Civil War, the then
lord Powis, a royalist, was imprisoned, and the castle was
later demolished. Powis Castle, being of red sandstone, is usually
called in Welsh Castell Coch (red castle). In the park is Llyn
du (black pool), whence Welshpool is said to be named.
WEH, a market town in the northern parliamentary division
of Shropshire, England, u m. N. of Shrewsbury on the
London & North Western railway. Pop. (1901), 3796. It is
a pleasantly situated town with a considerable agricultural
trade. The church of St Peter and St Paul retains a Norman
tower. Flour-milling and tanning are the chief industries. In
the neighbourhood is the splendid domain of Hawkstone.
In the reign of Edward the Confessor Wem was held as four
manors, but at the time of the Domesday Survey Willia
WEMBLEY WENCESLAUS
Pantulf was holding the whole as one manor of Roger, earl of
Shrewsbury, from whom it passed to the Botelers, barons of
Worn. The famous Judge Jeffreys was among the subsequent
lords of the manor and was created Baron Jeffreys of Wem in
1685, but upon the death of his only son and heir in 1720 the
title became extinct. The town was a borough by prescription,
but there appears to be no mention of burgesses before the
1 5th century. In 1459 Ralph, Lord Greystock, is said to have
granted a charter, no longer extant, to his tenants in the manor,
and in 1674 the freeholders, " borough-holders " and copy-
holders, of Wem brought an action against Daniel Wicherley,
then lord of the manor, for the establishment of customs and
privileges chiefly connected with the tenure of their lands and
tenements, which was decided in their favour. The borough
was governed by two bailiffs, both elected at the court leet of
the lord of the manor, one by his steward, the other by a borough
jury, but in the beginning of the igth century there were only
seventy-two burgesses and their rights seem to have gradually
disappeared. An urban district council was formed in 1900.
Wem has never been represented in parliament. The market
was originally held on Sunday under grant from John to Warin
Fitz Gerald in 1205, but in 1351, in consequence of a protest
from the archbishop of Canterbury, it was changed to Thursday,
on which day it is still held. The grant of 1205 also included
a fair at the feast of SS. Peter and Paul, which was maintained
until within recent years, when fairs were also held at the feast
of St Mark, chiefly for linen cloth, under grant from Charles I.
to Thomas Howard in 1636, and at the feast of St Martin,
bishop of Tours, for the sale of hops. A great fire which broke
out at Wem on the 3rd of March 1677 caused damage to the
extent of 23,677.
See Victoria County History, Shropshire; Samuel Garbet, The
History of Wem (1818).
WEMBLEY, an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, 10 m. W.N.W. of St Paul's
Cathedral, on the Metropolitan and London & North Western
railways. Pop. (1901) 4519. Wembley adjoins Sudbury on
the east; the district is residential, but lacks natural attractions
except in the case of Wembley Park, a pleasant wooded recrea-
tion ground, owned by a company. Here a tower was begun
on the lines of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and projected to exceed
it in height, reaching 1200 ft., but only a short stage was com-
pleted. The manor of Wembley belonged to the priory of
Kilburn until that foundation was dissolved by Henry VIII.
WEMYSS, EARLS OF, the title held by a Scottish family who
had possessed the lands of Wemyss in Fifeshire since the I2th
century, and of which various members had attained distinction.
In 1628 Sir John Wemyss, who had been created a baronet in
1625, was raised to the peerage as Baron Wemyss of Elcho ;
and in 1633 he became earl of Wemyss, and Baron Elcho and
Methel, in the peerage of Scotland. He took part with the
Scottish parliament against Charles I., and died in 1649. On
the death of David, 2nd earl of Wemyss (1610-1679), the estates
and titles passed to his daughter Margaret, countess of Wemyss,
whose son David, 3rd earl of Wemyss, succeeded on her death
in 1705. His son James, 4th earl (1699-1756), married a great
heiress, Janet, daughter of Colonel Francis Charteris, who had
made a large fortune by gambling. His son David, Lord Elcho
(1721-1787), was implicated in the Jacobite rising of 1745, and
was consequently attainted, the estates passing to his younger
brother James, while the title remained dormant after his father's
death, though it was assumed by Elcho's brother Francis, who
took the name of Charteris on inheriting his maternal grand-
father's estate. A reversal of the attainder was granted in
1826 to his descendant Francis Charteris Wemyss Douglas
(1772-1853), who had been created Baron Wemyss of Wemyss
in the peerage of the United Kingdom in 1821, and had assumed
the name of Charteris Wemyss Douglas on inheriting some of
the Douglas estates through a female ancestor. Thenceforward
the title descended in the direct line.
WEMYSS, a parish of Fifeshire, Scotland, embracing the
villages of East and West Wemyss and the police burgh of
Buckhaven, a fishing port lying on the northern shore of the
Firth of Forth, zj m. S.W. of Leven, on the North British
Railway Company's branch line from Thornton Junction to
Methil. Coal mining is the principal industry of the district,
the coal being exported from the port of Methil, of which the
harbour was constructed by David, 2nd earl of Wemyss (d. 1679),
the town being made a burgh of barony in 1662. Population of
Buckhaven, including Methil and Innerleven (1901), 8828;
of East Wemyss, 2522; of West Wemyss, 1253; of Wemyss
parish, 15,031. The district is of much archaeological and
historic interest. On the shore to the north-east are two
square towers which are supposed to have formed part of
Macduffs castle; and near them are the remarkable caves
(weems, from the Gaelic, uamha) from which the district derives
its name. Several of them contain archaic sculptures, held by
some to be the work of the Christian missionaries who found
shelter here; by others ascribed to the same prehistoric agency
as the inscribed stones of northern Scotland. Near East Wemyss
is Wemyss Castle, the ancient seat of the family of the same name
which has played a conspicuous part in Scottish history. It
was at Wemyss castle that Mary, queen of Scots, first met the
earl of Darnley, in 1565, and her room is still known as " the
Presence Chamber."
WENCESLAUS (1361-1419), German king, and, as Wenceslaus
IV., king of Bohemia, was the son of the emperor Charles IV.
and Anna, daughter of Henry II., duke of Schweidnitz. Born
at Nuremberg on the 26th of February 1361, he was crowned
king of Bohemia in June 1363, and invested with the margraviate
of Brandenburg in 1373. In September 1370 he married Joanna
(d. 1386) daughter of Albert I., duke of Bavaria, and was elected
king of the Romans or German king at Frankfort on the loth of
June 1376, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 6th of July
following. He took some part in the government of the empire
during his father's lifetime, and when Charles died in November
1378 became sole ruler of Germany and Bohemia, but handed
over Brandenburg to his half-brother Sigismund. His reign
was a period of confusion both in church and state, and although
he appears to have begun to rule with excellent intentions, he
was totally unfit to cope with the forces of disorder. Germany
was torn with feuds, the various orders for the establishment of
peace were disregarded, and after 1389 the king paid very little
attention to German affairs. In 1383 he inherited the duchy of
Luxemburg from his uncle Wenceslaus and in 1387 assisted his
half-brother Sigismund to obtain the Hungarian throne.
For some time Wenceslaus ruled Bohemia successfully, but he
fell under the influence of favourites and aroused the irritation
of the nobles. A quarrel with John II., archbishop of Prague,
which led to the murder of John's vicar-general, John of Pomuk,
at the instigation of the king, provoked a rising led by Jobst,
margrave of Moravia, a cousin of Wenceslaus; and in 1394 the
king was taken prisoner and only released under pressure of
threats from the German princes. Having consented to limita-
tions on his power in Bohemia, he made a further but spasmodic
effort to restore peace in Germany. He then met Charles VI.,
king of France at Reims, where the monarchs decided to persuade
the rival popes Benedict XIII. and Boniface IX. to resign, and
to end the papal schisms by the election of a new pontiff. Many
of the princes were angry at this abandonment of Boniface by
Wenceslaus, who had also aroused much indignation by his
long absence from Germany and by selling the title of duke of
Milan to Gian Galleazzo Visconti. The consequence was that in
August 1400 the four Rhenish electors met at Oberlahnstein and
declared Wenceslaus deposed. He was charged with attempting
to dismember the empire to his own advantage, with neglecting to
end the schism in the church, with allowing favourites to enrich
themselves, and was further accused of murder. Though he
remained in Bohemia he took no steps against Rupert III. count
palatine of the Rhine, who had been elected as his successor. He
soon quarrelled with Sigismund, who took him prisoner in 1402
and sent him to Vienna, where he remained in captivity for
nineteen months after abdicating in Bohemia. In 1404, when
Sigismund was recalled to Hungary, Wenceslaus regained his
5 i8
WEN-CHOW-FU WENLOCK
freedom and with it his authority in Bohemia; and after the death
of the German king Rupert in 1410 appears to have entertained
hopes of recovering his former throne. Abandoning this idea,
however, he voted for the election of Sigismund in 1411, but
stipulated that he should retain the title of king of the Romans.
His concluding years were disturbed by the troubles which arose
in Bohemia over the death of John Huss, and which the vacillat-
ing king did nothing to check until compelled by Sigismund.
In the midst of these disturbances he died at Prague on the i6th
of August 1419. His second wife was Sophia, daughter of John,
duke of Bavaria-Munich, but he left no children. Wenceslaus was
a capable and educated man, but was lacking in perseverance and
industry. He neglected business for pleasure and was much
addicted to drunkenness. He favoured the teaching of Huss,
probably on political grounds, but exercised very b'ttle influence
during the Hussite struggle.
See Th. Lindner, Geschichte des deutschen Reiches vom Ende des
i^len Jahrhunderts bis zur Reformation, part i. (Brunswick, 1875-
1880), and " Die Wahl Wenzels," in the Forschungen zur deutschen Ge-
schichte, Band xiv. (Gottingen, 1862-1886); F. M. Pelzel, Lebens-
geschichte des romischen und bohmischen Konigs Wenceslaus (Prague,
1788-1790); F. Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen, Bande iii. and iv.
(Prague, 1864-1874) ; H. Mau, Konig Wenzel und die rheinischen
Kurfursten (Rostock, 1887). The article by Th. Lindner in the
Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, Band xli., should also be consulted
for a bibliography, and also the same writer's work, Das Urkunden-
wesen Karls IV. und seiner Nachfolger (Stuttgart, 1882).
WEN-CHOW-FU, a prefectural city in the province of Cheh-
kiang, China, and one of the five ports opened by the Chifu
convention to foreign trade, situated (28 i' N., 120 31' E.) on the
south bank of the river Gow, about 20 m. from the sea. The
population is estimated at 80,000. The site is said to have
been chosen by Kwo P'oh (A.D. 276-324), a celebrated antiquary
who recognized in the adjacent mountain peaks a correspondence
with the stars in the constellation of the Great Bear, from which
circumstance the town was first known as the Tow or Great Bear
city. Subsequently the appearance in its vicinity of a white
deer carrying a flower in its mouth was deemed so favourable
an omen as to more than' justify the change of its name to Luh
or Deer city. Its present name, which signifies the " mild
district," and is correctly descriptive of the climate, though not of
the inhabitants, was given to it during the Ming dynasty (1368-
1644). The walls, which were built in the loth century, are about
4 m. in circumference, 35 ft. in height, and 12 ft. broad at the
top. The streets are paved with brick and are wide, straight and
clean. The gates, seven in number, were erected in 1598.
W6n-chow is about 1560 m. S.S.E. by road from Peking and
600 m. E.S.E. of Hankow. The British consul and the customs
outdoor staff occupy foreign-built houses on Conquest Island,
which lies abreast of the city. The neighbourhood is hilly and
pretty, while opposite the north-west gate Conquest Island
forms a picturesque object. The island is, however, more
beautiful than healthy. The port, which was opened to foreign
trade in 1876, has not justified the expectations which were
formed of it as a commercial centre, and in 1908 the direct
foreign trade was valued at 19,000 only.
There is no foreign settlement at Wen-chow, and the foreign
residents are mainly officials and missionaries. The tea trade of
WSn-chow-Fu, formerly important, has declined owing to care-
less cultivation. A considerable native export trade in wood,
charcoal, bamboo, medicines, paper umbrellas, oranges, otter
skins and tobacco leaf is carried on. The imports are chiefly
cotton yarn and piece goods, kerosene oil, palrh-leaf fans, aniline
dyes, sugar and matches.
WENDEN (Lettish Tseziz), a town of western Russia, in the
government of Livonia, 60 m. by rail N.E. of Riga. Pop. (1897)
6327. Here are the well preserved ruins of a former castle of the
Brethren of the Sword, afterwards (from 1237) of the grand-
master of the Teutonic Knights. In 1577 the garrison blew it
up to prevent it from falling into the hands of Ivan the Terrible
of Russia. It was rebuilt, but has been in ruins since a fire in
1748.
WENDOVER, a market town in the Aylesbury parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 33 m. N.W. of London
by the Metropolitan and the Great Central joint railway. Pop.
(1901) 2036. It is picturesquely situated in a shallow defile
of the Chiltern Hills, towards their western face. Wendover is
a quiet town of no great activity. Its church of St Mary is mainly
Decorated, and a few old houses remain.
Wendover (Wendovre, Wandovre, Wendoura) is on the Upper
Icknield Way, which was probably an ancient British road, and
various traces of a British settlement have been found in the
town and neighbourhood. In 1087 the king held the manor of
Wendover, and therefore it belonged to the ancient demesne
of the crown. There is no trace of any incorporation of the town.
Two burgesses were summoned to the parliaments of 1300, 1307
and 1309, but no further returns were made until 1625. In 1832
Wendover lost its right of separate representation. It is note-
worthy that John Hampden and Edmund Burke both repre-
sented the borough. In 1464 Edward IV. confirmed to his
tenants and the residents within the borough the market that
they had always held every Thursday. For a short period the
day was changed to Tuesday, but the market was given up
before 1888. Hugh de Gurnay held a fair in Wendover on the
eve, feast and morrow of St John the Baptist, granted him in
1214. Another fair was granted to John de Molyns in 1347-1348
on the eve, feast and morrow of St Barnabas, but in 1464 Edward
IV. granted two fairs to his tenants and residents in the borough,
to be held on the vigils, feasts and morrows of St Matthew
and of SS. Philip and James. These fairs have been held without
interruption till the present day, their dates being October 2
and May 13.
WENDS, the name applied by the Germans to the Slavs (q.v.
wherever they came in contact with them. It is now used for the
Slovenes (q.i'.}, for the Germanized Polabs (q.v.) in eastern
Hanover, and especially for the Lusatian Wends or Sorbs (q.v.).
It is first found in Pliny (Venedae) and in English is used by
Alfred.
WENDT, HANS HINRICH (1853- ), German Protestant
theologian, was born in Hamburg on the i8th of June 1853.
After studying theology at Leipzig, Gottingen and Tubingen, he
became in 1885 professor ordinarius of systematic theology at
Heidelberg, and in 1893 was called to Jena. His work on the
teaching of Jesus (Die Lehre Jesu, 1886-1890; Eng. trans,
of second part, 1892) made him widely known. He also edited
several editions (sth to 8th, 1880-1898) of the Commentary on
the Acts of the Apostles inH. A. W. Meyer's series. In May 1904
he delivered two addresses in London on " The Idea and Reality
of Revelation, and Typical Forms of Christianity," as t
Essex Hall Lectures (published, 1904).
His works include: Die chrislliche Lehre von der menschlick
Vollkommenheit (1882), Der Erfahrungsbeweis fur die Wahrheit des
Christentums (1897), and Do* Johannesevangelium (1900; Eng.
trans., 1902).
WENLOCK, a municipal borough in the Ludlow and Wellington
parliamentary divisions of Shropshire, England, extending on
both sides of the river Severn. Pop. (1901) 15,866. It includes
the market towns of BROSELEY, MADELEY and MUCH WENLOCK
(q.v.). The parish of Madeley includes the small towns of Iron-
bridge and Coalport, with part of COALBROOKEDALE (q.v.). The
district is in part agricultural, but contains limestone quarries,
some coal-mines and iron-works. The borough is under a mayor,
8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 22,657 acres.
Wenlock (Weneloche) is said to be of pre-Roman origin, but
owed its early importance to the nunnery founded c. 680 by
St Milburg, daughter of Merewald, king of Mercia. This was
destroyed by the Danes but refounded as a priory by Earl
Leofric in 1017. It was again deserted after the Conquest until
Roger de Montgomery founded a house of the Cluniac order on its
site. The town was a borough by prescription, and its privileges
began with the grants made to the priory and its tenants. It
was incorporated under the name of " Bailiff, Burgesses and
Commonalty " by Edward IV. in 1468 at the request of Sir John
Wenlock, Kt., and " in consideration of the laudable services
which the men of the town performed in assisting the king to
gain possession of the crown," and the charter was confirmed in
;
i
WENLOCK GROUP WENSLEYDALE, BARON
1547 by Henry VIII. and in 1631 by Charles I. The bailiff was to
be chosen annually by the burgesses, but his election seems to
have depended entirely upon the lord of the manor, and, after a
contest in 1821 between Lord Forester and Sir W. W. Wynne,
the lord of the manor at that date, was nominated by each of
them alternately. In the report of 1835 the borough is said to
consist of seventeen parishes and to be unfit for corporate govern-
ment. By the charter of Edward IV. the town obtained the
right of sending two members to parliament, but was disfranchised
in 1885. The first grant of a market and fair is dated 1227, when
the prior of Wenlock obtained licence to hold a fair on the vigil,
day and morrow of the Nativity of St John the Baptist, and
a market every Monday. The incorporation charter of 1468
granted these to the burgesses, who continue to hold them.
See Victoria County History: Shropshire; John Randall, Randall's
Tourists' Guide to Wenlock (1875); "Borough of Wenlock," The
Salopian and West Midland Monthly Illustrated Journal, March, April,
November, December, 1877, April and October, 1878, March, 1879
(1877-1879).
WENLOCK GROUP (Wenlockian), in geology, the middle
series of strata in the Silurian (Upper Silurian) of Great Britain.
This group in the typical area in the Welsh border counties
contains the following formations: Wenlock or Dudley lime-
stone, 90-300 ft.; Wenlock shale, up to 1900 ft.; Woolhope or
Barr limestone and shale, 150 ft.
The Woolhope beds consist mainly of shales which are generally
calcareous and pass frequently into irregular nodular and lenticular
limestone. In the Malvern Hills there is much shale at the base,
and in places the limestone may be absent. These beds are best
developed in Herefordshire; they appear also at May Hill in
Gloucestershire and in Radnorshire. Common fossils are Phacops
caudatus, Encrinurus punctatus, Orthis calligramma, Atrypa reti-
cularis, Orthoceras annulatum.
The Wenlock Shales are pale or dark-grey shales which extend
through Coalbrookdale in Shropshire, through Radnorshire into
Carmarthenshire. They appear again southward in the Silurian
patches in Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Monmouthshire.
They thicken from the south northward. The fossils are on the
whole closely similar to those in the limestones above with the
natural difference that corals are comparatively rare in the shales,
while graptolites are abundant. Six graptolite zones have been
recognized by Miss G. L. Elles in this formation.
The Wenlock limestone occurs either as a series of thin limestones
with thin shales or as thick massive beds; it is sometimes hard and
crystalline and sometimes soft, earthy or concretionary. It is
typically developed in Wenlock Edge, where it forms a striking
feature for some 20 m. It appears very well exposed in a sharp
anticline at Dudley, whence it is sometimes called the " Dudley
limestone"; it occurs also at Aymestry, Ludlow, Woolhope, May
Hill, Usk and Malvern. The fossils include corals in great variety
(Italy sites catenularis, Favosites aspera, Heliolites tnlerstinctus),
crinoids (Crotalocrinus, Marsupiocrinus, Periechocrinus), often very
beautiful specimens, and trilobites (Calytnene Blumenbachii, the
" Dudley locust," Phacops caudatus, Illaenus (Bumbastes)barriensis,
Homolonotus delphinocephalus). Merostomatous crustaceans make
their first appearance here(Eurypterus punctatus, Hemiaspis horridus).
Brachiopods are abundant (Alrypa reticularis, Spirifer plicatilis,
Rhynchonella cuneata, Orthis, Leptaena, Pentamerus) ; lameltibranchs
include the genera Avicula, Cardiola, Grammysia; Murchisonia,
Bellerophon, Omphalotrochus are common gasteropod genera. Conu-
laria Sowerbyi is by no means rare, and there are several common
cephalopod genera (Orthoceras, Phragmoceras, Trochoceras).
The greater part of the known Silurian fauna of Britain comes
from Wenlock rocks; J. Davidson and G. Maw obtained no fewer
than 25,000 specimens of brachiopods from 7 tons of the shale.
Not only are there many different genera and species but individually
certain forms are very numerous. The three principal zonal
graptolites are, from above downwards: Monograplus testis, Cyrto-
graptus Linnarssoni, Cyrtograptus Murchisoni.
When traced northward into Denbighshire and Merionethshire
the rocks change their character and become more slaty or arenace-
ous; they are represented in this area by the " Moel Ferna Slates,"
the " Pen-y-glog Grit," and " Pen-y-glog Slates," all of which belong
to the lower part of a great series (3000 ft.) of slates and grits known
as the " Denbighshire Grits." Similar deposits occur on this horizon
still farther north, in the Lake district, where the Wenlock rocks
are represented by the " Brathay Flags " (lower part of the Coniston
Flags series), and in southern Scotland, where their place is taken
by the variable " Riccarton beds " of Kirkcudbright Shore, Dumfries-
shire, Riccarton and the Cheviots; by greywackes and shales in
Lanarkshire; by mudstones, shales and grits in the Pentland Hills,
and in the Girvan area by the " Blair " and " Straiten beds." In
Ireland the " Ferriters Cove beds," a thick series of shales, slates
and sandstones with lavas and tuffs in the Dingle promontory ; the
" Mweelrea beds " and others in Tipperary and Mayo are of Wenlock
age. Lime and flagstones are the most important economic products
of the British Wenlock rocks.
See the article SILURIAN, and for recent papers, Geological Litera-
ture, Geol. Soc., London, annual, and the Q.J. Geol. Soc., London.
(J. A. H.)
WENNERBERG, GUNNAR (1817-1901), Swedish poet,
musician and politician, was born at Lidkoping, of which place
his father was parish priest, on the 2nd of October 1817. He
passed through the public school of Skara, and in his twentieth
year became a student at Upsala. He was remarkable from the
first, handsome in face and tall in figure, with a finely trained
singing voice, and brilliant in wit and conversation. From the
outset of his career he was accepted in the inner circle of men of
light and leading for which the university was at that time
famous. In 1843 he became a member of the musical club who
called themselves " The Juvenals," and for their meetings were
written the trios and duets, music and words, which Wennerberg
began to publish in 1846. In the following year appeared the
earliest numbers of Gluntarne (or " The Boys "), thirty duets for
baritone and bass, which continued to be issued from 1847 to
1850. The success of these remarkable productions, master-
pieces in two arts, was overwhelming: they presented an
epitome of all that was most unique and most attractive in the
curious university life of Sweden. In the second volume of his
collected works Wennerberg gave, long afterwards, a very
interesting account of the inception and history of these cele-
brated duets. His great personal popularity, as the representa-
tive Swedish student, did not prevent him, however, from
pursuing his studies, and he became an authority on Spinoza.
In 1850 he first travelled through Sweden, singing and reciting in
public, and his tour was a long popular triumph. In 1860 he
published his collected trios, as The Three. In 1865, at the
particular wish of the king, Charles XV., Wennerberg entered
official life in the department of elementary education. He
succeeded Fahlcrantz in 1866 as one of the eighteen of the
Swedish Academy, and in 1870 became minister for education
(Ekklesiastikminisler) in the Adlercreutz government, upon the
fall of which in 1875 he retired for a time into private life. He
was, however, made lord-lieutenant in the province of Kronoberg,
and shortly afterwards was elected to represent it in the Diet.
His active parliamentary life continued until he was nearly
eighty years of age. In 1881 and 1885 he issued his collected
works, mainly in verse. In 1893 he was elected to the upper
house. He preserved his superb appearance in advanced old
age, and he died, after a very short illness, on the 24th of August
1901, at the royal castle of Lecko, where he was visiting his
brother-in-law, Count Axel Rudenschold. His wife, the Countess
Hedvig Cronstedt, whom he married in 1852, died in 1900.
Wennerberg was a most remarkable type of the lyrical, ardent
Swedish aristocrat, full of the joy of life and the beauty of it.
In the long roll of his eighty-four years there was scarcely a
crumpled rose-leaf. His poems, to which their musical accom-
paniment is almost essential, have not ceased, in half a
century, to be universally pleasing to Swedish ears; outside
Sweden it would be difficult to make their peculiarly local
charm intelligible. (E. G.)
WENSLEYDALE, JAMES PARKE, BARON (1782-1868),
English judge, was born near Liverpool on the 22nd of March
1782. He was educated at Macclesfield grammar school and
Trinity College, Cambridge. He had a brilliant career at the
university, winning the Craven scholarship, Sir William Browne's
gold medal, and being fifth wrangler and senior chancellor's
medallist in classics. Called to the bar at the Inner Temple he
rapidly acquired an excellent common law practice and in 1828
was raised to the king's bench, while still of the junior bar. In
1834 he was transferred from the king's bench to the court of
exchequer, where for some twenty years be exercised considerable
influence. The changes introduced by the Common Law
Procedure Acts of 1854, 1855 proved too much for his legal
conservatism and he resigned in December of the latter year.
The government, anxious to have his services as a law lord in the
House of Lords, proposed to confer on him a life peerage, but this
520
WENSLEYDALE WENTWORTH (FAMILY)
was opposed by the House of Lords (see PEERAGE) , and he was
eventually created a peer with the usual remainder (1856). He
died at his residence, Ampthill Park, Bedfordshire, on the 25th
of February 1868, and having outlived his three sons, the title
became extinct.
WENSLEYDALE, the name given to the upper part of the
valley of the river Ure in the North Riding, Yorkshire, England.
It is celebrated equally for its picturesque scenery and for the
numerous points of historical and other interest within it. The
Ure rises near the border of Yorkshire and Westmorland, in
the uplands of the Pennine Chain. Its course is generally
easterly as long as it is confined by these uplands, but on de-
bouching upon the central plain of Yorkshire it takes a south-
easterly turn and flows past Ripon and Boroughbridge to form,
by its union with the Swale, the river Ouse, which drains to the
Humber. The name Wensleydale is derived from the village
of Wensley, some 25 m. from the source of the river, and is
primarily applied to a section of the valley extending 10 m.
upstream from that point, but is generally taken to embrace
the whole valley from its source to a point near Jervaulx abbey,
a distance of nearly 40 m., below which the valley widens out
upon the plain. The dale is traversed by a branch of the North-
Eastern railway from Northallerton.
As far up as Hawes, the dale presents a series of landscapes
in which the broken limestone crags of the valley-walls and the
high-lying moors beyond them contrast finely with the rich land
at the foot of the hills. Beyond Hawes, towards the source,
the valley soon becomes wide, bare and shallow, less rich in
contrast, but wilder. On both sides throughout the dale numer-
ous narrow tributary vales open out. Small wateifalls are
numerous. The chief are Aysgarth Force, on the main stream,
Mill Gill Force on a tributary near Askrigg, and Hardraw Scaur
beyond Hawes, the finest of all, which shoots forth over a
projecting ledge of limestone so as to leave a clear passage
behind it. The surrounding cliffs complete a fine picture. The
small river Bain, joining the Ure near Askrigg, forms a pretty
lake called Semerer or Semmer Water, J m. in length.
Following the valley upward, the points of chief interest apart
from the scenery are these. JERVAULX ABBEY was founded in 1156
by Cistercians from Byland, who had previously settled near Askrigg.
The remains are mainly transitional Norman and Early English, and
are not extensive. Of the great church hardly any fragments rise
above ground-level, but the chapter-house, refectory and cloisters
remain in part, and the ivy-clad ruins stand in a beautiful setting of
woodland. Above the small town of MIDDLEHAM, where there are
large training stables, rises the Norman keep of Robert Fitz-Ranulph,
which passed to the Nevills, being held by the " King-maker,"
Warwick. The subsidiary buildings date down to the I4th century.
In Cover Dale near Middleham is the ruined Premonstratensian
abbey of COVERHAM, founded here in the I3th century and retaining
a gatehouse and other portions of Decorated date. Farther up
Wensleydale BOLTON CASTLE stands high on the north side. This
was the stronghold of the Scropes, founded by Richard I.'s chan-
cellor of that name. Its walls, four corner-towers and fine position
still give it an appearance of great strength.
WENTWORTH, the name of an English family distinguished
in the parliamentary history of the i6th and i7th centuries.
The Wentworths traced descent from William Wentworth
(d. 1308) of Wentworth Woodhouse, in Yorkshire, who was
the ancestor of no fewer than eight distinct lines of the family,
two main branches of which were settled in the I4th century
at Wentworth Woodhouse and North Elmshall respectively.
From the elder, or Wentworth Woodhouse branch, were
descended Thomas Wentworth the celebrated earl of Strafford
(q.v.), and through him the Watson- Wentworths, marquesses
of Rockingham in the i8th century, and the earls Fitz William
of the present day. To the younger branch belonged Roger
Wentworth (d. 1452), great-great-grandson of the above-
mentioned William. Roger, who was a son of John Wentworth
(fl. 1413) of North Elmshall, Yorkshire, acquired the manor
of Nettlestead in Suffolk in right of his wife, a grand-daughter
of Robert, Baron Tibetot, in whose lands this manor had been
included, and who died leaving an only daughter in 1372.
Roger's son Henry (d. 1482) was twice married; by his first
wife he was the ancestor of the Wentworths of Gosfield, Essex;
by his second of the Wentworths of Lillingstone Lovell, Bucking-
hamshire. 1 Another of Roger Wentworth's sons, Sir Philip
Wentworth, was the grandfather of Margery, wife of Sir John
Seymour, mother of the Protector Somerset and of Henry VIII. 's
wife Jane Seymour, and grandmother of King Edward VI.
Margery's brother Sir Robert Wentworth (d. 1528) married a
daughter of Sir James Tyrrell, the reputed murderer of Edward V.
and his brother in the Tower; and Sir Robert's son by this
marriage, Thomas Wentworth (1501-1551), was summoned to
parliament by writ in 1529 as Baron Wentworth of Nettlestead.
He was one of the peers who signed the letter to the pope in
favour of Henry VIII. 's divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and
was one of the judges of Anne Boleyn. He was lord chamber-
lain to Edward VI., and died in 1551 leaving sixteen children.
THOMAS WENTWORTH, 2nd Baron Wentworth of Nettlestead
(1525-1584), was the eldest son of the above-mentioned ist
baron. He served with distinction under his relative the Pro-
tector Somerset at the battle of Pinkie in 1547; but in 1551 he
was one of the peers who condemned Somerset to death on a
charge of felony. He was a trusted counsellor of Queen Mary,
who appointed him deputy of Calais. Wentworth was the
last Englishman to hold this post, for on the 7th of January
1558 he was compelled to surrender Calais to the French, his
representations as to the defenceless condition of the fortress
having been disregarded by the English Council some years
earlier. Wentworth himself remained in France as a prisoner
of war for more than a year, and on his return to England in
1559 he was sent to the Tower for having surrendered Calais;
but he was acquitted of treason. He died on the i3th of January
1584. His eldest son William married a daughter of Lord
Burghley, but predeceased his father, whose peerage consequently
passed to his second son Henry (1558-1593), who was one of the
judges of Mary, queen of Scots, at Fotheringay in 1586.
THOMAS WENTWORTH, ist earl of Cleveland (1591-1667),
was the eldest son of Henry, whom he succeeded as 4th Baron
Wentworth of Nettlestead in 1593. In 1614 he inherited from
an aunt the estate of Toddihgton in Bedfordshire, till then the
property of the Cheyney family, and here he made his principal
residence. In 1626 he was created earl of Cleveland, and in
the following year he served under Buckingham in the expedi-
tion to La Rochelle. Adhering to the king's cause in the parlia-
mentary troubles, he attended his kinsman Strafford at his
execution, and afterwards was a general on the royalist side
in the Civil War until he was taken prisoner at the second
battle of Newbury. Cleveland commanded a cavalry regiment
at Worcester in 1651, when he was again taken prisoner, and-
he remained in the Tower till 1656. He died on the 25th of
March 1667. His early extravagance and the fortunes of war
had greatly reduced his estates, and Nettlestead was sold in
1643. Cleveland was described by Clarendon as " a man of
signal courage and an excellent officer"; his cavalry charge
at Cropredy Bridge was one of the most brilliant incidents in
the Civil War, and it was by his bravery and presence of mind
that Charles II. was enabled to escape from Worcester. At his
death the earldom of Cleveland became extinct. He outlived
his son Thomas (1613-1645), who was called up to the House of
Lords in his father's lifetime as Baron Wentworth, and who
daughter Henrietta Maria became Baroness Wentworth in he
own right on her grandfather's death. This lady, who wa
the duke of Monmouth's mistress, died unmarried in 1686.
The barony of Wentworth then reverted to Cleveland's daughte
Anne, who married the 2nd Lord Lovelace, from whom it
passed to her grand-daughter Martha (d. 1745), wife of Sir
Henry Johnson, and afterwards to a descendant of Anne's
daughter Margaret, Edward Noel, who was created Viscount
Wentworth of Wellesborough in 1762. The viscountcy became
extinct at his death, and the barony again passed through the
female line in the person of Noel's daughter Judith to the
latter's daughter Anne Isabella, who married Lord Byron the
1 In the i6th century Lillingstone Lovell was in Oxfordshire, that
portion of the county being surrounded by Buckinghamshire, with
which it was afterwards incorporated.
WENTWORTH, W. C. WENZEL
521
poet; and from her to Byron's daughter Augusta Ada, whose
husband was in 1838 created earl of Lovelace. The barony of
Wont worth was thereafter held by the descendants of this
nobleman in conjunction with the earldom of Lovelace.
PAUL WENTWORTH (1533-1593), a prominent member of
parliament in the reign of Elizabeth, was a member of the
Lillingstone Lovell branch of the family (see above). His father
Sir Nicholas Wentworth (d. 1557) was chief porter of Calais.
Paul Wentworth was of puritan sympathies, and he first came
into notice by the freedom with which in 1566 he criticized
Elizabeth's prohibition of discussion in parliament on the
question of her successor. Paul, who was probably the author
of the famous puritan devotional book Ttte Miscellanie, or
Ki'acstrie and Methodicall Directorie of Orizons (London, 1615),
died in 1593. He became possessed of Burnham Abbey through
his wife, to whose first husband, William Tyldesley, it had been
granted at the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII.
PETER WENTWORTH (1530-1596) was the elder brother of
the above-mentioned Paul, and like his brother was a prominent
puritan leader in parliament, which he first entered as member
for Barnstaple in 1571. He took a firm attitude in support
of the liberties of parliament against encroachments of the royal
prerogative, on which subject he delivered a memorable speech
on the 8th of February 1576, for which after examination by
the Star Chamber he was committed to the Tower. In February
1587 Sir Anthony Cope (1548-1614) presented to the Speaker
a bill abrogating the existing ecclesiastical law, together with
a puritan revision of the Prayer Book, and Wentworth supported
him by bringing forward certain articles touching the liberties
of the House of Commons; Cope and Wentworth were both
committed to the Tower for interference with the queen's ecclesi-
astical prerogative. In 1 593 Wentworth again suffered imprison-
ment for presenting a petition on the subject of the succession
to the Crown; and it is probable that he did not regain his
freedom, for he died in the Tower on the icth of November 1596.
While in the Tower he wrote A Pithie Exhortation to her Majesty
for establishing her Successor to the Crown, a famous treatise
preserved in the British Museum. Peter Wentworth was twice
married; his first wife, by whom he had no children, was a
cousin of Catherine Parr, and his second a sister of Sir Francis
\VaIsingham, Elizabeth's secretary of state. His third son,
Thomas Wentworth (c. 1568-1623), was an ardent and some-
times a violent opponent of royal prerogative in parliament,
of which he became a member in 1604, continuing to represent
the city of Oxford from that year until his death. He was
called to the bar in 1594 and became recorder of Oxford in 1607.
Another son, Walter Wentworth, was also a member of parlia-
ment.
SIR PETER WENTWORTH (1592-1675) was a grandson of
Peter Wentworth, being the son of Peter's eldest son Nicholas,
from whom he inherited the manor of Lillingstone Lovell.
As sheriff of Oxfordshire in 1634 he was charged with the duty
of collecting the levy of ship-money, in which he encountered
popular opposition. He was member for Tamworth in the Long
Parliament, but refused to act as a commissioner for the trial
of Charles I. He was a member of the council of state during
the Commonwealth; but was denounced for immorality by
Cromwell in April 1653, and his speech in reply was interrupted
by Cromwell's forcible expulsion of the. Commons. Sir Peter,
who was a friend of Milton, died on the ist of December 1675,
having never been married. By his will he left a legacy to
Milton, and considerable estates to his grand-nephew Fisher
Dilke, who took the name of Wentworth; and this name was
borne by his descendants until dropped in the i8th century by
\\Yntworth Dilke Wentworth, great-grandfather of Sir Charles
Wentworth Dilke (q.v.).
See W. L. Rutton, Three Branches of the Family of Wentworth of
Nettlestead (London, 1891); Joseph Foster, Pedigrees of the County
Families of Yorkshire (2 vols., London, 1874) ; Charles Wriothesley,
Chronicle of England during the Reigns of the Tudors, edited by W. P.
Hamilton (2 vols., London, 1875-1877); Bulstrode Whitelocke,
Memorials of the English Affairs: Charles I. to the Restoration
(London, 1732); John Strype, Annals of the Reformation (7 vols.,
Oxford, 1824) ; Mark Noble, Lives of the English Regicides (2 vols.,
London, 1798) containing; a memoir of Sir Peter Wentworth; Lord
Clarendon, History of the Rebellion (7 vols., Oxford, 1839), and
Calendar of the Clarendon State Papers ; S. R. Gardiner, History of
England from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil
War (10 vols., London, 1883-1884), and History of the Great Civil
War, 1642-1649 (3 vols., London, 1886-1891); 1. A. Froude,
History of England (12 vols., London, 1856-1870); G. E. C., Com-
plete Peerage, vol. viii. (London, 1898). See also articles " Went-
worth " by A. F. Pollard, C. H. Firth and Sir C. W. Dilke, in Diet.
Nat. Biog. (London, 1899). (R. J. M.)
WENTWORTH, WILLIAM CHARLES (1793-1872), the
" Australian patriot," who claimed descent from the great
Strafford, but apparently without sufficient reason, was born
in 1793 in Norfolk Island, the penal settlement of New South
Wales, where his father D'Arcy Wentworth, an Irish gentleman
of Roscommon family, who had emigrated in 1790 and later
became a prominent official, was then government surgeon.
The son was educated in England, but he spent the interval
between his schooling at Greenwich and his matriculation (1816)
at Peterhouse, Cambridge, in Australia, and early attracted
the attention of Governor Macquarie by some adventurous
exploration in the Blue Mountains. In 1819 he published in
London a work on Australasia in two volumes, and in 1823
he only just missed the chancellor's medal at Cambridge (won
by W. M. Praed) with a stirring poem on the same subject.
Having been called to the bar, he returned to Sydney, and soon
obtained a fine practice. With a fellow barrister, Wardell, he
started a newspaper, the Australian, in 1824, to advocate the
cause of self-government and to champion the " emancipists "
the incoming class of ex-convicts, now freed and prospering
against the " exclusivists " the officials and the more aristo-
cratic settlers. With Wardell, Dr William Bland and others,
he formed the " Patriotic Association," and carried on a deter-
mined agitation both in Australia and in England, where they
found able supporters. The earlier object of their attack -was
the governor, Sir Ralph Darling, who was recalled in 1831 in
consequence, though he was acquitted by a select committee
of the House of Commons of the charges brought against him
by Wentworth in connexion with his severe punishment of two
soldiers, Sudds and Thompson, who had perpetrated a robbery
in order to obtain their discharge (a favourite dodge at the
time), and one of whom, Sudds, had died. Wentworth continued,
under the succeeding governor, Sir Richard Bourke, who was
guided by him, and Sir George Gipps, with whom he had constant
differences, to exercise a powerful influence; and in 1842, when
the Constitution Act was passed, it was generally recognized as
mainly his work. He became a member of the first legislative
council and led the " squatter party." He was the founder of
the university of Sydney (1852), where his son afterwards founded
bursaries in his honour; and he led the movement resulting in
the new constitution for the colony (1854), subsequently (1861)
becoming president of the new legislative council. But things
had meanwhile moved fast in the colony, and Wentworth 's
old supremacy had waned, since Robert Lowe (afterwards Lord
Sherbrooke) and others had come into prominence in the political
arena. He had done his work for colonial autonomy, and was
becoming an old man, somewhat out of touch with the new
generation. For some years before 1861 he stayed chiefly in
England, where in 1857 he founded the " General Association for
the Australian Colonies," with the object of obtaining from the
government a federal assembly for the whole of Australia;
and -in 1862 he definitely settled in England, dying on the 2Oth
of March 1872. His body was taken to Sydney and accorded
a public funeral by the unanimous vote of the New South Wales
legislature.
WENZEL, KARL FRIEDRICH (1740-1793), German metal-
lurgist, was born at Dresden in 1740. Disliking his father's
trade of bookbinding, for which he was intended, he left home
in 1755, and after taking lessons in surgery and chemistry at
Amsterdam, became a ship's surgeon in the Dutch service. In
1766, tired of sea-life, he went to study chemistry at Leipzig,
and afterwards devoted himself to metallurgy and assaying at
his native place with such success that in 1 780 he was appointed
522
WEPENER WERGILD
chemist to the Freiberg foundries by the elector of Saxony.
In 1785 he became assessor to the superintending board of the
foundries, and in 1786 chemist to th,e porcelain works at Meissen.
He died at Freiberg on the 26th of February 1793.
In consequence of the quantitative analyses he performed of a
large number of salts, he has been credited with the discovery of the
law of neutralization ( Vorlesungen tiber die chemische Verwandtschaft
der Korper, 1777). But this attribution rests on a mistake first
made by J. J. Berzelius and copied by subsequent writers, and
Wenzel's published work (as pointed out by G. H. Hess in 1840)
does not warrant the conclusion that he realized the existence of
any law of invariable and reciprocal proportions in the combinations
of acids and bases.
WEPENER, a town of the Orange Free State, 82 m. by rail
S.E. of Bloemfontein, and 2 m. W. of the Basuto border. Pop.
(1904) 1366, of whom 822 were whites. It lies in a rich grain
district, and 3 m. north by the Caledon river are large flour mills.
The town, named after the leader of the Boers in their war with
the Basuto chief Moshesh in 1865, was founded in 1888. In
April 1900 it was successfully defended against the Boers under
Christiaan de Wet by a Cape force of Irregulars commanded
by Colonel E. H. Dalgety.
WERDAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
on the Pleisse, in the industrial district of Zwickau, and 40 m. S.
of Leipzig. Pop. (1905) 19,473. Its chief industries are cotton
and wool-spinning and the weaving of cloth, but machinery of
various kinds, paper and a few other articles are also manu-
factured. In addition to the usual schools, Werdau contains a
weaving-school. The town is mentioned as early as 1304 and
in 1398 it was purchased by the margrave of Meissen, who
afterwards became elector of Saxony.
See Stichard, Chronik der Fabrikstadt Werdau (and ed., Werdau,
1865).
WERDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
on the river Ruhr, 6 m. by rail S. of Essen. Pop. (1905) 11,029.
It has an interesting Roman Catholic church which belonged to
the Benedictine abbey founded about 800 by St Ludger, whose
stone coffin is preserved in the crypt. The abbey buildings
are used as a prison. The manufacture of cloth, woollens,
shoes and paper, dyeing, tanning, brewing and distilling are the
principal industries. In the neighbourhood are stone quarries
and coal mines. Werden grew up around the Benedictine abbey,
which was dissolved in 1802. The Codex Argenteus of Ulfilas, now
in the university library at Upsala, was discovered here in the
1 6th century.
See Flugge, Chronik der Stadt Werden (Dusseldorf, 1887) ; and
Fiihrer durch Werden (Werden, 1887).
WERDER, KARL WILHELM FRIEDRICH AUGUST LEO-
POLD, COUNT VON (1808-1887), Prussian general, entered the
Prussian Gardes du Corps in 1825, transferring the following year
into the Guard Infantry, with which he served for many years as
a subaltern. In 1839 he was appointed an instructor in the
Cadet Corps, and later he was employed in the topographical
bureau of the Great General Staff. In 1842-1843 he took part in
the Russian operations in the Caucasus, and on his return to
Germany in 1846, was placed, as a captain, on the staff. In
1 848 he married. Regimental and staff duty alternately occupied
him until 1863, when he was made major-general, and given the
command of a brigade of Guard Infantry. In the Austrian War
of 1866 von Werder greatly distinguished himself at Gitschin
(JiCin) and Koniggratz at the head of the 3rd division. He
returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general and the order
pour le merile. In 1870, at first employed with the 3rd Army
Headquarters and in command of the Wurttemberg and Baden
forces, he was after the battle of Worth entrusted with the
operations against Strassburg, which he captured after a long
and famous siege. Promoted general of infantry, and assigned
to command the new XI Vth Army Corps, he defeated the French
at Dijon and at Nuits, and, when Bourbaki's army moved forward
to relieve Belfort, turned upon him and fought the desperate
action of Villersexel, which enabled him to cover the Germans
besieging Belfort. On the i sth, i6th and 1 7th of January 1871,
von Werder with greatly inferior forces succeeded in holding his
own on the Lisaine against all Bourbaki's efforts to reach Belfoi
a victory which aroused great enthusiasm in southern Germany.
After the war von Werder commanded the Baden forces, now
called the XlVth Army Corps, until he retired in 1879. On his
retirement he was raised to the dignity of count. He died in
1887 at Griissow in Pomerania. The 3oth (4th Rhenish) Infantry
regiment bears his name, and there is a statue of von Werder
at Freiburg in the Breisgau.
See von Conrady, Leben des Graf en A. von Werder (Berlin, 1889).
WERGELAND, HENRIK ARNOLD (1808-1845), Norwegian
poet and prose writer, was born at Christiansand on the i7th of
June 1 808. He was the eldest son of Professor Nikolai Wergeland
(1780-1848), who had been a member of the constitutional
assembly which proclaimed the independence of Norway in
1814 at Eidsvold. Nikolai was himself pastor of Eidsvold, and
the poet was thus brought up in the very holy of holies of Nor-
wegian patriotism. He entered the university of Christiania
in 1825 to study for the church, and was soon the leader of a band
of enthusiastic young men who desired to revive in Norway
the .spirit and independence of the old vikings. His earliest
efforts in literature were wild and formless. He was full of
imagination, but without taste or knowledge. He published
poetical farces under the pseudonym of " Siful Sifadda ";
these were followed in 1828 by an unsuccessful tragedy; and
in 1829 by a volume of lyrical and patriotic poems, Digle, forsi
Ring, which attracted the liveliest attention to his name,
the age of twenty-one he became a power in literature, and hii
enthusiastic preaching of the doctrines of the revolution of July
made him a force in politics also. Meanwhile he was tireless
in his efforts to advance the national cause. He established
popular libraries, and tried to alleviate the widespread poverty
of the Norwegian peasantry. He preached the simple life,
denounced foreign luxuries, and set an example by wearing
Norwegian homespun. But his numerous and varied writings
were coldly received by the critics, and a monster epic, Skabelsen,
Mennesket og Messias (Creation, Man and Messiah), 1830,
showed no improvement in style. It was remodelled in 1845 as
Mennesket. From 1831 to 1835 Wergeland was submitted
severe satirical attacks from J. S. le Welhaven and others, a
his style improved in every respect. His nationalist politii
propaganda lacked knowledge and system. His partisans were
alienated by his inconsistent admiration for King Carl Johan,
by his unpopular advocacy of the Jewish cause, and by the
extravagance of his methods generally. His popularity waned
as his poetry improved, and in 1840 he found himself a really
great lyric poet, but an exile from political influence. In that
year he became keeper of the royal archives. He died on thi
1 2th of July 1845. In 1908 a statue was erected to his memo
by his compatriots at Fargo, North Dakota. His Jan
Huysums Blomsterstykke (1840), Svalen (1841), Joden (1842
Jodinden (1844) and Den Engelske Lods (1844), form a series
narrative poems in short lyrical metres which remain the mi
interesting and important of their kind in Norwegian literatu
He was less successful in other branches of letters; in the dra:
neither his Campbellerne (1837), Venelianerne (1843), OOT Sok
detlerne (1848), achieved any lasting success; while his elabora
contribution to political history, Norges Konstitutions Hist:
(1841-1843), is forgotten. The poems of his later years inclu<
many lyrics of great beauty, which are among the permane
treasures of Norwegian poetry.
Wergeland's Samlede Skrifter (9 vols., Christiania, 1852-1857^
were edited by H. Lassen, the author of Henrik Wergeland og han
Samtid (1866), and the editor of his Breve (1867). See also
H. Schwanenfliigel, Henrik Wergeland (Copenhagen, 1877); and
J. G. Kraft, Norsk Forfatter-Lexikon (Christiania, 1857), for a
detailed bibliography.
WERGILD, WERGELD or WER, the Anglo-Saxon terms for t
fine paid by, e.g. a murderer to the relatives of the dece
in proportion to the rank of the latter. The wer was part of t
early Teutonic and Celtic customary law, and represented t
substitution of compensation for personal retaliation, resulti
from the rise in authority of the power of the community as su<
(See CRIMINAL LAW; HOMICIDE; and TEUTONIC PEOPLES.)
.11V1
2
his
WERMELSKIRCHEN WERNER
523
WERMELSKIRCHEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
Rhine province, situated 4 m. S.W. from Lennep by rail and at the
junction of a line to Remscheid. Pop. (1900) 15,469. It contains
an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church and a Latin school.
Wermelskirchen is the centre of many thriving industries, chief
among which are the manufacture of silks, cotton and silk
ribbons, plush, tobacco and steel goods.
WERMUND, an ancestor of the Mercian royal family, a son
of Wihtlaeg and father of Offa. He appears to have reigned in
Angel, and his story is preserved by certain Danish historians,
especially Saxo Grammaticus. According to these traditions, his
reign was long and happy, though its prosperity was eventually
marred by the raids of a warlike king named Athislus, who slew
Frowinus, the governor of Schleswig, in battle. Frowinus's
death was avenged by his two sons, Keto and Wigo, but their
conduct in fighting together against a single man was thought
to form a national disgrace, which was only obliterated by
the subsequent single combat of Offa. It has been suggested
that Athislus, though called king of the Swedes by Saxo, was
really identical with the Eadgils, lord of the Myrgingas, men-
tioned in Widsith. As Eadgils was a contemporary of Ermanaric
(Eormenric), who died about 370, his date would agree with the
indication given by the genealogies which place Wermund nine
generations above Penda. Frowinus and Wigo are doubtless to
be identified with the Freawine and Wig who figure among the
ancestors of the kings of Wessex.
For the story of the aggression against Wermund in his later
years, told by the Danish historians and also by the Vitae duorum
0/arum, see OFFA; also Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum, edited
by A. Holder, pp. 105 ff. (Strassburg, 1886); Vitae duorum Of arum
(in Wats's edition of Matthew Paris/London, 1640). See also H. M.
Chadwick, Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge, 1907).
WERNER, ANTON ALEXANDER VON (1843- ), German
painter, was born at Frankfort-on-t he-Oder, on the 9th of May
1843. He first studied painting at the Berlin Academy, pursued
his studies at Carlsruhe, and, having won a travelling scholarship
upon the exhibition of his early works, he visited Paris in 1867,
and afterwards Italy, where he remained for some time. On his
return he received several state commissions, and on the out-
break of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 he was sent with the
staff of the third corps d'armee, and stayed in France till the
close of the campaign. In 1873 he was appointed professor at
the Berlin Academy, of which he afterwards became director.
Among his more important works must be named " The Capitula-
tion of Sedan," " Proclamation of the German Empire at
Versailles," " Moltke before Paris," " Moltke at Versailles,"
" The Meeting of Bismarck and Napoleon III.," " Christ and
the Tribute Money," " William I. visiting the Tombs," " The
Congress of Berlin," and some decorations executed in mosaic
for the Triumphal Arch at Berlin. Von Werner's work is chiefly
interesting for the historic value of his pictures of the events of
the Franco-German War.
See Kunst fur Alle, vol. i.; Knackfuss, Kunstler-Monographieen,
No. 9.
WERNER, ABRAHAM GOTTLOB (1750-1817), father of Ger-
man geology, was born in Upper Lusatia, Saxony, on the 25th
of September 1750. The family to which he belonged had been
engaged for several hundred years in mining pursuits. His
father was inspector of Count Solm's iron-works at Wehrau and
Lorzendorf, and from young Werner's infancy cultivated in
him a taste for minerals and rocks. The boy showed early
promise of distinction. He began to collect specimens of stones,
and one cf his favourite employments was to pore over the
pages of a dictionary of mining. At the age of nine he was sent
to school at Bunzlau in Silesia, where he remained until 1764,
when he joined his father at Wehrau with the idea of ultimately
succeeding him in the post of inspector. When nineteen years
of age (1769) he journeyed to Freiberg, where he attracted the
notice of the officials, who invited him to attend the mining
school established two years previously. This was the turning
point in Werner's career. He soon distinguished himself by his
industry and by the large amount of practical knowledge ol
mineralogy which he acquired. In 1771 he repaired to the
university of Leipzig and went through the usual curriculum of
study, paying attention at first chiefly to the subject of law,
but continuing to devote himself with great ardour to minera-
ogical pursuits. While stiil a student he wrote his first work
on the external characters of minerals, Von den ttusserlichen
Kennzeichen der Fossilien (1774), which at once gave him a
name among the mineralogists of the day. In 1775 he was
appointed inspector in the mining school and teacher of
mineralogy at Freiberg. To the development of that school
and to the cultivation of mineralogy and geognosy he thence-
:orth, for about forty years, devoted the whole of his active and
Indefatigable industry. From a mere provincial institution the
Freiberg academy under his care rose to be one of the great
centres of scientific light in Europe, to which students from all
parts of the world flocked to listen to his eloquent teaching.
He wrote but little, and though he elaborated a complete system
of geognosy and mineralogy he never could be induced to publish
it. From the notes of his pupils, however, the general purport
of his teaching was well known, and it widely influenced the
science of his time. He died at Freiberg on the 3Oth of June
1817.
One of the distinguishing features of Werner's teaching was the
care with which he taught lithology and the succession of geological
formation; a subject to which he applied the name geognosy. His
views on a definite geological succession were inspired by the works
of J. G. Lehmann and G. C. Fuchsel (1722-1773). He showed that
the rocks of the earth are not disposed at random, but follow each
other in a certain definite order. Unfortunately he had never
enlarged his experience by travel, and the sequence of rock-masses
which he had recognized in Saxony was believed by him to be of
universal application (see his Kurze Klassifikation und Beschreibung
der verschiedenen Gebirgsarten, 1787). He taught that the rocks were
the precipitates of a primeval ocean, and followed each other in
successive deposits of world-wide extent. Volcanoes were regarded
by him as abnormal phenomena, probably due to the combustion
of subterranean beds of coal. Basalt and similar rocks, which even
then were recognized by other observers as of igneous origin, were
believed by him to be water-formed accumulations of the same
ancient ocean. Hence arose one of the great historical controversies
of geology. Werner's followers preached the doctrine of the aqueous
origin of rocks, and were known as Neptunists; their opponents,
who recognized the important part taken in the construction of the
earth's crust by subterranean heat, were styled Vulcanists. R.
Jameson, the most distinguished of his British pupils, was for many
years an ardent teacher of the Wernerian doctrines. Though much
of Werner's theoretical work was erroneous, science is indebted to
him for so clearly demonstrating the chronological succession of
rocks, for the enthusiastic zeal which he infused into his pupils,
and for the impulse which he thereby gave to the study of geology.
See S. G. Frisch, Lebensbeschreibung A. G. Werners (Leipzig, 1825) ;
Cuvier, loge de Werner; Lyell, Principles of Geology; and Sir A.
Geikie, Founders of Geology (1897; 2nd ed., 1906).
WERNER, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG ZACHARIAS (1768-
1823), German poet, dramatist and preacher, was born on the
i8th of November 1768 at Konigsberg in Prussia. From his
mother, who died a religious maniac, Werner inherited a weak
and unbalanced nature, which his education did nothing to
correct. At the university of his native place he studied law;
but Rousseau and Rousseau's German disciples were the in-
fluences that shaped his view of life. For years he oscillated
violently between aspirations towards the state of nature,
which betrayed him into a series of rash and unhappy marriages,
and a sentimental admiration in common with so many of
the Romanticists for the Roman Catholic Church, which
ended in 1811 in his conversion. Werner's talent was early-
recognized and obtained for him, in spite of his character, a
small 'government post at Warsaw, which he exchanged after-
wards for one at Berlin. In the course of his travels, and by
correspondence, he got into touch with many of the men most
eminent in literature at the time; and succeeded in having
his plays put on the stage, where they met with much success.
In 1814 he was ordained priest, and, exchanging the pen for the
pulpit, became a popular preacher at Vienna, where, during
the famous congress of 1814, his eloquent but fanatical sermons
were listened to by crowded congregations. He died at Vienna
on the 1 7th of January 1823.
Werner was the only dramatist of the Romantic movement
524
WERNIGERODE WERWOLF
who thanks to the influence of Schiller was able to sub-
ordinate his exuberant imagination to the practical needs of
the stage. His first tragedy, Die Sohne des Tals (1803-1804),
is in two parts, and it was followed by Das Kreuz an der Ostsee
(1806). More important is the Reformation drama Martin
Luther, oder die Weihe der Kraft (1807), which, after his con-
version to Catholicism, Werner recanted in a poem Weihe der
Unkraft (1813). His powerful one-act tragedy, Der vierund-
zwanzigste Februar (1815, but performed 1810), was the first
of the so-called " fate tragedies." Altila (1808), Wanda (1810)
and Die Mutter der Makkabder (1820) show a falling-off in
Werner's .powers.
Z. Werner's Tfieater was first collected (without the author's
consent) in 6 vols. (1816-1818); Ausgewahlte Schriften (15 vols.,
1840-1841), with a biography by K. J. Schiitz. See also J. E.
Hitzig, Lebensabriss F. L. Z. Werners (1823); H. Diintzer, Zwei
Bekehrte (1873); J. Minor, Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren Haupt-
vertretern (1883) and the same author's volume, Das Schicksalsdrama
(in Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteralur, vol. 151, 1884); F.
Poppenberg, Zacharias Werner (1893).
WERNIGERODE, a town of Germany, in the province of
Prussian Saxony, 13 m. by rail S.W. of Halberstadt, picturesquely
situated on the Holzemme, on the north slopes of the Harz
Mountains. Pop. (1905) 13,137. It contains several interesting
Gothic buildings, including a fine town hall with a timber facade
of 1498. Some of the quaint old houses which have escaped
the numerous fires that have visited the town are elaborately
adorned with wood-carving. The gymnasium, occupying a
modern Gothic building, is the successor of an ancient grammar-
school, which existed until 1825. Brandy, cigars and dye-
stuffs are among the manufactures of the place. Above the
town rises the chateau of the prince of Stolberg-Wernigerode.
A pavilion in the park contains the library of 117,000 volumes,
the chief feature in which is the collection of over 3000 Bibles
and over 5000 volumes of hymnology. Wernigerode is the chief
town of the county (Grafschaft) of Stolberg-Wernigerode, which
has an extent of 107 sq. m., and includes the Brocken within
its limits.
The counts of Wernigerode, who can be traced back to the
early i2th century, were successively vassals of the margraves
of Brandenburg (1268), and the archbishops of Magdeburg
(1381). On the extinction of the family in 1429 the county
fell to the counts of Stolberg, who founded the Stolberg-
Wernigerode branch in 1645. The latter surrendered its military
and fiscal independence to Prussia in 1714, but retained some
of its sovereign rights till 1876. The counts were raised to
princely rank in 1890.
See Forstemann, Die Graflich-Stolbergische Bibliothek in Wernige-
rode (Nordhausen, 1866), and G. Sommer, Die Grafschaft Werni-
gerode (Halle, 1883).
WERTH [WEERT], JOHANN, COUNT VON (c. 1595-1652),
German general of cavalry in the Thirty Years' War, was born
between 1590 and 1600 at Biittgen in the duchy of Jiilich. His
parents belonged to the numerous class of the lesser nobility,
and at an early age he left home to follow the career of a soldier
of fortune in the Walloon cavalry of the Spanish service. In
1622, at the taking of Jiilich, he won promotion to the rank
of lieutenant. He served as a colonel of cavalry in the Bavarian
army in 1630. He obtained the command of a regiment, both
titular and effective, in 163*2, and in 1633 and 1634 laid the
foundations of his reputation as a swift and terrible leader of
cavalry forays. His services were even more conspicuous in the
great pitched battle of Nordlingen (1634), after which the emperor
made him a Freiherr of the Empire, and the elector of Bavaria
gave him the rank of lieutenant field-marshal. About this time he
armed his regiment with the musket as well as the sword. In
1635 and 1636 his forays extended into Lorraine and Luxemburg,
after which he projected an expedition into the heart of France.
Starting in July 1636, from the country of the lower Meuse, he
raided far and wide, and even urged the cardinal infante, who
commanded in chief, to " plant the double eagle on the Louvre."
Though this was not attempted, Werth's horsemen appeared
at St Denis before the uprising of the French national spirit in
the shape of an army of fifty thousand men at Compiegne forced
ne
:
the invaders to retire whence they had come. The memory
of this raid lasted long, and the name of " Jean de Wert " figures
in folk-songs and serves as a bogey to quiet unruly children. In
1637 Werth was once more in the Rhine valley, destroying
convoys, relieving besieged towns and surprising the enemy's
camps. In February 1638 he defeated the Weimar troops in
an engagement at Rheinfelden, but shortly afterwards was made
prisoner by Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. His hopes of being
exchanged for the Swedish marshal Horn were disappointed,
for Bernhard had to deliver up his captive to the French. The
terrible Jean de Wert was brought to Paris, amidst great rejoic-
ings from the country people. He was lionized by the society
of the capital, visited in prison by high ladies, who marvelled
at his powers of drinking and his devotion to tobacco. So light
was his captivity that he said that nothing bound him but his
word of honour. However, he looked forward with anxiety
for his release, which was delayed until March 1642 because the
imperial government feared to see Horn at the head of the
Swedish army and would not allow an exchange.
When at last he reappeared in the field it was as general of
cavalry in the imperial and Bavarian and Cologne services.
His first campaign against the French marshal Guebriant was
uneventful, but his second (1643) in which Count Mercy was his
commander-in-chief, ended with the victory of Tiittlingen, a
surprise on a large scale, in which Werth naturally played the
leading part. In 1644 he was in the lower Rhine country, but
he returned to Mercy's headquarters in time to take a brilliant
share in the battle of Freiburg. In the following year his
resolution and bravery, and also his uncontrolled rashness,
played the most conspicuous part in deciding the day at the
second battle of Nordlingen. Mercy was killed in this action,
and Werth succeeded to the command of the defeated army,
but he was soon superseded by Field-marshal Geleen. Johann
von Werth was disappointed, but remained thoroughly loyal
to his soldierly code of honour, and found an outlet for his anger
in renewed military activity. In 1647 differences arose between
the elector and the emperor as to the allegiance due from the
Bavarian troops, in which, after long hesitation, Werth, fearing
that the cause of the Empire and of the Catholic religion would
be ruined if the elector resumed control of the troops, attempted
to take his men over the Austrian border. But they refused to
follow, and escaping with great difficulty from the elector's
vengeance Werth found a refuge in Austria. The emperor was
grateful for his conduct in this affair, ordered the elector to
rescind his ban, and made Werth a count. The last campaign
of the war (1648) was uneventful, and shortly after its close
he retired to live on the estates which he had bought in the course
of his career, and on one of these, Benatek near Koniggratz,
he died on the i6th of January 1652.
See Lives by F. W. Barthold (Berlin, 1826), W. von Janko (Vienna,
1874), F. Teicher (Augsburg, 1877).
WERWOLF (from A.S. wer; cf. Lat. vir, man; and wolf;
or, according to a later suggestion, from O.H.G. weri, wear,
i.e. wearer of the wolf -skin), a man transformed temporarily
or permanently into a wolf. The belief in the possibility of
such a change is a special phase of the general doctrine of lycan-
thropy (q.v.). In the European history of this singular belief,
wolf transformations appear as by far the most prominent and
most frequently recurring instances of alleged metamorphosis,
and consequently in most European languages the terms expres-
sive of the belief have a special reference to the wolf. Ex-
amples of this are found in the Gr. XvK&vOpuTros, Russian
volkodldk, Eng. " werwolf," Ger. wahrwolf, Fr. loup-garou. More
general terms (e.g. Lat., versipellis; Russ., dboroten; O. Norse,
hamrammr; Eng. " turnskin," " turncoat ") are sufficiently
numerous to furnish some evidence that the class of animals
into which metamorphosis was possible was not viewed as a
restricted one. But throughout the greater part of Europe the
werwolf is preferred; there are old traditions of his existence in
England, in Wales and in Ireland; in southern France, Germany,
Lithuania, Bulgaria, Servia, Bohemia, Poland and Russia he
can hardly be pronounced extinct now; in Denmark, Sweden,
WERWOLF
525
Norway and Iceland the bear competes with the wolf for pre-
eminence.
In Greek mythology the story of Lycaon supplies the most
familiar instance of the werwolf. According to one form of it
Lycaon was transformed into a wolf as a result of eating human
flesh; one of those who were present at periodical sacrifice on
Mount Lycaon was said to suffer a similar fate. Pliny, quoting
ithes, tells us (Hist. Nat. viii. 22) that a man of the family
of Antaeus was selected by lot and brought to a lake in Arcadia,
where he hung his clothing on an ash and swam across. This
resulted in his being transformed into a wolf, and he wandered
in this shape nine years. Then, if he had attacked no human
being, he was at liberty to swim back and resume his former
shape. Probably the two stories are identical, though we hear
nothing of participation in the Lycaean sacrifice by the descend-
ant of Antaeus. Herodotus (iv. 105) tells us that the Neuri,
a tribe of eastern Europe, were annually transformed for a few
days, and Virgil (Ed. viii. 98) is familiar with transformation of
human beings into wolves.
There are women, so the Armenian belief runs, who in con-
sequence of deadly sins are condemned to pass seven years in the
form of a wolf. A spirit comes to such a woman and brings
her a wolf's skin. He orders her to put it on, and no sooner has
she done this than the most frightful wolfish cravings make their
appearance and soon get the upper hand. Her better nature
conquered, she makes a meal of her own children, one by one,
then of her relatives' children according to the degree of relation-
ship, and finally the children of strangers begin to fall a prey to
her. She wanders forth only at night, and doors and locks
spring open at her approach. When morning draws near she
returns to human form and removes her wolf skin. In these
cases the transformation was involuntary or virtually so. But
side by side with this belief in involuntary metamorphosis, we
find the belief that human beings can change themselves into
animals at will and then resume their own form.
The expedients supposed to be adopted for effecting change of
shape may here be noticed. One of the simplest apparently was the
removal of clothing, and in particular of a girdle of human skin, or
the putting on of such a girdle more commonly the putting on of
a girdle of the skin of the animal whose form was to be assumed.
This last device is doubtless a substitute for the assumption of
an entire animal skin, which also is frequently found. In other
cases the body is rubbed with a magic salve. To drink water
out of the footprint of the animal in question, to partake of its
brains, to drink of certain enchanted streams, were also con-
sidered effectual modes of accomplishing metamorphosis. Olaus
Magnus says that the Livonian werwolves were initiated by
draining a cup of beer specially prepared, and repeating a set
formula. Ralston in his Songs of the Russian People gives the
form of incantation still familiar in Russia. Various expedients
also existed for removing the beast-shape. The simplest was
the act of the enchanter (operating either on himself or on a
victim); another was the removal of the animal girdle. To
kneel in one spot for a hundred years, to be reproached with
being a werwolf, to be saluted with the sign of the cross, or
addressed thrice by baptismal name, to be struck three blows
on the forehead with a knife, or to have at least three drops of
blood drawn were also effectual cures. In other cases the
transformation was supposed to be accomplished by Satanic
agency voluntarily submitted to, and that for the most loathsome
ends, in particular for the gratification of a craving for human
flesh. " The werwolves," writes Richard Verstegan (Restitution
of Decayed Intelligence, 1628), " are certayne sorcerers, who having
annoynted their bodies with an oyntment which they make by
the instinct of the devill, and putting on a certayne inchaunted
girdle, doe not onely unto the view of others seeme as wolves,
but to their owne thinking have both the shape and nature of
wolves, so long as they weare the said girdle. And they do
dispose themselves as very wolves, in wourrying and killing, and
most of humane creatures." Such were the views about lycan-
thropy current throughout the continent of Europe when
Verstegan wrote. France in particular seems to have been
infested with werwolves during the i6th century, and the
consequent trials were very numerous. In some of the cases
e.g. those of the Gandillon family in the Jura, the tailor of
Chilons and Roulet in Angers, all occurring in the year 1598,
there was clear evidence against the accused of murder and
cannibalism, but none of association with wolves; in other
cases, as that of Gilles Gamier in D61ein 1573, there was clear
evidence against some wolf, but none against the accused;
in all the cases, with hardly an exception, there was that extra-
ordinary readiness in the accused to confess and even to give
circumstantial details of the metamorphosis, which is one of the
most inexplicable concomitants of medieval witchcraft. Yet,
while this lycanthropy fever, both of suspectors and of suspected,
was at its height, it was decided in the case of Jean Grenier
at Bordeaux, in 1603, that lycanthropy was nothing more than
an insane delusion. From this time the loup-garou gradually
ceased to be regarded as a dangerous heretic, and fell back into
his pre-Christianic position of being simply a " man-wolf-fiend,"
as which he still survives among the French peasantry. In
Prussia, Livonia and Lithuania, according to the bishops Claus
Magnus and Majolus, the werwolves were in the i6th century
far more destructive than " true and natural wolves," and their
heterodoxy appears from the assertion that they formed " an
accursed college " of those " desirous of innovations contrary to
the divine law." In England, however, where at the beginning
of the 1 7th century the punishment of witchcraft was still
zealously prosecuted by James I., the wolf had been so long
extinct that that pious monarch was himself able (Demonologie,
lib. iii.) to regard " warwoolfes " as victims of delusion induced
by " a naturall superabundance of melancholic." Only small
creatures, such as the cat, the hare and the weasel, remained for
the malignant sorcerer to transform himself into; but he was
firmly believed to avail himself of these agencies. Belief in
witch-animals still survives among the uneducated classes in
parts of the United Kingdom.
The werwolves of the Christian dispensation were not, however,
all heretics, all viciously disposed towards mankind. " According
to Baronius, in the year 617, a number of wolves presented
themselves at a monastery, and tore in pieces several friars
who entertained heretical opinions. The wolves sent by God
tore the sacrilegious' thieves of the army of Francesco Maria,
duke of Urbino, who had come to sack the treasure of the holy
house of Loreto. A wolf guarded and defended from the wild
beasts the head of St Edmund the martyr, king of England.
St Oddo, abbot of Cluny, assailed in a pilgrimage by foxes,
was delivered and escorted by a wolf " (A. de Gubernatis,
Zoological Mythology, 1872, vol. ii. p. 145). Many of the wer-
wolves were most innocent and God-fearing persons, who suffered
through the witchcraft of others, or simply from an unhappy
fate, and who as wolves behaved in a truly touching fashion,
fawning upon and protecting their benefactors. Of this sort
were the " Bisclaveret " in Marie de France's poem (c. 1200),
the hero of " William and the Were-wolf " (translated from
French into English about 1350), and the numerous princes
and princesses, knights and ladies, who appear temporarily
in beast form in the Marchen of the Aryan nations generally.
Nay, the power of transforming others into wild beasts was
attributed not only to malignant sorcerers, but also to Christian
saints. " Omnes angeli, boni et mail, ex virtute naturali habent
potestatem transmutandi corpora nostra," was the dictum of
St Thomas Aquinas. St Patrick transformed Vereticus, king of
Wales, into a wolf; and St Natalis cursed an illustrious Irish
family, with the result that each member of it was doomed to
be a wolf for seven years. In other tales the divine agency is
still more direct, while in Russia, again, men are supposed to
become werwolves through incurring the wrath of the devil.
LITERATURE. In the numerous medieval works directed to the
study of sorcery and witchcraft, the contemporaneous phases of
lycanthropy occupy a prominent place. In addition to the authors
who have been already mentioned, the following may be named
as giving special attention to this subject: Wier, De praesti^iis
daemonum (Amsterdam, 1563); Bodin, Demonomanie des sorcters
(Paris, 1580); Boguet, Discours des sorciers (Lyons, 2nd ed. 1608);
526
WESEL, J. R. VON WESER
gr
P
Lancre, Tableau de I'inconstance de mauvais anges (Paris, 1613) ;
Psellus, De operatione daemonum (Paris, 1615); see also Glanvil,
Sadducismus triumphatus, for the English equivalents of lycan-
thropy. Treatises solely confined to lycanthropy are rare both in
medieval and in modern times; but a few are well known, as, for
instance, those of Bourquelot and Nynauld, De la lycanthropie
(Paris, 1615). See also Leubuscher, Ober die Wehnvolfe (1850);
Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, 4, ii. and iii. ; Hertz, Der Werwolf
(Stuttgart, 1862); Baring Gould, The Book of Were-wolves (London,
1865). Also the bibliography to LYCANTHROPY, and Andree, Ethno-
raphische Parattden, 1st series, 62-80; Tylor, Primitive Culture, i. ;
. Sebillot, Traditions de la Haute-Bretagne, i. 289.
(N. W. T.; J. F. M'L.)
WESEL, JOHANN RUCHRAT VON (d. 1481), German
theologian, was born at Oberwesel early in the ijth century. He
appears to have been one of the leaders of the humanist move-
ment in Germany, and to have had some intercourse and sym-
pathy with the leaders of the Hussites in Bohemia. Erfurt
was in his day the headquarters of a humanism which was
both devout and opposed to the realist metaphysic and the
Thomist theology which prevailed in the universities of Cologne
and Heidelberg. Wesel was one of the professors at Erfurt
between 1445 and 1456, and was vice-rector in 1438. In 1460
he was appointed preacher at Mainz, in 1462 at Worms, and
in 1479, when an old and worn-out man, he was brought before
the Dominican inquisitor Gerhard Elten of Cologne. The charges
brought against him took a theological turn, though they were
probably prompted by dislike of his philosophical views. They
were chiefly based on a treatise, De indulgenliis, which he had
composed while at Erfurt twenty-five years before. He had
also written De potestate ecclesiastica. He died under sentence of
imprisonment for life in the Augustinian convent in Mainz in 1481.
It is somewhat difficult to determine the exact theological
position of Wesel. Ullmann claims him as a " reformer before
the Reformation," but, while he mastered the formal principle
of Protestantism, that scripture is the sole rule of faith, it is
more than doubtful that he had that experimental view of the
doctrines of grace which lay at the basis of Reformation theology.
He held that Christ is men's righteousness in so far as they are
guided by the Holy Ghost, and the love towards God is shed
abroad in their hearts, which clearly shows that he held the
medieval idea that justification is an habitual grace implanted
in men by the gracious act of God. He seems, however, to have
protested against certain medieval ecclesiastical ideas which
he held to be excrescences erroneously grafted on Christian
faith and practice. He objected to the whole system of indulg-
ences; he denied the infallibility of the church, on the ground
that the church contains within it sinners as well as saints;
he insisted that papal authority could be upheld only when the
pope remained true to the evangel; and he held that a sharp
distinction ought to be drawn between ecclesiastical sentences
and punishments, and the judgments of God.
The best account of Wesel is to be found in K. Ullmann's Reformers
before the Reformation. His tract on Indulgences is published in
Walch's Monumenta Medii Aevi, vol. i., while a report of his trial
is given in Ortuin Gratius's Fasciculus rerum expetendarum et
fugtendarum (ed. by Browne, London, 1690), and d'Argentre's
Collectio judiciorum de novis erroribus (Paris, 1728). See also Otto
Clemen's art. in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie fur prot. Theologie
und Kirche (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1908), xxi. 127.
WESEL, a fortress town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Westphalia at the confluence of the Rhine and the Lippe,
46 m. S W. of Miinster and 35 m. N.W. of Duisburg. Pop.(igos)
2 3, 2 37 (43% Protestants), including a considerable garrison.
There is a junction of five railway lines, and the Rhine is crossed
by a large railway bridge and by a bridge of boats. The inner
line of fortifications was razed in 1890, and the defensive works
now consist only of the citadel and three detached forts, one of
which, Fort Bliicher, serves as a tlte-de-pont on the left bank
of the Rhine. Wesel contains some quaint old houses, and a town
hall,' dating from 1396, with an elaborate fagade, and containing
a valuable collection of old silver plate. The large Protestant
church of St Willibrord has a choir, built 1424-1526, which is
one of the noblest Gothic structures on the Lower Rhine, and a
modern nave (1882-96). The Mathena church dates from
V.
nd
1429-1477. The two Roman Catholic churches, the castle,
now the commandant's house (built in 1417), the Berliner Tor
Berlin gate (built in 1722 and recently restored), the Lower-
Rhenish museum of antiquities and the modern gymnasium
and military hospital, are among the other chief buildings. Wesel
carries on a considerable trade in grain, timber, colonial goods,
tobacco, &c., facilitated by new harbour accommodation and
wharves at the mouth of the Lippe. It has manufactures of
wire, leaden pipes and other metal goods, cement, sugar, &c.
Wesel, formerly known as Lippemiinde, was one of the points
from which Charlemagne directed his operations against the
heathen Saxons. Incorporated in 1241, it became a flourishing
commercial town, and though repeatedly subject to the counts
of Cleves, was a member of the Hanseatic League, and as late
as 1 5 2 1 a free imperial city. It was occupied by the Spaniards in
1614, by the Dutch in 1629, by the French in 1672, also during
the Seven Years' War, and in 1805, and was ceded to Prussia in
1814. A monument outside the town commemorates eleven of
Ferdinand von Schill's officers who were shot here on the i6th
of September 1809 after their unsuccessful attempt at Stralsund.
Wesel is occasionally spoken of as Unterwesel, to distinguish
it from Oberwesel, a small town on the Rhine, above
St Goar.
See Gantesweiler, Chronik der Stadt Wesel (Wesel, 1881), and
Reinhold, Verfassungsgeschichle Wesels (Breslau, 1888).
WESER (6. Ger. Visuracha, Wisura, Lat. Visurgis), one
of the chief rivers of Germany, formed by the union of the
Werra and the Fulda at Miinden, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, flowing generally north and entering the North Sea.
below Bremerhaven, between Jade Bay and the estuary of the
Elbe. The mouth is 170 m. from Miinden, but the winding
course of the river is 270 m. long; if the measurement be made
from the source of the Werra, in the Thuringer Wald, the total
length of the stream is 440 m. At Miinden the river surface is
380 ft. above sea-level; the most rapid fall in its course is be-
tween Karlshafen and Minden in Westphalia. Nearly the entire
course of the Weser lies in Prussia, but it also touches part of
Brunswick and Lippe, and after flowing through Bremen expands
into an estuary separating the duchy of Oldenburg from the
Prussian province of Hanover. Between Miinden and Minden
its course lies through a picturesque valley flanked by irregular
and disjointed ranges of hills (Reinhardswald, Sollinger Wald,
Weser Hills, &c.); but after it emerges from these mountains
by the narrow pass called the " Porta Westfalica," near
Minden, its banks become flat and uninteresting. The breadth
of the river varies from no yds. at Miinden to 220 yds. at
Minden, 250 yds. at Bremen, ij m. at Elsfleth and 75 m. at its
entrance into the sea.
The Weser on the whole is shallow, and navigation above Bremen
is sometimes interrupted by drought. Until 1894 the fairway up to
Bremen had a minimum depth of little over 8 ft.; thereafter im-
portant works were undertaken, the minimum depth was made 18 ft.,
and the importance of Bremen as a port was greatly enhanced.
Boats of 350 tons can ascend generally as far as Miinden. A system
of waterways (the Geeste and Hadelncr canals, meeting one another
at Bederkesa) connects the estuary of the Weser with that of the
Elbe; a canal between the Hunte and the Leda gives connexion
with the Ems. On the upper Weser (above Bremen) the navigation,
which is interrupted by occasional rapids, is assisted by locks and
weirs. The principal tributaries on the right are the Aller, Wiimme,
Drepte, Lune and Geeste, and on the left the Diemel, Nethe, Emmer,
Werra, Aue and Hunte. The Werra and Fulda are both navigable
when they unite to form the Weser, the Fulda being canalized
between Cassel and the town of Fulda for a distance of 17 J m.; the
Alter, Wiimme, Geeste and Hunte are also navigable." Below the
junction of the Hunte the Weser, hitherto a single stream, is divided
into several channels by islands. The Weser drains a basin est ; *~ J
at 18,530 sq. m.
The navigation of the Weser was long hampered by the various
and vexatious claims and rights of the different states through
whose territories it ran. Before 1866 the joint stream, including
the Werra and the Fulda, changed its ruler no less than thirty-five
times on its way to the sea. In 1823, however, a treaty was made
establishing a fixed toll and a uniform system of management ; this
was further improved in 1856 and 1865; and when Prussia took
possession of Hanover and Hesse- Nassau in 1866 the chief difficulties
in the way of organizing the river-trade disappeared. The principal
town on the Weser is Bremen. Other towns past which it flows-
WESLEY (FAMILY) WESLEY, JOHN
527
between Miinden and the sea are Karlshafen, Hoxter, Holzminden,
Bodenwerder, Hameln, Rinteln.Vlotho, Minden, Stolzenau.Nienburg,
VV(;t:sack, Elsfleth, Brake, Geestemiinde and Bremerhayen. The
Weser gave name to a department in the short-lived kingdom of
Westphalia : the chief town was Osnabriick.
WESLEY (FAMILY). The Wesley family sprang from Welswe,
near Wells in Somerset. Their pedigree has been traced back
to Guy, whom Athelstan made a thane about 938. One branch
of the family settled in Ireland. Sir Herbert Westley of West-
leigh, Devon, married Elizabeth Wellesley of Dangan in Ireland.
Their third son, Bartholomew, studied both medicine and theo-
logy at Oxford, and, in 1619, married the daughter of Sir Henry
Colley of Kildare. In 1660 he held the rectories of Catherston
and Charmouth in Dorset valued at 35, ros. per annum. He
was ejected in 1662 and gained his living as a doctor. He was
buried at Lyme Regis on February isth, 1670. .
His son, JOHN WESTLEY, grandfather of the founder of
Methodism, was born in 1636 and studied at New Inn Hall,
Oxford, where he became proficient in Oriental languages and
won the special regard of John Owen, then vice-chancellor.
Cromwell's Triers approved him as minister of Winterborn-
Whitchurch, Dorset, in 1658. The following year he married
the daughter of John White, the patriarch of Dorchester. In
1 66 1 he was committed to prison for refusing to use the Book
of Common Prayer. His candour and zeal made a deep im-
pression on Gilbert Ironside the elder, Bishop of Bristol, with
whom he had an interview. He was ejected in 1662 and became
a Nonconformist pastor at Poole. He died in 1678; his widow
survived him for 32 years. One of his sons, Matthew, became
a surgeon in London, where he died in 1737.
Another son, SAMUEL, was trained in London for the Noncon-
formist ministry, but changed his views, and, in August 1683,
entered Exeter College, Oxford, as a sizar. He dropped the
" t " in his name and returned to what he said was the original
spelling, Wesley. In 1689 he was ordained and nlarried Susanna,
youngest daughter of Dr Samuel Annesley, vicar of St Giles,
Cripplegate, and nephew of the ist earl of Anglesea. Annesley
gave up his living in 1662 and formed a congregation in Little
St Helen's, Bishopsgate, where he was honoured as the St Paul
of the Nonconformists. Samuel Wesley was appointed rector
of South Ormsby in 1691, and moved to Epworth in 1697. He
had nineteen children, of whom eight died in infancy. His
lawless parishioners could not endure his faithful preaching,
and in 1 705 he was confined in Lincoln Castle for a small debt.
Two-thirds of his parsonage was destroyed by fire in 1702 and
in 1709 it was burnt to the ground. He managed to rebuild the
rectory, but his resources were so heavily strained that thirteen
years later it was only half furnished. Samuel Wesley was a
busy author. At Oxford in 1685 he wrote a volume of poems
bearing the strange title Maggots. He wrote a Life of Christ
in verse (1693), The History of the Old and New Testament in
Verse (1701?), a noble Letter to a Curate, full of strong sense and
ripe experience, and Dissertations on the Book of Job (1735).
He died at Epworth in 1735. Susanna Wesley died at the
Foundery, London, in 1742 and was buried in Bunhill Fields.
Their eldest son, SAMUEL WESLEY (1690-1739), was born in
London, entered Westminster School in 1704, became a Queen's
scholar in 1707 and in 1711 went up to Christ Church, Oxford.
He returned to Westminster as head usher, took orders and
enjoyed the intimate friendship of Bishop Atterbury, Harley
earl of Oxford, Addison, Swift and Prior. He became head-
master of Blundell's School at Tiverton in 1732 and died there
on the 6th of November 1739. He was a finished, classical
scholar, a poet and a devout man, but he was never reconciled
to the Methodism of his brothers. His poems, published in
1736, reached a second edition in 1743, and were reprinted with
new poems, notes and a Life by W. Nichols, in 1862.
CHARLES WESLEY (1707-1788) was the eighteenth child of
the Rector of Epworth, and was saved from the fire of 1709
by his nurse. He entered Westminster School in 1716, became
a King's Scholar and was captain of the school in 1725. He
was a plucky boy, and won the life-long friendship of the future
earl of Mansfield by fighting battles on his behalf. Garret
W r esley of Ireland wished to adopt his young kinsman, but
this offer was declined and the estates were left to Richard
Colley on condition that he assumed the name Wesley. The
duke of Wellington was Colley 's grandson, and appears in the
Army List for 1800 as the Hon. Arthur Wesley. Charles Wesley
was elected to Christ Church in 1726. John had become fellow
of Lincoln the previous March. Charles lost his first twelve
months at Oxford in " diversions," but whilst John was acting
as their father's curate, his brother " awoke out of his lethargy."
He persuaded two or three other students to go with him to the
weekly sacrament. This led a young gentleman of Christ Church
to exclaim: " Here is a new set of Methodists sprung up."
The name quickly spread through the university and Oxford
Methodism began its course. In 1735 Charles Wesley was
ordained and went with his brother to Georgia as secretary to
Colonel, afterwards General, Oglethorpe, the Governor. The
work proved uncongenial, and after enduring many hardships
his health failed and he left Frederica for England on July the
26th, 1736. He hoped to return, but in February 1738 John
Wesley came home, and Charles found that his state of health
made it necessary to resign his secretaryship. After his evan-
gelical conversion on Whit Sunday (May 2ist, 1738), he became
the poet of the Evangelical Revival. He wrote about 6500
hymns. They vary greatly in merit, but Canon Overton held
him, taking quantity and quality into consideration, to be
" the great hymn-writer of all ages." Their early volumes of
poetry bear the names of both brothers, but it is generally
assumed that the original hymns were by Charles and the
translations by John Wesley. Poetry was like another sense
to Charles, and he was busy writing verse from his conversion
up to his death-bed when he dictated to his wife his last lines,
" In age and feebleness extreme." For some years he took
a full share in the hardships and perils of the Methodist itiner-
ancy, and was often a remarkably powerful preacher. After
his marriage in 1749 his work was chiefly confined to Bristol,
where he then lived, and London. He moved to London in
1771 and died in Marylebone on March the 29th, 1788. He was
strongly opposed to his brother's ordinations, and refused to
be buried at City Road, because the ground there was uncon-
secrated. He was buried in the graveyard of Marylebone Old
Church, but this appears to have been unconsecrated also.
Charles Wesley married Sarah Gwynne, daughter of a \V r elsh
magistrate living at Garth, on April 8th, 1749. She died in
1822 at the age of ninety-six. Five of their children died as
infants and are buried in St James's Churchyard, Bristol. Their
surviving daughter Sarah, who was engaged in literary work,
died unmarried in 1828. Charles Wesley, Junr. (1759-1834)
was organist of St George's, Hanover Square. He published
Six Concertos for the Organ and Harp in 1778. He also died
unmarried. Samuel, the younger brother (1766-1837), was even
more gifted than Charles as an organist and composer; he
was also a lecturer on musical subjects. Two of his sens were
Dr Wesley, sub-dean of the Chapel Royal, and Dr Samuel
Sebastian Wesley (1810-1876), the famous composer and
organist of Gloucester Cathedral.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A volume of Charles Wesley's sermons with
memoir appeared in 1816. Lives by Thomas Jadcson (1841) and John
Telford (1886). Journal and Letters with Notes by Thomas Jackson
(1849); The Early Journal (1736-1739) with additional matter
(IQIO); Poetical works of John and Charles Wesley (13 vols., 1868);
Methodist Hymn Book Illustrated by I. Telford (1906); Adam
Clarke's Memoirs of the Wesley Family (1822); Dove's Biographical
History of the Wesley Family (1832); G. J. Stevenson, Memorials of
the Wesley Family (1876); Tyerman's Life and Times of Samuel
Wesley, M.A. (1866). (J. T.)
WESLEY, JOHN (1703-1791), English divine, was born at
Epworth Rectory on the I7th of June (O.S.) 1703. He was
the fifteenth child of Samuel and Susanna Wesley (see WESLEY
FAMILY). His mother's training laid the foundation of his
character, and under her instruction the children made remark-
able progress. On February 9, 1709, the rectory was burnt
down, and the children had a narrow escape. On the duke
of Buckingham's nomination, Wesley was for six years a pupil
at Charterhouse. In June 1720 he went up to Christ Church,
528
WESLEY, JOHN
Oxford, with an annual allowance of 40 as a Charterhouse
scholar. His health was poor and he found it hard to keep
out of debt, but he made good use of his opportunities. A
scheme of study which he drew up for 1722 with a time-table
for each day of the week is still to be seen in his earliest diary,
which became the property of Mr George Stampe of Great
Grimsby. The diary runs from April 5, 1725, to February 19,
1727. A friend describes Wesley at this time as "a young
fellow of the finest classical taste, and the most liberal and manly
sentiments." He was " gay and sprightly, with a turn for wit
and humour."
The standard edition of Wesley's Journal (1909) has furnished
much new material for this period of Wesley's life, the Rev.
N. Curnock having unravelled the difficult cipher and shorthand
in which Wesley's early diaries were kept. He reached the
conclusion that the religious friend who directed Wesley's
attention to the writings of Thomas a Kempis and Jeremy
Taylor, in 1725, was Miss Betty Kirkham, whose father was
rector of Stanton in Gloucestershire. Up to this time Wesley
says he had no notion of inward holiness, but went on " habitu-
ally and for the most part very contentedly in some or other
known sin, indeed with some intermission and short struggles
especially before and after Holy Communion," which he was
obliged to attend three times a year. On the 25th of September
1725 he was ordained deacon, and on the i7th of March 1726
was elected fellow of Lincoln. His private diaries, seven of
which are in the hands of Mr Russell J. Colman of Norwich,
contain monthly reviews of Wesley's reading. It covered a
wide range, and he made careful notes and abstracts of it. He
generally took breakfast or tea with some congenial friend and
delighted to discuss the deepest subjects. At the coffee house
he saw the Spectator and other periodicals. He loved riding
and walking, was an expert swimmer and enjoyed a game at
tennis.
He preached frequently in the churches near Oxford in the
months succeeding his ordination, and in April 1726 he obtained
leave from his college to act as his father's curate. The new
material in the Journal describes the simple matter of his life.
He read plays, attended the village fairs, shot plovers in the
fenland, and enjoyed a dance with his sisters. In October
he returned to Oxford, where he was appointed Greek lecturer
and moderator of the classes. He gained considerable reputa-
tion in the disputation for his master's degree in February 1727.
He was now free to follow his own course of studies and began
to lose his love for company, unless it were with those who
were drawn like himself to religion. In August he returned to
Lincolnshire, where he assisted his father till November 1729.
During thbse two years he paid three visits to the university.
In the summer of 1729 he was up for two months. Almost
every evening found him with the little society which had
gathered round Charles.
When he came into residence in November he was recognized as
the father of the Holy Club. It met at first on Sunday evenings,
then every evening was passed in Wesley's room or that of some
other member. They read the Greek Testament and the classics;
fasted on Wednesday and Friday ; received the Lord's Supper every
week; and brought all their life under review. In 1730 William
Morgan, an Irish student, visited the gaol and reported that there
was a great opening for work among the prisoners. The friends
agreed to visit the Castle twice a week and to look after the sick
in any parish where the clergyman was willing to accept their help.
Wesley s spirit at this time is seen from his sermon on " The Circum-
cision of the Heart," preached before the university on the 1st of
January 1733. In 1765 he said it " contains all that I now teach
concerning salvation from all sin, and loving God with an undivided
heart." Wesley rose al four, lived on 28 a year and gave away the
remainder of his income. He already displayed those gifts for
leadership which were to find so conspicuous a field in the evangelical
revival. John Gambold, a member of the Holy Club, who after-
wards became a Moravian bishop, says " he was blest with such
activity .as to be always gaining ground, and such steadiness that he
lost none. What proposals he made to any were sure to charm
them, because they saw him always the same." He wore an air
of authority yet never lacked address, or " assumed anything to
himself above his contemporaries." _ William Law's books pro-
duced a great impression on Wesley, and on his advice the
young tutor began to read mystic authors, but he saw that their
tendency was to make good works appear mean and insipid, and he
soon laid them aside.
Wesley had not yet found the key to the heart and conscience of
his hearers. He says, " From the year 1725 to 1729, I preached
much, but saw no fruit to my labour. Indeed it could not be that I
should; for I neither laid the foundation of repentance nor of
preaching the Gospel, taking it for granted that all to whom I
preached were believers, and that many of them needed no re-
pentance. From the year 1729 to 1734, laying a deeper foundation
of repentance, I saw a little fruit. But it was only a little; and no
wonder: for I did not preach faith in the blood of the covenant.
From 1734 to 1738, speaking more of faith in Christ, I saw more
fruit of my preaching." Looking back on these days in 1777, Wesley
felt " the Methodists at Oxford were all one body, and, as it were,
one soul; zealous for the religion of the Bible, of the Primitive
Church, and, in consequence, of the Church of England; as they
believed it to come nearer the scriptural and primitive plan than any
other national church upon earth." The number of Oxford Metho-
dists was small and probably never exceeding twenty-five. John
Clayton, afterwards chaplain of the Collegiate Church of Manchester,
who remained a strong High Churchman; James Hervey, author of
Meditations among the Tombs, and Theron and Aspasio; Benjamin
Ingham, who became the Yorkshire evangelist ; and Thomas Brough-
ton, afterwards secretary of the S.P.C.K., were members of the Holy
Club, and George Whitefield joined it on the eve of the Wesleys'
departure for Georgia.
Wesley's father died on April 25, 1735, and in the following
October John and Charles took ship for Georgia, with Benjamin
Ingham and Charles Delamotte. John was sent out by the
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and hoped to labour
as a missionary among the Indians, but though he had many
interesting conversations with them the mission was found
to be impracticable. The cabin of the " Simmonds " became a
study for the four Methodists. The calm confidence of their
Moravian fellow-passengers amid the Atlantic storms con-
vinced Wesley that he did not possess the faith which casts
out fear. Closer acquaintance with these German friends in
Savannah deepened the impression. Wesley needed help, for
he was beset by difficulties. Mrs Hawkins and Mrs Welch
poisoned the mind of Colonel Oglethorpe against the brothers
for a time. Wesley's attachment to Miss Hopkey also led to
much pain and disappointment. All this is now seen more
clearly in the standard edition of the Journal. Wesley was a
stiff High Churchman, who scrupulously followed every detail
of the rubrics. He insisted on baptizing children by trine
immersion, and refused the Communion to a pious German
because he had not been baptized by a minister who had been
episcopally ordained. At the same time he was accused of
" introducing into the church and service at the altar com-
positions of psalms and hymns not inspected or authorized
by any proper judicature." The list of grievances presented
by Wesley's enemies to the Grand Jury at Savannah gives
abundant evidence of his unwearying labours for his flock. The
foundation of his future work as the father of Methodist hymnody
was laid in Georgia. His first Collection of Psalms and Hymns
(Charlestown, 1737) contains five of his incomparable transla-
tions from the German, and on his return to England he pub-
lished another Collection in 1738, with five more translations
from the German and one from the Spanish. In April 1736
Wesley formed a little society of thirty or forty of the serious
members of his congregation. He calls this the second rise of
Methodism, the first being at Oxford in November 1729. The
company in Savannah met every Wednesday evening " in order
to a free conversation, begun and ended with singing and prayer."
A select company of these met at the parsonage on Sunday
afternoons. In 1781 he writes, " I cannot but observe that these
were the first rudiments of the Methodist societies."
In the presence of such facts we can understand the significance
of the mission to Georgia. Wesley put down many severe
things against himself on the return voyage, and he saw after-
wards that even then he had the faith of a servant though not
that of a son. In London he met Peter Bohler who had been
ordained by Zinzendorf for work in Carolina. By Bohler
Wesley was convinced that he lacked " that faith whereby alone
we are saved." On Wednesday, May 24, 1738, he went to a
society meeting in Aldersgate Street where Luther's Preface
to the Epistle to the Romans was being read. " About a quarter
WESLEY, JOHN
529
before nine, while he was describing the change which God
works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart
strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone,
for salvation; and an assurance was given me that he had
taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law
of sin and death." Mr Lecky points out the significance of that
event. " It is scarcely an exaggeration to say that the scene
which took place at that humble meeting in Aldersgate Street
forms an epoch in English history. The conviction which then
flashed upon one of the most powerful and most active intellects
in England is the true source of English Methodism " (History
of England in Eighteenth Century, ii. 538).
Wesley spent some time during the summer of 1738 in visiting
the Moravian settlement at Herrnhuth and returned to London
on September 16, 1738, with his faith greatly strengthened. He
preached in all the churches that were open to him, spoke in
many religious societies, visited Newgate and the Oxford prisons.
On New Year's Day, 1739, the Wesleys, Whitefield and other
friends had a Love Feast at Fetter Lane. In February White-
field went to Bristol, where his popularity was unbounded.
When the churches were closed against him he spoke to the
Kingswood colliers in the open air, and after six memorable
weeks wrote urging Wesley to come and take up the work.
U'csley was in his friend's congregation on April i, but says,
" I could scarcely reconcile myself to this strange way of preach-
ing in the fields . . . having been all my life (till very lately) so
tenacious of every point relating to decency and order, that I
should have thought the saving of souls almost a sin, if it had
not been done in a church." Next day Wesley followed White-
field's example. His fears and prejudices melted away as he
discerned that this was the very method needed for reaching
the multitudes living in almost heathen darkness. He already
had the means of shepherding those who were impressed by the
preaching. On the ist of May 1738 he wrote in his journal:
" This evening our little society began, which afterwards met
in Fetter Lane." Among its " fundamental rules " we find a
provision for dividing the society into bands of five or ten
persons who spoke freely and plainly to each other as to the
" real state " of their hearts. The bands united in a conference
every Wednesday evening. The society first met at James
Hutton's shop, " The Bible and Sun," Wild Street, west of Temple
Bar. About the 2$th of September it moved to Fetter Lane.
Wesley describes this as the third beginning of Methodism.
After the field preaching began converts multiplied. They
found all the world against them, and Wesley advised them to
strengthen one another and talk together as often as they could.
When he tried to visit them at their homes he found the task
beyond him, and therefore invited them to meet him on Thursday
evenings. This meeting was held in the end of 1739 at the
Foundery in Moorfields which Wesley had just secured as a
preaching place. Grave disorders had arisen in the society at
Fetter Lane, and on the 25th of July 1740 Wesley withdrew
from it. About 25 menand 48 women also left and cast in their
lot with the society at the Foundery. The centenary of Method-
ism was kept in 1839, a hundred years after the society first met
at the Foundery.
Wesley's headquarters at Bristol were in the Horse Fair,
where a room was built in May 1739 for two religious societies
which had been accustomed to meet in Nicholas Street and
Baldwin Street. To meet the cost of this Captain Fox suggested
that each member should give a penny per week. When it
was urged that some were too poor to do this, he replied, " Then
put eleven of the poorest with me; and if they can give anything,
well: I will call on them weekly, and if they can give nothing
I will give for them as well as for myself." Others followed
his example and were called leaders, a name given as early as
the sth of November 1738 to those who had charge of the bands
in London. Wesley saw that here was the very means he
needed to watch over his flock. The leaders thus became a
body of lay pastors. Those under their care formed a class.
It proved more convenient to meet together and this gave
opportunity for religious conversation and prayer. As the
society increased Wesley found it needed " still greater care to
separate the precious from the vile." He therefore arranged to
meet the classes himself every quarter and gave a ticket " under
his own hand " to every one " whose seriousness and good
conversation " he found no reason to doubt. The ticket furnished
an easy means for guarding the meetings of the society against
intrusion. " Bands " were formed for those who wished for
closer communion. Love-feasts for fellowship and testimony
were also introduced, according to the custom of the primitive
church. Watchnights were due to the suggestion of a Kingswood
collier in 1740. Wesley issued the rules of the united societies
in February 1743. Those who wished to enter the society must
have " a desire to flee from the wrath to come, to be saved from
their sins." When admitted they were to give evidence of their
desire for salvation " by doing no harm; by doing good of every
possible sort; by attending upon all the means of grace." It
was expected that all who could do so would contribute the
penny a week suggested in Bristol, and give a shilling at the
renewal of their quarterly ticket. Wesley had at first to take
charge of the contributions, but as they grew larger he appointed
stewards to receive the money, to pay debts, and to relieve the
needy. The memorable arrangement in Bristol was made a
few weeks before Wesley's field of labour was extended to the
north of England in May 1742. He found Newcastle ripe for'his
message. English Christianity seemed to have no power to
uplift the people. Dram-drinking was spreading like an epidemic.
Freethinkers' clubs flourished. " The old religion," Lecky says,
" seemed everywhere loosening round the minds of men, and
indeed it had often no great influence even on its defenders."
Some of the clergy in country parishes were devoted workers,
but special zeal was resented or discouraged.
The doctrine of election had led to a separation between
Whitefield and the Wesleys in 1741. Wesley believed that the
grace of God could transform every life that received it. He
preached the doctrine of conscious acceptance with God and
daily growth in holiness. Victory over sin was the goal which
he set before all his people. He made his appeal to the conscience
in the clearest language, with the most cogent argument, and
with all the weight of personal conviction. Hearers like John
Nelson felt as though every word was aimed at themselves.
No preacher of the century had this mastery over his audience.
His teaching may be described as Evangelical Arminianism and
its standards are his own four volumes of sermons and his Notes
on the New Testament.
Up till 1742 Wesley's work was chiefly confined to London
and Bristol, with the adjacent towns and villages or the places
which lay between them. On his way to Newcastle that year
Wesley visited Birstal, where John Nelson, the stone-mason, had
already been working. On his return he held memorable
services in the churchyard at Epworth. Methodism this year
spread out from Birstal into the West Riding. Societies were
also formed in Somerset, Wilts, Gloucestershire, Leicester,
Warwickshire, Nottinghamshire and the south of Yorkshire.
In the summer Charles Wesley visited Wednesbury, Leeds and
Newcastle. Next year he took Cornwall by storm. The work
in London was prospering. In 1743 Wesley secured a west-end
centre at West Street, Seven Dials, which for fifty years had a
wonderful history. In August 1747 Wesley paid his first visit
to Ireland, where he had such success that he gave more than
six years of his life to the country and crossed the Irish Channel
forty-two times. Ireland has its own conference presided over
by a delegate from the British conference. Wesley's first visit
to Scotland was in 1751. He paid twenty-two visits, which
stirred up all the Scottish churches.
Such extension o{ his field would have been impossible had not
Wesley been helped by a heroic band of preachers. Wesley says:
" Joseph Humphreys was the first lay preacher that assisted me in
England, in the year 1738." That was probably help in the Fetter
Lane Society, for Wesley then had no preaching place of his own.
John Cennick, the hymn-writer and schoolmaster at Kingswood,
began to preach there in 1739. Thomas Maxwell, who was left to
meet and pray with the members at the Foundery during the
absence of the Wesleys, began to preach. Wesley humed to London
to check this irregularity, but his mother urged him to hear Maxwell
530
WESLEY, S. WESLEY, S. S.
for himself, and he soon saw that such assistance was of the highesl
value. The autobiographies of these early Methodist preachers are
among the classics of the Evangelical Revival. As the work ad-
vanced Wesley held a conference at the Foundery in 1744. Besides
himself and his brother, four other clergymen were present and four
" lay brethren." It was agreed that " lay assistants " were allow-
able, but only in cases of necessity. This necessity grew more urgent
every year as Methodism extended. One of the preachers in each
circuit was the " assistant," who had general oversight of the work,
the others were " helpers." The conference became an annual
gathering of Wesley's preachers. In the early conversations doctrine
took a prominent place, but as Methodism spread the oversight of
its growing organization occupied more time and more attention.
In February 1784 Wesley's deed of declaration gave the conference
a legal constitution. He named one hundred preachers who after
his death were to meet once a year, fill up vacancies in their number,
appoint a president and secretary, station the preachers, admit
proper persons into the ministry, and take general oversight of the
societies. In October 1768, a Methodist chapel was opened in New
York. At the conference of 1769 two preachers, Richard Boardman
and Joseph Pilmoor, volunteered to go out to take charge of the
work. In 1771, Francis Asbury, the Wesley of America, crossed the
Atlantic. Methodism grew rapidly, and it became essential to pro-
vide its people with the sacraments. In September 1784 Wesley
ordained his clerical helper, Dr Coke, superintendent (or bishop), and
instructed him to ordain Asbury as his colleague. Richard Whatcoat
and Thomas Vasey were ordained by Wesley, Coke and Creighton
to administer the sacraments in America. Wesley had reached the
conclusion in 1746 that bishops and presbyters were essentially of
one order (see METHODISM, sect. " United States ").
He told his brother in 1785: " I firmly believe that I am a
scriptural eiriaKOTros as much as any man in England or in Europe;
for the uninterrupted succession I know to be a fable, which no
man ever did or can prove." Other ordinations for the admini-
stration of the sacraments in Scotland, the colonies and England
followed. The interests of his work stood first with Wesley.
He did everything that strong words against separation could
do to bind his societies to the Church of England; he also did
everything that legal documents and ordinations could do to
secure the permanence of that great work for which God had
raised him up. In the words of Canon Overton and Rev. F. H.
Relton (Hist, of Eng. Ch. 1714-1800): " It is purely a modern
notion that the Wesleyan movement ever was, or ever was in-
tended to be, except by Wesley, a church movement." Despite
his strong sayings, it was Wesley who broke the links to the
church, for, as Lord Mansfield put it, " ordination is separation."
Wesley's account of his itinerancy is given in his famous
Journal, of which the first part appeared about 1739. Mr Birrell
has called it " the most amazing record of human exertion ever
penned by man." It is certainly Wesley's most picturesque
biography and the most vivid account of the evangelical revival
that we possess. The rapid development of his work made a
tremendous strain upon Wesley's powers. He generally travelled
about 5000 m. a year and preached fifteen sermons a week.
He had constant encounters with the mob, but his tact and
courage never failed. His rule was always to look a mob in the
face. Many delicious stories are told of his presence of mind
and the skilful appeals which he made to the better feeling of
the crowd.
Wesley's writings did much to open the eyes of candid men
to his motives and his methods. Besides the incomparable
Journal, his Appeals to Men of Reason and Religion also pro-
duced an extraordinary effect in allaying prejudice and winning
respect. He constantly sought to educate his own people.
No man in the i8th century did so much to create a taste for
good reading and to supply it with books at the lowest prices.
Sir Leslie Stephen pays high praise to Wesley's writings, which
went " straight to the mark without one superfluous flourish."
As a social reformer Wesley was far in advance of his time.
He provided work for the deserving poor, supplied them with
clothes and food in seasons of special distress. The profits on
his cheap books enabled him to give away as much as 1400 a
year. He established a lending stock to help struggling business
men and did much to relieve debtors who had been thrown into
prison. He opened dispensaries in London and Bristol and was
keenly interested in medicine.
Wesley's supreme gift was his genius for organization. He was
by no means ignorant of this. " I know this is the peculiar talent
which God has given me." Wesley's special power lay in his
quickness to avail himself of circumstances and of the suggestions
made by those about him. The class-meeting, the love-feast,
the watch-night, the covenant service, leaders, stewards, lay
preachers, all were the fruit of this readiness to avail himself
of suggestions made by men or events. Wesley skilfully wove
these into his system, and kept the whole machinery moving
harmoniously. He inspired his preachers and his people with
his own spirit and made everything subordinate to his over-
mastering purpose, the spread of scriptural holiness throughout
the land.
In 1751 Wesley married Mary Vazeille, a widow, but the union
was unfortunate and she finally left him. John Fletcher, the
vicar of Madeley, to whom Wesley had turned as a possible
successor, died in 1785. He ha.d gone to Wesley's help at West
Street after his ordination at Whitehall in 1757 and had been one
of his chief allies ever since. He was beloved by all the preachers,
and his Checks to Antinomianism show that he was a courteous
controversialist. Charles Wesley died three years after Fletcher.
During the last three years of his life John Wesley reaped the
harvest he had sown. Honours were lavished upon him. His
people hailed every appearance among them with delight, and
his visits to various parts of the country were public holidays.
His interest in everything about him continued unabated. He
had a wealth of happy stories which made him the most delightful
of companions in the homes of his people. Robert Southey never
forgot how Wesley kissed his little sister and put his hand on his
head and blessed him. Alexander Knox says, " So fine an old
man I never saw ! The happiness of his mind beamed forth in
his countenance. Every look showed how fully he enjoyed
' The gay remembrance of a life well spent.' Wherever Wesley
went, he diffused a portion of his own felicity." He preached his
last sermon in Mr Belson's house at Leatherhead on Wednesday,
the 23rd of February 1 791 ; wrote next day his last letter to Wilber-
force, urging him to carry on his crusade against the slave trade;
and died in his house at City Road on the 2nd of March 1791,
in his eighty-eighth year. He was buried on the 9th of March
in the graveyard behind City Road chapel. His long life enabled
him to perfect the organization of Methodism and to inspire his
preachers and people with his own ideals, while he had con-
quered opposition by unwearying patience and by close adherence
to the principles which he sought to teach.
See also METHODISM, and the articles on the separate Methodist
bodies; see also WESLEY FAMILY. (J. T.*)
WESLEY, SAMUEL (1766-1837), English musical composer,
son of Charles Wesley (see above), was born at Bristol on the
24th of February 1766, and developed so precocious a talent
for music that at three years old he played the organ and at
eight composed an oratorio entitled Ruth a fact which is duly
chronicled on a curious portrait, painted in 1774, and afterwards
engraved, wherein he is represented in the childish costume
of the period. Though suffering for many years from an acci-
dental injury to the brain, Wesley was long regarded as the most
brilliant organist and the most accomplished extempore fugue-
player in England. He may indeed be regarded as the father of
modern organ-playing, for he it was who, aided by his friends
Benjamin Jacob and C. F. Horn, first introduced the works of
Sebastian Bach to English organists, not only by his superb
playing, but by editing with Horn, in 1810, the first copy of
Das ivohltemperirte Clavier ever printed in England. Wesley's
last performance took place on the I2th of September 1837 at
Christ Church, Newgate Street, London, where, after hearing the
wonderful performances of Mendelssohn, he was himself induced
to play an extempore fugue. He died on the utji of October
1837, leaving a vast number of MS. and printed compositions.
His brother Charles (1757-1815) was also an accom-
plished organist, and still more famous was his son, Samuel
Sebastian (q.v.).
WESLEY, SAMUEL SEBASTIAN (1810-1876), English com-
poser and organist, natural son of Samuel Wesley, the eminent
composer, was born in London on the I4th of. August 1810. He
WESLEYAN METHODIST CHURCH
was one of the Children of the Chapel Royal from 1819, held
various unimportant posts as organist from the age of fifteen,
and in 1832 was appointed to Hereford Cathedral. His career
as acomposer began with his splendid anthem, " The Wilderness,"
which was probably written for the opening of the Hereford organ
in that year. In 1834 it fell to him to conduct the Festival of the
Three Choirs, and in the following year he resigned Hereford
for Exeter Cathedral; and during the next six years his name
became gradually more and more widely known. In 1842
Dr Hook, afterwards dean of Chichester, offered him a large
salary to become organist of Leeds parish church, and at Leeds
much of his finest work as a composer was done. In 1849 he
quitted this post for Winchester, in order to secure educational
advantages for his sons. He was at Winchester until 1865,
when he offered himself as a candidate for Gloucester Cathedral,
the last of his many posts. He again conducted the Three Choirs
Festivals of 1865, 1868, 1871 and 1874. A civil "list pension of
100 a year was conferred on him in 1873; he died at Gloucester
on the igth of April 1876, and was buried at Exeter.
Like his father he was a very eccentric man, but his compositions
>how powers that are found in very few Englishmen of his date. If
the list of his compositions is smaller than that of his father's, it
must be remembered that his anthems, in which is contained his
best work, are far more important and more extensive than most
compositions so called : in many of them the whole anthem is no
longer sung, but even the selections from them make up anthems of
ordinary length. They are masterly in design, fine in inspiration
and expression, and noble in character. His " Blessed be the God
and Father, " " The Wilderness, " already mentioned, " Ascribe unto
the Lord, " " O Lord, Thou art my God, " and many others, are
masterpieces in their way, and in all of these, as in the service in E,
published with a rather trenchant preface in 1845, there is a happy
combination of the modern resources of harmony with the dignified
cathedral style, a combination which naturally alarmed the orthodox
party of his time.
WESLEYAN METHODIST CHURCH, one of the chief branches
of Methodism (q.t.). On the day of John Wesley's death the
preachers in London sent a brief note to those stationed in the
country: " Dear Brother, The melancholy period we have so
long dreaded is now arrived. Our aged and honoured Father,
Mr Wesley, is no more! He was taken to Paradise this morning,
in a glorious manner, after a sickness of five days. We have
not time to say more at present relative to his Demise. Only
what respects out future Oeconomy. This injunction he laid
upon us, and all our Brethren on his death-bed, That we each
continue in our respective Station till the time appointed for the
next Conference at Manchester. We have, therefore, no doubt
but you will, with us, readily comply with his Dying Request.
The more so, as this is consonant with the determination of the
Conference held at Bristol when he was supposed to be near
death there, and confirmed in succeeding Conferences."
In 1790 there were 294 preachers and 71,668 members in
Great Britain, 19 missionaries and 5300 members on the mission
stations; 198 preachers and 43,265 members in the United
States. The 6th of April was kept as a day of fasting and
prayer, and the ist of July was thus set apart in order to seek
divine guidance for the approaching conference. The crisis
was serious. The large proportion of Wesley's members had been
gathered by the labours of himself and his helpers. They had
been taught to observe the sacraments and naturally desired
that provision should be made for their administration in their
own chapels. Some felt that they could not go to the Lord's
Table where the clergyman was a worldly man; others went,
but with much fear and doubt. The Church party was in-
fluential and resolute to maintain close relations with the
Church of England. Their object was to prevent Methodism
becoming independent. There was also a small but determined
party that leaned to dissent. The struggle between these con-
flicting tendencies soon began. On the 3oth of March 1791
nine preachers sent out the famous Halifax circular making
suggestions as to the choice of president and other matters that
must come before the conference. The first signature to this
circular was that of William Thompson who was afterwards
elected as the first president. On the 4th of May eighteen lay-
men met at Hull and expressed their conviction that the useful-
ness of Methodism would be promoted by its continued con-
nexion with tke Church of England. They would not consent to
the administration of the sacraments by the preachers in Hull,
nor to Methodist preaching at the time when services were held
in church. A trenchant reply to this circular was prepared by
Alexander Kilham (?..), one of the younger Methodist preachers.
The conference met in Manchester on the z6th of July 1791.
A letter from Wesley (dated Chester, April 7, 1785) was read,
beseeching the members of the Legal Conference not to use their
powers for selfish ends but to be absolutely impartial in station-
ing the preachers, selecting boys for education at Kingswood
School, and disposing of connexional funds. The conference
at once resolved that all privileges conferred by Wesley's Poll
Deed should be accorded to every preacher in full connexion.
To supply the lack of Wesley's supervision the circuits were
now grouped together in districts. At first the preachers of
the district elected their own chairman, but they were after-
wards appointed by the conference. Regulations as to its
business were issued in 1812. As to the sacraments and the
relations of Methodism to the Church of England the decision
was: " We engage to follow strictly the plan which Mr Wesley
left us." This was ambiguous and was interpreted variously.
Some held that it forbade the administration of the sacraments
except where they were already permitted; others maintained
that it left Methodism free to follow the leadings of Providence
as Wesley had always done. During the year the difficulties
of the situation became more apparent. Wesley had given
the sacrament to the societies when he visited them and this
privilege was greatly missed. The conference of 1792 was so
much perplexed that it resorted to the casting of lots. The
decision was thus reached that the sacraments should not be
administered that year. This was really shelving the question,
but it gave time for opinion to ripen, and in 1793 it was resolved
by a large majority that " the societies should have the privilege
of the Lord's Supper where they unanimously desired it." In
1794, this privilege was definitely granted to ninety-three
societies. The feeling in Bristol was very strong. The trustees
of Broadmead, who were opposed to the administration of the
sacrament by the preachers, forbade Henry Moore to occupy
that pulpit. Nearly the whole society thereupon withdrew
to Portland Chapel. The conference of 1795 had to deal with
this controversy. It prepared a " Plan of Pacification " which
was approved by the conference and by an assembly of trustees,
and was welcomed by the societies. The Lord's Supper, baptism ,
the burial of the dead and service in church hours were not to
be conducted by the preachers unless a majority of the trustees,
stewards and leaders of any chapel approved, and assured the
conference that no separation was likely to ensue. The consent
of conference had to be given before any change was made.
In 1796, Alexander Kilham, who refused to abstain from
agitation for further reform, and accused his brethren of priest-
craft, was expelled from their ranks and the New Connexion
was formed with 5000 members (see METHODIST NEW CON-
NEXION). The conference of 1797 set itself to remove any
ground for distrust among the societies and to enlist their
hearty support in all branches of the work. Annual accounts
were to be published of various funds. The Circuit Quarterly
Meeting had to approve the arrangements for the support of
the preachers. The preachers had long been accustomed to
consult the leader's meetings of their societies, but it was now
clearly decided that stewards and leaders should be appointed
in connexion with the leaders' meeting, and certain rights were
granted to that meeting as to the admission and expulsion of
members. Local preachers had to be accepted by the local
preachers' meeting, and the powers of trustees of chapels were
considerably extended. The constitution of Methodism thus
practically took the shape which it retained till the admission
of lay representatives to conference in 1878. No period in the
history of Methodism was more critical than this, and in none
was the prudence and. good sense of its leaders more conspicuous.
Advance was quietly made along the lines now laid down. The
preachers had agreed in 1 793 that all distinction between those
532
WESLEYAN METHODIST CHURCH
whom Wesley had ordained and their brethren should cease.
In the minutes of conference for 1818 " Rev." appears before
the names of preachers who were members of the Missionary
Committee. Jabez Bunting (?..), who had become the ac-
knowledged leader of the conference, wished to have its young
ministers set apart by the imposition of hands, but this scriptural
custom was not introduced till 1836.
Meanwhile, Methodism was growing into a great missionary
church. Its work in the West Indies was firmly established
in Wesley's lifetime. In 1786 eleven hundred negroes were
members of the society in Antigua. The burden of superin-
tending these missions and providing funds for their support
rested on Dr Coke, who took his place as the missionary bishop
of Methodism. In 1813 he prevailed on the conference to
sanction a mission to Ceylon. He sailed with six missionaries
pn the 3oth of December, but died in the following May in the
Indian Ocean. To meet these new responsibilities a branch
Missionary Society had been formed in Leeds in October 1813,
and others soon sprang up in various parts of the country.
The Centenary of the Missionary Society falls in 1913, but
Methodist Missions really date from 1786 when Dr Coke landed
at Antigua. The area of operations gradually extended.
Missions were begun jn Madras, at the Cape of Good Hope, in
Australia, and on the west coast of Africa. Two missionaries
were sent to the Friendly Islands in 1826, and in 1835 a mission
was undertaken among the cannibals of Fiji, which spread and
deepened till the whole group of islands was transformed. The
work in China began in 1851; the Burma mission was estab-
lished in 1887. The rapid progress of the Transvaal and Swazi-
land missions has been almost embarrassing. The Missionary
Jubilee in 1863-1868 yielded 179,000 for the work abroad.
As the growth of the missions permitted conferences have been
formed in various countries. Upper Canada had its conference
in 1834, France in 1852, Australia in 1855, South Africa in 1882.
The missionary revival which marked the Nottingham Con-
ference of 1906 quickened the interest at home and abroad
and the Foreign Field (monthly) is prominent among missionary
periodicals. The Women's Auxiliary, founded in 1858, kept
its jubilee in 1908. It supports schools and medical missions,
homes and orphanages. In 1828 the erection of an organ in
Brunswick Chapel, Leeds, led to a violent agitation and a small
body of " Protestant Methodists " was formed. A more formid-
able division was led by Dr Warren, a preacher of ability and
influence, who was disappointed because no place was found
for him in the newly-formed Theological Institution. He tried
to awaken general opposition to the Institution scheme, and
being suspended from his office as superintendent by a special
district meeting, appealed to the law courts, which sustained
the action of the district meeting. He was expelled from the
conference and joined the Wesleyan Methodist Association in
1836, but shortly afterwards became a clergyman in Manchester.
In his first conference in 1744 Wesley asked, " Can we have a
seminary for labourers?" The answer was: "If God spare
us to another Conference." Next year the subject" was broached
with the reply: " Not till God give us a proper tutor." The
idea was not realized in his lifetime, but Wesley did everything
in his power to train his preachers. He gathered them together
and read with them as he had done with his pupils at Oxford;
he urged them to spend at least five hours a day in reading
the best books. He made this challenge, " I will give each of
you, as fast as you will read them, books to the value of 5." In
1834 Hoxton Academy was taken as a training place for ministers;
and in 1839 the students moved to Abney House, Stoke Newing-
ton. Didsbury College was opened in 1842, Richmond in 1843.
Headingfey was added in 1868, Handsworth in 1881.
The Centenary of Methodism was celebrated in 1839 and 221,939
was raised as a thank-offering: 71,609 was devoted to the colleges
at Didsbury and Richmond; 70,000 was given to the missionary
society, which spent 30,000 on the site and building of a mission-
5 Wil
'ithin ; 38,000 was set apart for the removal
house in Bishopsgate
of chapel debts, &c.
Methodism was now recognized as one of the great moral and
spiritual forces of the world. Its progress was rapid, but in 1849
there came a disastrous check. There was much jealousy of Dr
Bunting, the master mind of Methodism, to whose foresight _
wisdom large part of its success was due. Fly-sheets were issued
attacking him and other eminent ministers. James Everett, Samuel
Dunn and William Griffith were expelled from the ministry, and an
agitation began which robbed Wesleyan Methodism of 100,000
members. Those who now left the Connexion joined the reformers
of l828and 1 836 and formed theMethodist Free Churches. In 1852
the constitution of the Quarterly Meeting was clearly defined, and
the June Quarterly Meeting obtained the right to approach con-
ference with memorials. Various other provisions were made which
increased confidence. It was not till 1856 that the Connexion began
to recover from the loss caused by this agitation.
Methodism began its work for popular education in a very modest
way. In 1837 it had nine infant schools and twenty-two schools
for elder children. A grant of 5000 was made from the Centenary
Fund for the provision of Wesleyan day-schools. The conference
of 1843 directed that greater attention must be given to this de-
partment, and a committee met in the following October which
resolved that 700 schools should be established if possible within the
next seven years, and an Education Fund raised of 5000 a year.
In 1849 the Normal Training College for the education of day-
school teachers was opened jn Westminster, and in 1872 a second
college was opened in Battersea for school-mistresses. Westminster
provides for 120 and Southlands for no students. They supply
teachers not only for Wesleyan, but for council schools all over the
country, and no colleges have a higher reputation. Besides its day-
schools, Methodism possesses the Leys School at Cambridge, Rydal
Mount at Colwyn Bay and prosperous boarding-schools for boys
and girls in many parts of the country.
Methodism has from the beginning done much work in the army.
Dr William Harris Rule (1802-1890), who was appointed chaplain at
Gibraltar in 1832, won for it fuller recognition from the authorities.
Charles H. Kelly, his colleague at Aldershot, and R. W. Allen had
a large share in the struggle by which Methodist work both in the
army and the navy was developed. Capitation grants have made
it possible to organize the work at every station at home and abroad.
No homes for soldiers and sailors are more efficient or better liked
by the men. The service done by Methodist chaplains in war time,
and especially in the Boer War, won the warmest recognition from
the authorities.
In 1878, laymen were introduced into the Wesleyan conference.
They had been members of the committee appointed in 1803 to
" guard our privileges in these perilous times, " and had gradually
taken their place on the missionary and other committees. Circuit
stewards had attended the district meetings before 1817 but in that
year their right to attend was established. The Financial District
Meeting of which they were members was created in 1819 and the
financial business of each district soon came under its control. Out
of the Annual Home Missionary gathering sprang a system of
committees of review which, in 1852, James H. Rigg suggested
might be enlarged and combined into a kind of diet composed of
ministers and laymen who should consider reports from the various
departments. The time was not ripe for such a scheme, but in 1861
the principle of direct representation was introduced into the com-
mittees of review. The Representative Session which met in 1878
consisted of 240 ministers and 240 laymen. The Pastoral Session of
ministers met first to deal with pastoral affairs. In 1891 the Repre-
sentative Session was sandwiched between the two parts of the
Pastoral Session. In 1898 it met first and its numbers were enlarged
to 300 ministers and 300 laymen. In 1892 the district meeting
became known as the District Synod, and in 1893 the circuits began
to choose representatives to the Synod in addition to the circuit
stewards. The great advance in organization made with such peace
and goodwill was commemorated in 1878 by the Thanksgiving Fund
which reached 297,500. Dr Rigg, the president of that year, put
all his strength into the movement, and every department of Methodist
work at home and abroad shared in the benefits of the fund.
The Forward Movement in Methodism dates from that period.
A bolder policy won favour. Methodism realized its strength and
its obligations. In 1885 the Rev. S. F. Collier was appointed to
Manchester and the Rev. Peter Thompson was sent to work in the
East End. Next year the Revs. Hugh Price Hughes and Mark Guy
Pearse began the West London Mission. Every succeeding year has
witnessed development and growth. Large mission-halls have
been built in the principal towns of England, Scotland and Ireland.
Great congregations have been gathered, and the work done for up-
lifting the fallen and outcast has earned the gratitude of all good
men. The Manchester mission is regarded as one of the glories of
that city. The Forward Movement will always be associated with
the name of Hugh Price Hughes (q.v.). Village Methodism shared
in the quickening which the Forward Movement brought to the
large towns. Chapels which had been closed were reopened; an
entrance was found into many new villages. Weak circuits were
grouped together and gained fresh energy and hope by the union.
No work has been dearer to Methodists than that of the National
Children's Home and Orphanage founded by Dr Bowman Stephenson
in 1869. Its headquarters are in Bethnal Green, but it has branches
in various parts of the country and an emigration dep6t in Canada.
It cares not only for waifs and strays, but for cripples and delicate
children. Orphans of respectable parents have a home at Birmingham,
WESSEL
533
ind the reformatory school has done splendid service for lads who
have committed a first offence. Dr A. E. Gregory, who in IBM
succeeded Dr Stephenson, has seen remarkable progress in all di
icnts of the great institution under his care. ' Sisters of the
IVople" and deaconesses, for whom there is a training home at
Ilklcy, founded by Dr Stephenson in 1902, have also done much to
help in these modern developments of Methodism.
Chapel Committee, which has its headquarters in Manchester,
rneral oversight of 9070 trusts with property valued at about
i v-five millions. The number of Methodist chapels in 1818 was
2000- in 1839, 3500; in 1910, 8606. The sitting increased from
a million in 1851 to about 2,375,000 in 1910. The outlay on trust
property in that period was more than fifteen- millions. Debts
amounting to 3,266,013 have been paid off since 1854. More than
half a million has been advanced in loans and of this nothing has
been lost. In 1907 and 1908 1,292,282 was spent on trust property,
and of this 892,114 was contributed. London Methodism owes
more than can be told to the Metropolitan Chapel Building Fund
which was founded in 1861. The names of the Rev. William Arthur,
Sir Francis Lycett, Sir W. McArthur, will always be associated with
this fund which has promoted the erection of some hundred new
chapels. The Extension Fund, established in 1874, largely by the
help of Sir Francis Lycett and Mr Mewburn, has done similar work
(or country towns and villages. About two thousand chapels have
been assisted with grants and loans. Similar work has been done
itland by a fund established in 1878. North and South Wales
have their Chapel Funds. A secretary and committee were
appointed in 1910 to carry out various developments of work in
London. The work of the Metropolitan^ Chapel Building Fund and
the London Mission is taken over by this new committee.
John Wesley felt a lively interest in the Sunday schools which
began to spring up all over England in the last years of his life.
The first rules for the management of Methodist Sunday schools were
1 by the Conference in 1827. In 1837 there were 3339 Methodist
Sunday schools with 59,297 teachers and 341,443 scholars. A
quarter of the preaching places, however, had no schools. The
Education Committee was formed in 1838 to take oversight of the
work in day and Sunday schools. The Methodist Sunday School
Union, founded in 1873, was formed into a department in 1907 and is
doing much to guide and develop the work. The Temperance Com-
mittee was formed in 1875; a temperance secretary was set apart
in 1890. The department has its monthly organ and has its offices
in Westminster. The Wesley Guild Movement, established in 1901,
has its headquarters in Leeds and is doing a great work for the
young people of Methodism.
The centenary of Wesley's death was kept in 1891. Memorable
services were held in City Road Chapel, which was restored and
rendered more worthy of its historic position. Wesley's statue was
placed in the forecourt. In 1898 the rooms in Wesley's house, where
he studied and where he died, were set apart as a Methodist Museum.
The first Methodist Oecumenical Conference was held in London in
1881, the second in Washington in 1891, the third in London in 1901,
the fourth being fixed for Toronto in 1911. The Methodist Assembly
which met in Wesley's Chapel, London, in 1909 brought the branches
of British Methodism together with good results. A considerable
extension of the three years' term has been secured in certain cases
by a legal device for escaping the provisions of the eleventh clause
of Wesley's Deed Poll, but some more satisfactory method of dealing
with the subject is under consideration.
The great event of recent Methodist history was the Twentieth
Century Fund inaugurated by Sir Robert W. Perks in 1898. To
his unwearying zeal and business ability the triumph secured was
chiefly due. The Rev. Albert Clayton, the secretary of the fund,
lavished his strength on his vast task and the total income exceeded
1.07.3.782. The grants were: General Chapel Committee, 290,617;
Missionary Society, 102,656; Education Committee, 193,705;
Home Missions, 96,872; Children's Home, 48,436. The Royal
Aquarium at Westminster was purchased and a central hall and
church house as the headquarters of Methodism erected. For this
object 242,206 was set apart.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lives of Wesley, Hampson (1791), Coke and
Moore (1792), Whitehead (1793-1796), R. Southey (1820), Moore
( 1 824) .Walton ( 1 83 1 ) , Overton ( 1 89 1 ) .Wedgwood ( 1 870) , L. Tyerman
(1870), Lelievre (1868, 1900), J. Telford (1886, 1899), W. H. Fitchett
(1906), Winchester (1906).
Histories of Methodism. Dr George Smith, Dr Abel Stevens
I. Telford, W. J. Townsend, H. B. Workman and G. Eayrs, A New
History of Methodism (1909); Poetical Works ofj. and C. Wesley
Wesley's Works (1771-1774, 1809-1813; ed. Benson, 1829-1831
ed. Jackson 1856-1862). Standard ed. of Wesley's Journal (ed
N. Curnock, 1910); Cambridge Modern History, vol. vi.; Luke
Tyerman, Life of George Whitefield (1876) ; J. H. Overton, The English
Church in the Eighteenth Century; J. H. Overton and F. Relton
The English Church (1714-1800); J. S. Simon, Revival of Religion
in England in the Eighteenth Century; W. E. H. Lecky, History of
England in the Eighteenth Century; J. H. Rigg, The Living Wesley
The Churchmanshtp of John Wesley; R. Green, Bibliography of the
Works of J. and C. Wesley; Wesley^s Veterans; Lives of Early
Methodist Preachers (Finsbury Library). (J. T.*)
WESSEL, JOHAN ' (c. 1420-1489), Dutch theologian, was
)orn at Groningen. He was educated at the famous school at
Deventer, which was under the supervision of the Brothers of
!ommon Life, and in close connexion with the convent of
Mount St Agnes at Zwolle, where Thomas a Kempis was then
iving. At Deventer, where the best traditions of the 14th-
century mysticism were still cultivated, Wessel imbibed that
earnest devotional mysticism which was the basis of his theology
and which drew him irresistibly, after a busy life, to spend his
ast days among the Friends of God in the Low Countries. From
Deventer he went to the Dominican school at Cologne to be
:aught the Thomist theology, and came in contact with human-
sm. He learnt Greek from monks who had been driven out of
Greece, and Hebrew from some Jews. The Thomist theology
sent him to study Augustine, and his Greek reading led him to
Plato, sources which largely enriched his own theological system,
[nterest in the disputes between the realists and the nominalists
m Paris induced him to go to that city, where he remained for
sixteen years as scholar and teacher. There he eventually took
the nominalist side, prompted as much by his mystical anti-
ecclesiastical tendencies as by any metaphysical insight; for
the nominalists were then the anti-papal party. A desire to
know more about humanism sent him to Rome, where in 1470
he was the intimate friend of Italian scholars and under the
protection of Cardinals Bessarion and Francis Delia Revere
(general of the Franciscan order and afterwards Pope Sixtus
IV.). It is said that Sixtus would have gladly made Wessel
a bishop, but that he had no desire for any ecclesiastical
preferment. From Rome he returned to Paris, and speedily
became a famous teacher, gathering round him. a band of en-
thusiastic young students, among whom was Reuchlin. In 1475
he was at Basel and in 1476 at Heidelberg teaching philosophy
in the university. As old age approached he came to have a
growing dislike to the wordy theological strife which surrounded
him, and turned away from that university discipline, " non
studia sacrarum literarum sed studiorum commixtae cor-
ruptiones." After thirty years of academic life he went back
to his native Groningen, and spent the rest of his life partly
as director in a nuns' cloister there and partly in the convent
of St Agnes at Zwolle. He was welcomed as the most renowned
scholar of his time, and it was fabled that he had travelled
through all lands, Egypt as well as Greece, gathering every-
where the fruits of all sciences " a man of rare erudition,"
says the title-page of the first edition of his collected works,
" who in the shadow of papal darkness was called the light of
the world." His remaining years were spent amid a circle of
warm admirers, friends and disciples, to whom he imparted
the mystical theology, the zeal for higher learning and the
deep devotional spirit which characterized his own life. He died
on the 4th of October 1489, with the confession on his lips,
"I know only Jesus the crucified." He is buried in the middle
of the choir of the church of the " Geestlichen Maegden," whose
director he had been.
Wessel has been called one of the " reformers before the Refor-
mation," and the title is justifiable if by it is meant a man of deeply
spiritual life, who protested against the growing paganizing of the
papacy, the superstitious and magical uses of the sacraments, the
authority of ecclesiastical tradition, and that tendency in later
scholastic theology to lay greater stress, in a doctrine of justification,
upon the instrumentality of the human will than on the objective
work of Christ for man's salvation. His own theology was, however,
essentially medieval in type, and he never grasped that experimental
thought of justification on which Reformation theology rests.
Martin Luther in 1521 published a collection of Wessel's writings *
which had been preserved as relics by his friends, and said that if he
(Luther) had written nothing before he read them, people might well
have thought that he had stolen all his ideas from them. The books
are of an aphoristical character, the ideas being rather mechanically
1 His correct name was Wessel Harmens Gansfort (or Ganzevort),
the Christian name Wessel being a corruption of Basilius, and the
surname Gansfort being that of a Westphalian village from which
his family came.
1 The c&llection included De praridentia, De causts el effecttbu
incamationis et passionis, De dignitate et potestate ecclesiastica, De
sacramente, poenitentiae, Quae stt vera fommunio sanctorum, De
purgatorio and a number of letters.
534
WESSELENYI WESSEX
arranged, so that it is not possible to single out any one as the
centre of the whole system. The authority of the Bible Wessel would
support when necessary, not by the priest but by the divinity pro-
fessor. His views on the sacraments anticipated those of Zwingli
rather than of Luther.
See Vita Wesseli Groningensis, by Albert Hardenberg, published
in an incomplete form in the preface to Wessel's collected works
(Amsterdam, 1614; this preface also contains extracts from the
works of several writers who have given facts about the life of
Wessel) ; W. Muurling, Cam. Hist. Theol. de Wesseli Gansfortii vita,
&c. (1831); K. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation (the
second volume of the German edition is a second and enlarged
edition of a previous work entitled Johann Wessel, ein Vorgdnger
Luthers (1834); J. Friedrich, Johann Wessel, ein Bild aus der
Kirchengeschichte des i$ten Jahrhunderts (1862); A. Ritschl, History
of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation (Edinburgh,
1872) ; J. J. Doedes, " Hist.-litterarisches zur Biographic J. Wessels "
in Theol. Studien und Kritiken (1870).
WESSELENYI, MIKL6S, BARON (1796-1850), Hungarian
statesman, son of Baron Miklos Wesselenyi and Ilona Cserei,
was born at Zsibo, and was educated at his father's castle by
M6zes Pataky in the most liberal and patriotic direction. In
1823 he permanently entered public life and made the ac-
quaintance of Count Stephen Szechenyi whose companion he
was on a long educative foreign tour, on his return from which
he became one of the leaders of the liberal movement in the
Upper House. In 1833 appeared his Baliteletek (Prejudices),
which was for long a prohibited book. He was the foremost
leader of the Opposition at the diet of 1834, and his freely
expressed opinions on land-redemption, together with his
efforts to give greater publicity to the debates of the diet by
printing them, involved him in two expensive crown prosecu-
tions. He was imprisoned at Grafenberg, whither he had gone
to be cured of an eye trouble, and two years later became quite
blind. Subsequently he did much for agriculture, children's
homes and the introduction and extension of the silk industry
in Hungary. The events of 1848 brought him home from a
long residence abroad, but he was no longer the man he had been,
and soon withdrew again to Grafenberg. He died on the 2ist
of April 1850, on his way back to Hungary.
See Ferencz Szildgyi, Life and Career of Baron Nicholas Wesselenyi
the Younger (Hung. Budapest, 1876). (R. N. B.)
WESSEX, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain. The
story of its origin is given in the Saxon Chronicle. According to
this the kingdom was founded by two princes, Cerdic, and Cynric
his son, who landed in 494 or 495 and were followed by other
settlers in 501 and 514. After several successful battles against
the Welsh they became kings in 519. Very few of the localities
connected with the story of these princes have been identified
with certainty, but such identifications as there are point to the
southern part of Hampshire. In 530 Cerdic and Cynric are said
to have conquered the Isle of Wight, which they gave to two of
their relatives, Stuf and Wihtgar. Cerdic died in 534. Cynric
defeated the Britons at Salisbury in 552 and again in conjunction
with his son Ceawlin at Beranburh, probably Barbury Hill, in
556. At his death in 560 he was succeeded by Ceawlin, who is
mentioned by Bede as the second of the English kings to hold an
imperium in Britain. With him we enter upon a period not
perhaps of history, but at least of more or less reliable tradition.
How far the earlier part of the story deserves credence has been
and still is much debated. At all events no value can be attached
to the dates given in the Chronicle. The preface to this work
places Cerdic's assumption of the sovereignty six years after
his landing, that is, in the year 500, and assigns him a reign of
sixteen years, which makes his death fall eighteen years before
534, the date recorded in the annals. Again, while the annals
record Ceawlin's accession in 560 and his expulsion in 592, the
preface with other early authorities assigns him a reign of only
seventeen years. Further a number of genealogies, both in the
Chronicle and elsewhere, represent Cynric as grandson of Cerdic
and son of a certain Creoda. Suspicion likewise attaches to the
name Cerdic, which seems to be Welsh, while we learn from
Bede that the Isle of Wight, together with part at least of the
Hampshire coast, was colonized by Jutes, who apparently had a
kingdom distinct from that of Wessex. For these reasons the
story of the foundation of Wessex, though it appears to possess
considerable antiquity, must be regarded as open to grave
suspicion. It is worthy of note that the dynasty claimed to
be of the same origin as the royal house of Bernicia and that two
of Cerdic's ancestors, Freawine and Wig, figure in the story of
Wermund, king of Angel.
Whatever may be the truth about the origin of the kingdom,
and it is by no means impossible that the invasion really proceeded
from a different quarter, we need not doubt that its dimensions
were largely increased under Ceawlin. In his reign the Chronicle
mentions two great victories over the Welsh, one at a place
called Bedcanford in 571, by which Aylesbury and the upper
part of the Thames valley fell into the hands of the West Saxons,
and another at Deorham in 577, which led to the capture of
Cirencester, Bath and Gloucester. Ceawlin is also said to have
defeated .flithelberht at a place called Wibbandun (possibly
Wimbledon) in 568. In 592 he was expelled and died in the
following year. Of his successors Ceol and Ceolwulf we know
little though the latter is said to have been engaged in constant
warfare. Ceolwulf was succeeded in 611 by Cynegils, whose
son Cwichelm provoked a Northumbrian invasion by the
attempted murder of Edwin in 626. These kings are also said to
have come into collision with the Mercian king Penda, and it is
possible that the province of the Hwicce (q.v.) was lost in their
time. After the accession of Oswald, who married Cynegils's
daughter, to the throne of Northumbria, both Cynegils and
Cwichelm were baptized. Cynegils was succeeded in 642 by his
son Cenwalh, who married and subsequently divorced Penda's
sister and was on that account expelled by that king. After his
return he gained a victory over the Welsh near Pen-Selwood, by
which a large part of Somerset came into his hands. In 66 1 he
was again attacked by the Mercians under Wulfhere. At his
death, probably in 673, the throne is said to have been held for a
year by his widow Sexburh, who was succeeded by Aescwine,
674-676, and Centwine, 676-685. According to Bede, however,
the kingdom was in a state of disunion from the death of Cenwalh
to the accession of Ceadwalla in 685, who greatly increased its
prestige and conquered the Isle of Wight, the inhabitants of
which he treated with great barbarity. After a brief reign Cead-
walla went to Rome, where he was baptized, and died shortly
afterwards, leaving the kingdom to Ine. By the end of the 7th
century a considerable part at least of Devonshire as well as
the whole of Somerset and Dorset seems to have come into the
hands of the West Saxons. On the resignation of Ine, in 726,
the throne was obtained by jEthelheard, apparently his brother-
in-law, who had to submit to the Mercian king ./Ethelbald, by
whom he seems to have been attacked in 733. Cuthred, who
succeeded in 740, at first acted in concert with ^Ethelbald, but
revolted in 752. At his death in 756 Sigeberht succeeded. The
latter, however, on account of his misgovernment was deserted by
most of the leading nobles, and with the exception of Hampshire
the whole kingdom came into the hands of Cynewulf. Sigeberht,
after putting to death the last of the princes who remained
faithful to him, was driven into exile and subsequently murdered;
but vengeance was afterwards taken on Cynewulf by his brother
Cyneheard. Cynewulf was succeeded in 786 by Berhtric, who
married Eadburg, daughter of the Mercian king Offa. Her
violent and murderous conduct led to the king's death in 802;
and, it is said, caused the title of queen to be denied to the wives
of later kings. Berhtric was succeeded by Ecgberht (?..), the
chief event of whose reign was the overthrow of the Mercian
king Beornwulf in 825, which led to the establishment of West
Saxon supremacy and to the annexation by Wessex of Sussex,
Surrey, Kent and Essex.
iEthelwulf (q.v.), son of Ecgberht, succeeded to the throne of
Wessex at his father's death in 839, while the eastern provinces
went to his son or brother .<Ethelstan. A similar division took
place on jEthelwulf's death between his two sons jEthelbald
and ^Ethelberht, but on the death of the former in 858 JEthel-
berht united the whole in his own hands, his younger brothers
^Ethelred and Alfred renouncing their claims. ^Ethelberht was
succeeded in 865 by ^Ethelred, and the latter by Alfred in 871.
This was the period of the great Danish invasion which culminated
WEST, B. WESTBORO
in the submission of Guthrum in 878. Shortly afterwards the
kingdom of the Mercians came to an end and their leading earl
jEthelred accepted Alfred's overlordship. By 886 Alfred's
authority was admitted in all the provinces of England which
\vi-re not under Danish rule. From this time onwards the
history of Wessex is the history of England.
Kings of Wessex.
jCthelheard
Cuthred .
Sigeberht
Cynewulf
Berhtric .
Ecgbert .
/Ethelwulf
/Ethelbald
Cerdic .
Cynric
Ceawlin .
Ceol .
Ceolwulf.
Cynegils .
Cenwalh .
Scxburh .
jEscwine
Centwine
Ceadwalla
Ine
519
534
560 (c. 571)
592 (c. 588)
597 (c- 594)
611
643 (c. 642)
672 (c. 673)
674
676
685
688
/Ethelberht
.Ethelred
Alfred
728 (726)
741 (740)
754 (756)
755 (757)
784 (786)
800 (802)
836 (839)
855 (858)
860
866
871
The dates are those of the annals in the Chronicle, with approximate
corrections in brackets.
See A nglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by Earle and Plummer (Oxford,
1892-1899) ; Bede, Hist. Eccl. and Continuatio, edited by C. Plummer
(Oxford, 1896); " Annales Lindisfarnenses," in the Monumenta
Germ, hist. xix. 502-508 (Hanover, 1866) ; Asser, Life of King
Alfred, edited by W. H. Stevenson (Oxford, 1904) ; W. de G. Birch,
Cartularium Saxonicum (London, 1885-1893). (F. G. M. B.)
WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820), English historical and
portrait-painter, was born on the loth of October 1738, at
Springfield, Pennsylvania, of an old Quaker family from
Buckinghamshire. When a boy of seven he began to show
his inclinations to art. According to a well-known story, he
was sitting by the cradle of his sister's child, watching its sleep,
when the infant happened to smile in its dreams, and, struck
with its beauty, young Benjamin got some paper, and drew its
portrait. The career thus begun was prosecuted amid many
difficulties; but his perseverance overcame every obstacle, and
at the age of eighteen he settled in Philadelphia as a portrait-
painter. After two years he removed to New York, where
he practised his profession with considerable success. In 1760,
through the assistance of some friends, he was enabled to com-
plete'his artistic education by a visit to Italy, where he remained
nearly three years. Here he acquired reputation, and was elected
a member of the principal academies of Italy. On the expiry
of his Italian visit he settled in London as an historical painter.
His success was not long doubtful. George III. took him under
his special patronage; and commissions flowed in upon him
from all quarters. In 1768 he was one of the four artists who
submitted to the king the plan for a royal academy, of which
he was one of the earliest members; and in 1772 he was appointed
historical painter to the king. He devoted his attention mainly
to the painting of large pictures on historical and religious
subjects, conceived, as he believed, in the style of the old masters,
and executed with great care and much taste. So high did he
stand in public favour that on the death of Sir Joshua Reynolds,
in 1792, he was elected his successor as president of the Royal
Academy, an office which he held for twenty-eight years. In
1802 he took advantage of the opportunity afforded by the
peace of Amiens to visit Paris, and inspect the magnificent
collection of the masterpieces of art, pillaged from the gallery
of almost every capital in Europe, which then adorned the
Louvre. On his return to London he devoted himself anew
to the labours of his profession, which were, however, somewhat
broken in upon by quarrels with some of the members of the
Royal Academy. In 1804 he resigned his office, but an all but
unanimous request that he should return to the chair induced him
to recall his resignation. Time did not at all weaken the energy
with which he laboured at his easel. When sixty-five he painted
one of his largest works, " Christ healing the Sick." This was
originally designed to be presented to the Quakers in Philadelphia,
to assist in erecting a hospital. On its completion it was exhibited
in London to immense crowds, and was purchased by the British
Institution for 3000 guineas, West sending a replica to Phila-
delphia. His subsequent works were nearly all on the same
grand scale as the picture which had been so successful, but
535
they did not meet with very ready sale. He died in London on
the nth of March 1820, and was buried in St Paul's.
West's works, which fond criticism ranked during his life with
the great productions of the old masters, are now considered as in
general formal, tame, wanting that freedom of nature and that life
which genius alone can breathe into the canvas. His " Death of
Wolfe ' is interesting as introducing modern costume instead of the
classical draperies which had been previously universal in similar
subjects by English artists; and his " Battle of La Hogue "
is entitled to an honourable place among British historical
paintings.
An account of West's life was published by Gait (The Progress of
Genius, 1816). See also H. T. Tuckerman, Book of the Artists
(N.Y., 1868).
WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533), English bishop and diplo-
matist, was born at Putney, and educated at Eton and at King's
College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1483. He was
soon ordained and appointed rector of Egglescliffe, Durham,
receiving a little later two other livings and becoming chaplain
to King Henry VII. In 1509 Henry VIII. appointed him dean
of St George's chapel, Windsor, and in 1515 he was elected
bishop of Ely. West's long and successful career as a diplo-
matist began in 1502 through his friendship with Richard Fox,
bishop of Durham. In the interests of Henry VII. he visited
the German king Maximilian I. and George, duke of Saxony;
in 1506 he negotiated an important commercial treaty with
Flanders, and he attempted to arrange marriages between the
king's daughter Mary and the future emperor Charles V., and
between the king himself and Charles's sister Margaret. By
Henry VIII. West was sent many times to Scotland and to
France. Occupied mainly during the years 1513 and 1514 with
journeys to and from Scotland, he visited Louis XII. of France
in the autumn of 1514 and his successor Francis I. in 1515.
In 1515 also he arranged a defensive treaty between England
and France, and he was principally responsible for treaties
concluded between the two countries in 1518 and 1525, and at
other times. He was trusted and employed on personal matters
by Cardinal Wolsey. He died on the 28th of April 1533. The
bishop built two beautiful chapels, one in Putney church and
the other in Ely cathedral, where he is buried.
WESTALL, RICHARD (1765-1836), English subject painter,
was born in Hertford in 1765, of a Norwich family. In 1779
he went to London, and was apprenticed to an engraver on silver,
and in 1785 he began to study in the schools of the Royal
Academy. He painted " Esau seeking Jacob's Blessing,"
" Mary Queen of Scots going to Execution " and other historical
subjects in water-colour, and some good portraits in the same
medium, but he is mainly known as a book-illustrator. He
produced five subjects for the Shakespeare Gallery, illustrated
an edition of Milton, executed a very popular series of illustra-
tions to the Bible and the prayer-book, and designed plates for
numerous other works. In 1808 he published a poem, A Day
in Spring, illustrated by his own pencil. His designs are rather
tame, mannered and effeminate. He became an associate of
the Royal Academy in 1792, and a full member in 1794; and
during his later years he was a pensioner of the Academy.
He died on the 4th of December 1836. His brother, William
Westall, A.R.A. (1781-1850), landscape painter, is mainly known
by his illustrations to works of travel.
WESTBORO, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about 12 m. E. of Worcester. Pop. (1800) 5195; (1900)
5400 (1127 being foreign-born) ; (1005, state census) 5378; (1910)
5446. Westboro is served by the Boston & Albany railway and
by inteiurban electric lines. Area, about 22 sq. m. It has a
public library, which has belonged to the township since 1857;
and here are the Lyman School for Boys, a state industrial
institution (opened in 1886 and succeeding a state reform school
opened in 1846), and the Westboro Insane Hospital (homoeopathic,
1884), which is under the general supervision of the State Board
of Insanity. There are manufactures of boots and shoes, straw
and leather goods, carpets, &c. Westboro was the birthplace
of Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton gin. The first settlement
here was made about 1659 in a part of Marlboro called Chauncy
(because of a grant of 500 acres here to Charles Chauncy, president
WEST BROMWICH WESTBURY
of Harvard College, made in 1659 and revoked in 1660 by the
General Court of Massachusetts) . In 1 7 1 7 this part of Marlboro,
with other lands, was erected into the township of Westboro,
to which parts of Sutton (1728), Shrewsbury (1762 and 1793)
and Upton (1763) were subsequently annexed, and from which
Northboro was separated in 1766.
WEST BROMWICH, a market town and municipal, county
and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, England, 6 m. N.W.
of Birmingham, on the northern line of the Great Western
railway. Pop. (1891) 59,538, (1901) 65,175. The appearance
of the town, like its growth as an industrial centre of the Black
Country, is modern. It is, however, of ancient origin; thus the
church of All Saints, formerly St Clement, was given by Henry I.
to the convent of Worcester, from which it passed to the priors
of Sandwell, who rebuilt it in the Decorated period, the present
structure (1872) following their plan. The chief public buildings
are the town hall (1875), tne Institute (1886), providing instruc-
tion in science and art, under the corporation since 1894, the
free library (1874) and law-courts (1891). The picturesque
Oak House, of the i6th century, was opened as a museum and
art gallery in 1898. Among schools is one for pauper children
in which engineering, baking, spade-husbandry, &c., are taught.
Sandwell Hall, formerly a seat of the earls of Dartmouth, con-
tains a school for daughters of clergymen, &c. The house,
standing in pleasant wooded grounds, is on the site of the Bene-
dictine priory of Sandwell, founded in the time of Henry II.
There are charities founded by the families of Stanley and
Whorwood (1613 and 1614). Dartmouth Park is a recreation
ground of about 60 acres; others are Farley, Ken wick and Hill
Top Park. Numerous mines work the extensive coalfields,
which include a thirty-foot seam. There are large iron and brass
foundries and smelting furnaces, and malting and brickmaking
are carried on. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
The town is governed by a mayor 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 5860 acres.
WESTBROOK, a city of Cumberland county, Maine, U.S.A.,
on the Presumpscot river, 5 m. N.W. of Portland. Pop. (1890)
6632, (1900) 7283 (1673 foreign- born), (1910) 8281. It is
served by the Maine Central and the Boston & Maine railways.
In Westbrook are the Walker Memorial Library (1894) and the
Warren Library (1879). The river provides water-power, and
among the manufactures are paper, silks, cotton goods, &c. In
1814 Westbrook was separated from Falmouth and incorporated
as a township under the name of Stroud water, and in 1815 the
present name was adopted in honour of Colonel Thomas West-
brook, who had distinguished himself in wars with the Indians.
In 1871 Deering, now a part of Portland, was taken from the
township. A city charter was granted to Westbrook in 1889
and adopted in 1891.
WESTBURY, RICHARD BETHELL, isx BARON (1800-1873),
lord chancellor of Great Britain, was the son of Dr Richard
Bethell, and was born at Bradford, Wilts. Taking a high degree
at Oxford in 1818, he was elected a fellow of Wadham College.
In 1823 he was called to the bar at the Middle Temple. On
attaining the dignity of queen's counsel in 1840 he rapidly took
the foremost place at the Chancery bar and was appointed vice-
chancellor of the county palatine of Lancaster in 1851. His most
important public service was the reform of the then existing mode
of legal education, a reform which ensured that students before
call to the bar should have at least some acquaintance with the
elements of the subject which they were to profess. In 1851 he
obtained a seat in the House of Commons, where h'e continued to
sit, first as member for Aylesbury, then as member for Wolver-
hampton, until he was raised to the peerage. Attaching himself
to the liberals, he became solicitor-general in 1852 and attorney-
general in 1856 and again in 1859. On June 26, 1861, on the
death of Lord Campbell, he was created lord high chancellor
of Great Britain, with the title of Baron Westbury of Westbury,
county Wilts. The ambition of his life was to set on foot the
compilation of a digest of the whole law, but for various reasons
this became impracticable. The conclusion of his tenure of the
chancellorship was unfortunately marked by events which,
although they did not render personal corruption imputable to
him, made it evident that he had acted with some laxity and
want of caution. Owing to the reception by parliament of
reports of committees nominated to consider the circumstances
of certain appointments hi the Leeds Bankruptcy Court, as well
as the granting a pension to a Mr Leonard Edmunds, a clerk
in the patent office, and a clerk of the parliaments, the lord
chancellor felt it incumbent upon him to resign his office, which
he accordingly did on the 5th of July 1865, and was succeeded
by Lord Cranworth. After his resignation he continued to take
part in the judicial sittings of the House of Lords and the privy
council until his death. In 1872 he was appointed arbitrator
under the European Assurance Society Act 1872, and his judg-
ments in that capacity have been collected and published by
Mr F. S. Reilly. As a writer on law he made no mark, and few
of his decisions take the highest judicial rank. Perhaps the
best known is the judgment delivering the opinion of the judicial
committee of the privy council in 1863 against the heretical
character of certain extracts from the well-known publication
Essays and Reviews. His principal legislative achievements were
the passing of the Divorce Act 1857, and of the Land Registry
Act 1862 (generally known as Lord Westbury's Act), the latter
of which in practice proved a failure. What chiefly distinguished
Lord Westbury was the possession of a certain sarcastic humour;
and numerous are the stories, authentic and apocryphal, of its
exercise. In fact, he and Mr Justice Maule fill a position analo-
gous to that of Sydney Smith, convenient names to whom " good
things " may be attributed. Lord Westbury died on the 2oth of
July 1873, within a day of the death of Bishop Wilberforce, his
special antagonist in debate.
See Life of Lord Westbury by T. A. Nash.
WESTBURY, an urban district in the Westbury parliamentary
division of Wiltshire, England, on the river Biss, a small tributary
of the Lower Avon. Pop. (1901) 3305. It is 955 m. W. by S.
of London by the Great Western railway, and lies within 3 m.
of the Somerset border, sheltered on the east by the high tableland
of Salisbury Plain. All Saints' church is Norman and later, with
a magnificent nave. In the south transept stands a monument
to Sir James Ley, earl of Marlborough and president of the
council in 1629; the "good earl" addressed in a sonnet by
Milton. A chained black-letter copy of Erasmus' " Para-
phrase of the New Testament " is preserved in the south-chapel.
In the suburb of Westbury Leigh is the " Palace Garden," a
moated site said to have been a royal residence in Saxon times.
Westbury (Westberie, Westburi) figures in Domesday as a
manor held by the king. The manor was granted by Henry II.
to Reginald de Pavely in 1172-1173, and from then onwards
passed through various families until in 1810 it was purchased
by Sir M. M. Lopez from the earl of Abingdon. A post mote was
held for Westbury in 1361-1362, but the earliest mention of the
town as a borough occurs in 1442-1443. The charter of incorpora-
tion is lost (tradition says it was burnt) , and the town possesses no
other charter. The title of the corporation was " Mayor and
Burgesses of Westbury," and it consisted of a mayor, recorder
and 13 capital burgesses. The borough returned two members
to parliament from 1448. In 1832 the number was reduced to
one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in that of the
county. In 1252 Henry III. granted to Walter de Pavely a
yearly fair for three days from October 31, and a weekly market
on Friday. Henry VI. in 1460 granted three fairs yearly for
three days from April 22, Whit Monday and September 13
respectively, and a market on Thursdays. In 1835 the mayor's
fair was held at Whitsuntide, and the lord of the manor's at
Easter. In 1875 a yearly sheep fair took place on the first
Tuesday in September and a pleasure fair on Easter and Whit
Monday; in 1888 on the first Tuesday in September and on the
24th of that month; the former still exists. In 1673 there
was a market on Friday, in 1835 a nominal one on Tuesday
and after 1875 it ceased. During the i8th and igth centuries
there was a considerable trade in malt, bricks, tiles and cloth.
The last, once the most extensive, has now sunk into insignifi-
cance, while the others exist also only on a small scale.
WEST CHESTER WESTCOTT
537
WEST CHESTER, a borough and the county-seat of Chester
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 20 m. W. of Philadelphia.
Pop. (1890) 8028; (1900) 9524, of whom 566 were foreign-born
and 1777 were negroes; (1910 census) 11,767. West Chester
is served directly by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia,
Haltimore & Washington railways and by an interurban electric
line to Philadelphia; electric lines connect with the Philadelphia
& Reading at Lenape, 4 m. to the south-west, and at Coatesville,
10 m. to the west. The borough lies about 450 ft. above sea-level
in an undulating country. At West Chester are the West Chester
State Normal School (1871), the Darlington Seminary (non-
sectarian; for girls), founded in 1851 by Smedley Darlington
(1827-1899; principal of the school in 1851-1861 and a repre-
sentative in Congress in 1887-1891), the Friends' Graded School
and the Friends' (Orthodox) Select School. There are fine
botanical gardens in Marshall Square. Among the public build-
ings are a county court house (1847-1848), a county jail and a
county hospital (1892-1893), the public library and a large
Y.M.C.A. building. The colonial Turk's Head Hotel here has
been so called since 1768 and was probably first opened in 1762.
West Chester is in a farming country with important market-
gardens and dairy farms; among its manufactures are dairy
implements, foundry and machine-shop products and carriage
and wagon materials. The factory product in 1905 was valued
at $2,121,185. There are several large nursery farms here.
West Chester was first settled in 1713, succeeded Chester as the
county-seat in 1784-1786, and was incorporated as a town in
1788 and as a borough in 1799. During the War of Independence
the battle of Brandywine was fought about 7 m. S. of West
Chester on the nth of September 1777, and on the 2oth General
Anthony Wayne, with a small force, was surprised and routed
by the British at Paoli, about 8 m. N.E.
WESTCOTT, BROOKE FOSS (1825-1901), English divine
and bishop of Durham, was born on the I2th of January 1825
in the neighbourhood of Birmingham. His father, Frederick
Brooke Westcott, was a botanist of some distinction. Westcott
was educated at King Edward VI. school, Birmingham, under
James Prince Lee, where he formed his friendship with Joseph
Barber Lightfoot (?..). In 1844 Westcott obtained a scholarship
at Trinity College, Cambridge. He took Sir William Browne's
medal for a Greek ode in 1846 and 1847, the Members' Prize
for a Latin essay in 1847 as an undergraduate and in 1849 as
a bachelor. He took his degree in January 1848, obtaining
double-first honours. In mathematics he was twenty-fourth
wrangler, Isaac Todhunter being senior. In classics he was
senior, being bracketed with C. B. Scott, afterwards headmaster
of Westminster. After obtaining his degree, Westcott remained
for four years in residence at Trinity. In 1849 he obtained
his fellowship; and in the same year he was ordained deacon
and priest by .his old headmaster, Prince Lee, now bishop of
Manchester. The time spent at Cambridge was devoted to most
strenuous study. He took pupils; and among his pupils there
were reading with him, almost at the same time, his school
friend Lightfoot and two other men who became his attached
and lifelong friends, E. W. Benson and F. J. A. Hort (gg.v.). The
inspiring influence of Westcott's intense enthusiasm left its
mark upon these three distinguished men; they regarded him
not only as their friend and counsellor, but as in an especial
degree their teacher and oracle. He devoted much attention
to philosophical, patristic and historical studies, but it soon
became evident that he would throw his strength into New
Testament work. In 1851 he published his Norrisian prize
essay with the title Elements of the Gospel Harmony.
In 1852 he became an assistant master at Harrow, and soon
afterwards he married Miss Whithard. He prosecuted his school
work with characteristic vigour, and succeeded in combining
with his school duties an enormous amount both of theological
research and of literary activity. He worked at Harrow for
nearly twenty years under Dr C. J. Vaughan and Dr Montagu
Butler, but while he was always conspicuously successful in
inspiring a few senior boys with something of his own intellectual
and moral enthusiasm, he was never in the same measure capable
of maintaining discipline among large numbers. The writings
which he produced at this period created a new epoch in the
history of modern English theological scholarship. In 1855
he published the first edition of his History of the New Testament
Canon, which, frequently revised and expanded, became the
standard English work upon the subject. In 1859 there appeared
his Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles. In 1860 he expanded
his Norrisian essay into an Introduction to the Study of the Gospels,
a work remarkable for insight and minuteness of study, as well
as for reverential treatment combined with considerable freedom
from traditional lines. Westcott's work for Smith's Dictionary
of the Bible, notably his articles on " Canon," " Maccabees,"
" Vulgate," entailed most careful and thorough preparation,
and led to the composition of his subsequent valuable popular
books, The Bible in the Church (1864) and a History of the English
Bible (1869). To the same period belongs The Gospel of the
Resurrection (1866). As a piece of consecutive reasoning upon a
fundamental Christian doctrine it deservedly attracted great
attention. Its width of view and its recognition of the claims
of historical science and pure reason were thoroughly character-
istic of Westcott's mode of discussing a theological question.
At the time when the book appeared his method of apologetic
showed both courage and originality, but the excellence of the
work is impaired by the difficulty of the style.
In 1865 he took his B.D., and in 1870 his D.D. He received
in later years the honorary degrees of D.C.L. from Oxford (1881)
and of D.D. from Edinburgh (1883). In 1868 Westcott was
appointed examining chaplain by Bishop Connor Magee (of
Peterborough) ; and in the following year he accepted a canonry
at Peterborough, which necessitated his leaving Harrow. For
a time he contemplated with eagerness the idea of a renovated
cathedral life, devoted to the pursuit of learning and to the
development of opportunities for the religious and intellectual
benefit of the diocese. But the regius professorship of divinity
at Cambridge fell vacant, and Lightfoot, who was then Hulsean
professor, declining to become a candidate himself, insisted upon
Westcott's standing for the post. It was due to Lightfoot's
support almost as much as to his own great merits that Westcott
was elected to the chair on the ist of November 1870. This was
the turning-point of his life. He now occupied a great position
for which he was supremely fitted, and at a juncture in the
reform of university studies when a theologian of liberal views,
but universally respected for his massive learning and his devout
and single-minded character, would enjoy a unique opportunity
for usefulness. Supported by his friends Lightfoot and Hort,
he threw himself into the new work with extraordinary energy.
He deliberately sacrificed many of the social privileges of a
university career in order that his studies might be more con-
tinuous and that he might see more of the younger men. His
lectures were generally on Biblical subjects. His Commentaries
on St John's Gospel (1881), on the Epistle to the Hebrews (1889)
and the Epistles of St John (1883) resulted from his public
lectures. One of his most valuable works, The Gospel of Life
(1892), a study of Christian doctrine, incorporated the materials
upon which he was engaged in a series of more private and
esoteric lectures delivered on week-day evenings. The work
of lecturing was an intense strain to him, but its influence was
immense: to attend one of Westcott's lectures even to watch
him lecturing was an experience which lifted and solemnized
many a man to whom the references to Origen or Rupert of
Deutz were almost ludicrously unintelligible. Between the
years 1870 and 1881 Westcott was also continually engaged in
work for the revision of the New Testament, and, simultaneously,
in the preparation of a new text in conjunction with Hort. The
years in which Westcott, Lightfoot and Hort could thus meet
frequently and naturally for the discussion of the work in which
they were all three so deeply engrossed formed a happy and
privileged period in their lives. In the year 1881 there appeared
the famous Westcott and Hort text of the New Testament,
upon which had been expended nearly thirty years of incessant
labour. The reforms in the regulations for degrees in divinity,
the formation and first revision of the new theological tripos,
538
WESTERLY
the inauguration of the Cambridge mission to Delhi, the institu-
tion of the Church Society (for the discussion of theological
and ecclesiastical questions by the younger men), the meetings
for the divinity faculty, the organization of the new Divinity
School and Library and, later, the institution cf the Cambridge
Clergy Training School, were all, in a very real degree, the result
of Westcott's energy and influence as regius professor. To this
list should also be added the Oxford and Cambridge preliminary
examination for candidates for holy orders, with which he was
from the first most closely identified. The success of this very
useful scheme was due chiefly to his sedulous interest and help.
The departure of Lightfoot to the see of Durham in 1879
was a great blow to Westcott. Nevertheless it resulted in bring-
ing him into still greater prominence. He was compelled to
take the lead in matters where Lightfoot's more practical nature
. had previously been predominant. In 1883 Westcott was elected
to a professorial fellowship at King's. Shortly afterwards,
having previously resigned his canonry at Peterborough, he was
appointed by the crown to a canonry at Westminster, and
accepted the position of examining chaplain to Archbishop
Benson. His little edition of the Paragraph Psalter (1879),
arranged for the use of choirs, and his admirable lectures on the
Apostles' Creed, entitled Historic Faith (1883), are reminiscences
of his vacations spent at Peterborough. He held his canonry
at Westminster in conjunction with the regius professorship.
The strain of the joint work was very heavy, and the intensity
of the interest and study which he brought to bear upon his
share in the labours of the Ecclesiastical Courts Commission,
of which he had been appointed a member, added to his burden.
Preaching at the Abbey gave him a valued opportunity of deal-
ing with social questions. His sermons were generally portions
of a series; and to this period belong the volumes Christus
Consummator (1886) and Social Aspects of Christianity (1887).
In March 1890 he was nominated to the see of Durham, there
to follow in the steps of his beloved friend Lightfoot, who had
died in December 1889. He was consecrated on the ist of May
at Westminster Abbey by Archbishop Thompson (of York),
Hort being the preacher, and enthroned at Durham cathedral
on the isth of May. The change of work and surroundings
could hardly have been greater. But the sudden immersion
in the practical administration of a northern diocese gave him
new strength. He surprised the world, which had supposed
him to be a recluse and a mystic, by the practical interest he
took in the mining population of Durham and in the great
shipping and artisan industries of Sunderland and Gateshead.
Upon one famous occasion in 1892 he succeeded in bringing to
a peaceful solution a long and bitter strike which had divided
the masters and men in the Durham collieries; and his success
was due to the confidence which he inspired by the extraordinary
moral energy of his strangely " prophetic " personality, at once
thoughtful, vehement and affectionate. His constant endeavour
to call the attention of the Church to the religious aspect of social
questions was a special note in his public utterances. He was
a staunch supporter of the co-operative movement. He was
practically the founder of the Christian Social Union. He
continually insisted upon the necessity of promoting the cause
of foreign missions, and he gladly gave four of his sons for the
work of the Church in India. His energy was remarkable to
the very end. But during the last two or three years of his
life he aged considerably. His wife, who had been for some years
an invalid, died rather suddenly on the z8th of May 1901, and he
dedicated to her memory his last book, Lessons from Work (1901).
He preached a farewell sermon to the miners in Durham cathedral
at their annual festival on the 2oth of July. Then came a
short, sudden illness, and he passed away on the 27th of July.
Westcott was no narrow specialist. He had the keenest love
of poetry, music and art. He was himself no mean draughtsman,
and used often to say that if he had not taken orders he would
have become an architect. His literary sympathies were wide.
He would never tire of praising Euripides, while few men had
given such minute study to the writings of Robert Browning.
He followed with delight the development of natural science
studies at Cambridge. He spared no pains to be accurate, or te
widen the basis of his thought. Thus he devoted one summer
vacation to the careful analysis of Comte's Politique positive.
He studied assiduously The Sacred Books of the East, and earnestly
contended that no systematic view of Christianity could afford
to ignore the philosophy of other religions. The outside world
was wont to regard him as a mystic; and the mystical, or
sacramental, view of life enters, it is true, very largely into
his teaching. He had in this respect many points of similarity
with the Cambridge Platonists of the i7th century, and with
F. D. Maurice, for whom he had profound regard. But in other
respects he was very practical; and his strength of will, his
learning and his force of character made him really masterful
in influence wherever the subject under discussion was of serious
moment. He was a strong supporter of Church reform, especially
in the direction of obtaining larger powers for the laity.
He kept himself aloof from all party strife. He describes him-
self when he says, " The student of Christian doctrine, because
he strives after exactness of phrase, because he is conscious
of the inadequacy of any one human formula to exhaust the
truth, will be filled with sympathy for every genuine endeavour
towards the embodiment of right opinion. Partial views attract
and exist in virtue of the fragment of truth be it great or
small which they include; and it is the work of the theologian
to seize this no less than to detect the first spring of error. It is
easier and, in one sense, it is more impressive to make a per-
emptory and exclusive statement, and to refuse to allow any
place beside it to divergent expositions; but this show of clear-
ness and power is dearly purchased at the cost of the ennobling
conviction that the whole truth is far greater than our individual
minds. He who believes that every judgment on the highest
matters different from his own is simply a heresy must have a
mean idea of the faith; and while the qualifications, the reserve,
the lingering sympathies of the real student make him in many
cases a poor controversialist, it may be said that a mere con-
troversialist cannot be a real theologian " (Lessons from Work,
pp. 84-85). His theological work was always distinguished by
the place which he assigned to Divine Revelation in Holy
Scripture and in the teaching of history. His own studies have
largely contributed in England to the better understanding of the
doctrines of the Resurrection and the Incarnation. His work
in conjunction with Hort upon the Greek text of the New Testa-
ment will endure as one of the greatest achievements of English
Biblical criticism. The principles which are explained in Hort's
introduction to the text had been arrived at after years of elabor-
ate investigation and continual correspondence and discussion
between the two friends. The place which it almost at once took
among scientific scholars in Great Britain and throughout
Europe was a recognition of the great advance which it repre-
sented in the use and classification of ancient authorities. His
commentaries rank with Lightfoot's as the best type of Biblical
exegesis produced by the English Church in the igth century.
The following is a bibliography of Westcott's more important
writings, giving the date of the first editions: Elements of the Gospel
Harmony (1851); History of the Canon of First Four Centuries
(1853); Characteristics of Gospel Miracles (1859); Introduction to
the Study of the Gospels (1860); The Bible in the Church (1864);
The Gospel of the Resurrection (1866); Christian Life Manifold
and One (1869); Some Points in the Religious Life of the Universities
('873); Paragraph Psalter for the Use of Choirs (1879); Commentary
on the Gospel of St John (1881); Commentary on the Epistles of St
John (1883); Revelation of the Risen Lord (1882); Revelation of the
Father (1884); Some Thoughts from the Ordinal (1884); Christus
Consummator (1886); Social Aspects of Christianity (1887); The
Victory of the Cross: Sermons in Holy Week (1888); Commentary
on the Epistle to the Hebrews (1889) ; From Strength to Strength (1890) ;
Gospel of Life (1892); The Incarnation and Common Life (1893);
Some Lessons of the Revised Version of the New Testament (1897);
Christian Aspects of Life (1897); Lessons from Work (1901).
Lives by his son B. F. Westcott (1903), and by J. Clayton
(1906). (H. E. R.*)
WESTERLY, a township of Washington county, Rhode
Island, U.S.A., in the extreme S.W. part of the state, about
44 m. S.S.W. of Providence, separated from Connecticut on the
W. by the Pawcatuck river, which forms the northern boundary
WESTERMANN WESTERN AUSTRALIA
539
of the township also. Pop. (1890) 6813, (1900) 7541, (1788
being foreign-born and 185 negroes), (1905, state census) 8381,
(19 to) 8696. Area, about 31 sq. m. Westerly is served by the
New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by interurban
electric lines connecting with Norwich and New London, Conn.
The township includes several small villages, connected by
electric railways, the best known being Watch Hill, which has
fine sea-bathing. Larger villages are Westerly, in the western
part of the township and at the head of navigation (for small
vessels) on the Pawcatuck river, and Niantic, in the north-
eastern part of the township. In Westerly there Js a public
library (1894), with 23,323 volumes in 1909. Beyond Watch
Hill Point on the S.W. point of an L-shaped peninsula, running
first W. and then N., is Napatree Point, on which is Fort Mans-
field, commanding the N.E. entrance to Long Island Sound.
The township is the centre of the granite industry of the state;
the quarries are near the villages of Westerly and Niantic. The
granite is of three kinds: white statuary granite, a quartz
monzonite, with a fine even-grained texture, used extensively for
monuments; blue granite, also a quartz monzonite and also much
used for monuments; and red granite, a biotite granite, reddish
grey in colour and rather coarse in texture, used for buildings. 1
Among the manufactures are cotton and woollen goods, thread
and printing presses. The water supply is from artesian wells.
The first settlement here was made in 1661, and the township
was organized in 1669, when the present name was adopted
instead of the Indian Misquamicut (meaning " salmon ") by
which it had 'been called. In 1686 the name was changed to
Haversham, but in 1689 the present name was restored.
See Frederic Denison, Westerly and its Witnesses, for Two Hundred
and Fifty Years, 1626-1876 (Providence, R.I., 1878).
WESTERMANN, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (d. 1794), French
general, was born at Molsheim in Alsace. At an early age he
entered a cavalry regiment, but soon left the service and went to
Paris. He embraced enthusiastically the ideas of the Revolution,
and in 1790 became greffier of the municipality of Haguenau.
After a short imprisonment on a charge of inciting tmeutes at
Haguenau, he returned to Paris, where he joined Danton and
played an important part in the attack on the Tuileries on the
loth of August 1792. He accompanied Dumouriez on his cam-
paigns and assisted him in his negotiations with the Austrians,
being arrested as an accomplice after the general's defection.
He succeeded, however, in proving his innocence, and was sent
with the rank of general of brigade into La Vendee, where he
distinguished himself by his extraordinary courage, by the
audacity of his manoeuvres, and by his severe treatment of the
insurgents. After suffering a defeat at Chatillon, he vanquished
the Vendfians at Beaupreau, Laval, Granville and Bauge, and
in December 1793 annihilated their army at Le Mans and
Savenay. He was then summoned to Paris, where he was pro-
scribed with- the Dantonist party and executed on the sth of
April 1794.
Sec P. Holl, Nos generaux alsaciens . : . Westermann (Strassburg,
1900).
WESTERN AUSTRALIA, a British colonial state, forming
part of the Commonwealth of Australia. (For Map, see AUS-
TRALIA.) This portion of Australia lies to the west of 129 E.
long., forming considerably more than one-third of the whole; it
has an area of 1,060,000 sq. m., is 1400 m. in length and 850
in breadth, and has a coast-line of 3500 m. It is divided into
five districts Central, Central Eastern, South-Eastern, North
and Kimberley. The Central or settled district, in the south-
west, is divided into twenty-six counties. Apart from the coast
lands, the map presents almost a blank, as the major portion is
practically a dry waste of stone and sand, relieved by a few
shallow salt lakes. The rivers of the south are small the Black-
wood being the most considerable. To the north of this are the
Murray, the well-known Swan, the Moore, the Greenough and
the Murchison. The last is 400 m. long. Shark's Bay receives
the Gascoyne (200 m. long), with its tributary the Lyons.
1 See T. N. Dale, The Chief Commercial Granites of Massachusetts,
New Hampshire and Rhode Island (Washington, 1908), Bulletin
354 of the United States Geological Survey.
Still farther north, where the coast trends eastward, the principal
rivers are the Ashburton, the Fortescue and the De Grey.
Kimberley district to the north-east has some fine streams the
Fitzroy and Ord and their tributaries, on some of which (the
Mary, Elvira, &c.) are the goldfields, 250 m. south of Cambridge
Gulf. The Darling mountain range is in the south-west, Mount
William reaching 3000 ft.; in the same quarter are Toolbrunup
(3341 ft.), Ellen's Peak (3420), and the Stirling and Victoria
ranges. Gardner and Moresby are flat-topped ranges. Mount
Elizabeth rises behind Perth. Hampton tableland overlooks the
Bight. In the north-west are Mount Bruce (4000 ft.), Augustus
(3580), Dalgaranger (2100), Barlee, Pyrton and the Capricorn
range. Kimberley has the King Leopold, M'Clintock, Albert
Edward, Hardman, Geikie, Napier, Lubbock, Oscar, Mueller
and St George ranges. The lake district of the interior is in the
Gibson and Victoria deserts from 24 to 32 S. The lakes receive
the trifling drainage of that low region. Almost all of them are
salt from the presence of saline marl.
Geology. The main mass of Westralia consists of a vast block of
Archean rocks, which forms the whole of the western half of the
Australian continent. The rocks form a plateau, which faces the
coast, in a series of scarps, usually a short distance inland. The
edge of this plateau is separated from the Southern Ocean by the
Nullarbor limestones, at the head of the Great Australian Bight;
but they gradually become narrower to the west; and the Archean
rocks reach the coast at Port Dempster and to the east of Esperance
Bay. Thence the southern boundary of the Archean rocks extends
due west, while the coast trends southward, and is separated by a
belt of Lower Palaeozoic and Mesozoic deposits; but the reappear-
ance of the granitic rocks at King George Sound and Albany may be
due to an outlier of the Archean tableland. Along the western
coast, the scarp of the Archean plateau forms the Darling Range
behind Perth. Further north, behind Shark's Bay, the plateau
recedes from the coast, and trends north-westward through the
Hammersley Mountains and the highlands of Pilbarra. The
Archean rocks underlie the Kimberley Goldfield; but they are
separated from the main Archean plateau to the south by the
Lower Palaeozoic rocks, which extend up the basin of the Fitzroy
river and form the King Leopold and Oscar Ranges.
The Archean rocks are of most interest from the auriferous lodes
which occur in them. The Archean rocks of the area between the
Darling Range and the goldfield of Coolgardie were classified by
H. P. Woodward into six parallel belts, running northward and
southward, but with a slight trend to the west. The westernmost
belt consists of clay slates, quartzites and schists, and is traversed
by dykes of diorite and felstone; the belt forms the western foot
of the Archean plateau, along the edge of the coastal plain. The
second belt consists of gneisses and schists, and forms the western
part of the Archean plateau. Its chief mineral deposit is tin, in
the Green-bushes tin-field, and various other minerals, such as
graphite and asbestos. Then follows a wide belt of granitic rocks;
it has no permanent surface water and is bare of minerals, and,
therefore, formed for a long time an effective barrier to the settle-
ment or prospecting of the country to the east. This granitic band
ends to the east in the first auriferous belt, which extends from the
Phillips river, on the southern coast, to Southern Cross, on the Perth
to Kalgoorlie railway; thence it goes through Mount Magnet, Lake
Austin and the Murchison Goldfield at Nannine, and through the
Peak Goldfield to the heads of the Gascoyne and Ashburton rivers.
To the east of this belt is a barren band of granites and gneisses,
succeeded again eastward by the second auruerous belt, including
the chief goldfields of Westralia. They begin on the south with the
Dundas Goldfield, and the mining centre of Norseman; then to
the north follow the goldfields of Kalgoorlie, with its Golden Mile at
Boulder, and the now less important field of Coolgardie. This line
continues thence through the goldfields of Leonora and Mount
Margaret, and reappears behind the western coast in the Pilbarra
Goldfield. The rocks of the goldfields consist of amphobolite-schists
and other basic schists, traversed by dykes of granite, diorite and
porphyrite, with some peridotites. Some of the amphibolites have
been crushed and then silicified into jasperoids, so that they much
resemble altered sedimentary slates.
The Palaeozoic group is represented by the Cambrian rocks of the
Kimberley Goldfield, which nave yielded Olentllus forresli. There
appear to be no certain representatives of the Ordovician system;
while the Silurian is represented in the King Leopold Range of
Kimberley, and, according to H. P. Woodward, in the contorted,
unfossilliferous quartzites and shales of the Stirling Range, north of
Albany. The Upper Palaeozoic is well represented by an area of
some 2000 sq. m. of Devonian sedimentary and volcanic rocks in
the Kimberley district, and by the Carboniferous system, including
both a lower, marine type, and an upper, terrestrial type. The Lower
Carboniferous limestones occur in the Napier, Oscar and Geikie
Ranges ol Kimberley, and in the basin of the Gascoyne river, where
they contain the glacial deposits discovered by Gibb-Maitland,
540
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
between the Wooramel and M inilya rivers. The upper and terrestrial
type of the Carboniferous include sandstones with Stigmaria and
Lepidodendron in the Kimberley district, and the coals of the Irwin
coalfield, the age of which is proved by the interstratification of the
coal seams with beds containing Productus subquadratus, Cyrtina
carbonaria and Aviculopecten subquinquelineatus. The Mesozoic
rocks were discovered in 1861, and their chief outcrop is along the
western coast plains of Westralia between Geraldton and Perth.
They have been pierced by many bores put down for artesian wells.
The fossils indicate a Lower Jurassic age ; and , according to Etheridge,
some of the fossils are Lower Cretaceous. The Collie coalfield, to
the east of Bunbury, is generally regarded as Mesozoic. Its coal is
inferior in quality to that of Eastern Australia, and contains on an
average of 34 analyses 11-77% of moisture, and 8-62% of
ash. According to Etheridge its age is Permo-Carboniferous. The
Kainozoic rocks include the marine limestones in the Nullarbor
Plains at the head of the Great Australian Bight, whence they
extend inland for 150 m. They have no surface water, but the rain-
fall in this district nourishes artesian wells. The occurrence of
marine Kainozoic beds under the western coastal plain is proved
by the bores, as at Carnarvon, where they appear to be over 1000 ft.
in thickness. The coastal region also includes sheets of clay and
sandstone, with deposits of brown coal as on the Fitzgerald river
on the southern coast, and in the basin of the Gascoyne. The
Archean plateau of the interior is covered by wide sheets of sub-
aerial and lacustrine deposits, which have accumulated in the basins
and river valleys. They include mottled clays, lateritic ironstones
and conglomerates. In places the materials have been roughly
assorted by river action, as in the deep lead of Kanowna. The clays
contain the bones of the Diprotodon, so that they are probably of
Upper Pliocene or Pleistocene age. The Kainozoic volcanic period
of Australia is represented by the basalts of Bunbury and Black
Point, east of Flinders Bay.
A bibliography of Westralian geology has been issued by Maitland,
Bulletin Geol. Survey, No. I, 1898. An excellent summary of the
mineral wealth of the state has been given by Maitland, Bulletin 8,
No. 4, 1900, pp. 7-23, also issued in the Year-book of Western
Australia. The main literature of the geology of Westralia is in the
Bulletins of the Geol. Survey, and in the reports of the Mines De-
partment. A general account of the gold-mining has been given
by A. G. Charleton, 1902; and also by Donald Clark, Australian
Mining and Metallurgy (1904). (J. W. G.)
Flora. Judged by its vegetable forms, Western Australia would
seem to be older than eastern Australia, South Australia being of
intermediate age. Indian relations appear on the northern side,
and South African on the western. There are fewer Antarctic and
Polynesian representatives than in the eastern colonies. European
forms are extremely scarce. Compared with the other side of
Australia, a third of the genera on the south-west is almost wanting
in the south-east. In the latter, 55, having more than ten species
each, have 1260 species; but the former has as many in 55 of its
80 genera. Of those 55, 36 are wanting in the south-east, and 17
are absolutely peculiar. There are fewer natural orders and genera
westward, but more species. Baron von Miiller declared that
" nearly half of the whole vegetation of the Australian continent has
been traced to within the boundaries of the Western Australian
territory." He includes 9 Malvaceae, 6 Euphorbiaceae, 2 Rubiaceae,
9 Proteaceae, 47 Leguminosae, 10 Myrtaceae, 12 Compositae,
5 Labiatae, 6 Cyperaceae, 13 Convolvulaceae, 16 Gramineae, 3
Filices, 10 Amaranthaceae. Yet over 500 of its tropical species
are identified with those of India or Indian islands. While seven-
tenths of the orders reach their maximum south-west, three-tenths
do so south-east. Cypress pines abound in the north, and ordinary
pines in Rottnest Island. Sandalwood (Santalum cygnorum) is
exported. The gouty stem baobab (Adansonia) is in the tropics.
Xanlhorrhoea,the grass tree, abounds in sandy districts. Mangrove
bark yields a purple tan. Palms and zamias begin in the north-
west. The Melaleuca Leucadendron is the paperbark tree of settlers.
The rigid-leafed Banksia is known as the honeysuckle. Casuarinae
are the he and she oaks of colonists, and the Exocarpus is their
cherry tree. Beautiful flowering shrubs distinguish the south-west;
and the deserts are all ablaze with flowers after a fall of rain.
Poison plants are generally showy Leguminosae, Sida and the
Gastrolooium.
The timber trees of the south-west are almost unequalled. Of
the Eucalypts, the jarrah or mahogany, E. tnarginala, is first for
value. It runs over five degrees of latitude, and its wood resists
the teredo and the ant. Sir Malcolm Fraser assigns 14,000 sq. m.
to the jarrah, 10,000 to E. viminalis, 2300 to the karri (E. colossea
or E. diver sicolor), 2400 to York gum (E. loxophleba), 800 to the red
gum (E. calophylla) and 500 to tuart or native pear (E. gompho-
cephala). Not much good wood is got within 20 m. of the coast.
The coachbuilder's coorup rises over 300 ft. Morrel furnishes good
timber and rich oil. An ever-increasing trade is done in the timber
of the south-western forests.
Fauna. Among the mammals are the Macropus giganteus, M.
irma, M. dama, M. brachyurus, Lagorchestes fasciatus, Beltongia
penicillata, Phalangista vulpecula, Pseudochirus cooki, Dasyurus
eoffroyi, Tarsipes rostratus, Antechinus apicalis, Perameles obesula,
erameles myosurus, Myrmecobius fasciatus. Fossil forms partake
ge
P
of the existing marsupial character, Diprotodon being allied to the
wombat and kangaroo. Nail-bearing kangaroos are in the north-
west ; the banded one, size of a rabbit, is on Shark's Bay. Nocturnal
phalangers live in holes of trees or in the ground. Carnivorous
Phascogalae are found in south-west. There are three kinds of
wombat. The rock-loving marsupial Osphranter is only in the
north-east, and Perameles bougainvillei at Shark's Bay. The
dalgyte or Petrogale lagotis is at Swan river and Hypsiprymnus in
the south. The colony has only two species of wallabies to five in
New South Wales. The Halmaturus of the Abrolhos is a sort of
wallaby; a very elegant species is 18 in. long. The pretty Dromicia,
6 in. long, lives on stamens and nectar, like the Tarsipes, bavins a
brush at the tip of its tongue; its tail is prehensile. The hare-like
Lagorchestes'fasciatus is a great leaper. The Hapalotis of the interior
has nests in trees. Beaver rats and other small rodents are trouble-
some, and bats are numerous. The dingo is the wild dog. The
platypus (Ornithorhynchus) and the Echidna are the only forms of
the Monotremata. The seal, whale and dugong occur in the adjacent
seas.
The west is not so rich as the east of Australia in birds. Many
forms are absent and others but poorly represented, though some
are peculiar to the west. The timbered south-west has the greatest
variety of birds, which are scarce enough in the dry and treeless
interior. Of lizards the west has 12 genera not found in eastern
Australia. Of snakes there are but 15 species to 3 in Tasmania
and 31 in New South Wales. While the poisonous sorts are 2 to I
in the east, they are 3 to I in the west. The turtle is obtained as
an article of food. The freshwater fishes are not all like those of
the east. They include the mullet, snapper, ring fish, guard fish,
bonita, rock cod, shark, saw fish, parrot fish and cobbler. Under
the head of fisheries may be mentioned the pearl oyster, which is
dived for by natives at Shark's Bay; the trepang or be"che-de-mer
is also met with in the north. Insects are well represented, especially
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera and Diptera.
Climate. With little or no cold anywhere, the heat of summer
over the whole area is considerable. Western Australia differs
from the country to the east in having no extensive ranges to collect
vapour, while the trade winds blow off the dry land instead of from
the ocean ; for these two reasons the climate is very dry. Thunder-
storms often supply almost the only rainfall in the interior. The
south-western corner, the seat of settlements, is the only portion
where rains can be depended on for cultivation ; but even there few
places have a rainfall of 40 in. As one goes northward the moisture
lessens. The north-west and all the coast along to Kimberley, with
most of that district, suffer much from dryness. The north-east
comes in summer within the sphere of the north-west monsoons,
though just over the low coast-range few showers are known. The
south coast, exposed to polar breezes, with uninterrupted sea, has
to endure lengthened droughts. In the Swan river quarter the
rainfall is in winter, being brought by north-west winds, and summer
days have little moisture. While the south wind cools the settled
region, it comes over the parched interior to the northern lands.
The hot wind of Swan river is from the east and north-east; but it
is from the south in summer to Kimberley and the north-west. In
one season the land breeze is hot, in another cool, but always dry.
The climate of Perth is typical of the south-western districts.
There are two distinct seasons, the winter and the summer. The
winter commences somewhat abruptly, being ushered in by heavy
rains; it begins usually not earlier than the middle of April or
later than the middle of May, and continues until towards the end
of October. The winters are, as a rule, very mild, but there is some
cold weather in July and August, and though there is little at the
coast, frost is not uncommon inland. The summer is heralded by
an occasional hot day in October, in November the weather becomes
settled and continues warn* until the end of March. In the four
montha, December to March, the maximum temperature in the shade
exceeds 90 on an average on 37 days, but as a rule the heat does
not last long, the evenings and nights being tempered by a cool
breeze.
In the interior the climate resembles that of the south-west in
regard to the occurrence of two seasons only. The winter, however,
has much less rain than on the coast, and is cold, clear and bracing.
The summer is, as a rule, hot, but is tempered in the south by
occasional cool changes, though unrelieved as the tropic is ap-
proached. Within the tropics there are two seasons, the wet and
the dry. The wet season is most unpleasant, the temperature
rarely falling below 100; the dry season, which lasts from April
to November, is usually fine, clear and calm. The average rainfall
at Perth is 33 in. falling on lio days; the mean maximum tempera-
ture is 74-9 and the minimum 54-8; at Coolgardie the mean
maximum is 77-8 and the mean minimum 52^4 ; at Wyndham,
on the north-west coast, the mean maximum is 93-9 and the mini-
mum 75-4.
Population. Population made very slow increase under the
old conditions of settlement, and even when gold was discovered
in 1882 at Kimberley, and five years later at Yilgarn, no great
impetus was given to the colony, and at the census of 1891 the
population was still under 50,000. The sensational gold finds
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
at Coolgardie in 1892, however, had a most important influence in
drawing population, and in three and a half years the population
was doubled: during a portion of this time the rush of miners
to the gold-fields was so great as to be reminiscent of the ex-
perience of the eastern colonies during the 'fifties. At the end
of 1905 the population was 254,779, comprising 150,495 males
and 104,284 females. The slowness of the early growth and the
more rapid strides of later years will be gathered from the follow-
figures: pop. (1860) 15,227, (1870) 25,084, (1880) 29,019,
(1890) 46,290, (1895) 101,238, (1001) 194,889. The chief
towns of Western Australia are: Perth the capital 56,000,
Fremantle 23,008, Kalgoorlie 6780, Boulder 5658. The number
of people in all gold-field towns fluctuates very greatly. Cool-
gardie, for example, was returned in July 1894 as having within
its municipal boundaries 12,000 people; in 1905 it had only 3830.
The births during 1905 numbered 7582 and the deaths 2709, the
rates per thousand of population being respectively 30-30 and 10-83,
showing a net increment of 19-47 per 1000. In the period 1861-
1865 the birth-rate was 39-07 per lopo. Between 1886 and 1890
it stood at 36-88; then came a rapid decline, and in 1896 was
reached the low level of 22-67 P 61 " iooo. In 1904 the rate was
30-34 per 1000. The decline in the birth-rates has been a common
experience of all the Australian states; in Western Australia it was
due in a large degree to the decline in the proportion of females to
males. In 1870 the females numbered 62% of the males, and in
1880 75%, while in 1895 the proportion was only 45%. The
illegitimate births during 1905 were 4-19% of the total births. The
death-rate, which in 1897 was 16-09 per 1000, has steadily declined
in recent years. The large influx of young unmarried men in the
years 1894-1898 was followed by the arrival of a large number of
single women, and the marriage-rates increased from 7 per 1000 in
the five years 1891-1895 to 10-7 per 1000 in 1897. In 1905 the rate
stood at the more normal level of 8-48. Except for a slight influx
of population in the three years 1885-1887, due to the gold dis-
coveries at Kimberley, there was very little immigration to Western
Australia prior to 1891 ; in that year, however, there was a consider-
able in pouring of population from the eastern colonies, notably
from Victoria and South Australia, and in the seven years which
closed with 1897 the population of the colony gained nearly 110,000
by immigration alone. In 1898 there was still a large inflow of
population, but the outflow was also great, and in 1898 and the
following year the two streams balanced one another; but 1900
showed an excess of 6000, and 1905 of 7617 gained by immigration.
Western Australia is the most sparsely populated of all the
states; only the coastal fringe and the gold-fields show any
evidences of settlement, and if the area were divided amongst
the population there would be but ten persons to 52 sq. m.
The population is almost exclusively of British origin, and only
differs from that of the other states in that there is a larger
body of Australian-born, who are not natives of the colony
itself. About 45% of the population are members of the
Church of England; one-fourth belong to other Protestant
denominations, and one-fourth are Roman Catholics.
Administration. In 1890 Western Australia, up to that
time a crown colony administered by a governor, was granted
responsible government. The legislative authority is vested
in a parliament composed of two Houses a Legislative Council,
whose thirty members are elected for six years, and a Legislative
Assembly of fifty members, elected by adult suffrage (men and
women). As a portion of the Commonwealth, Western Australia
. sends six senators and five representatives to the federal parlia-
ment. In a country so sparsely settled municipal government
has little scope for operation.
So far forty-four municipalities have been gazetted. Besides
the municipalities there are district roads boards, elected by
the ratepayers of their respective districts to take charge of the
formation, construction and maintenance of the public roads
throughout their districts. There were in 1905 ninety-four such
boards in existence. Some of the districts are of enormous size:
Pilbarra, for example, has an area of 14,356 sq. m.; Cool-
gardie North has 75,968 sq. m.; Nullagine has 90,438 sq. m.,
and the Upper Gascoyne has 136,000 sq. m. Over areas so vast
little effective work can be accomplished, but where the districts
are small the administration is much the same as in the munici-
palities. The receipts from rates of all local districts in 1905
was 104,760, and the grants by the government 80,938, making
a total of 185,698.
Education. Attendance at school is compulsory upon all children
over six years and under fourteen years of age. Instruction is
imparted only in secular subjects, but the law allows special religious
teaching to be given during half an hour each day by clergymen to
children of their own denomination. Children can claim free educa-
tion on account of inability to pay fees, of living more than a
mile from school, or of having attended school for more than 400
half-days during the preceding year. The state expended in 1905
'3! i585 on public instruction, the great bulk of which was
devoted to primary schools. The number of schools supported by
the sta^e in that year was 335, the teachers numbered 888, the
net enrolment of scholars was 27,978, and the average attendance
23,703. There were in 1905 99 private schools with 350 teachers
an d 7353 scholars, the average attendance being 6128.
Judged by the number of persons arrested, crime is more prevalent
than in any other part of Australia. The gold-fields have attracted
some of the best and most enterprising of the Australian population ;
at the same time many undesirable persons flocked to the state
expecting to reap a harvest in the movement and confusion of the
gold diggings. These latter form a large part of the criminal
population of the state. The arrests in 1905 numbered 14,646,
of which 2104 were for serious offences; so that for every thousand
of the population 49 were arrested for trivial and 8 for serious
crimes.
Finance. The discovery of gold and the settlement on the gold-
fields of a large population, for the most part consumers of dutiable
goods, has entirely revolutionized the public finances of the state.
In 1891 the revenue was 497,670, that is, 10, 155. per inhabitant;
in 1895 it rose to 1.125,941, or 12, los. per inhabitant; and in
1897 to 2,842,751, or 20, I2s. 2d. per inhabitant. For 1905 the
figures were 3,615,340, or 14, l8s. 5d. per inhabitant. The chief
sources of revenue in 1905 were: customs and excise, 1,027,898;
other taxation, 221,738; railways, 1,629,956; pumic lands
(including mining), 207,905; all other sources, 527,843. The
expenditure has risen with the revenue, the figures Tor 1905 being
3,745,224, equal to 15, 95. 2d. per head of population. The chief
items of expenditure in 1905 were: railway working expenses,
1,297,499; public works, 337,927; interest and charges upon
debt, 578,704; mines, 248,496; education, 149,552. The
public debt is of comparatively recent creation. In August 1872
an act was passed authorizing the raising of certain sums for the
construction of public works; in 1881 the amount owing was not
more than 511,000, and in 1891 only 1,613,000 or 30, 53. 8d. per
inhabitant; from the year last named the indebtedness has in-
creased by leaps and bounds, and in 1905 had mounted up to
16,642,773, a sum equal to 66, los. 4d. per inhabitant, involving
an interest charge of 574,406 or 2, 53. id. per inhabitant. The
proceeds of the loans were used largely for the purpose of railway
extension the expenditure on this service at the middle of 1906
was 9,618,970; on water supply and sewerage works, 2,892,390;
on telegraphs and telephones, 269,308; on harbour and river
improvements, 2,182,529; on development of gold-fields, 973,082;
on development of agriculture, 597,189.
Defence. The local defence force of Western Australia in 1905
comprised 7 permanent artillerymen, 772 militia, 580 volunteers,
and 2534 riflemen a total of 3943. The defence of the state is
undertaken by the federal government.
Minerals. -Gold-mining is the main industry, and in 1905 16,832
miners were directly engaged in it; as large a number is indirectly
engaged in the industry. Gold, silver, coal, tin and copper are the
chief minerals mined; the mineral production of the state in 1905
was valued at 8,555,841. The value of the gold produced was
8,305,654, a falling off of 118,572 as compared with 1904. The
dividends paid by the gold-mining companies for that year amounted
to 2,167,639 as against 2,050,547 in 1904. Up to 1905 the total
recorded mineral production of Western Australia amounted in
value to 65,012,499 gold representing 63,170,911 of that sum;
while 13,739,842 had been paid in dividends.
Western Australia ranks as the largest gold producer of the
Australian group. Coal is worked at Collie, 25 m. E. of Bunbury;
boring operations which had been going on between Greenough and
Mullewa on the Geraldton-Cue railway line were discontinued in
1905, the bore hole, carried to a depth of 1418 ft. having failed to
disclose any coal seams. The export of copper in 1905 was valued
at 16,266; of tin, 86,840; of silver, 44,278. The value of the
coal produced in that year was 55,312.
Industries. The agricultural possibilities of the state are more
restricted than those of the eastern states, as the rainfall in the
southern and temperate portion does not extend far from the coast,
and the land where the fall is satisfactory is only good over small
areas. The area cultivated in 1871 was 52,000 acres; in 1881 it
was 53,000 acres; in 1891, 64,000 acres; and in 1905, 467,122
acres. The principal crops grown in the year last named were:
wheat, 195,071 acres; oats, 15,713 acres; hay, 124,906 acres.
The wheat yield was 11-83 bushels per acre, and the hay crop l-ia
tons per acre. In 1905 the number ot sheep depastured was 3 ,120,703 ;
cattle, 631,825; horses, 97,397. These figures show an increase for
all classes of stock. There are in the state about 2000 camels.
The number of sheep has increased considerably in late years. In
1871, 2,000,000 Ib of wool were exported; in 1881, 4,100,000 Ib; in
542
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
1891, 8,800,000 lb; in 1900, 9,514,000 ft; and in 1905, 17,489,402 ft;
the value of the latter being 594,872.
Western Australia has very extensive forests of timber, and it
has been estimated that the forest surfaces cover more than 20
million acres, of which 8 million acres are jarrah; 1,200,000 acres,
karri; 200,000 acres, tuart; 7 million acres, wandoo; and 4
million acres, York gum, yate, sandalwood and jam. The principal
timber exported is jarrah, karri, and sandalwood, the value of the
exports being about 656,000 annually. There are 30 saw-mills
in operation, employing altogether 2750 hands.
Fisheries are taking an important position; they comprise pearl
shell fishing beche-de-mer, and preserved or tinned fish. The
pearl shell fisheries in the north-west and in Shark's Bay have been
a considerable source of wealth, the export of pearls and pearl shell
being valued at 110,667 m '899, 106,607 ' n I 9 an d 171,237
in 1903. In 1892 the export was valued at 119,519.
Mandurah, at the mouth of the Murray, and Fremantle have
preserving sheds for mullet and snapper. Guano beds are worked
to much advantage at the Lacepede Isles. Salt is produced largely
at Rottnest Island. Raisins are dried, and the oil of castor trees is
expressed. The mulberry tree succeeds well, and sericulture is
making progress. Dugong oil is got from Shark s Bay. Honey and
wax are becoming valuable exports; from the abundance of flowers
the hives can be emptied twice a year. Manna and gums of various
kinds are among the resources of the country- Among the wines
made are the Riesling, Burgundy, Sweetwater, Hock and Fontaine-
bleau.
Commerce, All the great lines of steamers trading between
Australia and Europe make one of the ports a place of call both on
the inward and outward voyage; this makes the shipping tonnage
very large compared with the population. In 1891 the tonnage
entered and cleared equalled 21 tons per head, and in 1905 14-3 tons.
The increase of tonnage is shown by the following figures: 1881,
tonnage entered, 145,048; 1891, 533,433; 1905, 1,839,227. In
1905 the tonnage entering Fremantle was 1,176,982, and the im-
ports were valued at 6,030,415. The shipping entering Albany
had a tonnage of 519,377, and the imports were valued at 160.305.
The trade of Bunbury was: shipping 92,281 tons, imports 59,197;
Broome, shipping 32,191 tons, imports 48,653; other ports,
shipping 18,396 tons, imports 182,739.
The trade has increased very rapidly under the influence of the
gold discoveries, as the following figures show :
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
Per Head.
Total.
Per Head.
1861
1871
1881
1891
1901
1905
147.913
226,000
404,831
1,280,093
6,454,171
6,481,309
s. d.
998
9 o 10
13 14 3
25 2 5
34 4 5
25 18 i
95.789
209,196
502,770
799,466
8,515,623
9,871,219
s- d.
6 2 10
8 6 ii
17 o 8
15 13 9
45 3 o
39 9 i
About 54% of the trade is with Great Britain and 21% with the
other Commonwealth states.
Railways. Western Australia is the only state of Australia in
which there is any considerable length of railway lines not owned
by the state. The total railway mileage in 1905 was 2260, of which
655 m. were privately owned. The divergence of the policy of
Western Australia from that pursued by other states was caused
by the inability of the government to construct lines at a time when
the extension of the railway was most urgently required in the
interests of settlement. Private enterprise was therefore encouraged
by liberal grants of land to undertake the work of construction.
Changed conditions have modified the state policy in respect of
land grants, and in 1897 the government acquired the Great Southern
railway, 243 m. in length, one of the two trunk lines in private hands.
The cost of constructing and equipping the state lines open for
traffic in 1905 was 9,808,458 ; the earnings for that year amounted
to 1,610,129, the working expenses were 1,256,003, and the net
receipts 354,126; this represents a return of 3-61% upon the
capital cost.
Posts and Telegraphs. The postal business has grown enormously
since the gold discoveries. In 1905 there were 295 post offices as
compared with 86 in 1891. In the latter year the letters despatched
and received numbered 3,200,000, and the newspapers 1,665,000;
in 1905 the letters and postcards totalled 22,107,000, and the news-
papers and packets 14,800,000, being respectively 88 and 59 per
head of population. There were in the same year 188 telegraph
stations, 6389 m. of line, and 9637 m. of telegraph wire in use, while
the number of telegrams sent and received was 1,634,597. There
were sixteen public telephone exchanges and 4857 telephones in use
at the end of that year.
Banking. There are six banks of issue, with 109 branches in
various parts of the country. The liabilities of these banks in 1904
averaged 5,206,170, and the assets 6,399,305; the note circulation
was 354,810; the deposits bearing interest 1,475,616; deposits
not bearing interest 3,258,294, making the total deposits 4,733,910.
The gold and silver held by the banks, including bullion, was
2,129,304. The savings banks are directly controlled by the
government and are attached to the post offices; in 1904 there were
54,873 depositors in these banks with 2,079,764 to their credit
an average of 37, l8s. per depositor. In 1891 there were only
3564 depositors and 46,181 at credit.
AUTHORITIES. James Bonwick, Western Australia, its Past and
Future, 8vo (London. 1885); Very Rev. J. Brady, Descriptive
Vocabulary of the Native Language of Western Australia (Rome,
1845); Hon. D. W. Carnegie, Spinifex and Sand (London, 1898);
Ernest Favenc, The Great Australian Plain, 8vo (Sydney, 1881),
Western Australia, its Past History, Present Trade and Resources, &c.
(Sydney, 1887); Sir John Forrest, Explorations in Australia, 8vo
(London, 1875); M. A. C. Frazer, Western Australia Year-Book,
annually (Perth). (T. A. C.)
History. Both the western and northern coasts of the colony
are pretty accurately laid down on maps said to date from 1540
to 1550, where the western side of the continent terminates at
Cape Leeuwen. The discovery of the coast may be attributed
to Portuguese and Spanish navigators, who were in the seas
northward of Australia as early as 1520. The next visitors,
nearly a century later, were the Dutch. John Edel explored
northward in 1619, and De Witt in 1628. The " Guide Zee-
paard " in 1627 sailed along the south coast for 1000 m., the
territory being named Nuyt's Land. Tasman made a survey
of the north shore in 1644, but did not advance far on the
western border. Dampier was off the north-west in 1688 and
1696, naming Shark's Bay. Vancouver entered King George
Sound in 1791. The French, under D'Entrecasteaux, were off
Western Australia in 1792; and their commodore Baudin, of
the " Geographe " and " Naturaliste," in 1801 and 1802 made
important discoveries along the western and north-western
shores. Captain Flinders about the same time paid a visit to
the Sound, and traced Nuyt's Land to beyond the South
Australian boundary. Freycinet went thither in 1818. Captain
King surveyed the northern waters between 1818 and 1822.
The earliest settlement was made from Port Jackson, at the
end of 1825. Owing to a fear that the French might occupy
King George Sound, Major Lockyer carried thither a party of
convicts and soldiers, seventy-five in all, and took formal British
possession, though Vancouver had previously done so. Yet the
Dutch had long before declared New Holland, which then
meant only the western portion of Australia, to be Dutch
property. This convict establishment returned to Sydney in
1829. In 1827 Captain Stirling was sent to report upon the
Swan river, and his narrative excited such interest in England
as to lead to an actual free settlement at the Swan river. Captain
Fremantle, R.N., in 1827 took official possession of the whole
country. Stirling's account stimulated the emigration ardour
of Sir F. Vincent, and Messrs Peel, Macqueen, &c., who formed
an association, securing from the British government permission
to occupy land in Western Australia proportionate to the
capital invested, and the number of emigrants they despatched
thither. In this way Mr Peel had a grant of 250,000 acres, and
Colonel Latour of 103,000. Captain (afterwards Sir James)
Stirling was appointed lieutenant-governor, arriving June i,
1829. The people were scattered on large grants. The land
was poor, and the forests heavy; provisions were at famine
prices; and many left for Sydney orHobart Town. The others
struggled on, finding a healthful climate, and a soil favouring
fruits and vegetables, whilst their stock grazed in the more open
but distant quarters. The overland journey of Eyre from
Adelaide to King George Sound in 1830-1840, through a water-
less waste, discouraged settlers; but Grey's overland walk in
1838 from Shark's Bay to Perth revealed fine rivers and good
land in Victoria district, subsequently occupied by farmers,
graziers and miners. The difficulties of the settlers had com-
pelled them to seek help from the British treasury, in the offer
to accept convicts. These came in 1850; but transportation
ceased in 1868, in consequence of loud protests from the other
colonies.
The progressive history of Western Australia may be said
to commence in 1870, when its energetic and capable governor,
Sir Frederick Weld, began to inaugurate public works on *
WESTFIELD WESTGATE-ON-SEA
543
large scale. It was still the day of small things, for the colony,
though of the enormous extent of 1,000,000 sq. m., was prac-
tically unknown, its resources were restricted, and its population
scanty. However, a beginning was then made, and the first
Loan Bill to raise money for pushing on telegraphs, for surveying
lines of projected railways, and above all for starting exploring
expeditions, passed the Legislative Council. The colony was
fortunate in possessing two brothers of the best practical type
of explorer, John and Alexander Forrest. The object of their
earliest expeditions was to find more land available for pastoral
or agricultural settlement. Vast distances in various directions
were covered, and severe hardships, chiefly from want of water,
undergone by these intrepid pioneers. Perhaps the most
famous of these journeys was that accomplished by Mr (after-
wards Sir) John Forrest between Eucla and Adelaide in 1870.
Other dauntless explorers notably Mr Ernest Giles, the
Gregorys and Mr Austin had also contributed to the growing
knowledge of the resources of the vast territory, and the state
owes and gratefully acknowledges its debt to these stalwart
and splendid pioneers. Although, in consequence of the vast
amount of gold which had been found in the eastern colonies,
principally in Victoria, all these explorers had carefully ex-
amined any likely country for traces of gold, it was not until
1882 that the government geologist reported indications of
auriferous country in the Kimberley district, and the first
payable gold-field was shortly afterwards " proclaimed " there.
Exploring expeditions in every direction were then started both
privately and publicly, and prosecuted with great vigour.
Within five years gold-fields were proclaimed at Yilgarn, about
200 m. to the east of Perth, and the discovery of patches of rich
alluvial gold in the Pilbarra district quickly followed, but the
rush for the Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie gold-fields did not begin
until 1893.
The year 1889 found the colony on the eve of responsible
government. Two years before, a practically unanimous vote
of the Legislature had affirmed the principle of autonomy, and the
general election in the following year showed still more plainly
the desire of the people of Western Australia for the self-govern-
ment which had enabled the eastern colonies to control their own
affairs successfully for thirty years. The new Legislative Council
of 1889 therefore drafted a Constitution Bill, which after some
discussion was forwarded to Lord Knutsford, the Secretary of
State for the Colonies. This Bill was duly laid before the Imperial
Parliament; but the measure was then rejected by that assembly,
chiefly owing to the misunderstanding of vital questions, such as the
control of crown lands, the scantiness of the scattered population,
and other less important details. However, the governor of that
day, Sir Frederick Napier Broome, K.C.M.G., having satisfied
himself that the constitutional change was necessary not only for
the immediate needs of the rapidly growing colony, but in view
of the larger question of Imperial Federation, supported the
demands of the Legislature in every possible way. A clear and
able statement of the colonists' case, which appeared above his
signature in The Times in the summer of that year, helped to
bring about a better understanding of the subject; and a slightly
modified Constitution Bill having been passed by the new
Legislative Council, the governor and two members of the
Legislature (Sir T. C. Campbell and Mr S. H. Parker, Q.C.) were
selected to proceed to England as delegates to explain and urge
the wishes of the colonists upon the Imperial Parliament. A
select committee, with Baron de Worms as chairman, was
appointed, and the matter was carefully considered; with the
satisfactory result that the Bill enabling the Queen to grant a
constitution to Western Australia passed its third reading in the
House of Commons on 4th July, and received the royal assent on
1 5th August 1890.
Since then the colony has made great progress. Sir John
Forrest, who was for ten years its Premier, brought to his arduous
task not only administrative ability of a very high order, but a
thorough and intimate knowledge of the needs and resources oi
the vast colony over so much of which he had travelled.
For a long time the advantages of Federation were not so apparent
to the people of Western Australia as to those of the eastern colonies,
and although Sir John Forrest consistently and patiently laboured at
every opportunity to explain the principles of the Bill framed by
the Federal Convention which had held its sittings since 1886 in
Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne, the desire to federate was of slow
growth. Among the objections was the feeling that so far as Western
Australia was concerned the step was premature, and that the
colony had more to lose than gain by Federation. This applied
chiefly to the questions of tariff and free trade, and to the loss of the
individual control of such sources of revenue as customs, postal and
telegraph services. On the subject of defence there could be but
one opinion, in favour of Federation, but that was hardly enough
to counterbalance the fears of the local producer, who had become
accustomed to a protective tariff. Then the gold-fields expressed a
desire to be made into a separate colony, and although a numerously
signed petition to that effect was forwarded to the Queen, it was
regarded in the light of a party move, and did not prove successful.
Still there was great hesitation on the part of many of the colonists
of Western Australia to join the Commonwealth without receiving a
pledge for the retention of their own customs dues for five years, and
early in 1900 Sir John Forrest made a personal attempt to obtain
this concession from the sister governments. He was, however,
unsuccessful, as was Mr S. H. Parker, Q.C., who in the same year
accompanied the delegates from the eastern colonies to London, and
endeavoured to obtain the insertion in the Enabling Bill of certain
recommendations of the select committee in Perth. Yet as a whole
the people of Western Australia were loyal to the Federal cause, and
therefore it was considered best to submit the Bill to a referendum
of the electors, when a majority of over 25,000 votes decided in
favour of Federation, as the Constitution Act provided that this
state should have the right to enact her own tariff as against the
sister states for the desired five years, decreasing annually at the
rate of one-fifth of the amount of the original duty until the whole
disappeared. (M. A. B.)
WESTFIELD, a township of Hampden county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the Westfield river, about 10 m. W. of Springfield. Pop.
(1800) 9805; (1900) 12,310 (2441 being foreign-born); (1905, state
census) 13,611; (1910) 16,044. It is served by the New York,
New Haven & Hartford and the Boston & Albany railways, and
is connected with Springfield, Holyoke and Huntington by electric
lines. The township lies in and on either side of a deep alluvial
valley, 6-7 m. long from east to west and 2-3 m. wide, and
includes the large village of Westfield and the small villages of
East Farms, Mundale, Middle Farms, Little River, West Farms
and Wyben. In the township are the Westfield State Normal
School (1844), the Westfield Atheneum (incorporated in 1864),
which in 1910 had a library of 25,000 volumes, and the Noble
hospital (1893). Westfield Academy, a famous secondary school,
chartered in 1793 and opened in 1800, was closed in 1866 and its
building and grounds were sold in 1877 to the township for a
public high school. Woronoco Park (200 acres), in the western
part of the township, is a tract of great natural beauty. West-
field manufactures more whips than any other place in the
United States, the factory of the United States Whip Company
being one of the largest in the world; this industry was begun
here early in the igth century. Other important manufactures
are foundry and machine-shop products, paper, thread and
bicycles. In 1905 the value of the factory product was $5,818,130,
an increase of 31% since 1900. A trading post, known by the
Indian name Woronoco (or Woronoko), was established here
about 1640. In 1669 the township, which had previously been
part of Springfield, was erected under its present name it was
then the westernmost township in Massachusetts. Land was
added to it in 1713, and parts were taken from it to add to
Southwick (1770 and 1779), to Montgomery (1780), to Russell
(1792), and to West Springfield (1802).
See James C. Greenough, " The Town of Westfield, " in vol. ii.
p. 317-456) of A History of Hampden County, Massachusetts
vols., 1902), edited by Alfred M. Copeland; and John Alden,
istory of Westfield (Springfield, 1851).
WESTGATE-ON-SEA, a watering-place in the Isle of Thanet
parliamentary division of Kent, England, 2 m. W. by S. of
Margate on the South-Eastem & Chatham railway. Pop.
(1901) 2738. It is of modern growth and noted for its healthy
climate. Facing the sea there are gardens and promenades
over i m. in length, and there is a marine drive along the top
of the cliffs. There are also golf links and other appointments of
a popular resort. BIRCHINGTON, immediately to the west (pop.
2128), is also a growing resort. The church of All Saints is
544
WEST HAM WEST INDIES
Perpendicular, with an Early English tower, and contains some
interesting monuments.
WEST HAM, a municipal, county, and parliamentary borough
of Essex, England, forming an eastward suburb of London.
Pop. (1891) 204,903, (1901) 267,358. The parish stretches
north and south from Wanstead and Leyton to the Thames, and
east and west from East Ham to the river Lea. It is divided
into four wards Church Street, Stratford-Langthorne, Plaistow
and Upton. The church of All Saints has a good Perpendicular
tower, but the remainder is extensively restored. There are a
number of old monuments. In the restoration of 1866 some
early mural painting was discovered, and a transition Norman
clerestory was discovered* remaining above the later nave.
There are several modern churches, and a Franciscan monastery
and school (St Bonaventure's). West Ham Park (80 acres)
occupies the site of Ham House and park, for many years the
residence of Samuel Gurney, the banker and philanthropist.
The place was purchased for 25,000, and vested in the corpora-
tion of London for the use of the public. Of this amount the
Gurney family contributed 10,000 and the corporation the same
sum, the remaining 5000 being collected from the inhabitants
of West Ham. The house was taken down, and the park was
opened in 1874. Mrs Elizabeth Fry lived in a house in Upton
Lane, on the confines of her brother's park. In 1762 the number of
houses in West Ham parish was stated to be 700, of which " 4S5 are
mansions and 245 cottages." Now few large houses remain, but
the smaller houses have greatly increased. There are numerous
chemical and other manufactures which have been removed
from London itself; and the large population can also be traced
in part to the foundation of the Victoria and Albert docks
at Plaistow. Included within the borough are the extensive
railway works of the Great Eastern railway at Stratford. This
industrial centre is continued eastward in the urban district of
East Ham (pop. 96,018), where the old village church of St Mary
Magdalene retains Norman portions. West Ham is governed
by a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area 4683 acres.
At the time of the Conquest West Ham belonged to Alestan
and Leured, two freemen, and at Domesday to Ralph Gernon
and Ralph Peverel. West Ham village was included in the
part which descended to the Gernons, who took the name of
Montfichet. The manor of West Ham was settled upon Strat-
ford-Langthorne Abbey, founded by William de Montfichet
in 1135 for monks of the Cistercian order. The abbey stood in
the marshes, on a branch of the Lea known as the Abbey Creek,
about | m. south of Stratford Broadway. West Ham received
the grant of a market and annual fair in 1253. The lordship
was given to the abbey of Stratford, and, passing to the crown
at the dissolution, formed part of the dowry of Catherine of
Portugal, and was therefore called the Queen's Manor. In 1885
the urban sanitary district was erected into a parliamentary
borough, returning two members for the northern and southern
divisions respectively. It was incorporated in 1886.
WEST HAVEN, a borough of Orange township, New Haven
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on New Haven Harbor and separ-
ated from New Haven by the West river. Pop. (1900) 5247
(893 foreign-born); (1910) 8543. West Haven is served by the
New York, New Haven, & Hartford railway. It is mainly a
residential suburb of New Haven. There is a public park, and
Savin Rock, rising from Long Island Sound, is a summer resort.
West Haven was set apart from New Haven in 1822 and was
united with North Milford to form the township of Orange;
it was incorporated as a borough in 1873.
WEST HOBOKEN, a town of Hudson county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, adjoining Hoboken and
Jersey City. Pop. (1890) 11,665; (1900) 23>O94. of whom 9119
were foreign-born; (1910, census) 35,403. For transportation
facilities the town depends upon the railways serving Hoboken
and Jersey City. West Hoboken lies about J m. W. of the
Hudson river, occupies a pleasant site somewhat higher than
that of its neighbouring municipalities, and commands a fine
view of the surrounding country. Among the prominent build-
ings are a Carnegie library, St Michael's Monastery (containing
a theological school), a Dominican Convent, and several fin
churches; and there are two Roman Catholic orphanages.
The town is an important centre for the manufacture of silk
and silk goods; in 1905 the value of these products was
$4,211,018. West Hoboken was created a separate township
in 1861, from a part of the township of North Bergen, and in
1884 was incorporated as a town.
WESTHOUGHTON, an urban district in the Westhoughton
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 5 m. W.S.W.
of Bolton on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop.
(1901) 14,377. There are coal mines in the neighbourhood, and
the town possesses silk factories, print-works and cotton mills.
Westhoughton before the time of Richard II. was a manor
belonging to the abbey of Cockersand. It was confiscated
at the Reformation, and since then has been vested in the crown.
The army of Prince Rupert assembled on Westhoughton moor
before the attack on Bolton.
WEST INDIES, THE, sometimes called the Antilles (q.v.),
an archipelago stretching in the shape of a rude arc or parabola
from Florida in North America and Yucatan in Central America
to Venezuela in South America, and enclosing the Caribbean
Sea (615,000 sq. m.) and the Gulf of Mexico (750,000 sq. m. in
area). The land area of all the islands is nearly 100,000 sq. m.,
with an estimated population of about 65 millions; that of the
British islands about 12,000 sq. m. The islands differ widely
one from another in area, population, geographical position,
and physical characteristics. They are divided into the Bahamas,
the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti and Porto Rico), and
the Lesser Antilles (comprising the remainder). The Lesser
Antilles are again divided into the Windward Islands and
Leeward Islands. Geographically, the Leeward Islands are those
to the north of St Lucia, and the Windward, St Lucia and those
to the south of it; but for administrative purposes the British
islands in the Lesser Antilles are grouped as is shown in the
table given later.
Geology. The West Indies are the summits of a submerged
mountain chain, the continuation of which towards the west must
be sought in the mountains of Honduras. In Haiti the chain
divides, one branch passing through Jamaica and the other through
Cuba, the Cayman Islands and the Misteriosa Bank. In Das Anllitz
der Erde, E. Suess divides the Antilles into three zones: (i) The
first or interior zone, which is confined to the Lesser Antilles, is
entirely of volcanic origin and contains many recent volcanic cones.
It forms the inner string of islands which extends from Saba and
St Kitts to Grenada and the Grenadines. The western part of the
deep-cleft island Guadeloupe belongs to this zone. (2) The second
zone consists chiefly of Cretaceous and early Tertiary rocks. In the
west it is broad, including the whole of the Greater Antilles, but in
the east it is restricted to a narrow belt which comprises the Virgin
Islands (except Anegada), Anguilla, St Bartholomew, Antigua, the
eastern part of Guadeloupe and part of Barbados. (3) The third
and outermost zone is formed of Miocene and later beds, and the
islands which compose it are flat and low. Like the second zone it
is broad in the west and narrow in the east. It includes the Bahamas,
Anegada, Sombrero, Barbuda and part of Barbados. Geologically,
Florida and the plain of Yucatan may be looked upon as belonging
to this zone. Neither Trinidad nor the islands on the Venezuelan
coast can be said to belong to any of these three zones. Geologically
they are a part of the mainland itself. They consist of gneisses and
schists, supposed to be Archaean, eruptive rocks, Cretaceous, Tertiary
and Quaternary deposits; and the strike of the older rocks varies
from about W.S.W. to S.W. Geologically, in fact, these islands are
much more nearly allied to the Greater Antilles and to Central
America than they are to the Lesser Antilles; and there is accord-
ingly some reason to believe that the arc formed by the West Indian
Islands is really composite in origin. Although the three zones
recognized by Suess are fairly clearly defined, the geological history
of the Greater Antilles, with which must be included the Virgin
Islands, differs considerably from that of the Lesser. In Cuba and
Haiti there are schists which are probably of pre-Cretaceous age,
and have, indeed, been referred to the Archaean; but the oldest
rocks which have yet been certainly identified in the West Indies
belong to the Cretaceous period. Throughout the Greater Antilles
the geological succession begins as a rule with volcanic tuffs and
conglomerates of hornblende-andesite, &c., in the midst of which are
intercalated occasional beds of limestone with Rudistes and other
Cretaceous fossils. These are overlaid by sediments of terrigenous
origin, and the whole series was folded before the deposition of the
next succeeding strata. The nature of these Cretaceous deposits
clearly indicates the neighbourhood of an extensive area of land;
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WEST INDIES
545
but during the succeeding Eocene period and the early part of the
Oligocene, a profound subsidence led to the deposition of the Globi-
L chalks and white Radiolarian earths of Jamaica, Cuba and
H.uii. The Greater Antilles must at this time have been almost
completely submerged, and the similar deposits of Barbados and
Trinidad point to a similar submergence beyond the Windward
Is. In the middle of the Oligocene period a mighty upheaval,
ipanicd by mountain folding and the intrusion of plutonic
r. lined the (ire.iter Antilles fur above their present level, and
I the islands with one another, and perhaps with Florida. A
I 1 lent depression and a series of minor oscillations finally
I in the production of the present topography.
geology of the Lesser Antilles is somewhat different. In some
of tiie islands there are old volcanic tuffs which may possibly be the
equivalents of the Cretaceous beds of Jamaica, but volcanic activity
here continued throughout the Tertiary period and even down to
resent day. Another important difference is that except in
Trinidad and Barbados, which do not properly belong to the Carib-
bean chain, no deep-sea deposits have yet been found in the Lesser
Antilles and there is no evidence that the area ever sank to abysmal
depths.
In the foregoing account the chronology of R. T. Hill has been
followed ; but there is still considerable difference of opinion as to
the ages and correlation of the various Tertiary deposits and con-
sequently as to the dates of the great depression and elevation.
J. \V. Spencer, for example, places the greatest elevation of the
Antilles in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods. Moreover, chiefly
on the evidence of submerged valleys, he concludes that practically
the whole of the Caribbean Sea was land and that a complete con-
nexion existed, by way of the West Indian bridge, between North
and South America. 1
The mineral wealth of the islands is not remarkable. Gold, silver,
iron, copper, tin, platinum, lead, coal of a poor quality, cobalt,
mercury, arsenic, antimony, manganese, and rock salt either have
been or are worked. Asphalt is worked to considerable advantage
among the pitch lakes of Trinidad. Opal and chalcedony are the
principal precious stones.
Climate. As in most tropical countries where considerable heights
are met with and here over 15,500 sq. m. lie at an elevation of
more than 1500 ft. above sea-level the climate of the West Indies
(in so far at least as heat and cold are concerned) varies at different
altitudes, and on the higher parts of many of the islands a marked
degree of coolness may generally be found. With the exception of
pan of the Bahamas, all the islands lie between the isotherms of
77 and 82 F. The extreme heat, however, is greatly tempered by
the sea breezes, and by long, cool, refreshing nights. Frost js
occasionally formed in the cold season when hail falls, but snow is
unknown. The seasons may be divided as follows. The short wet
season, or spring, begins in April and lasts from two to six weeks,
and is succeeded by the short dry season, when the thermometer
remains almost stationary at about 80 F. In July the heat
increases to an extent well nigh unbearable. No change occurs till
after a period varying from the end of July to the beginning of
October, when the great rainfall of the year begins, accompanied by
tremendous and destructive hurricanes. This season is locally
known as the " hurricane months." The annual rainfall averages
63 in. These storms arise in the Atlantic and towards the east.
For a day or two they follow a westerly course, inclining, at the same
time, one or two points towards the north, the polar tendency
becoming gradually more marked as the distance from the equator
increases. When the hurricanes reach latitude 25 N., they curve
to the north-east, and almost invariably wheel round on arriving
at the northern portion of the Gulf of Mexico, after which they
follow the coast line of North America. Their rate of speed varies
considerably, but may be said to average 300 m. per day among
the islands. The usual signs of the approach of the cyclones are an
ugly and threatening appearance of the weather, sharp and frequent
puffs of wind, increasing in force with each blast, accompanied with
a long heavy swell and confused choppy sea, coming from the
direction of the approaching storm. December marks the beginning
of the long dry season, which, accompanied by fresh winds and
occasional hail showers, lasts till April. The average temperature
of the air at Barbados, which may be taken as a favourable average,
is, throughout the year, 80 F. in the forenoon, and about 82 in
the afternoon. The maximum is 87, and the minimum 75.
Flora. The flora of the islands is of great variety and richness,
as plants have been introduced from most parts of the globe, and
flourish either in a wild state or under cultivation; grain, vegetables,
and fruits, generally common in cool climates, may be seen growing
in luxuriance within a short distance of like plants which only attain
perfection under the influence of extreme heat, nothing being here
required for the successful propagation of both but a difference in
the height of the lands upon which they grow. The forests, which
"5 F+ TV : r^ : ,'. , .1 . K~~
"See E. Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (Wien, 1885; Eng. trans.,
Oxford, 1904") ; J. W. Spencer, " Reconstruction of the Antillean
Continent," Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. vi. (1895), p. 103 (Abstract
in C.eol. Mag., 1894, pp. 448-451): see also a series of papers by
J- W. Spencer in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vols. Ixvii., Ixviii. (1901,
'902); R. T. Hill, "The Geology and Physical Geography of
Jamaica," Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo/. Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899).
are numerous and wide-spreading, produce the most valuable woods
and delicious fruits. Palms are in great variety, and there are several
species of gum-producine trees. Some locust trees have been
estimated to have attained an 3ge of 4000 years, and are of immense
height and bulk. Piptadenia, on account of its almost imperishable
character when in the ground, is used as a material for house-
building. Xanthoxylon, the admired ana valuable satin-wood of
commerce, is common; Sapindus finds a ready market on account
of its toughness; crab- wood yields a useful oil and affords reliable
timber; and tree ferns of various species are common. Pimento
is peculiar to Jamaica. But it is to the agricultural resources of
the islands that the greatest importance attaches. For centuries
almost the whole care of the planters was bestowed upon the culti-
vation of the sugar-cane and tobacco plant, but in modern times, as
will be seen later, attention has been turned to the production of
other and more varying crops. Crops of tobacco, beans, peas,
maize, and Guinea corn are popular, and a species of rice, which
requires no flooding for its successful propagation, is largely pro-
duced. Hymenachne striatum covers many of the plains, and affords
food for cattle.
Fauna. The fauna of the region is Neotropical, belonging to that
region which includes South and part of Central America, although
great numbers of birds from the North-American portion of the
Holarctic realm migrate to the islands. The resident birds, however,
eighteen genera of which are certainly Neotropical, show beyond
doubt to which faunal region the islands properly belong. Mammals
are, as in most island groups, rare. The agouti abounds, and wild
pigs and dogs are sufficiently numerous to afford good sport to the
hunter, as well as smaller game, in the shape of armadillos, opossums,
musk-rats and raccoons. The non-migrating birds include trogons,
sugar-birds, chatterers, and many parrots and humming birds.
Waterfowl and various kinds of pigeons are in abundance. Reptiles
are numerous: snakes both the boa and adder are innumerable,
while lizards, scorpions, tarantulas and centipedes are everywhere.
Insects are in great numbers, and are often annoying. Among
domestic animals mules are largely reared, and where the country
affords suitable pasture and forage cattle-breeding is practised.
Goats abound, and large flocks of sheep are kept for the sake of their
flesh alone, as the climate is not adapted for wool-growing.
Area and Population. The following list of the West Indian
islands gives their area and population. Notwithstanding the
Name.
Area,
sq. m.
Population.
1881.
I9OI
(unless
stated).
British
-" 4SO
AT. 52 1
5^.7^5
Jamaica
4.27
*TO>7
584.170
OJ' 1 JJ
806,690'
Turks Island ....
169
4.732
5.287
Leeward Islands:
Virgin Islands
St Kitts ....
Nevis
58
63
50 \
5.287
41,001
4.908
5 29,782
( 12,774
Antigua ....
108
34.964
34.78
Montserrat ...
3*i
I0,083
12,215
Dominica ....
291
28,211
28,894
Barbados ....
166
I7I,860
195.588
Windward Islands:
St Lucia ....
233
38,551
49.833
St Vincent ....
140
40,548
44,000'
Grenada ....
133
42,430
63.438
1 754 )
I7M79
( 233,397
( 18,751
Tobago
114 \
French
Guadeloupe ....
688
182,110
Martinique ....
St Martin (part)
380
17
182,024 *
3,000
Dutch
St Martin (part)
21
t f
3.187 4
Curacao
212
30,883
Buen Ayre ....
95
6,233
Aruba
69
8.555
St Eustatius ....
8
1,283
Saba
5
2,294
Danish
St Thomas ....
33
11,012
St John
21
925
St Croix
84
18,590
U.S. A.
Porto Rico ....
3,606
I, Il8,OI2
Republics
Santo Domingo
18,045
500,000*
Haiti
IO,24O
800,000
Cuba (and adjacent islands) .
45.ooo
2,048,980 '
xxvm. 1 8
Estimate, 1905. * Estimate, 1906. ' 1905.
4 Populations of all Dutch islands are for 1908.
1910. Estimate. T 1907.
5
54-6
WEST INDIES
operations of educational institutions and of large numbers of
missionaries of various religious denominations, the percentage
of illegitimate births among the population of the British West
Indian islands remains very high in Barbados about 54; in
Jamaica, 63; in Trinidad, 59% of the general births; and
79 % of the East Indian.
The population of the West Indies represents many original
stocks, the descendants of which have developed variations of
habits and customs in their New World environment. They
may 'be divided into six main classes: (i) Europeans immi-
grants (British, French, Spanish and in a lesser degree Dutch,
Danish and German) and West Indian born; (2) African negroes
immigrants (a fast vanishing quantity) and West Indian born;
(3) a mixture of Europeans and Africans; (4) coolies from India
imported and West Indian born; (5) Chinese; (6) aboriginal
Indians of more or less pure descent. Of these, the people of
pure African blood are in a large majority, the " coloured "
race of mixed European and African blood being next in numerical
importance. Under British influence the negroes of the West
Indies have become British in thought and habit; and it would
seem that the stimulating influence of European direction and
encouragement is absolutely necessary for the future development
and progress of these islands. In the republics of Santo Domingo
and Haiti the negroes are left to drift along, while the French
and Danish islands show no great sign of progress.
British Colonies, Government, &c. The British West India
colonies 1 are either crown colonies that is to say, their govern-
ment is absolutely under the control of the British Colonial
Office, the official members of their councils predominating,
and the unofficial members being nominated by the crown,
as in the Windward and Leeward Islands or they have a
measure of representative government, as in the Bahamas,
Barbados and Jamaica, in which all or part of the legislatures
are elected and are more or less independent of crown control.
The laws of the various colonies are English, with local statutes
to meet local needs. The governors and high officials are
appointed by the crown; other officials are appointed by the
governor. Each governor acts under the advice of a privy
council. In matters of detail the colonies present a variety of
forms of government (for which see the separate articles).
Federation has been widely discussed and is held desirable by
many, but in view of the insular character of the colonies, the
considerable distances separating some of them, and in many
instances the lack of common interests (apart from certain
broad issues), the project appears to be far from realization.
The only fortified places in the British West Indies are Jamaica,
Barbados and St Lucia all of importance as coaling stations.
In many of the islands there are local volunteer forces. The
police forces of the colonies are in the main modelled on the
Irish constabulary, supplemented by rural constabulary. The
force is usually officered by Europeans.
Economic Conditions. The West Indian colonies have suffered
from periods of severe economic depression, though from the
early years of the aoth century there has been good evidence of
recovery and development. An obvious reason for temporary
depression is the liability of the islands to earthquakes and
hurricanes, in addition to eruptions in the volcanic islands,
such as those in St Vincent and Martinique in 1002. For example,
the great earthquake of January 1907 in Jamaica may be
recalled, and hurricanes caused serious damage in Jamaica in
August 1003 and November 1909, and in the Bahamas in
September and October 1908. A treasury fund has been estab-
lished in Jamaica as a provision against the effects of such
disasters. It has been stated that the excessive rainfall which
accompanies these storms is of great ultimate benefit to the soil.
The British West Indian colonies do not offer opportunities
for ordinary labouring immigrants. Barbados is the only island
where the land is entirely settled. But the settlement, planting
and development of lands elsewhere involve a considerable
amount of capital, and manual labour is provided by the natives
1 It is a common practice to include British Guiana with these,
but the present article is confined to the insular colonies.
or East Indian coolies. Attempts to settle European labourers
have been unsuccessful. The West Indian negro, as a labouring
class, has frequently been condemned as averse from regular
work, apathetic in regard to both his own and his colony's
affairs, immoral and dishonest. In so far as these shortcomings
exist, they are due to the tendencies inherited from the period
of slavery, to the ease with which a bare livelihood may be
obtained, and to other such causes. But for the most part the
negroes appreciate their advantages under British government
and are quick to assimilate British customs and ideas. Advances
in the system of peasant proprietorship have brought beneficial
results. The drafting of large numbers of labourers from the
West Indies to the Panama canal works early in the 2oth century,
though causing a shortage of labour and involving legislation
in some of the islands, exercised a moral effect on the natives
by enlarging their horizon.
The growth of general prosperity in the British West Indies is
assigned 2 "to the revival of the sugar industry, to the develop-
ment of the fruit trade; to the increase in the cultivation of
cocoa and cotton; to the volume of tourist travel, which swells
year by year; and to such local developments as the 'boom' in
Trinidad oil." It was pointed out in the Report of the Royal
Commission on Trade Relations between Canada and the West
Indies (Cd. 5369, London, 1910) that " the geographical position
of the West Indian Colonies must always tend to throw them
under the influence of the fiscal system either of the United
States or of the Dominion of Canada. Attempts have been
made from time to time to obtain for these Colonies special
advantages in the markets of the United States. . . . The
Colonial policy of the United States has now finally stopped
advance in that direction," and the connexion with the Dominion
has therefore become of paramount importance. The Dominion
government admitted the West Indies to the British preferential
tariff (25% under existing duties) in 1898. The percentage was
raised to 33^ in 1900. In 1903 the duties imposed on bounty-fed
beet sugar in the United States, which had opened the market
there to West Indian sugar, were abolished, and a surtax (since
removed) was placed on German imports into Canada. Both
acts enhanced the value of the Canadian market to the West
Indies, while that of the American sugar market was further
reduced when in 1901 sugar from Porto Rico began to be
admitted thereto free of duty, and when special terms were
extended to sugar from the Philippine Islands and Cuba in 1902
and 1903 respectively. The Canadian connexion was thus largely
instrumental in saving the sugar industry in the West Indies
from severe depression, if not from the actual extinction foreseen
by a Royal Commission in 1897. This commission pointed out,
in particular, the danger which threatened those colonies where
sugar provided practically the sole industrial and commercial
interest. On a recommendation of this commission the Imperial
Department of Agriculture was established in 1898, its cost
being met from imperial funds. It is under a commissioner
with headquarters at Barbados. Its functions are to maintain
and supervise botanical and experimental stations, to establish
agricultural schools, arrange agricultural teaching in other
schools, create scholarships, and issue publications. The depart-
ment has been largely instrumental in establishing new industries
and thus relieving many islands from dependence on the sugar
industry alone.
The negotiations for commercial relations between the West
Indies and Canada began in 1866; in 1872 proposals for steam-
ship subsidies were accepted. The Commission of 1909 recom-
mended that the governments should continue to subsidize a
service, for which they suggested various improvements. In
1901 a line of subsidized steamers had been started between
Jamaica and England, but this contract expired, and the mail
contract was determined in 1910, and recommendations were
put forward for a steamship service between Canadian and
West Indian ports with improvements additional to those
recommended by the Commission. It may be added that the
! In The Times of May 24, 1910, where, in an imperial supplement,
a number of articles on the West Indian colonies appear.
WESTMACOTT
547
Commission also made recommendations for the reduction of
the high cable rates between the West Indies and the United
Kingdom.
iiles sugar, the principal products of the islands are cocoa,
fruits and cotton. Cotton-growing reached importance in a very
short time owing largely to the efforts of the Imperial Department
of Agriculture, Sea Island seed having been planted in St Vincent
only in 1903, and in that island and elsewhere (Antigua, St Kitts,
Montscrr.it) good crops are now obtained. Grenada is almost
entirely, and Trinidad, Dominica and St Lucia are largely, dependent
upon cocoa. The fruit and spice trade is of growing importance,
and there is a demand for bottled fruit in Canada and elsewhere.
The variety of fruits grown is great; the bananas and oranges of
Jamaica, the limes of Montserrat, Dominica and St Lucia, and the
pine-apples of the Bahamas may be mentioned as characteristic.
It must be borne in mind, however, that the islands as a whole
cannot be said to possess a community of commercial interests.
Even the industries already indicated are by no means equally
distributed throughout the islands; moreover there are certain
local industries of high importance, such as the manufacture of
rum in Jamaica, the production of asphalte and the working of
the oilfields (the development of which was first seriously under-
taken about 1905) in Trinidad, and the production of arrow-
root in St Vincent. Sponges are an important product of the
Bahamas, and salt of the Turks Islands. Rubber plantation has
been successfully exploited in several islands, such as Trinidad,
Dominica and St Lucia. (See further articles on the various
islands.)
Religion. In all the British colonies there is full religious tolera-
tion. The Church of England Province of the West Indies is divided
into the following bishoprics: Jamaica, Nassau (i.e. Bahamas),
Trinidad, (British) Honduras, Antigua (i.e. Leeward Islands),
Barbados, Windward Islands, (British) Guiana. With the exception
of Barbados and British Guiana, the Church of England is dis-
established, disendowment taking place gradually, the churches
thus becoming self-supporting. In Barbados the Church is both
established and endowed. In the Bahamas and Jamaica disen-
dowment is gradually taking place; in Trinidad and British Guiana
the Church of England receives endowment concurrently with other
religious bodies. The Windward Islands, Leeward Islands and
British Honduras are totally disendowed. In all the islands, except
Trinidad, St Lucia, Grenada and Dominica, the Church of England,
though in all cases iaa minority when compared with the aggregate
of other bodies, is the most numerous of any denomination. There
are Roman Catholic bishops at Port-of-Spain (Trinidad), Roseau
(Dominica for the Leeward Islands), Jamaica, British Guiana and
Barbados (resident at Georgetown), British Honduras, Guadeloupe,
Martinique, Haiti (archbishop and four bishops), Santo Domingo
(archbishop), Cuba (archbishop and bishop), Porto Rico and
Curacao. Other religious denominations working actively in the
West Indies are the Baptists, Wesleyans, Presbyterians, Congre-
gationalists and Moravians.
History. The archipelago received the name of the West
Indies from Columbus, who hoped that, through the islands, he
had found a new route to India. The name of Antilles was
derived from the fact that Columbus, on his arrival here, was
supposed to have reached the fabled land of Antilia. Columbus
first landed on San Salvador, generally identified with Watling
Island of the Bahamas, and several voyages to this new land were
made in rapid succession by the great discoverer, resulting in
the finding of most of the larger islands, and a more intimate
knowledge of those already known. The importance of its latest
possession was at once recognized by the court of Spain, and, as a
first move towards turning the West Indies to profitable account,
numbers of the natives, for the most part a harmless and gentle
people, were shipped overseas and sold into slavery, others
being employed in forced labour in the mines which the Spaniards
had opened throughout the archipelago, and from which large
returns were expected. Thus early in its history began that
traffic in humanity with which the West India plantations are
so widely associated, and which endured for so long a time.
Goaded to madness by the wrongs inflicted upon them, the
aborigines at last took arms against their masters, but with the
result which might have been expected their almost utter ex-
tirpation. Many of the survivors sought release from their
sufferings in suicide, and numbers of others perished in the
mines, so that the native race soon almost ceased to exist. Spain
was not long allowed to retain an undisputed hold upon the
islands: British and Dutch seamen soon sought the new region,
accounts concerning the fabulous wealth and treasure of which
stirred all Europe, and a desultory warfare began to be waged
amongst the various voyagers who flocked to this El Dorado, in
consequence of which the Spaniards found themselves gradually
but surely forced from many of their vantage grounds, and
compelled very materially to reduce the area over which they
had held unchecked sway. The first care of the English settlers
was to find out the real agricultural capabilities of the islands,
and they diligently set about planting tobacco, cotton and
indigo. A French West India Company was incorporated in
1625, and a settlement established on the island of St Christopher,
where a small English colony was already engaged in clearing
and cultivating the ground; these were driven out by the
Spaniards in 1630, but only to return and again assume posses-
sion. About this time, also, the celebrated buccaneers, Dutch
smugglers, and British and French pirates began to infest the
neighbouring seas, doing much damage to legitimate traders,
and causing commerce to be carried on only under force of arms,
and with much difficulty and danger. Indeed, it was not till
the beginning of the i8th century some time after Spain had,
in 1670, given up her claim to the exclusive possession of the archi-
pelago that these rovers were rendered comparatively harm-
less; and piracy yet lingered off the coasts down to the early years
of the i pth century. In 1640 sugar-cane began to be systematic-
ally planted, and the marvellous prosperity of the West Indies
began; it was not from the gold and precious stones, to which
the Spaniards had looked for wealth and power, but from the cane
that the fortunes of the West Indies were to spring. The success-
ful propagation of this plant drew to the islands crowds of
adventurers, many of them men of considerable wealth. The
West Indies were for many years used by the English govern-
ment as penal settlements, the prisoners working on the planta-
tions as slaves. In 1655 a British force made an unsuccessful
attack on Haiti, but a sudden descent on Jamaica was more
fortunate in its result, and that rich and beautiful island has since
remained in the possession of Great Britain. The Portuguese
were the first to import negroes as slaves, and their example was
followed by other nations having West-Indian colonies, the
traffic existing for about 300 years. In 1660 a division of the
islands was arranged between England and France, the remaining
aborigines being driven to specified localities, but this treaty did
not produce the benefits expected from it, and as wars raged in
Europe the islands (see separate articles) frequently changed
hands.
AUTHORITIES. Sir C. P. Lucas, A Historical Geography of the
British Colonies, vol. ii. (Oxford, revision of 1905) ; C. Washington
Eves, C.M.G., The West Indies (4th edition, London, 1897); A.
Caldecott, B.D., The Church in the West Indies (Colonial Church
Histories, London, 1898); Robert T. Hill, Cuba and Porto Rico,
with the other Islands of the West Indies (London, 1898); Amos
Kidder Fiske, History of the West Indies (New York, 1899) ; H. de R.
Walker, The West Indies and the British Empire (London, IQOI);
J. H. Stark, Guides to the West Indies (London, 1898, &c.) ; A. E.
Aspinall, Guide to the West Indies (London, 1907); J. A. Froude,
The English in the West Indies (London, 1888); J. Rodway, The
West Indies and the Spanish Main (London, 1896); Sir Harry John-
ston, The Negro in the New World (London, 1910); J. W. Root.
The British West Indies and the Sugar Industry (1899); Colonial
Office Reports; Reports of Royal Commissions, 1897 and 1910.
WESTMACOTT, SIR RICHARD (1775-1856), British sculptor,
was born in London, and while yet a boy learned the rudiments
of the plastic art in the studio of his father, who was then a
sculptor of some reputation. In 1793, at the age of eighteen,
he went to Rome and became a pupil of Canova, then at the
height of his fame. Under the prevailing influences of Italy
at that time, Westmacott devoted all his energies to the study
of classical sculpture, and throughout his life his real sym-
pathies were with pagan rather than with Christian art. Within
a year of his arrival in Rome he won the first prize for sculpture
offered by the Florentine academy of arts, and in the following
year (1795) he gained the papal gold medal awarded by the
Roman Academy of St Luke with his bas-relief of Joseph and
his brethren. In 1798, on the zoth of February, he married
Dorothy Margaret, daughter of Dr Wilkinson of Jamaica. On
his return to London Westmacott began to exhibit his works
yearly at the Royal Academy, the first work so exhibited being
WESTMEATH, EARL OF WESTMEATH
his bust of Sir William Chambers. In 1805 he was elected an
associate, and in 1811 a full member of the Royal Academy,
his diploma work being a " Ganymede " in high relief; in 1827
he was appointed to succeed Flaxman as Royal Academy
professor of sculpture, and in 1837 he was knighted. A very
large number of important public monuments were executed
by him, including many portrait statues; but little can be said
in praise of such works as the statue on the duke of York's
column (1833), the portrait of Fox in Blpomsbury Square, or
that of the duke of Bedford in Russell Square. Much ad-
miration was expressed at the time for Westmacott's monu-
ments to Collingwood and Sir Ralph Abercromby in St Paul's
Cathedral, and that of Mrs Warren in Westminster Abbey;
but subjects like these were far less congenial to him than
sculpture of a more classical type, such as the pedimental
figures representing the progress of civilization over the portico
of the British Museum, completed in 1847, and his colossal nude
statue of Achilles in bronze, copied from the original on Monte
Cavallo in Rome, and reared in 1822 by the ladies of England
in Hyde Park as a compliment to the duke of Wellington. He
died on the ist of September 1856.
WESTMEATH, EARL OF, a title held in the Irish family
of Nugent since 1621. During the reign of Henry II. Sir Gilbert
Nugent received the lordship or barony of Delvin in Meath,
which soon passed by marriage from the Nugents to the family
of Fitzjohn. About two hundred years later the barony
returned to the Nugent family, Sir William Nugent (d. c.
1415) marrying Catherine, daughter of John Fitzjohn. The
barony, however, is considered to date from the time of Sir
William Nugent and not from that of Sir Gilbert, 1389 being
generally regarded as the date of its creation.
Sir William Nugent, who is generally called the ist, but
sometimes the pth, baron Delvin, was succeeded by his son
Sir Richard (d. c. 1460) as 2nd baron. In 1444 and 1449 Sir
Richard was lord deputy of Ireland. His grandson, Richard,
the 4th baron (d. c. 1538), was summoned to the Irish parlia-
ment in 1486. During his whole life he was loyal to the English
king, and both before and after the years 1527 and 1528 when
he was lord deputy, he took a vigorous part in the warfare
against the Irish rebels. Among his descendants was Robert
Nugent, Earl Nugent (q.v.). Richard's grandson, Christopher,
the 6th baron (c. 1544-1602), also served England well, but
about 1576 he fell under the displeasure of Queen Elizabeth
and he was several times imprisoned, being in the intervals
employed in Ireland. He was a prisoner in Dublin Castle when
he died. Delvin wrote A Primer of the Irish Language, compiled
at the request and for the use of Queen Elizabeth.
His son, Richard, the 7th baron (1583-1642), took part
in 1606 in a plot against the English government and was
imprisoned, but he soon escaped from captivity and secured
a pardon from James I. In 1621 he was created earl of West-
meath. Having refused in 1641 to join the Irish rebellion, he
was attacked by a party of rebels and was so seriously injured
that he died shortly afterwards. His grandson, Richard, the
2nd earl (d. 1684), served Charles II. against Cromwell in Ireland
and afterwards raised some troops for service in Spain. His
grandson Thomas, the 4th earl (1656-1752), served James II.
in Ireland. Thomas's brother, John, the 5th earl (1672-1754),
left Ireland after the final defeat of James II. and took service
in France. He fought against England at the battles of Ramil-
lies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet and remained on active service
until 1748. He died in Brabant on the 3rd of July 1754. His
son Thomas, the 6th earl (d. 1792), also served in the French
army; later he conformed to the established religion, being
the first Protestant of his house, and took his seat in the Irish
House of Lords in 1755. His son George Frederick, the 7th
earl (1760-1814), a member of the Irish House of Commons
before 1792, was succeeded by his son George Thomas John
(1785-1871), who was created marquess of Westmeath in 1822
and who was an Irish representative peer from 1831 to 1871.
He died without legitimate sons on the 5th of May 1871, when
the marquessate became extinct.
The earldom of Westmeath now passed to a distant cousin,
Anthony Francis Nugent (1805-1879), a descendant of Thomas
Nugent (d. 1715) of Pallas, Galway, who was a son of the 2nd
earl. Thomas was chief justice of Ireland from 1687 until he
was outlawed by the government of William III. In 1689 he
was created by James II. baron of Riverston, but the validity
of this title has never been admitted. In 1883 his descendant,
Anthony Francis (b. 1870), became the nth earl.
Cadets of the Nugent family were Nicholas Nugent (d. 1582),
chief justice of the common bench in Ireland, who was hanged
for treason on the 6th of April 1582; William Nugent (d. 1625)
an Irish rebel during the reign of Elizabeth; Sir George Nugent,
Bart. (1757-1849), who, after seeing service in America and
in the Netherlands, was commander-in-chief in India from 1811
to 1813 and became a field-marshal in 1846'; and Sir Charles
Edmund Nugent (c. 1759-1844), an admiral of the fleet. More
famous perhaps was Lavall, Count Nugent (1777-1862), who
rose to the rank of field-marshal in the Austrian army and was
made a prince of the empire. His long and honourable military
career began in 1793 and sixty-six years later he was present
at the battle of Solferino. His most distinguished services to
Austria were during the war with France in 1813 and 1814, and
he was also useful during the revolution in Hungary in 1849.
See D'Alton, Pedigree of the Nugent Family; and Historical Sketch
of the Nugent Family, printed by J. C. Lyons (1853).
WESTMEATH, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded N.W. by Longford, N. by Cavan, N.E. and E. by
Meath, S. by King's county, and W. by Roscommon. The area
is 454,104 acres, or about 709 sq. m. The Shannon forms the
western boundary. The average height of the surface of the
county is over 250 ft. above sea-level. The highest summits
are Knocklayde (795 ft.), Hill of Ben (710 ft.) and Knockayon
(707 ft.). A large surface is occupied by bog. A special feature
of Westmeath is the number of large loughs, which have a
combined area of nearly 17,000 acres. In the norlh, on the
borders of Cavan, is Lough Sheelin, with a length of 5 m., and
an average breadth of between 2 and 3 m., and adjoining it is
the smaller Lough Kinale. In the centre of the county there
is a group of large loughs, of which Lough Dereveragh is 6 m.
long by 3 broad at its widest part. To the north of it are Loughs
Lene, Glore, Bawn and others, and to the south Loughs Iron
and Owel. Farther south is Lough Ennell or Belvidere, and in
the south-west Lough Ree, a great expansion of the river Shan-
non, forming part of the boundary with Roscommon. The
river Inny, which rises in Co. Cavan, enters Westmeath from
Lough Sheelin, and, forming for parts of its course the boundary
with Longford, falls into Lough Ree. The Inny has as one of
its tributaries the Glore, flowing from Lough Lene through
Lough Glore, a considerable part of its course being under-
ground. From Lough Lene the Dale also flows southwards to
the Boyne and so to the Irish Sea, and thus this lake sends its
waters to the opposite shores of the island. The Brosna flows
from Lough Ennell southwards by King's .county into the
Shannon. The Westmeath loughs have a peculiar fame among
anglers for the excellence of their trout-fishing.
Westmeath is essentially a county of the great Carboniferous
Limestone plain, with numerous lakes occupying the hollows. Two
or three little inliers of Old Red Sandstone, as at Killucan and
Moate, form distinctive hills, about 500 ft. in height. At Sron Hill
near Killucan, a core of Silurian strata appears within the sandstone
dome. A considerable system of eskers, notably north of Tullamore,
diversifies the surface of the limestone plain.
The soil is generally a rich loam of great depth resting on
limestone, and is well adapted both for tillage and pasturage.
The occupations are almost wholly agricultural, dairy farming
predominating. Flour and meal are largely produced. The only
textile manufactures are those of friezes, flannels, and coarse linens
for home use. The only mineral of any value is limestone.
The main line of the Midland Great Western railway enters the
county from E. and passes W. by Mullingar and Athlone. From
Mullingar a branch runs N.W. to Inny Junction, where lines
diverge N. to Cavan (county Cavan), and W.N.W. to Longford
(county Longford) and Sligo. A branch of the Great Southern &
Western railway runs from Portarlington (Queen's county) to
Athlone, and this and the Midland Great Western main line are
connected by a short line between Clare and Streamstown, worked
WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES OF- -WESTMINSTER 549
by the latter company. Water communication with Dublin is
furnished by the Royal Canal, traversing the centre of the' county.
A branch of the Grand Canal reaches Kilbeggan in the south.
The population (68,611 in 1891; 61,629 in 1901) decreases
in excess of the average shown by the Irish counties, and emi-
gration is considerable. About 92% of the total are Roman
Catholics, and about 86% constitute the rural population. The
principal towns are Athlone (pop. 6617), of which the part
formerly in Roscommon was added to Westmeath by the Local
Government (Ireland) Act of 1898, and Mullingar (4500), the
county town. Castlepollard and Moate are lesser market
towns. By the Redistribution Act of 1885 Westmeath was
formed into two parliamentary divisions, North and South,
each returning one member, Athlone being included in the
county representation. The county is divided into twelve
baronies. Assizes are held at Mullingar and quarter sessions
at Mullingar and Moate. The county is in the Protestant
dioceses of Dublin, Killaloe and Ossory, and in the Roman
Catholic dioceses of Kildare and Leighlin, Killaloe and Ossory.
Westmeath was severed from Meath (q.v.) in 1543. The plan
for the insurrection of 1641 was concerted in the abbey of
Multifarnham, and both in the wars of this period and those
of 1688 the gentry of the county were so deeply implicated
that the majority of the estates were confiscated. There are
a considerable number of raths or encampments: one at Rath-
conrath is of great extent; another at Bally more was fortified
during the wars of the Cromwellian period and those of 1688,
and was afterwards the headquarters of General Ginkell, when
preparing to besiege Athlone; and there is a third of con-
siderable size near Lough Lene. The ruins of the Franciscan
abbey of Multifarnham, founded in 1236 by William Delaware,
picturesquely situated near Lough Dereveragh, include a tower
93 ft. in height.
WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. The
title of marquess of Westminster was bestowed in 1831 upon
Robert Grosvenor, 2nd Earl Grosvenor (1767-1845), whose
grandson, Hugh Lupus Grosvenor (1825-1899), was created
duke of Westminster in 1874. The family of Grosvenor is of great
antiquity in Cheshire, the existence of a knightly house of this
name (Le Grosvenur) in the palatine county being proved by
deeds as early as the i2th century (see The Ancestor, vi. 19).
The legend of its descent from a nephew of Hugh Lupus, earl of
Chester, perpetuated in the name of the first duke, and the
still more extravagant story, repeated by the old genealogists
and modern " peerages," of its ancestors, the " grand hunts-
men " (gros veneurs) of the dukes of Normandy, have been
exploded by the researches of Mr W. H. B. Bird (see " The
Grosvenor Myth " in The Ancestor, vol. i. April 1902). The
ancestors of the dukes of Westminster, the Grosvenors of Eaton,
near Chester, were cadets of the knightly house mentioned
above, and rose to wealth and eminence through a series of
fortunate marriages. Their baronetcy dates from 1622.
Sir Thomas Grosvenor, the 3rd baronet (1656-1700), in 1676
married Mary (d. 1730), heiress of Alexander Davies (d. 1665),
a scrivener. This union brought to the Grosvenor family
certain lands, then on the outskirts of London, but now covered
by some of the most fashionable quarters of the West End.
Sir Thomas's sons, Richard (1689-1732), Thomas (1693-1733)
and Robert (d. 1755), succeeded in turn to the baronetcy, Robert
being the father of Sir Richard Grosvenor (1731-1802), created
Baron Grosvenor in 1761 and Viscount Belgrave and Earl
Grosvenor in 1784. The ist earl, a great breeder of racehorses,
was succeeded by his only surviving son Robert (1767-1845),
who rebuilt Eaton Hall and developed his London property,
which was rapidly increasing in value. In the House of Commons,
where he sat from 1788 to 1802, he was a follower of Pitt, who
made him a lord of the admiralty and later a commissioner of
the board of control, but after 1806 he left the Tpries and joined
the Whigs. He was created a marquess at the coronation of
William IV. in 1831. His son, Richard, the 2nd marquess,
(1795-1869), was a member of parliament from 18:8 to 1835
and lord steward of the royal household from 1850 to 1852.
The latter's son, Hugh Lupus (1825-1899), created a duke in
1874, was from 1847 to 1869 member of parliament for Chester
and from 1880 to 1885 master of the horse under Gladstone,
but he left the Liberal party when the split came over Home
Rule for Ireland. His great wealth made him specially con-
spicuous; but he was a patron of many progressive movements.
His eldest son, Victor Alexander, Earl Grosvenor (1853-1884),
predeceased him, and he was succeeded as 2nd duke by his
grandson, Hugh Richard Arthur Grosvenor (b'. 1879), who in
1901 married Miss Cornwallis-West. Earl Grosvenor's widow,
Countess Grosvenor, a daughter of the 9th earl of Scarborough,
had in 1887 married Mr George Wyndham (b. 1863), a grandson
of the ist baron Leconfield, who subsequently became well-
known both as a litttrateur and as a Unionist cabinet minister.
Two other peerages are held by the Grosvenor family. In
1857 Lord Robert Grosvenor (1801-1893), a younger son of
the ist marquess, after having sat in the House of Commons
since 1822, was created Baron Ebury. He was an energetic
opponent of ritualism in the Church of England; and he was
associated in philanthropic work with the earl of Shaftesbury.
On his death his son, Robert Wellesley Grosvenor (b. 1834),
became the 2nd baron. In 1886, Lord Richard Grosvenor
(b. 1837), a son of the 2nd marquess, was created Baron Stal-
bridge; from 1880 to 1885 he had been " chief whip " of the
Liberal party. In 1891 he became chairman of the London
& North Western railway.
WESTMINSTER, a part of London, England; strictly a
city in the administrative county of London, bounded E. by
" the City," S. by the river Thames, W. by the boroughs of
Chelsea and Kensington, and N. by Paddington, St Marylebone
and Holborn. Westminster was formed into a borough by
the London Government Act of 1809, and by a royal charter
of the 29th of October 1900 it was created a city. The council
consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. The city
comprises the parliamentary boroughs of the Strand, West-
minster and St George's, Hanover Square, each returning one
member. Area, 2502-7 acres. The City of Westminster, as
thus depicted, extends from the western end of Fleet Street
to Kensington Gardens, and from Oxford Street to the Thames,
which it borders over a distance of 3 m., between Victoria
(Chelsea) Bridge and a point below Waterloo Bridge. It thus
includes a large number of the finest buildings in London, from
the Law Courts in the east to the Imperial Institute in the west,
Buckingham and St James's palaces, the National Gallery,
and most of the greatest residences of the wealthy classes. But
the name of Westminster is more generally associated with a
more confined area, namely, the quarter which includes the
Abbey, the Houses of Parliament, the government and other
buildings in Whitehall, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the
parts immediately adjacent to these.
Westminster Abbey. The Abbey of St Peter is the most
widely celebrated church in the British empire. The Thames,
bordered in early times by a great expanse of fen
on either hand from Chelsea and Battersea downward, 7i- <"
washed, at the point where the Abbey stands, one history.
shore of a low island perhaps three-quarters of a mile in
circumference, known as Thorney or Bramble islet. Tributary
streams from the north formed channels through the marsh,
flanking the island north and south, and were once connected
by a dyke on the west. These channels belonged to the Tyburn,
which flowed from the high ground of Hampstead. Relics of
the Roman occupation have been excavated in the former island,
and it is supposed that traffic on the Walling Street, from Dover
to Chester, crossed the Thames and the marshes by way of
Thorney before the construction of London Bridge; the road
continuing north-west in the line of the modem Park Lane
(partly) and Edgware Road. Tradition places on the island a
temple of Apollo, which was destroyed by an earthquake in the
reign of the emperor Antoninus Pius. On the site King Lucius
is said to have founded a church (c. A.D. 170). The irruption
of the Saxons left Thomey desolate. Traditional still, but
supported by greater probability, a story states that Sebert.
550
WESTMINSTER
king of the East Saxons, having taken part in the foundation of
St Paul's Cathedral, restored or refounded the church at Thorney
" to the honour of God and St Peter, on the west side of the
City of London " (Stow). A splendid legend relates the coming
of St Peter in person to hallow his new church. The sons of
Sebert relapsed into idolatry and left the church to the mercy
of the Danes. A charter of Offa, king of Mercia (785), deals with
the conveyance of certain land to the monastery of St Peter;
and King Edgar restored the church, clearly defining by a charter
dated 951 (not certainly genuine) the boundary of Westminster,
which may be indicated in modern terms as extending from the
Marble Arch south to the Thames and east to the City boundary,
the former river Fleet. Westminster was a Benedictine founda-
tion. In 1050 Edward the Confessor took up the erection of a
magnificent new church, cruciform, with a central and two
western towers. Its building continued after his death, but it
was consecrated on Childermas Day, 28th December 1065; and
on the following " twelfth mass eve " the king died, being buried
next day in the church. In 1245 Henry III. set about the
rebuilding of the church east of the nave, and at this point it
becomes necessary to describe the building as it now appears.
Westminster Abbey is a cruciform structure consisting of
nave with aisles, transepts with aisles (but in the south transept
_. the place of the western aisle is occupied by the
church. eastern cloister walk), and choir of polygonal apsidal
form, with six chapels (four polygonal) opening north
and south of it, and an eastern Lady Chapel, known as Henry
VII. 's chapel. There are two western towers, but in the centre
a low square tower hardly rises above the pitch of the roof.
The main entrance in common use is that in the north transept.
The chapter-house, cloisters and other conventual buildings
and remains lie to the south. The total length of the church
(exterior) is 531 ft. and of the transepts 203 ft. in all. The
breadth of the nave without the aisles is 38 ft. 7 in. and its height
close upon 102 ft. These dimensions are very slightly lessened
in the choir. Without, viewed from the open Parliament Square
to the north, the beaut if ill proportions of the building are
readily realized, but it is somewhat dwarfed by the absence of a
central tower and by the vast adjacent pile of the Houses of
Parliament. From this point (considered as a building merely)
it appears only as a secondary unit in a magnificent group.
Seen from the west, however, it is the dominant unit, but here
it is impossible to overlook the imperfect conception of the
" Gothic humour " (as he himself termed it) manifested by
Wren, from whose designs the western towers were completed
in 1740. The north front, called Solomon's Porch from a former
porch over the main entrance, is from the designs of Sir G. G.
Scott, considerably altered by J. L. Pearson.
Within, the Abbey is a superb example of the pointed style.
The body of the church has a remarkable appearance of uniformity,
because, although the building of the new nave was continued
with intermissions from the lath century until Tudor times, the
broad design of the Early English work in the eastern part of the
church was carried on throughout. The choir, with its unusual form
and radiating chapels, plainly follows French models, but the name
of the architect is lost. Exquisite ornament is seen in the triforium
arcade, and between some of the arches in the transept are figures,
especially finely 'carved, though much mutilated, known as the
censing angels. Henry VII. 's Chapel replaces an earlier Lady
Chapej, and is the most remarkable building of its period. It
comprises a nave with aisles, and an apsidal eastward end formed
of five small radiating chapels. Both within and without it is
ornamented with an extraordinary wealth and minuteness of detail.
A splendid series of carved oak stalls lines each side of the nave,
and above them hang the banners of the Knights of the Bath, of
whom this was the place of installation when the Order was re-
constituted in 1725. The fan-traceried roof, with its carved stone
pendants, is the most exquisite architectural feature of the chapel.
The choir stalls in the body of the church are modern, as is the
organ, a fine instrument with an " echo " attachment, electrically
connected, in the triforium of the south transept. The reredos is
by Sir G. G. Scott, with mosaic by Salviati. In Abbot Islip's chapel
there is a series of effigies in wax, representing monarchs and others.
The earliest, which is well preserved, is of Charles II., but remnants
of older figures survive. Some of the effigies were carried in funeral
processions according to custom, but this was not done later than
I 735- There are, however, figures of Lord Chatham and Nelson,
set up by the officials who received the fees formerly paid by visitors
to the exhibition.
But the peculiar fame of the Abbey lies not in its architecture,
nor in its connexion with the metropolis alone, but in the fact that
it has long been the place of the coronation of sovereigns
and the burial-place of many of them and of their greatest
subjects. The original reason for this was the reverence mo " les
attaching to the memory of the Confessor, whose shrine*"
stands in the central chapel behind the high altar. The'
Norman kings were ready to do honour to his name. From William
the Conqueror onward every sovereign has been crowned here except-
ing Edward V. The coronation chairs stand in the Confessor's chapel.
That used by the sovereign dates from the time of Edward I., and
contains beneath its seat the stone of Scone, or stone of destiny,
on which the Celtic kings were crowned. It is of Scottish origin,
but tradition identifies it with Jacob's pillow at Bethel. Here also
are kept the sword and shield of Edward III., still used in the
coronation ceremony. The second chair was made for Mary,
consort of William III. Subsequent to the Conquest many kings
and queens were buried here, from Henry III. to George II. Not
all the graves are marked, but of those which are the tomb of Henry
VII. and his queen, Elizabeth of York, the central object in his
own chapel, is the finest. The splendid recumbent effigies in bronze,
of Italian workmanship, rest upon a tomb of black marble, and the
whole is enclosed in a magnificent shrine of wrought brass. Monu-
ments, tombs, busts and memorials crowd the choir, its chapels
and the transepts, nor is the nave wholly free of them. All but the
minority of the Gothic period (among which the canopied tombs of
Edmund Crouchback and Ayrner de Valence, in the sanctuary, are
notable) appear incongruous in a Gothic setting. Many of the
memorials are not worthy of their position as works of art, nor are
the subjects they commemorate always worthy to lie here, for the
high honour of burial in the Abbey was not always so conscientiously
guarded as now. Eliminating these considerations, however, a
wonderful range of sculptural art is found. A part of the south
transept is famed under the name of the Poet's Corner. The north
transept contains many monuments to statesmen.
The monastery was dissolved in 1539, and Westminster was then
erected into a bishopric, but only one prelate, Thomas Thurleby,
held the office of bishop. In 1553 Mary again appointed an
abbot, but Elizabeth reinstated the dean, with twelve pre- fc
bendaries. Of the conventual buildings, the cloisters are of ?*
the I3th and H*h centuries. On the south .side of the M
southern walk remains of a wall of the refectory are seen from
without. From the eastern walk a porch gives entry to the chapter
house and the chapel of the Pyx. The first is of the time of Henry
III., a fine octagonal building, its vaulted roof supported by a
slender clustered column of marble. It was largely restored by Sir
Gilbert Scott. There are mural paintings of the I4th and isth
centuries. The chapel or chamber of the Pyx is part of the under-
croft of the original dormitory, and is early Norman work of the
Confessor's time. It was used as a treasury for the regalia and
other articles of value in early times, and here were kept the standard
coins of the realm used in the trial of the pyx now carried out at
the Mint. The undercroft is divided into compartments by walls,
and part of it appears in the gymnasium of Westminster School.
Above it is now the chapter library. To the south-east lies the
picturesque Little Cloister, with its court and fountain, surrounded
by residences of canons and officials. Near it are slight ruins of the
monastic infirmary chapel of St Catherine. West of the main
cloisters are the Deanery, Jerusalem chamber and College Hall,
the building surrounding a small court and dating in fabric mainly
from the I4th century. This was the Abbot's house. Its most
famous portion is the Jerusalem chamber, believed to be named
from the former tapestries on its walls, representing the holy city.
Here died Henry IV. in 1413, as set forth in Shakespeare's Henry IV.
(Pt. ii., Act iv. Sc. 4). It is a beautiful room, with open timber
roof, windows partly of stained glass, and walls tapestried and
panelled The College Hall, adjoining it, is of similar construction,
but plainly fitted in the common manner of a refectory, with a dais
for the high table at the north and a gallery at the south. It is
now the dining-hall of Westminster School.
Westminster School. St Peter's College, commonly called
Westminster School, is one of the most ancient and eminent
public schools in England, and the only school of such standing
still occupying its original site in London. A school was main-
tained by the monks from very early times. Henry VIII. took
steps to raise it in importance, but the school owes its present
eminence to Queen Elizabeth, who is commemorated as the
foundress at a Latin commemoration service held periodically
in the Abbey, where, moreover, the daily school service is held.
The school buildings lie east of the conventual buildings, sur-
rounding Little Dean's Yard, which, like the cloisters, communi-
cates with Dean's Yard, in which are the picturesque houses of
the headmaster, canons of the Abbey, and others. The build-
ings are modern or large modernized. The Great Schoolroom
WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
is a fine panelled hall, bearing on its walls the arms and
names of many eminent alumni; it is entered by a gateway
attributed to Inigo Jones, also covered with names. Ash-
burnham House, now containing one of the school houses, the
library and class-rooms, is named from the family for whom
it was built, traditionally but not certainly, by Inigo Jones.
The finest part remaining is the grand staircase. The number
of scholars, called King's Scholars, on the foundation is 60, of
which 40, who are boarders, represent the original number.
The great proportion of the boys are home boarders (Town
Boys). In the College dormitory a Latin play is annually
presented, in accordance with ancient custom. It is preceded
by a prologue, and followed by a humorous epilogue, in Latin
adapted to subjects of the moment. Other customs for which
the school is noted are the acclamation of the sovereign at
coronation in the Abbey, in accordance with a privilege jealously
held by the boys; and the " Pancake Greaze," a struggle in the
Great Schoolroom on Shrove Tuesday to obtain possession of a
pancake carrying with it a reward from the Dean. The number
of boys is about 250. Valuable close scholarships and exhibitions
at Christ Church, Oxford, and Trinity College, Cambridge, are
awarded annually.
St Margaret's. On the north side of the Abbey, close beside it,
is the parish church of St Margaret. It was founded in or soon
after the time of the Confessor, but the present building is
Perpendicular, of greater beauty within than without. St
Margaret's is officially the church of the House of Commons.
It is frequently the scene of fashionable weddings, which are
rarely held in the Abbey. On the south side of Dean's Yard is
the Church House, a memorial of Queen Victoria's Jubilee (1887),
consisting of a spacious hall of brick and stone, with offices for
numerous Church societies.
Westminster Palace : Houses of Parliament. A royal palace
existed at Westminster at least as early as the reign of Canute,
but the building spoken of by Fitzstephen as an " incomparable
structure furnished with a breastwork and a bastion " is supposed
to have been founded by Edward the Confessor and enlarged
by William the Conqueror. The Hall, called Westminster Hall,
was built by William Rufus and altered by Richard II. In 1512
the palace suffered greatly from fire, and thereafter ceased to
be used as a royal residence. St Stephen's chapel, originally
built by King Stephen, was used from 1547 for the meetings of
the House of Commons, which had been held previously in the
chapter house of the Abbey. The Lords used another apartment
of the palace, but on the i6th of October 1834 the whole of the
buildings, except the hall, was burnt down. In 1840 the building
of the New Palace, or Houses of Parb'ament, began, and it was
completed in 1867, at a cost of about three millions sterling.
(For plan, &c., see ARCHITECTURE: Modern.) It covers an area
of about 8 acres, and has a frontage of about 300 yds. to the
Thames. The architect was Sir Charles Barry, and the style
is late Perpendicular.
Towards the river it presents a rich facade with a terrace rising
directly from the water. At the south-west corner rises the vast
Victoria tower, above the royal entrance, 340 ft. high, and 75 ft.
square. At the north is the clock tower, 320 ft. high, bearing the
great clock which chimes the quarters on four bells, and strikes the
hours on a bell weighing over 13 tons, named Big Ben after Sir
Benjamin Hall, First Commissioner of Works at the time when the
clock was erected. The building incorporates Westminster Hall, which
measures 290 ft. in length, 68 in width, and 90 in height. It has a
magnificent open roof of carved oak, and is used as the vestibule of
the Houses of Parliament. Of the modern rooms, the House of Peers
is a splendidly ornate chamber, 97 ft. in length ; that of the Commons
.is 70 ft. long, and less lavishly adorned. The sitting of parliament
is signified by a flag on Victoria Tower in daytime and by a light
at the summit of the clock tower at night.
Whitehall. Northward from Parliament Square a broad,
slightly curving thoroughfare leads to Trafalgar Square. This
is Whitehall, which replaced the narrow King Street. Here,
between the Thames and St James's Park, formerly stood York
House, a residence of the archbishops of York from 1248. Wolsey
beautified the mansion and kept high state there, but on his
disgrace Henry VIII. acquired and reconstructed it, employed
Holbein in its decoration, and made it his principal residence.
Inigo Jones designed a magnificent new palace for James I.,
but only the banqueting hall was completed (1622), and this
survived several fires, by one of which (1697) nearly the whole
of the rest of the palace was destroyed. The hall, converted
into a royal chapel by George I., and now housing the museum
of the Royal United Service Institution, the buildings of which
adjoin it, is a fine specimen of Palladian architecture, and its
ceiling is adorned with allegorical paintings by Rubens, restored
and rehung in 1007. The museum contains military and naval
relics, models and other exhibits. Through this hall Charles I.
passed on his way to execution beneath its windows; and the
palace was the scene of the death of Henry VIII., Cromwell
and Charles II.
The principal government offices are situated in Whitehall. On
the left, following the northerly direction, are buildings completed
in 1908, from the designs of J. M. Brydon, for the Boards of Educa-
tion, Trade, Local Government, &c. The Home, Foreign, Colonial
and India Offices occupy the next block, a heavy building, adorned
with allegorical figures, by Sir G. G. Scott (1873). Downing Street,
separating these from the Treasury, contains the official residences
of the First Lord of the Treasury and the Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer. The Treasury itself dates from 1737, but the facade is
by Sir Charles Barry. The Horse Guards, containing the offices
of various military departments, is a low but not unpicturesque
building surrounding a court-yard, built in 1753 on the site of a
Sjard-house for the security of Whitehall palace, dating from 1631.
n the parade ground between it and St James's Park the ceremony
of trooping the colour is held at the celebration of the sovereign a
birthday. The portion of the Admiralty facing Whitehall dates
from 1726 and is plain and sombre; but there are handsome new
buildings on the Park side. On the right of Whitehall, besides the
banquet hall, are the fine War Office, completed in 1906, from the
designs of W. Young, and Montagu House, the residence of the
duke of Buccleuch. In front of the war Office an equestrian statue
of the duke of Cambridge (d. 1904) was unveiled in 1907.
Trafalgar Square is an open space sloping sharply to the north.
On the south side, facing the entry of Whitehall, is the Nelson
column (1843) by W. Railton, 145 ft. in height, a copy in granite
from the temple of Mars Ultor in Rome, crowned with a statue of
Nelson by E. H. Baily, and having at its base four colossal lions in
bronze modelled by Sir Edwin Landseer. The centre of the square
is levelled and paved with asphalte, and contains two fountains.
There are statues of George IV., Napier, Havelock and Gordon.
Behind the terrace on the north rises the National Gallery (1838),
a Grecian building by William Wilkins, subsequently much enlarged,
with its splendid collection of paintings. The National Portrait
Gallery is contained in a building (1895) on the north-east side of
the National Gallery.
Westminster Cathedral. A short distance from Victoria Street,
towards its western end, stands Westminster Cathedral (Roman
Catholic). Its foundation was laid in 1896, and its consecration
took place at the close of 1903. Its site is somewhat circum-
scribed, and this and its great bulk renders- impossible any
general appreciation of its complex outline; but its stately
domed campanile, 283 ft. in height, forms a landmark from
far over London. The style was described by the architect,
J. F. Bentley, as early Christian Byzantine, and the material
is mainly red brick. The extreme length is 360 ft., the breadth
156 ft., the breadth of the nave 60 ft., and its height (domes
within) 1 12 ft.
WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OP, two English statutes passed
during the reign of Edward I. Parliament having met at
Westminster on the 22nd of April 1275, its main work was the
consideration of the statute of Westminster I. This was drawn
up, not in Latin, but in Norman French, and was passed " par
le assentement des erceveskes, eveskes, abbes, priurs, contes,
barons, et la communaute de la tere ileokes somons." Its pro-
visions can be best summarized in the words of Stubbs (Const.
Hist. cap. xiv.) :
" This act is almost a code by itself; it contains fifty-one clauses,
and covers the whole ground of legislation. Its language now
recalls that of Canute or Alfred, now anticipates that of our own
day; on the one hand common right is to be done to all, as well
poor as rich, without respect of persons; on the other, elections are
to be free, and no man is by force, malice or menace, to disturb
them. The spirit of the Great Charter is not less discernible: ex-
cessive amercements, abuses of wardship, irregular demands for
feudal aids, are forbidden in the same words or by amending enact-
ments. The inquest system of Henry II., the law of wreck, and
552 WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF WESTMORLAND, EARLS OF
the institution of coroners, measures of Richard and his ministers,
come under review as well as the Provisions of Oxford and the
Statute of Marlborough."
The second statute of Westminster was passed in the parlia-
ment of 1285. Like the first statute it is a code in itself, and
contains the famous clause De donis conditionalibus (q.v.)
" one of the fundamental institutes of the medieval land law
of England." Stubbs says of it:. "The law of dower, of ad-
vowson, of appeal for felonies, is largely amended; the in-
stitution of justices of assize is remodelled, and the abuses of
manorial jurisdiction repressed; the statute De religiosis, the
statutes of Merton and Gloucester, are amended and re-enacted.
Every clause has a bearing on the growth of the later law."
The statute Quia Emptores of 1290 is sometimes called the statute
of Westminster III.
WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF. Under this heading are
included certain of the more important ecclesiastical councils
held within the present bounds of London. Though the precise
locality is occasionally uncertain, the majority of the medieval
synods assembled in the chapter-house of old St Paul's, or the
former chapel of St Catherine within the precincts of West-
minster Abbey or at Lambeth. The councils were of various
types, each with a constitutional history of its own. Before
the reign of Edward I., when convocation assumed substantially
its present form (see CONVOCATION), there were convened in
London various diocesan, provincial, national and legatine
synods; during the past six centuries, however, the chief
ecclesiastical assemblies held there have been convocations of
the province 'of Canterbury.
The first really notable council at St Paul's was that of 1075
under the presidency of Lanfranc; it renewed ancient regula-
tions, forbade simony and permitted three bishops to remove
from country places to Salisbury, Chichester and Chester re-
spectively. In 1 102 a national synod at Westminster under
Anselm adopted canons against simony, clerical marriages
and slavery. The councils of 1126, 1127 and 1138 were legatine,
that of 1175 provincial; their canons, chiefly re-enactments,
throw light on the condition of the clergy at that time. The
canons of 1200 are based in large measure on recommendations
of the Lateran Council of 1179. At St Paul's the legatine con-
stitutions of Otto were published in a synod of 1237, those of
Ottobon in 1268: these were the most important national
councils held after the independence of York had been estab-
lished. A synod at Lambeth in 1281 put forth canons none too
welcome to Edward I.; they included a detailed scheme for
the religious instruction of the faithful. During the next two
centuries the councils devoted much attention to heresy:
eight propositions concerning the body of Christ after his death
were rejected at St Mary-le-Bow in 1286; the expulsion of the
Jews from England was sanctioned by a legatine synod of
Westminster in 1291; ten theses of Wiclif's were condemned
at the Dominican friary in 1382, and eighteen articles drawn
from his Trialogus met the same fate at St Paul's in 1396; and
the doom of Sir John Oldcastle was sealed at the latter place in
1413. The 14th-century synods at St Paul's concerned them-
selves largely with the financial and moral status of the clergy,
and made many quaint regulations regarding their dress and
behaviour (1328, 1342, 1343; cf. 1463). From the time of
Edward VI. on, many of the most vital changes in ecclesiastical
discipline were adopted in convocations at St Paul's and in the
Abbey. To enumerate them would be to give a running com-
mentary on the development of the Church of England; among
the most important were those of 1547, 1552, 1554, 1562, 1571,
1604, 1605, 1640 and 1661. In 1852 there was held the first of
a series of synods of the newly organized Roman Catholic
archdiocese of Westminster. For the " Pan-Anglican Synods "
see LAMBETH CONFERENCES.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For acts of synods prior to the Reformation see
Spelman, Hardouin, W. Lynwood, Provinciate (Oxford, 1679), and
best of all Wilkins; for the canons and proceedings of convocations
from 1547 to 1717 consult E. Cardwell, Synodalia (2 vols., Oxford,
1842); for translations and summaries, GueVin, Landon and Hefele,
Conciliengeschichte, vol. iv. ff. ; see also T. Lathbury, A History of
the Convocation of the Church of England (2nd enlarged edition,
London, 1853); A. P. Stanley, Historical Memorials of Westminster
Abbey (4th and revised ed., London, 1876), 411-413 4QV5O4-
H. H. Milman, Annals of S. Paul's Cathedral (and ed., London, '1860)
Full titles under COUNCILS. (W. W. R.*)
WESTMORLAND, EARLS OF. Ralph Neville, 4 th Baron
Neville of Raby, and ist earl of Westmorland (1364-1425),
eldest son of John, 3rd Baron Neville, and his wife Maud Percy
(see NEVILLE, Family), was knighted by Thomas of Wood-
stock, afterwards duke of Gloucester, during the French expedi-
tion of 1380, and succeeded to his father's barony in 1388. He
had been joint warden of the west march in 1386, and was
reappointed for a new term ^'1390. In 1391 he was put on the
commission which undertook the duties of constable in place
of the duke of Gloucester, and he was repeatedly engaged in
negotiations with the Scots. His support of the court party
against the lords appellant was rewarded in 1397 by the earldom
of Westmorland. He married as his second wife Joan Beaufort,
half-sister of Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., whom
he joined on his landing in Yorkshire in 1399. He already held
the castles of Brancepeth, Raby, Middleham and Sheriff Hutton
when he received from Henry IV. the honour and lordship of
Richmond for life. The only rivals of the Nevilles in the north
were the Percies, whose power was broken at Shrewsbury in
1403. Both marches had been in their hands, but the warden-
ship of the west marches was now Assigned to Westmorland,
whose influence was also paramount in the east, which was
under the nominal wardenship of the young Prince John, after-
wards duke of Bedford. Westmorland had prevented North-
umberland from marching to reinforce Hotspur in 1403, and
before embarking on a new revolt he sought to secure his enemy,
surrounding, but too late, one of Sir Ralph Eure's castles where
the earl had been staying. In May the Percies were in revolt,
with Thomas Mowbray, earl marshal, and Archbishop Scrope.
Westmorland met them on Shipton Moor, near York, on the
29th of May 1405, and suggested a parley between the leaders.
By pretending accord with the archbishop, the earl induced him
to allow his followers to disperse. Scrope and Mowbray were
then seized and handed over to Henry at Pontefract on the
3rd of January. The improbabilities of this narrative have
led some writers to think, in face of contemporary authorities,
that Scrope and Mowbray must have surrendered voluntarily.
If Westmorland betrayed them he at least had no share in their
execution. Thenceforward he was busily engaged in negotiating
with the Scots and keeping the peace on the borders. He did
not play the part assigned to him by Shakespeare in Henry V .,
for during Henry's absence he remained in charge of the north,
and was a member of Bedford's council. He consolidated the
strength of his family by marriage alliances. His daughter
Catherine married in 1412 John Mowbray, second duke of
Norfolk, brother and heir of the earl marshal, who had been
executed after Shipton Moor; Anne married Humphrey, first
duke of Buckingham; Eleanor married, after the death of her
first husband Richard le Despenser, Henry Percy, and earl
of Northumberland; Cicely married Richard, duke of York,
and was the mother of Edward IV. and Richard III. The sons
by his second marriage were Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury,
William, Baron Fauconberg, George, Baron Latimer, Robert,
bishop of Salisbury and then of Durham, and Edward, Baron
Abergavenny. The earl died on the 2ist of October 1425, and
a fine alabaster tomb was erected to his memory in Staindrop
church close by Raby Castle.
See J. H. Wylie, History of England under Henry IV. (4 vols.,
1884-1898).
Ralph, and earl of Westmorland (c. 1404-1484), the son of
John, Lord Neville (d. 1423), succeeded his grandfather in 1425,
and married as his first wife Elizabeth Clifford, daughter of Sir
Henry Percy (Hotspur), thus forming further bonds with the
Percies. The 3rd earl, Ralph Neville (1456-1499), was his
nephew, and the son of John Neville, Lord Neville, who was
slain at Towton. His grandson Ralph, 4th earl of Westmorland
[1499-1550), was an energetic border warrior, who remained
T aithful to the royal cause when the other great northern lords
WESTMORLAND
553
joined the Pilgrimage of Grace. He was succeeded by his son
Henry, 5th earl (c. 1525-1563).
Charles, 6th earl (1543-1601), eldest son of the 5th earl by
his first wife Jane, daughter of Thomas Manners, ist earl of
Rutland, was brought up a Roman Catholic, and was further
attached to the Catholic party by his marriage with Jane,
daughter of Henry Howard, earl of Surrey. He was a member
of the council of the north in 1 569 when he joined Thomas Percy,
;th earl of Northumberland, and his uncle Christopher Neville,
in the Catholic rising of the north, which had as its object the
liberation of Mary, queen of Scots. On the collapse of the ill-
organized insurrection Westmorland fled with his brother earl
over the borders, and eventually to the Spanish Netherlands,
where he lived in receipt of a pension from Philip II. of Spain,
until his death on the i6th of November 1601. He left no sons,
and his honours were forfeited by his formal attainder in 1571.
Raby Castle remained in the hands of the crown until 1645.
The title was revived in 1624 in favour of Sir Francis Fane
(c. 1574-1629), whose mother, Mary Neville, was a descendant
of a younger son of the first earl. He was created baron of
Burghersh and earl of Westmorland in 1624, and became Lord
le Despenser on his mother's death in 1626. His son Mildmay
Fane, 2nd or 8th earl of Westmorland (c. 1602-1666), at first
sided with the king's party, but was afterwards reconciled with
the parliament. John Fane, 7th or I3th earl of Westmorland
(i682?-i762), served under Marlborough, and was made in
1 739 lieutenant-general of the British armies.
John Fane, nth or I7th earl (1784-1859), only son of John,
loth earl, was known as Lord Burghersh until he succeeded to
the earldom in 1841. He entered the army in 1803, and in 1805
took part in the Hanoverian campaign as aide-de-camp to
General Sir George Don. He was assistant adjutant-general
in Sicily and Egypt (1806-1807), served in the Peninsular War
from 1808 to 1813, was British military commissioner to the
allied armies under Schwarzenberg, and marched with the
allies to Paris in 1814. He was subsequently promoted major-
general (1825), lieutenant-general (1838) and general (1854),
although the latter half of his life was given to the diplomatic
service. He was British resident at Florence from 1814 to
1830, and British ambassador at Berlin from 1841 to 1851,
when he was transferred to Vienna. In Berlin he had mediated
in the Schleswig-Holstein question, and in Vienna he was one of
the British plenipotentiaries at the congress of 1855. He retired
in 1855, and died at Apthorpe House, Northamptonshire, on
the 1 6th of October 1859. Himself a musician of considerable
reputation and the composer of several operas, he took a keen
interest in the cause of music in England, and in 1822 made
proposals which led to the foundation in the next year of the
Royal Academy of Music. His wife Priscilla Anne (1793-1879),
daughter of William Wellesley-Pole, 3rd earl of Mornington,
was a distinguished artist.
His published works include Memoirs of the Early Campaigns of
the Duke of Wellington in Portugal and Spain (1820), and Memoir of
the Operations of the Allied Armies under Prince Schwarzenberg and
Marshal Blucher (1822).
Francis William Henry, I2th or i8th earl (1825-1891), fourth
son of the preceding, was also a distinguished soldier. He
entered the army in 18.13 and served through the Punjab cam-
paign of 1846; was made aide-de-camp to the governor-general
in 1848, and distinguished himself at Gujrat on the 2ist of
February 1849. He went to the Crimea as aide-de-camp to Lord
Raglan, and was promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1855. On his
return to England he became aide-de-camp to the duke of
Cambridge, and received the Crimean medal. The death of
his elder brother in 1851 gave him the style of Lord Burghersh,
and after his accession to the earldom in 1859 he retired from
the service with the rank of colonel. He died in August 1891
and was succeeded by his son, Anthony Mildmay Julian Fane
(b. 1859), as I3th earl.
WESTMORLAND, a north-western county of England,
bounded N.W. by Cumberland, N.E. for a short distance by
Durham, E. by Yorkshire, S. and S.W. by Lancashire. It
reaches the sea in the Kent estuary in Morecambe Bay. The
area is 786-2 sq. m. Physically the county may be roughly
divided into four areas, (i) The great upland tract in the north-
eastern part, bordering on the western margin of Yorkshire
and part of Durham, consists mainly of a wild moorland area,
rising to elevations of 2780 ft. in Milburn Forest, 2403 in Dufton
Fell, 2446 in Hilton Fell, 2024 in Bastifell, 2328 in High Seat,
2323 in Wild Boar Fell and 2235 in Swarth Fell. (2) The second
area comprises about a third of the Lake District (q.v.), westward
from Shap Fells. This area includes High Street (2663 ft.),
Helvellyn (3118) and Fairfield (2863), Langdale Pikes (2401)
and on the boundary Bow Fell (2960), Crinkle Crags (2816) and
Pike o' Blisco (2304). It must also be taken to cover the elevated
area on the Yorkshire border which includes the Ravenstonedale
and Langdale Fells to the N. and the Middleton and Barbon
Fells to the S., of an intrusive angle of Yorkshire. This area,
however, which reaches in some points over 2200 ft. of altitude,
is marked off from the Lake District mountains by the Lune
valley. All but the lower parts of the valleys within these two
areas lie at or above 1000 ft. above Ordnance datum; and more
than half the remainder lies between that elevation and 1750 ft.,
the main mass of high land lying in the area first mentioned.
(3) The third area includes the comparatively low country
between the northern slopes of that just described and the edge
of the uplands to the north-east thereof. This covers the Vale
of Eden. About three-fifths of this area lies between the 500
and the 1000 ft. contour. (4) The Kendal area consists mainly
of undulating lowlands, varied by hills ranging in only a few
cases up to 1000 ft. More than half this area lies below the
500 ft. contour. Westmorland may thus be said to be divided
in the middle by uplands ranging in a general south-easterly
direction, and to be bordered all along its eastern side by the
elevated moorlands of the Pennine chain. The principal rivers
are in the northern area the higher part of the Tees, the Eden
with its main tributaries, the Lowther and the Eamont, and in
the southern area the Lune and the Kent, with their numerous
tributary becks and gills. The lakes include Windermere,
part of Ullswater, Grasmere, Hawes Water and numerous
smaller lakes and tarns, which are chiefly confined to the north-
western parts of the county. Amongst the other physical
features of more or less interest are numerous crags and scars,
chiefly in the neighbourhood of the lakes; others are Mailerstang
Edge, Helbeck, above Brough; Haikable or High Cup Gill,
near Appleby; Orton Scars; and the limestone crags west of
Kirkby Lonsdale. Among the waterfalls are Caldron Snout,
on the northern confines of the county, flowing over the Whin
Sill, and Stock Gill Force, Rydal Falls, Skelwith Force, and
Dungeon Gill Force, all situated amongst the volcanic rocks in
the west. Hell Gill, near the head of the Eden, and Stenkrith,
near Kirkby Stephen, are conspicuous examples of natural
arches eroded by the streams flowing through them.
Geology. The diversity of scenery and physical features in this
county are directly traceable to the influence of geological structure.
In_ the mountainous north-western portion, which includes the
heights of Helvellyn, Langdale Pikes, and Bow Fell, and the lakes
Ullswater, Hawes Water, Grasmere and Elterwater, we find the
great mass of igneous rocks known as the Borrowdale volcanic
series andesites, basalts and tuffs of Ordovician age. On the
northern and north-western sides these volcanic rocks pass into the
neighbouring county of Cumberland ; their southern boundary runs
north-easterly from the upper end of Windermere by Kentmere and
past the granitic mass of Shap Fell; thence the boundary turns
north-westward through Rasgilltotheeastendof Ullswater. Narrow
strips of Ordovician Skiddaw slate occur on the south banks of
Ullswater and fringe the Borrowdale rocks for some distance east of
Windermere. A large area of Silurian rocks occupies most of the
south-western part of the county from Windermere to near Raven-
stonedale and southward to Sedbergh, Kendal and Kirkby Lonsdale.
The Ordovician and Silurian rocks are bordered on the east and
south by Carboniferous limestone from the river Eamont southward
through Clifton, Shap, Crosby Garrett and Ravenstonedale; and
again south of Kendal, down the Kent valley and eastward to
Kirkby Lonsdale. Outlying patches of limestone rest on the Silurian
at Grayrigg, Mealbank and elsewhere. The Carboniferous lime-,
stone is found again on the east side of the Eden valley in Milburn
Forest, Dufton Fell, Stainmore and Winster Fell. Here and there
in the south-east corner Millstone Grit and Shales cap the limestone
554
WESTMORLAND
and some little distance east of Brough under Stainmore a small
patch of Coal Measures remains. At the base of the Carboniferous
rocks in this county is a red conglomeratic deposit, the lower part
of which may be regarded as of Old Red Sandstone age ; it may be
traced from Ullswater through Butterwick, Rasgill and Tebay,
and it appears again at Sedbergh, Barton and around Kendal. In
the limestones on the east side of the Eden the Great Whin Sill, a
diabase dike, may be followed for a considerable distance. In the
Eden valley two sets of red sandstones occur, that on the western
side is of Permian age and includes the conglomerate beds known as
" brockram." The Permian extends as a belt from 4 to 2 m. wide
between Penrith, Appleby and Kirkby Stephen. The sandstone on
the eastern side of the valley is of Bunter age. The eastern side
of the valley is strongly faulted so that small patches of Ordovician
and Silurian rocks appear all along the margin of the Carboniferous
limestone. Evidences of glaciation are abundant in the form of
morainic accumulations and transported or striated blocks.
Climate and Agriculture. The rainfall is very heavy, especially
in the western part (see LAKE DISTRICT), whence it diminishes
eastward. Thus at Kendal, on the eastern flank of the Lake District,
the mean annual rainfall is still as high as 48-71 in., whereas at
Appleby in the Eden valley it is only 32-45 in. The greater part of
the county may, however, be considered to lie within an area having
40 to 60 in. mean annual fall. The average temperature in January
at Appleby is 35-8 F., but at Windermere it is 37-4. The summer
temperature is mild; thus at the same two points 58-4 and 58-7
are recorded. The principal characteristic of the climate is the pre-
ponderance of cloudy, wet and cold days, especially in the spring
and autumn, combining to retard the growth of vegetation. The
late stay of cold winds in the spring has much to do with the same,
especially in the lowlands extending along the foot of the Cross Fell
escarpment from Brough north-westwards. The helm-wind (q.v.)
is characteristic of this district. Scarcely one-half of the total area
of the county is under cultivation, and of this acreage about five-
sixths is in permanent pasture, both cattle and sheep being largely
kept. Large portions of the valleys are well wooded. Nearly the
whole of the acreage under corn crops is occupied by oats; a little
barley is grown, but the wheat crop is insignificant. About three-
fourths of the acreage under green crops is occupied by turnips. The
meadow-land yields excellent grass. Grass of inferior value char-
acterizes the pasture-lauds; while on the fell (or unenclosed) land,
except in limestone areas, the herbage consists chiefly of the coarser
kinds of grass, bents and heather. These, however, furnish nourish-
ment for the hardier breeds of sheep, which are pastured there in
large numbers. It is from the sale of these, of their stock cattle,
horses and pigs, and of their dairy produce that the staple of the
farmers' income is derived. A large part of Westmorland was formerly
in the hands of "statesmen" (see CUMBERLAND) whose holdings were
usually of small extent, but were sufficient, with careful management,
for the respectable maintenance of themselves and their families.
The proportion of landowners of this class has greatly decreased.
Manufactures. The manufacturing industries, owing to the
absence of any large supplies of native fuel, are not numerous.
The principal is woollen manufacture in one form or another, and
this is chiefly confined to the low country in and near Kendal.
Bobbin-making, the manufacture of explosives, fulling, snuff-
grinding and several small industries are carried on, and use the
water-power available at so many points. Paper-making is also
carried on. The quarries occupy a considerable number of hands at
various points, as in the case of the green slate quarries which are
detrimental to the scenery in the lower part of Langdale.
Communications. The main line of the London and North-
Western railway from the south serves Oxenholme (branch to
Kendal and Windermere), Low Gill (branch to Ingleton in York-
shire), and Tebay, leaving the county after surmounting the heavy
gradient at Shap. The Midland main line, with a parallel course,
serves Appleby. A branch of the North Eastern system from
Darlington serves Kirkby Stephen and Tebay, and another branch
connects Kirkby Stephen with Appleby and Penrith.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 503,160 acres, with a population in 1891 of 66,098
and in 1901 of 64,303. The natives are prevalently tall, wiry,
long-armed, big-handed, dark-grey-eyed and fresh-coloured.
In disposition they are cautious, reserved and unemotional
and thrifty beyond measure. The general character of the
dialects of Westmorland is that of a basis of Anglian speech,
influenced to a certain extent by the speech current amongst
the non-Anglian peoples of Strathclyde. This is overlaid to a
much greater though variable extent by the more decidedly
Scandinavian forms of speech introduced at various periods
between the zoth and the izth centuries. Three well-marked
dialects can be made out.
The area of the administrative county is 505,330 acres.
The county contains four wards (corresponding to hundreds).
The municipal boroughs are Appleby, the county town (pop.
1764) and Kendal (14,183). The urban districts are Ambleside
(2536), Bowness and Windermere (5061), Grasmere (781),
Kirkby Lonsdale (1638) and Shap (1226). The county is in the
northern circuit, and assizes are held at Appleby. It has one
court of quarter sessions, and is divided into five petty sessional
divisions. The borough of Kendal has a separate commission
of the peace. There are 115 civil parishes. Westmorland is in
the diocese of Carlisle, and contains 86 ecclesiastical parishes
or districts, wholly or in part. There are two parliamentary
divisions, Northern or Appleby and Southern or Kendal, each
returning one member.
History. The earliest English settlements in the district
which is now Westmorland were effected by the Anglian tribes
who entered Yorkshire by the Humber in the 6th century and
laid the foundations of the kingdom of Deira, which included
within its bounds that portion of Westmorland afterwards
known as the barony of Kendal. The northern district, corre-
sponding to the later barony of Appleby, meanwhile remained
unconquered, and it was not until the close of the 7th century
that Ecgfrith drove out the native Britons and established the
Northumbrian supremacy over the whole district. With the
Danish invasions of the 9th century the Kendal district was
included in the Danelaw, while the barony of Appleby formed
a portion of the land of Carlisle. The first mention of Westmor-
land in the Saxon Chronicle occurs under 966, when it was
harried by Thored son of Gunnar, the term here applying only
to the barony of Appleby, which at this period was being exten-
sively colonized by Norwegian settlers, traces of whose occupation
are especially noticeable in the place-names of the Lake District.
The Domesday Survey describes only the barony of Kendal
which appears as part of Amounderness in Yorkshire. Before
the Conquest it had formed part of the earldom of Tostig of
Northumbria, and had been bestowed by William I. on Roger
of Poitou, but, owing to the forfeiture of his estates by the
latter, at the time of the survey it was in the hands of the crown.
The annexation of the northern portion of Westmorland to the
crown of England was accomplished by William Rufus, who in
1092 drove out Dolfin from the land of Carlisle, and fortified
Brough-under-Stainmore, Brougham, Appleby and Pendragon.
In the reign of Henry I. the barony of Appleby was included in
the grant to Ranulph Meschin of the earldom of Carlisle, but on
the accession of Ranulph to the earldom of Chester in 1120 it
was surrendered to the crown, and its inclusion in the pipe
roll of 1131 shows that Westmorland was now definitely estab-
lished on the administrative basis of an English county.
The barony of Kendal was held in the I2th century by the
Mowbrays, and from them passed to the family of Lancaster,
who held it as of the honour of Westmorland. In the i3th
century it was separated into two moieties; the Lindsay moiety
which passed from the Lindsays to the Copelands and Coucys
and in the reign of Henry VI. to the Beauforts and Richmonds,
whence" was derived its later name of Richmond Fee; the Brus
moiety, which became subdivided into the Marquis Fee held by
the Parr family, ancestors of Katherine Parr, and the Lumley
Fee which passed from the Thwengs to the Lumleys and Hothams.
The barony of Appleby, with the hereditary shrievalty, was
bestowed by King John on the family of Veteripont, from whom
it passed by female descent to the Cliffords in the i3th century,
and in the i6th century to the Tuftons, afterwards earls of
Thanet, who retained the dignity until their descendant, Mr
Barham of Trecwn, yielded his rights to the crown.
The division of Westmorland into wards originated with the
system of defence against the inroads of the Scots, each barony
being divided into two wards, and each ward placed unaer a
high constable, who presided over the wards to be maintained
at certain fords and other appointed places. The barony of
Kendal was divided into Kendal and Lonsdale wards, and the
barony of Appleby, called the Bottom, into east and west wards,
there being anciently a middle ward between these last two.
The shire court and assizes for the county were held at Appleby.
The barony of Appleby was included in the diocese of York
from the 7th century, and in 1291 formed the deaneries of
WESTON WEST ORANGE
555
Lonsdale and Kendal within the archdeaconry of Richmond.
The barony of Appleby, which had been bestowed by Henry I.
in the see of Carlisle, formed in 1291 the deanery of Westmorland
within the archdeaconry and diocese of Carlisle. The barony of
Kendal was placed by Henry VIII. in his new diocese of Chester,
of which it remained a part until in 1856 it was constituted
the archdeaconry of Westmorland within the diocese of Carlisle.
In 1859 the Westmorland portion of the archdeaconry of Carlisle
was subdivided into the deaneries of Appleby, Kirkby Stephen
and Lowther; and the additional deanery of Ambleside was
formed within the archdeaconry of Westmorland. The only
religious foundation of any importance in Westmorland was the
Premonstratensian house at Shap founded by Thomas, son of
Gospatric, in the izth century.
The early political history of Westmorland after the Conquest
is a record of continuous inroads and devastations from the
Scots. In the Scottish invasion of the northern counties which
followed the battle of Bannockburn Brough and Appleby were
burnt, and the county was twice harried by Robert Bruce in the
ensuing years. In 1385 a battle was fought at Hoff near Appleby
against the Scots under Earl Douglas, and in 1388, after Otter-
burn, the Scots sacked Appleby with such effect that nine-
tenths of it lay in ruins and was never rebuilt. In the Wars of
the Roses, Westmorland, under the Clifford influence, inclined to
favour the Lancastrian cause, but was not actively concerned in
the struggle. In the Civil War of the zyth century the chief
families of the county were royalist, and in 1641 Anne, countess of
Pembroke, hereditary high sheriff of the county, garrisoned
Appleby Castle for the king, placing it in charge of Sir Philip
Musgrave, the colonel of the train-bands of Westmorland and
Cumberland. In 1642 a memorial was presented to Charles
signed by nearly 5000 of the inhabitants of Westmorland and
Cumberland protesting their loyalty and readiness to sacrifice
their lives and fortunes in his service. Appleby Castle surrendered
in '1648, but the strength of the royalist feeling was shown in the
joy which greeted the news of the Restoration, the mayor of
Appleby publicly destroying the charter which the town had
received from Cromwell. The Jacobite rising of 1745 found many
adherents in Westmorland, and a skirmish took place on Clifton
Moor between the forces of Lord George Murray and the duke of
Cumberland.
The economic development of Westmorland, both on account
of natural disadvantages and of the ravages of border strife,
has been slow and unimportant; the rugged and barren nature
of the ground being unfavourable to agricultural prosperity,
while the lack of fuel hindered the growth of manufactures.
Sheep-farming was carried on in the moorland districts, however,
and the Premonstratensian house at Shap supplied wool to the
Florentine and Flemish markets in the i3th and i4th centuries.
The clothing industry, which spread from Kendal to the sur-
rounding districts, is said to have been introduced by one John
Kempe of Flanders, who settled there in the reign of Edward III.,
and a statute of. 1463 alludes to cloths of a distinct make being
manufactured at Kendal. In 1589 the county suffered severely
from the ravages of the plague, 2500 deaths being recorded in
the deanery of Kendal alone. Speed, writing in the 1 7th century,
says of Westmorland that " it is not commended either for
plenty of corn or cattle, being neither stored with arable grounds
to bring forth the one, nor pasturage to lead up the other; the
principal profit that the people of this province raise unto
themselves is by clothing." The comb manufacture was estab-
lished at Kendal in 1700, and about the same time the develop-
ment of the boot and shoe trade to some extent supplemented
the loss consequent on the decline of the clothing industry.
There were two paper-mills at Milnthorpe in 1777, one of which
existed eighty years before.
Westmorland returned two knights for the county to the parlia-
ment of 1290, and in 1295 two burgesses for the borough of
Appleby. Under the Reform Act of 1832 Appleby was dis-
franchised and Kendal returned one member.
Antiquities. Notable ecclesiastical buildings are almost
entirely wanting in Westmorland, though mention may be
made of the ruins of Shap Abbey, which lies near the small
market town of that name in the bleak upper valley of the
Lowther. The Perpendicular western tower and other fragments
remain. Late Norman work is preserved in some of the churches,
as at Kirkby Lonsdale, and in a few castles. Among the castles,
those at Appleby, Brough, Brougham and Kendal are notable,
but examples are numerous. Among old houses, Levens Hall
dates from the i6th century, and Sizergh Hall embodies part
of an ancient castle; both are in the Kendal district. The formal
gardens at Levens Hall are remarkable. Lowther Castle, near
Penrith, the seat of the earl of Lonsdale, is a fine modern mansion,
in a Gothic style more satisfactory in broad effect than in detail.
See Joseph Nicholson and Richard Burn, The History and Anti-
quities of the Counties of Westmorland and Cumberland (2 vols.,
London, 1777); William Whellan, The History and Topography of
the Counties of Cumberland and Westmorland (Pontcfract, 1860);
Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and
Archaeological Society (Kendal, 1870, &c.); R. S. Ferguson, History
of Westmorland (Popular County Histories, 1894); Sir D. Fleming,
Description of Westmorland (1671); T. Gibson, Legends and Notes
on Places of North Westmorland (London, 1887); M. W. Taylor,
Manorial Halls of Westmorland (Kendal, 1892); T. Ellwood, Land-
nama Book of Iceland as it illustrates the Dialect and Antiquities of
Westmorland (Kendal, 1894); Victoria County History, Westmorland.
WESTON, THOMAS (1737-1776), English actor, was the son
of a cook. His first London appearance was about 1759, and
from 1763 until his death he was admitted to be the most amusing
comedian on the English stage. Foote wrote for him the part
of Jerry Sneak in the Mayor of Garratt. Abel Drugger in the
Alchemist was one of his famous performances; and Garrick,
who also played this part . praised him highly for it.
WESTON-SUPER-MARE, a seaside resort in the Wells parlia-
mentary division of Somersetshire, England, on the Bristol
Channel, 137! m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western rail-
way. Pop. of urban district (1901), 19,048. It is built partly on
level ground near the shore, and partly on the slopes of Worlebury
Hill, which aids in giving shelter from the north and east.
Among the fir-clad slopes of the neighbourhood, which command
a fine view of the Welsh hills across the Channel, there are many
beautiful walks and drives. An esplanade extends for about
3 m., and public gardens have been laid out on Worlebury Hill,
from the far end of which a long pier projects, linking the rocky
islet of Birnbeck to the town. Grove Park, once the manor-
house, is owned by the council, and is used as a free library,
its grounds being open. Other institutions include a museum
opened in honour of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee,
and the West of England Sanatorium, to which two large
conservatories are attached, as a winter-garden for invalids.
The town has long been famous for its potteries, and there are
mineral water-works and fisheries. Large quantities of sprats
are caught. Intermittent springs exist in Weston, which are
affected by the ebb and flow of the tide.
WEST ORANGE, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
in the N.E. part of the state, about 13 m. W. of New York City.
Pop. (1890) 4358, (1900) 6889 (1773 foreign-born); (1905, state
census) 7872; (1910) 10,980. It is served by the Orange branch
of the Erie railroad, and is connected with neighbouring towns
and cities by electric lines. The town has an area of about
7 sq. m. It is crossed in a N.E. and S.W. direction by two ridges
the First (also called the Orange or Watchung) Mountain and
the Second Mountain. Eagle Rock (about 650 ft.), on the summit
of First Mountain, commands a splendid view. On the eastern
slope of First Mountain are Hutton Park, containing the grounds
of the Essex County Country Club, and Llewellyn Park, a beauti-
ful residential tract of 7 50 acres, named in honour of its originator,
Llewellyn S. Haskell (1815-1872). West Orange has various
manufactures, including phonographs, lawn mowers and felt
hats. In 1862 parts of the townships of Orange, Caldwell and
Livingston were united into a new township named Fairmount.
In 1863 another part of Orange was added and the name of the
new township was changed to West Orange. In 1000 West
Orange was chartered as a town.
See H. Whittemore, The Founders and Builders of the Oranges
(Newark, 1896).
556
WESTPHAL WESTPHALIA
WESTPHAL, RUDOLF (1826-1892), German classical scholar,
was born at Obernkirchen in Schaumburg on the 3rd of July
1826. He studied at Marburg and Tubingen, and was professor
at Breslau (1858-1862) and Moscow (1875-1879). He subse-
quently lived at Buckeburg, and died at Stadthagen in Schaum-
burg-Lippe on the zoth of July 1892. Westphal was a man of
varied attainments, but his chief claim to remembrance rests
upon his contributions on Greek music and metre. His chief
works are: Griechische Metrik (3rd ed., 1885-1889); System der
antiken Rhythmik (1865); Hephaestion's De metris enchiridion
(1866); Aristoxenus of Tarentum (translation and commentary,
1883-1893, vol. ii. being edited after his death by F. Saran);
Die Musik des griechischen Altertums (1883); Allgemeine
Metrik der indogermanischen und semitischen Volker (1892).
He made translations of Catullus (1870) and of Aristophanes'
Acharnians (1889), in which he successfully reproduced the
Dorisms in Plattdeutsch.
WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen), a province of the kingdom
of Prussia. The ancient duchy and the Napoleonic kingdom
of the same name, neither of which was conterminous with the
modern province, are dealt with in the historical part of this
article. The area of the province is 7801 sq. m., its length both
from N. to S. and from E. to W. is about 130 m., and it is bounded
N. by Hanover, E. by Schaumburg-Lippe, Hanover, Lippe-
Detmold, Brunswick, Hesse-Nassau and Waldeck, S. and S.W.
by Hesse-Nassau and the Rhine Province, and N.W. by the
kingdom of the Netherlands.
Nearly half of Westphalia is an extension of the great North-
German plain, which here stretches S.E. into an acute angle enclosed
on the N.E. by the long low range of the Teutoburger Wald and its
southern prolongation the Eggegebirge, and on the S. by the line of
hills called the Haar or Haarstrang, which divides the basins of the
Lippe and Ruhr. The Westphalian plain is broken by extensive
outcrops of the underlying cretaceous beds, and is not very fertile,
except in the Hellweg, a zone between the Haarstrang and the
Lippe. There are extensive fens in the N. and W., and N. of Fader-
born is a sandy waste called the Senne. The plain is drained in the
N. by the Ems and in the S. by the Lippe, which rise close together
in the Teutoburger Wald. Between their basins are the Vechte and
other small rivers flowing into the Zuider Zee. The triangular
southern portion of Westphalia, most of which is included in Sauer-
land (" south land "), is a rugged region of slate hills and wooded
valleys drained chiefly by the Ruhr with its affluents the Lenne,
Mohne, &c., and in the S. by the Sieg and Eder. The hills rise in
the S.E. to the Rotlager or Rothaargebirge, culminating in the
Winterberg plateau with the Kahler Asten (2713 ft.), the highest
summit in the province. The Rotlagergebirge, Eggegebirge and
Teutoburger Wald form with some intermediate ranges the water-
shed between the basin of the Weser and those of the Rhine and
Ems. In the N.E. corner of the province the Weser divides the
Wiehengebirge from the Wesergebirge by the narrow pass called
Porto. Westfalica.
The climate is temperate except in the south, which is cold in
winter and has a heavy rainfall. Of the total area 43 % is occupied
by arable land and gardens, 18% by meadows and pastures and
28 % by forests. The best agricultural land is in the Hellweg and
the Weser basin. The number of peasant proprietors is propor-
tionately greater than in any other part of Prussia, and as a class
they are well-to-do. The crops include grain of all kinds (not
sufficient, however, for the needs of the province), peas and beans,
buckwheat, potatoes, fruit and hemp. The cultivation of flax is
very extensive, especially in the N.E. Swine, which are reared in
great numbers in the plains, yield the famous Westphalian hams;
and the rearing of cattle and goats is important. The breeding of
horses is fostered by the government.
The mineral wealth is very great, especially in coal and iron.
The production of coal is greater than that of any other province
of Prussia, and amounted in 1906 to 53,000,000 tons. The great
Ruhr coal-field extends from the Rhineland into the province as
far as Unna, the centre being Dortmund, and there is a smaller
coal-field in the N. at Ibbenbiiren. The production of iron ore,
chiefly S. of the Ruhr (1,360,000 tons in 1905) is exceeded in Prussia
only by that of the Rhine province. After coal and iron the most
valuable minerals are zinc, lead, pyrites and copper. Antimony,
quicksilver, stone, marble, slate and potter's clay are also worked,
and there are brine springs in the Hellweg and mineral springs at
Lippspringe, Oynhausen, &c.
The manufacturing industry of the province, which chiefly
depends upon its mineral wealth, is very extensive. Iron and steel
goods are produced in the so-called " Enneper Strasse," the valley
of the Ennepe, a small tributary of the Ruhr with the town of Hagen,
and in the neighbouring towns of Bochum, Dortmund, Iserlohn and
Altena, and also in the Siegen district. The brass and bronze
industries are carried on at Iserlohn and Altena, those of tin and
Britannia metal at Liidenscheid; needles are made at Iserlohn and
wire at Altena. The very important linen industry of Bielefeld,
Herford, Minden and Warendorf has flourished in this region since
the I4th century. Jute is manufactured at Bielefeld and cotton
goods in the W. Paper is extensively made on the lower Lenne,
and leather around Siegen. Other manufactures are glass, chemicals,'
sugar, sausages and cigars. An active trade is promoted by several
trunk lines of railway which cross the province (total mileage in
1906, 1889 m., exclusive of light railways) and by the navigation of
the Weser (on which Minden has a port), Ems, Ruhr and Lippe.
Beverungen is the chief market for corn and Paderborn for wool.
The population in 1905 was 3,618,090, or 464 per sq. m. It
is very unevenly distributed, and in the industrial districts
is increasing very rapidly. In recent years there has been a great
influx of Poles into these parts, attracted by the higher wages.
In 1900 they already numbered more than 100,000. Between
1895 and 1900 the mean annual increase of the population was
3-3%, the highest recorded in the German empire, but between
1900 and 1905 it fell to 2-5%. The percentage of illegitimate
births (2-6) is the lowest in Germany. 51-0% of the inhabitants
are Roman Catholics, 47-9% Protestants. The distribution
of the two communions still closely follows the lines of the settle-
ment at the peace of Westphalia. Thus the former duchy of
Westphalia and the bishoprics of Munster and Paderborn which
remained in ecclesiastical hands are almost entirely Roman
Catholic, while the secularized bishopric of Minden and the former
counties of Ravensberg and Mark, which fell or had fallen to
Brandenburg, and the Siegen district, which belonged to Nassau,
are predominantly Protestant.
The province is divided into the three governmental departments
(Regierungsbezirke) of Minden, Munster and Arnsberg. Munster is
the seat of government and of the provincial university. West-
phalia returns thirty-one members to the Prussian Lower House
and seventeen to the Reichstag.
^ The inhabitants are mainly of the Saxon stock and speak Low
German dialects, except in the Upper Prankish district around
Siegen, where the Hessian dialect is spoken.
Westphalia, " the western plain" (in early records Westfalahi),
was originally the name of the western province of the early
duchy of Saxony, including the western portion of the modern
province and extending north to the borders of Friesland.
When Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony fell under the ban of the
empire in i ;8o, and his duchy was divided, the bishops of Munster
and Paderborn became princes of the empire, and the archbishop
of Cologne, Philip of Heinsberg, received from the emperor
Frederick I. the Sauerland and some other districts which became
the duchy of Westphalia. Within the duchy were some in-
dependent secular territories, notably the county of Mark, while
other districts were held as fiefs from the archbishops, afterwards
electors. From 1368 the electors themselves held the county of
Arnsberg as an imperial fief. The duchy received a constitution
of its own, and was governed for the elector by a marshal (Land-
marschall, after 1480 Landdrosf) who was also stadtholder,
and presided over the Westphalian chancellery. .This system
lasted till 1803. By Maximilian's administrative organization of
the empire in 1500 the duchy of Westphalia was included as an
appanage of Cologne in the scattered circle of the Lower Rhine.
The Westphalian circle which was formed at the same time com-
prised nearly all the rest of the modern province (including Mark)
and the lands north of it between the Weser and the frontier of the
Netherlands, also Verden, Schaumburg, Nassau, Wied, Lippe,
Berg, Cleves, Jiilich, Liege, Bouillon and Cambrai.
Brandenburg laid the foundations of her dominion in West-
phalia by obtaining the counties of Mark and Ravensberg in
1614 (confirmed 1666), to which the bishopric of Minden was
added by the peace of Westphalia in 1648 and Tecklenburg in
1707. By the settlement of 1803 the church lands were secular-
ized, and Prussia received the bishopric of Paderborn and the
eastern part of Munster, while the electoral duchy of Westphalia
was given to Hesse-Darmstadt.
After the peace of Tilsit the kingdom of Westphalia was
created by Napoleon I. on the i8th of August 1807, and given
to his brother Jerome (see BONAPARTE). It included the present
governmental department of Minden, but by far the larger part
of the kingdom lay outside and chiefly to the east of the modern
WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF
557
province, and comprised the Hanoverian department of Hildes-
heim and in part that of Arensberg, Brunswick, the northern part
of the province of Saxony as far as the Elbe, Halle, and most of
lli^se-Cassel. The area was 14,627 sq. m., and the population
nearly two millions. Cassel was the capital. A constitution
on the French imperial pattern granted by the king remained
practically inoperative, an arbitrary bureaucratic regime was
instituted, the finances were from the beginning in a hopeless
condition, and the country was drained of mer; and money for
Napoleon's wars. In January 1810 most of Hanover was added,
but at the end of the same year half the latter, together with the
city of Minden, was annexed to the French empire. There had
already been serious revolts and raids, and after the battle of
Leipzig the Russians drove the king from Cassel (October 1813),
the kingdom of Westphalia was dissolved and the old order was
for a time re-established. At the congress of Vienna (1815)
Hesse-Darmstadt surrendered her share of Westphalia to Prussia,
and the present province was constituted.
See Weddigen, Westfalen, Land und Leute (Paderborn, 1896) ;
G. Schulze, Heimatskunde der Provinz Westfalen (Minden, 1900) ;
Lemberg, Die Hiitten- und Metallindustrie Rheinlands und West-
falens (4th ed., Dortmund, 1905); J. S. Seibertz, Landes- und
Rechtsgeschichte des Herzogtums Westfalen (4 vols., Arnsberg, 1839-
1875); R. Wilmans, Die Kaiscrurkunden der Provinz Westfalen
(2 vols., Miinster, 1867-1881); M. Jansen, Die Herzogsgewalt der
Erzbischofe van Koln in Westfalen (Munich, 1895); Holzapfel, Das
Konigreich Westfalen (Magdeourg, 1895); G. Servieres, L' Allemagne
franfaise sous Napoleon I" (Paris, 1904) ; Haselhoff, Die Entwickelung
der Landeskultur in der Provinz Westfalen im iQten Jahrhundert
(Miinster, 1900).
WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF, a collective name given to the'
two treaties, concluded on the 24th of October 1648 by the
empire with France at Miinster and with Sweden and the Pro-
testant estates of the empire at Osnabriick, by which the Thirty
Years' War (q.v.) was brought to an end.
As early as 1636 negotiations had been opened at Cologne
at the instance of Pope Urban VIII., supported by the seigniory
of Venice, but failed owing to the disinclination of Richelieu to
stop the progress of the French arms, and to the refusal of
Sweden to treat with the papal legate. In 1637 the agents of the
emperor began to negotiate at Hamburg with Sweden, though the
mediation of Christian IV., king of Denmark, was rejected by
Sweden, and the discussions dragged on for years without result.
In the meantime the new emperor Ferdinand III. proposed at the
diet of Regensburg in 1640 to extend the peace of Prague to the
whole empire, on the basis of an amnesty, from which, however,
those Protestant estates who were still leagued with foreign
powers were to be excluded. His aim was by settling the internal
affairs of the empire to exclude the German princes from
participation in negotiations with foreign powers; but these
efforts had no result.
A more practical suggestion was made by the Comte d'Avaux,
the French envoy at Hamburg, who proposed in 1641 that the
negotiations at Cologne and Hamburg should be transferred to
Munster and Osnabriick, two cities in the Westphalian circle
not more than 30 m. apart. A preliminary treaty embodying this
proposal was concluded between the representatives of the
emperor, France and Sweden at Hamburg onthe25thof December
1641. A dispute as to precedence between France and Sweden,
and the refusal of the latter power to meet the papal nuncio,
made the choice of a single meeting-place impossible. It was
arranged, however, that the two assemblies should be regarded as
a single congress, and that neither should conclude peace without
the other.
The date fixed for the meeting of the two conventions was
the nth of July 1643, but many months elapsed before all the
representatives arrived, and the settlement of many questions
of precedence and etiquette caused further delays. England,
Poland, Muscovy and Turkey were the only European powers
unrepresented. The war continued during the deliberations,
which were influenced by its fortunes.
The. chief representative of the emperor was Count Maximilian
von Trautmansdorff , to whose sagacity the conclusion of peace
was largely due. The French envoys were nominally under
Henry of Orleans, duke of Longueville, but the marquis de
SablS and the comte d'Avaux were the real agents of France.
Sweden was represented by John Oxenstierna, son of the chan-
cellor, and by John Adler Salvius, who had previously acted for
Sweden at Hamburg. The papal nuncio was Fabio Chigi,
afterwards Pope Alexander VII. Brandenburg, represented
by Count Johann von Sayn- Wittgenstein, played the foremost
part among the Protestant states of the empire. On the ist of
June 1645 France and Sweden brought forward propositions of
peace, which were discussed by the estates of the empire from
October 1645 to April 1646. The settlement of religious matters
was effected between February 1646 and March 1648. The
treaty was signed at Munster by the members of both conventions
on the 24th of October 1648, and ratifications were exchanged
on the 8th of February 1649. The papal protest of January 3,
1651, was disregarded.
The results were determined in the first place by the support
given to each other by France and Sweden in their demands for
indemnification, the concession of which necessitated compensa-
tion to the German states affected, and secondly by the deter-
mination of France to weaken the power of the emperor while
strengthening the Roman Catholic states, especially Bavaria.
Sweden received western Pomerania with Riigen and the
mouths of the Oder, Wismar and Poel, in Mecklenburg, and the
lands of the archbishopric of Bremen and the bishopric of Verden,
together with an indemnity of 5,000,000 thalers. The privileges
of the Free Towns were preserved. Sweden thus obtained control
of the Baltic and a footing on the North Sea, and became an
estate of the empire with three deliberative voices in the
diet.
The elector of Brandenburg received the greater part of
eastern Pomerania, and, as he had a claim on the whole duchy
since the death of the last duke in 1635, he was indemnified by
the bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden and Kammin, and the
reversion of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, which came to him
on the death of the administrator, Prince Augustus of Saxony,
in 1680. The elector of Saxony was allowed to retain Lusatia.
As compensation for Wismar, Mecklenburg-Schwerin obtained
the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg and some lands of the
Knights of St John. Brunswick-Liineburg restored Hildesheim
to the elector of Cologne, and gave Minden to Brandenburg, but
obtained the alternate succession to the bishopric of Osnabriick
and the church lands of Walkenried and Groningen. Hesse-Cassel
received the prince-abbacy of Hersfeld, the county of Schaum-
burg, &c. The elector of Bavaria was confirmed in his possession
of the Upper Palatinate, and in his position as an elector which
he had obtained in 1623. Charles Louis, the son and heir of
Frederick V., the count palatine of the Rhine, who had been placed
under the ban of the empire, received back the Lower Palatinate,
and a new electorate, the eighth, was created for him.
France obtained the recognition of the sovereignty (which she
had enjoyed de facto since 1552) over the bishoprics and cities of
Metz, Toul and Verdun, PLnerolo in Piedmont, the town of
Breisach, the landgraviate of Upper and Lower Alsace, the
Sundgau, the advocacy (Landvogtei) of the ten imperial cities in
Alsace, and the right to garrison Philippsburg. During the
Thirty Years' War France had professed to be fighting against
the house of Austria, and not against the empire. It was
stipulated that the immediate possessions of the empire in
Alsace should remain in enjoyment of their liberties (in ea
liberiate et possessione imntedietatis erga impenum Romanum,
qua hactenus gavisae sunt), but it was added as a condition that
the sovereignty of France in the territories ceded to her should
not be impaired (ita tamen, ut praesenti hoc declarations nihil
detractatum intelligatur de eo omni supremi dominii iure, quod
supra concessum esl). The intention of France was to acquire
the full rights of Austria in Alsace, but as Austria had never
owned the landgraviate of Lower Alsace, and the Landvogtei of
the ten free cities did not in itself imply possession, the door was
left open for disputes. Louis XIV. afterwards availed himself
of this ambiguous clause in support of bis aggressive policy on the
Rhine. The independence of Switzerland was at last formally
WEST POINT
recognized, as was that of the United Netherlands in a separate
treaty signed by Spain at Munster.
Apart from these territorial changes, a universal and uncon-
ditional amnesty to all those who had been deprived of their
possessions was declared, and it was decreed that all secular lands
should be restored to those who had held them in 1618. Some
exceptions were made in the case of the hereditary dominions of
the emperor.
Even more important than the territorial redistribution was
the ecclesiastical settlement. By the confirmation of the treaty
of Passau of 1552 and the religious peace of Augsburg of 1555,
and the extension of their provisions to the Reformed (Calvinist)
Church, toleration was secured for the three great religious
communities of the empire. Within these limits the governments
were bound to allow at least private worship, liberty of
conscience and the right of emigration, but these measures
of toleration were not extended to the hereditary lands of the
house of Habsburg. The Protestant minority in the imperial diet
was not to be coerced by the majority, but religious questions
were to be decided by amicable agreement. Protestant adminis-
trators of church lands obtained seats in the diet. Religious
parity was established in the imperial chamber (Reichskammer-
gericht), and in the imperial deputations and commissions.
The difficult question of the ownership of spiritual lands
was decided by a compromise. The edict of restitution of 1629
was annulled. In Wurttemberg, Baden and the Palatinate these
lands were restored to the persons who had held them in 1618 or
their successors, but for the rest of the empire possession was
determined by the fact of occupation on the ist of January 1624
(Unnus decrelorius or normal year). By the provision that a
prince should forfeit his lands if he changed his religion an
obstacle was placed in the way of a further spread of the Reforma-
tion. The declaration that all protests or vetoes by whomsoever
pronounced should be null and void dealt a blow at the inter-
vention of the Roman curia in German affairs.
The constitutional changes made by the treaty had far-reaching
effects. The territorial sovereignty of the states of the empire
was recognized. They were empowered to contract treaties with
one another and with foreign powers, provided that the emperor
and the empire suffered no prejudice. By this and other changes
the princes of the empire became absolute sovereigns in their
own dominions. The emperor and the diet were left with a mere
shadow of their former power. The emperor could not pronounce
the ban of the empire without the consent of the diet. The diet,
in which the 61 imperial cities gained the right of voting on all
imperial business, and thus were put on an equality with the
princes, retained its legislative and fiscal powers in name, but
practically lost them by the requirement of unanimity among the
three colleges, which, moreover, were not to give their several
decisions by majorities of their members, but by agreement
between them.
Not only was the central authority replaced almost entirely
by the sovereignty of about 300 princes, but the power of the
empire was materially weakened in other ways. It lost about
40,000 sq. m. of territory, and obtained a frontier against France
which was incapable of defence. Sweden and France as
guarantors of the peace acquired the right of interference in the
affairs of the empire, and the former gained a voice in its councils.
For many years Germany thus became the principal theatre of
European diplomacy and war. But if the treaty of Westphalia
pronounced the dissolution of the old order in the empire, it
facilitated the growth of new powers in its component parts,
especially Austria, Bavaria and Brandenburg.
The treaty was recognized as a fundamental law of the German
constitution, and formed the basis of all subsequent treaties until
the dissolution of the empire.
See the text in Dumont, Corps universel diplomatique (The Hague,
1726-1731), vi. 429 ff. ; J. G. von Meiern, Acta, pacts Westphalicae
publica (6 vols., Hanover and Gottingen, 1734-1736), Instrumenta
pacis Caesareo-Suecicae et Caesareo-Gallicae (Gottingen, 1738);
" A. A. " [Bishop Adam Adami], Arcana pacis Westphalicae (Frank-
fort, 1698), edited by J. G. von Meiern (Leipzig, 1737) ; K. T. Heigel,
" Das Westfalische Friedenswerk von 1643-1648 " in the Zeitschrifl
fur Geschichte und Politik (1888); F. Philippi and others, Der
Westfdlische Frieden, ein Gedenkbuch (Munster, 1898); Journal du
Congres de Munster par F. Ogier, aumonier du comte d Avaux, edited
by A. Boppe (Paris, 1893); Cambridge Modern History, iv. p. 395 ff.
and bibliography, p. 866 ff. ; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire,
ch. xix. (A. B. Go.)
WEST POINT, a village and military post, in Orange county,
New York, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Hudson river,
50 m. above New York City. It is served by the West Shore
railway, and is connected by ferry with the New York Central
railway at Garrison. The United States Military Academy
occupies a plateau 180 ft. above the river, reached by a roadway
cut into the cliff and commanding a view up and down the river
for many miles. Between 1902 and 1908 Congress appropriated
about $7,500,000 for the reconstruction of the academy, but
most of the old buildings of historic interest have been incor-
porated. The Headquarters Building and Grant Hall (the mess
hall) contain portraits of famous American soldiers. The military
library is one of the finest in existence (80,000 volumes in 1910),
and its building contains interesting memorials, by Saint
Gaudens, to J. McNeill Whistler and Edgar Allan Poe, both
former cadets in the academy. Cullum Memorial Hall (1899)
was the gift of Major-General George Washington Cullum
(1809-1892), superintendent of the academy in 1864-1866.
Opposite it is a monument (1845) to Major F. L. Dade's command
of no men who were ambushed and killed by the Seminole
Indians in Florida in December 1835. In the S.E. corner of the
parade ground (60 acres) is a granite statue to Colonel Sylvanus
Thayer (1785-1872), who was superintendent of the academy
from 1817 to 1833. In the N.W. angle is the bronze statue (1868)
of Major-General John Sedgwick, U.S. Volunteers, who was
killed by a sharpshooter, on the gth of May 1864, while making
a personal reconnaissance at Spottsylvania. Between Trophy
Point and the hotel is the Battle Monument (1874, 78 ft. high,
surmounted by a statue of Victory by MacMonnies) , a memorial
to the soldiers of the regular army who died in the Civil War.
Above the cliff towards the N. and E. of the plain is Fort Clinton;
in its E. front stands a monument erected in 1828 by the Corps
of Cadets to Kosciuszko, who planned the original fortifications
here in 1778. About i m. N. of the academy is " West Point
Cemetery" (about 14 acres) on the E. angle of an elevated plain
overlooking the river, formerly known as " German Flats,"
in which rest the remains of Thayer, Winfield Scott, Robert
Anderson and other distinguished soldiers. The Cadet Monument
(1817) stands on the E. angle overlooking the river. High above
the academy on Mount Independence (490 ft.) still stands old
Fort Putnam, commanding a fine view for miles up and down the
Hudson. In 1908, as the gift of Mrs.Russell Sage and Miss Anna
B. Warner, there was added to the military reservation Con-
stitution Island (about 280 acres) , lying directly opposite West
Point, with the remains of two forts built during the War of
Independence.
West Point, " the Gibraltar of the Hudson," was first occupied
as a military post in January 1778, when a chain of redoubts
was erected at various strategic points along the Hudson. At
West Point were built a half-dozen earthwork fortifications, of
which Fort Putnam on Mt. Independence, Fort Clinton on the
extremity of the point (not to be confused with the Fort Clinton
captured by the British in 1777 farther down the river) and
Battery Knox, just above the river landing, were the largest.
These were the fortifications that Benedict Arnold, their com-
mander, in 1780 agreed to deliver into British hands. After
the discovery of his treason, Washington made his headquarters
for some time at West Point before removing to Newburgh.
Later Washington recommended West Point as a site for a
military school. Such an establishment had been suggested by
Henry Knox in May 1776; and in October of that year the
Continental Congress passed a resolution appointing a committee
to draw plans for " a military academy of the army." A Corps
of Invalids was established in June 1777, was organized in
Philadelphia in July 1777, and was transferred to West Point in
1781; this corps was " to serve as a military school for young
gentlemen previously to their being appointed to marching
WESTPORT WEST SPRINGFIELD
559
regiments." Three buildings had been erected here to house
a library, an engineers' school and a laboratory, and praotica
experiments in gunnery had been begun here in February 1780
In 1783, at Newburgh, Washington laid before his officers the
matter of a military academy such as Knox had suggested. A
school for artillerists, engineers and cadets of the corps was
established here on the president's recommendation in 1794, anc
continued until the buildings were destroyed by fire in 1796. In
July 1801, Henry Dearborn, Jefferson's secretary of war, directed
that all cadets of the corps of artillerists, a subordinate rank which
had been established in 1794, should report at West Point for in-
struction, and in September of that year a school was opened
with five instructors, four of them army officers. On the i6th
of March 1802, President Jefferson approved an act establishing
a military academy at West Point, and on the 4th of July it wa
formally opened with ten cadets present. Acts of 1802 and 1808
authorized 40 cadets from the artillery, 100 from the infantry,
1 6 from the dragoons and 20 from the riflemen. But few of
these were actually appointed, and for several years instruction
was disorganized and desultory. In 1811-1812 instruction was
practically abandoned, and in March 1812 the "academy"
was without a single instructor. Up to this time 88 cadets had
been graduated, but they had been admitted without any sort
of examination, and at any age between 12 and 34. An act of
Congress of the 2gth of April 1812 reorganized the academy,
and laid down the general principles and plan on which it has
since been conducted. A maximum of 250 cadets was then
authorized. Under the able superintendency of Major Sylvanus
Thayer this plan was perfected and put into successful operation.
Up to 1843 Q o territorial requirement was necessary for appoint-
ment, but in that year a custom that had grown up of providing
for one cadet from each Congressional district, each Territory
and the District of Columbia, was embodied in the law.
By acts of 1900, 1902, 1003 and 1908 the Corps of Cadets as now
constituted consists of one cadet from each congressional district
(appointed on recommendation by members of Congress), one from
each Territory, one from the District of Columbia, one from Porto
Rico, two from each state at large (on recommendation of the
senators), and 40 from the United States at large, all to be appointed
by the president. Four Filipinos may also receive instruction and
become eligible on graduation for commissions in the Philippine
scouts. The maximum number of cadets under the apportionment
of the twelfth census was 533. Candidates for admission must be
between 17 and 22 years, unmarried, and at least 5 ft. 4 in. high.
For entrance there are physical examinations, and examinations in
algebra, plane geometry, English grammar, composition and litera-
ture, geography and general history. In 1902 the entrance require-
ments were raised and the actual amount of work done in the
academy was thus decreased. The principal courses are: tactics for
all classes; civil and military engineering (first class); practical
military engineering (fourth, third, second and first classes);
mechanics and astronomy (third and second classes) ; mathematics
(new cadets, fourth and third classes); chemistry, mineralogy and
geology (third and second classes); drawing (third and second
classes); modern languages, i.e. French and Spanish (fourth, third,
second and first classes) ; law (first class) ; ordnance and gunnery
(first class); military hygiene (second class); and English and
history (new cadets and fourth class). The course is four years, and
academic instruction continues from the 1st of September to the
5th of June. The summer months are devoted to field work and
encampments. Each cadet while in attendance receives pay at the
rate of $600 a year and one ration per day, or commutation thereof
at thirty cents per day, amounting to $709-50. The number of
graduates from 1802 to 1009 inclusive was 4852. The superin-
tendents of the academy have been: in 1802-1803 and in 1805-1812,
Jonathan Williams; in 1812-1814, Joseph Gardner Swift (1783-
1865); in 1815-1817, Alden Partridge (1785-1854); in 1817-1833,
Sylvanus Thayer; in 1833-1838 Ren? E. De Russy (1796-1864)- in
1 838- 1 845 and in 1856-1861, Richard Delafield (1798-1873); in 1845-
1852, Henry Brewerton (1801-1879); in 1852-1855, Robert E. Lee;
'" '855-1856, John Gross Barnard (1815-1882); in January 1861,
. Beauregard; in 1861-1864, Alexander Hamilton Bowman
,1803-1865); in 1864, Zealous Bates Tower (1819-1000); in 1864-
1866, G. W. Cuilum; in 1866-1871, Thomas Gamble Pitcher (1824-
1895); m 1871-1876, Thomas Howard Ruger (1833-1007)- in
1876-1881, J. M. Schofield; in 1881-1882, O. 0. Howard ; In 1882-
887, Wesley Merritt; in 1887-1889, John Grubb Park (1827-
1900): in 1880-1893, John Moulden Wilson (b. 1837); in 189-?-
[898, Oswald Herbert Ernst (b. 1842) ; in 1898-1906, Albert I^opold
Mills (b. 1854); in 1906-1910, H. L. Scott (b. 1853); and, 1910,
1. H. Barry (b. 1855).
See G. W. Cuilum, Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates
of the United States Military Academy (4 vols., New York, 1891-
1904); E. C. Boynton, History of West Point (ibid. 1863); J P
Farley, West Point in the Early Sixties (Troy, 1902) ; Morns Schaff,
The Spirit of Old West Point (Boston, 1907) ; and the annual reports
of the superintendent.
WESTPORT, a market-town, seaport and seaside resort of
County Mayo, Ireland, near the mouth of a small river in Clew
Bay. Pop. (1001) 3892. The town is 160 m. W. from Dublin
by the Midland Great Western railway, Westport Quay at the
river mouth being served by a branch line. There is a small
export trade in grain. The beautiful demesne of the marquess
of Sligo enriches the neighbourhood. Clew Bay, thickly studded
with islands and surrounded with mountains, is one of the most
magnificent of the great inlets on the W. coast. Near the S.
shore is Croagh Patrick (2510 ft.), an isolated conical hill of
singularly perfect form, in wide repute as a place of pilgrimage.
WEST PRUSSIA (Ger. Westpreussen), a province of Prussia,
bounded on the N. by the Baltic, on the E. by East Prussia,
on the S. by Russian Poland and the province of Posen, and on
the W. by Brandenburg and Pomerania. The area is 9862
sq. m. The greater part is occupied by the low Baltic plateau,
intersected by a network of streams and lakes, and rising to the
Turmberg (1086 ft.) near Danzig. East of Konitz is an extensive
moorland, 70 m. long, called the Tucheler Heide. The lakes,
though very numerous, are not large. The Vistula, here of great
width, and subject to destructive floods, enters the province
near Thorn, and flowing north in a valley which divides the
plateau, enters Danzig Bay by a large delta, the Werder. The
other rivers are chiefly tributaries of the Vistula, as the Drewenz
on its right bank and the Brahe on its left.
In general physical characteristics the province resembles East
Prussia, but the climate is less harsh and the fertility of the soil
greater. Arable land and gardens occupy 55-6% of the area,
meadows and pastures 12-9%, forests 21-7%, and the rest is
mostly waste. The valley and delta of the Vistula are very fertile,
and produce good crops of wheat and pasturage for horses, cattle
and sheep. Besides cereals, the chief crops are potatoes, hay,
tobacco, garden produce, fruit and sugar-beet. Poultry, fish and
timber are important sources of wealth. Cavalry horses (especially
at the government stud farm of Marienwerder) and merino sheep
are reared. The minerals are unimportant, except amber, peat and
clay. Shipbuilding is carried on at Danzig and Elbing, and in
various places there are iron and glass works, saw-mills, sugar
factories and distilleries. Much of the trade passes through the
ports of Danzig and Elbing.
The population in 1905 was 1,641,746, showing a mean density
of 166 to the sq. m. Of these 567,318 or 34-5 % were Poles, a
larger proportion than in any other Prussian province except Posen.
They are increasing somewhat faster than the Germans, and the
efforts of the colonization commission have done little to promote
the immigration of German farmers. The Kashi-bes (o.r.), nearly all
of whom (less than 200,000 ) live in W. Prussia, chiefly in the west,
From Putzig to Konitz, are here reckoned with the Poles. The
Poles proper chiefly inhabit the centre of the province, and the
aorders of Russian Poland. Among the Germans, who are most
numerous in the north-east, Low German dialects are spoken,
except in a Swabian colony round Kulmsee. Roman Catholics
number 51-4% and Protestants 46-6% of the population, and
there are 16,000 Jews. The Poles are almost all Roman Catholics.
The province is divided into the governmental departments of
Danzig and Marienwerder. It returns twenty-two members to the
Prussian Lower House and thirteen to the Reichstag. Danzig is
the capital, and the only large town.
West Prussia, with the exception of southern Pomerania
around Marienwerder) which belonged to Prussia, was a pos-
session of Poland from 1466 till the first partition of Poland
n 1772, when it was given to Prussia with the exception of
Danzig and Thorn, which Poland retained till 1793. The present
province was formed in 1808, but from 1824 to 1878 was united
with East Prussia. For its history see also PRUSSIA and POLAND.
See K. Lohmeyer, Geschichte von Ost- und Weslpreussen (part i.,
3rd ed., Gotha, 1908); Vallentin, Westpreussen seit den ersten
Jahrzehnten dieses Jahrhunderts (Tubingen, 1893); Ambrassat,
Westpreussen, tin Handbuch der Heimatkunde (Danzig, 1906).
WEST SPRINGFIELD, a township of Hampden county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, opposite
Springfield. Pop. (1890) 5077; (1000) 7105 (1501 foreign-
>orn); (1910) 9224. Area, about 18 sq. m. The township is
served by the Boston & Albany railway, and by interurban
5 6
WEST VIRGINIA
electric railways to Holyoke and Hartford. The principal
villages are Merrick and West Springfield on the Connecticut
river and Mittineague on the Westfield river. West Springfield
was originally a part of Springfield. The first settlement was
not made, however, until about 1653, and there were few settlers
until after King Philip's War (1676). In 1696 West Springfield
was organized as a separate parish, and in 1774 was made a
separate township. Holyoke was set off from it in 1860, and
Agawam in 1855.
WEST VIRGINIA, the north-westernmost of the so-called
Southern states of the United States of America, lying between
latitudes 37 10' and 40 40' N., and longitudes 77 40' and
82 40' W. It is bounded on the north-west by Ohio, from
which it is separated by the Ohio river, on the north by Penn-
sylvania and Maryland, the Potomac river dividing it from
the latter state; on the east and south-east by Pennsylvania,
Maryland and Virginia, the boundary lines in the first two cases
being meridians, in the last case a very irregular line following
the crest of mountain ridges in places; and on the south-west
by Virginia and Kentucky, the Big Sandy river separating it
from the latter state. The extreme length of the state from
north to south is about 240 m., the extreme breadth from east
to west about 265 m. Area, 24,170 sq. m., of which 148 sq. m.
is water surface.
Physical Features. The state is divided into two distinct physio-
graphic provinces; the Alleghany Plateau on the west, comprising
perhaps two-thirds of the area of the state, and forming a part of
the great Appalachian Plateau Province which extends from New
York to Alabama; and the Newer Appalachians or Great Valley
Region on the east, being a part of the large province of the same
name which extends from Canada to Central Alabama. The
Alleghany Plateau consists of nearly horizontal beds of limestone,
sandstone and shales, including important seams of coal; inclines
slightly toward the north-west, and is intricately dissected by
extensively branching streams into a maze of narrow canyons and
steep-sided hills. Along the Ohio river, these hills rise to an elevation
of 800 to 1000 ft. above sea-level, while toward the south-east the
elevation increases until 3500 and 4000 ft. are reached along the
south-east margin of the plateau, which is known as the Alleghany
Front. The entire plateau area is drained by the Ohio river and its
tributaries. Along the flood-plains of the larger rivers are fertile
" bottomlands," but the ruggedness of the plateau country as a
whole has retarded the development of the state, much of which is
still sparsely populated. The coal beds are of enormous extent,
and constitute an important element in the wealth of the state.
Petroleum and natural gas also occur in the plateau rocks in great
quantities.
In the Newer Appalachian region, the beds which still lie hori-
zontal in the plateau province were long ago thrown into folds and
planed off by erosion, alternate belts of hard and soft rock being
left exposed. Uplift permitted renewed erosion to wear away the
soft belts, leaving mountain ridges of hard rock separated by
parallel valleys. Hence the region is variously known as the Ridge
and Valley Belt, the Great Valley Region, or the Folded Appa-
lachians. The mountain ridges vary in height up to 4000 ft. and
more, the highest point in the state being Spruce Knob (4860 ft.).
The parallel valleys are drained by north-east and south-west
flowing streams, those in the north-east being tributary to the
Potomac, those farther south tributary to the Great Kanawha.
Although the valleys between the ridges are not always easy
of access, they give broad areas of nearly level agricultural
land.
Flora. The plateau portion of West Virginia is largely covered
by hardwood forests, but along the Ohio river and its principal
tributaries the valuable timber has been removed and considerable
areas have been wholly cleared for farming and pasture lands.
Among the most important trees of this area are the white and
chestnut oaks, the black walnut, the yellow poplar, and the cherry,
the southern portion of the state containing the largest reserve
supply. In the area of the Newer Appalachian Mountains, the
eastern Panhandle region has a forest similar to that of the plateau
district; but between these two areas of hardwood there is a long
belt where spruce and white pine cover the mountain ridges. Other
trees common in the state are the persimmon, sassafras, and, in the
Ohio Valley region, the sycamore. Hickory, chestnut, locust, maple,
beech, dogwood, and pawpaw are widely distributed. Among the
shrubs and vines are the blackberry, black and red raspberry,
gooseberry, huckleberry, hazel and grape. Ginseng is an important
medicinal plant. Wild ginger, elder and sumach are common,
and in the mountain areas, rhododendrons, mountain laurel and
azaleas.
Climate. Inasmuch as the state has a range of over 4000 ft. in
altitude, the climate varies greatly in different districts. The mean
annual temperatures for typical sections are as follows : Ohio Valley
north of the thirty-ninth parallel, 53 F. ; south-western part of
state, 56; central plateau district, 52; mountainous belt along
south-eastern boundary of state, 48 to 50. Wellsburg, in the
northern Panhandle, has a mean winter temperature of 27, a summer
mean of 70. Parkersburg, farther down the Ohio Valley, has a
winter mean of 34" and a summer mean of 74. Martinsburg, in the
eastern Panhandle, has nearly the same means, 32 and 74. Terra
Alia, in the north-eastern mountains, has a winter mean of 26, a
summer mean of only 67. The first killing frosts generally occur
about the middle of October in the Ohio Valley region, and about the
first of October in the higher plateau and mountain region; the
average dates for the last killing frosts in the same localities are
the middle and last of April respectively. In the Ohio Valley and
eastern Panhandle the summer mean temperature is 74, the winter
mean 31 to 34. The highest recorded temperature for the state
is 107 , the lowest-35. Temperatures above 100 and below-i5
are rare. Precipitation is greatest in the mountains, over 50 in.;
and least over the Ohio Valley, the eastern Panhandle and the
extreme south-east, 35 to 4O_in. Snows are frequent during the
winter, and sometimes deep in the higher plateau and mountain
districts. The prevailing winds are from south to west.
AGRICULTURE. The state is primarily agricultural. Ingeneralthe
richer western part is devoted to crops, and the eastern part to raising
live-stock. The crop of Indian corn in 1909 was 27,632,000 bushels,
and the acreage 880,000. The wheat crop was 4,810,000 bushels,
and the acreage 370,000. The crop of buckwheat was 499,000
bushels (grown on 22,000 acres). The rye crop was 148,000 bushels,
and the acreage 11,000. The production of oats was 2,156,000
bushels (grown on 98,000 acres). In 1909 the acreage of hay alone
was 675,000 acres, and the crop was 844,000 tons, valued at
$11,225,000. Tobacco is grown throughout the state; in 1909
on 12,000 acres was grown a crop of 12,000,000 ft, valued at
$1,663,200.
Stock-raising is an important industry, especially in the eastern
part of the state.
Mines and Quarries. The state's great mineral wealth is in coals
of various kinds, petroleum, and natural gas.
The coal deposits underlie about 17,000 sq. m. (more than 70 %
of the total) of the state's area, and bituminous coal has been found
in 51 of the 55 counties; this is one of the largest continuous coal
fields in the world. The principal districts are the Fairmont
(or Upper Monongahela) and the Elk Garden (or Upper Potomac)
in the northern, and the Pocahontas (or Flat Top) and the New and
Kanawha rivers districts in the southern part of the state. The
total output of the state was 44,648 tons in 1863, when the first ship-
ments outside the state were made; and 41,897,843 tons (valued
at $40,009,054) in 1908, when the output of West Virginia was
third in quantity and in value among the states of the Union, being
exceeded only by that of Pennsylvania and of Illinois. The seams
are principally above water levels and in many cases have been laid
bare by erosion; and the supply is varied besides a " fat coking,
gassy bituminous," there are an excellent grade of splint coal
{first mined in 1864 at Coalburg, Kanawha county) and (except that
in Kentucky) the only important supply of cannel coal in the United
States. Most of the mines are operated under " non-union " rules.
The bituminous coal of West Virginia is a particularly good coking
coal, and in 1905, 1906, 1907 and 1908 West Virginia ranked second
(to Pennsylvania) among the states of the Union in the amount
of coke manufactured; the Flat Top district is the principal coke-
making region.
Petroleum ranks second to coal among the state's mineral re-
sources. In 1771 Thomas Jefferson described a " burning spring "
in the Kanawha Valley, and when wells were drilled for salt brine
near Charleston petroleum and natural gas were found here before
there was any drilling for oil in Pennsylvania. Immediately before
the Civil War, petroleum was discovered in shallow wells near
Parkersburg, and there was a great rush of prospectors and specu-
lators to the Little Kanawha Valley. But the Civil War interrupted
development. .After the war, wells were drilled at Burning Springs,
Oil Rock, California House, Volcano, Sandhill and Horseneck, and
in the years 1865-1876 3,000,000 bbls. of oil, valued at $20,000,000,
were taken put of these districts. A successful well in Marion county,
near Mannington, far from the region of the earlier wells, was drilled
in 1889, and the output of the state increased from 119,448 bbls.
in 1888 to 544,113 in 1889, and to 2,406,218 in 1891; in 1893 it
was first more than 8,000,000 bbls.; and in 1900 it was 16,195,675.
After 1900 it gradually decreased although new pools in Wetzel
county were found in 1902 and in 1908 it was 9,523,176 bbls.
(valued at $16,911,865).
Natural gas, like petroleum, was first heard of in West Virginia fn
connexion with a burning spring on the Kanawha, and there were
gas springs on the Big Sandy and the Little Kanawha. Jn 1841
natural gas was found with salt brine in a well on the Kanawha, and
was used as a fuel to evaporate the salt water. The production was
not large until after 1895; it was valued at $r,334,o23 in 1898, at
$3,954,472 in 1901, at $10,075,804 in 1905, at $16,670,962 in 1907,
and at $14,837,130 in 1908, when (as since 1904, when it first was
greater than that of Indiana) it was second only in value to that of
Pennsylvania. The principal field is in Wetzel county, but there
are important supplies in Lewis, Harrison, Marion, Monongahela,
01
WEST VIRGINIA
561
Lincoln and Wayne counties. Much of the natural gas is piped out
of the state into Ohio (even into the northern parts), Kentucky,
Pennsylvania and Maryland; within the state gas has been utilized
a* a fuel in carbon black and glass factories.
Urine wells have been mentioned above; the salt industry is
still carried on in Mason county, and in 1908 145,157 bbls. were pro-
duced with a value of $10,481; and there is a small output of
bromine. Iron ore is found in the state in the coal hills (especially
Laurel Hills and Beaver Lick Mountain), but the deposits have not
been worked on a large scale. Pig iron is manufactured cheaply
because of the low price of fuel; in 1907 the value of pig iron manu-
factured in the state was $6,454,000. There are deposits of ex-
cellent clay, especially for pottery, and in 1907 ($2,159,132) and
1908 ($2,083,821) the state ranked after Ohio and New Jersey in the
value of pottery. The total value of all clay products in West
Virginia was $3,261,736 in 1908. An excellent glass sand is pro-
cured from crushed sandstone near Berkeley Springs, Morgan
county. Grindstones have been quarried in Wood and Jackson
counties. There are black slate deposits near Martinsburg. There
are mineral springs, mostly medicinal waters, in Greenbrier, Summers,
Webster, Ohio and Preston counties. Among the more noted
medicinal springs are: classed as calcareous and earthy, Sweet
Springs, 74 F., in Monroe county, diuretic and diaphoretic; and
Berkeley Springs, 74 F., in Morgan county, reputed restorative in
neuralgic cases, and as containing sulphur; Salt Sulphur Springs,
in Monroe county, of value in scrofula and skin diseases.
Manufactures. Manufacturing is largely localized in the north-
western part of the state along the Ohio river. The value of
the factory product in 1905 was $99,040,676. The principal manu-
facture is iron and steel: in 1905 the product of steel works and
rolling mills was $13,454,802. The iron mills are almost all in the
vicinity of Wheeling. The first rolling mill west of the Alleghanies
was probably one near Morgantown. Next in importance among
the state's manufactures are lumber and timber, and flour and grist
mills. The tanning, currying and finishing of leather, an industry
largely dependent on the plentiful supply of oak and hemlock bark
for tanning, is centralized in the northern and eastern parts of the
state, near the forests. The glass industry began in Wheeling in
1821, and there a process was discovered by which in 1864 for soda
ash bicarbonate of lime was substituted, and a lime glass was made
which was as fine as lead glass; other factors contributing to the
localization of the manufacture of glass here are the fine glass sand
obtained in the state and the plentiful supply of natural gas for
fuel.
Transportation and Commerce. Railway development in West
Virginia has been due largely to the exploitation of the coal and
lumber resources of the state. The Baltimore & Ohio railway
leads in trackage: it enters the state with several lines at its northern
end ; its main line crosses this portion of the state from east to west,
striking the Ohio at Parkersburg, and one of its lines (Ohio River
railway) extends nearly the length of the state from Wheeling in
the north through Parkersburg to Kenova in the south. This road
serves as a carrier for the northern coal producing districts. The
Chesapeake & Ohio traverses the southern part of the state, from
White Sulphur Springs in the east, through Charleston to the Ohio,
serving the New and Kanawha rivers coal district as a freight carrier ;
the Norfolk & Western runs just within the south-western boundary
along the valley of the Big Sandy, carrying coal both east and west
from the Pocahontas coal-field; and the new Virginian railway
entering at the south-east taps the coal-producing region (the
Kanawha and Pocahontas districts) at Deepwater, serving in
addition to the Norfolk & Western as a carrier of coal to Norfolk
on the Virginia coast. The railway mileage of the state grew with
great rapidity in the decade 1880-1890; it was 691 m. in 1880,
1.433-30 in l8 ?o, 2,473-34 in 1900 and 3.215-32 in January 1909.
Natural facilities for transportation, afforded by the Ohio river and
its branches, the Monongahela, at the northern end of the state,
and the Little Kanawha and the Great Kanawha, are of special value
for the shipment of lumber and coal. The Monongahela has been
improved by locks and dams to Fairmont. It is the carrier of a
heavy tonnage of coal to Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. The Little
Kanawha, which has also been improved, serves chiefly for the
transportation of logs which are floated down to the Ohio.
Population. The population of West Virginia at the various
censuses since its organization as a state has been as follows:
1870, 442,014; 1880, 618,457; 1800, 762,794; 1900, 958,800;
IQIO, 1,221,119. In 1890-1900 and 1900-1910 the increase in
population was more than one fourth. Of the total population
in 1900, 97-7% was native-born, 892,854 were native whites,
43,409 were negroes, 56 were Chinese and 12 were Indians.
Of the inhabitants born in the United States 61,508 were
natives of Virginia, 40,301 of Ohio, 28,927 of Pennsylvania
and 10,867 of Kentucky; and of the foreign-born there were
6537 Germans, 3342 Irish, 2921 Italians and 2622 English.
Of the total population 71,388 were of foreign parentage
i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born, and 18,232
were of German and 10,534 of Irish parentage, on both the
father's and the mother's side.
In 1906 there were in the state 301,565 members of religious
denominations, of whom 86-2% were Protestants. The
Methodist bodies with 115,825 communicants (38-4% of the
total communicants or members) were the strongest. There
were 67,044 Baptists (2226 United Baptists, 2019 Primitive
Baptists and 1513 Free Baptists); 40,011 Roman Catholics;
10,993 United Brethren, all of the " New Constitution ";
19,668 Presbyterians; 13,323 Disciples of Christ; 6506 Lutherans,
and 5230 Protestant Episcopalians. The principal cities of the
state are Wheeling, Huntington, Parkersburg, Charleston (the
capital), Martinsburg, Fairmont and Grafton.
Administration. The first constitution of 1863 was super-
seded by the present instrument which was adopted August
1872 and was amended in 1880, 1883 and 1902. The constitution
may be amended by either of two methods. A majority of the
members elected to each house may submit the question of
calling a convention to the people; and if a majority of the
votes cast approve, an election for members of a convention
shall be held, and all acts of the convention must be submitted
to the people for ratification or rejection. On the other hand,
a two-thirds majority of each house of the legislature may
submit an amendment or amendments to popular vote at the
next general election, when the approval of a majority of the
qualified voters is necessary for ratification. All male citizens
above twenty-one years of age have the right of suffrage, subject
to a residence of one year in the state and sixty days in the
county in which they offer to vote. Paupers, insane, and those
convicted of treason, felony or bribery in an election are
barred, " while the disability continues," and no person in the
military, naval or marine service of the United States is deemed
a resident of the state by reason of being stationed therein.
An official blanket ballot containing the names of the candidates
arranged in columns according to party is provided at public
expense.
Executive. The executive department consists of the governor,
secretary of state, superintendent of free schools, auditor, treasurer
and attorney-general, all elected by the people at the time of the
presidential election and serving for four years from the fourth of
March following. The governor must have been a citizen for five
years preceding this election, must have attained the age of thirty and
is ineligible for re-election during the four years succeeding the expira-
tion of his term. In case of the death, resignation or other dis-
ability of the governor, the president of the Senate acts as governor,
and in case of his incapability the Speaker of the House of Dele-
gates; and these two failing, the legislature on joint ballot elects an
acting governor. A new election must be called to fill the vacancy
unless the unexpired term is less than one year. The governor
appoints, subject to the consent of a majority of the members
elected to the Senate, all officers whose appointment or election is
not otherwise provided for. In case of a vacancy in the court of
appeals or in the circuit court the governor appoints until the next
general election, or if the unexpired term is less than two years,
until the end of the term. The governor sends a message at the
beginning of each session of the legislature, and may convene the
houses in extraordinary session when he deems it necessary. He
may veto a bill, or in case of an appropriation bill, the separate
items, but this veto may be overridden by a simple majority of the
total membership of each house. Any bill not returned with objec-
tions within five days after presentation becomes a law. An appro-
priation bill cannot be vetoed after the legislature adjourns.
Legislative. The legislature, consisting of the Senate and the
House of Delegates, meets at the capital on the first Wednesday in
January of the odd years. The Senate is composed (1910) of thirty
members, chosen from fifteen districts for a term of four years, but
one half the membership retires biennially. A senator must be
twenty-five years of age, and must have been a citizen of the state
for five years and a resident of the district for one year preceding
his election. The Senate elects a president, confirms or rejects the
nominations of the governor, and acts as a court of impeachment
for the trial of public officers, besides sharing in legislative functions.
The House of Delegates is composed (1910) of eighty-six members,
of whom each county chooses at least one. A delegate must be a
citizen and have resided one year in the county from which he is
chosen. No person holding a lucrative office under the state
or the United States, no salaried officer of a railroad company,
and no officer of any court of record is eligible for membership in
either house. Besides its legislative functions the House prepares
articles of impeachment and prosecutes the proceedings before the
Senate. The length of the legislative session is forty-five days.
562
WEST VIRGINIA
but it may be extended by a vote of two-thirds of the members
elected to each house. No act takes effect until ninety days after its
passage unless two-thirds of the members of each house specifically
order otherwise.
Judiciary. The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court
of Appeals, the Circuit courts, such inferior courts as may be
established, county courts, the powers and duties of which are,
however, chiefly police and fiscal, and in justices of the peace. The
Supreme Court of Appeals, consisting of five judges, elected for
terms of twelve years, holds three terms annually, one at Wheeling,
one at Charleston and one at Charles Town. It has original juris-
diction in cases of habeas corpus, mandamus and prohibition, and
appellate jurisdiction in cases involving a greater amount than one
hundred dollars; concerning title or boundary of lands, probate of
wills; the appointment or qualification of personal representatives,
guardians, curators, committees, &c. ; concerning a mill, roadway.
Ferry or landing; the right of a corporation or county to levy tolls
or taxes; in cases of quo warranto, habeas corpus, mandamus, certio-
rari and prohibition, and all others involving freedom or the con-
stitutionality of a law; in criminal cases where there has been a
conviction for felony or misdemeanour in a circuit, criminal or
intermediate court; and in cases relating to the public revenues.
The court designates one of its members as president. Nineteen
judges elected for terms of eight years in eighteen circuits compose
the circuit court, the judges of which have original jurisdiction of
matters involving more than $50; of all cases of habeas corpus,
mandamus, quo warranto and prohibition; of all cases in equity;
and of all crimes and misdemeanours. The judges have appellate
jurisdiction of cases civil and criminal coming up from the lower
courts. In order to relieve the circuit judges the legislature has
established by special acts inferior courts, generally with criminal
jurisdiction only, in nine counties of the state. The judicial powers
of the county court are confined to probate, the appointment of
executors, administrators and other personal representatives, and
the settlement of their accounts, matters relating to apprentices and
to contested elections for county and district officers. (See below
under Local Government.) One or two justices of the peace (de-
pending on population) are elected from each magisterial district;
there must be not less than three, nor more than ten, districts in each
county.
Local Government. As in Virginia, the county is the unit of govern-
ment, though an unsuccessful attempt to introduce the township sys-
tem was made in the first constitution. The county court, consisting
of three commissioners elected for six years but with terms so arranged
that one retires every two years, is the police and fiscal authority.
Other officers are the clerk of the county court, elected for six years,
the sheriff, who also acts as tax-collector and treasurer, the prosecuting
attorney, one or two assessors, the surveyor of lands and the super-
intendent of free schools, all elected for the term of four years; the
sheriff may not serve two consecutive full terms. In addition there
are boards appointed or elected by various authorities and charged
with specific duties. They include the local board of health and the
board of jury commissioners. Each of the magisterial districts (of
which, as has been said, there must be at least three and not more
than ten in each county) elects one or two magistrates and con-
stables, and a board of education of three members. The constitu-
tion provides that the legislature, on the request of any county, may
establish a special form of county government, and several of the
larger and more populous counties have special acts.
Miscellaneous Laws. A woman's right to hold, manage and acquire
property is not affected by marriage, except that unless she lives
apart from her husband, she may not mortgage or convey real estate
without his consent. A woman becomes of age at twenty-one.
Rights of dower and courtesy both exist. When a husband dies
intestate leaving a widow and issue, the widow is entitled to the life
use of one-third of the real estate and to one-third of the personal
estate absolutely. If there is no issue she takes the whole of the
personal estate, while the real estate, subject to her dower, goes first
to her husband's father and then to his mother, brothers and sisters.
If the wife dies intestate the husband has a right to the use of her
real estate for life, and to one-third of the personal estate if there is
issue ; otherwise to the whole. Neither can by will deprive the other
of the right of dower or courtesy in the real estate and of the right to
one-third of the personal estate. Children may be disinherited with
or without cause. Any parent or infant children of deceased parents
may set apart personal estate not exceeding $200 in value which shall
be exempt from execution. A homestead not exceeding $1000
in value may be set apart, provided that it is recorded before the
debt against which it was claimed was contracted. Marriages
between whites and negroes, or where either party had a wife or
husband living, or within the prohibited degrees of consanguinity,
or where either was insane or physically incapable of marriage, or
where the male was under eighteen or the female under sixteen
may be annulled. No female or male under twelve may be employed
in mines, and no child under twelve may be employed in a factory,
and when school is in session none under fourteen.
Charities, S?c. The state charitable and penal institutions consist
of the West Virginia Hospital for the Insane at Weston, the Second
Hospital for the Insane at Spencer, three miners' hospitals one at
Welch, one at McKendree and one at Fairmont ; the West Virginia
Asylum for Incurables at Huntingdon, Schools for the Deaf and
Blind at Romney, the West Virginia Penitentiary at Moundsville,
the West Virginia Reform School at Grafton and the West Virginia
Industrial Home for Girls near Salem. These are all under
the^gupervision of a state board of control of three members,
appointed by the governor, which was created in 1909, and also has
control of the finances of the state educational system. There is also
a state humane society, which was organized in 1899 for the pro-
tection of children and of<the helpless aged, and for the prevention of
cruelty to animals. The West Virginia Colored Orphans' Home near
Huntington is not under state control, but has received appropria-
tions from the legislature. In 1908 a law was enacted for establishing
the West Virginia Children's Home to be under the control of the
Humane Society.
Education. Each magisterial district constitutes a school district
and there are also a few independent school districts. For each
school district there is a board of education consisting of a president
and two commissioners, each elected for a term of four years, one
commissioner every two years. This board is authorized to establish
and alter sub-districts. A law enacted in 1908 requires that children
between eight and fifteen years of age shall attend school twenty-four
weeks each year, provided the public school in theirdistrict is in session
that length of time. The county supervision of public schools is vested
in a county superintendent, who is elected for a term of four years.
The state supervision is vested in a state superintendent, who iselected
for a term of four years. A state board of education, consisting of
the state superintendent and five other persons appointed by him,
constitutes a state board of examiners (for special primary, high
school and professional certificates) and prescribes the course of
study. There is also a state school book commission, consisting of
the state superintendent and eight other members appointed by the
governor. The state maintains six normal schools for whites (at
Huntington, Fairmont, West Liberty, Glenville, Shepherdstown,
Athens) and two for negroes (at Institute and at Bluefield). They
are governed by a board of regents consisting of the state super-
intendent and six other members appointed by the governor. At
the head of the educational system is the West Virginia University
(1867) at Morgantown (g..). The principal institutions of higher
learning not under state control are Bethany College (Christian,
1841), at Bethany; Morris Harvey College (Methodist Episcopal,
Southern, 1888), at Barboursville ; West Virginia Wesleyan College
(Methodist Episcopal, 1890), at Buckhannon; and Davis and Elkins
College (Presbyterian, 1904), at Elkins.
Finance. The state revenue is derived mainly from a general pro-
perty tax, licence taxes levied on various businesses and occupations,
a collateral inheritance tax and a capitation tax. For the year ending
on the 3Oth of September 1908 the receipts were $3,382, 131-66
and the disbursements $3,482,317-03. West Virginia's share of the
Virginia debt which existed when West Virginia was set off from
Virginia has not yet been determined (see below, HISTORY), but
other than this the state has no debt, and the contraction of a
state debt other than " to meet casual deficits in the revenue, to
redeem a previous liability of the state, to suppress insurrection,
repel invasion or defend the state in time of war " is forbidden
by the constitution. The indebtedness of a county, municipality
or school district is limited to 5% of the value of its taxable
property.
History. That part of Virginia beyond the Alleghany moun-
tains was a favourite haunt of the Indians before the first
coming of the whites, and there are many Indian mounds, in-
dicative of an early and high cultural development, within the
present limits of the state, and especially in the neighbourhood
of Moundsville (?..). The western part of Virginia was not
explored until long after considerable settlements had been made
in the east. In 1671 General Abram Wood, at the direction of
Governor William Berkeley (c. 1610-1677), sent a party which
discovered Kanawha Falls, and in 1716, Governor Alexander
Spottswood with about thirty horsemen made an excursion into
what is now Pendleton county. John Van Metre, an Indian
trader, penetrated into the northern portion in 1725, and Morgan
ap Morgan, a Welshman, built a cabin in the present Berkeley
county in 1727. The same year German settlers from Penn-
sylvania founded New Mecklenburg, the present Shepherdstown,
on the Potomac, and others soon followed. Charles Il.of England,
in 1 66 1, granted to a company of gentlemen the land between the
Potomac and Rappahannock rivers, commonly known as the
" Northern Neck." The grant finally came into the possession
of Thomas, Lord Fairfax, and in 1746 a stone was erected at the
source of the north branch of the Potomac to mark the western
limit of the grant. A considerable part of this land was surveyed
by George Washington between 1748 and 1751. The diary kept
by the young surveyor indicates that there were already many
squatters, largely of German origin, along the South Branch of
WEST VIRGINIA
563
the Potomac. Christopher Gist, a surveyor in the employ of the
first Ohio Company (see OHIO COMPANY), which was composed
chiefly of Virginians, in 1751-1752 explored the country along the
Ohio river north of the mouth of the Kanawha, and the company
sought to have a fourteenth colony established with the name
" Vandalia." Many settlers crossed the mountains after 1750,
though they were somewhat hindered by Indian depredations.
Probably no Indians lived within the present limits of the state,
but the region was a common hunting ground, crossed also
by many war trails, and during the French and Indian war
(1754-63) the scattered settlements were almost destroyed. In
1774 the governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, himself led a force
over the mountains, and a body of militia under General Andrew
Lewis dealt the Shawnee Indians under Cornstalk a crushing blow
at Point Pleasant (q.v.) at the junction of the Kanawha and the
Ohio rivers, but Indian attacks continued until after the War of
Independence. During the war the settlers in Western Virginia
were generally active Whigs and many served in the Continental
army.
Social conditions in western Virginia were entirely unlike
those existing in the eastern portion of the state. The population
was not homogeneous, as a considerable part of the immigra-
tion came by way of Pennsylvania and included Germans, the
Protestant Scotch-Irish and settlers from the states farther
north. During the War of Independence the movement to create
another state beyond the Alleghanies was revived, and a petition
(1776) for the establishment of " Westsylvania" was presented to
Congress, on the ground that the mountains made an almost
impassable barrier on the east. The rugged nature of the country
made slavery unprofitable, and time only increased the social,
political and economic differences between the two sections of the
state. The convention which met in 1829 to form a new con-
stitution for Virginia, against the protest of the counties beyond
the mountains, required a property qualification for suffrage, and
gave the slave-holding counties the benefit of three-fifths of
their slave population in apportioning the state's representation
in the lower Federal house. As a result every county beyond
the Alleghanies except one voted to reject the constitution, which
was nevertheless carried by eastern votes. Though the Virginia
constitution of 1850 provided for white manhood suffrage, yet the
distribution of representation among the counties was such as to
give control to the section east of the Blue Ridge Mountains.
Another grievance of the West was the large expenditure for
internal improvements at state expense in the East compared
with the scanty proportion allotted to the West. For an account
of the Virginia convention of 1861, which adopted the Ordinance
of Secession, see VIRGINIA. Here it is sufficient to say that only
nine of the forty-six delegates from the present state of West
Virginia voted to secede. Almost immediately after the adoption
of the ordinance a mass meeting at Clarksburg recommended that
each county in north-western Virginia send delegates to a conven-
tion to meet in Wheeling on the I3th of May 1861. When this
" First Wheeling Convention" met, four hundred and twenty-five
delegates from twenty-five counties were present, but soon there
was a division of sentiment. Some delegates favoured the
immediate formation of a new state, but the more far-sighted
members argued that as the ordinance had not yet been voted
upon by the people, and Virginia was still in the Union, such
action would be revolutionary, since the United States Constitu-
tion provides that no state may be divided without its consent.
Therefore it was voted that in case the ordinance should be
adopted (of which there was little doubt) another convention
including the members-elect of the legislature should meet at
Wheeling on the nth of June. At the election (zjrd May 1861)
the ordinance was ratified by a large majority in the state as a
whole, but in the western counties 40,000 votes out of 44,000
were cast against it. The " Second Wheeling Convention " met
according to agreement (nth June), and declared that, since the
Secession Convention had been called without the consent of the
people, all its acts were void, and that all who adhered to it had
vacated their offices. An act for the " reorganization " of the
government was passed on the igth of June. The next day
Francis H. Pierpont was chosen governor of Virginia, other
officers were elected and the convention adjourned. The
legislature, composed of the members from the western counties
who had been elected on the 23rd of May and some of the hold-
over senators who had been elected in 1859, met at Wheeling on
the ist of July, filled the remainder of the state offices, organized
a state government and elected two United States senators who
were recognized at Washington. There were, therefore, two
state governments in Virginia, one owning allegiance to the
United States and one to the Confederacy. The Convention,
which had taken a recess until the 6th of August, then re-
assembled and (August 20) adopted an ordinance providing for
a popular vote on the formation of a new state, and for a con-
vention to frame a constitution if the vote should be favourable.
At the election (October 24, 1861) 18,489 votes were cast for the
new state and only 781 against. The convention met on the
26th of November 1861, and finished its work on the i8th of
February 1862, and the instrument was ratified by the people
(18,162 for and 514 against) on the nth of April 1862. Next the
legislature of the " Reorganized " government on the I3th of May
gave its consent to the formation of the new state. Application
for admission to the Union was now made to Congress, and on the
3ist of December 1862 an enabling act was approved by President
Lincoln admitting the state on the condition that a provision for
the gradual abolition of slavery be inserted in the Constitution.
The Convention was reconvened on the I2th of February 1863,
and the demand of Congress was met. The revised instrument
was adopted by the people on the 26th of March 1863, and on the
2oth of April 1863 President Lincoln issued a proclamation
admitting the state* at the end of sixty days (June 20, 1863).
Meanwhile officers for the new state were chosen, and Governor
Pierpont removed his capital to Alexandria where he asserted
jurisdiction over the counties of Virginia within the Federal
lines. The question of the constitutionality of the formation
of the new state was brought before the Supreme Court of the
United States in the following manner. Berkeley and Jefferson
counties lying on the Potomac east of the mountains, in 1863,
with the consent of the " Reorganized " government of Virginia
voted in favour of annexation to West Virginia. Many voters
absent in the Confederate army when the vote was taken refused
to acknowledge the transfer on their return. The Virginia
legislature repealed the act of cession and in 1866 brought suit
against West Virginia asking the court to declare the counties
a part of Virginia. Meanwhile Congress on the roth of March
1866 passed a joint resolution recognizing the transfer. The
Supreme Court in 1871 decided in favour of West Virginia, and
there has been no further question. During the Civil War West
Virginia suffered comparatively little. McClellan's forces gained
possession of the greater part of the territory in the summer of
1 86 1, and Union control was never seriously threatened, in spite
of Lee's attempt in the same year. In 1863 General John D.
Imboden, with 5000 Confederates, overran a considerable portion
of the state. Bands of guerrillas burned and plundered in some
sections, and were not entirely suppressed until after the war
was ended. The state furnished about 36,000 soldiers to the
Federal armies and somewhat less than 10,000 to the Confederate.
The absence in the army of the Confederate sympathizers helps
to explain the small vote against the formation of the new state.
During the war and for years afterwards partisan feeling ran high.
The property of Confederates might be confiscated, and in 1866
a constitutional amendment disfranchising all who had given
aid and comfort to the Confederacy was adopted. The addition
of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the U.S.
Constitution caused a reaction, the Democratic party secured
control in 1870, and in 1871 the constitutional amendment of
1866 was abrogated. The first steps toward this change had
been taken, however, by the Republicans in 1870. In 1872 an
entirely new constitution was adopted (August 22).
Though the first constitution provided for the assumption of a
part of the Virginia debt, negotiations opened by Virginia in
1870 were fruitless, and in 1871 that state funded two-thirds of
the debt and arbitrarily assigned the remainder to West Virginia;
WESTWARD HO WETSTEIN
The legislature of the latter state in 1873 adopted a report
declaring that between 1822 and 1861, during which period the
debt had been incurred, the western counties had paid an excess
of taxes, more than equal to the amount which had been ex-
pended in the west for the purposes for which the debt had been
incurred, and concluded with the statement: " West Virginia
owes no debt, has no bonds for sale and asks no credit." In
1906 Virginia entered suit in the U.S. Supreme Court to compel
West Virginia to assume a portion of the debt. West Virginia
demurred, but was overruled, and on the 4th of May 1908 a
master was appointed to take testimony. The state rejected
decisively the overtures made by Virginia in 1866, looking
towards a reunion of the commonwealths.
Governors of West Virginia.
Arthur I. Boreman . . Republican
D. D. T. Farnsworth (acting)
Wm. E. Stevenson
John J. Jacobs
Henry M. Mathews
Jacob B. Jackson
E. Willis Wilson .
A. Brooks Fleming *
Wm. A. MacCorkle
George W. Atkinson
Albert B. White .
Wm. M. O. Dawson
Wm. E. Glasscock
1863-1869
1869
1869-1871
Democrat 1871-1877
1877-1881
1881-1885
1885-1890
1890-1893
1893-1897
Republican 1897-1901
1901-1905
1905-1909
1909-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general description see Henry Gannett,
Gazetteer of West Virginia (Washington, 1904), being Bulletin 233
of the U.S. Geological Survey; the Reports and the Bulletins
of the Geological Survey of West Virginia (Morgantown, 1901 sqq.).
Bulletin I is a Bibliography of Works upon the Geology and Natural
Resources of West Virginia, by S. S. Brown; (olios 26, 28, 32,
34, 44, 69, 72, 77 and 160 of the Geologic Atlas of the United' States;
M. F. Maury and W. M. Fontaine, Resources of West Virginia
(Charleston, 1876); and George W. Summers, The Mountain State
(ibid. 1893). For administration and history see the Manual of
West Virginia (Charleston, 1907), issued by the Secretary of State;
West Virginia Public Documents (ibid. 1902 sqq.) ; The Code of
West Virginia (St Paul, 1906) ; A. R. Whitehill, History of Education
in West Virginia (Washington, 1902), a Circular of Information of
the U.S. Bureau of Education; a History of Education in West
Virginia (Charleston, 1904), by the State Superintendent of Free
Schools; V. A. Lewis, History of West Virginia (new ed., New York,
1904), and History and Government of West Virginia (Chicago, 1896) ;
R. E. Fast and Hu Maxwell, History and Government of West Virginia
(Morgantown, 1901; new edition, 1908); A. S. Withers, Chronicles
of Border Warfare (1831, reprinted Cincinnati, 1905); J. P. Hale,
Trans-Alleghany Pioneers (Cincinnati, 1887); W. P. Willey, Forma-
tion of West Virginia (Wheeling, 1901); and M. F. Callahan, Evolu-
tion of the Constitution of West Virginia (Morgantown, 1909).
WESTWARD HO, a small seaside village in the Barnstaple
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the east of
Barnstaple Bay, 2 m. N.W. of Bideford, on the Bideford,
Appledore & Westward Ho railway. Of modern growth, it
takes its name from a famous novel by Charles Kingsley. Many
visitors are attracted in summer by its pure and bracing air, its
quiet, and, above all, by its golf club, with links laid out on the
sandhills known as Braunton Burrows. Westward Ho forms
part of the urban district of NORTHAM, which had a population in
1901 of 5355.
WETHERSFIELD, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, adjoining on the N. the city of
Hartford, of which it is a residential suburb. Pop. (1890) 2271;
(1900) 2637 (489 foreign-born); (1910) 3148. Area, about 12
sq. m. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
railway and by electric lines to Hartford. Among its old buildings
are the house in which in 1781 George Washington and Count
Rochambeau met to plan the York town campaign; the First
Church of Christ (Congregational), erected in 1761 and re-
modelled in 1838 and 1882; and the old academy building, which
was built in 1802, is now used as a town hall, and houses a public
library. There is a giant elm here, 26^ ft. in girth. The Connecti-
cut state prison is in Wethersfield. In the township tobacco,
vegetables and garden seeds are raised and dairy interests are of
considerable importance; the principal manufactures are small
tools and mattresses. Wethersfield is the oldest permanently
1 Title contested by Nathan Goff. Contest settled by legislature
Feb. 4, 1890, until which time Governor Wilson held over.
inhabited township in the state; it was first settled in the
winter of 1634-1635 by colonists from Watertown, Massachusetts,
and received its present name in 1637. With Hartford and
Windsor in 1639 it framed the Fundamental Orders of the
Colony of Connecticut. Before 1660 its inhabitants aided in the
founding of Stamford and Milford, Connecticut, and of Hadley,
Massachusetts.
See H. R. Stiles, History of Ancient Wethersfield (New York
1900).
WETSTEIN (also WETTSTEIN), JOHANN JAKOB (1693-1754),
New Testament critic, was born at Basel on the sth of March
1693. Among his tutors in theology was Samuel Werenfels
(1657-1740), an influential anticipator of modern scientific
exegesis. While still a student he began to direct his attention to
the special pursuit of his life the text of the Greek New Testa-
ment. A relative, Johann Wetstein, who was the university
librarian, gave him permission to examine and collate the
principal MSS. of the New Testament in the library, and he
copied the various readings which they contained into his copy
of Gerard of Maestricht's edition of the Greek text. In 1713
in his public examination he defended a dissertation entitled
De -oariis Novi Testamenti lectionibus, and sought to show
that variety of readings did not detract from the authority
of the Bible. Wetstein paid great attention also to Aramaic
and Talmudic Hebrew. In the spring of 1714 he undertook
a learned tour, which led him to Paris and England, the great
object of his inquiry everywhere being manuscripts of the New
Testament. In 1716 he made the acquaintance of Richard
Bentley at Cambridge, who took great interest in his work.
The great scholar induced him to return to Paris to collate
carefully the Codex Ephraemi, Bentley having then in view a
critical edition of the New Testament. In July 1717 Wetstein
returned to take the office of a curate at large (diaconus communis)
at Basel, a post which he held for three years, at the expiration
of which he exchanged it to become his father's colleague and
successor in the parish of St Leonard's. At the same time
he pursued his favourite study, and gave private lectures on
New Testament exegesis. It was then that he decided to prepare
a critical edition of the Greek New Testament. He had in the
meantime broken with Bentley, whose famous Proposals appeared
in 1720. His earlier teachers, however, J. C. Iselin and J. L.
Frey, who were engaged upon work similar to his own, became so
unfriendly towards him that after a time he was forbidden any
further use of the manuscripts in the library. Then a rumour
got abroad that his projected text would take the Socinian side
in the case of such passages as i Timothy iii. 16; and in othei
ways (e.g. by regarding Jesus's temptation as a subjective
experience, by explaining some of the miracles in a natural way)
he gave occasion for the suspicion of heresy. At length in 1729
the charge of projecting an edition of the Greek Testament
savouring of Arian and Socinian views was formally laid against
him. The end of the long and unedifying trial was his dismissal,
on the i3th of May 1730, from his office of curate of St Leonard's.
He then removed from Basel to Amsterdam, where a relative,
Johann Heinrich Wetstein, had an important printing and
publishing business, from whose office excellent editions of the
classics were issued, and also Gerard of Maestricht's edition of the
Greek Testament. Wetstein had begun to print in this office
an edition of the Greek Testament, which was suddenly stopped
for some unknown reason. As soon as he reached Amsterdam
he published anonymously the Prolegomena ad Novi Testamenti
Graeci editionem, which he had proposed should accompany his
Greek Testament, and which was republished by him, with
additions, as part of his great work, 1751. The next year (1731)
the Remonstrants offered him the chair of philosophy in theiv
college at Amsterdam, vacated by the illness of Jean le Clerc,
on condition that he should clear himself of the suspicion of
beresy. He thereupon returned to Basel, and procured a
reversal (March 22, 1732) of the previous decision, and re-
admission to all his clerical offices. But, on his becoming a
candidate for the Hebrew chair at Basel, his orthodox opponents
procured his defeat ?.nd his retirement to Amsterdam. At
WETTIN WEXFORD
565
length, after much painful contention, he was allowed to instruct
the Remonstrant students in philosophy and Hebrew on certain
somewhat humiliating conditions. For the rest of his life he
continued professor in the Remonstrant college, declining in
1745 the Greek chair at Basel. In 1746 he once more visited
England, and collated Syriac MSS. for his great work. At last
this appeared in 1751-1752, in two folio volumes, under the
title Novum Testamentum Graecum editionis receptae cum
lectionibus variantibus codicum MSS., &c. He did not venture
to put new readings in the body of his page, but consigned those
of them which he recommended to a place between the textus
receptus and the full list of various readings. Beneath the latter
he gave a commentary, consisting principally of a mass of
valuable illustrations and parallels drawn from classical and
rabbinical literature, which has formed a storehouse for all
later commentators. In his Prolegomena he gave an admirable
methodical account of the MSS., the versions and the readings
of the fathers, as well as the troubled story of the difficulties
with which he had had to contend in the prosecution of the work
of his life. He was the first to designate uncial manuscripts
by Roman capitals, and cursive manuscripts by Arabic figures.
He did not long survive the completion of this work. He died
at Amsterdam on the 23rd of March 1754.
Wetstein's New Testament has never been republishcd entire.
The London printer, William Bowyer, published, in 1763, a text in
which he introduced the readings recommended by Wetstein; J. G.
Semler republished the Prolegomena, and appendix (1764); A.
Lotze commenced a new edition of the work, but the Prolegomena
only appeared (Rotterdam, 1831), and this " castigated." It is
generally allowed that Wetstein rendered invaluable service to
textual criticism by his collection of various readings and his
methodical account of the MSS. and other sources, and that his
work was rendered less valuable through his prejudice against the
Latin version and the principle of grouping MSS. in families which
had been recommended by Richard Bentley and J. A. Bengel.
See Wetstein's account of his labours and trials in his Nov. Test.
i. ; articles in C. F. liken 's Ztschr. fur histor. Theol. by C. R. Hagen-
bach (1839), by L. \\ Van Rhyn in 1843 and again by Heinrich
Bottger in 1870; S. P. Tregelles, Account of the Printed Text of the
New Testament; F. H. A. Scrivener's Introduction to the Criticism
of the New Testament; W. Gass, Protestantische Dogmatik, vol. iii.;
the art. in Herzog's Realencyklopadie and in the Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie.
WETTIN, the name of a family from which several of the
royal houses of Europe have sprung, derived from a castle which
stood near the small town of that name on the Smile. Attempts
to trace the descent to the Saxon chief Widukind or Wittekind,
who died about 807, or to Burchard, margrave of Thuringia
(d. 008), have failed, and the earliest known ancestor is one
Dietrich, who was count of Hassegau or Hosgau, a district on
the left bank of the Saale. Dietrich was killed in 982 fighting
the Hungarians, and his sons Dedo I. (d. 1009) and Frederick
(d. 1017) received lands taken from the Wends, including the
county or Gau of Wettin on the right bank of the Saale. Dedo's
son Dietrich II. inherited these lands, distinguished himself
in warfare against the Poles, and married Matilda, daughter of
Ekkard 1., margrave of Meissen. Their son Dedo II. obtained
the Saxon east mark and lower Lusatia on the death of his
uncle Ekkard II., margrave of Meissen, in 1046, but in 1069
he quarrelled with the emperor Henry IV. and was compelled
to surrender his possessions. He died in 1075, ar d his lands were
granted to his son Henry I., who in 1089 was invested with the
mark of Meissen. In 1103 Henry was succeeded by his cousin
Thimo (d. 1104), who built a castle at Wettin, and was called
by this name. Henry II., son of Henry I., followed, but died
childless in 1123; his cousin, Conrad I., son of Thimo, claimed
Meissen, of which he secured possession in 1130, and in 1135
the emperor Lothair II. added lower Lusatia to his possessions.
Abdicating in 1156, Conrad's lands were divided between his
five sons, when the county of Wettin fell to his fourth son Henry,
whose family died out in 1217. Wettin then passed to the
descendants of Conrad's youngest son Frederick, and in 1288
the county, town and castle of Wettin were sold to the arch-
bishop of Magdeburg. They were retained by the archbishop
until the peace of Westphalia in 1648, when they passed to the
elector of Brandenburg, and afterwards became incorporated
in the kingdom of Prussia.
Conrad I. and his successors had added largely to their pos-
sessions, until under Henry I., the Illustrious, margrave of
Meissen, the lands of the Wettins stretched from the Oder to the
Werra, and from the Erzgebirge to the Harz mountains. The
subsequent history of the family is merged in that of Meissen,
Saxony and the four Saxon dukedoms. In June 1889 the Sooth
anniversary of the rule of the Wettins in Meissen and Saxony
was celebrated with great splendour at Dresden.
See G. E. Hofmeister, Das Haus Wettin (Leipzig, 1889); C. W.
Bottiger, Geschichte des Kurstaates und Konigreichs Sachsen (Gotha,
1867-1873); O. Posse, Die Markgrtfen von Meissen und das Haus
Wettin (Leipzig, 1881) ; K. Wenck, Die Weltiner im I4len Jahrhtmdert
(Leipzig, 1877); Kammel, Festschrift zur 800 jahrigen Jubtlfeier des
Houses Wettin (Leipzig, 1889); and H. B. Meyer, Hof- und Zentral-
venvaltung der Weltiner (Leipzig, 1902).
WETZLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, pleasantly situated at the confluence of the DiB and
Lahn, 64 m. N.E. of Coblenz by the railway to Giessen. Pop.
(1905) 12,276. The most conspicuous building is the cathedral,
dating in part from the i ith, in part from the I4th-i6th centuries.
The municipal archives contain interesting documents of the
whilom imperial chamber (see infra). The town preserves
associations of Goethe, who wrote Die Leiden desjungen Werthers
after living here in 1772 as a legal official, and of Charlotte Buff,
the Lotte of Werther. Overlooking the town are the ruins of the
medieval castle of Kalsmunt. There are iron mines and foundries
and optical instrument factories. Wetzlar was originally a
royal demesne, and in the i2th century became a free imperial
town. It had grown in importance when, in 1693, the imperial
chamber (Reichskammergericht) was removed hither from Spires.
The town lost its independence in 1803, and passed to the prince-
primate Dalberg. Three years later (1806), on the dissolution
of the empire, the imperial chamber ceased to exist. The French
were defeated here by the Austrians and Saxons under the
archduke Charles, isth June 1796.
WEXFORD, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded N. by Wicklow, E. and S. by St George's Channel,
and W. by Waterford, Kilkenny and Carlow. The area is
576,757 acres or about 902 sq. m. The coast-line does not
present any striking features, and owing to the number of
sandbanks navigation is dangerous near the shore. The only
inlet of importance on the east coast and the only safe harbour
is Wexford Harbour, which, owing to a bar, is not accessible to
large vessels at ebb-tide. The artificial harbour of Rosslare,
outside Wexford Harbour to the south, was therefore opened in
1906. On the south coast the great inlet of Waterford Harbour
separates the county from Waterford and Kilkenny, and among
several inlets Bannow Bay is the largest. Several islets adjoin
the coast. South from Crossfarnogue Point are the Saltee
Islands, and Coningmore and Coningbeg, beyond the latter
of which is the Saltee lightship. South-east from Greenore
Point is the Tuskar Rock.
The surface of the county is chiefly a series of verdant low
hills, except towards the northern and western boundaries. An
elevated ridge on the north-western boundary forms the termina-
tion of the granitic range in W r icklow, and in Croghan Kinshela,
on the borders of Wicklow, rises to a height of 1985 ft. On the
western border, another range, situated chiefly in Carlow,
extends from the valley of the Slaney at Newtownbarry to the
confluence of the Barrow with the Nore at New Ross, and
reaches 2409 ft. in Blackstairs Mountain, and 2610 ft. in Mount
Leinster on the border of Co. Carlow. In the southern district,
a hilly region, reaching In Forth Mountain a height of 725 ft.,
forms with Wexford Harbour the northern boundaries of the
baronies of Forth and Bargy, a peninsula of flat and fertile land.
The river Slaney enters the county at its north-western ex-
tremity, and flows south-east to Wexford Harbour. Its chief
tributary is the Bann, which flows south-westwards from the
borders of Wicklow. The Barrow forms the western boundary
of the ccunty from the Blackstairs range of mountains till its
confluence with the Suir at Waterford Harbour.
566
WEXFORD
Geology. The Leinster Chain, with its granite core and margin
of mica-schist, bounds the county on the west. From this, Silurian
ground stretches to the sea, like a platform with a hummocky
surface, numerous intrusive and contemporaneous felsitic lavas,
and some diorites occurring along the strike in continuation of the
Waterford series. A granite outlier rises south-east of Enniscorthy ;
and granite, in part gneissic, forms Carnsore Pt. From near Cour-
town to Bannow Bay, greenish slates like the Oldhamian series of
Wicklow form a broad band, with Old Red Sandstone and Carboni-
ferous Limestone above them near Wexford. Silurian beds appear
again towards Carnsore. The surface of the county is much modified
by glacial drift, and by the presence of sands and gravels of pre-
Glacial and possibly late Pliocene age. These interesting beds are
used for liming the fields, under the name of " manure gravels," on
account of the fossil shells that they contain.
Industries. The soil for the most part is a cold stiff clay resting
on clay-slate. The interior and western districts are much inferior
to those round the coasts. In the south-eastern peninsula of Forth
and Bargy the soil is a rich alluvial mould mixed with coralline
sandstone and limestone. The peninsula of Hookhead, owing to
the limestone formation, is specially fruitful. In the western districts
of the county there are large tracts of turf and peat-moss. The
acreage under pasture is a little over twice that of tillage., and
figures show a fair maintenance of the principal crops, barley, of
which the county produces more than any other Irish county,
oats, potatoes and turnips. The numbers also of cattle, sheep,
pigs and poultry are large and increasing, or well maintained.
Except in the town of Wexford the manufactures and trade are of
small importance. The town of Wexford is the headquarters of sea
and salmon fishing districts, and there are a few fishing villages
on the inlets of the south coast.
The main line of the Dublin & South-Eastern railway enters the
county from N.E., and runs to Wexford by way of Enniscorthy,
with a branch W. to New Ross, from Macmine Junction. Con-
necting with this line at Palace East, a branch of the Great Southern
& Western joins the Kilkenny & Kildare line at Bagenalstown,
county Carlow. This company also owns the lines from Rosslare
harbour to Wexford and across the southern part of the county to
Waterford. There is water communication for barges by the Slaney
to Enniscorthy; by the Barrow for larger vessels to New Ross, and
by this river and the Grand Canal for barges to Dublin.
Population and Administration. The population decreases
(112,063 in 1891; 104,104 in 1901), but this decrease and the
emigration returns are less serious than the average of Irish
counties. Of the total about 91% are Roman Catholics, and
about 83% form the rural population. The principal towns
are Wexford (pop. 11,168), New Ross (5847), Enniscorthy
(5458) and Gorey (2178). Newtownbarry, finely situated on
the Slaney below the outliers of Mount Leinster, is a lesser
market town. To the Irish parliament, until the Union of 1800,
the county returned two members, and the boroughs of Bannow,
Clonmines, Enniscorthy, Fethard, Gorey, New Ross, Taghmon
and Wexford two each. By the Redistribution Act of 1885
Wexford, which had returned two members since 1800, was
divided into two parliamentary divisions, North and South, each
returning one member, the borough of Wexford, which formerly
returned one member, and the portion of the borough of New
Ross within the county, being merged in the South Division. The
county is divided into ten baronies. It is in the Protestant diocese
of Dublin, and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin, Ferns, and
Kildare and Leighlin. Assizes are held at Wexford, and quarter
sessions at Enniscorthy, Gorey, New Ross and Wexford.
History and Antiquities. The northern portion of Wexford
was included in Hy Kinselagh, the peculiar territory of the
Macmorroughs, overlords of Leinster, who had their chief
residence at Ferns. Dermod Macmorrough, having been de-
posed from the kingdom of Leinster, asked help of Henry II.,
king of England, who authorized him to raise forces in England
for the assertion of his claim. He secured the aid of Strongbow
by promising him the hand of Eva, and in addition obtained
assistance from Robert Fitzstephen and Maurice Fitzgerald of
Wales. Ontheistof May 1169 Fitzstephen landed at Bagenbon
on the south side of Fethard, and after four days' siege captured
the town of Wexford from its Danish inhabitants. After this
Dermod granted the territory of Wexford to Fitzstephen and
Fitzgerald and their heirs for ever. Macmorrough having died
in 1172, Strongbow became lord of Leinster. At first Henry II.
retained Wexford in his own possession, but in 1174 he com-
mitted it to Strongbow. The barony of Forth is almost entirely
peopled by the descendants of those who accompanied these
English expeditions. Wexford was one of the twelve counties
into which the conquered territory in Ireland is generally stated
to have been divided by King John, and formed part of the
possessions of William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who had
married Strongbow's daughter. Through the female line it
ultimately passed to John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, who in
1446 was made earl of Waterford and baron of Dungarvan. In
1474 George Talbot was seneschal of the liberty of Wexford.
The district was actively concerned in the rebellion of 1641;
and during the Cromwellian campaign the town of Wexford
was carried by storm on the 9th of October 1649, and a week
later the garrison at New Ross surrendered a " seasonable
mercy," according to Cromwell, as giving him an " opportunity
towards Munster." Wexford was the chief seat of the rebellion
of 1 798, the leaders there being the priests.
Evidences of the Danish occupation are seen in the numerous
raths, or encampments, especially at Dunbrody, Enniscorthy and
New Ross. Among the monastic ruins special mention may be made
of Dunbrody abbey, of great extent, founded about 1 178 for Cistercian
monks by Hervey de Montmorency, marshal of Henry II.; Tintern
abbey, founded in 1200 by William Marshal, earl of Pembroke,
and peopled by monks from Tintern abbey in Monmouthshire; the
abbey of St Sepulchre, Wexford, founded shortly after the invasion
by the Roches, lords of Fermoy; Ferns abbey, founded by Dermod
Macmorrough (with other remains including the modernized cathe-
dral of a former see, and ruins of a church) ; and the abbey of New
Ross, founded by St Alban in the 6th century. There are a con-
siderable number of old castles, including Ferns, dismantled by the
parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote in 1641, and occupying
the site of the old palace of the Macmorroughs; the massive pile of
Enniscorthy, founded by Raymond le Gros; Carrick Castle, near
Wexford, the first built by the English ; and the fort of Duncannon.
WEXFORD, a seaport, market town and municipal borough,
and the county town of Co. Wexford, Ireland, finely situated
on the south side of the Slaney, where it discharges into Wexford
Harbour, on the Dublin & South-Eastern railway, 92$ m. S.
of Dublin. Pop. (1901) 11,168. Wexford Harbour, formed by
the estuary of the Slaney, is about 5 m. from N. to S. and about
4 from E. to W. There are quays extending nearly 900 yds.,
and the harbour affords good accommodation for shipping, but
its advantages are in great part lost by a bar at its mouth pr
venting the entrance of vessels drawing more than 12 ft.
artificial harbour was therefore opened at Rosslare in 1906,
outside the southern part of the promontory closing in the
harbour, and this is connected with Wexford by a railway
(8J m.) owned by the Great Southern & Western Company,
and is served by the passenger steamers of the Great Western
railway of England from Fishguard. The town of Wexford
consists, for the most part, of extremely narrow streets, of
picturesque appearance, but inconvenient to traffic. Some
remains exist of the old walls and flanking towers. The Pro-
testant church, near the ruins of the ancient abbey of St Sepulch
or Selsker, is said to occupy the spot where the treaty w;
signed between the Irish and the English invaders in 1169. Ti
principal modern buildings are the town-hall, court-house,
barracks, occupying the site of the ancient castle, St Peter':
College for the education of Catholic clergy, with a strikii
chapel by A. W. Pugin, and a number of convents. At Carrie!
2 m. W., the Anglo-Normans erected their first castle, am
opposite this, across the river, is a modern round tower com-
memorating the men of Wexford who died in the Crimean War,
The principal exports are agricultural produce, live stock an>
whisky. Shipbuilding is carried on, and also tanning, maltin,
brewing, iron-founding, distilling and the manufacture
artificial manure, flour, agricultural implements, and rope an
twine. Wexford is the headquarters of salmon and sea fishi
districts. Under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 189
it retains its mayor and corporation.
Wexford was one of the earliest colonies of the English, havi
been taken by Fitzstephen. It was the second town that Cro:
well besieged in 1649. It was garrisoned for William III.
1690. In 1798 it was made the headquarters of the rebels, who
however, surrendered it on the 2ist of June. In 1318 the to'
received a charter from Aymer de Valence, which was extend
by Henry IV. in 1411, and confirmed by Elizabeth in 155-
u0.j
but
Tn '
WEYBRIDGE WEYMOUTH
By James I. it was in 1608 made a free borough corporate, by
the title of " the town and free borough corporate of Wexford."
It returned two members to parliament from 1374 till the Union,
when they were reduced to one. In 1885 it was included in the
south division of the county.
WEYBRIDOE, an urban district in the Chertsey parliamentary
division of Surrey, England; 19 m. W.S.W. from London by
the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5329. It
lies in the flat valley of the river Wey, I m. above its junction
with the Thames. The river is locked up to Godalming, and
navigation is assisted by cuts. Weybridge has grown in modern
times out of a village into a residential town. The church of
St James is modern but contains numerous ancient memorials,
and one by Sir F. Chantrey for the duchess of York (d. 1820),
daughter of Frederick William II. of Prussia, to whose memory
there is also a column on Weybridge Green. The summit of
this column is that which formerly stood at Seven Dials, London.
The Roman Catholic chapel of St Charles Borromeo was the
burial-place of- Louis Philippe, ex-king of the French (d. 1850),
who resided at Claremont in the neighbouring parish of Esher, his
queen and other members of his family; but their bodies were
subsequently removed to Dreux in Normandy. To the east
of Weybridge lies Henry VIII.'s park of Oatlands (see WALTON-
ON-THAMES). In 1907 the Brooklands racing track for motor-
cars was opened near Weybridge. It has a circuit of 2^-J- m.
round the inner edge, and including the straight finishing track
is 3$ m. in tctal length; its maximum width is 100 ft., and at the
curves it is banked up to a maximum height of 28 ft. 8 in.
WEYDEN, ROGIER VAN DER [originally ROGER DE LA
PASTURE} ' (c. 1400-1464), Flemish painter, was born in Tournai,
and there apprenticed in 1427 to Robert Campin. He became
a gild master in 1432 and in 1435 removed to Brussels, where
he was shortly after appointed town painter. His four historical
works in the H6tel de Ville have perished, but three tapestries
in the Bern museum are traditionally based on their designs.
In 1449 Rogier went to Italy, visiting Rome, Ferrara (where
he painted two pictures for Lionel d'Este), Milan and probably
Florence. On returning (1450) he executed for Pierre Bladelin
the " Magi " triptych, now in the Berlin Gallery, and (1435) an
altarpiece for the abbot of Cambrai, which has been identified with
a triptych in the Prado Gallery representing the " Crucifixion,"
" Expulsion from Paradise " and " Last Judgment." Van der
Weyden's style, which was in no way modified by his Italian
journey, is somewhat dry and severe as compared with the painting
of the Van Eycks, whose pupil Vasari erroneously supposed him to
be; his colour is less rich than theirs, his brush-work more
laboured, and he entirely lacks their sense of atmosphere. On the
other hand, he cared more for dramatic expression, particularly
of a tragic kind, and his pictures have a deeply religious inten-
tion. Comparatively few works are attributed with certainty to
this painter; chief among such are two altarpieces at Berlin,
besides that mentioned above, " The Joys and Sorrows of
Mary," and " Life of St John the Baptist," a " Deposition "
and " Crucifixion " in the Escorial, the Prado triptych,
another (" Annunciation," " Adoration " and " Presentation ")
at Munich; a " Madonna " and a " St John the Baptist " at
Frankfort. The " Seven Sacraments " altarpiece at Antwerp
is almost certainly his, likewise the " Deposition " in the Uffizi,
the triptych of the Beaune hospital, and the "Seven Sorrows"
at Brussels. Two pictures of St Luke painting the Virgin, at
Brussels and St Petersburg respectively, are attributed to him.
None of these is signed or dated. Van der Weyden attracted
many foreigners, notably Martin Schongauer, to his studio, and
he became one of the main influences in the northern art of the
iSth century. He died at Brussels in 1464. His descendant,
ROGIER VAN DER WEYDEN the younger, is known to have
entered the Antwerp gild in 1528, but no work of his has yet
been satisfactorily authenticated.
See Hasse, Roger van der Weyden und Roger van Brugge (Strass-
burg. 1905).
1 He has sometimes been wrongly identified with a painter called
Roger of Bruges or Ruggiero da Bruggia.
WEYLER Y NICOLAU, VALERIANO, Marquess of Tenerife
(1830- ), Spanish soldier, was born at Palma de Majorca.
His family were originally Prussians, and served in the Spanish
army for several generations. He entered at sixteen the military
college of infantry at Toledo, and, when he attained the rank
of lieutenant, passed into the staff college, from which he came
out as the head of his class. Two years afterwards he became
captain, and was sent to Cuba at his own request. He distin-
guished himself in the expedition to Santo Domingo in many
fights, and especially in a daring reconnaissance with few men
into the heart of the enemy's lines, for which he got the cross
with laurels of San Fernando. From 1868 to 1872 he served
also brilliantly against the Cuban rebels, and commanded a
corps of volunteers specially raised for him in Havana. He
returned to Spain in 1873 as brigadier-general, and took an
active part against the Carlists in the eastern provinces of the
Peninsula in 1875 and 1876, for which he was raised to the rank
of general of division. Then he was elected senator and given
the title of marquess of Tenerife. He held the post of captain-
general in the Canary Isles from 1878 to 1883, and in the Balearic
Isles afterwards. In 1888 he was sent out as captain-general
to the Philippines, where he dealt very sternly with the native
rebels of the Carolines, of Mindanao and other provinces. On
his return to Spain in 1892 he was appointed to the command
first of the 6th Army Corps in the Basque Provinces and Navarre,
where he soon quelled agitations, and then as captain-general
at Barcelona, where he remained until January 1896. In
Catalonia, with a state of siege, he made himself the terror of
the anarchists and socialists. After Marshal Campos had failed
to pacify Cuba, the Conservative government of Canovas del
Castillo sent out Weyler, and this selection met the approval
of most Spaniards, who thought him the proper man to crush
the rebellion. Weyler attempted to do this by a policy of
inexorable repression, which raised a storm of indignation, and
led to a demand from America for his recall. This recall was
granted by the Liberal government of Sagasta, but Weyler
afterwards asserted that, had he been left alone, he would have
stamped out the rebellion in six months. After his return to
Spain his reputation as a strong and ambitious soldier made
him one of those who in case of any constitutional disturbance
might be expected to play an important r61e, and his political
position was nationally affected by this consideration; his
appointment in 1900 as captain-general of Madrid resulted
indeed in more than one ministerial crisis. He was minister of
war for a short time at the end of 1901, and again in 1005. At
the end of October 1909 'he was appointed captain-general at
Barcelona, where the disturbances connected with the execution
of Francisco Ferrer were quelled by him without bloodshed.
WEYMAN, STANLEY JOHN (1855- ), English novelist,
was born at Ludlow, Shropshire, on the 7th of August 1855,
the son of a solicitor. He was educated at Shrewsbury School,
and at Christ Church, Oxford. He took his degree in modern
history in 1877, and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple
in 1 88 1, joining the Oxford circuit. He had been practising as a
barrister for eight years when he made his reputation as a
novelist by a series of romances dealing with French history:
The House of the Wolf (1889), A Gentleman of France (1893),
Under the Red Robe (1894), Memoirs of a Minister of France
(1895), &c. Among his later novels were: Shrewsbury (1897),
The Castle Inn (1898), Sophia (1900), Count Hannibal (1901),
In King's Byways (1902), The Long Night (1903), The Abbess
of Vlaye (1904), Staroecrow Farm (1905), Chippinge (1906).
WEYMOUTH, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on Weymouth harbour, a part of Boston Bay, 9 m. S.E.
of Boston, between Quincy and Braintree (to the W.) and
Hingham to the E. Pop. (1890) 10,866; (1900) 11,324 (1845
foreign-bom); (1005, state census) 11,585; (1910) 12,895. Area,
19 sq. m. Weymouth is served by the New York, New Haven
& Hartford railway, and is connected with Boston, Quincy,
Braintree, Hingham, Nantasket and Rockland by electric
lines. In the township there are several villages, including
Weymouth, North Weymouth, East Weymouth and South
568
WEYMOUTH WHALE
Weymouth, and the smaller villages of Weymouth Centre,
Weymouth Heights, Lovell's Corner, Nash's Corner and Old
Spain, and there are also four islands, Round, Grape, Slate and
Sheep. The mainland itself is largely a peninsula lying between
the Weymouth Fore river and the Weymouth Back river, to
the west and east respectively. The surface of the country is
rough: Great Hill (at one of the narrowest parts of the peninsula)
is about 140 ft. above the rivers. In the township are the Fogg
Library (1898, in South Weymouth) founded by a bequest
of John S. Fogg; and the Tufts Library (1879, in Weymouth
village), endowed by Quincy Tufts and his sister Susan Tufts.
In 1905 the township's factory products were valued at
$4,921,955, of which $2,588,213, or 52-6% of the total, was
the value of boots and shoes. The' township owns and operates
its water works; the water supply is obtained from Weymouth
Great Pond in the village of South Weymouth. Weymouth was
first settled in 1623 by Robert Gorges. It was known first as
the Plantation of Wessaguscus or Wessagusset; was incorpo-
rated as a township in 1635, and its boundaries have been prac-
tically unchanged since 1637, when Round and Grape islands
were granted to Weymouth.
See C. F Adams, Jr., " Wessagusset and Weymouth " in No. 3
(1905) of the Publications ot the Weymouth Historical Society
(organized in 1879 and incorporated in 1886), and D. H. Hurd,
History of Norfolk County (Boston, 1884).
WEYMOUTH and MELCOMBE REGIS, a seaport, watering-
place, market town and municipal borough in the Southern parlia-
mentary division of Dorsetshire, England, 142 m. S.W. by W.
from London, on the London & South-Western and Great
Western railways. Pop. (1891) 16,100; (1901) 19,843. It is
formed of Weymouth, a fishing town and seaport on the south-
west of the Wey, and Melcombe Regis on the north-east of the
river, the two towns being contiguous. The situation on Wey-
mouth Bay, which is enclosed to the south by the Isle of Portland,
and north by the eastward trend of the coast, is picturesque.
An esplanade about i m. in length fronts the sea. To the south
of the esplanade is a pier of stone on wooden piles, and the
Alexandra and other public gardens are attractive. The harbour
lies between the pier on the north and the spur of land called
the Nothe on the south, and is protected by a concrete wall
extending 500 ft. northward from the Nothe. The principal
buildings are the old town-hall, the market house, the guildhall,
the Royal Dorset Yacht Clubhouse, the theatre, the Royal Victoria
Jubilee Hall, the Weymouth and Dorset eye infirmary, the
Weymouth royal hospital and dispensary and the barracks.
Of the numerous churches none dates from before the igth
century. Opposite the Royal Terrace is an equestrian statue
of George III., erected in 1809 in commemoration of his jubilee.
A mile S.W. of Weymouth is Sandsfoot Castle, a fort erected
by Henry VIII. for the protection of the shipping. The principal
exports are Portland stone, bricks and tiles and provisions, and
the imports are coal, timber, garden and dairy produce and
wine. Ship and boat building, rope and sail making, and brewing
are carried on. The Great Western railway company maintains
a regular service of passenger steamers to Guernsey and Jersey.
The municipal borough is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24
councillors. Area, 1299 acres.
Although its convenient harbour was probably used before
Saxon times, and bronze weapons and Roman interments have
been found, there is no evidence that Weymouth (Waimue,
Waymuth) was a place of early settlement. The first mention
of " that place called Weyroouth " occurs in a charter of King
jEthelred (866-871), while it is again spoken of in a charter
of King /Ethelstan (895-940). Edward the Confessor gave the
manor to the church of Winchester in 1042, and it remained
with the prior and convent of St Swithin until the I3th century,
when it passed by exchange to Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester,
though the vassals of the prior and convent remained exempt
from dues and tronage in the port. Coming by marriage into
the hands of the earls of March and Plantagenets, the manor
was finally vested in the crown. The first charter was that
granted by the prior and convent in 1252, by which Weymouth
was made a free borough and port for all merchants, the burgesses
holding their burgages by the same customs as those of Ports-
mouth and Southampton. The demand of six ships from the
town by the king in 1324 shows its importance in the 141
century, but there is no mention of a mayor until 1467. It
probable that the town suffered considerably at the hands of the
French at the beginning of the isth century, though in 1404 the
men of Weymouth were victorious over a party which landed
in the Isle of Portland. Early in the i6th century the commercial
rivalry between Weymouth and the neighbouring borough of
Melcombe came to a height. Melcombe had received a charter
from Edward I. in 1280 granting to its burgesses half the port
and privileges similar to those enjoyed by the citizens of London;
Edward II. in 1307-1308 granted that its men might elect for
themselves two bailiffs. The date of the grant of the town at
an annual fee-farm of 8 marks is uncertain, but in the reign of
Henry VI. a commission was appointed to inspect the destruction
wrought by the king's enemies on the town, with the result that
the fee-farm was reduced to 205. The continual disputes
between the two boroughs led to the passing of an act of union
in 1571, the new borough being incorporated under the title
of the " Mayor, Bailiffs and Burgesses" by James I. in 1616;
further charters were granted by Charles II. and George II.
Melcombe Regis first returned two members to parliament
in 1307, and Weymouth in 1319, four members being returned
by the united boroughs until 1832, when the representation was
reduced to two and ceased in 1885. The medieval fairs are no
longer held. As early as 1 293 trade was carried on with Bayonne,
and six years later a receiver of customs on wool and wool-fells
is mentioned at Weymouth, while wine was imported from
Aquitaine. In 1586 sugar is mentioned as an import, and in 1646
deal boards were brought here from Hamburg. The town
suffered severely during the Civil War, being garrisoned by the
parliamentary troops in 1642, taken by the earl of Carnarvon
in 1643, and surrendered in the following year. The town is
described as " but little " in 1733, but a few years afterwards
it gained a reputation as a watering-place, and the duke of
Gloucester built a house here; George III. and the royal family
in 1789 paid Weymouth the first of a series of visits which
further ensured its popularity.
See H. J. Moule, Descriptive Catalogue of the Charters, Minute
Books, and other Documents of the Borough of Weymouth and Melcome
Regis, A.D. 1250 to 1860 (Weymouth, 1883); John Hutchins, History
and Antiquities of the County of Dorset (3rd ed., Westminster, 1860).
WHALE, the English name applied to all the larger and some
of the smaller representatives of the order CETACEA (q.v.).
Although by their mode of life far removed from close observa-
tion, whales are in many respects the most interesting and
wonderful of all creatures; and there is much in their structure
and habits worthy of study. One of the first lessons a study of
these animals affords is that, in the endeavour to discover what
a creature really is, from what others it is descended, and to
which it is related, the outward appearance affords little clue,
and we must go deep below the surface to find the essential
characteristics of its nature. There was once, and may be still,
an idea that a whale is a fish. To realize the fallacy of this notion
we have only to consider what a fish really is, what under all
the diversities of form, size and cclour there is common to all
fishes, and we see that in everything which characterizes a true
fish and separates if from other classes, as reptiles, birds and
mammals, the whale resembles the last and differs from the
fish. It is as essentially a mammal as a cow or a horse, and
simply resembles a fish externally because it is adapted to inhabit
the same element; but it is no more on that account a fish
than is a bat (because adapted to pass a great part of its existence
on the wing) nearly related to a bird. In every part of the
structure of a whale we see the result of two principles acting
and reacting upon each other on the one hand, adherence to
type, or rather to fundamental inherited structural conditions,
and, en the other, adaptation to the peculiar circumstances
under which it lives, and to which it has become gradually
fitted. The external fish-like form is perfectly suited for
WHALE
swimming through the water; the tail, however, is not placed
vertically as in fishes, but horizontally, a position which accords
better with the constant necessity for rising to the surface for
the purpose of breathing. The hairy covering characteristic
of all mammals, which if present might interfere with rapidity
of movement through the water, is reduced to the merest rudi-
ments a few short bristles about the chin or upper lip which
are often only present in young animals. The function of keeping
the body warm is performed by a thick layer of non-conducting
remains in perfect action, filling the whole of the interval. The
mechanical perfection of the arrangement is completed by the
great development of the lower Up, which rises stiffly above
the jaw-bone and prevents the long, slender, flexible ends of the
whalebone from being carried outwards by the rush of water
from the mouth, when its cavity is being diminished by the
closure of the jaws and raising of the tongue.
If, as appears highly probable, the " bowhead " of the Okhotsk
Sea and Bering Strait belongs to this speries, its range is circum-
polar. Though found in the seas on both sides of Greenland,
and passing freely from one to the other, it is never seen so
far south as Cape Farewell ; but on the Labrador coast,
where a cold stream sets down from the north, its range is
somewhat farther. In the Bering Sea, according to Scam-
mon, " it is seldom seen south of the fifty-fifth parallel,
which is about the farthest southern extent of the winter
ice, while in the Sea of Okhotsk its southern limit is about
the latitude of 54." " Everything tends to prove,"
Scammon says, " that Balaena mysticetus is truly an ' ice
whale,' for among the scattered floes, or about the borders
of the ice-fields or barriers, is its home and feeding-ground.
It is true that these animals are pursued in the open water
during the summer months, but in no instance have we learned
FIG. I. The Greenland or Arctic Right Whale (Balaena mysticetus). O f tne ir being captured south of where winter ice-fields are
material, the " blubber," a dense kind of fat placed immediately
beneath the skin. The fore-limbs, though functionally reduced
to mere paddles, with no power of motion except at the shoulder-
joint, have beneath their smooth and continuous external
covering all the bones, joints and even most of the muscles,
nerves and arteries of the human arm and hand ; and rudiments
even of hind-legs are found buried deep in the interior of the
animal, serving no useful purpose, but pointing a lesson to those
able to read it.
In the present article attention is directed only to what may
be regarded as the typical whales. Of these the Greenland
or Arctic right whale (Balaena mysticetus) attains, when full
grown, a length of from 45 to 50 ft. In this species (fig. i) all
the peculiarities which distinguish the head and mouth of the
whales from those of other mammals have attained their greatest
development. The head is of enormous size, exceeding one-third
the whole length of the creature. The cavity of the mouth is
actually larger than that of the body, thorax and abdomen
together. The upper jaw is very narrow, but greatly arched
from before backwards, to increase the height of the cavity and
allow for the great length of the whalebone-blades: the enormous
lateral halves of the lower jaw are widely separated posteriorly,
and have a further outward sweep before they meet at the
symphysis in front, giving the floor of the mouth the shape of
an immense spoon. The whalebone-blades attain the number
of 380 or more on each side, and those in the middle of the series
have a length of 10 or sometimes 12 ft. They are black in
colour, fine and highly elastic in texture, and fray out at the
inner edge and ends into long, delicate, soft, almost silky, but
tough hairs. The remarkable development of the mcuth
and of the structures in connexion with it, which dis-
tinguishes the right whale from all its allies, is entirely in
relation to the nature of its food. By this apparatus
the creature is enabled to avail itself of the minute
but highly nutritious crustaceans and pteropods which
swarm in immense shoals in the seas it frequents. The
large mouth enables it to take in at one time a sufficient
quantity of water filled with these small organisms,
and the length and delicate structure of the whale-
bone provide an efficient strainer or hair-sieve by
which the water can be drained off. If the whalebone were
rigid, and only as long as is the aperture between the upper
and lower jaws when the mouth is shut, a space would be
left beneath it when the jaws were separated, through which
the water and the minute particles of food would escape. But
instead of this the long, slender, brush-like, elastic ends of the
whalebone blades fold back when the mouth is closed, the front
ones passing below the hinder ones in a channel lying between
the tongue and the lower jaw. When the mouth is opened,
their elasticity causes them to straighten out like a bow unbent,
so that at whatever distance the jaws are separated the strainer
occasionally met with." The occurrence of this species, therefore, on
the British or any European coast is unlikely, as when alive and in
health the southern limit of its range in the North Sea is from the
east coast of Greenland at 64 N. lat. along the north of Iceland
towards Spitsbergen, and a glance at a physical chart will show that
there are no currents setting southwards which could bear a disabled
animal or a floating carcase to the British shores. To this improb-
ability may be added the fact that no authentic instance haa been
recorded of the capture or stranding of this species upon any
European coast. Still, as two other Arctic cetaceans, the narwhal
and the beluga, have in a few instances fcund their way to British
shores, it would be rash to deny the possibility of the Greenland
right whale doing the same.
The black whale or southern right whale (B. australis) re-
sembles the preceding in the absence of a dorsal fin and of
longitudinal furrows in the skin of the throat and chest, but
differs in that it possesses a smaller head in proportion to its
body, shorter whalebone, a different-shaped contour of the upper
margin of the lower lip, and a greater number of vertebrae.
This type inhabits the temperate seas of both southern and
northern hemispheres and is divided into several species accord-
ing to their geographical distribution: B. biscayensis of the %
North Atlantic, B. japonica of the North Pacific, B. australis
of the South Atlantic, and B. antipodarum and B. novae-zdandiae
of the South Pacific. But the differential characters by which
they are separated are slight, and the number of specimens
available for comparison is not sufficient to afford the necessary
data to determine whether these characters can be regarded as
specific or not.
The Biscay right whale was formerly abundant in the North
Atlantic, but js now verging on extinction. This was the whale the
pursuit of which gave occupation to a numerous population on the
FIG. 2. The Black Whale or Southern Right Whale (B. australis).
shores of the Basque provinces of France and Spain in the middle
ages. From the loth to the l6th centuries Bayonne, Biarritz, St
Jean de Luz and San Sebastian, as well as numerous other towns
on the north coast of Spain, were thg centres of an active whale
" fishery," which supplied Europe with oil and whalebone. In later
times the whales were pursued as far as the coast of Newfoundland.
They were, however, already getting scarce when the voyages under-
taken towards the close of the i6th century for the discovery of the
north-eastern route to China and India opened the seas round
Spitzbergen ; then for the first time the existence of the Greenland
whale became known, and henceforth the energies of the European
whale-fishers became concentrated upon that animal. Among
instances of the occurrence of this whale in Europe in modern times
570
WHALEBONE WHALE-FISHERY
may be mentioned three, namely, in the harbour of San Sebastian in
January 1854, in the Gulf of Taranto, in the Mediterranean, in
February 1877, and on the Spanish coast between Guetaria and
Zarauz (Guipuzcoa) in February 1878. The skeletons of these three
whales are preserved in the museums of Copenhagen, Naples and
San Sebastian respectively. On the coast of the United States
several specimens have been taken; and a cargo of whalebone
belonging to this species was received at New Bedford in 1906.
During the latter year six examples were killed by whalers from
Buneveneader, in the island of Harris (see R. C. Haldane, Ann. Scot.
Nat. Hist., 1907,0. 13). In the North Pacific a similar if not identical
whale is regularly hunted by the Japanese, who tow the carcases
ashore for the purpose of flensing and extracting the whalebone.
In the tropical seas, however, right whales are never or rarely seen;
but the southern temperate ocean, especially in the neighbourhood
of the Cape of Good Hope, Kerguelen's Island, Australia and New
Zealand, is inhabited by " black whales," once abundant, but now
nearly exterminated through the wanton destruction of the females
as they visit the bays and inlets round the coast, their constant habit
in the breeding time. The range of these whales southward has not
been accurately determined ; but no species corresponding with the
Arctic right whale has been met with in the Antarctic seas.
See also HUMP-BACK WHALE, RORQUAL, SPERM-WHALE, BELUGA,
&c. (W. H. F.;R. L.*)
WHALEBONE, the inaccurate name under which the baleen
plates of the right whale are popularly known; the trade-name
of whale-fin, which the substance receives in commerce, is equally
misleading. Whalebone is formed in the palate on the roof of
the mouth and is an exaggeration of the ridges, often horny in
character, which are found on the roof of the mouth of all
mammals. Three kinds are recognized by traders the Green-
land, yielded by the Greenland whale, Balaena myslicetus;
the South Sea, the produce of the Antarctic black whale, B.
australis; and the Pacific or American, which is obtained from
B. japonica. Very many different names have been given to
whales of the B. australis group, and it is possible that local
races exist, whilst some writers are inclined to regard B. japonica
as not specifically distinct from B, australis. Of these the
Greenland whalebone is the most valuable. It formed the only
staple known in earlier times, when the northern whale fishery
was a great and productive industry. This whalebone usually
comes into the market trimmed and clean, with the hairy fringe
which edges the plates removed. To prepare whalebone for its
economic applications, the blades or plates are boiled for about
twelve hours, till the substance is quite soft, in which state it
is cut either into narrow strips or into small bristle-like fila-
ments, according to the use to which it is to be devoted.
Whalebone possesses a unique combination of properties which
render it peculiarly and almost exclusively suitable for several
purposes. It is light, flexible, tough and fibrous, and its fibres run
parallel to each other without intertwisting. One of its earliest uses,
referred to by William le Breton in the I3th century, was_ to form
the plumes on helmets. It has been found practicable to employ
flexible steel for several purposes to which whalebone was formerly
applied, especially in the umbrella and corset industries, in which
steel is now almost exclusively used. Whalebone, is, however, still
in large demand among dressmakers and milliners; but it is princi-
pally used in the brush trade. In cases where bristles are too soft and
weak, and where the available vegetable fibres possess insufficient
elasticity and durability, whalebone offers the great advantage of
being procurable in strips or filaments, long or short, thick or thin,
according to requirement. Hence it is principally used for making
brushes for mechanical purposes. The use of whalebone in brush-
making was originally patented by Samuel Crackles in 1808, and
various special machines have been adapted for cutting the material
into filaments. When whalebone came into the English market in
the 1 7th century it cost at first about 700 per ton. In the i8th
century its price ranged from 350 to 500 per ton, but early in the
I9th century it fell as low as 25. Later it varied from 200 to 250 ;
but with the decrease in whaling the article has become very scarce,
and upwards of 2000 per ton is now paid for Greenland whalebone.
WHALE-FISHERY, or WHALING, the pursuit and capture
of the larger species of cetaceans (see CETACEA and WHALE).
Man, in all probability, first became acquainted with the value
of the products yielded by whales from stranded individuals;
but at what time he first ventured to hunt and kill these monsters
in the open ocean it is now impossible to ascertain. We know,
however, from King Alfred's account of Ohthere's voyage to
the White Sea that the Norwegians were expert whalers at
least a thousand years ago; and we also know that from the
roth to the i6th centuries the Basques of Bayonne, Biarritz,
St Jean-de-Luz, San Sebastian and certain other French and
Spanish ports were carrying on a lucrative trade in the products
of a whale-fishery conducted by themselves, which supplied
Europe with whalebone and oil. In the latter, and not im-
probably also in the former case, the species hunted was the
Atlantic right-whale, or black whale (Balaena biscayensis),
which the Basques seem to have well-nigh exterminated in their
own waters; and it was not till a later epoch that the pursuit
of its larger-headed cousin, the Greenland right-whale (B.
myslicetus), was initiated. Hunting the sperm-whale, or cacha-
lot, in the South Sea was a still later development, while rorqual-
hunting is quite a modern industry.
Of whaling vessels of the old type, a brief notice will suffice.
Those engaged in the British South Sea fishery, which was in
its prime about the year 1790, were from 300 to 400 tons burden,
and equipped for at least a three-years' voyage. They carried
from 28 to 33 officers and men, and six whale-boats. Built
sharp at both ends, these boats were about 27 ft. long, and were
furnished, in addition to masts and sails, with a couple of
2co-fathom whale-lines. When a whale was sighted from the
" crow's-nest " at the masthead of the vessel, four boats, each
carrying a crew of six men, were lowered and despatched in
pursuit. The crew consisted of a boat-steerer in the bow, four
rowers and a headsman in the stern. The boat-steerer carried
the harpoons with which the whale was first attacked, and when
the boat was once " fast " to a whale by means of the harpoon
and line, the attack was carried on by the headsman, who was
armed with long slender lances. When several whales were seen,
two or more of the boats might make separate attacks; but in
other instances they kept together, so that their united lines
were available when the whale descended or " sounded." After
the first blow of the harpoon, or at all events after the first
effective lancing, the " sounding " was deep and prolonged;
but loss of blood eventually caused the victim to keep near the
surface, when, if all went well, it was finally despatched by lance-
thrusts behind one of the flippers into the vital parts.
When a sperm-whale was killed, the carcase was made fast
to the side of the vessel, and the process of flensing, or " cutting-
in," commenced. On being made fast to the vessel, the whale
was enveloped in a framework, and a strip of the blubber cut in
a spiral direction. By raising this strip with the aid of proper
apparatus, the whale could be turned round and round on its
axis, and nearly the whole of the blubber removed in a con-
tinuous piece, to be cut, as required, into convenient lengths.
Meanwhile the liquid spermaceti, or " head-matter," was
ladled out in buckets from the great cavity in the skull and put
in casks, where it solidified, to be carried to port and there
refined. The blubber was, however, reduced to oil by " try-
works " with which the vessel was provided, and stored in
barrels. A large male sperm-whale will yield as much as eight
barrels, or about 3 tons of oil; while the yield of a small fema!
does not exceed i or 2 tons. In the old days the cargo of
successful vessel might include the products of a hundred whal
yielding from 150 to 200 tons of boiled sperm-oil in addition
the spermaceti.
In the old days of the Greenland whale-fishery vessels
about 350 tons burden were deemed the most eligible, th<
being constructed in such a manner as to resist so far as possible
the pressure of the ice. The crew was about fifty in number,
and the vessel carried six or seven whale-boats of the sai
length as those used in the South Sea fishery. The vessels lefi
Peterhead and Dundee (the ports for the Greenland fishery,
as was London for the South Sea fishery) about the beginning
of April, and, after touching at the Shetlands, reached the
whaling-grounds before the end of that month. In approaching
a_ whale, which was effected from behind, silence was essential,
and the harpoon had to be delivered within a distance of a few
yards. The moment the wounded whale disappeared a flag
was hoisted in the boat to give notice that assistance was re-
quired from the ship. Attention to the line was a matter of the
utmost importance, as if it became entangled the boat would
be drawn under water by the whale. Sometimes its motion
WHALE-FISHERY
was retarded by one or more turns round the " bollard," a post
fixed for this purpose in the boat; when this was done the
friction was so great as to produce quantities of smoke, fire
being prevented by sluicing the bollard with water. Even with
the assistance offered by the bollard, the whale-line might be
run out within ten minutes, when the lines of a second or even
a third boat would be attached. In this manner some 600 or
700 fathoms of line would be taken out; the whale commonly
remaining under water when first wounded for about 40 minutes,
although a period of an hour is said to be not unfrequent. On
rising after its second descent the whale was attacked with
lances thrust deep into the body and aimed at the vital parts.
The old-fashioned lance was a 6-ft. rod and ^-in. iron, flattened
at one end into the form of a lance-head with cutting edges,
and at the other expanding into a socket for the reception of
a short wooden handle. Torrents of blood spouted from the
blow-hole of the whale denoted the approaching end of the
struggle. So soon as the whale was dead, no time was lost in
piercing the tail or " flukes," and thus making the carcase fast
to the boats by means of a cable, and then towing it in the
direction of the' ship. From fifteen minutes to as much as
fifty hours might be occupied in a whale-hunt.
The following account of the operation of " flensing," or
securing the blubber and whalebone of the Greenland whale,
is taken from Sir William Jardine's Naturalists' Library:
" The huge carcase is somewhat extended by strong tackles
placed at the snout and tail. A band of blubber, two or three feet in
width, encircling the whale's body at what is the neck in other
animals, is called the kent, because by means of it the whale is turned
over or kented. To this band is fixed the lower extremity of a com-
bination of powerful blocks, called the kent- purchase, by means of
which the whole circumference of the animal is, section by section,
brought to the surface. The harpooners, having spikes on their feet
to prevent their falling from the carcase, then begin with a kind of
spade, and with huge knives, to make long parallel cuts from end to
end, which are divided by cross-cuts into pieces of about half a ton.
These are conveyed on deck, and, after being reduced to smaller
portions, are stowed in the hold. Finally, being by other operations
still further divided, the blubber is put into casks, which is called
4 making-off,' and packed down completely by a suitable instrument.
" While this flensing is proceeding, and when it reaches the lips,
which contain much oil, the baleen (whalebone) is exposed. This is
detached by means of bone hand-spikes, bone knives and bone
spades. The whole whalebone is hoisted on deck in one mass, when
it is split by bone wedges into junks, containing five or ten blades
each, and stowed away. When the whole whalebone and blubber are
thus secured, the two jaw-bones, from the quantity of oil which they
contain, are usually hoisted on deck, and then only the krene re-
mains the huge carcase of flesh and bone, which is abandoned either
to sink or to be devoured by the birds, sharks and bears, which duly
attend on such occasions for their share of the prey."
The largest cargo ever secured by a Scotch whaler was that
of the " Revolution " of Peterhead in 1814, which comprised
the products of no less than forty-four whales. The oil, which
amounted to 299 tons, realized 9568, while the price obtained
for the whalebone, added to the government bounty then given
to Greenland whalers, brought up the total sum to i 1,000.
Allowing a ton to each whale, the whalebone alone at present
prices would have yielded about 110,000!
At a later period, say about 1880, the Greenland whaler had
grown to a vessel of from 400 to 500 tons gross register, rigged
either as a ship or a bark, and provided with auxiliary engines
of about 75 horse-power. She would be manned by from fifty
to sixty hands, and would carry eight boats of the type men-
tioned above. Below the hold-beams were fitted about fifty
iron tanks capable of containing from 200 to 250 tons of oil.
Such a vessel would cost about 17,500 to build, and her working
expenses, exclusive of interest and insurance, would be about
500 a month. At the period mentioned each whale-boat was
armed with a harpoon-gun measuring 4 ft. 6 in. in length and
weighing 75 Ib; the barrel being 3 ft. long, with ij-in. bore,
and mounted in a wooden stock, tapering behind into a pistol-
handle. The gun-harpoon is used solely for first getting on to
the whales; hand-harpoons being employed for getting a hold
with other -lines.
Without referring to further improvements in the weapons
and vessels employed, it will suffice to state that in the Greenland
whale-fishery the whales are still killed from whale-boats. In
the rorqual-fishery, as at Newfoundland, on the other hand,
the actual attack is made from a steam-vessel of considerable
size, as is described in the following quotation from a paper
by Mr G. M. Allen in the American Naturalist for 1004, refer-
ring to the fishery at Rose-au-Rue, Placentia Bay, New-
foundland :
" The fishery itself, " observes the author, " is carried on by means
of small and staunchly built iron steamers of something over one
hundred tons. A cannon-like gun is mounted on a pivot at the bow,
and discharges a s-ft. harpoon of over 100 Ib weight, which at short
range is nearly buried in the body of the whale. A hollow iron cap
filled with blasting powder is screwed to the tip of the harpoon,
forming its point. A timed fuse discharges the bomb inside the body
of the whale. The harpoon carries a stout cable which is handled by
a powerful 5-sheet winch on the steamer's deck."
Explosive harpoons of the type referred to were invented by
Svend Foyn, a Norwegian, and used by him about the year
1865 or 1866 in the manner described above, as they still are
in various Norwegian rorqual-fisheries.
In fisheries of this type the^carcases of the whales are towed
into harbour for flensing; and in place of the " kreng " being
wasted, the flesh is worked up to form an excellent manure,
while the bones are ground up and also used as fertilisers.
A somewhat similar mode of proceeding characterizes the
sperm-whale fishery now carried oa in the Azores, so far at least
as the towing of the carcases to shore for the purpose of flensing
is concerned. According to an account given by Professor
E. L. Bouvier in the Bulletin de I'lnslitut Oceanographique for
1907, American whalers have observation stations on most of
the islands of the Azores group; Horta, in Fayal, being the
favourite station. The carcases of the cachalots are towed for
flensing into a small creek adjacent to the port, where, after the
removal of the spermaceti and blubber, they are left to rot.
Even the teeth have a commercial value, being either sold as
curiosities in Horta, or utilized [or ivory. Whenever practicable,
the whales caught by the vessels belonging to the great sperm-
whaling station at New Bedford are towed into the harbour
for flensing.
Passing on to a review of some of the more important whale-
fisheries of the world, the Atlantic fishery by the Basques
in the loth and six succeeding centuries claims first mention.
Readers desirous of obtaining further insight into the little that
is known about it are referred to an interesting paper by Sir
Clements Markham published in the Proceedings of the Zoo-
logical Society of London for 1881. Although, as already
mentioned, the black whale (Balaena biscayensis) was well-nigh
exterminated in the north Atlantic by the Basques, and for
many years afterwards was excessively rare, yet quite recently
several examples have been taken by Scottish whalers off the
Hebrides, while the whalebone of others has been received at
New Bedford.
The discovery in 1596 by the Dutch navigator Barents of
Spitzbergen. followed by the voyage of Hudson in the " Hope-
well " in 1607, may be said to have inaugurated the second
phase in the whaling industry; these adventurous voyages
bringing to light for the first time the existence of the Greenland
whale (B. myslicelus) ; a species of much greater value than any
that had been previously hunted.
Here it may be well to refer to two common misconceptions
regarding this whale. In the first place, it does not appear
to be, as commonly supposed, a circumpolar species. There is,
for instance, no evidence of its occurrence eastward of Spitz-
bergen along the Siberian coast between 10 and 170 E.; and
it is not till the latter parallel is reached, at Cape Schelagskoi,
that the domain of the so-called bowhead of the American
whales is entered.
" On the other side of Bering Strait," writes Mr T. Southwell
in the Annals of Scottish Natural History for April 1904, "these
whales do not appear to_ penetrate much farther east than Cape
Bathurst, and it seems highly improbable that there is any inter-
communication between those at that point and the whales in
Baffin Bay. On the other hand, the whales on the east side of
572
WHALE-FISHERY
Davis Strait do not descend so far south as Cape Farewell, nor
are those in the Greenland Sea known to pass westward round
that cape. It seems therefore that, although their range as a species
is undoubtedly extensive longitudinally, the localities they inhabit
are greatly restricted, each being inhabited by a local race differing
from the other in some slight degree."
The second misconception is that the Greenland whale has
gradually been driven northward by the whalers. A sufficient
proof of the falsity of this idea is afforded by the fact that the
minute organisms constituting the food of the species are re-
stricted to the icy seas of the far north. The Greenland whale is,
in fact, essentially an ice-whale.
To revert to the history of the fishery, no sooner was the
accessibility of the Spitzbergen seas made known than vessels
were fitted out for whaling there, at first by the British, and soon
after by the Dutch. The seas absolutely swarmed with whales,
which showed little fear of vessels and could thus be captured
with ease. The first whaling expedition was despatched by the
Muscovy Company, under the command of Jonas Poole; and
the success of four voyages (1609-1612) soon attracted the atten-
tion of other nations. Some indication of the abundance of the
whales may be gathered from the fact that in the year 1697 no
less than 1959 of these monsters were killed off Spitzbergen by
1 88 vessels.
The fishery in Davis Strait was begun in 1719 by the Dutch,
who at first killed large numbers of whales and were subse-
quently followed by the British. Although many whales have
been seen in recent years, few are taken; and it is the opinion of
many that in Greenland waters, at any rate, steam has been fatal
to the industry.
The following summary of the rise and fall of the British
Greenland whale-fishery is given by Mr Southwell in the article
already cited:
" For the first quarter of the igth century scarcely a seaport of any
importance on the east coast of England was unrepresented in the
Arctic seas: from Scotland, Berwick, Leith, Kirkcaldy, Dundee,
Montrose, Aberdeen, Peterhead, Kirkwall, Greenock and for a time
Banff and Bo'ness, all took part in the whale-fishery. Gradually,
one by one, they fell off, till only Peterhead, which sent out her first
whaler in 1788, and Dundee (which started in 1790) were left. In
1893 Peterhead, which in 1857 sent out 34 vessels, ceased to be repre-
sented in the industry, leaving Dundee in possession of the field.
Dundee sent out its largest fleet in 1885, 16 vessels; in 1903 she
was represented by 5 vessels only, one of which was wrecked."
According to Mr Southwell's account of the Arctic fishery
(Zoologist, 1906), a Dundee vessel, the " Scotia," visited the east
Greenland seas in the summer of 1906, where she took four
small right- whales; this visit being the first made to those seas
by a British vessel since 1899.
As already mentioned, the British whalers were accustomed
to sail for the Arctic Ocean early in April; and if their destina-
tion was the east Greenland sea, off the west coast of Spitzbergen,
they generally arrived on the grounds about a month later.
The whales make their appearance amongst the ice near the sea
edge about the i Sth of May, but only remain until the opening
of the barrier-ice permits them to resume their northward
journey; for about the middle of June they suddenly disappear
from these grounds, and are last seen going north-west, when the
north Greenland whale-fishing is over for the season. If un-
successful in obtaining a cargo at the northern grounds, the whale-
ships were accustomed to proceed southwards as far as lat. 75;
where, if the sea were sufficiently open, they penetrated west-
wards until the coast of Greenland became visible. There they
cruised amongst the ice until August, when the darkness of the
nights put an end to the season's fishing. If the south-west
fishery, in Davis Strait, were the first object of the voyage, the
vessels arrived at the edge of the ice near Resolution Island in
April. If unsuccessful here they proceeded direct to Disco
Island, where they usually arrived early in May. The whales
appear about the middle of May at South East Bay, where a great
fishing was once carried on. The dangerous passage of Melville
Bay was next performed; the whales entering the north water
in June, and pushing on towards the sounds. If there were a
" land-floe across," i.e. if the land-ice of the west side were con-
tinuous across the entrance of Ponds Bay and Lancaster Sound,
whales would be seen in considerable numbers and good cargoes
might be obtained; but immediately the land-floe broke u
they departed to the westward. When there was no land-flo
across, the whales proceeded at once to the secluded waters o
Eclipse Sound and Prince Regent Inlet for the summer month
At this season most of the vessels cruised in the sounds, but
few searched the middle ice, until the darkness of the Augus
nights compelled them to seek anchorage in some of the harbour
of the west side, to await the return of the whales south. Th
migration takes place on the formation of young ice in the sound
usually in the latter part of September. Only the larger whales
most of which are males, come, however, close down along th
land of the west side. These the ships sent their boats to inter
cept; this forming the inshore-fishing, or " rock-nosing," which
continued till the formation of young ice drove the vessels out of
harbour, usually early in October.
A few vessels, American as well as British, occasionally enter
Hudson Bay and prosecuted the fishing in the neighbourhood
Southampton Island, even entering Fox Channel. There we
whaling-stations in Cumberland Inlet, and a few vessels usua
remained throughout the winter, ready to take advantage of the
opening of the ice in the following spring. Here both young and
old whales make their appearance in May; and the fishing
continued till the whales migrated northwards in June.
Of the other nationalities which took part in the Spitzbergen-
Greenland fisheries, it may be mentioned that the Dutch had
fisheries both at Jan Mayen till 1640 and at Spitzbergen. In
the Spitzbergen fishery 10,019 whales were taken by them in the
ten years from 1679 to 1688. About 1680, when the fishing was
probably most prosperous, they had 260 vessels and 14,000
seamen employed. The fishery continued to flourish on an
extensive scale till 1770, when it began to decline, and it finally
came to a close before the end of the century. At the same time
the Germans prosecuted the fishing to a very considerable extent;
79 vessels from Hamburg and Bremen being employed in 1721,
while during the fifty years from 1670 to 1719 an average of
45 vessels sailed yearly from Hamburg alone. German vessels
continued to engage in the fishery until 1873. The Spaniards,
although they at first supplied the harpooners to the crews
of the English and Dutch vessels, never seem to have engaged
largely in the northern fishery. The Danes, although likewise
early appearing on the Spitzbergen fishing-grounds, never
pursued the industry on a large scale until after the commence-
ment of the Davis Strait fishing in 1721, in which year they
had 90 vessels engaged; but by 1803 the number had fallen
to 35-
The continually increasing rarity of the Greenland whale has
caused an enormous appreciation in the value of whalebone of
recent years, as compared to the prices obtaining the first half of
the last century. For about twenty years preceding the year 1840
the average price of this commodity was about 163 per ton; while
in the year 1835 whalebone of the Greenland whale sold at 250 per
ton, and that of the south Atlantic black whale (Balaena australis) at
145 per ton. At the present date the price is about 2500 per ton,
but a few years ago it touched 2800, although soon after it fell for a
short time to 1400. The reason of the fall from 2800 to 2500 (at
about which figure the price has stood for some time) is believed to be
owing to the use of strips of horn for many purposes where whale-
bone was formerly employed. Owing to its much greater length, the
whalebone of the Greenland whale is, as indicated above, far more
valuable than that yielded by the northern and southern Atlantic
black whales, of which comparatively little generally comes into the
market. The best quality of whalebone is known in the trade as
" size-bone," and consists of p]ates not less than 6 ft. in length.
In the twenty years preceding 1840 the average price of whale-
oil from the northern fisheries was 30 per ton ; the actual price in
1835 being 40 per ton. At the present day the price is only 23
per ton. It may be added that in 1835 South Sea oil sold at 43
and sperm-oil at 75 per ton.
A few words will suffice for the American fishery of the so-
called bowhead, the western race of the Greenland whale, in
Bering Strait. Here the whales are mostly sought for and
killed in open water, and the vessels are consequently less
adapted for ice-work. For the most part the vessels sail from
San Francisco in March, and arrive at the ice-edge off Cape
Navarin, where the fishing is begun, in May. The whale
vhales
1
WHALE-OIL
573
disappear during summer, but return in the autumn, when the
" fall-fishing " is carried on in the neighbourhood of Point
Barrow; and between the seasons it was customary for the
vessels to go south for sperm-whaling. The Bering Strait
fishery was begun in 1848, and in the three following years
250 ships obtained cargoes. In 1871 no less than 34 vessels
were abandoned in the ice off Cape Belcher, the crews making
good their escape to other vessels; while again in 1876 a dozen
vessels experienced a similar fate.
The sperm-whale fishery, of which the products are sper-
maceti, sperm-oil, ambergris (mostly found floating in masses
in the sea) and teeth, appears to have been initiated by the
Americans in 1690, who for a considerable period found sufficient
occupation in the neighbourhood of their own coasts. The
British are, however, stated to have opened up the great whaling-
grounds of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, although they did
not embark on sperm- whaling till 1775. Within less than twenty
years from that date their trade had, however, attained its
maximum; no less than 75 British vessels, all from the port
of London, being engaged in this industry in the year 1791.
After this there was a steady decline till 1830, when only 31
vessels were thus employed; and since 1853 sperm-whaling
has ceased to be a British industry.
As regards the American fishery, the island of Nantucket
embarked in this trade about the year 171 2, and by 1774 there
were 360 American ships engaged in sperm-whaling, while in
1846, when the fishery was about at its zenith, the number
was 735, mostly from New Bedford. Between 1877 and 1886 the
average number of vessels had sunk to 159. New Bedford, on
the Atlantic, and San Francisco, on the Pacific side, are the two
great whaling centres; and during the period last mentioned
the average imports of whaling products into the United States
totalled 5304 tons of sperm-oil, together with 4863 tons of
whale-oil and 145 tons of whalebone.
During the first half of the last century the colony of New
South Wales was busily engaged in this trade, and in 1835
exported 2989 tons of sperm-oil.
Since the year 1882, when no less than 203 head were taken
by the Peterhead whaler " Eclipse," the Norwegians have
carried on a fishery for the bottle-nosed whale (Hyperoodon
roslratus), a species which although greatly inferior in point of
size, yields an oil closely akin to sperm-oil, but possessed of even
greater lubricating power. An average male bottle-nose will
yield about 22 cwts. of oil, containing 5% of pure spermaceti.
Bottle-nose fishing is chiefly carried on in the neighbourhood
of Jan Mayen and Iceland during the months of May, June and
July, the whales usually disappearing quite suddenly about
the middle of the last-mentioned month. In 1903 about 1600
tons of this oil came on the market, which would imply the
destruction of nearly 2000 whales.
The invention by Svend Foyn of the explosive harpoon,
already referred to, inaugurated about the year 1866 the Nor-
wegian fin-whale fishery, an industry which has since been
taken up by other nationalities. The rorquals or fin-whales
(Balaenoptera), which include the largest of all cetaceans, are
built for speed, and are much fiercer animals than either the
Greenland or the Atlantic right whale; their rush when wounded
being of enormous velocity, while their vitality is such that
attacking them in the old-fashioned way with the hand-harpoon
is practically useless, and at the same time fraught with great
danger to the pursuers. To a considerable extent the same
may be affirmed of the humpbacked whale (Megaptera). Under
these circumstances, previous to the invention of the bomb-
harpoon, these whales were left entirely alone by the whalers.
By the year 1885 the Norwegians had a fleet of over 30 vessels
engaged in this fishery off the coast of Finmark, the amount
of whose catch comprised 1398 whales in 1885, and 954 in the
following year. Gradually the Norwegians have developed and
extended the rorqual-fishery, and they now possess stations in
Iceland, the Faroes and Shetlands, and also at Buneveneader
in Harris in the Hebrides. In the Shetlands there are two
Stations at the head of Ronas Voe on the north-west side of the
mainland where operations are carried on from May and June
till September, when the whales leave the shore. During the
first season (1903) the Norrona Whaling Company's vessels
killed 64 whales, while 62 were accounted for by the Shetland
Whaling Company.
'In 1898 a successful rorqual-fishery was established by the
Newfoundland Steam Whaling Company at Rose-au-Rue,
Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. Four species of rorquals as well
as humpbacks are hunted; and during a portion of the season
in 1903 the catch included 174 of the former and 14 of the latter.
In addition to the above-mentioned fisheries for the larger
whales, there are considerable local captures of the smaller kinds,
commonly known as grampuses or killers, porpoises,and dolphins.
Of these, however, very brief mention must suffice. The most
important captures are generally made in northern seas. The
black pilot-whale, or grindhval (Globicephalus melas), is, for in-
stance, not infrequently taken in large shoals by the Faroe
islanders; these whales being driven by boats into the shallows,
where they are sometimes slaughtered by hundreds. Much the
same may be stated with regard to the grampus or killer (Orca
gladiator), of which no less than 47 head were killed at once
in January 1904 at Bildostrommen, Norway. Of even more
importance is the white-whale or beluga (Delphinapterus leucas),
which is hunted for its blubber, hide and flesh; the average yield
per head being about 100 gallons of oil. In 1871 the Tromsoe
whalers captured no less than 2167 individuals; while in 1898
300 out of a school of some 900 were captured on a single occasion
at Point Barrow, Alaska. These whales, which are worth about
3 a head, yield the leather known commercially as " porpoise-
hide." The narwhal (Monodon monoceros), yielding both blubber
and the valuable ivory tusks, is usually captured singly by the
Greenlanders in their " kayaks." Local porpoise and dolphin
fisheries are carried on by the fishermen in many parts of the
world, the natives of the Travancore coast being noted for their
success in this respect; while even the fresh- water susu or Ganges
dolphin (Plalanista gangetica) and the Rio de la Plata dolphin
(Pontoporia blainvillei) are also caught in considerable numbers
for the sake of their blubber.
LITERATURE. The following books and papers may be con-
sulted : T. Beale, The Natural History of the Sperm-Whale (London,
1837); W. S. Tower, A History of the American Whale Fishery
(Philadelphia, 1907); J. R. Spears, Story of New England Whaling
(New York, 1908); C. R. Markham, " On the Whale-Fishery of the
Basque Provinces of Spain," Proc. Zoo/. Soc. London (1881), p. 969;
T. Southwell, " Notes on the Seal and Whale Fishery," Zoologist
(London, 1884-1907), and "On the Whale-Fishery from Scotland,
with some account of the changes in that industry and of the species
hunted," Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist. (1904), p. 77; G. M. Allen, " Some
Observations on Rorquals off Southern Newfoundland," Amerifan
Naturalist, xxxviii. 613 (1904); R. C. Haldane, "Whaling in
Shetland, 1904," Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist. (1905), p. 65, and " Whaling
in Scotland," I.e. (1907), p. 10; E. L. Bouvier, " Quelques im-
eressions d'un naturalist e au cours d'une campagne scientifique de
.A.S. le Prince de Monaco, 1905," Bulletin de I'lnstitut Ocfano-
graphique (Monaco, 1907), No. 93. (R. L.*)
WHALE-OIL, the oil obtained from the blubber of various
species of the genus Balaena, as B. mysticetus, Greenland or
" right " whale (northern whale-oil), B. auslraiis (southern
whale-oil), Balaenoptera- longimana, Balaenoptera borealis
(Finback oil, Finner whale-oil, Humpback oil). The " orca "
or " killer " whale, and the " beluga " or white whale, also yield
" whale-oils." " Train-oil " proper is the northern whale-oil, but
this term has been applied to all blubber oils, and in Germany,
to all marine animal oils fish-oils, liver oils, and blubber oils.
The most important whale-oil is sperm or spermaceti oil, yielded
by the sperm-whales.
Whale-oil varies in colour from a bright honey yellow to a dark
brown, according to the condition of the blubber from which it has
been extracted. At best it has a rank fishy odour, and the darker
the colour the more disagreeable the smell. With lowering of the
temperature stearin, accompanied with a small proportion of
spermaceti, separates from the oil, and a little under the freezing-
point nearly the whole of these constituents may be crystallized
out. When separated and pressed, this deposit is known as whale
tallow, and the oil from which it is removed is distinguished as
pressed whale-oil; this, owing to its limpidity, is sometimes passed
as sperm-oil. Whale-oil is principally used in oiling wools for combing,
WHALLEY WHARTON (FAMILY)
574
in batching flax and other vegetable fibres, in currying and chamois
leather-making, and as a lubricant for machinery. Sperm-oil is
obtained from the cavity in the head of the sperm-whale, and from
several smaller receptacles throughout the body of the animal.
During the life of the whale the contents of these cavities are in a
fluid condition, but no sooner is the " head matter " removed than
the solid wax spermaceti separates in white crystalline flakes, leaving
the oil a clear yellow fluid having a fishy odour. Refined sperm-oil is
a most valuable lubricant for small and delicate machinery (see OILS).
WHALLEY, EDWARD (c. 1615-0. 1675), English regicide,
the exact dates of whose birth and death are unknown, was the
second son of Richard Whalley, who had been sheriff of Notting-
hamshire in 1595, by his second wife Frances Cromwell, aunt of
Oliver Cromwell. His great-grandfather was Richard Whalley
(1499-1583), a prominent adherent of the protector Somerset
and member of parliament. He is said to have started in the
trade of a woollen-draper, but on the outbreak of the great
rebellion he took up arms for the parliament, became major of
Cromwell's regiment of horse, and greatly distinguished himself
in the field. His conduct at Gainsborough fight in 1643 was
especially praised by Cromwell; he fought at Marston Moor,
commanded one of Cromwell's two regiments of cavalry at
Naseby and at the capture of Bristol, was then sent into Oxford-
shire, took Banbury, and was besieging Worcester when he was
superseded, according to Richard Baxter, the chaplain of his
regiment, on account of his religious orthodoxy. He, however,
supported his regiment in their grievances against the parlia-
ment in 1647. When the king was seized by the army, he was
entrusted to the keeping of Whalley and his regiment at Hampton
Court. Whalley refused to remove Charles's chaplains at the
bidding of the parliamentary commissioners, and treated his
captive with due courtesy, receiving from Charles after his
flight a friendly letter of thanks. In the second Civil War,
Whalley again distinguished himself as a soldier, and when the
king was brought to trial he was chosen to be one of the tribunal
and signed his death-warrant. He took part in Cromwell's
Scottish expedition, was wounded at Dunbar, and in the autumn
of 1650 was active in dealing with the situation in north Britain.
Next year he took part in Cromwell's pursuit of Charles II. and
was in the fight at Worcester. He followed and supported his
great kinsman in his political career, presented the army petition
to parliament (August 1652), approved of the protectorate, and
represented Nottinghamshire in the parliaments of 1654 and
1656, taking an active part in the prosecution of the Quaker
James Naylor. He was one of the administrative major-generals,
and was responsible for Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Warwick
and Leicester. He supported the " Petition and Advice," except
as regards the proposed assumption of the royal title by Cromwell,
and became a member of the newly constituted House of Lords
in December 1657. On the protector's death, at which he was
present, he in vain gave his support to Richard; his regiment
refused to obey his orders, and the Long Parliament dismissed
him from his command as a representative of the army. In
November 1659 he undertook an unsuccessful mission to Scotland
to arrange terms with Monk. At the Restoration, Whalley, with
his son-in-law, General William Goffe, escaped to America, and
landed at Boston on the 27th of July 1660, living successively at
New Haven and at Hadley, Massachusetts, every attempt on the
part of the government at home to procure his arrest meeting
with failure. He was alive, but failing in health, in 1674, and
probably did not long survive. Whalley was twice married;
first to Judith Duffell, by whom, besides other children, he had a
son John and a daughter Frances (who married Major-General
William Goffe, the regicide); and secondly to Mary Middleton,
sister of Sir George Middleton, by whom he had two sons, Henry
and Edward.
AUTHORITIES. An account of Whalley's life is in Noble's Lives
of the Regicides, and of his family in Noble's Memoirs of the Pro-
tectoral House of Cromwell, vol. ii. ; see also Gardiner's and Claren-
don's histories of the period, Peck's Desiderata curiosa (1779;
Whalley's account of the king's flight) ; Ezra Stiles's History of three
of the Judges of Charles 1. (1794, &c.). The article by C. H. Firth in
the Dict._ Nat. Biog. is an admirable summary. Whalley's sojourn
in America is dealt with in numerous papers published by the
Massachusetts Historical Society, and in the Hutchinson Papers
published (1865) by the Prince Society; see also Atlantic Monthly,
vi. 89-93; Pennsylvania Mag.,'i. 55-66, 230, 359; F. B. Dexter's
Memoranda concerning Whalley and Goffe, New Haven Col. Hist.
Soc. Papers, ii. (1877); Poem commemorative of Goffe, Whalley
and Dixwett, with abstract of their history, by Philagathos
(Boston, 1793); Palfrey's Hist, of New England, ii. (1866);
Notes and Queries, 5th series, viii. 359 (bibliography of American
works on the regicides).
WHARF, a place for loading or unloading ships or vessels,
particularly a platform of timber, stone or other material along
the shore of a harbour or along the bank of a navigable river
against which vessels may lie and discharge their cargo or be
loaded. The O. Eng. word hwerf meant literally a turning or
turning-place (hweorfan, to turn, cf. Goth, hwairban, Gr. /capiroj,
wrist), and was thus used particularly of a bank of earth, a dam
which turns the flow of a stream; the cognate word in Dutch,
werf, meant a wharf or a shipbuilder's yard, cf. Dan. vaerft,
dockyard, and the current meaning of the word is probably
borrowed from Dutch or Scandinavian languages.
In English law all water-borne goods must be landed at specified
places, in particular hours and under supervision; wharves, which
by the Merchant Shipping Act 1895, 492, include quays, docks and
other premises on which goods may be lawfully landed, are either
" sufferance wharves," authorized by the commissioners of customs
under bond, or " legal wharves " specially appointed by treasury
warrant and exempt from bond. There are also wharves authorized
by statute or by prescriptive right. The owner or occupier of a
wharf is styled a " wharfinger," properly " wharf ager," with an
intrusive n, as in " messenger " and " passenger."
WHARNCLIFFE, JAMES ARCHIBALD STUART-WORTLEY-
MACKENZIE, IST BARON (1776-1845), English statesman,
was the son of Colonel Stuart, son of the 3rd earl of Bute and of
his wife Mary Wortley-Montagu(Baroness Mountstuart in her own
right) , as whose heir Colonel Stuart added the name of Wortley,
taking later also that of Mackenzie (which his son in later life
discarded) as heir to his uncle J. S. Mackenzie of Rosehaugh.
He entered the army, becoming colonel in 1797, but retired in
1801 and devoted himself to politics, sitting in parliament as a
Tory for Bossiney in Cornwall till 1818, when he was returned
for Yorkshire. His attitude on various questions became
gradually more Liberal, and his support of Catholic emancipation
lost him his seat in 1826. He was then raised to the peerage as
Baron Wharncliffe of Wortley, a recognition both of his previous
parliamentary activity and of his high position among the country
gentlemen. At first opposing the Reform Bill, he gradually
came to see the undesirability of a popular conflict, and he separ-
ated himself from the Tories and took an important part in
modifying the attitude of the peers and helping to pass the bill,
though his attempts at amendment only resulted in his pleasing
neither party. He became lord privy seal in Peel's short ministry
at the end of 1834, and again joined him in 1841 as lord president
of the council. In 1837 he brought out an edition of the writings
of his ancestress, Lady Mary Wortley-Montagu (new ed. 1893).
On his death in 1845 he was succeeded as 2nd baron by his eldest
son, John Stuart- Wortley (1801-1855), whose son Edward, 3rd
baron (1827-1899), best known as chairman of the Manchester,
Lincoln & Sheffield railway, converted under him into the Great
Central, was created ist earl of Wharncliffe and Viscount Carl ton
in 1876; his name was prominently identified with railway
enterprise, and became attached to certain features of its nomen-
clature. He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his nephew Francis
(b. 1856).
Among other members of the family, several of whom dis-
tinguished themselves in law, politics, art and the army, may be
mentioned the ist baron's third son, James Archibald Stuart-
Wortley (1805-1881), recorder of London and solicitor-general;
his son, C. B. Stuart- Wortley, K.C. (b. 1851), became well known
in parliament as under-secretary for the home office (1885, and
1886-1892) and deputy-chairman of committees.
WHARTON (FAMILY). The Whartons of Wharton were an old
north of England family, and in 1543 THOMAS WHARTON (1495-
1568) was created a baron for his services in border warfare.
From him descended the 2nd, 3rd and 4th barons; and the
latter, PHILIP WHARTON (1613-1696), was the father of THOMAS
WHARTON (1648-1715), who in 1706 was created earl and in
WHARTON, F. WHATELY
575
1714 marquess of Wharton. The ist marquess was one of the
chief Whig politicians after the Revolution. He is famous in
literary history as the author of the famous political ballad,
Lilliburlero, which " sang James II. out of three kingdoms."
Wharton was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in Anne's reign, and in-
curred the wrath of Swift, who attacked him as Verres in the
Examiner (No. 14), and drew a separate " character " of him,
which is one of Swift's masterpieces. He was a man of great
wit and versatile cleverness, and cynically ostentatious in his
immorality, having the reputation of being the greatest rake and
the truest Whig of his time. Addison dedicated to him the fifth
volume of the Spectator, giving him a very different " character "
from Swift's. His first wife, ANNA WHARTON (1632-1685), was
an authoress, whose poems, including an Elegy on Lord Rochester,
were celebrated by Walter and Dryden. His son, PHILIP
WHARTON (1698-1731), duke of Wharton, succeeded to his
father's marquessate and fortune, and in 1718 was created a duke.
But he quickly earned for himself, by his wild and profligate
frolics and reckless playing at politics, Pope's satire of him as
" the scorn and wonder of our days "(Moral Essays, i. 179). He
spent his large estates in a few years, then went abroad and
gave eccentric support to the Old Pretender. There is a lively
picture of his appearance at Madrid in 1726 in a letter from the
British consul, quoted in Stanhope's History of England (ii.
140). He was outlawed in 1729, and at his death the titles
became extinct. In 1843 a claim was made before the House of
Lords for a revival of the barony in favour of Mr Kemys-Tynte,
a descendant of the ist baron in the female line.
For the history of the family see E. R. Wharton's Wkartons of
Wharton Hall (1898).
WHARTON, FRANCIS (1820-1889), American legal writer
and educationalist, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on
the 7th of March 1820. He graduated at Yale in 1839, was
admitted to the bar in 1843, became prominent in Pennsylvania
politics as a Democrat, and in Philadelphia edited the North
American and United Slates Gazette. He was professor of English
history and literature at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, in
1856-1863. He took orders in the Protestant Episcopal church
in 1862 and in 1863-1869 was rector of St Paul's Church, Brook-
line, Massachusetts. In 1871-188; he taught ecclesiastical polity
and canon law in the Protestant Episcopal Theological School at
Cambridge, Massachusetts, and at this time he lectured on the
conflict of laws at Boston University. For two years he travelled
in Europe, and after two years in Philadelphia he went to
Washington, D.C., where he was lecturer on criminal law (1885-
1 886) and then professor of criminal law ( 1 886- 1 888) at Columbian
(now George Washington) University; in 1885-1888 he was
solicitor (or examiner of claims) of the Department of State,
and from 1888 to his death on the 2ist of February 1889 was
employed on an edition (authorized by Congress) of the Revolu-
tionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United Stales (6 vols.,
1889, ed. by J. B. Moore), which superseded Sparks's compilation.
Wharton was a " broad churchman " arid was deeply interested
in the hymnology of his church. He received the degree of
LL.D. from the university of Edinburgh in 1883, and was the
foremost American authority on international law.
He published : A Treatise on the Criminal Law of the United Stales
(1846; many times reprinted); State Trials of the United States
durtng the Administrations of Washington ana Adams (1849); A
Treatise on the Law of Homicide in the United States (1855); with
Moreton Stille 1 , A Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence (1855); Modern
Theism (1859), in which he applied rules of legal evidence to modern
sceptical theories; A Treatise on the Conflict of Laws (1872; 3rd ed.
1905); A Treatise on the Law of Negligence (1874); A Commentary
on the Law of Agency and Agents (1876), A Commentary on the Law
of Evidence in Civil Issues (1877; 3rd ed. 1888); a companion work
on Criminal Evidence; Commentary on the Law of Contracts (1882);
Commentaries on Law (1884); and a Digest of the International Law
of the United States (3 yols. 1886).
See the Memoir (Philadelphia, 1891) by his daughter, Mrs Viele,
and several friends; and J. B. Moore's Brief Sketch of the Life
of Francis Wharton," prefaced to the first volume of the Revolu-
tionary Diplomatic Correspondence.
WHARTON, HENRY (1664-1695), English writer, was
descended from Thomas, 2nd Baron Wharton (1520-1572),
being a son of the Rev. Edmund Wharton, vicar of Worstead,
Norfolk. Born at Worstead on the 9th of November 1664,
Wharton was educated by his father, and then at Gonville and
Caius College, Cambridge. Both his industry and his talents
were exceptional, and his university career was brilliant. In
1686 he entered the service of the ecclesiastical historian, the
Rev. William Cave (1637-1713), whom he helped in his literary
work; but considering that his assistance was not sufficiently
appreciated he soon forsook this employment. In 1687 he was
ordained deacon, and in 1688 he made the acquaintance of the
archbishop of Canterbury, William Sancroft, under whose
generous patronage some of his literary work was done. The arch-
bishop, who had a very high opinion of Wharton's character and
talents, made him one of his chaplains, and presented him to the
Kentish living of Sundridge, and afterwards to that of Chartham
in the same county. In 1689 he took the oath of allegiance to
William and Mary, but he wrote a severe criticism of Bishcp
Burnet's History of the Reformation, and it was partly owing to
the bishop's hostility that he did not obtain further preferment
in the English church. He died on the 5th of March 1695, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Wharton's most valuable work is his Anglia sacra, a collection of
the lives of English archbishops and bishops, which was published
in two volumes in 1691. Some of these were written by Wharton
himself; others were borrowed from early writers. His other
writings include, in addition to his criticism of the History of the
Reformation, A treatise of the celibacy of the clergy (1688); The
enthusiasm of the Church of Rome demonstrated in some observations
upon the life of Ignatius Loyola (1688) ; and A defence of pluralities
(1692, new ed. 1703). In the Lambeth Library there are sixteen
volumes of Wharton's manuscripts. Describing him as " this
wonderful man," Stubbs says that Wharton did for the elucidation
of English Church history " more than any one before or since."
A life of Wharton is included in George D'Oyly's Life of W. Sancroft
(1821).
WHATELY, RICHARD (1787-1863), English logician and
theological writer, archbishop of Dublin, was born in London on
the ist of February 1787. He was educated at a private school
near Bristol, and at Oriel College, Oxford. He obtained double
seccnd-class honours and the prize for the English essay; in
1811 he was elected fellow of Oriel, and in 1814 took orders.
During his residence at Oxford he wrote his celebrated tract,
Historic Doubts relative to Napoleon Bonaparte, a very clever
jeu d'esprit directed against excessive scepticism as applied to
the Gospel history. After his marriage in 1821 he settled in
Oxford, and in 1822 was appointed Bampton lecturer. The
lectures, On the Use and Abuse of Parly Spirit in Mailers of
Religion, were published in the same year. In August 1823 he re-
moved to Halesworth in Suffolk, but in 1825, having been ap-
pointed principal of St Alban Hall, he returned to Oxford. At
St Alban Hall Whately found much to reform, and he left it a
different place. In 1825 he published a series of Essays on Some
of the Peculiarities of the Christian Religion, followed in 1828 by
a second series On some of the Difficulties in the Writings of
St Paul, and in 1830 by a third On the Errors of Romanism traced
to their Origin in Human Nature. While he was at St Alban
Hall (1826) the work appeared which is perhaps most closely
associated with his name his treatise on Logic, originally
contributed to the Encyclopaedia Metro politana, in which he
raised the study of the subject to a new level. It gave a great
impetus to the study of logic throughout Great Britain. A
similar treatise on Rhetoric, also contributed to the Encyclopaedia,
appeared in 1828. In 1829 Whately was elected to the pro-
fessorship of political economy at Oxford in succession to Nassau
William Senior. This was a subject admirably suited to his
lucid, practical intellect; but his tenure of office was cut short
by his appointment to the archbishopric of Dublin in 1831.
He published only one course of Introductory Lectures (1831),
but one of his first acts on going to Dublin was to endow a chair
of political economy in Trinity College out of his private purse.
Whately's appointment by Lord Grey to the see of Dublin
came as a great surprise to everybody, for though a decided
Liberal Whately had from the beginning stood aloof from all
political parties, and ecclesiastically his position was that of
57 6
WHAT-NOT WHEAT
an Ishmaelite fighting for his own hand. The Evangelicals
regarded him as a dangerous latitudinarian on the ground of
his views on Catholic emancipation, the Sabbath question, the
doctrine of election, and certain quasi-Sabellian opinions he was
supposed to hold about the character and attributes of Christ,
while his view of the church was diametrically opposed to that
of the High Church party, and from the beginning he was the
determined opponent of what was afterwards called the Trac-
tarian movement. The appointment was challenged in the
House of Lords, but without success. In Ireland it was im-
mensely unpopular among the Protestants, both for the reasons
just mentioned and as being the appointment of an Englishman
and a Whig. Whately's blunt outspokenness and his " want of
conciliating manners," which even his friends admit, prevented
him from ever completely eradicating these prejudices, while
at the same time he met with determined opposition from his
own clergy. He ran counter to their most cherished prejudices
from the first by connecting himself prominently with the
attempt to establish a national and unsectarian system of
education. He enforced strict discipline in his diocese, where
it had been long unknown; and he published an unanswerable
statement of his views on the Sabbath (Thoughts on the Sabbath,
1832). He took a small country place at Redesdale, 4 m. out
of Dublin, where he could enjoy his favourite relaxation of
gardening. Here his life was one of indefatigable industry.
Questions of tithes, reform of the Irish church and of the Irish
Poor Laws, and, in particular, the organization of national
education occupied much of his time. But he found leisure
for the discussion of other public questions, for example, the
subject of transportation and the general question of secondary
punishments. In 1837 he wrote his well-known handbook of
Christian Evidences, which was translated during his lifetime
into more than a dozen languages. At a later period he also
wrote, in a similar form, Easy Lessons on Reasoning, on Morals,
on Mind and on the British Constitution. Among his other
works may be mentioned Charges and Tracts (1836), Essays
on Some of the Dangers to Christian Faith (1839), The Kingdom
of Christ (1841). He also edited Bacon's Essays, Paley's Evi-
dences and Paley's Moral Philosophy. His cherished scheme
of unsectarian religious instruction for Protestants and Catholics
alike was carried out for a number of years with a measure of
success, but in 1852 the scheme broke down owing to the op-
position of the new Catholic archbishop of Dublin, and Whately
felt himself constrained to withdraw from the Education Board.
From the beginning Whately was a keen-sighted observer of
the condition of Ireland question, and gave much offence by
openly supporting the state endowment of the Catholic clergy
as a measure of justice. During the terrible years of 1846 and
1847 the archbishop and his family were unwearied in their
efforts to alleviate the miseries of the people. From 1856
onwards symptoms of decline began to manifest themselves
in a paralytic affection of the left side. Still he continued the
active discharge of his public duties till the summer of 1863,
when he was prostrated by an ulcer in the leg, and after several
months of acute suffering he died on the 8th of October 1863.
Whately was a great talker, much addicted in early life to
argument, in which he used others as instruments on which to
hammer out his own views, and as he advanced in life much
given to didactic monologue. He had a keen wit, whose sharp
edge often inflicted wounds never deliberately intended by the
speaker, and a wholly uncontrollable love of punning. Whately
often offended people by the extreme unconventionality of his
manners. When at Oxford his white hat, rough white coat,
and huge white dog earned for him the sobriquet of the White
Bear, and he outraged the conventions of the place by exhibiting
the exploits of his climbing dog in Christchurch Meadow. With
a remarkably fair and lucid mind, his sympathies were narrow,
and by his blunt outspokenness on points of difference he
alienated many. With no mystical fibre in his own constitution,
the Tractarian movement was incomprehensible to him, and was
the object of his bitter dislike and contempt. The doctrines of
the Low Church party seemed to him to be almost equally tinged
with superstition. He took a practical, almost business-like
view of Christianity, which seemed to High Churchmen and
Evangelicals alike little better than Rationalism. In this they
did Whately less than justice, for his religion was very real and
genuine. But he may be said to have continued the typica
Christianity of the i8th century that of the theologians who
went out to fight the Rationalists with their own weapons. It
was to Whately essentially a belief in certain matters of fact, to
be accepted or rejected after an examination of " evidences."
Hence his endeavour always is to convince the logical faculty,
and his Christianity inevitably appears as a thing of the intellect
rather than of the heart. Whately's qualities are exhibited at
their best in his Logic, which is, as it were, the quintessence of
the views which he afterwards applied to different subjects.
He wrote nothing better than the luminous Appendix to this
work on Ambiguous Terms.
In 1864 his daughter published Miscellaneous Remains from his
commonplace book and in 1866 his Life and Correspondence in two
volumes. The Anecdotal Memoirs of Archbishop Whately, by W. J.
Fitzpatrick (1864.), enliven the picture.
WHAT-NOT, a piece of furniture, derived from the French
itagere, which was exceedingly popular in England in the first
three-quarters of the igth century. It usually consists of
slender uprights or pillars, supporting a series of shelves for
holding china, ornaments or trifles of any kind hence the
allusive name. In its English form, although a convenient
drawing-room receptacle, it was rarely beautiful. The early
mahogany examples are, however, sometimes graceful in their
simplicity.
WHEAT (Triticum), the most important and the most gener-
ally diffused of cereal grasses. It is an annual plant, with hollow,
erect, knotted stems, and pro-
duces, in addition to the direct
developments from the seed-
ling plant, secondary roots and
secondary shoots (tillers) from
the base. Its leaves have each
a long sheath encircling the
stem, and at the junction of
the blade or " flag " with the
sheath a small whitish out-
growth or " ligula." The in-
florescence or ear consists of
a central stalk bent zigzag,
forming a series of notches (see
fig. i), and bearing a number
of flattened spikelets, one of
which grows cut of each notch
and has its inner or upper face
pressed up against it. At the
base of each spikelet are two
empty boat-shaped glumes or
"chaff -scales," one to the' right,
the other to the left, and then
a series of flowers, 2 to 8 in
number, closely crowded to-
gether; the uppermost are
abortive or sterile, indeed, in
FIG. i. Spikelet and Flowers of
some vaneties only one or two \y neat
of the flowers are fertile. Each ^, Spikelet magnified,
flower consists of an outer or B, Glumes, from side.
C, Glumes, from back.
D, Flowering glume or lower palea.
E, Palea.
F, Lodicules at base of j, the
ovary, surmounted by styles.
G and H, Seed from front and back
respectively.
7, Rachis, or central stalk of ear,
spikelets removed.
lower glume, called the flower-
ing glume, of the same shape as
the empty glume and terminat-
ing in a long, or it may be in a
short, awn or " beard." On
the other side of the flower
and at a slightly higher
level is the " palea," of
thinner texture than the other glumes, with infolded margins
and with two ribs or veins. These several glumes are closely
applied one to the other so as to conceal and protect the ovary,
WHEAT
577
and they only separate for a short time when flowering takes
place; after fertilization they close again. Within the pale
are two minute, ovate, pointed, white membranous scales called
" lodicules." These contain three stamens with thread-like
filaments and oblong, two-lobed anthers. The stamens are
placed round the base of the ovary, which is rounded or oblong,
much smaller than the glumes, covered with down, and sur-
mounted by two short styles, extending into feathery brush-like
stigmas. The ripe fruit or grain, sometimes called the " berry,"
the matured state of the ovary and its contents, is oblong or
ovoid, with a longitudinal furrow on one side. The ovary adheres
firmly to the seed in the interior, so that on examining a longi-
tudinal section of the grain by the microscope the outer layer
is seen to consist of epidermal cells, of which the uppermost
are prolonged into short hairs to cover the apex of the grain.
Two or three layers of
cells inside the epidermis
constitute the tissue of
the ovary, and overlie
somewhat similar layers
which form the coats of
the seed. Within these
is the albumen or endo-
sperm, constituting the
flowery part of the seed.
The outermost layer of
the endosperm consists
of square cells larger and
more regular in f orm tha n
those on each side; these
contain aleuron grains
small particles of gluten
or nitrogenous matter.
The remaining central
mass of the seed is com-
posed of numerous cells
of irregular form and size
containing many starch
grains as well as gluten
granules. The several
layers of cells above re-
ferred to become more
cr less dry and insepar-
spelt a jjj e one f rom another,
forming the substance
known as " bran." At the lower end of the albumen, and
placed obliquely, is the minute embryo-plant, which derives its
nourishment in the first instance from the albumen; this is
destined to form the future plant.
The wheat plant is nowhere found in a wild condition. Some
of the species of the genus Aegilops (now generally referred to
Trilicum by Bentham and Hooker and by Haeckel)
may possibly have been the sources of our cultivated
forms, as they cross 'freely with wheats. Haeckel
considers that there are three species, (i) Trilicum. mono-
coccum, which undoubtedly grows wild in Greece and Meso-
potamia, is cultivated in Spain and elsewhere, and was also
cultivated by the aboriginal Swiss lake- dwellers, as well as at
Hissarlik, as is shown by the grain * found in those localities.
(2) T. salivum is the ordinary cultivated wheat, of which Haeckel
recognizes three principal races, spelta, dicoccum and tenax.
Spelt wheats (sec fig. 2) were cultivated by the aboriginal Swiss,
by the ancient Egyptians, and throughout the Roman empire.
The variety dicoccum was also cultivated in prehistoric times,
and is still grown in Southern Europe as a summer wheat and
one suitable for starch-making. The variety tenax includes four
sub-races, ndgare (common wheat), compaclum, lurgidum and
durum (see below) . (3) The third species, T. polonicum, or Polish
wheat, is a very distinct-looking form, with long leafy glumes;
its origin is not known. As these varieties intercross with each
' See drawings made to scale by Mr Worthington Smith in the
Gardener's Chronicle (25th December 1886).
xxvm. 19
other, the presumption is that they, like the species of Aegilops,
which also intercross with wheat, may have all originated from
one common stock.
Basing his conclusions upon philological data, such as the
names of wheat in the oldest known languages, the writings
of the most ancient historians, and the observations
of botanical travellers, De Candollc infers that the
original home of the wheat plant was in Mesopotamia, </.
and that from there its cultivation extended in very
early times to the Canaries on the west and to China on the east.
In the western hemisphere wheat was not known till the i6th
century. Humboldt mentions that it was accidentally intro-
duced into Mexico with rice brought from Spain by a negro
slave belonging to Cortes, and the same writer saw at Quito the
earthen vase in which a Flemish monk had introduced from
Ghent the first wheat grown in South America.
As might be anticipated from the cultivation of the plant from
time immemorial and from its wide diffusion throughout the eastern
hemisphere, the varieties of wheat that is, of T. sativum _.
are very numerous and of every grade of intensity. Those
cases in which the variation is most extreme some botanists '
would prefer to consider as forming distinct species; but others,
as De Vilmorin, having regard to the general facts of the case
and to the numerous intermediate gradations, look upon all the
forms as derivatives from one. In illustration of this latter point
it may be mentioned that not only do the several varieties run one
into the other, but their chemical composition varies likewise
according to climate and season. According to Professor Church, 1
even in the produce of a single ear there may be 3 to 4% more of
albuminoid matters in some grains than in others; but on the
average the proportion of gluten to starch is as 9- 1 1 to 100. From
the point of view of agriculture it is generally of no great moment
what rank be assigned to the various forms. It is only important
to take cognizance of them for purposes of cultivation under varying
circumstances. Hence we only allude to some of the principal
variations and to those characteristics which are found to be unstable.
(i) Setting aside differences of constitution, such as hardihood, size,
and the like, there is relatively little variation in the form of the
organs of vegetation. This indicates that less attention has been
paid to the straw than to the grain, for it is certain that, were it
desirable, a great range of variation might be induced in the foliage
and straw. As it is, some varieties are hardier and taller than
others, and the straw more solid, varying in colour and having less
liability to be "laid"; but in the matter of "tillering," or the
production of side-shoots from the base of the stem, there is much
difference. Spring wheats procured from northern latitudes mature
more rapidly than those from temperate or hot climates, whilst the
reverse is the case with autumn wheats from the same source. The
difference is accounted for by the greater amount of light which the
plants obtain in northern regions, and, especially, by its comparatively
uninterrupted continuance during the growing period, when there are
more working hours for the plants in the day than in more southern
climes. Autumn wheats, on the other hand, are subjected to an
enforced rest for a period of several months, and even when grown
in milder climates remain quiescent for a longer period, and start
into growth later in spring much later than varieties of southern
origin. These latter, accustomed to the mild winters of those
latitudes, begin to grow early in spring, and are in consequence
liable to injury from spring frosts. Wheats of dry countries and of
those exposed to severe winds have, says De Vilmorin, narrow leaves,
pliant straw, bearded ears, and velvety chaff characteristics which
enable them to resist wind and drought. Wheats of moist climates,
on the other hand, have broader leaves, to admit of more rapid
transpiration. No doubt careful microscopic scrutiny of the minute
anatomy of the leaves of plants grown under various conditions
would reveal further adaptations ol structure to external conditions
of climate. At any rate, it is certain that, as a general rule, the hard
wheats are almost exclusively cultivated in hot, dry countries, the
spelt wheats in mountainous districts and on poor soil, turgid
(durum forms) and common wheats in plains or in valleys ^the best
races of wheat being found on rich alluvial plains and in fertile
valleys. The wheat used in the neighbourhood of Florence for straw-
plaiting is a variety with very slender stalks. The seed is sown very
thickly at the beginning of winter and pulled, not cut, about the end
of May, before the ear is ripe. In the United Kingdom ordinary
wheat, such as old red Lammas and Chiddam white, is used for
straw-plaiting, the straw being cut some time before the berry
ripens. The propensity to " tiller * is of the greatest importance,
as it multiplies the resources of the farmer. An instance of this
is given in the Philosophical Transactions (1768), where it is stated
that one seedling plant in the Cambridge botanic garden was divided
into eighteen parts, each of which was replanted and subsequently
again divided, till it produced sixty-seven plants in one season
In March and April of the following year these were again divided
1 Pood Grains of India, p. 94.
578
WHEAT
Classifica-
tion of
cultivated
wheats.
and produced 500 plants, which in due time yielded 21,109 ears.
(2) The variations in root-development have not been much attended
to, although it would be well to study them in order to ascertain the
degree of adaptability to various depths and conditions of soil.
(3) A most important difference is observable in the liability to
attacks of rust (Puccinia), some varieties being almost invariably
free from it, while others are in particular localities so subject to
it as to be not worth cultivating. (4) The ears vary, not only in
size, but also in form, this latter characteristic being dependent on
the degree ot closeness with which the spikelets are set on. In such
varieties as Talavera the spikelets are loose, while in the club and
square-headed varieties they are closely packed. The form of the
ear depends on the relative width of the anterior and posterior
surfaces as compared with that of the lateral surfaces. In the
square-headed varieties the lateral surfaces are nearly as wide as
the median ones, owing to the form and arrangement of the spikelets.
The number of abortive or sterile spikelets at the top of the ear also
varies: in some cases nearly all the spikelets are fertile, while in
others several of the uppermost ones are barren.
The classification of the different varieties of cultivated wheat
has occupied the attention of many botanists and agriculturists.
The classification adopted by Henry de Vilmorin in his
Les Bles meilleurs (Paris, 1881) is based, in the first
instance, on the nature of the ear: when mature its axis
or stem remains unbroken, as in the true wheats, or it
breaks into a number of joints, as in the spelt wheats.
In the first class the ripe grain readily detaches itself from
the chaff-scales, while in the spelts it is more or less adherent to
them, or not readily separable from them. The true wheats are
further subdivided into
common wheats (T. vul-
gare), turgid wheats (T.
turgidum), hard wheats (T.
durum) and Polish wheats
(T. polonicum). In the
common wheats the chaff-
scales are boat-shaped,
ovoid, of the consistence
of parchment, and shorter
than the spikelet ; the seed
is usually floury, opaque,
white, and easily broken.
In the turgid wheats the
glumes have long awns,
and the seed is turgid and
floury, as in the common
wheats. In the hard
wheats the outer glumes
are keeled, sharply pointed,
awned, and the seed is
elongated and of hard
glassy texture, somewhat
translucent, and difficult to
FIG. 3. Longitudinal Section of a break owing to its tough-
Grain of Wheat; highly magnified. ness. These seeds are richer
A, Epidermal cells. in nitrogen than the com-
B, Cells containing aleuron or gluten mon and turgid wheats, so
grains. that an approximate notion
C, Cells of endosperm or albumen, of the richness in albu-
filled with starch. minoids may be gained
D, Embryo cut through the middle, by simply inspecting the
root-end pointing downwards. cut surface of the seed. The
Polish wheat, rarely if ever
cultivated in the United Kingdom, has very large lanceolate glumes,
longer than the spikelet, and elongated glassy seeds. Further sub-
divisions are made, according to the presence or absence of awns
(bearded and beardless wheats), the colour of the ears (white, fawn-
coloured or red), the texture of the ears (glabrous i.e. smooth
or downy) and the colour of the seed or " berry." In the jointed or
spelt wheats the distinctions lie in the presence of awns, the direction
of the points of the glumes (straight, bent outwards, or turned
inwards), the form of the ear as revealed on a cross-section, and the
entire or cleft palea. As illustrating the fact of the occasional
instability of these variations, Professor Church mentions that a
single grain will be sometimes horny and partly opaque and floury,
in which case its composition will correspond with its aspect. The
division into spring wheat and winter wheat is an agricultural one
solely. Any variety may be a spring or a winter wheat according to
the time at which it is sown. In the summer wheats il may often
be observed that the median florets do not fill out so fully as in the
autumn wheats. Among the turgid wheats there is a frequent
tendency in the spike to branch or become compound a tendency
which is manifested to a less degree in other forms. The Egyptian,
or so-called " mummy " wheat is of this character, the lower part of
the spike branching out into several subdivisions. This multiplica-
tion of the seed-bearing branches might at first sight be considered
advantageous; but in practice the quality of the grain is found to
be inferior, as if the force that should have been devoted to the
maturation of the grain were, in a measure, diverted and expended
in the production of additional branches to the spike.
Adapta-
bility to
soil and
locality.
With regard to the chemical composition of the ripe grain, the
Rothamsted experiments reveal a singular uniformity, even under
very varied conditions of manuring, and even where much diversity
was apparent in the constitution of the straw. A high or low per-
centage of nitrogen in the grain was also shown to depend more
directly on the degree of ripening, as influenced by the character
of the season, than on difference in manure; but it depends more
upon the variety than upon soil or nutrition.
Apart from the botanical interest of these diversities, as indica-
tions of the faculty of variation in plants, and possibly as clues to
the genealogy and origin of the cultivated plant, their
practical importance is very great. Some varieties are
suited to hot, others to cold countries ; some will flourish
on one description of soil, others on another. Hence the
paramount importance of ascertaining by experiment,
not only what are the best varieties, but which are the best adapted
for particular localities and particular climatic conditions. Porion
and Deherain have shown 1 the " infinite superiority " in yield over
the ordinary wheats of a particular square-headed variety grown
on rich soil in the north of France. A good selection of seed, accord-
ing to the nature of the soil, demands, says De Vilmorin, intelligence
and accurate knowledge on the part of the farmer. If a good variety
be grown in poor soil, the result will be unprofitable, while, if bad
wheat be grown on good soil, the result may be nil. In botanical
collections there exist, it is stated, herbarium specimens or other
evidences of plants grown in Norway as far north as lat. 65 (Schu-
beler), in Switzerland at an elevation of 1200 ft. above the valley of
Zermatt (or 6500 ft. above the sea), near the straits of Magellan, as
well as in Teneriffe, the Cape of Good Hope, Abyssinia, Rodriguez,
the Philippine Islands and the Malay Archipelago. These widely
separated localities show the great area over which the culture is
possible, and illustrate the powers of adaptation of the plant. The
requirements of the consumer have also to be considered : for some
purposes the soft floury wheats, with their large relative proportion
of starch, are the best, for others the harder wheats, with their larger
quantity of gluten. With the modern processes of milling, the harder
wheats are preferred, for they make the best flour for bakers' use;
and in North America the spring wheats are, as a rule, harder than
the winter wheats- The bearded varieties are supposed to be
hardier; at any rate they defy the ravages of predatory birds more
completely than the unarmed varieties, and they are preferable in
countries liable to storms of wind, as less likely to have their seeds
detached. The durum wheats are specially employed in Italy f(
the fabrication of macaroni. Polish wheat is used for similar pu
poses. Spelt wheats are grown in the colder mountainous distric
of Europe; their flour is very fine, and is used especially for pastr
making; but, owing to the construction of the grain, it requin
special machinery for grinding (see FLOUR).
Wheat begins to grow at a temperature of 5" C. (41 F.); an<
when the aggregate temperature, as represented by the sum of t"
daily means, has mounted up to 185 F., the germ begins to esca.
from the husk, if the seed be not deeply buried ; but if it is deep
buried, an amount of heat is required greater in proportion to t'
depth. If the seed lies at a depth lower than a foot from the surfai
it rarely germinates. The seedling plant ceases to grow if the me
temperature of the day remains below 42" F. When the young plan
have been influenced by an aggregate temperature amounting
1896 F. from the period when sown, or 1715 from the period of
germination, branching or " tillering " goes on freely, and the you
ears are formed. Under the influence of a mean temperature
55, or a little above, the flowers are produced. A still higher dai
mean is required for the full development and ripening of the grai
The figures here cited are given by Risler and are calculated f<
the climate of Paris; but, of course, the same principles apply i
the case of other countries. The amount of light and of moistu:
has also to be taken into account. The fact that the wheat pla
requires less water than other cereals, and therefore does not suff<
so much from drought, is one of great importance to the cultivate
and furnishes one reason for the greater proportionate culture
wheat in the eastern than in the western counties of England.
The following figures, cited by De Vilmorin from Joulie, will gi
an idea of the nature and amount of the demands made upon t
soil by a wheat crop : in order to yield a crop of 44? bushels of whe
to the acre, the soil must supply to the crop during its growth i
round numbers 202 ft of nitrogen, 8 1 lb of phosphoric acid, 55
of lime, 26 ft of magnesia, and 255 lb of potash.
The numerous varieties of wheat now in cultivation have been
obtained either by selection or by cross-breeding. In any wheat-
field there may be observed on close inspection plants .
differing in character from the majority. If seeds of (lon " f
these " sporting " plants be taken and grown in another var ] et j es
season, they may (or may not) reproduce the particular
variation. If they do, and the same process of selection be cor.tinu*
the variation becomes in time " fixed," though it is always more
less liable to revert to its original condition. By continuously a
systematically selecting the best grains from the best ears, Maj
Hallett succeeded in introducing " pedigree wheats " of fine qualii
But even greater results may be expected from cross-breeding,
1 Ann. agronom. (January 1888), p. 33.
WHEAT
579
the fertilization of the flowers of one description of wheat by the
pollen of another. This has been attempted by Shireff, Le Couteur,
Maund and others in the past, and more recently by H. de Vilmorin
and Messrs Carter. Under natural circumstances wheat is self-
fertilized : that is to say, the pollen of any given flower impregnates
the stigma and ovule of the same flower; the glumes and coverings
of the flower being tightly pressed round the stamens and stigmas
in such a way as to prevent the access of insects and to ensure the
it of the pollen upon the stigmas of the same flower. This
process of self-fertilization is the usual method, and no doubt keeps
the variety true or unmixed ; but the occasional presence of varieties
in a wheat-field shows that cross-fertilization is sometimes secured.
The stamens of the wheat plant may frequently be seen protruding
beyond the glumes, and their position might lead to the inference
that cross-fertilization was the rule; but on closer examination it
will be found that the anthers are empty or nearly so, and that they
are not protruded till after they have deposited the pollen upon the
stigma. The separation of the glumes, which occurs at the time of
fertilization, and which permits the egress of the useless stamens
after that operation, occurs only under certain conditions of tempera-
ture, when the heat, in fact, is sufficient to cause the lodicules of
the flower to become turgid and thus to press apart the glumes. A
temperature of about 75 F. is found by Messrs Carter to be the
most favourable. From what has been said it will be evident that
the artificial fertilization of wheat is a very delicate operation. The
glumes have to be separated and the anthers cut away before the
pollen is fully formed, care being taken at the same time not to injure
the stigma, and specially not to introduce, on the scissors or other-
wise, any pollen except that of the variety desired. De Vilmorin's
experiments have shown that all the varieties will intercross, and
that even such a distinct form as the Polish is no exception. From
this he concludes that all the forms have originated from one stock
and are to be comprised within one species. In the progeny of these
crossed wheats, especially in the second generation, much variation
and difference of character is observable a phenomenon commonly
noticed in the descendants from cresses and hybrids, and styled by
Naudin " irregular variation." Sometimes characteristics appear in
the crossed wheats which are not found in the parent varieties,
although they occur in other wheats. Thus, De Vilmorin records
the presence of turgid wheats among seedlings raised from a common
wheat fertilized with the pollen of a hard variety, and spelt wheats
among the descendants of a common crossed with a turgid wheat.
The production of wheat, with the use of wheat bread, has in-
creased enormously since the extension of railways has made possible
the transportation of grain for great distances (see GRAIN TRADE).
Of late years the increase of production has been most notable in
southern Russia, Argentina, Australia, India and North America.
American Wheat-Farming. 1 That wonderful agricultural
region, extending from the international line on the north to
the 37th parallel, and from the Atlantic Ocean to the looth
meridian, and comprising 26 states, produces 76% of the
American wheat crop. This region, which contains only 30%
of the land surface of the country, hut embraces 60% of its total
farm area and 70% of its improved farm acreage, is the greatest
cereal-producing region of the world. Besides wheat, it produces
82 % of the total corn crop, 91 % of the total oat crop and 83 %
of the total hay crop of the United States. The methods pursued
in the eastern portion of this region are similar to those used
in other parts of the world; but in the north-western portion
wheat-growing is carried on on a gigantic scale, and by methods
almost unknown anywhere else. The best illustration of the
great or " bonanza " wheat farms, as they are called, are found
along the Red river (of the North), where it flows between the
states of North Dakota and Minnesota.
The wheat grown in the United States is of two distinct kinds.
One is the large-kernel winter wheat of the Eastern states; the
other is the hard spring wheat. The " blue stem " or the
" Scotch-Fife " are native varieties of the latter kind grown in
Minnesota and the two Dakotas. For flour-making this wheat
is considered the best in the world. During the season of 1899
the product of hard spring wheat amounted to nearly 250,000,000
bushels, or two-fifths of the entire wheat product of the United
States. Of this, Minnesota and the two Dakotas alone produced
200,000,000 bushels. Minnesota is the greatest wheat-producing
state in the Union. Her fields in 1899 covered 5,000,000 acres,
and she produced nearly 80,000,000 bushels, which is twice
the entire production of all Australia, and more than that of
Great Britain and Ireland put together. In Minnesota and the
Dakotas the farms are devoted almost exclusively to wheat
growing. Many of them contain from 3000 to 10,000 acres.
For Canadian Wheat see CANADA ^Agriculture.
The country is a very level one, making it possible to use all
kinds of machinery with great success. As there are no moun-
tains or swamps, there is here very little waste land, and every
square foot of the vast wheat fields can be made productive.
The first characteristic of a " bonanza " wheat farm is the
machinery. The smallest agricultural implement used upon
them is a plough, and the largest is the elevator. A
hoe or a spade is almost unknown. Between these
two there are machines of all sizes adapted to the
needs of the particular work. Let us assume the conditions
prevailing upon a bonanza farm of 5000 acres, and briefly
describe the process of wheat production from the ploughing
of the land to the delivery of the grain in the final market.
These great wheat farms were established upon new lands sold
directly to capitalists by the railroads. The lands became the
property of the railroads largely through government grants,
and they attracted capitalists, who bought them in large bodies
and at low prices. The improvements made upon them consist
of the cheap wooden dwellings for the managers, dormitories
and dining-halls for the men, stables for the horses, and sheds
and workshops for repairing machinery. Very little of the land
is under fence. Since the desirable lands cf the country have
been occupied, the prices of these lands have advanced slowly,
with the result that the big farms are being divided up into
small holdings. After a generation or two, if land continues
to rise in the market as it has recently, the bonanza farms will
become a thing of the past. At present the best of these lands
in the valley of the Red river (of the North) are worth from $25
to $30 an acre. The improvements upon them add about $5
an acre more. A farm is not considered a big one unless it
contains from 2000 to 10,000 acres at least. There are, of course,
many small farmers owning from two to five sections (640 acres
in each section), but their methods are more like those of the
small farmers in the eastern United States or on the continent
of Europe. It is necessary to own a large body of land in order
to be able to use the machinery and methods here described.
It is hard to convey a just notion of the size of these farms. They
stretch away as far as the eye can reach in every direction,
making it difficult even for the visitor to conceive their size.
The distances across wheat fields are so great that even horse-
back communication is too slow. The farms are separated
into divisions, and lodging-houses and dining-halls and barns
are scattered over them, so as to keep the workmen and teams
near the scene of their labour. The men living at one end of the
farm may not see those at the other for months at a time. Even
then it is necessary to take the meals to the men in the fields
rather than allow them to walk or ride to the dining-halls. It
is not an unusual thing for a working crew to find themselves
at the dinner hour 2 m. from their hall.
First, after burning the old straw of the previous year which is
real labour in itself, so enormous is its bulk comes the ploughing.
This begins in October. The plough used has a l6-in. plouxhlot
share, turns two furrows, and is drawn by five horses.
Each plough covers about 250 acres in a season, travelling an average
of 20 m. a day. The ploughing begins in October, and continues a
month or six weeks, according to the season. The ploughs are driven
in " gangs " under the eye of a superintendent, who rides with them.
From eight to ten of these ploughs follow each other around the vast
section. If one stands a few rods ahead of them they seem to be
following one another in a line; but, if one stands to the right of the
" gang, one sees that the line is broken, and that the second plough
is a width farther in the field than the leader, and so on for the entire
number. Experience shows that it costs about 70 cents an acre to
plough the land in this way. About forty men are employed upon a
farm of 5000 acres during the ploughing season. The men are paid
by the month, and receive about $25, including their board. They
breakfast at five o'clock, take an hour for their dinner at noon
usually in the field and have their supper at seven. At the end of
the ploughing season these particular men are usually discharged.
Only eight or ten are kept on a farm of this size throughout the year.
The other men go back to their homes or to the factories in the cities,
where they await the harvesting and threshing season. The eight or
ten who remain upon the farm are employed in doing odd jobs, such
as overhauling machinery, or helping the carpenter and blacksmith,
or looking after the horses. The wheat region is a country of heavy
snows, and of severe, dry cold; but when March comes the snows
begin to melt away, and by April the ploughed land is dry enough for
5 8
WHEAT
the harrow. The harrowing is done with 25-ft. harrows, drawn by
four horses, and operated by a single man. One man can harrow
60 to 73 acres a day.
The seeding follows immediately with four-horse press drills that
cover 12 ft. The harrows and drills are worked in " gangs " as the
. ploughs were. Each drill will go from 20 to 25 m. a day.
Seeding, \yhen the weather is good the seeding upon a sooo-acre
farm will be done in twenty or twenty-five days. It is usual to seed
a bushel and a peck of wheat to the acre. The wheat used for this
purpose is carefully selected after the harvest of the previous year,
and is thoroughly cleaned of foreign seeds. Through years of culti-
vation, varieties of wheat have been produced which are particu-
larly well adapted to the soil and climate of this region. It has been
found more profitable to use the native " blue stem " or " Scotch
Fife " wheat than the seed from any other country, or even from the
neighbouring states. Counting the seed, wheat and the labour, it
costs about $1 an acre to harrow the ground and plant the wheat.
When the planting is done the extra labourers are discharged again,
and the regular ones are put to work on the corn, oats and millet,
Labour which are grown to feed the horses. The men who do the
most important work are all temporary labourers. They
come from the cities of the east or the farms of the south. They begin
with the early harvest in Oklahoma, and work northwards up the
Missouri and the Red river until the season closes in Manitoba.
They are not tramps, but steady, industrious men, with few bad
habits and few ambitions. On well-managed farms drinking and
gambling are strictly forbidden. The work is hard, and, as there
are few amusements on the farm, the men spend their resting periods
in sleep. Their dormitories are usually comfortably furnished, their
dining-halls clean. The bonanza farmers find it good policy to feed
their men well. Many a strike has occurred in the midst of the
harvest because the quality or quantity of the food served was not
what it ought to have been. The largest part of this food is brought
from the eastern states. Some potatoes, turnips and beans are grown
upon the farms; but the corned beef, bacon and groceries come
from the cities. It is estimated that it costs 35 cents a day to feed
each labourer. Farmers say that a good name in these respects
enables them to get the choice of workmen, and that no money brings
such sure returns as that expended in the bedrooms and upon the
food.
The harvest labourers begin to arrive from the south about the
middle of July, and by the end of this month the harvest is at its
height. A farm of 5000 acres will use 75 or 100 extra men.
With the men comes the new machinery in train loads.
harvest. j t j g est ; matec i tna t a t least $5,000,000 worth of agri-
cultural machines is annually sold in this region. The wheat farmers
say that it does not pay to take undue care of old machinery, that
more money is lost in repairing and tinkering an old machine than
would pay for a new one. The result is that new machinery is bought
in very large quantities, used until it is worn out or cannot be re-
paired without considerable work, and then left in the fields to rust.
Heaps of cast-iron can be seen already upon many of the large farms.
Of course a great many extra parts are bought to take the place of
those which break most frequently, and some men are always kept
at work repairing machines m the field. One of the big lo,ooo-acre
farms will use up two car-loads of twine in a single harvest, enough to
lay a line around the whole coast of England, Ireland and Scotland.
The harvesters vary in siza according to the character of the land.
Upon the rougher ground and small farms the ordinary binders are
used : upon the great plains, like those of California, a great harvester
is used, which has a cutting line 52 ft. wide. These machines cut,
thresh and stack the grain at the rate of 1600 sacks a day, and cover
an area in that time of 100 acres. These machines can only be used
where the wheat ripens thoroughly standing in the field. The
harvest labourer earns $10 a week everywhere in America. The
bonanza farmer expects one machine to cut at least 250 acres, and
three men are required for each of them. The harvest lasts from
ten days to three weeks, according to the weather. Including the
labour and the wear and tear, it costs about 60 cents an acre to harvest
wheat.
The wheat is not stacked as in the Eastern states and in England,
but stands upright in shocks in the field. The grain cures very
Thre A'nc- ra P'd'y in the dry climate, so that by the time the wheat
is all cut and shocked on one end of the division, it is
ready for the thresher at the other. The shocks of wheat are hauled
directly to the thresher and fed into the self-feeder. It usually takes
a day and a quarter to thresh the wheat which it took a day to cut.
The farmer estimates that a threshing-machine can thresh all the
wheat ordinarily grown upon 2500 acres, so that a 5OOO-acre farmer
would have at least two machines running at the same time. Time
is a very important thing in threshing, since a rainfall might spoil
enough grain in one night to buy several machines. The threshing
season is tnus a time of great pressure and of extensively active work.
The wheat straw is worse than a waste product it is a great nuisance
upon the bonanza farm. A little ot it is used for fuel for the engines
and for bedding the stock: but the bulk of it is dragged away from
the threshing machine by machinery, and left lying in great heaps
until an opportunity is afforded for burning it up. This is usually
done immediately before the ploughing in the autumn. The grain
falls from the spout of the thresher into the box-wagon, which carries
The
returns.
Marketing.
it to the elevator. The elevator is placed at the railway station, and
is usually owned by the bonanza farmer.
From the time the sheaves of wheat are tumbled into the wagon
until the flour reaches the hands of the cook, no hand touches the
wheat that passes through the great Minneapolis mills.
When the box-wagons reach the elevator the loosing of
a bolt dumps the grain into the bin, where it remains
until the pulling of a lever lets it into the cars. Every pound of it is
weighed and accounted for, and entered upon the books, so as to
show the exact product of each division of the farm. After the rush
of the threshing is over the farmer studies these books carefully to
see what his land is doing, and makes his plans for the next year, so as
to rest or strengthen those divisions which are failing. It costs
about $1.50 an acre to thresh the grain and put it into the elevator.
This sum, added to the estimated cost of the other processes men-
tioned above, makes the total cost of growing an acre of grain about
$3.80. This includes the cost of labour, seed and wear and tear
of machinery, but does not include the interest on land or plant.
The taxes on land will average 25 cents an acre. The farmers
estimate that the other improvements, the waterworks, elevators,
insurance, horse feed, &c., will make this up to $6 an acre. The best
of these farms will yield 20 bushels to the acre. This makes the
wheat cost 30 cents a bushel. During the last five years the average
farm-selling price of wheat in the North-West has been 58 cents.
An acre thus produces $11.60, making a gross profit of $5.60. Still
to be provided for is the interest on the operating expenses for
eighteen months, which will, at 8%, be 48 cents per acre. Interest
on the capital in land, improvements and machinery, at $30 per acre,
make $1.80 more, or a total interest charge of $2.28. When this is
deducted from the gross profits of $5.60 prices found above, we have
a net profit of $3.32 an acre, not an exorbitant one by any means.
This is about 8% on the capital invested in the land, plant and
operating expenses. But we have described the conditions on one
of the best bonanza farms. The average yield per acre in this region
is not over 18 bushels, and the average expenses would be higher than
those given.
Every bonanza farmer's office is connected by wire with the
markets at Minneapolis, Chicago and Buffalo. Quotations arrive
hourly in the selling season, and the superintendent
keeps in close touch with his agents in the wheat-pits '
of these and other cities. When the instrument tells him of a
good price, his agent is instructed to sell immediately. Th
farmer on the upper waters of the Red river (of the North) is kep
fully informed as to the drought in India, the hot winds in tl;
Argentine and the floods of the Danube. Any occurrences
these distant parts of the world are known to him in a surprisingly
short time. The world's great wheat fields almost lie within his
sight, so well does he know the conditions that prevail in them.
Ten days are allowed for delivery, so that he can usually ship the
wheat after it is sold. In the early days of wheat-farming the
bonanza farmer often speculated, but experience has taught him
that he had better leave this to the men in the cities, and content
himself with the profit from the business under his eye. The
great elevator centres are in Duluth, St Paul, Minneapolis. Chicago
and Buffalo. These elevators have a storage capacity of from
100,000 to 2,500,000 bushels. The new ones are built of steel,
operated by steam or electricity, protected from fire by pr.eu
matic water-pipes, and have complete machinery for drying am
scouring the wheat whenever it is necessary. The elevators are
provided with long spouts containing movable buckets, which
can be lowered into the hold of a grain-laden vessel. The wheat
is shovelled into the pathway of the huge steam shovels, which
draw it up to the ends of these spouts, where the buckets seize
it, and carry it upwards into the elevator, and distribute it
among the various bins according to grade. A cargo of 200,000
bushels can thus be unloaded in two hours, while spouts on the
other side of the elevator reload it into cars, five to ten at a time
filling a car in from five to ten minutes, or the largest canal boat
in an hour. The entire work of unloading, storing and reloading
adds only one cent to the price of a bushel of wheat.
The great wheat-growing states like Minnesota have estab
lished systems of inspecting and grading wheat under state super
vision. In Minnesota the system is carried out by the
Railroad and Warehouse Commission(i88s),which fixes
and defines the different grades of wheat and directs the grading.
work. At present there are 18 grades recognized in this
state. The first is described as "No. i, hard spring wheat,
sound, bright and well cleaned, composed mainly of hard
' Scotch-Fife,' weighing not less than s81b to the measure
WHEAT
581
bushel." The second grade is known as " No. i, northern spring
wheat, sound, and well cleaned, composed of the hard and soft
varieties of spring wheat." So the varieties run " No. 2,
northern "; " No. 3, northern," &c. down to the i8th, which
is " no grade." The official inspectors examine, grade and
sample the wheat in the cars in which it is received at the great
markets or elevators. The cars are sealed at the point of original
shipment. The first thing, therefore, is to examine the seals
to see that they are unbroken. The inspector then samples
and examines the wheat, and enters the grade upon a blank
opposite the number and letters of the car. His tag and sample
go to the wheat exchange or chamber of commerce, where they
are exposed in small tin pans, and form the basis of the trading.
A few years ago the wheat received from the north-west was
very clean indeed, but since the new land has all been cultivated
the fields are growing more weedy, with the result that the wheat
brought in is becoming mixed with oats and seeds of weeds,
requiring more careful separating and inspection. After the
inspector has finished his work the cars are rcsealed with the
state seal, and await orders of the purchaser. The delay will
not ordinarily be more than one day. The commission keeps
complete records and samples of each car until the wheat has
passed entirely out of the market. When disputes occur as to the
grade they can thus be instantly settled. If the grade is
changed after a second examination the state pays the expense
of the inspection; if not, it is paid by the agent who raises the
objection. Only about 5% of the samples are ever reinspected,
and in less than 2% of these is the grade changed. The com-
mission collects the small fee of 20 cents a car for its services as
inspector, and later weighs all the wheat as it is distributed into
the elevators. This small charge pays all the expenses.
The transportation of the wheat from the fields of the north-
west to the seaport is a business of tremendous magnitude.
Most of this wheat goes by way of the lakes through the
portal/on. Sault Sainte Marie canal to Buffalo, where it is shipped
by rail or inland canal to New York, Philadelphia or
Baltimore. Duluth, on Lake Superior, is, surprising to say, the
second port in the United States in point of tonnage. The Sault
Sainte Marie canal passes two and a half times as much
tonnage during the eight months it is open as the Suez canal
passes in the entire year. The cheapest transportation in the
world is found upon these lakes, the rate being only three-fourths
of a mill per ton of wheat per mile. The greater lake vessels,
called " Whalebacks," carry cargoes up to 250,000 bushels, a
bulk difficult to conceive. 700 bushels is a car-load. At that
rate the cargo of 250,000 bushels will fill 360 American cars, or
9 trains of 40 cars each. At 20 bushels to the acre, this single
cargo would represent the yield of two and a half farms of 5000
acres each, like that described above, with every acre in cultiva-
tion. The railways of the north-west have a monopoly of the
business of hauling wheat , with the result that it costs 20 cents to
ship a bushel of wheat from the Dakota field to Duluth, which is
as much as it costs to forward it from Duluth to Liverpool.
The bushel of wheat, or an equivalent amount of flour, can be
shipped from Minneapolis or Duluth to almost any point in
western Europe for from 20 to 25 cents.
What are the prospects of wheat production in the United States?
In his presidential address before the British Association for the
Advancement of Science (1900), Sir William Crookes
Prospector pajnt^j a rd ther dark picture of the future of the world's
*" '' wheat production. Among other things he said, " It is
almost certain that within a generation the ever-increasing
population of the United States will consume all the
wheat grown within its borders, and will be driven to import like
ourselves. " Americans think that this statement is altogether top
pessimistic. Not sufficient account had been taken of the unculti-
vated land in farms, and of the possibilities of improving the yield,
and still further cheapening the product. It is probable that the
United States will by 1933 have a population of 133,000,000. This
population would require a wheat crop of 700,000,000 bushels for its
own use alone. Limiting attention to the great cereal-producing
region described above, let us see what the prospects are for increasing
the acreage and the yield. The fact that these States contain, ac-
cording to the last census, over 100,000,000 acres of unimproved
land, already enclosed in farms, suggests at once the great possi-
bilities in wheat. But all this land is not immediately available for
cultivation. The availableness of the unimproved land in these
states, is chiefly a question of population and physical features. In
states like New York and Pennsylvania, which are much broken up
by hills and mountains, and have already a large population, it is
probable that the land available for wheat cultivation is now nearly
all taken up, although they still have 30% of unimproved land in
farms. In the great states of Michigan, Missouri, Wisconsin,
Minnesota and the Dakotas there is still 40 to 50% of unimproved
land in farms. There are few mountains and hills in these States,
and there is still room in them for a large population. It is evident
that in states like these wheat culture is destin_-d to increase greatly.
Twelve states, in this vast cereal-growing region Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, North and South Dakota still have from 20 to 40% of
unimproved land in farms. The total area of these states is nearly
four times that of France. Their soil is primarily as fertile as hers.
If we put the population of France at 40,000,000, the states in
question could, at the same ratio, support a population of 140,000,000.
France produced during the five years ending 1897 eight bushelsof
wheat per caput. At eight bushels per caput, the people in
these twelve states alone could produce 1, 120,000,000 bushels, or
420,000,000 bushels more than will be required by the population of
133,000,000 expected by 1933. This is a great manufacturing as well
as a great agricultural region, and it is here, therefore, that a large
part of this increase in population will be found.
It is evident that there is great room for improvement also in the
matter of yield per acre. The average yield of wheat per acre has
increased slowly in recent years. So long as there was so much
virgin. land to be brought under cultivation, it is surprising that it
has increased at all, since the tendency everywhere is to " skin "
the rich, new lands first. Mr B. W. Snow, formerly one of the statis-
ticians of the United States Department of Agriculture, has shown
(The Forum, vol. xxviii. p. 94) that the producing capacity of the
wheat lands, under favourable weather, increased steadily during
the period 1880-1899. " e distinguishes between the actual yield
and the producing capacity, and bases his comparison upon the
latter. He takes the average for each year of five years between
1880 and 1899, and shows that the producing capacity per acre
increased 0.5 bushel between the first and the second period, 1.3
bushels between the second and the third, and 1.4 bushels between
the third and the fourth. In the period 1880-1884, inclusive, the
maximum capacity was a little less than 14 bushels, while in the
period 1895-1899 the maximum capacity exceeded slightly 17
bushels an increase of 3.2 bushels per acre, or 23 %, in less than
twenty years. He says, " To account for this increase in the potential
yield in our wheat-fields many factors must be taken into considera-
tion. Among these may be mentioned improved methods of plough-
ing, tile drainage, use of the press drill, which results in greater
immunity against winter killing, crop rotation, and, to a very small
extent, fertilization. An important factor to be mentioned in this
connexion is the change in the distribution of the acreage under
wheat, consequent upon falling prices. A decline in the price of
wheat rendered its production unprofitable where the rate of yield
was small. Gradually these lands were passed over to crops better
suited to them; while at the same time the wheat acreage was
increased in districts having a better rate of yield." He predicts
that " the increase in the acre yields in this country has only begun.
All that has been accomplished during the period under review may
be attributed to improvements in implements for preparing the soil
and planting the seed. Wheat is grown year alter year without
rotation except in a few cases -on a third or more of our wheat
acreage; not one acre in fifty is directly fertilized for the crop, and
only a minimum amount of attention is given to the betterment of
seed stock. If, in the face of what cannot be considered less than
careless and inerficient agricultural practice, we have increased the
wheat capacity of our land by 3.2 bushels per acre in so short a
time, what may we not expect in the way of large acre yields before
we experience the hardships of a true wheat famine? "
Diseases. Wheat, like other cereals, is liable to epidemic diseases
caused by parasitic organisms which prey on the plant tissues. Of
these the rust, smut and bunt fungi are by far the most common
and the most destructive. Rust alone is said to cause an annual loss
of wheat in India amounting to from 4,000,000 to 20,000,000 rupees.
We have no similar calculation of loss for Great Britain, where wheat
is not so much grown, but it is well known that there is a continual,
serious depreciation of value in the crops due to parasitic fungi.
The rust fungus, Pticcinia graminis, is a Uredine belonging to the
heteroecious group, that is, one that passes from one host to another
at different stages of its life-history. In spring, while the wheat
plants arc still green and immature, the rust makes its appearam c
as orange-red spots or streaks on the stalks and 'eaves. These
coloured spots are due to the presence of a sorus or layer of countless
numbers of minute brown spores, the uredospores of the summer
fruiting form. The fine thread-like filaments composing the mycelium
of the fungus are embedded in the tissue underneath and around the
uredo-sorus, and draw from the host the nourishment required. The
spores, when mature, are easily detached, and are carried by insects
or by the wind to other wheat-plants. If infection takes piact-,
other sori are formed in ten days or a fortnight under favourable
conditions of moisture and warmth.
WHEATEAR
Towards the end of the summer the uredospores are replaced by
the winter resting-spores, called teleutospores, which are larger,
thicker-walled and darker in colour. These teleutospores remain
inactive on the straw until spring, when they germinate in manure
heaps or on moist ground and produce minute sporidia, which are
conveyed by air currents to the alternate host, in this case a barberry.
In due time the fungus, known as Aecidium Berberidis, appears on
the barberry leaves in the form of small cluster-cups on aecidia,
each of which is filled with chains of orange-coloured aecidiospores.
Infection of the leaves of the young wheat plants follows on the
scattering of the aecidiospores: a sorus of the rusty uredospores
is produced, and the life-cycle is complete.
Though this is the normal and complete development of Puccinia
graminis, it is not invariably followed. In Australia, for instance,
the berberry is an imported plant and of rare occurrence, yet rust
is very abundant. Teleutospores of heteroecious rusts never reinfect
the host on which they are produced, so that in many cases the
sh
FIG. 4. Puccinia graminis.
A,
b,
B,
Mass of teleutospores (t) on a
leaf of couch-grass.
Epidermis ruptured.
Sub-epidermal fibres. (After
De Bary.)
Part of vertical section
through leaf of Berberis
vulgaris, with a, aecidium
fruits, p, peridium, and sp,
spermogonia. (After Sachs. )
C, Mass of uredospores (ur)
with one teleutospore (t).
sh, Sub-hymenial hyphae. (After
De Bary.)
uredospores probably survive the winter in Europe as well as in
Australia and give rise to the rust of the following year. Wind
dispersal of the spores would account for mysterious appearances of
the disease, in some years almost every straw in a wheat-field being
affected, while in other years scarcely one is attacked. Rust disease
does not directly affect the grains, but both quantity and quality
are impaired by the exhausted condition of the wheat plants. No
cure is possible, but as winter wheat suffers less than spring wheat,
early sowing is recommended. Fungus spores will not germinate
without moisture, and attention to drainage helps to keep down
this and other fungus pests. It has also been observed that too
heavy nitrogenous manuring stimulates and prolongs the growing
period of the wheat; flowering is retarded, and thus there is a
greater opportunity for infection to take place. Wheat growing on
an old manure heap is nearly always badly diseased. Much attention
has been paid recently to the cultivation of varieties of wheat that
are immune to rust attacks, and care should be taken to select
strains that have been proved able to resist the disease.
The other two parasites, smut and bunt, affect principally the
grain. Smut of wheat, Ustilago Trilici, infects the host at the time
of flowering. The fungus-spores, from some diseased plant, alight
on the stigma of the flower, and germinate there along with the
pollen-grains. The developing seed thus encloses fungal hyphae,
which remain dormant within the seed and in spring develop sym-
biotically with the growth of the wheat plant, doing no apparent
injury until the time of fruiting is reached, when the fungus takes
complete possession and fills the new seed with a mass of dark-
coloured spores. These are scattered over the field and alight on
B.
From Vine's Students' Text-Book of
Botany, by permission of Swan,
Sonnenschein & Co.
FIG. 5. Germinating Rest-
other flowering wheat plants. It is impossible to detect the first
infection or to cleanse the seed;
the only remedy is to procure seed
from a smut-free source, and to
prevent further spread of the
disease by gathering all smutted
heads before the spores have
matured or dispersed.
TUletia Trilici, bunt or stinking
smut of wheat, is so-called because
the bunted grain has a disagreeable
odour of stale herrings, Bread
made from bunted flour is dark in
colour, and both unpalatable and
unwholesome. The spores of the l * m
fungus remain in the soil or in
manure-heaps until spring, when ._
they germinate and attack the first '
green leaves of the host plant. The
after development is similar to that
of smut, and the seed grain be-
comes a mere mass of fungus
spores. Much can be done in this
case to clean the seed before sowing
by immersing it in hot water or ing-Gonidia: A of "Ustilago
in some solution that will kill the receptaculorum; B of Tillctia
spores without injuring the grain Caries (X 460).
Other parasitic fungi of less s p. The gonidium.
economic importance occasionally p m< The promycelium.
do considerable damage. Erysiple d, The sporidia: in B the
graminis, a mildew of grasses, has sporidia have coalesced in
caused great loss in various cpun- pairs at v.
tries; Dilophia graminis sometimes
causes deformities of the leaves and inflorescence; another some-
what similar fungus, Ophiobolus graminis, attacks the leaves and
stalks near the ground, completely destroying the plants.
Helminthosporium gramineum, a disease of barley, has also been
recorded as growing on wheat; it forms long narrow dark-brown
streaks on the leaves, which wither and die. The lower leaves are
usually the only ones attacked, and the yield of grain has not been
seriously affected.
WHEATEAR, a bird's name, perhaps of doubtful meaning, 1
though J. Taylor, the " water poet " (d. 1654), in whose writings
it seems first to occur, and F. Willughby, explain it (in the words
of J. Ray, the latter's translator) as given " because [in] the time
of wheat harvest they wax very fat." The wheatear, Saxicola
osnanthe, is one of the earliest migrants of its kind to return to its
home, often reaching England at the end of February and
almost always by the middle of March. The cock bird, with his
bluish grey back and light buff breast, set off by black ear-
coverts, wings, and part of the tail, is rendered still more con-
spicuous by his white rump as he takes short flights in front of
those who disturb him, while his sprightly actions and gay song
harmonize so well with his delicately-tinted plumage as to
render him a welcome object to all who delight in free and open
country. When alarmed both sexes have a sharp monosyllabic
note that sounds like chat; and this has not only entered into
some of the local names of this species and of its allies, but has
caused all to be frequently spoken of as " chats." The nest is
constantly placed under ground; the bird takes advantage of the
hole of some other animal, or the shelter of a clod in a fallow-field
or a recess beneath a rock. A large amount of soft material
is therein collected, and on them from 5 to 8 pale blue eggs are
laid.
The wheatear has a very wide range throughout the Old World,
extending in summer far within the Arctic Circle, from Norway to
the Lena and Yana valleys, while it winters in Africa beyond thi
Equator and in India. But it also breeds regularly in Greenlai
and some parts of North America. Its reaching the former and t
eastern coast of the latter, as well as the Bermudas, may possibly
explained by the drifting of individuals from Iceland ; but far mo
interesting is the fact of its continued seasonal appearance in Alas!
without ever showing itself in British Columbia or California, an
1 The vulgar supposition of its being an euphemism of an Anglo-
Saxon name (cf. Bennett's ed. of White's Nat, Hist. Selborne, p. 69,
note) must be rejected until evidence that such a name ever existed be
adduced. It is true that " whittaile " (cf. Dutch Witsiaart and
French Culblanc) is given by Cotgrave in 1611 ; but the older names,
according to Turner, in 1544, of " clotburd " ( = clod-bird) and
smatch ( = chat) do not favour the usual derivation. " Fallow-chat "
is another old name still locally in use, as is " coney-chuck."
WHEATLEY WHEATSTONE
583
without ever having been observed in Kamchatka, Japan or China,
though it is a summer resident in the Tchuktchi peninsula. Hence
it would seem as though its annual flights across Bering's Strait
must be in connexion with a migratory movement that passes to
the north and west of the Stanoyoi range of mountains.
Many species- more or less allied to the wheatear have been de-
- ril>ed. Some eight are included in the European fauna; but the
majority are inhabitants of Africa. Several of them are birds of the
desert; and here it may be remarked that, while most of these
exhibit the sand-coloured tints so commonly found in animals of like
habitat, a few assume a black plumage, which, as explained by
H. B. Tristram, is equally protective, since it assimilates them to
the deep shadows cast by projecting stones and other inequalities
of the surface.
Amongst genera closely allied to Saxicola are Pratincola, which
comprises among others two well-known British birds, the stonechat
and whinchat, P. rubicola and P. rubetra, the latter a summer-
migrant, while the former is resident as a species, and the black
head, ruddy breast, and white collar and wing-spot of the cock
render him a conspicuous object on almost every furze-grown com-
mon or heath in the British Islands, as he sits on a projecting twig
or Hits from bush to bush. This bird has a wide range in Europe,
and several other species, more or less resembling it, inhabit South
Africa, Madagascar, Reunion and Asia, from some of the islands of
the Indian Archipelago to Japan. The whinchat, on the other hand,
much more affects enclosed lands, and with a wide range has no
very near ally. The wheatear and its allies belong to the sub-family
Turdinae of the thrushes (q.v.). (A. N.)
WHEATLEY, FRANCIS (1747-1801), English portrait and
landscape painter, was born in 1747 at Wild Court, Covent
Garden, London. He studied at Shipley's drawing-school and
the Royal Academy, and won several prizes from the Society of
Arts. He assisted in the decoration of Vauxhall, and aided
Mortimer in painting a ceiling for Lord Melbourne at Brocket
Hall (Hertfordshire). In youth his life was irregular and dis-
sipated. He eloped to Ireland with the wife of Gresse, a brother
artist, and established himself in Dublin as a portrait-painter,
executing, among other works, an interior of the Irish House of
Commons. His scene from the London Riots of 1780 was admir-
ably engraved by Heath. He painted several subjects for
Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery, designed illustrations to Bell's
edition of the poets, and practised to some small extent as an
etcher and mezzotint-engraver. It is, however, as a painter, in
both oil and water-colour, of landscapes and rustic subjects
that Wheatley is best remembered. He was elected an associate
of the Royal Academy in 1790, and an academician in the
following year. He died on the 28th of June 1801. His wife,
afterwards Mrs Pope, was known as a painter of flowers and
portraits.
WHEATON, HENRY (1785-1848), American lawyer and
diplomatist, was born at Providence, Rhode Island, on the 27th
of November 1785. He graduated at Brown University in 1802,
was admitted to the bar in 1805, and, after two years' study
abroad, practised law at Providence (1807-181 2) and at New York
City (1812-1827). He was a justice of the Marine Court of the
city of New York from 1815 to 1819, and reporter of the United
States Supreme Court from 1816 to 1827, aiding in 1825 in the
revision of the laws of New York. His diplomatic career began
in 1827, with an appointment to Denmark as charge d'affaires,
followed by that of minister to Prussia, 1837 to 1846. During
this period he had published a Digest of the Law of Maritime
Captures (1813); twelve volumes of Supreme Court Reports, and
a Digest; a great number of historical articles, and some collected
works; Elements of International Law (1836), his most im-
portant work, of which a 6th edition with memoir was prepared
by W. B. Lawrence and an eighth by R. JH. Dana (q.v.); Histoire
du Progres du Droil des Gens en Europe, written in 1838 for a
prize offered by the French Academy of Moral and Political
Science, and translated in 1845 by William B. Lawrence as A
History of the Law of Nations in Europe and America; and the
Right of Visitation and Search (1842). The History took rank at
ouce as one of the leading works on the subject of which it
treats. Wheaton's general theory is that international law
consists of " those rules of conduct which reason deduces, as
consonant to justice, from the nature of the society existing
among independent nations, with such definitions and modifica-
tions as may be established by general consent." In 1846 Wheaton
was requested to resign by the new president, Polk, who needed
his place for another appointment. The request provoked general
condemnation; but Wheaton resigned and returned to the
United States. He was called at once to the Harvard Law
School as lecturer on international law; but he died at Dor-
chester, Massachusetts, on the nth of March 1848.
WHEATSTONE, SIR CHARLES (1802-1875), English physicist
and the practical founder of modern telegraphy, was born at
Gloucester in February 1802, his father being a music-seller in
that city. In 1806 the family removed to London. Wheatstone's
education was carried on in several private schools, at which
he appears to have displayed no remarkable attainments, being
mainly characterized by a morbid shyness and sensitiveness that
prevented him from making friends. About 1816 he was sent
to his uncle, a musical instrument maker in the Strand, to learn
the trade; but with his father's countenance he spent more time
in reading books of all kinds than at work. For some years he
continued making experiments in acoustics, following out his own
ideas and devising many beautiful and ingenious arrangements.
Of these the " acoucryptophone " was one of the most elegant
a light box, shaped like an ancient lyre and suspended by a
metallic wire from a piano in the room above. When the in-
strument was played, the vibrations were transmitted silently,
and became audible in the lyre, which thus appeared to play of
itself. On the death of his uncle in 1823 Wheatstone and his
brother succeeded to the business; but he never seems to have
taken a very active part in it, and he virtually retired after six
years, devoting himself to experimental research, at first chiefly
with regard to sound. Although he occasionally read a paper to
scientific societies when a young man, he never could become
a lecturer on account of his shyness. Hence many of his in-
vestigations were first described by Faraday in his Friday
evening discourses at the Royal Institution. By 1834 his
originality and resource in experiment were fully recognized,
and he was appointed professor of experimental philosophy at
King's College, London, in that year. This appointment was
inaugurated by two events, a course of eight lectures on sound,
which proved no success and was not repeated, and the deter-
mination by means of a revolving mirror of the speed of electric
discharge in conductors, a piece of work leading to enormously
important results. The great velocity of electrical transmission
suggested the possibility of utilizing it for sending messages;
and, after many experiments and the practical advice and
business-like co-operation of William Fothergill Cooke (1806-
1879), a patent for an electric telegraph was taken out in their
joint names in 1837. Wheatstone's early training in making
musical instruments now bore rich fruit in the continuous
designing of new instruments and pieces of mechanism. His life
was uneventful except in so far as the variety of his work lent it
colour. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1837; in
1847 he married; and in 1868, after the completion of his master-
piece, the automatic telegraph, he was knighted. While in Paris
perfecting a receiving instrument for submarine cables, Sir
Charles Wheatstone caught cold, and died on the igth of October
1875-
Wheatstone's physical investigations are described in more than
thirty-six papers in various scientific journals, the more important
being in the Philosophical Transactions, the Proceedings of the Royal
Society, the Comptes rendus and the British Association Reports.
They naturally divide themselves into researches on sound, light
and electricity, but extend into other branches of physics as well.
But his best work by far was in the invention of complicated and
delicate mechanism for various purposes, in the construction of
which he employed a staff of workmen trained to the highest degree
of excellence. For his insight into mechanism and his power over
it he was unequalled, except perhaps by Charles Babbage. A crypto-
graphic machine, which changed thecipherautomaticallyand printed
a message, entirely unintelligible until translated by a duplicate
instrument, was one of the most perfect examples of this. Crypto-
graphy had a great fascination for Wheatstone ; he studied it deeply
at one time, and deciphered many of the MSS. in the British Museum
which had defied alt other interpreters. In acoustics his principal
work was a research on the transmission of sound through solids, the
explanation of Chladni's figures of vibrating solids, various investiga-
tions of the principles of acoustics and the mechanism of hearing, and
the invention of new musical instruments, e.g. the concertina (q.v.).
5 8 4
WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE
The kaleidophone, intended to present visibly the movements of a
sonorous body, consisted of a vibrating wire or rod carrying a
silvered bead reflecting a point of light, the motions of which, by
persistence of the successive images on the retina, were thus repre-
sented in curves of light. In light there are a series of papers on the
eye, on the physiology of vision, on binocular vision, including the
invention of one of the popular scientific instruments, the stereoscope
(q.v.), and on colour. The polar clock, devised for use in place of a
sun-dial, applies the fact that the plane of polarization of sky light is
always 90 from the position of the sun ; hence by measuring the
azimuthal angle of the plane, even when the sun is below the horizon,
correct apparent solar time may be obtained. In 1835, in a paper on
" The Prismatic Decomposition of Electrical Light," he proved that
sparks from different metals give distinctive spectra, which afforded
a ready means of discriminating between them. But it is by his
electrical work that Wheatstone is best remembered. He not only
guided the growth of scientific telegraphy on land wires, but made the
earliest experiments with submarine cables, foreseeing the practica-
bility of this means of communication as early as 1840. He devised
the "A, B, C" telegraph instrument, the automatic transmittei,
by which messages may be sent at the rate of 500 words a minute,
printing telegraph receivers of various forms, electrical chronoscopes,
and many forms of electrical recording apparatus, amongst others
two sets of registering meteorological instruments, of which the
earlier, described in 1842, was afterwards developed by Father A.
Secchi and F. van Rysselberghe, but the later, put forward in 1867,
included metallic thermometers and was less successful.
Wheatstone's Scientific Papers were collected and published by the
Physical Society of London in 1879. Biographical notices of him
will be found in his Proc. Inst. C.E., xlvii. 283, and Proc. Roy.
Soc., xxiv. xvi. For his connexion with the growth of tele-
graphy, see Nature, xi. 510, and xii. 30 sq.
WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE, an electrical instrument which
consists of six conductors, joining four points, of such a character
that when an electromotive force is applied in one branch the
absence of a current in another branch (called the conjugate
branch) establishes a relation between the resistance of the four
others by which we can determine the value of the resistance in
one of these, that of the others being assumed to be known.
This arrangement was not invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone
although it bears his name and is commonly attributed to him,
and was employed by him in some of his electrical researches
but by S. H. Christie, in I833. 1
The arrangement of the six conductors is diagrammatically repre-
sented in fig. i. In one of these branches is placed a battery B and
in another a galvanometer G ; the four
other resistances are denoted by the
letters P, Q, R, S. The circuits in which
the battery and galvanometer are
placed are called conjugate circuits,
^and the circuits P, Q, R, and S are
I called the arms of the bridge, the
/branches P and Q being called the ratio
arms and S the measuring arm. The
circuit in which the galvanometer is
placed is the bridge circuit. Keys are
inserted in the battery and galvanometer
circuits to open or close them at pleasure.
The resistance forming the four arms of
the bridge can be so adjusted that if
these resistances have values denoted
by P, Q, R, and S, then when P : Q : : R : S, the current in the galvano-
meter circuit will be zero when an electromotive force is applied
in the battery circuit.
To prove this statement, let the conductors P, Q. R, S., be arranged
in a lozenge shape, as in fig. I. Let E be the electromotive force in
the battery circuit, and let (x+y) be the current through the re-
sistance P, y the current through the resistance Q and 2 that through
B. Then by G. R. Kirchhoff's laws (see ELECTROKINETICS) we have
the current equations,
(P+G+R) (x+y)-Gy-Rz=O
(Q+G + S)} G(x + y)-Sz =
(R+S+B) z-R(* + ?) -Sy = E
Rearranging the terms and solving for x (the current through the
galvanometer), we obtain
* = (PS-RQ)E/A,
where A is a complex expression, involving the resistances
P, Q, R, S, G, and B, which does not concern us. Hence when
* = o, P :Q = R :S and the value of R can be determined in terms of
P, Q and S.
In the practical instrument the three arms of the bridge P, Q,
and S are generally composed of coils of wire contained in a box,
whilst R is the resistance the value of which is to be determined.
This last resistance is connected to the other three with the addition
1 See Wheatstone's Scientific Papers, p. 129.
of a galvanometer and a battery connected up as shown in the
diagram. The operation of determining the value of the resistance R
therefore consists in altering the ratio of the three resistances P, Q,
and S, until the galvanometer indicates no current through it when
the battery circuit is completed or closed by the key. In one form
of Wheatstone's Bridge, known as the scries patterrr plug-resistance
bridge, or Post Office pattern, the two ratio arms, P and Q, each
consist of a series of coils of wire, viz. two i-ohm coils, two lo-ohm
coils, two loo-ohm coils and two looo-ohm coils, which are joined up
FIG. 2. Standard Wheatstone's Bridge.
in series in the order, 1000, 100, 10, I ; I, 10, 100, 1000, the junction*
between each pair being connected to brass blocks, a series of which
are mounted upon an ebonite slab that forms the lid of the box.
The blocks are bored out with a hole partly in one block and partly
in the other (see fig. 2) so that they can be connected by accurately
fitting conical plugs. When the blocks are interconnected by the
plugs all the coils are short-circuited ; but if the plug or plugs are
taken out, then a current flowing from one end of the series to the
other is compelled to pass through the corresponding coils. In series
with this set of coils is another set, S, which forms a measuring arm,
the resistances of which are generally 1,2,3,4, IO > 2 9> 3> 4> IOO > 2OO >
300, 400, looo, 2000, 3000, 4000 ohms. The junction between each
pair of coils is connected as above described to a block, the blocks
being interconnected by plugs all of which are made interchangeable.
Another form of Wheatstone's Bridge, shown in fig. 2, is known
as the dial pattern. Ten brass blocks are arranged parallel to or
around another brass block, and by means of a plug which fits into
holes bored partly out of the common block and partly out of the
surrounding blocks, any one of the latter can be connected with the
common one. A series of nine equal resistances, say I-ohm coils,
or nine loo-ohm coils, are joined in between these circumferential
blocks (fig. 3). It will be seen that if a plug is placed so as to Connect
FIG. 3.-
-Diagram showing Connexions of a Dial and Plug pattern,
Wheatstone's Bridge.
any outside block with the central block, the current can only pass
from the zero outer block to the central block by passing through a
certain number of the resistance coils. Hence according to the
magnitude of each coil the total resistance may be made anything
from i to Q, 10 to 90, or 100 to 900 ohms, &c. Three or four of the
" dials " thus composed are arranged side by side, the brass blocks
being mounted on a slab of ebonite and the coils contained in the box
underneath, and they are so joined up that the central block of one
dial is connected to the outside block of the next marked O. This
arrangement forms the measuring arm of the bridge, the ratio arms
being constructed on the series plug pattern just described. A bridge
of this pattern has the advantage that the insertion or removal of a
WHEEL WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE
585
plug in the measuring arm does not tend to tighten or loosen all the
TIM of the plugs; moreover, there are fewer plugs to manipulate,
and each plug is occupied. The resistance coils themselves are
generally wound on brass or copper bobbins, with silk-covered
mangamn wire, which should first be aged by heating for about ten
hours to a temperature of 140 C., to remove the slight tendency to
change in resistivity which would otherwise present itself.
For the accurate comparison of resistance coils it is usual to make
use of the Matthicssen and Hockin bridge, and to employ the method
of differential comparison due to G. Carey Foster. 1 On a board is
stretched a uniform metallic wire a b, generally of platinum silver.
The ends of this wire are connected to copper blocks, which them-
i are connected to a series of four resistance coils, A, B, and P, Q
(fig. 4). A and B are the coils to be compared, P and Q are two other
B
coils of convenient value. Over the stretched wire moves a contact
maker S, which makes contact with it at any desired point, the
position of which can be ascertained by means of an underlying
scale. A battery C of two or three cells is connected to the ex-
tremities of the slide wire, and the sensitive galvanometer G is con-
nected in between the contact-maker and the junction between the
coils P and Q. The observer begins by moving the slider until the
fjulvanometer shows no current. The position of the coils A and B is
then interchanged, and a fresh balance in position on the bridge is
obtained. It is then easily shown that the difference between the
resistance of the coils A and B is equal to the resistance of the length
of the slide wire intercepted between the two places at which the
balance was found in the two observations.
Let the balance be supposed to be attained, and let x be the position
of the slider on the wire, so that x and lx are the two sections of the
slide wire, then the relation between the resistance is
Next, let the position of A and B be interchanged, and the slide-wire
reading be x' ; then
(B+*')/ (A +/-*') = P/Q.
Hence it follows that A B=x' x, or the difference of the resist-
ances of the coils A and B is equal to the resistance of that length of
the slide wire between the two points where balance is obtained.
Various plans have been suggested for effecting the rapid inter-
change of the two coils A and B; one of the most convenient was
designed by J. A. Fleming in 1880, and has been since used by the
British Association Committee on Electrical Units for making com-
parison between standard coils with great accuracy (see Phil. Mag.,
1880, and Proc. Phys. Soc., 1879). In all very exact resistance
measurements the chief difficulty, however, is not to determine the
resistance of a coil, but to determine the temperature of the coil at
the time when the resistance measurement is made. The difficulty is
1 " On a Modified Form of Wheatstone's Bridge, and Methods of
Measuring Small Resistances," by Professor G. Carey Foster. Proc.
Soc. Tel. Eng. (1872), i.
caused by the fact that the coil is heated by the current used to
measure its resistance, which thus alters in value. In accurate
comparisons, therefore, it is necessary that the coils to be compared
should be immersed in melting ice, and that sufficient time should be
allowed to elapse between the measurements for the heat generated
in the coil to be removed.
The standard resistance coil employed as a means of comparison
by which to regulate and check other coils consists of a wire, generally
of mangamn or platinum silver, insulated with silk and wound on a
brass cylinder (fig. 5). This is soldered to two thick terminal rods of
copper, and the coil is enclosed in a water-tight brass cylinder so that
it can be placed in water, or preferably in paraffin oil, and brought to
any required temperature. In the form of standard coil recom-
mended by the Berlin Rcichsanstalt the coil is immersed in an
insulating oil which is kept stirred by means of a small electric
motor during the time of making the measurement. The tempera-
ture of the oil can best be ascertained by means of a platinum
resistance thermometer.
For the measurement of low resistances a modification of the
Wlieatstone's bridge devised by Lord Kelvin is employed. The
Kelvin bridge consists of nine conductors joining six points, and in one
practical form is known as a Kelvin and Varley slide. Modifications
of the ordinary Wheatstone's bridge for very accurate measurements
have been devised by H. L. Callendar and by Callendar and E. H.
Griffiths (see G. M. Clark, the Electrician, 38, p. 747). A useful bridge
method for measurement of low resistances has been given by R. T.
Housman (the Electrician, 40, p. 300, 1897). These and numerous
modifications of the Wheatstone's bridge will be found described in
I. A. Fleming's Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing-
Room, vol. i. (1903).
REFERENCES: F.E. Smith, "OnMethodsof High Precision for the
Comparison of Resistances," Appendix to the Report of the British
Association Committee on Electrical Standards, British Association
Report (York, 1906), or the Electrician, 57, p. 976 (1906); C. V.
Drysdale, " Resistance Coils and Comparisons," British Associa-
tion Report (Leicester, 1907), or the Electrician, 57, p. 955 (1907), and
60, p. 20 (1907); J. A. Fleming, " A Form of Resistance Balance for
Comparing Standard Coils," Phil. Mag. (February, 1880); "A
Design for a Standard of Electrical Resistance," Phil. Mag. (January
1889); G. Aspinall Parr, Electrical Measuring Instruments (1903);
W. H. Price, The Practical Measurement of Resistance; A. Gray,
Absolute Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism (1900); Rollo
Appleyard, " The Conductometer," Proc. Phys. Soc. London, 19, p. 29
(1903); also Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. 154 (1903); and Proc. Phys. Soc.,
London, 17, p. 685 (1901). (J. A. F.)
WHEEL (O. Eng. kweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Ice!, hjol,
Dan. hiul, &c.; the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit
chakra, Gr. KfoAoj, circle, whence " cycle "), a circular frame
or solid disk revolving on an axis, of which the function is to
transmit or to modify motion. For the mechanical attributes and
power of the wheel and for the modification of the lever, known
as the " wheel and axis," and of the mechanical powers, see
MECHANICS. The most familiar type of the wheel is of course
that used in every type of vehicle, but it forms an essential part
of nearly every kind of mechanism or machinery. Vehicular
wheels in the earliest times were circular disks either cut out of
solid pieces of wood, or formed of separate planks of wood fastened
together and then cut into a circular shape. Such may be still
seen in use among primitive peoples to-day, especially where the
tracks, if any exist, are of the roughest description, and travelling
is heavy. The ordinary wheel consists of the nave (O. Eng.
nafu, cf. Ger. Nabe, allied with "navel"), the central portion or
hub, through which the axle passes, the spokes, the radial bars
inserted in the nave and reaching to the peripheral rim, the
felloe or felly (O. Eng. felge, Ger. Fdge, properly that which
fitted together, Teut. felhan, to fit together). From the monu-
ments we see that the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian chariots had
usually six spokes; the Greek and Roman wheels from four to
eight. (See further CARRIAGE and CHARIOT; also TIRE; and
articles on BICYCLE; TRICYCLE; and MOTOR VEHICLES.)
WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE, a form of torture and execution
formerly in use, especially in France and Germany. It is said to
have been first used in the latter country, where the victim was
placed on a cart-wheel and his limbs stretched out along the
spokes. The wheel was made to slowly revolve, and the man's
bones broken with blows of an iron bar. Sometimes it was
mercifully ordered that the executioner should strike the criminal
on chest and stomach, blows known as coups de grdte, which at
once ended the torture, and in France he was usually strangled
after the second or third blow. A wheel was not always used
586
WHEELER, J. WHETHAMSTEDE
In some countries it was upon a frame shaped like St Andrew's
Cross that the sufferer was stretched. The punishment was
abolished in France at the Revolution. It was employed in
Germany as late as 1827. A murderer was broken on the row
or wheel at Edinburgh in 1604, and two of the assassins of the
regent Lennox thus suffered death.
WHEELER, JOSEPH (1836-1906), American soldier, was
born at Augusta, Georgia, in 1836, and entered the United States
cavalry from West Point in 1859. Within two years the Civil
War broke out, and Wheeler, as a Southerner, resigned to enter the
Confederate service. In a short time he became colonel of the
1 9th Alabama Infantry, with which he took part in the desultory
operations of 1861 in Kentucky and Tennessee. He commanded
a brigade at the battle of Shiloh, but soon afterwards he returned
to the cavalry arm in which he won a reputation second only
to Stuart's. After the action of Perryville he was promoted
brigadier-general, and in January 1863 major-general. Thence-
forward throughout the campaigns of Chickamauga, Chattanooga
and Atlanta he commanded the cavalry of the Confederate army
in the West, and when Hood embarked upon the Tennessee
expedition, he left Wheeler's cavalry to harass Sherman's army
during the " March to the Sea." In the closing operations of
the war, having now the rank of lieutenant-general, he com-
manded the cavalry of Joseph Johnston's weak army in North
Carolina, and was included in its surrender. After this he became
a lawyer and a cotton planter and in 1882-83 and 1885-1900 was
a representative in Congress. At the outbreak of the Spanish-
American War in 1898, President M'Kinley, in pursuance of the
policy of welding the North and the South, commissioned two
ex-Confederate generals Wheeler and Fitzhugh Lee as major-
generals of United States volunteers, and in this capacity
Wheeler was placed in command of the cavalry division of
Shafter's army in Cuba. He commanded in the actions of
Guasimas and San Juan, was afterwards sent to the Philippines
in command of a brigade, and in 1900 was commissioned a
brigadier-general in the regular army. Shortly afterwards he
retired. General Wheeler died on the 25th of January 1906.
WHEELER, WILLIAM ALMON (1819-1887), vice-president of
the United States from 1877 to 1881, was born at Malone, New
York, on the 30th of June 1819. He studied at the university
of Vermont for two years (1833-1835), and in 1845 was admitted
to the bar. First as a Whig, and then, after 1856, as a Republican,
he was prominent for many years in state and national politics.
He was a member of the state Assembly in 1849-1850, a member
and president pro tempore of the state Senate in 1858-1859, and
a member of the national House of Representatives in 1861-1863,
and again from 1869 until 1877. He was the author of the so-
called " Wheeler Compromise," by which the difficulties between
contending political factions in Louisiana were adjusted in
1875. Nominated for vice-president by the Republicans in
1876 on the ticket with President Hayes, he was installed
in office through the decision of the Electoral Commission, and
at the end of his term he retired from public life. He died at
Malone on the 4th of June 1887.
WHEELING, a city and the county-seat of Ohio county,
West Virginia, U.S.A., on the east bank of the Ohio river, at the
mouth of Wheeling Creek, 66 m. (by rail) S.W. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890) 34,522; (1900) 38,878, of whom 1066 were negroes,
and 5461 were foreign-bom, including 3106 Germans and 876
Irish; (1910, census) 41,641. Area, 3-2 sq. m. Wheeling is
served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pennsylvania and the
Wheeling & Lake Erie railways, by the belt line of the Wheeling
Terminal Company and by interurban electric lines. Wheeling
is the largest city in West Virginia, and commercially the most
important place on the Ohio river between Pittsburg and
Cincinnati. It is built on a narrow strip of bottom land, between
the river and steep hills, at an elevation of about 640 ft. above
tidewater. Between the mainland and Wheeling (formerly
Zane's) Island, which forms a part of the city, there are a suspen-
sion-bridge, which has a span of 1010 ft., and a steel bridge,
and from the island across the back river channel there are two
bridges to the Ohio shore, one from the middle of the island to
Bridgeport on which the Old National Road crosses the river,
and the other from the northern end of the island to Martin's
Ferry, Ohio. A fifth bridge connects Wheeling with Bellaire,
Ohio. Wheeling has a public library, containing 23,261 volumes
in 1909. Near the city is the Mount de Chantal Academy (Roman
Catholic) for girls, and in Wheeling is Linsly Institute, a secondary
school for boys. The principal public buildings are the Custom-
House and Post-Office, the City Hall, a High School, a Y.M.C.A.
building and a Scottish Rite Cathedral. In the city are a City
Hospital (private, 1890) and the Wheeling Hospital (under the
Sisters of St Joseph, 1853). On the National Road there is a
monument to Henry Clay; and in the City Hall Square is a
Soldiers' Monument. By reason of its situation on the Ohio
river Wheeling is an important shipping and distributing centre,
and it has various important manufacturing interests. Its factory
products were valued in 1905 at $23,297,475. The chief industry
is the manufacture of iron and steel, which in 1905 gave employ-
ment to more than 34% of the city's wage-earners, and yielded
more than 46% of the total value of its products. The manu-
facture of nails, begun here in 1849, was for many years of great
importance. Other products in 1905 were slaughtering and meat
products, $1,812,348; malt liquors, $1,541,185; tobacco and
cigars (especially stogies), $1,161,594; foundry and machine-
shop products, $709,376; lumber and planing mill products,
$685,861; pickles, preserves and sauces, $676,437; glass,
$508,145; and pottery. Glass was first manufactured here
in 1821. Coal is found in abundance in the surrounding region,
and also natural gas, which is much used as fuel in the manu-
facture of iron, steel and glass.
The first settlement here was made in 1770 by Colonel Ebenezer
Zane (1747-1811), and his brothers, Jonathan (one of the
founders of Zanesville, Ohio) and Silas, who in the autumn of
that year made their way to this point from their home in
Virginia, and took possession of claims at the mouth of Wheeling
Creek. Other settlers came soon afterward, and in 1774 a strong
stockade fort was erected within the present limits of Wheeling
at the top of Main Street hill. Until 1776 this fort was called
Fort Fincastle in honour of Lord Dunmore, Viscount Fincastle,
governor of Virginia from 1771 to 1776. After 1776 it was called
Fort Henry, in honour of Patrick Henry. During this period the
Indians were hostile, and the settlers were frequently forced
to take refuge in the stockade. On the ist of September 1777
the fort was attacked by a large force of Indians and 15 of the
whites were killed; during this attack, when the ammunition
of the defenders had failed, Elizabeth Zane (c. 1759-1847), a
sister of Ebenezer, brought under fire a keg of powder from
a house sixty yards from the fort. In September 1782 the fort
was unsuccessfully besieged for two days by a force of about
40 British regular soldiers and about 250 Indians. The town
was laid out by Colonel Zane in 1793, was incorporated in 1806,
and was chartered as a city in 1836. It was designated as the
capital of the " restored government of Virginia " in 1861,
after the secession of Virginia at the beginning of the Civil War,
and was the capital of West Virginia from 1863 to 1869, and again
from 1875 un til May 1885. The name " Wheeling " is a corrup-
tion of an Indian word, of uncertain meaning, sometimes trans-
lated as " the place of the head."
WHETHAMSTEDE, JOHN (d. 1465), English abbot, was a
son of Hugh Bostock, and was born at Wheathampstead in
Hertfordshire, owing his name, the Latin form of which is
Frumenlarius, to this circumstance. In early life he entered St
Albans Abbey and in 1420 he was chosen abbot of this house.
In 1423 he attended a council at Pavia, but in England his time
was mainly occupied with lawsuits, several of which he carried on
to defend the property and enforce the rights of the abbey. In
1440 he resigned his post, but in 1451, on the death of his suc-
cessor, John Stoke, he became abbot for the second time. He
died on the 2oth of January 1465, and his tomb may still be
seen in the abbey church. Whethamstede was an energetic and
successful abbot. He greatly improved the buildings at St
Albans, which suffered somewhat during his later years owing
to the wars of the roses; he also did some building at Gloucester
WHETSTONE WHICHCOTE
587
College, Oxford, with which he was connected. He was a friend
of Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, whom he helped to gather to-
gether his famous collection of books, and was himself a writer,
his works including Granarium de viris illustribus', Palearium
po'etarum; and Super Valerium in Augustinum de Anchona.
Whethamstede's Chronicle, or the Registrum abbatiae Johannis
Whethamstede, is a register compiled soon after the abbot's death,
which tells the events of his second abbacy. It has been edited by
H. T. Riley, and is in vol. i. of the Registra quorundam abbatum
monasterii S. Albani (London, 1872). The events of his first abbacy
are narrated in the Annales monasterii S. Albani of John Amundes-
ham, also edited by H. T. Riley (London, 1870-1871).
WHETSTONE, GEORGE (1544?-! 587?), English dramatist
and author, was the third son of Robert Whetstone (d. 1557).
A member of a wealthy family that owned the manor of
Walcot at Bernack, near Stamford, he appears to have inherited
a small patrimony which he speedily dissipated, and he com-
plains bitterly of the failure of a lawsuit to recover an inheritance
of which he had been unjustly deprived. In 1572 he joined an
English regiment on active service in the Low Countries, where
he met George Gascoigne and Thomas Churchyard. Gascoigne
was his guest near Stamford when he died in 1 577, and Whetstone
commemorated his friend in a long elegy. His first volume, the
Roche of Regarde (1576), consisted of tales in prose and verse
adapted from the Italian, and in 1578 he published The right
excellent and famous Historye of Promos and Cassandra, a play in
two parts, drawn from the eighty-fifth novel of Giraldi Cinthio's
Hecalomilhi. To this he wrote an interesting preface addressed
to William Fleetwood, recorder of London, with whom he
claimed kinship, in which he criticizes the contemporary drama.
In 1582 he published his Heptameron of Civill Discourses, a
collection of tales which includes The Rare Historic of Promos
and Cassandra. From this prose version apparently Shakespeare
drew the plot of Measure for Measure, though he was doubtless
familiar with the story in its earlier dramatic form. Whetstone
accompanied Sir Humphrey Gilbert on his expedition in 1578-
1579, and the next year found him in Italy. The Puritan spirit
was now abroad in England, and Whetstone followed its dictates
in his prose tract A Mir our for Magestrates (1584), which in a
second edition was called A Touchstone for the Time. Whetstone
did not abuse the stage as some Puritan writers did, but he
objected to the performance of plays on Sundays. In 1585 he
returned to the army in Holland, and he was present at the
battle of Zutphen. His other works are a collection of military
anecdotes entitled The Honourable Reputation of a Souldier
(1585); a political tract, the English Myrror (1586), numerous
elegies on distinguished persons, and The Censure of a Loyatt
Subject (1587). No information about Whetstone is available
after the publication of this last book, and it is conjectured that
he died shortly afterwards.
WHEWELL, WILLIAM (1794-1866), British philosopher and
historian of science, was born on the 24th of May 1794 at Lan-
caster. His father, a carpenter, wished him to follow his trade,
but his success in mathematics at Lancaster and Heversham
grammar-schools enabled him to proceed with an exhibition to
Trinity, Cambridge (1812). He was second wrangler in 1816,
became fellow and tutor of his college, and, in 1841, succeeded
Dr Wordsworth as master. He was professor of mineralogy from
1828 to 1832, and of moral philosophy (then called " moral
theology and casuistical divinity ") from 1838 to 1855. He
died on the 6th of March 1866 from the effects of a fall from
his horse.
Whewell was prominent not only in scientific research and
philosophy, but also in university and college administration.
His first work, An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics (1819),
co-operated with those of Peacock and Herschel in reforming the
Cambridge method of mathematical teaching; to him in large
measure was due the recognition of the moral and natural
sciences as an integral part of the Cambridge curriculum (1850).
In general, however, especially in later years, he opposed reform:
he defended the tutorial system, and in a controversy with
Thirl wall (1834) opposed the admission of Dissenters; he
upheld the clerical fellowship system, the privileged class of
" fellow-commoners," and the authority of heads of colleges in
university affairs. He opposed the appointment of the University
Commission (1850), and wrote two pamphlets (Remarks) against
the reform of the university (1855). He advocated as the true
reform, against the scheme of entrusting elections to the members
of the senate, the use of college funds and the subvention of
scientific and professorial work.
In 1826 and 1828, Whewell was engaged with Airy in con-
ducting experiments in Dolcoath mine, Cornwall, in order to
determine the density of the earth. Their united labours were
unsuccessful, and Whewell did little more in 'the way of ex-
perimental science. He was the author, however, of an Essay on
Mineralogical Classification, published in 1828, and contributed
various memoirs on the tides to the Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society between 1833 and 1850. But it is on his
History and Philosophy of the Sciences that his claim to an
enduring reputation mainly rests. The History of the Inductive
Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Time appeared originally
in 1837. Whewell's wide, if superficial, acquaintance with various
branches of science enabled him to write a comprehensive
account of their development, which is still of the greatest value.
In his own opinion, the History was to be regarded as an intro-
duction to the Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (1840). The
latter treatise ' analyses the method exemplified in the formation
of ideas, in the new inductions of science, and in the applications
and systematization of these inductions, all exhibited by the
History in the process of development.
In the Philosophy, Whewell endeavours to follow Bacon's plan for
discovery of an effectual art of discovery. He examines ideas
(" explication of conceptions ") and by the " colligation of facts
endeavours to unite these ideas to the facts and so construct science.
But no art of discovery, such as Bacon anticipated, follows, for
" invention, sagacity, genius " are needed at each step. He analyses
induction into three steps: (l) the selection of the (fundamental)
idea, such as space, number, cause or likeness; (2) the formation of
the conception, or more special modification of those ideas, as a
circle, a uniform force, &c.; and (3) the determination of magni-
tudes. Upon these follow special methods of induction applicable to
quantity, viz., the method of curves, the method of means, the
method of least squares and the method of residues, and special
methods depending on resemblance (to which the transition is made
through the law of continuity), viz. the method of gradation and the
method of natural classification.
Here, as in his ethical doctrine (see ETHICS), Whewell was moved
by opposition to contemporary English empiricism. Following Kant,
he asserted against J. S. Mill the a priori nature of necessary truth,
and by his rules for the construction of conceptions he dispensed with
the inductive methods of Mill.
Between 1835 and 1861 Whewell was the author of various works
on the philosophy of morals and politics, the chief of which. Elements
of Morality, including Polity, was published in 1845. The peculiarity
of this work written, of course, from what is known as the in-
tuitional point of view is its fivefold division of the springs of action
and of their objects, of the primary and universal rights of man
(personal security, property, contract, family rights and govern-
ment), and of the cardinal virtues (benevolence, justice, truth, purity
and order). Among Whewell's other works too numerous to
mention reference must be made to writings popular in their day,
such as the Bridgewater Treatise on Astronomy (1833), and the essay,
Of the Plurality of Worlds (.1854), in which he argued against the pro-
bability of planetary life, and also to the Platonic Dialogues for English
Readers (1850-1861 ), to the Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy
in England (1852), to the essay, Of a Liberal Education in General,
with particular reference to the Leading Studies of the University of
Cambridge (1845), to the important edition and abridged translation
of Grotius, De jure belli ft pacis (1853), and to the edition of the
Mathematical Works of Isaac Barrow (1860).
Full bibliographical details are given by Isaac Todhunter, W.
Whewell: an Account of his Writings (2 vols., 1876). See also Life
of W. Whewell, by Mrs Stair Douglas (1881).
WHICHCOTE (or WHITCHCOTE), BENJAMIN (1609-1683),
English divine and philosopher, was born at Whichcote Hall,
Stoke, Shropshire, and educated at Emmanuel College, Cam-
bridge, where he became fellow in 1633. He was ordained in
1636, and appointed shortly afterwards to be Sunday afternoon
1 Afterwards broken up into three parts published separately: (i)
the History of Scientific Ideas (1858), substantially a reproduction of
the first part of the Philosophy; (2) the Novum organum renovatum
(1858), containing the second part of the same work, but without the
historical review of opinions, which was issued with large additions as
(3) the Philosophy of Discovery (1860).
588
WHICKHAM WHIG AND TORY
lecturer at Trinity Church, Cambridge. In 1643 he received the
rectory of North Cadbury, Somerset, and in the following year
he was appointed provost of King's College, Cambridge, in place
of Samuel Collins who was ejected. On resigning North Cadbury
in 1649 he became rector of Milton, Cambridgeshire. In 1650
he was vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. Cromwell in
1655 consulted him upon the question of extending tolerance
to the Jews. His Puritan views lost him the provostship of
King's College at the Restoration of 1660, but on complying
with the Act of Uniformity he was appointed to the living of
St Anne's, Blackfriars, London. In 1668 he became vicar of
St Lawrence Jewry, London. He is regarded as the founder of the
important school of Cambridge Platonists. His works, chiefly
theological treatises and sermons, were all published posthum-
ously. He died in May 1683.
See John Tulloch, Rational Theology, ii. 59-84 (1874); and Masters
in English Theology, edited by A. Barry (1877).
WHICKHAM, an urban district in the Chester-le-Street
parliamentary division of Durham, England, 4 m. S.W. of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, near the river Derwent. Pop. (1901)
12,852. There is a station (Swalwcll) on a branch of the North-
Eastern railway. The church of St Mary has Norman and
Transitional portions, and in the neighbourhood is the mansion
of Gibside, of the i7th century. The demesne borders the Der-
went, and is of great beauty, part being laid out in formal
gardens and straight avenues. It contains a lofty Doric column
and a detached chapel and banqueting hall, and in the vicinity
arc picturesque fragments of the monastic chapel of Friarside,
and of the manor house of Hollinside. Whickham is one of
the centres of a coal-mining district, the mines employing the
majority of the industrial population; but there are also iron,
steel, and chemical works.
WHIG AND TORY, the names associated with two opposing
political parties in England. The origin of " Whig " has been
much controverted; it has been associated with the Scots for
" whey," as implying a taunt against the " sour-milk " faces of
the western Lowlanders; another theory is that it represented
the initials of the Scots Covenanters' motto, " We hope in God ";
another derives it from the Scots word " whiggam," used by
peasants in driving their horses. It was, however, a form of the
Scots Gaelic term used to describe cattle and horse thieves, and
transferred to the adherents of the Presbyterian cause in Scot-
land. " Tory " is derived from the Irish Tar a Ri, " Come, oh
king! " associated with the creed of the Irish native levies enlisted
in the civil wars on behalf of the loyalist cause; the outlaws who
fought for James in Ireland after the revolution were similarly
nicknamed Rapparees or Tories.
Parliamentary parties, as such, came into existence in England
as soon as parliament achieved or aimed at predominance in the
state. In 1641, shortly after the meeting of the Long Parliament,
they were divided on the question of church reform, passing,
as soon as political questions were involved, into Cavaliers and
Roundheads. After the expulsion of the Cavaliers in 1642 and
1643 the Houses were divided into a peace party and a war
party, and these in 1643 took the shape of Presbyterians and
Independents. After the Restoration there was a country
party and a court party, and to these the names of Whig and
Tory were applied in 1679, in the heat of the struggle which
preceded the meeting of the first short parliament of Charles II.
The words were nicknames given by the opponents of each party.
To call a man a Whig was to compare him with the Presbyterian
rebels of the west of Scotland. To call a man a Tory was to
compare him with the Papist outlaws of Ireland. In fact, at
this time the Whigs were maintainers of parliamentary power
over the crown and of toleration for Dissenters, the Tories
maintainers of the hereditary indefeasible rights of the wearer
of the crown and of the refusal of toleration to Dissenters. The
relation between the parties was further qualified by the fact that
the heir to the crown was a Roman Catholic, whose claim to
succeed was defended by the Tories and assailed by the Whigs.
The persistency of the names of the two parties is mainly
owing to their essential unmeaningness. As new questions
arose, the names of the old parties were retained, though the
objects of contention were no longer the same. The Revolution
of 1688-89 made it impossible for the Tories to retain their
old attitude of attachment to the hereditary right of the occupant
of the throne, with the exception of the extreme wing of the
party, which remained Jacobite. They still, however, continued,
though accepting the Toleration Act, to oppose the offering of
further favours to Dissenters. In Anne's reign, after the war
with France had gone on for some time, they supported a peace
policy, whilst the Whigs advocated a continuance of the war.
On the whole, during the last years of the I7th and the first years
of the iSth century the Whigs may be regarded as the party
of the great landowners, and of the merchants and tradesmen,
the Tories as the party of the smaller landowners and the country
clergy. The Whigs established, through their hold upon the
boroughs under the influence of the great landowners, a firm
government, which could keep in check, and at last practically
set aside, the power of the crown. The Tories, distrusting the
authority of the ministerial government, and fearing a new
despotism based on parliamentary corruption, became, especially
after Bolingbroke's return from exile, almost democratic in
their views and in their demands for the purification of the
existing system.
With the accession of George III. Toryism took a new form.
The struggle about the Dissenters was now a thing of the past,
and the king was accepted as a leader in carrying on the attack
against the power of the great Whig families. The attack was the
easier because the Whig families had split into factions. For
some time the dividing line between Whigs and Tories was this:
the Tories asserted that the king had a right to choose his
ministers and control their policy, subject to the necessity of
securing a majority of the House of Commons, whilst the Whigs
thought that the choice should lie with leading members of
parliament, and that the king should have no controlling power.
The Whig view appears to resemble that subsequently adopted ;
but in the middle of the i8th century the corruption which
prevailed rendered the analogy worthless, and the real conflict
was between the corrupt influence of the crown and the influence
of a clique of great landowners resting on their possession of
electoral power through the rotten boroughs. In 1770 the king
had his way and established Lord North at the treasury as
his nominee. The W r higs, deprived of power, improved their
position by the loss of one great instrument of corruption; but
they were weakened by the establishment of two distinct currents
of opinion in their own ranks. The main body under Rocking-
ham was influenced by Burke to demand practical reforms,
but set its face against any popular changes in the constitution.
The Whigs who followed Chatham wished to place parliament
on a more popular basis by the reform of the House of Commons.
When in 1783 Chatham's son Pitt became prime minister, the
Tory party took a new start. It retained the Tory principle of
reliance on the crown, -and joined to it Chatham's principle of
reliance on the people as opposed to the great Whig families.
It also supported Pitt in practical reforms.
All this was changed by the French Revolution. In opposition
to the new democracy, the Tories coalesced with a section of the
Whig families, the representatives of which entered the ministry
in 1794. From this time till 1822, in spite of men like Pitt, and
the personal influence of Tory leaders who supported moderate
reform, Toryism came to be popularly identified with a desire to
retain the existing state of things, however full of abuses it
might be. When Canning and Peel entered the ministry in
1822, a gradual change took place, and a tendency to practical
reform manifested itself. The refusal of Wellington to listen to
any proposal for altering the constitution of the House of Com-
mons threw power once more into the hands of the Whigs in 1830.
Shortly afterwards the name Tory gave place to that of Conserva-
tive (q.v.), though it was cherished by those Conservatives who
wished to assert their power of originating a definite policy, and
who disliked to be branded with a purely negative appellation,
and it was also retained as a term of opprobrium by the Liberals
for those whom they regarded as old-fashioned opponents of
WHIG PARTY
589
reform. The name of Whig was replaced by that of Liberal,
1). ing frequently, however, assigned to the less progressive por-
tion of the party, the " moderate Liberals," or even to half-and-
half Conservatives, as a term more or less of reproach. It ceased
lo be a name accepted by any definite English political section.
WHIG PARTY, in America, a political party prominent from
about 1824 to 1854.' The first national party system of the
I'nitfd States came to an end during the second war with Great
Britain. The destruction of the Federalist party (q.v.) through
i ies of suicidal acts which began with the Alien and Sedition
laws of 1798, and closed with the Hartford Convention of 1814-
iSis, left the JefTersonian Republican (Democratic) party in
undisputed control. When, after Waterloo, Napoleon ceased to
disturb the relations of the new world with the old, the American
people, freed for the first time from all trace of political depend-
on Europe, were at liberty to shape their public policy in
their own way. During the period of rapid internal develop-
ment which followed after 1815, the all-inclusive Republican
party began gradually to disintegrate and a new party system
was evolved, each member of which was the representative of
such groups of ideas and interests, class and local, as required
the support of a separate party. This work of disintegration
and rebuilding proceeded so slowly that for more than "a decade
after the Peace of Ghent each new party, disguised during the
early stages of organization as the personal following of a parti-
cular leader or group of leaders, kept on calling itself Republican.
Even during the sharply contested election of 1824 the rival
partisans were known as Jackson, Crawford and Calhoun, or as
(lay and Adams Republicans. (See DEMOCRATIC PARTY.) It
was not until late in the administration of John Quincy Adams,
1825 to 1829, that the supporters of the president and Henry
Clay, the secretary of state, were first recognized as a distinct
party and began to be called by the accurately descriptive term
National Republicans. But after the party had become con-
solidated, in the passionate campaign of 1828, and later in oppos-
ing the measures of President Jackson, it adopted in 1834 the
name Whig, which, through memorable associations both British
and American, served as a protest against executive encroach-
ments, and thus facilitated union with other parties and factions,
such as the Anti-Masonic party (q.v.), that had been alienated by
the high-handed measures of President Jackson. The new name
announced not the birth but the maturity of the party, and the
definite establishment of its principles and general lines of policy.
The ends for which the Whigs laboured were: first, to maintain
the integrity of the Union; second, to make the Union thoroughly
national; third, to maintain the republican character of the
Union; fourth, while utilizing to the full the inheritance from
and through Europe, to develop a distinctly American type of
civilization; fifth, to propagate abroad by peaceful means
American ideas and institutions. Among the policies or means
which the Whigs used in order to realize their principles were the
broad construction of those provisions of the Federal Constitution
which confer powers on the national government; protective
tariffs; comprehensive schemes of internal improvements under
the direction and at the cost of the national government;
support of the Bank of the United States; resistance to many
acts of President Jackson as encroachments by the executive on
the legislative branch of the government and therefore hostile to
republicanism; coalition with other parties in order to promote
national as opposed to partisan ends; resort to compromise in
order to allay sectional irritation and compose sectional differ-
ences; and cordial and yet prudent expression of sympathy
with the liberal movement in other lands.
The activity of the Whig party, reckoned from the election
of 1824, when its organization began, to the repeal of the Missouri
Compromise in 1854, covers thirty years. In two respects,
namely, the rise of the new radical democracy under Andrew
Jackson, and the growth of sectionalism over the slavery issue,
this period was highly critical. In view of these events the most
1 Immediately before the War of Independence and during the
war those who favoured the colonial cause and independence were
called " Whigs."
difficult task of the Whigs, clearly discerned and heartily accepted
by them, under the patriotic and conservative leadership of
Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, was to moderate and enlighten,
rather than antagonize, the new democracy; and what proved
to be beyond their powers to overcome the disrupting influence
of the slavery issue.
The inaugural address and the messages to Congress of Presi-
dent J. Q. Adams set forth clearly the nationalizing, broad-
construction programme of the new party. But his supporters
in Congress, imperfectly organized and facing a powerful opposi-
tion, accomplished very little in the way of legislation. The
election of 1828 gave to Andrew Jackson the presidency, and to
the people, in a higher degree than ever before, the control of the
government. The president's attack upon the Bank, the intro-
duction of the modern " spoils system " into the Federal civil
service, the unprecedented use of the veto power, Jackson's
assumption of powers which his opponents deemed unconstitu-
tional, and his personal hostility towards Clay, who had succeeded
Adams in the leadership of the party, brought about, under
Whig leadership, a coalition of opposition parties which influenced
deeply and permanently the character, policy and fortunes of
the Whig party. It became the champion of the Bank, of the
right of Congress, and of the older and purer form of the civil
service. Moreover, as a means of strengthening the bond with
their new allies, the Whigs learned to practise a tolerance towards
the opinions and even the principles of their associates which is
exceptional in the history of American political parties. In strict
accord with their own principles, however, the Whigs supported
the president during the Nullification Controversy (see NULLIFICA-
TION). The renown of Webster as the foremost expositor of the
national theory of the Union rests largely on his speeches during
this controversy, in particular on his celebrated reply to Senator
R. Y. Hayne of South Carolina. Nevertheless, after vindicating
the rights of the Union, most of the Whigs supported Clay in
arranging the compromise tariff of 1832 which enabled the
Nullifiers to retreat without acknowledging discomfiture. The
majority of the Northern Whigs, with the entire Southern
membership of the party, disapproved the propaganda of the
Abolitionists on the ground of its tendency to endanger the
Union, and many from a like motive voted for the " Gag Rules "
of 1835-1844 (see ADAMS, J. Q.), which in spirit, if not in letter,
violated the constitutional right of petition. In the election
of 1832 Clay was the nominee of the party for the presidency,
but in 1836 and 1840, purely on grounds of expediency, the
Whig conventions nominated General W. H. Harrison. During
the administration of Martin Van Buren the Whigs tried with
success to make party capital out of the panic of 1837, which they
ascribed to Jackson, and out of the long depression that followed,
for which they held Van Buren responsible. The election of
General Harrison in the "log cabin and hard cider" campaign
of 1840 proved a fruitless victory: the early death of the presi-
dent and the anti-Whig politics of his successor, John Tyler
(q.v.), whom the Whigs had imprudently chosen as vice-president,
shattered their legislative programme.
In 1844 Clay was again the Whig candidate, and the annexa-
tion of Texas, involving the risk of a war with Mexico, was the
leading issue. The Whigs opposed annexation; and the prospect
of success seemed bright, until Clay, in the effort to remove
Southern misapprehensions, wrote that he " would be glad " at
some future time to see Texas annexed if it could be done
" without dishonour, without war, with the common consent
of the Union, and upon just and fair terms." It is widely held
that this letter turned against Clay the anti-slavery element
and lost him the presidency. The triumph of Polk in 1844 was
followed by the annexation of Texas and by war with Mexico.
The Whigs opposed the war, but on patriotic grounds voted
supplies for its prosecution. The acquisition of Texas, and the
assured prospect of a great territorial enlargement, at the cost of
Mexico, brought to the front the question of slavery in the new
domain. The agitation that followed continued through the
presidential election of 1848 (in which the Whigs elected General
Zachary Taylor), and did not subside until the passage of the
59
WHIP WHIPPING
" Compromise Measures of 1850 " (q.v.). To its authors this
compromise seemed essential to the preservation of the Union;
but it led directly to the destruction of the Whig party. In the
North, where the inhumane Fugitive Slave Law grew daily more
odious, the adherence to the Compromise on which Clay and
Webster insisted weakened the party fatally. The alternative,
namely, a committal of the party to the repeal of the obnoxious
law, would have driven the Southern Whigs into the camp of
the Democrats, leaving the Northern Whigs a sectional party
powerless to resist the disruption of the Union. The only
weapons that the Whigs knew how to use in defence of the
Fugitive Slave Law were appeals to patriotism and sectional bar-
gaining, and these could be employed only so long as the party
remained intact.
The National Whig Convention of 1852, the last that repre-
sented the party in its entirety, gave to the Northern Whigs the
naming of the candidate General Winfield Scott-* who was
defeated in the ensuing election, and to the Southern the framing
of the platform with its " finality " plank, which, as revised by
Webster, read as follows: " That the series of acts of the Thirty-
second Congress, the act known as the Fugitive Slave Law in-
cluded, are received and acquiesced in by the Whig party of the
United States as a settlement in principle and substance of the
dangerous and exciting questions which they embrace . . . and
we will maintain this system as essential to the nationality of
the Whig party and the integrity of the Union."
Two years later the Repeal of the Missouri Compromise by
the Kansas-Nebraska Act demonstrated that " this system "
could not be maintained, and that in committing the Whig
party to the policy of its maintenance the Convention of 1852
had signed the death-warrant of the party.
Among the services of the Whigs the first in importance are
these: During the thirty critical years in which under the
leadership of Clay and Webster they maintained the national
view of the nature of the Union, the Whigs contributed more
than all their rivals to impress this view upon the hearts and
minds of the people. During this same extended period as peace-
makers between the sections they kept North and South together
until the North had become strong enough to uphold by force the
integrity of the Union. And lastly they bequeathed to the Re-
publican party the principles on which, and the leader, Abraham
Lincoln, through whom the endangered Union was finally saved.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See Alexander Johnston, American Political
History, 1763-1876 (New York, 1905; edited by J. A. Woodburn) ;
J. A. Woodburn. Political Parties and Party Problems in the United
Stales (ibid., 1903); J. P. Gordy, History of Political Parlies in the
United States (ibid., 1900); J. W. Burgess, The Middle Period (ibid.,
1897); Edward Stanwood, History of the Presidency (Boston, 1898);
James Schouler, History of the United States (New York, 1899);
H. E. von Hoist, Constitutional and Political History of the United
States (Chicago, 1899), especially the second volume; Niles' Register
(Baltimore, 1811-1849); Henry Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall
of the Slave Power in America (Boston, 1872-1877); Horace
Greeley, The American Conflict (Hartford, 1864-1866); F. D.
Hammond, History of Political Parties in the State of New York
(Albany, 1842); G. W. Julian, Political Recollections, 1840-1872
(Chicago, 1884); H. A. Wise, Seven Decades of the Union (Phil-
adelphia, 1872); The Works of Daniel Webster (Boston, 1851); The
Works of Henry Clay (New York, 1898) ; and among many important
biographies, Carl Schurz's Life of Henry Clay (Boston, 1887), H. C.
Lodge s Daniel Webster (ibid., 1883), G. T. Curtis's Life of Daniel
Webster (New York, 1870), H. E. von Hoist's John C. Calhoun
(Boston, 1882), A. M. Coleman's Life of John J. Crittenden (Phil-
adelphia, 1871), L. G. Tyler's Letters and Times of the Tylers (Williams-
burg, Va., 1884-1896), The Autobiography of Thurlow Weed (Boston,
1883), and J. G. Nicclay and John Hay's Abraham Lincoln: A
History (New York, 1890). (A. D. Mo.)
WHIP, in general, an instrument for striking, usually consisting
of a handle of a flexible nature with a lash attached (see WHIP-
PING, below). In English parliamentary usage, a " whip " is a
member (or members) chosen by the leader or leaders of a
political party for the special duty of securing the attendance
of the other members of that party on all necessary occasions,
the term being abbreviated from the whipper-in of a hunt.
The name is also given to the summons urging members of the
party to attend. Whips are, of course, always members of
parliament, and for the party in power (i.e. the government)
their services are very essential, seeing that the fate of an im-
portant measure, or even the existence of the government itself,
may depend upon the result of a division in the House. Where
the majority of the party in power is not large it is very necessary
that there should always be at hand a sufficient number of its
supporters to make up a majority, and without the assistance of
the whips it would be impossible to secure this. The chief
whip of the government holds the office of patronage secretary to
the treasury, so called because when offices were freely dis-
tributed to secure the support of members, it was his chief duty
to dispose of the patronage to the best advantage of his party.
He is still the channel through which such patronage as is left
to the prime minister is dispensed. He is assisted by three junior
whips, who are officially appointed as junior lords of the treasury;
their salaries are 1000 a year each, while the patronage secretary
has a salary of 2000. The parties not in office have whips
who are unpaid. Attendance of members is primarily secured
by lithographed notices sent by the whips to their following,
the urgency or importance of the notice being indicated by the
number of lines underscoring the notice, a four-line whip usually
signifying the extremes! urgency. The whips also arrange for
the " pairing "of such of the members of their party who desire
to be absent with those members of the opposition party who
also desire to be absent. The chief whips of either party arrange
in consultation with each other the leading speakers in an
important debate, and also its length, and give the list of speakers
to the speaker or chairman, who usually falls in with the arrange-
ment. They take no part in debate themselves, but are con-
stantly present in the House during its sittings, keeping a finger,
as it were, upon the pulse of the House, and constantly informing
their leader as to the state of the House. When any division
is regarded as a strictly party one, the whips act as tellers in the
division.
An interesting account of the office of whip is given in A. L.
Lowell's Government of England (1908), vol. i. c. xxv.
WHIPPING, or FLOGGING, a method of corporal punishment
which in one form or another has been used in all ages and all
lands (see BASTINADO, KNOUT, CAT-O'-NINE-TAILS). In ancient
Rome a citizen could not be scourged, it being considered an
infamous punishment. Slaves were beaten with Tods. Similarly
in early medieval England the whip could not be used on the
freeman, but was reserved for the villein. The Anglo-Saxons
whipped prisoners with a three-corded knotted lash. It was
not uncommon for mistresses to whip or have their servants
whipped to death. William of Malmesbury relates that as a
child King ^Ethelred was flogged with candles by his mother,
who had no handier weapon, until he was insensible with pain.
During the Saxon period whipping was the ordinary punishment
for offences, great or small. Payments for whipping figure largely
in municipal and parish accounts from an early date. The aboli-
tion of the monasteries, where the poor had been sure of free
meals, led during the i6th century to an increase of vagrancy, at
which the Statute of Labourers (1350) and its provisions as to
whipping had been early aimed. In the reign of Henry VIII.
was passed (i 530) the famous Whipping Act, directing vagrants to
be carried to some market town or other place " and there tied to
the end of a cart naked and beaten with whips throughout such
market town till the body shall be bloody." In the 3Qth year
of Elizabeth a new act was passed by which the offender was to
be stripped to the waist, not quite naked. It was under this
statute that whipping-posts were substituted for the cart.
Many of these posts were combined with stocks, as that at
Waltham Abbey, which bears date " 1598." It is of oak, 5 ft.
9 in. high, with iron clasps for the hands when used for whipping,
and for the feet when used as stocks. Fourpence was the old
charge for whipping male and female rogues. At quarter-
sessions in Devonshire at Easter 1598 it was ordered that the
mothers of bastard children should be whipped; the reputed
fathers suffering a like punishment. In the west of England
in 1684, " certain Scotch pedlars and petty chapmen being in the
habit of selling their goods to the greate damage and hindrance
WHISKER WHISKY
59 1
of shoppe-keepers," the court ordered them to be stripped naked
and whipped. The flogging of women was common. Judge
Jeffreys, in so sentencing a female prisoner, is reported to have
exclaimed, " Hangman, I charge you to pay particular attention
to this lady. Scourge her soundly, man: scourge her till
her blood runs down! It is Christmas: a cold time for madam
to strip. See that you warm her shoulders." Lunatics, too,
were whipped, for in the Constable's Accounts of Great Staughton,
Hunts, occurs the entry, " 1690-1, Paid in charges taking up a
distracted woman, watching her and whipping her next day
S/6d." A still more remarkable entry is " 1710-1, Pd. Thomas
Hawkins for whipping two people yt had smallpox 8d." In
1764 the Public Ledger states that a woman who is described as
" an old offender " was taken from the Clerkenwell Bridewell
to EnCeld and there publicly whipped at the cart's tail by the
common hangman for cutting wood in Enfield Chase. A statute
of 1791 abolished the whipping of females.
WHISKER, a word chiefly used in the plural in the sense of
the hair worn by a man on the cheeks as opposed to the beard on
the chin and the moustache on the upper lip (see BEARD). It
is also applied to the bristly feelers growing round the mouth of
a cat or other animal. The word by derivation means that which
" whisks " or " brushes."
WHISKY, or WHISKEY, a potable spirit distilled from cereal
grains. The name is probably derived from the Celtic uisge-
btatha (water of life), which was subsequently contracted to
usquebaugh, and still later to whisky (cf. Skeat, Etym. Diet. s.v.).
The liquor known as " usquebaugh " in the I7th and i8th
centuries was not, however, of the same character as the whisky
of modern times, but was a compound of plain spirit with
saffron, nutmegs, sugar and other spices and flavouring matters.
Whether the term whisky to denote a plain type of spirit was used
concurrently with usquebaugh, or whether the latter name
covered both varieties, is not clear. It is certain, however, that
an alcoholic liquor, derived mainly from grain, has been prepared
for very many centuries in both Ireland and Scotland (see
SPIRITS). There are three main types of whisky, namely, Scotch,
Irish and American.
Scotch -whiskies may be broadly divided into two main, groups,
namely (a) pot-still or malt whiskies, and (b) patent-still or grain
whiskies; the former are made practically without exception
from malted barley only, the latter from a mixture of malted
barley and other unmalted cereals, chiefly rye, oats and maize
(see SPIRITS), (a) There are four main varieties of Scotch malt
whiskies, namely, Highland Malts, Lowland Malts, Campbeltowns
and Islays. The Highland Malts are produced (if we except a
few distilleries on the islands in the west and north) in the district
on the mainland lying north of an imaginary line drawn through
Dundee on the east and Greenock on the west. The largest
group of distilleries is in the famous Speyside or Glenlivet district.
The Lowland Malts are made south of the imaginary line alluded
to. The Campbeltowns are distilled in or near the town of that
name at the southern end of the Kintyre peninsula. The Islays
are produced in the island of that name. These-different varieties
of whisky, although made in much the same way, yet possess
distinctive characteristics of flavour. The type of barley
employed, the quantity of peat employed in curing the malt,
the quality of the water, the manner of carrying out the various
distillery processes particularly that of distillation the shape
and size of the stills, &c., all these are factors which affect the
flavour of the final product. The Islays, which, as a rule, are
considered to be among the most valuable of Scotch whiskies,
possess a very full and peaty flavour together with a strong
ethereal bouquet. For this reason they are much used for
blending with whiskies of a lighter type. The Highland Malts
proper (Speyside type) are less peaty than the Islays, yet possess
a full flavour, although many of them are inclined to be
" elegant " rather than " big." The Lowland Malts, again, are,
as a class, less peated than the Highland Malts, and indeed,
nowadays, in view of the growing taste for a more neutral class
of beverage, there are some Lowland Malt distilleries which dis-
pense with the use of peat altogether. Many of the Lowland
Malts possess considerable body and flavour, but, on the whole,
they are lighter and not so fine as those of the Highland variety.
Lowland distillers are now running their spirit at much the same
strength as their Highland colleagues, whereas formerly it was
the custom to work at a far higher strength. The result is that
the difference between the two classes of spirit is not so marked
as it was. The Campbeltowns, although in some respects similar
to the Islays on the one hand, and the Highland Malts on the
other, are somewhat rougher and less elegant than these. They
usually possess a full peaty flavour, (b) Patent-still or grain
whiskies are, as a class, lighter in flavour and " body " than the
pot-still types. This is due to the fact that the rectification of
these whiskies is carried a good deal further than is the case with
the " malts." They are made from a mixture of malted and
unmalted cereals, and, as no peat is employed in the curing of
the malt, they lack the " smoky " flavour of the other varieties.
Some controversy has arisen as to whether these patent-still
spirits have a right to the name of " whisky " or " Scotch
whisky," but although, no doubt, this controversy is largely due
to conflicting trade interests, it has also, in the author's opinion,
been caused by a very general popular misconception as to the
true character of these whiskies. The idea that they are true
" silent " or " neutral " spirits i.e. alcohol and water pure and
simple is quite incorrect. They possess a distinct flavour, which
varies at different distilleries, and analysis discloses the fact
that they contain very appreciable quantities of the " secondary "
products which distinguish potable spirits from plain alcohol.
Indeed, as a result of an extensive investigation of the question
Composition of Scotch Whiskies.
Note. The figures below are based on a large number of analyses of typical samples. Cf. Schidrowitz and Kaye, Journal Soc.
Chem. Ind. (June 1905). Where two figures are given in the same column, they do not indicate extremes, but merely normal variation.
Description
(Results expressed in grams per 100 litres of absolute alcohol.)
Alcohol.
Total
Acid.
Non-volatile
Acid.
Esters.
Higher
Alcohols.
Aldehydes.
Furfurol.
Highland Malts
Practically all Scotch
New light type .
whiskies are distilled at
15
Nil
5
140
10
2-5-3
New heavy type
about 25 O.P. (about
20
Nil
75
200
20-40
3-5
Mature light type .
Mature heavy type .
72% of alcohol by
volume). Prior to stor-
j 20-80
5-35
50-100 |
150
220
j 15-50 j
2-3
2-5-4-5
Lowland Malts
age they are reduced
New
Mature ....
to ii O.P. with water.
Mature whiskies con-
15
20-60
Nil
5-20
25-50
50-75
IIO-l8o
120-200
\ 15-50 j
2-5-4-5
2-3-3
Campbeltown
tain 45 to 60 % of alco-
New
hol according to age,
20-30
Nil
50-70
I8O-22O
20-40
3-8
Mature ....
humidity of store,
30-80
5-25
60-120
230-250
30-70
2-5-7
Islay 1 ....
&c. For retail sale,
Gram Whiskies
whiskies are reduced to
New
Mature ....
a strength of roughly
17 to 24 U.P.
Trace to 5
25-50
Nil
5-25
20-40
25-50
50-60
60-7O
2-10 )
5-15 \
Trace to 0-75
1 The Islays give similar figures to the Highland Malts except that the Higher Alcohols and Furfurol are slightly higher.
592
WHISKY INSURRECTION
in pro-
Composition of Irish Whiskies (Analyses by Schidrowite and Kaye).
by the author, it has been shown that the relative proportion of
" secondary " products in Highland Malt, Lowland Malt and
" grain " whiskies respectively, is roughly as 3:2:1. The
figures in the foregoing table illustrate, as far as we are at present
able to determine them, the general composition of the various
types of Scotch whiskies referred to.
The character of Scotch whisky is much influenced by the
manner in which it is matured. Chief among the factors in this
connexion is the nature of the cask employed. The main varieties
are plain wood, sherry and refill casks. Technically the term
" plain " wood is applied to a cask made from seasoned oak
which has contained no other liquor than whisky. Similarly
the term " sherry " wood is as a rule only applied to a cask
the wood of which has become impregnated with sherry by con-
tact with that wine, and which has not been used in any other
manner. A sherry cask which has been filled with whisky,
then emptied and " refilled " with whisky, is known as a " refill."
Brandy and Madeira " wood " are also occasionally employed.
The nature of the atmospheric conditions of the cellar is also
of importance in determining character and quality (see SPIRITS).
Blending. Scotch whiskies are, as a general rule, " blended "
prior to sale to the public. By " blending " is understood the art of
putting together different types and varieties of whisky to form a
harmonious combination. The general run of " self " whiskies i.e.
whiskies from a single distillery do not appear to be to the public
taste, but by combining different kinds of whisky blenders have
succeeded in pro-
ducing an article
the demand for
which has in-
creased enor-
mously during the
past quarter of a
cent ury, and
which may now
be regarded as a
staple beverage
in all English-
speaking coun-
tries. The great
expansion of the
Scotch whisky
trade of late years
is undoubtedly
due in the main
to the introduc-
tion of blending
on scientific lines.
There are different
types of blends. In some a Highland Malt, in others an Islay, in
others again a " grain " flavour may predominate, but, generally
speaking, the aim of the blender is to produce an article in which no
single constituent " comes through " i.e. is markedly apparent.
The best blends are produced by blending a number of " vatted "
whiskies. A " vat " is produced by blending a number of whiskies of
the same style or type, for instance, ten or fifteen Highland Malts
from different distilleries. The " vat " is allowed to mature before
being blended with other types to form the final blend. The better-
class blends contain, as a general rule, 50 to 60% of Highland and
Lowland Malts, 10 to 20 % of Islays, and about 20 to 40 % of " grain "
whisky.
A typical high-class blend would, on analysis, show figures much as
follows: Alcohol, 45 to 48% by vol.; total acid, 30 to 50; non-
volatile acid, 20 to 30; esters, 30 to 60; higher alcohols, 120 to 170;
aldehydes, 15 to 25; furfural, 2-5 to 3-5.
Irish Whisky. Irish pot-still whisky is sharply differentiated
from the Scotch variety in that (a) the raw materials employed
are generally composed largely of unmalted grain, (b) the malt
is not peat-cured, (c) the process of distillation is entirely different
both as regards method and apparatus (see SPIRITS). The result
is that whereas Scotch whisky possesses a characteristic dry,
clean flavour, Irish whisky is round and sweet, with a full ethereal
bouquet. The general run of Irish pot-still whiskies are made
with 30 to 50% of malted barley, the balance being rye, oats, un-
malted barley and wheat. A few distilleries employ malted barley
only, but the product so obtained owing to the different
methods employed and the absence of peat curing is quite
different from Scotch malt whisky. The Irish " grain " or
" patent still " whiskies are made in a manner practically identical
with that employed for Scotch " grain," but as a class they are
somewhat lighter as regards flavour and body than the latter.
Irish whiskies arc not classified territorially, although occasionally
the distinction of " Dublin " or " Country makes " is recognized
in the trade. Broadly speaking, however, the differences between
Irish whiskies are not due to class, but to individual variation.
American Whisky. There are two main varieties of American
whisky, namely, Rye whisky, the predominant raw material in
the manufacture of which is rye, and Bourbon or corn whisky,
made mainly from Indian corn (maize). Both varieties possess
a much higher flavour and greater body than do the Scotch or
Irish whiskies, due partly to the class of raw material employed,
and partly to the method of distillation. Broadly speaking, the
American self (so-called " straight ") whiskies contain douWe
the quantity of secondary or " by " products present in Scotch
or Irish whiskies.
American whiskies are almost invariably stored in very heavily
charred ban-els, which, while it very appreciably affects the
flavour, is necessary, inasmuch as it is doubtful whether it would
be possible to mature these exceedingly heavy whiskies within
a commercially reasonable time without the cleansing and
purifying effect of the charcoal formed by the burning of the cask.
Even with the aid of the charred cask, the average maturation
time of the American pot-still whiskies is certainly two or three
years longer than that of Scotch and Irish whiskies. (P. S.)
(Results expressed in grams per 100 litres of absolute alcohol.)
Description.
Alcohol
per cent
by vol. '
Total Acid.
Non-
volatile
Acid.
Esters.
Higher
Alcohols.
Aldehydes.
Furfurol.
Dublin Whiskies
I. 2 Pot-still (new) .' ..
71-72
7
Trace
34
H5
12
5-5
la. Pot-still. From same
distillery, 14 years
old (plain wood)
57-08
29
8
38
185
68
3-3
2. Pot-still (new) .
74-11
6
Nil
28
233
8
4-1
2a. Pot-still. From same
distillery, 14 years
old
60-47
32
8
47
264
21
4'4
3. Pot-still, 14 years old
63-42
87
45
87
226
32
4'5
4. Patent-still (new) .
70-76
17
Trace
25
38
Irish whisky is generally distilled at about 50 O.P. and reduced with water to 25 O.P. prior to storage.
2 Nos. I, 2, 3 and 4 represent different distilleries.
WHISKY INSURRECTION, THE, an uprising in Western
Pennsylvania in 1794 against the Federal Government, occasioned
by the attempted enforcement of the excise law (enacted by
Congress March 1791) on domestic spirits. The common prejudice
in America against excise in any form was felt with especial
strength in Western Pennsylvania, Virginia and North Carolina,
where many small whisky stills existed ; and protests were made
almost immediately by the Pennsylvanians. Albert Gallalin
(q.v.) took a leading part in expressing their resentment in a
constitutional manner, but under the agitator David Bradford
the movement soon developed into excesses. The attempt to
enforce the law led to stormy scenes and riotous violence, tin-
Federal revenue officers in some cases being tarred and feathered;
but in September 1794 President Washington, using the now
powers bestowed by Congress in May 1792, despatched a con-
siderable force of militia against the rebellious Pennsylvanians,
who thereupon submitted without bloodshed, the influence of
Gallatin being used to that end. Bradford fled to New Orleans;
some of his more prominent supporters were tried for treason and
convicted, but promptly pardoned. In American history this
so-called " rebellion " is important chiefly on account of the
emphasis it gave to the employment by the Federal Executive
of the new powers bestowed by Congress for interfering to enforce
Federal laws within the states. It is indeed inferred from one
of Hamilton's own letters that his object in proposing this excise
law was less to obtain revenue than to provoke just such a local
resistance as would enable the central government to demonstrate
its strength.
WHIST
593
WHIST, a game at cards. The etymology of the name is
disputed. Possibly it is of imitative origin, from " whist "
(Hist! Hush! Silence!). "It is called Whist from the silence
that must be observed in the play " (Cotton, Compleat Gamester).
In the i6th century a card game called triumph or trump was
commonly played in England. A game called trionfi is men-
tioned as early as 1526, and triumphus Hispanicus in 1541.
La triomphe occurs in the list of games played by Gargantua
s Rabelais, first half of i6th century). In Giovanni Florio's
\Vorlde of Wordes (1598) trionfo is defined as " the play called
trump or ruff." It is probable that the game referred to by the
writers quoted is la triomphe of the early editions of the Academic
d'-s jcux. It is important to note that this game, called by
Charles Cotton " French ruff," is similar to ecart6. " English
ruff-and-honours," also described by Cotton, is similar to whist.
If we admit that ruff and trump are convertible terms, of which
there is scarcely a doubt, the game of trump was' the precursor
of whist. A purely English origin may, therefore, be claimed
for trump (not la triomphe). No recoid is known to exist of the
invention of this game, nor of the mode of its growth into ruff-
and-honours, and finally into whist. The earliest reference to
trump in English is believed to occur in a sermon by Latimer,
" On the Card," preached at Cambridge, in Advent, about the
year 1529. He says, " The game that we play at shall be the
triumph. . . . Now turn up your trump, . . . and cast your
trump, your heart, on this card." In Gammer Gurton's Needle
(1575) Dame Chat says, "We be fast set at trumpe." Eliot
(Fruits for the French, 1593) calls trump " a verie common ale-
house game." Richard Price or Rice (Invective against Vices,
1579) observes that "renouncing the trompe and comming in
againe " (i.e. revoking intentionally) is a common sharper's
trick. Cotton in his Compleat Gamester says, " He that can by
craft overlook his adversary's game hath a great advantage."
Thomas Dekker (Belman of London, 1608) speaks of the deceits
practised at " tromp and such like games." Trump also occurs
in Antony and Cleopatra (written about 1607), with other punning
allusions to card-playing
" She, Eros, has
Packed cards with Caesar, and false-played my glory
Unto an enemy's triumph." Act iv.
Ruff-and-honours, if not the same game as trump, was probably
the same with the addition of a score for the four highest cards
of the trump suit. A description of the game is first met with in
The Compleat Gamester ( 1 674) by Cotton. He states that ruff-and-
honours (alias slamm) and whist arc games very commonly
known in England. It was played by four players, paired as
partners, and it was compulsory to follow suit when able. The
cards ranked as at whist, and honours were scored as now.
Twelve cards were dealt to each player, four being left in the
stock. The top card of the stock was turned up for trumps. The
holder of the ace of trumps was allowed to ruff, i.e. to take in the
stock and to put out four cards from his hand. The game was
played nine up; and at the point of eight honours could be called,
as at long whist. Cotton adds that at whist there was no stock.
The deuces were put out and the bottom card was turned up for
trumps.
It is believed that the earliest mention of whist is by Taylor,
the Water Poet (Motto, 1621). He spells the word " whisk."
The earliest known use of the present spelling is in Hudibras,
the Second Part (spurious), 1663. The word is afterwards spelt
indifferently whisk or whist for about half a century. Cotton
(1674) spells it both ways. Richard Seymour (Court Gamester,
1734) has " whist, vulgarly called whisk." While whist was
undergoing this change of name, there was associated with it the
additional title of swabbers (probably allied to sweep, or sweep-
stakes). Fielding (History of Mr Jonathan Wild) says that
whisk-and-swabbers was " the game then [1682] in chief vogue."
Francis Grose (Classical Dictionary of t lie Vulgar Tongue, 1785)
states that swabbers are " the ace of hearts, knave of rlubs, ace
and duce of trumps at whist." The true function of the swabbers
is not positively known; it is probable that the holders of these
cards were entitled to receive a certain stake from the other
players. Swabbers dropped out of general use during the i8th
century. The points of the game rose from nine to ten (" nine
in all," Cotton, 1725; " ten in all," Seymour, 1734, "rectified
according to the present standard of play "). Simultaneously
with this alteration, or closely following it, the entire pack of
fifty-two cards was used, the deuces being no longer discarded.
This improvement introduces the odd trick, an element of great
importance in modern whist. Early in the i8th century whist
was not a fashionable game. The Hon. Daines Harrington
(Archaeologia, vol. viii.) says it was the game of the servants' hall.
Contemporary writers refer to it in a disparaging way, as being
only fit for hunting men and country squires, and not for fine
ladies or people of quality. According to Barrington, whist was
first played on scientific principles by a party of gentlemen who
frequented the Crown Coffee House in Bedford Row, London,
about 1728. They laid down the following rules: " Lead from
the strong suit; study your partner's hand; and attend to the
score." Shortly afterwards the celebrated Edmond Hoyle (?..)
published his Short Treatise (1742). It has been surmised by
some that Hoyle belonged to the Crown Coffee House party.
This, however, is only a conjecture. There is abundant evidence
to show that, in the middle of the i8th century, whist was
regularly played at the coffee houses of London and in fashionable
society. From the time of Hoyle the game continued to increase
in public estimation, until the introduction of bridge, which has
to a large extent replaced it, but which has much in common
with it.
It will be of interest to mark the successive stages through which
whist passed trom the time of Cotton. The only suggestions as to
play in Cotton are that, " though you have but mean cards in your
own hand, yet you may play them so suitable to those in your
partner's hand that he may either trump them or play the best of
that suit " ; also that " you ought to have a special eye to what cards
are play'd out, that you may know by that means either what to
play if you lead or how to trump securely and advantagiously." It
appears from this that the main ideas were to make trumps by ruffing,
to make winning cards, and to watch the fall of the cards with these
objects. In the rules laid down by the Crown Coffee House school a
distinct advance is to be noticed. Their first rule, " Lead from the
strong suit," shows a sound knowledge of the game. Their second
rule, "Study your partner's hand," though sound, is rather vague.
Their third rule, " Attend to the score," if amended into " Play to the
score," is most valuable. From the Crown Coffee House school to
Hoyle is rather a wide jump; but there is no intervening record.
Hoyle in his Short Treatise endorses and illustrates the " Crown "
rules. He also brought the doctrine of probabilities to bear on the
game, and gave a number of cases which show a remarkable insight
into the play.
About 1770 was published William Payne's Maxims for Playing
the Game of Whist. The advance in this book is decided, as it in-
culcates the rules of leading invariably from five trumps and the
return of the highest card from three held originally. Matthews's
Advice to the Your.g Whist-Player (anon., 1804) repeats the " maxims
of the old school," with "observations on those he thinks erroneous "
and " with several new ones," but some of the maxims which he
thinks erroneous are now generally allowed to be correct.
Soon after Matthews wrote the points of the game were cut down
from ten (long whist) to five (short whist). Clay's account of this
change is that, about the beginning of the igth century. Lord
Peterborough having lost a large sum of money, the players pro-
posed to make the game five up, in order to give the loser a chance of
recovering his loss. The new game, short whist, was found to be so
lively that it soon became general, and eventually superseded the
long game. " Coelebs " (Laws and Practice cf Whist, 1851), who
mainly repeats former writers, only calls for mention because he
first printed in his second edition (1856) an explanation of the call for
trumps. Calling for trumps was first recognized as part of the game
by the players at Graham's Club about 1840. Long whist may be
said to have died about 1835. The new game necessarily caused a
change in the style of play, as recorded by James Clay in The Laics
of Short Whist, and a Treatise on the Came (1864).
Whist then travelled, and about 1830 some of the best French
whist-players, with Deschapelles at their head, modified and im-
provea the old-fashioned system. They were but little influenced
by the traditions of long whist, and were not content merely to imi-
tate the English. The French game was the scorn and horror of the
old school, who vehemently condemned its rash trump leads; those
who adopted the practice of the new school were found to be winning
players.
Dr William Pole (Philosophy of Whist, 1883) remarks that the long
experience of adepts had led to the introduction of many improve-
ments in detail since the time of Hoyle, but that nothing had been
594
WHIST
done to reduce the various rules of the game to a systematic form
until between 1850 and 1860, when a knot of young men proceeded to
a thorough investigation of whist, and in 1862 Henry Jones, one of
the members of this " little whist school," brought out a work, under
the pseudonym of " Cavendish," which " gave for the first time the
rules which constitute the art of whist-playing according to the most
modern form of the game." The little school was first brought
prominently into notice by an article on whist in the Quarterly
Review of January. Whist had previously been treated as though
the " art of the game depended on the practice of a number of
arbitrary conventions. But it was now shown that all rules of whist-
play depend upon and are referable to general principles. Hence, as
soon as these general principles were stated, and the reasons for their
adoption were argued, players began to discuss and to propose inno-
vations on the previously established rules of play.
A further development was the introduction of the system of dis-
carding from the best protected suit instead of from the weakest,
when the adversaries have the command in trumps. Soon after this
(1872) followed the " echo " of the call for trumps, and contempo-
raneously with the echo the lead of the penultimate card from suits of
five cards or more, not including the ace, a lead that was so vigorously
opposed by some players that " the grand battle of the penultimate "
ensued. The old players indeed regarded the new system with the
same horror as they had formerly displayed with respect to the French
school, stigmatizing it not only as an innovation, but as a private
understanding, and even as cheating! Even Clay, the greatest
C layer of his day, was at first an opponent of the penultimate
ad, but after consideration adopted it. General Dray son (Art of
Practical Whist, 1879) was the first to propose an analogous system,
namely, that six cards in a suit, not including the ace, could be
shown by leading the antepenultimate card, but his proposal, logical
though it was, did not at first find favour. Before this (1874-1875)
leads from high cards, having regard to the number held in the suit,
had not escaped attention, several innovations being introduced,
but it yet remained for some one to propound a constant method of
treating all leads, and to classify isolated rules so as to render it
possible to lay down general principles. This was done in 1883-
1884 by Nicholas Browse Trist of New Orleans, who introduced the
system of " American Leads." American leads propose a systematic
course of play when opening and continuing the lead from the strong
suit. First, with regard to a low card led. When you open a strong
suit with a low card, lead your fourth best. When opening a four-
card suit with a low card, the lowest, which is the fourth best, is the
card selected. When opening a five-card suit with a low card, the
penultimate card is selected. Instead of calling it the penultimate,
call it the fourth best. So with a six-card suit; but, instead of
antepenultimate, say fourth best. And so on with suits of more than
six cards: disregard all the small cards and lead the fourth best.
Secondly, with regard to a high card led, followed by a low card.
When you open a strong suit with a high card and next lead a low
card, lead your original fourth best. The former rule was to proceed
with the lowest. Thus, from ace, knave, nine, eight, seven, two, the
leader was expected to open with the ace, and then to lead the two.
An American leader would lead ace, then eight. Thirdly, with
regard to a high card led, followed by a high card. When you
remain with two high indifferent cards, lead the higher if you opened
a suit of four, the lower if you opened a suit of five or more. A player
who adopts this system notifies by it to his partner that, when he
originally leads a low card, he holds exactly three cards higher than
the one led; when he originally leads a high card, and next a low
one, he still holds exactly two cards higher than the second card led ;
and when he originally leads a high card, and follows it with a high
card, he indicates in many cases, to those who know the analysis of
leads (as laid down in whist books), whether the strong suit consisted
originally of four or of more than four cards. (See Whist Develop-
ments, by " Cavendish," 1885.)
These leads led to an overhauling of the play of the second and
third hands, whist becoming apparently so complicated as to deter
players of moderate ability from plunging into its intricacies. This
fact, combined with the introduction of the fascinating and simpler
game of bridge, caused a distinct decadence in the popularity of
whist during the last decade of the igth century.
Whist (i.e. modern " short " whist) is played with a full pack
of 52 cards. The ace is the highest, except in cutting, when it
is the lowest. After the ace rank king, queen, &c., in order,
down to the two. Four persons play, but with only three or two
players the game can still be played with certain modifications
(see Dummy below). The players each draw a card, the one who
gets the lowest deals, and has choice of cards and seats. The
player who draws the next lowest is his partner; if two or more
players draw cards of equal value, they cut again, the lowest
playing with the original lowest. The cards are then cut and
dealt one by one from left to right. The last card is turned up
to show the trump suit. In America the trump suit is sometimes
cut for, the card then being replaced in the pack before shuffling
(blind trump). A misdeal passes the deal, and at the end of
each hand it passes in any case to the player on the left. At the
end of the first trick the dealer takes the turned trump card into
his hand. If he fails to do so, the card may be called to any
subsequent trick. The player on the dealer's left leads, and it is
compulsory for the others to follow suit if possible, under penalty
for " revoke " (by which the adversaries may either add three to
their score, deduct three from the defaulting side, or take three
tricks of theirs and add them to their own). A player who
cannot follow suit may play any card he chooses to the trick
unless he has exposed a card and the adversaries call it. The
highest card, or trump (if one is played), wins the trick, the
winner leading to the next trick. When all the cards have been
played the tricks gained by each side are counted, each trick
over six counting one. Six tricks are called "-a book." Trump
honours ace, king, queen, knave also count to the score, but a
side which has a score of four at the beginning of a hand cannot
score for honours. Tricks count before honours; thus if one side
has a score of one and holds four honours, while the other has a
score of four and makes the odd trick, the latter wins a double,
the honours not counting, as the game has already been won by
tricks. The scores for honours are as follows, but some players
halve these scores, or, particularly in America, do not count
honours at all. This is a matter of arrangement. If one side
holds all four honours, four points; if three, two points; if both
sides hold two there is no score, honours being "divided," or
" easy." A rubber consists of the best of three games, unless
one side wins the first two games. A game consists of five points.
Thus if one side makes nine tricks and holds three honours it
scores a game three points by tricks (or " by cards ") and two
by honours but if a revoke has been made, i.e. if a player, holding
a card of the suit led, has played a card of another suit, the
revoking side cannot score more than four, whatever its score
in points may be. The side that wins the rubber scores two points
in addition to the game points, which are reckoned thus: three
points for a " treble," a game in which the adversaries have no
score; two points for a " double," i.e. when the adversaries have
made one or two; one point for a "single," i.e. when they have
made three or four. Thus two trebles and the rubber (or " rub ")
count eight points; treble, single and the rub count six points.
If the losers have won a game, its value is deducted. Sometimes,
by arrangement, the rubber points are raised to four. At the
end of a rubber, or, by arrangement, of two rubbers, the players
cut again for partners. If others wish to join the table the original
players cut, the highest going out. It is not customary for more
than two to join technically, to "cut in"; hence, if two players
vacate at the end of the next rubber, they now take the place of
the other original pair, who leave without cutting. When only
one player " cuts in," the other three retire by rotation, decided
by cutting, and come back in their turn. If more than four
players wish to form a table, they cut first to see who shall stand
out, the highest retiring; they then cut afresh for partners.
Dummy Whist is played by three players, two being partners
and the other playing with dummy, whose cards, which must be
dealt face downwards, are exposed on the table before the play
begins. Dummy has the first deal in every rubber. His cards
being exposed he is not considered able to revoke; if he does,
there is no penalty, nor is his partner liable for any mistake of
his own whereby he cannot profit, e.g. by exposing a card; but
if he leads from the wrong hand, a suit can be called. At Double
Dummy each player has a dummy partner, and there is no
misdeal, as the deal is a disadvantage.
The leads and the play of the different hands have been so minutely
systematized that some of the various text-books should be studied
carefully by any one who wishes to become proficient, but some broad
general rules may be useful to the beginner. The original leader
should lead from his strongest, which is almost always his longest suit,
but if his longest suit contains only four cards and is also the trump
suit, opinions differ, though most players would observe the general
rule. The same rule applies to subsequent first leads of a suit, unless
they have to be modified owing to information derived from cards
already played. Thus a player who has to lead after, say, the third
or fourth trick may have to sacrifice his lead of his strongest suit in
response to a " call for trumps " by his partner. Such a lead is
WHISTLE
595
called a " forced " lead, and from three cards the highest should
invariably be led, and, if the opportunity occurs, the second best at
the second lead, but from four the lowest should be led. This lead of
the highest from three applies to all forced leads, whether they are
due to a " call," or to the fall of the cards already played. As a
broad rule an ace is led always when five or more are held in the suit,
but if you have the king also, lead it first; from a five suit without
the ace lead the worst but one. With ace and two or three small ones,
lead a small one; with ace and one small one, the ace. The second
hand generally plays his worst card, but if an honour is led and he
holds the ace, he should play the ace; also holding queen and king
he should play the queen, or with knave, queen and king, the knave.
If queen ts led it is usually unwise to put on the king, but it is
generally sound play to put the knave on the ten. With king and one
other, or queen and one other, most players advocate the play of the
small card; some would play the king under these conditions, but
not the queen; many play the queen and not the king; but the
state of the score may affect the play. If it is important to get the
lead, so as to lead trumps, the honour should be played, but as a rule
the second hand reserves his strength. The third hand should win
the trick if he can, unless he knows that his partner's card is a
winning one; consequently he generally plays his highest card. The
fourth hand should win the trick if he can, as a player is justified in
passing a trick only if by so doing he is absolutely sure of winning two.
Returned Leads. A partner s lead should be returned at once,
unless one has a strong suit of one's own, in which event it is ad-
visable to lead a card of it, to guide one's partner as to his future
lead, but a lead of trumps must be returned as soon as possible. If
a player holds three cards originally in his partner's suit he should
invariably return the higher of the two left in his hand after the first
round. Thus holding ace, three, two only, he should win with the
ace and return the three; when the two falls afterwards, his partner
will know that he holds no more. So, with ace, knave, ten only, win
with the ace and return the knave, though from a scoring point of
view the knave and ten are of equal value. With lour originally,
return the lowest, but a winning card should always be led or played
in the second round, unless there is any special reason for retaining it.
If your partner has called for trumps and you get the lead, with four
trumps lead the smallest, with three lead the highest, and, if it wins,
go in with the next highest. This law is universal in trumps (and also
applies to forced leads from three-card suits) even if ace, king and
another be held, from which the ordinary lead would be the king.
If. however, one adversary has obviously played his last trump, a
third round is not always advisable, as two trumps will fall from the
leader and his partner, and only one from the adversaries. On the
other hand it is generally good play to draw two opposing trumps
for one, so that they may not make separately.
In the play of a hand never play an unnecessarily high card
unless you are " calling." Thus, holding ten and knave, play the
ten ; your partner will infer that you do not hold the nine, but may
hold the knave, and even the queen as well, though all the cards are
of equal value for making tricks. Similar inferences should be drawn
from all cards played, and should be drawn at the moment. Never
play false cards unless you see your partner is so weak that it can do
no harm to deceive him; in such a case, with knave and ten, the
knave may be played. It is a maxim that information given by play
is more valuable to the partner than it is to the two adversaries.
Trumping or ' ' Ruffing ' ' and Discarding. The second player should
not trump a doubtful card (i.e. a card that his partner might be able
to beat), if he is strong in trumps; if weak, he should trump. A
winning card from an adversary should be trumped in any case.
With weak trumps, it is bad play to " force " one's partner, i.e. invite
him to trump; but with strong trumps force him. If your partner
refuse to trump an adverse winning card, lead a trump at the first
opportunity. If you have a " cross-ruff " (i.e. if you and your
partner can trump different suits), those suits should be led alter-
nately, and not trumps. Force an adversary who is known to be
strong in trumps. A weak suit in trumps (three only) should be led
if the adversaries have a cross-ruff, or if the game is hopeless unless
partner is strong, or if winning cards are held in all plain suits, which
might be trumped.
It is usual to discard originally from the weakest suit, but if the
adversaries are shown to have strength in trumps, from the strongest,
i.e. the longest, so as to guard the weak suits. With absolute com-
mand of a suit, if you are compelled to discard from it, discard the
winning card to inform your partner that you have command; e.g.
with king, knave, ten ace and queen being out discard the king.
The " COM " for trumps, an artifice, which is also known as to " ask,"
to " signal,' to " hang out blue-Peter " or to " peter," for trumps,
consists in playing an unnecessarily high card, followed later by a
lower one, e.g. by playing the three before the two, or the ten before
the nine. As the " call ' is an imperious command, equivalent to
"sacrifice everything, partner, for the sake of leading trumps," it is
only justified by great strength in the trump suit. The echo: To
your partner's call you should " echo," if you hold four or more, by
calling yourself, however low your trumps are. Similarly four trumps
may be shown in partner's lead of trumps by playing a high card
followed by a lower one.
General Maxims. Play to the score. If winning the odd trick
saves or wins the game, do not try risky combinations for the sake
of getting two or three tricks. Count your cards bei'ore playing.
If your partner " renounces," i.e. discards or trumps, always ask
him if he has a card of the suit led, to save the revoke. Announce
the score when you mark it. Watch the fall of every card.
Study the rules, especially those about penalties and consultation
with partner. If the winning of one more trick wins or saves
the game, and you hold the winning card, play it, unless it
be the winning trump, which is good at any time. Retain the
trump-card if you can play others of equal trick-making value; your
partner then knows the position of one trump; e.g. with nine and ten
in addition to the eight, the turn-up, play them before parting with
the eight. Keep command of adversaries' suits as long as is judicious ;
get rid of the command of partner's strong suit. Do not finesse (i.e.
play a lower card than your highest in the third hand) in partner's
suit, unless he leads a high card in an obviously forced lead. Lead
through a known strong suit on your left, and (especially) up to a
known weak suit on your right. If you have to lead from a suit of
two lead the highest. Leading from a " singleton " (your only card
in one suit), in order to be able to trump sometimes disparagingly
called " Whitechapelling " is not generally good play, and results
badly unless the side is strong in trumps, but in some circumstances
it is usefu^. Do not lead from a " tenace " ('.. best and third best of
a suit) if you have another equally good suit. Remember that whist
is a game of combination, and that tricks made by your partner are
just as valuable to you as tricks made by yourself. Sort your hand
so as to keep the suits separate, red and black alternately, keeping
the cards each in order of their value.
For Long Whist the play of the hands and the laws of the game are
practically the same as at ordinary or " short " whist, but a more
venturesome style of play may be adopted in view of the number of
points required, i.e. a certain amount of risk may be taken when the
odd trick is a certainty in the hope of getting two or three tricks
instead. With the score at nine, honours cannot be secured, but at
eight a player who holds two honours may ask his partner before
playing if he too holds an honour, the formula being Can you one,
partner? " If the answer is " Yes," the honours are scored and the
game ends. There is no " treble " at long whist. A double is scored
when the losers are less than five, a single if they have made five or
more. The game, however, is almost obsolete.
Progressive Whist. This form of the game is social rather than
scientific, but is a pleasant variety on the ordinary round game.
The host provides prizes, as a rule first, second and " booby "
prizes for both ladies and gentlemen, the " booby " prizes going to
the players who make the fewest points. Any number of tables
may be formed. Partners are selected by lot. two ladies and two
gentlemen never being partners. This can be done by means of two
sets of tickets of different colours, numbered identically, No. I
pairing with No. I and so on. After the first round there is no
drawing for partners, as will be seen. The holders of all tickets
numbered I and 2 form the first table, of 3 and 4 the second table.
Only one pack of cards is needed at each table, but every player
should be provided with a scoring card and pencil. The players at
all the tables cut for deal, but no dealing is begun before a signal
given by the master of the ceremonies. At each table one hand only
is played. Honours are not counted. The score is marked by the
number of tricks made, or the winner may mark all tricks above six.
The winners remain at their original tables. The losers move on,
from No. I table to No. 2, from No. 2 to No. 3 and from the last
table to No. I. Partners are formed afresh, the gentleman who has
just won playing with the lady who has just lost, and vice versa.
Play may last for one or more complete rounds, or for a given time,
indicated by a signal, after which no fresh hand is begun. The
scores are then added up and the prizes awarded. In playing the
ordinary rules of whist are observed.
A printed existence was first given to the laws of whist by Hoyle
in 1743. The fourteen laws then issued were subsequently, increased
to twenty-four. These laws were the authority until 1760, when
the members of White's and Saunders's Chocolate Houses revised
them. The revised laws (nearly all Hoyle) were accepted by whist
players for over a century, notwithstanding that they were very
incomplete. The laws of short whist, a more comprehensive code
approved by the Portland and Arlington clubs, were brought out in
1864, and became the accepted standard, small modifications only
having been introduced since. The latest edition of the rules should
be consulted for what is not indicated in the text.
See Principles of Whist, Slated and Explained, by " Cavendish "
(London, 1902), the most authoritative work.
WHISTLE, the shrill warbling sound made by forcing the
breath through the lips, contracted to form a small orifice, or pro-
duced by means of an instrument of the whistle type; also, gener-
ally, any similar shrill, hissing or warbling sound, as of a bird's
note, of wind through trees, ropes, &c. The O. Eng. hvrisllian,
to whistle, and hwisllere, whistler, piper, are closely allied to
hwisprian or hw&strian, to whisper, to speak softly or under one's
breath; and both are imitative words, representing a shrill
hissing sound, cf. Ger. wispeln, to whisper, Dan. hvislc, to whistle.
The instrument known as a " whistle " takes many forms, from
59 6
WHISTLER
the straight flute and flageolet type made of wood or metal and
pierced with holes, to the metal signalling pipe used for signalling
on board ship or by policemen. Similarly the term is used of the
instruments sounded by the escape of steam on a locomotive or
other engine and on steamships, &c., as a means of giving signals.
WHISTLER, JAMES ABBOTT McNEILL (1834-1903),
American artist, was born at Lowell, Massachusetts, on the
loth of July 1834. His father was Major G. W. Whistler, and
his mother one of the Baltimore family of Winans. He was first
heard of in Europe in 1857, when he had already been an art
student, in Paris, in the studio of Gleyre. His first etchings,
those known as " The French Set," were the means of bringing
him under the notice of certain people interested in art, but the
circulation of these first, like that of his later etchings, has
always, of necessity, been more limited than their fame. The
impressions from each plate are generally few. It was still in
etching that Whistler continued his labours, and, coming to
London in 1859, it appears, he almost at once addressed himself
to the chronicle of the quaint riverside buildings and the craft
of the great stream the Thames " below Bridge." The " French
Set" had included De Hooch-like or Nicholas Maes-like genre
pieces, such as " La Vieille aux loques," the " Marchande de
moutarde," and " The Kitchen," this last incomparably improved
and perfected by the retouching that was accomplished a quarter
of a century after the first performance. The Thames series of
sixteen etchings, wrought chiefly in 1859, disclosed a new vision
of the river, in which there was expressed, with perfect draughts-
manship, with a hitherto unparalleled command of vivacious line,
the form of barge and clipper, of warehouse, wharf and waterside
tavern. " The Pool," " Thames Police " and " Black Lion
Wharf " are perhaps the finest of this series. Before it was
begun, Whistler, ere he left Paris, had proceeded far with a plate,
existing only in the state of trial proof, and, in that, of extreme
rarity. It is called " Paris, lie de la Cite," and has distinct and
curious manifestations of a style to be more generally adopted
at a later period. For several years after the completion of the
" Sixteen Etchings," Whistler etched comparatively little; but
about 1870 we find him entering what has been described as his
" Leyland period," on account of his connexion with the wealthy
shipowner and art patron, Mr Frederick R. Leyland, of Prince's
Gate, whose house became famous for Whistler's Peacock Room, 1
painted in 1877. In that period he worked greatly in dry-point.
The " Model Resting," one of the most graceful of his figure
pieces, and " Fanny Leyland " an exquisite instance of girl
portraiture are notable performances of this time. To it also
belong the largely conceived dry-points, so economical of means
and endowed with so singular a unity of effect, the " London
Bridge " and " Price's Candle-works." A little later came the
splendid visions of the then disappearing wooden bridges of
Battersea and Putney, and the plate " The Adam and Eve,"
which records the river-front of old Chelsea. This, however, is
only seen in perfection in the most rare proofs taken before the
publication by the firm of Hogarth. From these plates we
pass almost imperceptibly to the period of the Venetian etchings,
for in 1879, at the instance of the Fine Art Society, Whistler
made a sojourn in Venice, and. here he wrought, or, to speak
accurately, commenced, not only the set of prints known as the
" Venice Set," but also the " Twenty-six Etchings " likewise
chiefly, though not wholly, of Venice issued later by the firm
of Dowdeswell. One or two of the minor English subjects of the
" Twenty-six Etchings " those done after the artist's return
from Venice give indications of the phase reached more clearly
in certain little prints executed a few years later, and, with
perhaps one exception, never formally published. " Fruit
Shop," " Old Clothes Shop," and " Fish Shop, busy Chelsea,"
belong to this time. Later, and bent upon doing justice to quite
different themes, which demand different methods, the ever
flexible artist again changes his way, and not to speak of the
dainty little records of the places about the Loire, which in
method have affinity with the pieces last named we have
1 Whistler quarrelled with Leyland, and eventually painted his
life-size portrait as a devil with horns and hoofs.
" Steps, Amsterdam," " Nocturne, Dance House," with its
magical suggestion of movement and light, and the admirable
landscape " Zaandam." With the mention of these things may
fitly close a sketch of Whistler's periods in etching; but before
proceeding to other branches of his work, the main characteristics
of the whole series of etchings (of which, in Wedmore's Whistler's
Etchings, nearly 300 examples are described) should be briefly
indicated. These main characteristics are precision and vivacity;
freedom, flexibility, infinite technical resource, at the service
always of the most alert and comprehensive observation, an
eye that no picturesqueness of light and shade, no interesting
grouping of line, can ever escape an eye, that is, that is emanci-
pated from conventionality, and sees these things therefore with
equal willingness in a cathedral and a mass of scaffolding, in a
Chelsea shop and in a suave nude figure, in the facade of a
Flemish palace and in a " great wheel " at West Kensington.
Mr Whistler's pictures have as a chief source of their attractive-
ness those mental qualities of alertness and emancipation.
Charm of colour and of handling enhance the hold which they
obtain upon such people of taste as may be ready to receive
them. There are but very few of them, however, at least very
few oil pictures, when one considers the number of years since
the artist began to labour; and one notable fact must be at
once understood the admitted masterpieces in painting belong
almost entirely to the earlier time. " Sarasate " is an exception,
and " Lady Archibald Campbell," and in its smaller, but still
charming, way "The Little Rose of Lyrne Regis"; but even
these save the " Little Rose " are of 1885 or thereabouts.
A few years earlier than they are the " Connie Gilchrist," the
" Miss Alexander," and the " Rosa Corder," and the Thames
" Nocturnes "; but we go farther back to reach the " Portrait
of the Painter's Mother," which is now in the Luxembourg;
the " Portrait of Carlyle," now at Glasgow; the " Crcmorne
Gardens," the " Nocturne, Valparaiso Harbour," the " Music
Room," with little Miss Annie Haden standing by the piano
while her mother plays, and the " White Girl," or " Little White
Girl," in which Whistler shows the influence, but never the
domination, of the Japanese. Of the slight but always exquisitely
harmonious studies in water colour, undertaken by Whistler
in his middle period, none call for special notice. To the middle
time, too, belong, not perhaps all of his slight but delicately
modelled pastels of the figure, but at least his more universally
accepted pastels of Venetian scenes, in which he caught the
sleepy beauty of the Venetian by-way. In pastel, as in painting,
in water colour and in etching, Whistler has never been unmind-
ful of the particular qualities of the medium in which he has
worked, nor of the applicability of a given medium to a given
subject. The result, accordingly, is not now a victory and now
a failure, now a " hit " and now a " miss," but rather a succession
of triumphs great and small. One other medium taken up by
Whistler must now be mentioned. His lithographs his drawings
on the stone in many instances, and in others his drawings on
that " lithographic paper " which with some people is the easy
substitute for the stone to-day are perhaps half as numerous as
his etchings. Mr T. R. Way has catalogued about a hundred.
Some of the lithographs are of figures slightly draped; two or
three of the very finest are of Thames subjects including a
" nocturne " at Limehouse, of unimaginable and poetic mystery;
others are bright and dainty indications of quaint prettini'ss
in the old Faubourg St Germain, and of the sober lines of certain
Georgian churches in Soho and Bloomsbury. An initiator in
his own generation, and ever tastefully experimental, Whistler
no doubt has found enjoyment in the variety of the mediums he
has worked in, and in the variety of subjects he has brilliantly
tackled. The absence of concentration in the Whistlerian
temperament, the lack of great continuity of effort, may probably
prove a drawback to his taking exactly the place as a painter of
oil pictures, which, in other circumstances, his genius and his
taste would most certainly have secured for him. In the future
Whistler must be accounted, in oil painting, a master exquisite
but rare. But the number and the range of his etched subjects
and the extraordinary variety of perception and of skill which
WHISTON WHITBREAD
597
he has brought to bear upon the execution of his nearly three
hundred coppers, ensure, and have indeed already compassed,
the acceptance of him as a master amcng masters in that art of
etching. Rembrandt's, Van Dyck's, Meryon's, Claude's, are, in
t he only names which there is full warranty for pronouncing
his own.
No account of Whistler's career would be complete without a
reference to his supremely controversial personality. In 1878
; ought a libel action against Ruskin for his criticisms in Fors
:^era (1877). Ruskin had denounced one of his nocturnes
a! the Grosvenor Gallery as " a pot of paint flung in the public
face." After a long trial, Whistler was awarded a farthing
damages. His examination caused much interest, especially in
artistic circles, on account of his attitude in vindication of the
purely artistic side of art; and it was in the course of it that he
answered the question as to how long a certain " impression "
had taken him to execute by saying, " All my life." His eccen-
tricity of pose and dress, combined with his artistic arrogance,
.-.harp tongue, and bittei humour, made him one of the most
ulked-about men in London, and his mots were quoted every-
where. He followed up his quarrel with Ruskin by publishing a
satirical pamphlet. Whistler v. Ruskin: Art v. Art Critics. In
1885 he gave his Ten o'Clock Lecture in London, afterwards
embodied in The Gentle Art of Making Enemies (i8go). The
substance of this flippantly written and amusing outburst was
an insistence on the liberty of the artist to do what was right in
his artistic eyes, and the inability of the public or the critics to
have any ideas about art worth considering at all. In 1895
another quarrel, with Sir William Eden, whose wife's portrait
Whistler had painted, but refused to hand over, came into the
lourts in Paris; and Whistler, though allowed to keep his picture,
was condemned in damages. In later years he lived mainly in
Paris, but he returned to live in London in 1902; and he died
on the 1 7th of July 1903 at 74 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea. In 1888
he had married Mrs Goodwin, widow of E. W. Goodwin, the
architect, and daughter of J. B. Philip, the sculptor; she died
in 1896, leaving no children. In 1886 he became president of the
Royal Society of British Artists (a title at which afterwards he
scoffed); and he took a leading part later in founding the
International Art Society, of which he was the first president.
His " Nocturne in blue and silver " was presented to the
National Galiei-y after his death by the National Art Collection
Fund.
See also T. R. Way and G. R. Dennis. The Art of J. McN. Whistler
l I'loi); F. Wedmore, Mr Whistler's Etchings; Theodore Duret,
ire dc J. McN. Whistler et de son ceuvre (190^); Mortimer
Mcnpes, Whistler as I knew him', W. G. Bowdoin, Whistler, the Man
and his Work (1902); Catalogue of Memorial Exhibition (Inter-
national Society, 1005); and E. R. and J. Pennell, The Life of
James McNtill Whistler (igoS). (F. WE.)
WHISTON, WILLIAM (1667-1752), English divine and
mathematician, was born on the 9th of December 1667 at Norton
in Leicestershire, of which village his father was rector. He
was educated privately, partly on account of the delicacy of
his health, and partly that he might act as amanuensis to his
father, who had lost his sight. He afterwards entered at Clare
College, Cambridge, where he applied himself to mathematical
study, and obtained a fellowship in 1693. He next became
chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714), the learned bishop of Nor-
wich, from whom he received the living of Lowestoft in 1698.
He had already given several proofs of his noble but over-
scrupulous conscientiousness, and at the same time of a pro-
pensity to paradox. His New Theory of the Earth (1696),
although destitute of sound scientific foundation, obtained the
praise of both Newton and Locke, the latter of whom justly
classed the author among those who, if not adding much to our
knowledge, " at least bring some new things to our thoughts."
In 1 701 he resigned his living to become deputy at Cambridge
to Sir Isaac Newton, whom two years later he succeeded as
Lucasian professor of mathematics. In 1707 he was Boyle
lecturer. For several years Whiston continued to write and
preach both on mathematical and theological subjects with con-
siderable success; but his study of the Apostolical Constitutions
had convinced him that Arianism was the creed of the primi-
tive church; and with him to form an opinion and to pub-
lish it were things almost simultaneous. His heterodoxy soon
became notorious, and in 1710 he was deprived of his pro-
fessorship and expelled from the university. The rest of his life
was spent in incessant controversy theological, mathematical,
chronological and miscellaneous. He vindicated his estimate
of the Apostolical Constitutions and the Arian views he had
derived from them in his Primitive Christianity Revived (5 vols.,
1711-1712). In 1713 he produced a reformed liturgy, and soon
afterwards founded a society for promoting primitive Christianity,
lecturing in support of his theories at London, Bath and Tun-
bridge Wells. One of the most valuable of his books, the Life
of Samuel Clarke, appeared in 1730. While heretical on so many
points, he was a firm believer in supernatural Christianity, and
frequently took the field in defence of prophecy and miracle,
including anointing the sick and touching for the king's evil.
His dislike to rationalism in religion also made him one of the
numerous opponents of Benjamin Hoadly's Plain Account of
the Nature and End of the Sacrament. He proved to his own
satisfaction that Canticles was apocryphal and that Baruch
was not. He was ever pressing his views of ecclesiastical govern-
ment and discipline, derived from the Apostolical Constitutions,
on the ecclesiastical authorities, and marvelled that they could
not see the matter in the same light as himself. He assailed the
memory of Athanasius with a virulence at least equal to that
with which orthodox divines had treated Anus. He attacked
Sir Isaac Newton's chronological system with success; but he
himself lost not only time but money in an endeavour to discover
the longitude. Of all his singular opinions the best known is his
adv&cacy of clerical monogamy, immortalized in the Vicar of
Wakefield. Of all his labours the most useful is his translation of
Josephus (1737), with valuable notes and dissertations, often
reprinted. His last " famous discovery, or rather revival of
Dr Giles Fletcher's," which he mentions in his autobiography
with infinite complacency, was the identification of the Tatars
with the lost tribes of Israel. In 1745 he published his Primitive
New Testament. About the same time (1747) he finally left the
Anglican communion for the Baptist, leaving the church literally
as well as figuratively by quitting it as the clergyman began to
read the Athanasian creed. He died in London, at the house of
his son-in-law, on the 22nd of August 1752, leaving a memoir
(3 vols., 1740-1750) which deserves more attention than it has
received, both for its characteristic individuality and as a store-
house of curious anecdotes and illustrations of the religious and
moral tendencies of the age. It does not, however, contain any
account of the proceedings taken against him at Cambridge,
these having been published separately at the time.
Whiston is a striking example of the association of an entirely
paradoxical bent of mind with proficiency in the exact sciences.
He also illustrates the possibility of arriving at rationalistic conclu-
sions in theology without the slightest tincture of the rationalistic-
temper. He was not only paradoxical to the verge of craziness, but
intolerant to the verge of bigotry. " I had a mind," he says, " to
hear Dr (John) Gill preach. But, being informed that he had written
a folio book on the Canticles, I declined to go to hear him." When
not engaged in controversy he was not devoid of good sense. He
often saw men and things very clearly, and some of his bon mots
are admirable.
WHITAKER, JOSEPH (1820-1895), English publisher, was
born in London on the 4th of May 1820, and apprenticed to a
bookseller at the age of fourteen. After a long experience with
various bookselling firms, he began business on his own account as
a theological publisher. In January 1858 he started the Boot-
seller, and for 1869 published the first issueof W hi taker's Almanack,
the annual work of reference, which also met with immediate
success. In 1874 he published the first edition of the Reference
Catalogue of Current Literature, of which several editions have
since appeared. Whitaker died at Enfield on the isth of May
1895. He had been the father of fifteen children.
WHITBREAD, SAMUEL (1758-1815), English politician, came
of a Bedfordshire Nonconformist family; his father had made
a considerable fortune as owner of the well-known brewery asso-
ciated with his name. Educated at Eton and St John's College,
59 8
WHITBY WHITCHURCH
Cambridge (after originally going to Christ Church, Oxford),
he began by entering the brewing business; but after his marriage
with the daughter of the ist Earl Grey in 1789 he took to politics,
and in 1790 was elected for Bedfordshire as a Whig, attaching
himself to Fox. He became known as a social and financial
reformer and a constant assailant in parliament of all sorts of
abuses. It was on his motion in 1805 that Lord Melville was
impeached for financial maladministration of the navy, and he
conducted the case for the prosecution. His Poor Law bill in
1807, an elaborate Radical scheme, came to nothing. Whitbread
continued to be a constant speaker in parliament, and the
principal representative of Liberal criticism, a monument of
opposition tactics. He opposed the regency, championed the
princess of Wales, and led the peace party; and the caricaturists
were busy with his personality. In 1809 he became chairman
of the committee for rebuilding Drury Lane theatre, and for some
time he was immersed in controversies connected with it, which
eventually seem to have unstrung his mind, for he committed
suicide on the 6th of July 1815. The Whitbread influence in
Liberal politics continued to be very strong in Bedfordshire in
later generations, his son William Henry (from 1818 to 1837)
and grandson Samuel (from 1852 to 1895) representing Bedford
for many years.
WHITBY, a seaport, watering-place and market town in the
Whitby parliamentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire,
England, 245 m. N. from London, on the North-Eastern railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,755. There are a terminal
station in the town and a station at West Cliff on the Saltburn
branch. Whitby is beautifully situated at the mouth and on
both banks of the River Esk; the old town of narrow streets and
picturesque houses standing en the steep slopes above the river,
while the modern residential quarter is mainly on the summit of
West Cliff. A long flight of steps leads up the eastern height to
the abbey, the ruins of which gain a wonderful dignity from their
commanding position. This was a foundation of Oswy, king of
Northumbria, in 658, in fulfilment of a vow for a victory over
Penda, king of Mercia. It embraced an establishment for monks
and (until the Conquest) for nuns of the Benedictine order, and
under Hilda, a grand-niece of Edwin, a former king of North-
umbria, acquired high celebrity. The existing ruins comprise
parts of the Early English choir, the north transept, also Early
English but of later date, and the rich Decorated nave. The west
side of the nave fell in 1763 and the tower in 1830. On the south
side are foundations of cloisters and domestic buildings. Adjoin-
ing the abbey is Whitby Hall, built by Sir Francis Cholmley about
1 580 from the materials of the monastic buildings, and enlarged
and fortified by Sir Hugh Cholmley about 1635. A little below
the abbey is the parish church of St Mary, originally Norman,
and retaining traces of the first building; owing to a variety
of alterations at different periods, and the erection of high
wooden pews and galleries, its appearance is more remarkable
than beautiful. A modern cross in the churchyard commemorates
St Caedmon, the Northumbrian poet (c. 670), who was a monk
at the abbey and there died. Other features of the town are
the pleasant promenades and gardens on West Cliff, the anti-
quarian and geological museum, and an excellent golf course.
The coast is cliff-bound and very beautiful both to the north and
to the south, while inland the Esk traverses a lovely wooded vale,
surrounded by open, high-lying moors. Whitby is a quiet resort,
possessing none of the brilliance of Scarborough on the same
coast. A large fishing industry is carried on from the harbour,
which is formed by the mouth of the river and protected by two
piers. The manufacture of ornaments from the jet found in the
vicinity forms a considerable industry. The jet is a species of
petrified wood found towards the bottom of the Upper Lias, and
its use for the purpose of ornament dates from very early times.
A former activity in shipbuilding is of interest through the
recollection that here were constructed the ships for Captain
Cook's voyages. Wooden ships and boats are still built, and
rope-making and sail-making are carried on.
Whitby (Streanaeshalch c. 657-857; Prestebi c. 857-1080;
Witeby, &c. c. 857 onwards) is first mentioned by Bede, who
states that a religious house was established here about A.D. 657.
In the gth century it was destroyed by the Danes, but being
refounded became the centre of a Danish colony, and until laid
waste by the Conqueror was the most prosperous town in the
district. Henry I. made a grant to the abbot and convent of
Whitby of a burgage in the vill of Whitby, and Richard de
Waterville, abbot 1175-1190, granted the town in free burgage
to the burgesses. In 1200 King John, bribed by the burgesses,
confirmed this charter, but in 1201, bribed by the successor of
Richard de Waterville, quashed it as injurious to the dignity of
the church of Whitby. A bitter struggle went on, however, till
the I4th century, when a trial resulted in a judgment against the
burgesses. In 1629 Whitby petitioned for incorporation on the
ground that the town was in decay through want of good govern-
ment and received letters patent giving them self-government.
However, in 1674-1675 the crown, probably in gratitude for the
part played by the Cholmleys in the Civil War, restored to the
lords of the manor all the liberties ever enjoyed by the abbots of
Whitby in Whitby and Whitby Strand. Whitby became a
parliamentary borough under the Reform Act of 1832, returning
one member until it was disfranchised under the Redistribution
of Seats Act 1885. At the beginning of the I4th century Sir
Alexander Percy claimed the hereditary right of buying and
selling in Whitby without payment of toll. The market was
held time out of mind on Sunday until the reign of Henry VI.,
who changed the day to Saturday, still the market day. A
fortnightly cattle market was granted by Charles I. Henry I.
granted to the abbot of Whitby a fair at the feast of St Hilda
and the king's firm peace to all coming to the fair. A second fair
was used later, but neither of them is any longer held. There was
a port at Whitby in the i2th century and probably before, and
though never important there have always since been traces
of Whitby shipping and merchandise. In medieval times the
salting and sale of herrings and the sale of cod, fish and other
products of the North Sea fishery were the only industries.
Whale-fishing began in 1753.
See J. C. Atkinson, Memorials of Old Whitby (London, 1894);
Lionel Charlton, History of Whitby (York, 1779); George Young,
History of Whitby (Whitby, 1817); Victoria County History, York-
shire, North Riding.
WHITCHURCH, a market town in the Newport parliamentary
division of Shropshire, England, 171 m. N.W. from London on a
joint line of the London & North-Western and Great Western
railways, and the terminus of the Cambrian railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 5221. Malting and cheese-making are the
principal industries. The church of St Alkmund, rebuilt in the
i8th century, retains the fine tomb of John Talbot, first earl of
Shrewsbury, who fell at the battle of Bordeaux (1453). The
town hall and other public buildings are modern. The grammar
school was founded in 1550, and here (c. 1791) Reginald Heber,
Bishop of Calcutta, was educated. The parish of Whitchurch
extends into Cheshire.
Whitchurch was at first known as Westun and belonged before
the Conquest to King Harold, but was afterwards granted to
Earl Roger, of whom William de Warenne was holding it at the
time of the Domesday Survey. The name is said to have been
altered to Whitchurch or Album Monasterium on account of a
stone church built there soon after 1086. The manor appears
to have been held by a younger branch ot the Warenne family,
from whom it passed by marriage to the families cf Lestrange and
Talbot. It was sold by the Talbots to Thomas Egerton, from
whom it passed to the earls of Bridgwater and eventually to the
present owner, Earl Brownlow. Whitchurch is mentioned as a
borough in the i4th century, and was governed by a bailiff, but
its privileges, which sprang up with the castle, appear to have
disappea red after its decay. The town has never been represented
in parliament nor noted for any trade except agriculture. In
1228 John Fitz-Alan received the right of changing the day of
the market he held at Whitchurch from Thursday to Monday,
and in 1362 a fair lasting three days from the feast of SS. Simon
and Jude was granted to John Lestrange. Lord Brownlow
granted the market rights to the local authority.
WHITE, A. D. WHITE, GILBERT
599
WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832- ), American educa-
tionist, was born in Homer, New York, on the yth of November
1832. He graduated at Yale (A.B.) in 1853, studied at the
Sorbonne in 1854, and at the University of Berlin in 1855-1856,
meanwhile serving as attache at the United States Legation at
St Petersburg in 1854-1855. He was professor of history and
English literature in 1857-1863, and lecturer on history in 1863-
1867 at the University of Michigan. In 1864-1867 he was a
member of the New York state Senate, and as chairman of the
Committee on Education took an active part in formulating
the educational features of the bill under which Cornell University
(q.v.) was incorporated (1865). At Mr Cornell's suggestion Mr
White drew up a plan of organization for the institution, and in
1867 became its first president, which post he held continuously
until 1885, serving thereafter as a member of the board of trustees
and of its executive committee. During his administration
he greatly strengthened the curriculum of the university, to
which he gave his architectural library, and, upon his retirement,
his historical and general library of about 20,000 volumes (in-
cluding bound collections of pamphlets) and about 3000 unbound
pamphlets, which was installed in a special room in the main
library building of the university. In recognition of this gift
the departments of history and political science of the university
have been named the President White School of History and
Political Science. In 1870 President Grant appointed Benjamin
F. Wade, Mr White and Samuel G. Howe a commission to visit
Santo Domingo and report on the advisability of the president's
project for annexing it to the United States, and in 1895 he was
appointed by President Cleveland a member of the commission
established to determine the boundary between Venezuela and
British Guiana. Dr White was United States minister to
Germany in 1870-1881, and to Russia in 1892-1894, and was
United States ambassador to Germany in 1897-1903. In 1899
he was president of the American delegation at the Hague Peace
Conference. He received the degree of LL.D. from the Univer-
sity of Michigan (1867), from Cornell (1886), from Yale (1887),
from St Andrews, Scotland (1902), from Johns Hopkins, (1902),
and from Dartmouth (1906); L.H.D. from Columbia (1887)
and D.C.L. from Oxford (1902). He was also made an officer
of the Legion of Honour, was awarded the royal gold medal of
Prussia for arts and sciences in 1902, was president of the
American Historical Association, of which he was a founder,
in 1884, and was actively identified with various other learned
bodies.
His publications include The Greater States of Continental Europe
(1874) ; A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christen-
dom (2 vols., 1896), his most important work, his Autobiography
(2 vols., New York, 1905) and Seven Great Statesmen (1910).
WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835- ), British field
marshal, the son of an Irish country gentleman, was born in
County Antrim on the 6th of July 1835. He was educated at
Sandhurst, and in 1853 joined the Inniskillings, with which
regiment he served in India during the Mutiny in 1857. In the
second Afghan War (1878-80) he was second in command of the
Gordon Highlanders, whom he led in their charge at the battle of
Charasiah. For conspicuous gallantry in this action, and again
shortly afterwards at Kandahar, he received the Victoria Cross.
In 1 88 1 he assumed command of the Gordon Highlanders, and
took part in the Nile Expedition of 1884-85. As brigadier in
the Burmese War (1885-87) he rendered distinguished service,
for which he was promoted major-general; and when Sir
Frederick (afterwards Lord) Roberts returned to India from
Burma in 1887, White was left in command of the force charged
with the duty of suppressing the dacoits and pacifying the
country. This he accomplished with a thoroughness which
earned the thanks of the government of India. He was in
command of the Zhob expedition in 1890, and in 1893 he suc-
ceeded Lord Roberts as commander-in-chief in India; and
during his tenure of this office directed the conduct of the
Chitral expedition in 1895 and the Tirah campaign in 1897.
In the latter year he was made G.C.B. and in 1898 G.C.S.I.
Returning to England in 1898 he became quartermaster-general
to the forces; and on the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 he
was given command of the forces in Natal. He defeated the
Boers at Elandslaagte on the 2ist of October 1899 and at
Reitfontein on the 24th; but the superior numbers of the Boers
enabled them to invest Ladysmith, which Sir George White
defended in a siege lasting 119 days, from the 2nd of November
1899 to the ist of March 1000, in the course of which he refused
to entertain Sir Redvers Buller's suggestion that he should arrange
terms of capitulation with the enemy (see LADYSMITH, SIEGE
and RELIEF or). After the relief of Ladysmith, White, whose
health had been impaired by the siege, returned to England, and
was appointed governor of Gibraltar (1900-1904). King Edward
VII., who visited the fortress in 1003, personally gave him the
baton of a field maishal. In 1905 Sir George White was ap-
pointed governor of Chelsea Hospital, and in the same year was
decorated with the Order of Merit.
See T. F. G. Coates, Sir George White (1900).
WHITE, GILBERT (1720-1793), English writer on natural
history, was born on the i8th of July 1720 in the little Hampshire
village of Selborne, which his writings have rendered so familiar
to all lovers of either books or nature. He was educated at
Basingstoke under Thomas Warton, father of the poet, and
subsequently at Oriel College, Oxford, where in 1744 he was
elected to a fellowship. Ordained in 1747, he became curate at
Swarraton the same year and at Selborne in 1751. In 1752 he
was nominated junior proctor at Oxford and became dean of his
college. In 1753 he accepted the curacy of Durley, and in 1757
he was a candidate for the provostship of Oriel, but failed to
secure election. Soon afterwards he received the college living
of Moreton Pinkney, though he did not reside there, and in
1761 he became curate at Faringdon, near Selborne, a position
which he held until in 1784 he again became curate in his native
parish. He died in his home, The Wakes, Selborne, on the 26th
of June 1793.
Gilbert White's daily life was practically unbroken by any
great changes or incidents; for nearly half a century his pastoral
duties, his watchful country walks, the assiduous care of his
garden, and the scrupulous posting of his calendar of observations
made up the essentials of a full and delightful life, but hardly
of a biography. At most we can only fill up the portrait by
reference to the tinge of simple old-fashioned scholarship, which
on its historic side made him an eager searcher for antiquities
and among old records, and on its poetic occasionally stirred him
to an excursion as far as that gentlest slope of Parnassus in-
habited by the descriptive muse. Hence we are thrown back
upon that correspondence with brother naturalists which has
raised his life and its influence so far beyond the commonplace.
His strong naturalist tendencies are not, however, properly to
be realized without a glance at the history of his younger brothers.
The eldest, Thomas, retired from trade to devote himself to
natural and physical science, and contributed many papers to the
Royal Society, of which he was a fellow. The next, Benjamin,
became the publisher of most of the leading works of natural
history which appeared during his lifetime, including that of his
brother. The third, John, became chaplain at Gibraltar, where
he accumulated much material for a work on the natural history
of the rock and its neighbourhood, and carried on a scientific
correspondence, not only with his eldest biother, but with
Linnaeus. The youngest, Henry, was vicar of Fyfield, near
Andover. The sister's son, Samuel Barker, also became in time
one of White's most valued correspondents. With other natural-
ists, too, he had intimate relations: with Thomas Pennant and
Daines Barriugton he was in constant correspondence, often
too with the botanist John Lightfoot, and sometimes with Sir
Joseph Banks and others, while Richard Chandler and other
antiquaries kept alive his historic zeal. At first he was content
to furnish information from which the works of Pennant and
Barrington largely profited; but gradually the ambition of
separate authorship developed from a suggestion thrown out by
the latter of these writers in 1 770. The next year White sketched
to Pennant the project of " a natural history of my native parish,
an annus historico-naluralis, comprising a journal for a whole
6oo
WHITE, HENRY KIRKE WHITE, J. B.
year, and illustrated with large notes and observations. Such
a beginning might induce more able naturalists to write the
history of various districts and might in time occasion the pro-
duction of a work so much to be wished for a full and complete
natural history of these kingdoms." Yet the famous Natural
History and Antiquities of Selborne did not appear until 1789.
It was well received from the beginning, and has been reprinted
time after time.
To be a typical parish natural history so far as completeness or
order is concerned, it has of course no pretensions; batches of
letters, an essay on antiquities, a naturalist's calendar and miscel-
laneous jottings of all kinds are but the unsystematized material
of the work proper, which was never written. Yet it is largely to
this very piecemeal character that its popularity has been due. The
style has the simple, yet fresh and graphic, directness of all good
letter-writing, and there is no lack of passages of keen observation,
and even shrewd interpretation. White not only notes the homes
and ways, the times and seasons, of plants and animals comparing,
for instance, the different ways in which the squirrel, the field-
mouse and the nuthatch eat their hazel-nuts or watches the
migrations of birds, which were then only beginning to be properly
recorded or understood, but he knows more than any other observer
until Charles Darwin about the habits and the usefulness of the
earthworms, and is certain that plants distil dew and do not merely
condense it. The book is also interesting as having appeared on the
borderland between the medieval and the modern school of natural
history, avoiding the uncritical blundering of the old Encyclopaedists,
without entering on the technical and analytic character of the
opening age of separate monographs. Moreover, as the first book
which raised natural history into the region of literature, much as the
Compleat Angler did for that gentle art, we must affiliate to it the
more finished products of later writers like Thoreau or Richard
Jefferies. Yet, while these are essential merits of the book, its en-
dearing charm lies deeper, in the sweet and kindly personality of the
author, who on his rambles gathers no spoil, but watches the birds
and field-mice without disturbing them from their nests, and quietly
plants an acorn where he thinks an oak is wanted, or sows beech-nuts
in what is now a stately row. He overflows with anecdotes, seldom
indeed gets beyond the anecdotal stage, yet from this all study of
nature must begin ; and he sees everywhere intelligence and beauty,
love and sociality, where a later view of nature insists primarily on
mere adaptation of interests or purely competitive struggles. The
encyclopaedic interest in nature, although in White's day culminat-
ing in the monumental synthesis of Buffon, was also disappearing
before the analytic specialism inaugurated by Linnaeus; yet the
catholic interests of the simple naturalist of Selborne fully reappear
a century later in the greater naturalist of Down, Charles Darwin.
The Life and Letters of Gilbert White cf Selborne, by his great grand-
nephew, Rashleigh Holt-White, appeared in 1901.
WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806), English poet, was born
at Nottingham, the son of a butcher, on the 2ist of March 1785.
He was destined at first for his father's trade, but after a short
apprenticeship to a stocking-weaver, was eventually articled to
a lawyer. Meanwhile he studied hard, and his master offered
to release him from his contract if he had sufficient means to
go to college. He received encouragement from Capel Lofft,
the friend of Robert Bloomfield, and published in 1803 Clifton
Grove, a Sketch in Verse, with other Poems, dedicated to Georgiana,
duchess of Devonshire. The book was violently attacked in the
Monthly Review (February 1804), but White was in some degree
compensated by a kind letter from Robert Southey. Through
the efforts of his friends, he was entered as a sizar at St John's
College, Cambridge, spending a year beforehand with a private
tutor. Close application to study induced a serious illness, and
fears were entertained for his sanity, but he went into residence
at Cambridge, with a view to taking holy orders, in the autumn
of 1805. The strain of continuous study proved fatal, and he
died on the igth of October 1806. He was buried in the church of
All Saints, Cambridge. The genuine piety of his religious verses
secured a place in popular hymnology for some of his hymns.
Much of his fame was due to sympathy inspired by his early
death, but it is noteworthy that Byron agreed with Southey
in forming a high estimate of the young man's promise.
His Remains, with his letters and an account of his life, were edited
($ vols., 1807-1822) by Robert Southey. See prefatory notices by
Sir Harris Nicolas to his Poetical Works (newed., 1866) in the" Aldine
Edition " of the British poets; by H. K. Swann in the volume of
selections (1897) in the Canterbury Poets; and by John Drinkwater
to the edition in the " Muses' Library." See also J. T. Godfrey and
J. Ward, The Homes and Haunts of Henry Kirke White (1908).
WHITE, HUGH LAWSOH (1773-1840), American statesman,
was born in Iredell county, North Carolina, on the joth of
October 1773. In 1787 he crossed the mountains into Kast
Tennessee (then a part of North Carolina) with his father James
White (1737-1815), who was subsequently prominent in the
early history of Tennessee. Hugh became in 1790 secretary to
Governor William Blount, and in 1792-1793 served under John
Sevier against the Creek and Cherokee Indians, and in the
battle of Etowah (December 1793), according to the accepted
tradition, killed with his own hand the Cherokee chief Kingfisher.
He studied in Philadelphia and in 1796 he was admitted to the
bar at Knoxville. He was a judge of the Superior Court of
Tennessee in 1801-1807, a state senator in 1807-1809, and in
1809- 1815 was judge of the newly organized Supreme Court of
Errors and Appeals of the state. From 1812 to 1827 he was
president of the State Bank of Tennessee at Knoxville, and
managed it so well that for several years during this period it
was the only western bank that in the trying period during and
after the War of 1812 did not suspend specie payments. In
1821-1824 he was a member of the Spanish Claims Commission,
and in 1825 succeeded Andrew Jackson in the United States
Senate, serving until 1840 and being president pro tern, in 1832-
1834. In the Senate he opposed internal improvements by the
Federal government and the recharter of the United States Bank,
favoured a protective tariff and Jackson's coercive policy in
regard to nullification, and in general supported the measures of
President Jackson, though his opposition to the latter's indis-
criminate appointments caused a coolness between himself and
Jackson, which was increased by White's refusal to vote to ex-
punge the resolutions of a former Senate censuring the president.
In 1830, as chairman of the Committee on Indian Affairs, he
secured the passage of a bill looking to the removal of the Indians
to lands west of the Mississippi. He was opposed to Van Buren,
Jackson's candidate for the presidency in 1836, was himself
nominated in several states as an independent candidate, and
received the twenty-six electoral votes of Tennessee and Georgia,
though President Jackson made strong efforts to defeat him in
the former state. About 1838 he became a Whig in politics, and
when the Democratic legislature of Tennessee instructed him to
vote for Van Buren's sub-treasury scheme he objected and
resigned (Jan. 1840). His strict principles and his conservatism
won for him the sobriquet of " The Cato of the United States
Senate." He died at Knoxville on the loth of April 1840.
See Nancy N. Scott (ed.), A Memoir of Hugh Lawson White
(Philadelphia, 1856).
WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841), British theologian
and poet, was born at Seville on the nth of July 1775. He was
educated for the Roman Catholic priesthood; but after his
ordination (1800) religious doubts led him to escape from Spain
to England (1810), where he ultimately entered the Anglican
Church, having studied theology at Oxford and made the
friendship of Arnold, Newman and Whately. He became tutor
in the family of the last-named when he was made archbishop of
Dublin (1831). While in this position he embraced Unitarian
views; and he found an asylum amongst the Unitarians of
Liverpool, where he died on the 2oth of May 1841.
White edited El Espanol, a monthly Spanish magazine in
London, from 1810 to 1814, and afterwards received a civil list
pension of 250. His principal writings are Doblado't Letters
from Spain (1822); Evidence against Catholicism (1825);
Second Travels of an Irish Gentleman in Search of a Religion
(2 vols., 1834); Observations on Heresy and Orthodoxy (1835).
They all show literary ability, and were extensively read in their
day. He also translated Paley's Evidences and the Book of
Common Prayer into Spanish. He is best remembered, however,
by his sonnet "Night and Death" (" Mysterious Night! when
our first parent knew "), which was dedicated to S. T. Coleridge
on its appearance in the Bijou for 1828 and has since found its
way into several anthologies. Three versions are given in the
Academy of the i2th of September 1891.
See Life of the Rev. Joseph Blanco White, written by himself, u'ifh
portions of his Correspondence, edited by John Hamilton Thorn
(London, 3 vols., 1845).
WHITE, R. G. WHITE, T.
601
WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885), American Shake-
spearean scholar, philologist and essayist, was born in New York
city, on the 23rd of May 1822. He graduated at the university
of the City of New York in 1839, studied medicine and then law,
and was admitted to the bar in 1845, but made no serious
attempts to practise. He contributed (anonymously) musical
criticisms to the New York Courier and Enquirer, of which he
> o-editor in 1851-1858, and became a member cf the staff
of the New York World, when that paper was established in
1860. In 1861-1878 he was chief of the United States Revenue
.Marine Bureau, for the district of New York. When he was
21 years old he wrote his sonnet, " Washington: Pater Patriae,"
which, published anonymously, was frequently ascribed to
Wordsworth, and by William Cullen Bryant was ascribed to
Landor; White did not admit his authorship until 1852. In 1853
he contributed anonymously to Putnam's Magazine (October
and November), an acute and destructive criticism of Collier's
folio manuscript emendations of Shakespeare; 1 and in the
following year this criticism was republished (with other matter)
in his Shakespeare's Scholar: being Historical and Critical
Studies of his Text, Characters, and Commentators; with an
Examination of Mr Collier's Folio of 1633. During the Civil War
he contributed to the Spectator, under the pseudonym, " A
Yankee," a series of articles which greatly influenced English
public opinion in favour of the North, while his clever and
pungent satire, The New Gospel of Peace; according to St Ben-
jamin, in four books (1863-1866) also published anonymously
was an effective attack upon " copper-headism " and the
advocates of " peace at any price." He died in New York on the
8th of April 1885.
In addition to those mentioned above, his Shakespearean publica-
tions include, Essay on the Authorship of the Three Parts of King
Henry VI. (1850), Memoirs of the Life of William Shakespeare; with
an Essay towards the Expression of his Genius, and an account of the
Rise and Progress of the English Drama to the Time of Shakespeare
(1865) ; an annotated edition of Shakespeare's works in 3 vols. (1883),
and Studies in Sliakespeare (1885), pleading for a rational treatment
of the plays without over-annotation, textual or aesthetic. On
linguistic subjects he wrote Words and their Uses, Past and Present
(1870), and a sequel, Every Day English (1880), which without lingu-
istic thoroughness, stimulated interest in the general subject of good
use in language. His other publications include National Hymns:
How they are Written and How they are not Written (1861), containing
some of the best and worst of 1200 hymns submitted to a committee
(of which White was a member) in a competition for a prize offered
for a national hymn; Poelty, Lyrical, Narrative and Satirical, of the
Civil War (1866); The Fall of Man; or. The Loves of the Gorillas,
By a Learned Gorilla (1871) ; Chronicles of Gotham. By U. Donough
Outis (1871); The American View of the Copyright Question (1880),
England Without and Within (1881), and The Fate of Mansfield
Humphreys (l 884), a novel. For estimates of White's critical writing
see the review of Shakespeare's Scholar in the Eclectic Magazine, vol.
xxxiv. (1855); and the articles in the Atlantic Monthly, vol. xlix.
(1882) by E. P. Whipple, and vol. Ivii. (1886).
His son, STANFORD WHITE (1853-1906), the famous architect,
studied under Henry H. Richardson, whom he assisted in the
designing of Trinity Church, Boston, and became a member of
the New York firm of McKim, Mead & White in 1881. He
designed the Madison Square Garden, the Century and Metro-
politan Clubs in New York City, the buildings of the New York
University and the University of Virginia, and the pedestals
for several of the statues by Augustus St Gaudens. He was
murdered by Harry Thaw in 1006.
WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704), English engraver and
draughtsman, was born in London in 1645. He studied en-
graving under David Loggan, for whom he executed many
architectural subjects; his early works also include landscapes
and engraved title-pages for books. He acquired great skill in
portraiture, his works of this class being commonly drawn with
black-lead pencil upon vellum, and afterwards excellently en-
graved in line. Portraits executed in this manner he marked
ad vivum, and they are prized by collectors for their artistic
merit and their authenticity. Virtue catalogued 275 portrait
1 J. Paine Collier, Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shake-
speare's Plays from Early MS. Corrections in a Copy of the Folio, 1632
(London, 1853).
engravings by White, including the likenesses of many of the
most celebrated personages of his day; and nine portraits
engraved in mezzotint are assigned to him by J. Chaloner Smith.
White died at Bloomsbury, London, in 1704. His son, George
White, who was born about 1671 and died about 1734, is also
known as an engraver and portrait-painter.
WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1402-1567), founder of St John's
College, Oxford, was a son of William White, a clothier, and was
born at Reading. At an early age he became a merchant in
London and was soon a member, and then master of the Merchant
Taylors Company; growing wealthier he became an alderman
and sheriff of the city of London. One of the promoters of the
Muscovy Company, he was knighted in 1553, and in October of
the same year he was chosen lord mayor. His term of office
fell in a strenuous time. He had to defend the city against Sir
Thomas Wyat and his followers, and he took part in the trial
of the rebels, as just previously he had done in the case of Lady
Jane Grey. In 1555 White received a licence to found a college
at Oxford, which he endowed with lands in the neighbourhood
of the city and which, dedicated to the Virgin Mary and St John
Baptist, was opened in 1560. Soon after this event Sir Thomas
began to lose money, and he was comparatively poor when he died
at Oxford on the i2th of February 1567. His later years were
mainly spent in Oxford, and he was buried in the chapel of St
John's College. White had some share in founding the Merchant
Taylors' School in London. He was twice married, but left no
children. A portrait of him hangs in the hall of St John's College
and one on glass, painted in the i6th century, is in the old
library. Several early lives of him are among the college manu-
scripts. Sir Thomas must be distinguished from another Sir
Thomas White of South Warnborough, Hampshire, some of
whose property, by a curious coincidence, passed also into the
possession of St John's College.
WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624), English divine, was born
at Bristol about 1550, the son of a clothier. He graduated from
Magdalen Hall (now Hertford College), Oxford; in 1570; took
holy orders, and, coming to London, became rector of St Gregory
by St Paul's and shortly after vicar of St Dunstan's in the West.
Several of his sermons, attacking play-going and the vices of the
metropolis, were printed. He was made a prebendary of St
Paul's, treasurer of Salisbury, canon of Christ Church, Oxford,
and canon of Windsor. In 1613 he built and endowed an
almshouse, called the Temple Hospital, in Bristol. In 1621 he
founded what is now known as White's chair of moral philosophy
at Oxford, with a salary of 100 per annum for the reader, and
several small exhibitions for scholars of Magdalen Hall. He
died on the ist of March 1624, bequeathing 3000 for the estab-
lishment of a collegs of " all the ministers, parsons, vicars,
lecturers and curates in London and its suburbs " (afterwards
Sion College (g.r.)), and an almshouse, now abolished, and
leaving bequests for lectureships at St Paul's, St Dunstan's and
at Newgate.
WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698), bishop of Peterborough, was
born at Aldington in Kent, and educated at St John's College,
Cambridge. Having taken hoiy orders, he became vicar of
Newark-on-Trent in 1660, vicar of Allhallows the Great, London,
in 1666, and vicar of Bottesford, Leicestershire, in 1679. 1
1683 he was appointed chaplain to the princess Anne, and in 1685
he was chosen bishop of Peterborough. In 1688 he joined the
archbishop of Canterbury, William Sancroft, and five of his
suffragan bishops in petitioning against the declaration of
indulgence issued by James II., sharing the trial and the triumph-
ant acquittal of his colleagues. In 1689 he refused to take the
oath of allegiance to William and Mary and was deprived of his
see, but he did not become very active among the nonjurors.
White died on the 3oth of May 1698.
The bishop must be distinguished not only from the founder of
Sion College, but also from Thomas White (1593-1676), philo-
sopher and controversialist. Educated at St Omer, Valladolid
and Douai, the latter was ordained priest in 1617, and taught for
some years in the college at Douai. Later he was president of
the English college at Lisbon. He died in London on the 6th
602
WHITE, SIR W. A. WHITEBAIT
of July 1676. White was a voluminous writer; not only did he
engage in controversy with Protestants, but he attacked the
personal infallibility of the pope.
WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824-1891), British
diplomatist, was born at Pulawy, in Poland, on ^the i3th of
February 1824. He was descended on his father's side from an
Irish Roman Catholic family. His mother's family, though not
of Polish extraction, owned considerable estates in Poland, where
White, though educated at King William's College, Isle of Man,
and Trinity College, Cambridge, spent a great part of his early
days, and thus gained an intimate knowledge of the Slavonic
tongues. From 1843 to 1857 he lived in Poland as a country
gentleman, but in the latter year he accepted a post in the British
consulate at Warsaw, and had almost at once to perform the
duties of acting consul-general. The insurrection of 1863 gave
him an opportunity of showing his immense knowledge of Eastern
politics and his combination of diplomatic tact with resolute
determination. He was promoted in 1864 to the post of consul
at Danzig. The Eastern Question was, however, the great
passion of his life, and in 1875 he succeeded in getting transferred
to Belgrade as consul-general for Servia. In 1879 he was made
British Agent at Bucharest. In 1884 he was offered by Lord
Granville the choice of the legation at Rio or Buenos Aires, and
in 1885 Lord Salisbury, who was then at the Foreign Office,
urged him to go to Peking, pointing out the increasing import-
ance of that post. White's devoted friend, Sir Robert Morier,
wrote in the same sense. But White, who was already acting
as ambassador ad interim at Constantinople, decided to wait;
and during this year he rendered one of his most conspicuous
services. It was largely owing to his efforts that the war between
Servia and Bulgaria was prevented from spreading into a
universal conflagration, and that the union of Bulgaria and
eastern Rumelia was accepted by the powers. In the following
year he was rewarded with the embassy at Constantinople. He
was the first Roman Catholic appointed to a British embassy
since the Reformation. He pursued consistently the policy of
counteracting Russian influence in the Balkans by erecting a
barrier of independent states animated with a healthy spirit of
national life, and by supporting Austrian interests in the East.
To the furtherance of this policy he brought an unrivalled
knowledge of all the under-currents of Oriental intrigue, which
his mastery of languages enabled him to derive not only from the
newspapers, of which he was an assiduous reader, but from the
obscurest sources. His bluff and straightforward manner, and
the knowledge that with him the deed was ready to follow the
word, enabled him at once to inspire confidence and to overawe
less masterful rivals. The official honours bestowed on him
culminated in 1888 with the G.C.B. and a seat on the Privy
Council. He was still ambassador at Constantinople when he
was attacked by influenza during a visit to Berlin, where he died
on the 28th of December 1891.
WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845- ), English naval
architect, was born at Devonport on the 2nd of February 1845,
and at the age of fourteen became an apprentice in the dockyard
there. In 1864 he took the first place in the scholarship com-
petition at the Royal School of Naval Architecture, which had
then just been established by the Admiralty at South Kensington,
and in 1867 he gained his diploma as fellow of the school with
first-class honours. At once joining the constructive staff of the
Admiralty, he acted as confidential assistant to the chief con-
structor, Sir Edward Reed, until the lattcr's retirement in 1870.
The loss of the " Captain " in that year was followed by an
inquiry into designs for ships of war, and in connexion with this
White, together with his old fellow-student, William John,
worked out a long series of calculations as to the stability and
strength of vessels, the results of which were published in an
important paper read in 1871 before the Institution of Naval
Architects. In 1872 White was appointed secretary to the
Council of Construction at the Admiralty, in 1875 assistant con-
structor, and in 1881 chief constructor. In April 1883 he left
the service of the Admiralty, at the invitation of Lord (then Sir
W. G.) Armstrong, in order to undertake the difficult task of
organizing a department for the construction of warships of the
largest size at the Elswick works; but he only remained there
for two and a half years, for in October 1885 he returned to the
Admiralty in succession to Sir Nathaniel Barnaby as director of
naval construction, retaining that post until the beginning of
1902, when ill-health obliged him to relinquish the arduous
labours it entailed. During that period, which in Great Britain
was one of unprecedented activity in naval shipbuilding as a
result of the awakening of public opinion to the vital importance
of sea-power, more than 200 vessels of various types were added
to the British navy, at a total cost of something like ico millions
sterling, and for the design of all 'of these, as well as for the work
of their construction, Sir William White was ultimately respon-
sible. In addition, he did much to further the knowledge of
scientific shipbuilding. He was professor of naval architecture
at the Royal School from 1870 to 1873, and when in the latter
year it was moved to Greenwich to be merged in the Royal Naval
College, he reorganized the course of instruction and acted as
professor for eight years more. The lectures he gave in that
capacity were the foundation of his Manual of Naval Architecture,
which has been translated into several foreign languages and is
recognized as a standard text-book all over the world. Sir
William White, who was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society
in 1888, also read many professional papers before various
learned and engineering societies. He was created K.C.B. in
1895.
WHITEAVES, JOSEPH FREDERICK (1*35- ), British
palaeontologist, was born at Oxford, on the 26th of December
1835. He was educated at private schools, and afterwards
worked under John Phillips at Oxford (1858-1861); he was led
to study the Oolitic rocks, and added largely to our knowledge
of the fossils of the Great Oolite series, Cornbrash and Corallian
(Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1860, and Ann., Nat. Hist. 1861). In 1 86 1 he
visited Canada and made acquaintance with the geology of
Quebec and Montreal, and in 1863 he was appointed curator of
the museum and secretary of the Natural History Society of
Montreal, posts which he occupied until 1875. He studied the
land and freshwater mollusca of Lower Canada, and the marine
invertebrata of the coasts; and also carried on researches among
the older Silurian (or Ordovician) fossils of the neighbourhood of
Montreal. In 1875 he joined the palaeontological branch of
the Geological Survey of Canada at Montreal; in the following
year he became palaeontologist, and in 1877 he was further
appointed zoologist and assistant director of the survey. In 1881
the offices of the survey were removed to Ottawa. His publica-
tions on Canadian zoology and palaeontology are numerous and
important. Dr Whiteaves was one of the original fellows of the
Royal Society of Canada, and contributed to its Transactions,
as well as to the Canadian Naturalist and other journals. He
received the hon. degree of LL. D. in 1900 from McGill University,
Montreal.
WHITEBAIT, the vernacular name of the small fish which
appears in large shoals in the estuary of the Thames during the
summer months, and is held in great esteem as a delicacy for the
table. Formerly whitebait was supposed to be a distinct species
of fish. T. Pennant and G. Shaw believed it to be some kind
of Cyprinoid fish, similar to the bleak, whilst E. Donovan, in his
Natural History of British Fishes (1802-1808), misled by speci-
mens sent to him as whitebait, declared it to be the young of the
shad. In 1820 W. Yarrell proved conclusively that Donovan's
opinion was founded upon an error; unfortunately he contented
himself with comparing whitebait with the shad only, and in
the end adopted the opinion of the Thames fishermen, whose
interest it was to represent it as a distinct adult form; thus the
whitebait is introduced into Yarrell's History of British Fishes
(1836) as Clupea alba. The French ichthyologist Valenciennes
went a step farther, declaring it to be not only specifically but
also generically distinct from all other Clupeoids. It is now
known to consist of the young fry of herrings and sprats in
varying proportions mixed with a few shrimps, gobies, stickle-
backs, pope-fishes and young flounders: but these impurities
are as far as possible picked out from the whitebait before it is
WHITEFIELD
603
marketed. The fishing is carried on from February to August,
and samples taken in the successive months were found to
contain the following percentages of herrings, the remainder
being young sprats: 7, 5, 14, 30, 87, 75, 52. Hence it will be
seen that sprats predominated in February, March, April and
May, herrings in June and July. There is reason to believe that
these young herrings are derived from a local " winter " race
spawning about February and March, and having nothing to do
\vith the great shoals of the more open sea spawning in the North
Sea in November. The Thames being unequal to the supply of
the large demand for this delicacy, large quantities of whitebait
are now brought to London and other markets from many parts
of the coast. In times past whitebait were ccnsidered to be
peculiar to the estuary of the Thames; and, even after the
specific identification of Thames whitebait with the young of the
herring and sprat, it was still thought that there was a dis-
tinctive superiority in its condition and flavour. It is possible
that the young fish find in the estuary of the Thames a larger
amount of suitable food than on other parts of the coast, where
the water may be of greater purity, but possesses less abundance
of the minute animal life on which whitebait thrive. Indeed,
Thames whitebait which have been compared with that from
the mouth of the Exe, the Cornish coast, Menai Strait, and the
Firth of Forth seemed to be better fed; but, of course, the
specific characteristics of the herring and sprat into which we
need not enter here were nowise modified.
The fry of fishes is used as an article of diet in almost every
country: in Germany the young of various species of Cyprinoids,
in Italy and Japan the young of nearly every fish capable of
being readily captured in sufficient numbers, in the South Sea
Islands the fry of Teuthis, in New Zealand young Galaxias
are consumed at certain seasons in large quantities; and, like
whitebait, these fry bear distinct names, different from those of
the adult fish.
Whitebait are caught on the flood-tide from boats moored in from
3 to 5 fathoms of water. The net used is a bag some 20 ft. long,
narrow and small-meshed towards the tail end, the mouth being kept
open in the direction of the advancing tide by a framework 3 or 4 ft.
square. It is placed alongside the boat and sunk to a depth of 4 ft.
below the surface; from time to time the end of the bag is lifted into
the boat, to empty it of its contents. The " schools ' of whitebait
advancing and retiring with the tide for days, and probably for
weeks, have to run the gauntlet of a dozen of these nets, and therefore
get very much thinned in number by the end of the season. When
the view commenced to gain ground that whitebait were largely
young herring, the question arose whether or not the immense
destruction of the young brood caused by this mode of fishing in-
juriously affected the fishery of the mature herring. This perhaps it
does; but, since it has been ascertained that the herring is much more
restricted in its migrations than was formerly believed, and that the
shoals are to a great extent local, the injury, such as it is, must be
local and limited to the particular district in which the fishing for
whitebait is methodically practised. Similar reasoning applies to
sprats. (J. T. C.)
WHITEFIELD, GEORGE (1714-1770), English religious
leader, was born on the i6th of December 1714 at the Bell Inn,
Gloucester, of which his father was landlord. At about twelve
years of age he was sent to the school of St Mary de Crypt,
Gloucester, where he developed some skill in elocution and a
taste for reading plays, a circumstance which probably had
considerable influence on his subsequent career. At the age of
fifteen he was taken from school to assist his mother in the
public-house, and for a year and a half was a common drawer.
He then again returned to school to prepare for the university,
anil in 1733 entered as a servitor at Pembroke College, Oxford,
graduating in 1736. There he came under the influence of the
Methodists (see WESLEY), and entered so enthusiastically into
their practices and habits that he was attacked by a severe
illness, which compelled him to return to his native town. His
enthusiastic piety attracted the notice of Martin Benson, bishop
of Gloucester, who ordained him deacon on the zoth of June
1736. He then began an evangelizing tour in Bath, Bristol
and other towns, his eloquence at once attracting immense
multitudes.
In 1 736 he was invited by Wesley to go out as missionary to
Georgia, and went to London to wait on the trustees. Before
setting sail he preached in some of the principal London churches,
and in order to hear him, crowds assembled at the church doors
long before daybreak. On the 28th of December 1737 he em-
barked for Georgia, which he reached on the 7th of May 1738.
After three months' residence there he returned to England to
receive priest's orders, and to raise contributions for the estab-
lishment of an orphanage. As the clergy did not welcome him
to their pulpits, he began to preach in the open air. At Kings-
wood Hill, Bristol, his addresses to the colliers soon attracted
crowds, and his voice was so clear and powerful that it could
reach 20,000 folk. His fervour and dramatic action held them
spell-bound, and his homely pathos soon broke down all barriers
of resistance. " The first discovery of their being affected," he
says, " was by seeing the white gutters made by their tears, which
plentifully fell down their black cheeks." In 1738 an account of
Whitefield's voyage from Lcndon to Georgia was published with-
out his knowledge. In 1739 he published his Journal from
his arrival in Savannah to his return to London, and also his
Journal from his arrival in London to his departure thence on
his way to Georgia. As his embarkation was further delayed for
ten weeks he published A Continuation of the Rev. Mr Whitefield's
Journal during the Time he was delayed in England by the Embargo.
His unfavourable reception in England by the clergy led him to
make reprisals. To Joseph Trapp's attack on the Methodists he
published in 1739 A Preservative against Unsettled Notions, in
which the clergy of the Church of England were denounced with
some bitterness; he also published shortly afterwards The
Spirit and Doctrine and Lives of our Modern Clergy, and a reply
to a pastoral letter of the bishop cf London In which he had been
attacked. In the same year appeared Sermons on Various
Subjects (2 vols.), the Church Companion, or Sermons on Several
Subjects, and a recommendatory epistle to the Life of Thomas
Halyburton. He again embarked for America in August 1739,
and remained there two years, preaching in all the principal
towns. He left his incumbency of Savannah to a lay delegate
and the commissary's court at Charleston suspended him for
ceremonial irregularities. While there he published Three
Letters from Mr Whitefield, in which he referred to the " mystery
of iniquity " in Tillotson, and asserted that that divine knew no
more of Christ than Mahomet did.
During his absence from England Whitefield found that a
divergence of doctrine from Calvinism had been intrcduced by
Wesley; and notwithstanding Wesley's exhortations to brotherly
kindness and forbearance be withdrew from the Wesleyan
connexion. Thereupon his friends built for him near Wesley's
church a wooden structure, which was named the Moorfields
Tabernacle. A reconciliation between the two great evangelists
was soon effected, but each thenceforth went his own way. In
1741, on the invitation of Ralph and Ebenezer Erskine, he paid
a visit to Scotland, commencing his labours in the Secession
meeting-house, Dunfermline. But, as he refused to limit his
ministrations to one sect, the Seceders and he parted company,
and without their countenance he made a tour through the prin-
cipal towns of Scotland, the authorities of which in most instances
presented him with the freedom of the burgh, in token of their
estimate of the benefits to the community resulting from his
preaching. From Scotland he went to Wales, where on the
1 4th of November he married a widow named James. The
marriage was not a happy one. On his return to London in 1742
he preached to the crowds in Moorfields during the Whitsun
holidays with such effect as to attract nearly all the people
from the shows. After a second visit to Scotland, June-
October 1742 (where at Cambuslang in particular he wielded a
great spiritual influence), and a tour through England and Wales,
1742-1744, he embarked in August 1744 for America, where he
remained till June 1748. On returning to London he found his
congregation at the Tabernacle dispersed; and his circumstances
were so depressed that he was obliged to sell his household
furniture to pay his orphan-house debts. Relief soon came
through his acquaintance with Selina, countess of Huntingdon
(q.v.), who appointed him one of her chaplains.
604
WHITEFISH WHITEHEAD
The remainder of Whitefield's life was spent chiefly in evangel-
izing tours in Great Britain, Ireland and America. It has been
stated that " in the compass of a single week, and that for years,
he spoke in general forty hours, and in very many sixty, and
that to thousands." In 1748 the synods of Glasgow, Perth and
Lothian passed vain resolutions intended to exclude him from
churches; in 1 753 he compiled his hymn-book, and in 1 756 opened
the chapel which still bears his name in Tottenham Court Road.
On his return from America to England for the last time the
change in his appearance forcibly impressed Wesley, who wrote
in his Journal: " He reemed to be an old man, being fairly worn
out in his Master's service, though he had hardly seen fifty years."
When health was failing him he placed himself on what he
called " short allowance," preaching only once every week-day
and thrice on Sunday. In 1769 he returned to America for the
seventh and last time, and arranged for the conversion of his
orphanage into Bethesda College, which was burned down in
1773. He was now affected by a severe asthmatic complaint;
but to those who advised him to take some rest, he answered,
" I had rather wear out than rust out." He died on the 3oth of
September 1770 at Newburyport, Massachusetts, where he had
arrived on the previous evening with the intention of preaching
next day. In accordance with his own desire he was buried
before the pulpit in the Presbyterian church of the town where
he died.
Whitefield's printed works convey a totally inadequate idea of his
oratorical powers, and are all in fact below mediocrity. They ap-
peared in a collected form in 1771-1772 in seven volumes, the last
containing Memoirs of his Life, by Dr John Gillies. His Letters
(!734~I77 O ) were comprised in vols. i., ii. and iii. of his Works and
were also published separately. His Select Works, with a memoir by
J. Smith, appeared in 1850. See Lives by Robert Philip (1837),
L.Tyerman (2 vols., 1876-1877),]. P. Gledstone (1871, newed. 1000),
and W. H. Lecky's History of England, vol. ii.
WHITEFISH, a collective name applied in different countries
to very different kinds of freshwater fishes. The numerous
European species of the Cyprinoid genus Leuciscus are frequently
comprised under the name of " Whitefish," but the term is
employed here for the various species of the Salmonoid genus
Corcgonus. The Coregonus group are somewhat herring-shaped,
silvery salmonids with small, toothless or feebly toothed mouth,
and rather large scales. They are distributed over Europe, Asia
and North America, some species living in the sea, but most
inhabiting clear lakes. The highly esteemed " lavaret " of Savoy,
the " felchen," " kilch," " gangfisch," " palee," " gravenche,"
" fera " or Switzerland and southern Germany, the " sik " of
Sweden, belong to this genus, which is represented in British
and Irish waters by the houting (C. oxyrhynchus) , occasionally
found in the North Sea, the gwyniad or pawan (C. clupeoides)
of Loch Lomond, Haweswater, Ullswater and Bala, the vendace
(C. vandesius) of Lochmaben, and its newly described ally
(C. gracilior) from Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite lakes in
Cumberland. About eight species are distinguished from the
northern parts of North America. The Corcgonus are mostly
of small size, few of them attaining a length of 18 in. Secondary
nuptial sexual characters are by no means so well marked as in
Salmo, but pearl-like excrescences may appear on the scales
during the breeding season, and are more prominent in males
than in females.
WHITEHALL, a village of Washington county, New York,
U.S.A., in a township of the same name on the Poultney river
and the Champlain Canal, at the head of Lake Champlain,
and 78 m. by rail N. by E. of Albany. Pop. (1890) 4434; (19)
4377, of whom 547 were foreign-born; (1905) 4148,; (191) 49 1 ?-
Whitehall is served by the Delaware & Hudson railway,
and is the N. terminus of the new barge-canal system of New
York state. It is situated in a narrow valley between two hills
called West Mountain and Skene's Mountain, and Wood Creek
flows through the village and empties into the lake with a fall,
from. which valuable water-power is derived; there are various
manufactures, and the village owns and operates the water works.
In 1759, to strengthen the British hold on Canada, a large tract
of land at the S. end of Lake Champlain was granted to Colonel
Philip Skene (1725-1810), who fought at Ticonderoga in 1758
and in 1759, and who established here in 1761 a settlement of
about thirty families which he called Skenesborough and which
was patented in 1765. Skene was a Loyalist, and in May 1775
Skenesborough was seized by a party of American volunteers.
In Burgoyne's expedition (1777) Skene and his son, Andrew
Philip Skene (1753-1826), served as guides, and Skenesborough
was recovered by the British after most of it had been burned by
the Americans. At the close of the war Skene's estate was
confiscated and in 1786 the place was named Whitehall. In the
War of 1812 Whitehall was fortified and was a base of supplies
for American operations against Canada. It was incorporated
as a village in 1806.
WHITEHAVEN, a municipal and parliamentary borough,
seaport and market town of Cumberland, England, 41 m.
S.W. of Carlisle. Pop. (1901) 19,324. It lies mainly in a valley
opening upon the Irish Sea, with high ground to north and south,
and is served by the London & North- Western, the Cockermouth,
Keswick & Penrith and the Furness railways. The harbour
is protected by two main piers, of which the western is a fine
structure by Sir John Rennie, and divided into four parts by
others; it has a wet dock and extensive quayage. Regular
passenger communications are maintained with the Isle of Man.
The exports are principally coal, pig iron and ore, steel and stone.
The port was made subordinate to that of Maryport in 1892.
There are collieries near the town, the workings extending
beneath the sea; there are also iron mines and works, engineering
works, shipbuilding yards, breweries, tanneries, stone quarries,
brick and earthenware works, and other industrial establish-
ments in and near the town. The parliamentary borough
returns one member. The municipal borough is under a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area 1810 acres.
Whitehaven (Witofthaven) was an insignificant possession of
the priory of St Bee which became crown property at the dis-
solution of the religious houses. It was acquired before 1644
by relatives of the earl of Lonsdale, who secured the prosperity
of the town by working the coal-mines. From 1708 the harbour
was governed by twenty-one trustees, whose power was extended
and municipalized by frequent legislation, until, in 1885, they
were incorporated. In 1894 this government by incorporated
trustees gave place to that of a municipal corporation created by
charter in that year. The harbour was entrusted to fifteen
commissioners. Since the Reform Act of 1832 Whitehaven has
returned one representative to parliament. A weekly market
and yearly fairs were granted to Sir John Lowther in 1660; two
fairs were held in 1888; and the market days are now Tuesday,
Thursday and Saturday. Whitehaven coal was sent chiefly to
Ireland in the i8th century. In the first half of the i9th century
other exports were lime, freestone, and grain; West Indian,
American and Baltic produce, Irish flax and Welsh pig iron
were imported, and shipbuilding was a growing indust ry. Paul
Jones, the notorious buccaneer, served his apprenticeship at the
port, which in 1778 he successfully raided, burning three vessels.
WHITEHEAD, WILLIAM (1715-1785), English poet-laureate,
son of a baker, was born at Cambridge, and baptized on the
1 2th of February 1715. His father had extravagant tastes,
and spent large sums in ornamenting a piece of land near Grant-
chester, afterwards known as " Whitehead's Folly." William
was his second son, and through the patronage of Henry Bromley,
afterwards Lord Montfort, was admitted to Winchester College.
In 1735 he entered Clare Hall, Cambridge, as a sizar, and bec;;rrr
a fellow in 1742. At Cambridge Whitehead published an epistle
" On the Danger of writing Verse " * and some other poems,
notably an heroic epistle, Ann Boleyn to Henry the Eighth (1743^,
and a didactic Essay an Ridicule (1743). In 1745 he became
tutor to Viscount Villiers, son of the earl of Jersey, and took up
his residence in London. He produced two tragedies: The
Roman Father (Drury Lane, 24th of February 1750), and Creusa,
Queen of Athens (Drury Lane, zoth of April 1754). The plots
are based respectively on the Horace of Corneille, and the Ion
of Euripides. In June 1754 he went abroad with Lord Villiers,
1 Printed in A Collection of Poems by several Hands (vol. ii., 1748)-
WHITE HORSE, VALE OF--WHITELEY
605
and his companion Viscount Nuneham, son of Earl Harcourt,
only returning to England in the autumn of 1756. In 1757
he was appointed poet-laureate in succession to Gibber, and
proceeded to write annual effusions in the royal honour. That
he was not altogether happy in his position, which was dis-
credited by the fierce attacks made on his predecessor, Colley
Gibber, appears from " A Pathetic Apology for all Laureates,
past, present and to come." Charles Churchill attacked him in
1762, in the third book of The Ghost, as the heir of Dullness and
Method. In the same year Whitehead produced his most
successful work in the comedy of the School for Lovers, produced
at Drury Lane on the loth of February. This success encouraged
David Garrick to make him his reader of plays. Whitehead's
farce, The Trip to Scotland, was performed on the 6th of January
1770. He collected his Plays and Poems in 1774. He had for
some time, after his return from the Continent, resided in the
houses of his patrons, but from 1769 he lived in London, where
he died on the I4th of April 1785. Beside the works already
mentioned, Whitehead wrote a burlesque poem, The Sweepers,
a number of verse contes, of which " Variety " and " The Goat's
Beard " are good examples, and much occasional and official
verse.
See memoirs by his friend William Mason, prefixed to a complete
edition of his poems (York, 1788). His plays are printed in Bell's
British Theatre (vols. 3, 7, 20) and other collections, and his poems
appear in Chalmers's Works of the English Poets (vol. 17) and similar
rompilations.
WHITE HORSE, VALE OF, the name of the valley of the
Ock, a stream which joins the Thames from the west at Abingdon
in Berkshire, England. The vale is flat and well wooded, its
green meadows and foliage contrasting richly with the bald
summits of the White Horse Hills, which flank it on the south.
On the north a lower ridge separates it from the upper Thames
valley; but local usage sometimes extends the vale to cover all
the ground between the Cotteswolds (on the north) and the
White Horse Hills. According to the geographical definition,
however, the vale is from 2 to 5 m. wide, and the distance by
road from Abingdon to Shrivenham at its head is 18 m. Wantage
is the only town in the heart of the vale, lying in a sheltered
hollow at the foot of the hills, along which, moreover, villages are
more numerous than elsewhere in the vale. Towards the west,
above Uffington, the hills reach a culminating point of 856 ft.
in White Horse Hill. In its northern flank, just below the summit,
a gigantic figure of a horse is cut, the turf being removed to show
the white chalky soil beneath. This figure gives name to the hill,
the range and the vale. It is 374 ft. long and of the rudest
outline, the neck, body and tail varying little in width. Its
origin is unknown. Tradition asserted it to be the monument of
a victory over the Danes by King Alfred, who was born at
Wantage; but the site of the battle, that of Ashdown (871),
has been variously located. Moreover, the figure, with others of
a similar character elsewhere in England, is considered to be
of a far higher antiquity, dating even from before the Roman
occupation. Many ancient remains occur in the vicinity of the
Horse. On the summit of the hill there is an extensive and well-
preserved circular camp, apparently used by the Romans, but
of earlier origin. It is named Uffington Castle from the village
in the vale below. Within a short distance arc Hardwell Castle,
a square work, and, on the southern slope of the hills near Ash-
down Park, a small camp traditionally called Alfred's. A smooth,
steep gully on the north flank of White Horse Hill is called the
Manger, and to the west of it rises a bald mound named Dragon's
Hill, the traditional scene of St George's victory over the dragon,
the blood of which made the ground bare of grass for ever. But
the name, properly Pendragon, is a Celtic form signifiying " chief
of kings," and may point to an early place of burial. To the west
of White Horse Hill lies a cromlech called Wayland Smith's Cave,
said to be the home of a smith who was never seen, but shod the
horses of travellers if they were left at the place with payment.
The legend is elaborated, and the smith appears as a character,
in Sir Walter Scott's novel Kenilworlh. The White Horse
itself has been carefully cleared of vegetation from time to time,
and the process, known as the " Scouring of the White Horse,"
was formerly made the occasion of a festival. Sports of all kinds
were held, and keen rivalry was maintained, not only between
the inhabitants of the local villages, but between local champions
and those from distant parts of England. The first of such
festivals known took place in 1755, and they died out only
subsequently to 1857. A grassy track represents the ancient
road or Ridge Way along the crest of the hills continuing Icknicld
Street, from the Chiltern Hills to the north-east, across the
Thames; and other earthworks in addition to those near the
White Horse overlook the vale, such as Letcombe Castle above
Wantage. At the foot of the hills not far east of the Horse is
preserved the so-called Blowing Stone, a mass of sandstone
pierced with holes in such a way that when blown like a trumpet
a loud note is produced. It is believed that in the earliest times
the stone served the purpose of a bugle. Several of the village
churches in the vale are of interest, notably the fine Early
English cruciform building at Uffington. The length of the vale
is traversed by the main line of the Great Western railway,
between Didcot and Swindon.
See Thomas Hughes, The Scouring of the White Horse (1859).
WHITEING, RICHARD (1840- ), English author and
journalist, was born in London on the 27th of July 1840, the son
of a civil servant. He was a pupil of Benjamin Wyon, medallist
and seal-engraver, and made his journalistic debut by a series
of papers in the Evening Star in 1866, printed separately in the
next year as Mr Sprouts, His Opinions. He became leader-
writer and correspondent on the Morning Star, and was subse-
quently on the staff of the Manchester Guardian, the New York
World, and for many years the Daily News, resigning from the
last-named paper in 1899. His novel The Democracy (3 vols.,
1876) was published under the pseudonym of Whyte Thorne.
His remarkable story The Island (1888) attracted little attention
until, years afterwards, its successor, No. 5 John Street (1899),
made him famous; the earlier novel was then republished.
Later works were The Yellow Van (1903), Ring in the New (1906),
All Moonshine (1907).
WHITELEY, WILLIAM (1831-1907), English "Universal
Provider," was born at Agbrigg, near Wakefield, Yorkshire, on
the 29th of September 1831, the son of a corn-factor. At the age
of sixteen he was apprenticed to a firm of drapers at Wakefield.
In 1851 he made his first visit to London to see the Great Exhibi-
tion, and was so impressed with the size and activity of the
metropolis that he determined to settle there as soon as his
apprenticeship was over. A year later he obtained a subordinate
position in a draper's establishment in the city, and after studying
the drapery trade in this and other London establishments for
ten years, in 1863 himself opened a small shop for the sale of
fancy drapery in Westbourne Grove, Bayswater. His capital
amounted to about 700, which he had saved from his salaries
and commissions, and he at first employed two young girls and
an errand boy. Friends in the trade had assured him that
Westbourne Grove was one of the two worst streets in London
for his business, but Whiteley had noted the number and quality
of the people who passed the premises every afternoon, and
relied on his own judgment. Events justified his confidence, and
within a year he was employing fifteen hands. He made a con-
sistent practice of marking all goods in plain figures and of
"dressing" his shop-window attractively, both unusual features
in the retail trading of the time, and to this, coupled with the
fact that he was satisfied with small profits, he largely attributed
a success in which his own genius for organization and energy
played a conspicuous part. In 1866 Whiteley added general
drapery to his other business, opening by degrees shop after
shop and department after department, till he was finally
enabled to call himself the " Universal Provider," and boast
that there was nothing which his stores could not supply.
" Whiteley's was, in fact, the first great instance of a large
general goods store in London, held under one man's control.
In 1899 the business, of which the profits then averaged over
100,000 per annum, was turned into a limited liability company,
Whiteley retaining the bulk of the shares. On the 23rd of
January 1907 he was shot dead, after an interview in his private
6o6
WHITELOCKE, SIR J. WHITELOCKE, B.
office, by Horace George Rayner, who claimed (but, as was proved,
wrongiy) to be his illegitimate son and who had been refused
pecuniary assistance. Rayner was found guilty of murder, and
sentenced to be hanged; but the home secretary (Mr Herbert
Gladstone), in response to an agitation for his reprieve,commuted
the sentence to penal servitude for life.
WHITELOCKE, SIR JAMES (1570-1632), English judge, son
of Richard Whitelocke, a London merchant, was born on the 28th
of November 1570. Educated at Merchant Taylors' School,
London, and at St John's College, Oxford, he became a fellow
of his college and a barrister. He was then engaged in managing
the estates belonging to St John's College, Eton College and
Westminster College, before he became recorder of Woodstock
and member of parliament for the borough in 1610. In 1620
Whitelocke was made chief justice of the court of session of the
county palatine of Chester, and was knighted; in 1624 he was
appointed justice of the court of king's bench. He died at
Fawley Court, near Reading, an estate which he had bought in
1616, on the 22nd of June 1632. His wife, Elizabeth, was a
daughter of Edward Bulstrode of Hedgerley Bulstrode, Bucking-
hamshire, and his son was Bulstrode Whitelocke.
Sir James was greatly interested in antiquarian studies, and was
the author of several papers which are printed in T. Hearne's Collec-
tion of Discourses (1771); his journal, or Liber famelicus, was edited
by John Bruce and published by the Camden Society in 1858.
Whitelocke's elder brother, EDMUND WHITELOCKE (1565-1608),
was a soldier in France and later a courtier in England. He was
imprisoned because he was suspected of being concerned in the
Gunpowder Plot, and although he was most probably innocent,
he remained for some time in the Tower of London.
The soldier JOHN WHITELOCKE (1757-1833) was doubtless a
descendant of Sir James Whitelocke. He entered the army in
1778 and served in Jamaica and in San Domingo. In 1805 he
was made a lieutenant-general and inspector-general of recruit-
ing, and in 1807 he was appointed to command an expedition
sent to recover Buenos Aires from the Spaniards. An attack on
the city was stubbornly resisted, and then Whitelocke concluded
an arrangement with the opposing general by which he aban-
doned the undertaking. This proceeding was regarded with
great disfavour both by the soldiers and others in South America
and in England, and its author was brought before a court-
martial in 1808. On all the charges except one he was found
guilty and he was dismissed from the service. He lived in retire-
ment until his death on the 23rd of October 1833.
WHITELOCKE, BULSTRODE (1605-1675), English lawyer
and parliamentarian, eldest son of Sir James Whitelocke, was
baptized on the igth of August 1605, and educated at Merchant
Taylors' School and at St John's College, Oxford, where he
matriculated on the 8th of December 1620. He left Oxford,
without a degree, for the Middle Temple, and was called to the
bar in 1626 and chosen treasurer in 1628. He was fond of field
sports and of music, and in 1633 he had charge of the music in
the great masque performed by the inns of court before the king
and queen. Meanwhile he had been elected for Stafford in the
parliament of 1626 and had been appointed recorder of Abingdon
and Henley. In 1640 he was chosen member for Great Marlow
in the Long Parliament. He took a prominent part in the
proceedings against Strafford, was chairman of the committee
of management, and had charge of articles XIX.-XXIV. of the
impeachment. He drew up the bill for making parliaments
indissoluble except by their own consent, and supported the
Grand Remonstrance and the action taken in the Commons
against the illegal canons; on the militia question, however, he
advocated a joint control by king and parliament. On the out-
break of the Great Rebellion he took the side of the parliament,
using his influence in the country as deputy-lieutenant to prevent
the king's raising troops in Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire.
He was sent to the king at Oxford both in 1643 ar> d '644 to
negotiate terms, and the secret communications with Charles
on the latter occasion were the foundation of a charge of treason
brought against Whitelocke and Denzil Holies (q.v.) later.
He was again one of the commissioners at Uxbridge in 1645.
Nevertheless he opposed the policy of Holies and the peace
party and the proposed disbanding of the army in 1647, and
though one of the lay members of the assembly of divines,
repudiated the claims of divine authority put forward by the
Presbyterians for their church, and approved of religious toler-
ance. He thus gravitated more towards Cromweil and the
army party, but he took no part either in the disputes between
the army and the parliament or in the trial of the king. On the
establishment of the Commonwealth, though out of sympathy
with the government, he was nominated to the council of state
and a commissioner of the new Great Seal. He urged Cromwell
after the battle of Worcester and again in 1652 to recall the royal
family, while in 1653 he disapproved of the expulsion of the Long
Parliament and was especially marked out for attack by Cromwell
in his speech on that occasion. Later in the autumn, and perhaps
in consequence, Whitelocke was despatched on a mission to
Christina, queen of Sweden, to conclude a treaty of alliance and
assure the freedom of the Sound. On his return he resumed his
office as commissioner of the Great Seal, was appointed a com-
missioner of the treasury with a salary of 1000, and was returned
to the parliament of 1654 for each of the four constituencies of
Bedford, Exeter, Oxford and Buckinghamshire, electing to sit
for the latter constituency.
Whitelocke was a learned and a sound lawyer. He had hitherto
shown himself not unfavourable to reform, having supported
the bill introducing the use of English into legal proceedings,
having drafted a new treason law, and set on foot some altera-
tions in chancery procedure. A tract advocating the registering
of title-deeds is attributed to him. But he opposed the revolu-
tionary innovations dictated by ignorant and popular prejudices.
He defeated the strange bill which sought to exclude lawyers
from parliament ; and to the sweeping and ill-considered changes
in the court of chancery proposed by Cromwell and the council
he offered an unbending and honourable resistance, being dis-
missed in consequence, together with his colleague Widdringlon,
on the 6th of June 1655 from his commissionership of the Great
Seal (see LENTHALL, WILLIAM). He still, however, remained on
good terms with Cromwell, by whom he was respected; he took
part in public business, acted as Cromwell's adviser on foreign
affairs, negotiated the treaty with Sweden of 1656, and, elected
again to the parliament of the same year as member for Bucking-
hamshire, was chairman of the committee which conferred with
Cromwell on the subject of the Petition and Advice and urged
the protector to assume the title of king. In December 1657 he
became a member of the new House of Lords. On Richard
Cromwell's accession he was reappointed a commissioner of the
Great Seal, and had considerable influence during the former's
short tenure of power. He returned to his place in the Long
Parliament on its recall, was appointed a member of the council
of state on the i4th of May 1659, and became president in
August; and subsequently, on the fresh expulsion of the Long
Parliament, he was included in the committee of safety which
superseded the council. He again received the Great Seal into
his keeping on the ist of November. During the period which
immediately preceded the Restoration he endeavoured to oppose
Monk's schemes, and desired Fleetwood to forestall him and make
terms with Charles, but in vain.
On the failure of his plans he retired to the country and awaited
events. Whitelocke's career, however, had been marked by
moderation and good sense throughout. The necessity of
carrying on the government of the country somehow or other
had been the chief motive of his adherence to Cromwell rather
than any sympathy for a republic or a military dictatorship,
and his advice to Cromwell to accept the title of king was doubt-
less tendered with the object of giving the administration greater
stability and of protecting its adherents under the Statute of
Henry VII. Nor had he shown himself unduly ambitious or self-
seeking in the pursuit of office, and he had proved himself ready
to sacrifice high place to the claims of professional honour and
duty. These considerations were not without weight with his
contemporaries at the Restoration. Accordingly Whitelocke
was not excepted from the Act of Indemnity, and after the
WHITE MOUNTAINS WHITESIDE
607
payment of various sums to the king and others he was allowed to
retain the bulk of his property. He lived henceforth in seclusion
at Chilton in Wiltshire, dying on the 28th of July 1675.
Whitelocke married (i) Rebecca, daughter of Thomas Bennet,
(2) Frances, daughter of Lord Willoughby of Parham, and (3) Mary
Carleton, widow of Rowland Wilson, and left children by each of
his wives. He was the author of Memorials of the English affairs
from the beginning of the reign of Charles /...., published 1682
and reprinted, a work which has obtained greater authority than it
deserves, being largely a compilation from various sources, composed
after the events and abounding in errors. His work of greatest value,
his Annals, still remains in MS. in Lord Bute's and Lord de la Warr's
collections (Hist. Brit. Comm. III. Rep. pp. 202, 217; also Egerton
MSS. Brit. Mus. 997 , add. MSS. 4992, 4994); his Journal of the
Swedish Embassy . . . was published 1772 and re-edited by Henry
Reeve in 1885 (add. MSS. 4902, 4991 and 4995 and Hist. MSS.
Comm. If I. Rep. 190, 217); Notes on the King's Writ for choosing
Members of Parliament . . . were published 1766 (see also add. MSS.
4993) ; Memorials of English Affairs from the supposed expedition of
Bruce to this Island to the end of the Reign of James I., were published
1709 ; Essays Ecclesiastical and Civil (1706) ; Quench not the Spirit . . .
(1711); some theological treatises remain in MS., and several others
are attributed to him.
See the article by C. H. Firth in the Diet Nat. Biog. with authorities
there quoted; Memoirs of B. Whitelccke by R. H. Whitelocke
(i8fx>); H. Reeve's edition of the Swedish Embassy; Foss's Judges
of England; Eng. Hist. Rev. xvi. 737; Wood's Ath. Oxon. iii. 1042.
WHITE MOUNTAINS, the portion of the Appalachian Moun-
tain system which traverses New Hampshire, U.S.A., between
the Androscoggin and Upper Ammonoosuc rivers on the north
and the lake country on the south. They cover an area of about
1300 sq. m., are composed of somewhat homogeneous granite
rocks, and represent the remnants of long-continued erosion of a
region formerly greatly elevated. From a plateau which has been
cut deep by rivers and streams they rise to rounded summits often
noble in outline and of greater elevation than elsewhere in the
Appalachian system, except in North Carolina, and culminate
in Mount Washington, 6293 ft. above the sea. Thirteen other
summits have an elevation exceeding 5000 ft. The scenery is so
beautiful and varied that the region has long been popular as a
summer resort. It is traversed by railways, one of which ascends
Mount Washington, and contains numerous villages and fine
hotels.
See the article NEW_ HAMPSHIRE; the Guidebook (Part i., Boston,
1907) published by the Appalachian Mountain Club; and Appa-
lachia (ibid., 1876 seq.), a periodical published by the same club.
WHITE PLAINS, a village and the county-seat of Westchester
county, New York, U.S.A., about 12 m. N. of New York City
on the Bronx river, about midway between the Hudson river and
Long Island Sound. Pop. (1890) 4508; (1900) 7899, of whom
1679 were foreign-born and 269 were negroes; (1910 census)
26,425. The village is served by the New York Central &
Hudson River railway, and is connected by electric lines with
New York City, and with Yonkers, Mount Vernon, New Rochelle,
Tarrytown and Mamaroneck. White Plains is a beautiful
residential suburb stretching over a considerable area of rolling
tree-clad hills and picturesque stretches of meadow lands in the
valley of the Bronx and Mamaroneck rivers. Near the village are
Silver, Kensico and Rye lakes. Among the public buildings and
the institutions here are a fine Public Library building, a town
hall, an armoury, the Westchester county court house and
county jail, several private schools, the White Plains Hospital,
St Agnes Hospital, the Presbyterian Convalescents' Sanitarium,
the New York Orthopaedic Hospital, Muldoon's Hygienic In-
stitute and Bloomingdale Hospital for the Insane (1821). In
White Plains are the grounds of the Century Country Club, the
Knollwood Golf and Country Club and the Westchester County
Fair Association. There are some prosperous farms and market
gardens.
When the Dutch first settled Manhattan, the central portion
of what is now Westchester county was the granary for part of
the Mahican tribe; it was called Quarropas by the Indians. To
the early traders here the region was known as " the White
Plains " from the groves of white balsam which covered it. The
first organized settlement (November 1683) was by a party of
Connecticut Puritans, who had settled at Rye in what was then
disputed territory between New York and Connecticut; they
moved westward in a body and took up lands the title to which
they bought from the Indians. The heirs of John Richbell claimed
that White Plains was comprised in a tract extending N. from
the Mamaroneck river granted to him by the Dutch and con-
firmed by the English, and the controversy between these heirs
and the settlers from Rye was only settled in 1722 by the grant
to Joseph Budd and sixteen other settlers of a royal patent
under which the freeholders chose their local officers and managed
their own affairs. In 1759 White Plains succeeded Westchester
as the county-seat of Westchester county. In the early summer
of 1776 the Third Provincial Congress, having adjourned from
New York City, met here in the old court house on South Broad-
way the site is now occupied by an armoury and is marked by
a monument (1910). From the steps of this building the Declara-
tion of Independence, brought from Philadelphia, was officially
read for the first time in New York on the nth of July 1776.
Here Congress adopted formally the name " Convention of
Representatives of the State of New York," and from this dates
the existence of New York as a state. After the British under
Lord Howe had effected a landing at Throg's Neck on Long
Island Sound, Washington withdrew (October) all his forces from
the North end of Manhattan Island except the garrison of Fort
Washington, and (2ist October) concentrated his army near
White Plains. His right rested on the Bronx river here, and
there was a small force in rude earthworks on Chatterton's Hill
on the W. bank. This point Howe attacked (October 28th),
his troops advancing in two columns 4000 strong, the British
under General Alexander Leslie, the Hessians under Colonel
Johann Gottlieb Rail. General Alexander McDougall, in com-
mand of the American right wing, reinforced the troops on the
hill, making the number of the defenders about 1600. The
attack was stubbornly resisted for some time, after which the
Americans retreated in good order across the river. The British
had sustained such a severe loss (about 250) that no attempt
was made to follow the Americans, who carried their dead and
wounded, some 125 in number, away with them. Washington's
forces retired three days later to North Castle township, where
they occupied a stronger position. The old Miller House, which
still stands in North White Plains, was occupied at intervals
by Washington as his headquarters before the battle and again
in the summer of 1778. In 1779 a Continental force under Aaron
Burr was stationed here for some months, and in 1781 (July)
White Plains was occupied by parts of Lauzun's and Rocham-
beau's French force. In 1866 White Plains received a village
charter, which it still retains in spite of its large population.
See F. Shonnard and W. W. Spooner, History of Westchester County
(N.Y., 1900), and J. T. Scharf, History of Westchester County (2 vols.,
ibid., 1886).
WHITESIDE, JAMES (1804-1876), Irish judge, son of William
Whiteside, a clergyman of the Church of Ireland, was bom on
the 1 2th of August 1804, and was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, being called to the Irish bar in 1830. He very rapidly
acquired a large practice, and after taking silk in 1842 he gained
a reputation for forensic oratory surpassing that of all his con-
temporaries, and rivalling that of his most famous predecessors
of the i8th century. He defended Daniel O'Connell in the state
trial of 1843, and William Smith O'Brien in 1848; and his
greatest triumph was in the Yelverton case in 1861. He was
elected member for Enniskillen in 1851, and in 1859 became
member for Dublin University. In parliament he was no less
successful as a speaker than at the bar, and in 1852 was appointed
solicitor-general for Ireland in the first administration of the
earl of Derby, becoming attorney-general in 1858, and again in
1866. In the same year he was appointed chief justice of the
Queen's Bench; and he died on the 25th of November
1876. Whiteside was a man of handsome presence, attractive
personality and cultivated tastes. In 1848, after a visit to Italy,
he published Italy in the Nineteenth Century; and in 1870 he
collected and republished some papers contributed many years
before to periodicals, under the title Early Sketches of Eminent
Persons. In 1833 Whiteside married Rosetta, daughter of
6o8
WHITETHROAT WHITGIFT
William Napier, and sister of Sir Joseph Napier (1804-1882),
lord chancellor of Ireland.
See J. R. O'Flanagan, The Irish Bar (London. 1879).
WHITETHROAT, a name commonly given to two species of
little birds, one of which, the Molacitta sylvia of Linnaeus and
Sylvia rufa or 5. cinerea of recent authors, is regarded as the type,
not only of the genus Sylvia, but of the sub-family of thrushes
known as Sylviinae (cf. WARBLER). Very widely spread over
Great Britain, in some places tolerably common, and by its
gesticulations and song rather conspicuous, it is one of those birds
which have gained a familiar nickname, and " peggy whitethroat "
is the anthropomorphic appellation of schoolboys and milkmaids,
though it shares " nettle-creeper " and other homely names
with perhaps more than one congener, while to the writers and
readers of books it is by way of distinction the greater white-
throat. The lesser whitethroat, Sylvia curruca, is both in habits
and plumage a much less sightly bird: the predominant reddish
brown of the upper surface, and especially the rufous edging of
the wing-feathers, that are so distinctive of its larger congener,
are wanting, and the whole plumage above is of a smoky-grey,
while the bird in its movements is never obtrusive, and it rather
shuns than courts observation. The nests of each of these
species are very pretty works of art, firmly built of bents or other
plant-stalks, and usually lined with horsehair; but the sides
and bottom are often so finely woven as to be like open basket-
work, and the eggs, splashed, spotted or streaked with olive-
brown, are frequently visible from beneath through the interstices
of the fabric. This style of nest-building seems to be common
to all the species of the genus Sylvia, as now restricted, and in
many districts has obtained for the builders the name of " hay-
jack," quite without reference to the kind of bird which puts
the nests together, and thus is also applied to the blackcap,
S. atricapilla, and the garden- warbler this last being merely a
book-name S. salicaria (S. hortensis of some writers). The
former of these deserves mention as one of the sweetest songsters
of Great Britain. The name blackcap is applicable only to the
cock bird, who further differs from his brown-capped mate by
the purity of his ashy-grey upper plumage; but, notwithstanding
the marked sexual difference in appearance, he takes on himself
a considerable share of the duties of incubation. All these four
birds, as a rule, leave Great Britain at the end of summer to
winter in the south. Two other species, one certainly belonging
to the same genus, 5. orphea, and the other, 5. nisoria, a some-
what aberrant form, have occurred two or three times in Great
Britain. The curious Dartford warbler of English writers,
Sylvia undata, is on many accounts a very interesting bird, for
it is one of the few of its family that winter in England a fact
the more remarkable when it is known to be migratory in most
parts of the continent of Europe. Its distribution in England is
very local, and chiefly confined to the southern counties. It is
a pretty little dark-coloured bird, which here and there may be
seen on furze-grown heaths from Kent to Cornwall. For a
species with wings so feebly formed it has a wide range, inhabiting
nearly all the countries of the Mediterranean seaboard, from
Palestine to the Strait of Gibraltar, and thence along the west
coast of Europe to the English Channel; but everywhere else
it seems to be very local.
This may be the most convenient place for noticing the small
group of warblers belonging to the well-marked genus Hypolais,
which, though in general appearance and certain habits resembling
the Phylloscopi (cf. [willow] WREN), would seem usually to have little
to do with those birds, and to be rather allied to the Sylviinae.
They have a remarkably loud song, and in consequence are highly
valued on the continent of Europe, where two species at least spend
the summer. One of them, H. icterina, has occurred more than once
in the British Islands, and their absence as regular visitors is to be
regretted. Among the minor characteristics of this littte group is one
afforded by their eggs, which are of a deeper or paler brownish pink,
spotted with purplish black. Their nests are beautiful structures,
combining warmth with lightness in a way that cannot be fully
appreciated by any description. (A. N.)
WHITFIELD, JOHN CLARKE (1770-1836), English organist
and composer, was born at Gloucester on the I3th of December
1770, and educated at Oxford under Dr Philip Hayes. In 1789
he was appointed organist of the parish church at Ludlow.
Four years later he took the degree of Mus. Bac. at Cambridge,
and in 1795 he was chosen organist of Armagh cathedral, whenc
he removed in the same year to Dublin, with the appointments
of organist and master of the children at St Patrick's cathedral
and Christchurch. Driven from Ireland by the rebellion of 1798,
he accepted the post of organist at Trinity and St John's Colleges,
Cambridge, and about the same time assumed the surname of
Whitfield, in addition to that of Clarke, by which he had beer
previously known. He took the degree of Mus. Doc. at Cambridg
in 1799, and in 1810 proceeded to the same grade at Oxford.
In 1820 he was elected organist and master of the chorister
at Hereford cathedral; and on the death of Dr Haig he was
appointed professor of music at Cambridge. Three years after-
wards he resigned these appointments in consequence of
attack of paralysis. He died at Hereford, on the 22nd
February 1836.
Whitfield's compositions were very numerous. Among the
of them are four volumes of anthems, published in 1805. He als_
composed a great number of songs, one of which " Bird of the
Wilderness," written to some well-known verses by James Hogg, the
" Ettrick Shepherd " attained a high degree of popularity. But the
great work of his life was the publication, in a popular and eminently
useful form, of the oratorios of Handel, which he was the first to
present to the public with a complete pianoforte accompaniment.
WHITGIFT, JOHN (c. 1530-1604), English archbishop, was the
eldest son of Henry Whitgift, merchant of Great Grimsby,
Lincolnshire, where he was bom, according to one account in
IS33, but according to a calculation founded on a statement of
his own in 1530. At an early age his education was entrusted
to his uncle, Robert Whitgift, abbot of the neighbouring monas-
tery of Wellow, by whose advice he was afterwards sent to St
Anthony's school, London. In 1549 he matriculated at Queens'
College, Cambridge, and in May 1550 he migrated to Pembroke
Hall, where he had the martyr John Bradford for a tutor. In
May 1555 he became a fellow of Peterhouse. Having taken
orders in 1560, he became in the same year chaplain to Richard
Cox. bishop of Ely, who collated him to the rectory of Teversham,
Cambridgeshire. In 1563 he was appointed Lady Margaret
professor of divinity at Cambridge, and his lectures gave such
satisfaction to the authorities that on the 5th of July 1566 they
considerably augmented his stipend. The following year he was
appointed regius professor of divinity, and also became master
first of Pembroke Hall and then of Trinity. He had a principal
share in compiling the statutes of the university, which passed the
great seal on the 25th of September 1570, and in November
following he was chosen vice-chancellor. Macaulay's description
of Whitgift as " a narrow, mean, tyrannical priest, who gained
power by servility and adulation," is tinged with rhetorical
exaggeration ; but undoubtedly Whitgift's extreme High Church
notions led him to treat the Puritans with exceptional intoler-
ance. In a pulpit controversy with Thomas Cartwright, regard-
ing the constitutions and customs of the Church cf England, he
showed himself Cartwright's inferior in oratorical effectiveness,
but the balance was redressed by the exercise of arbitrary
authority. Whitgift, with other heads of the university, deprived
Cartwright in 1570 of his professorship, and in September 1571
exercised his prerogative as master of Trinity to deprive him of
his fellowship. In June of the same year Whitgift was nominated
dean of Lincoln. In the following year he published An Atiswere
to a Certain Libel intituled an Admonition to the Parliament,
which led to further controversy between the two divines. On
the 24th of March 1577, Whitgift was appointed bishop of
Worcester, and during the absence of Sir Henry Sidney in Ireland
(1577) he acted as vice-president of Wales. In August 1583
he was appointed archbishop of Canterbury, and thus was
largely instrumental in giving its special complexion to the church
of the Reformation. Although he wrote a letter to Queen
Elizabeth remonstrating against the alienation of church pro-
perty, Whitgift always retained her special confidence. In his
policy against the Puritans, and in his vigorous enforcement of
the subscription test, he thoroughly carried out the queen's
policy of religious uniformity. He drew up articles aimed at
WHITHORN WHITMAN, M.
609
nonconforming ministers, and obtained increased powers for the
Court of High Commission. In 1 586 he became a privy councillor.
His action gave rise to the Marprelate tracts, in which the bishops
and clergy were bitterly attacked. Through Whitgift's vigilance
the printers of the tracts were, however, discovered and punished ;
and in order more effectually to check the publication of such
opinions he got a law passed in 1593 making Puritanism an
offence against the statute law. In the controversy between
Walter Travers and Richard Hooker he interposed by prohibiting
the preaching cf the former; and he moreover presented Hooker
with the rectory of Boscombe in Wiltshire, in order to afford him
more leisure to complete his Ecclesiastical Polity, a work which,
however, cannot be said to represent either Whitgift's theological
or his ecclesiastical standpoint. In 1595 he, in conjunction with
the bishop of London and other prelates, drew up the Calvinistic
instrument known as the Lambeth Articles, which were not
accepted by the church. Whitgift attended Elizabeth on her
deathbed, and crowned James I. He was present at the Hampton
Court Conference in January 1604, and died at Lambeth on the
29th of the following February. He was buried in the church of
Croydon, and his monument there with his recumbent effigy
was in great part destroyed in the fire by which the church was
burnt down in 1867.
Whitgift is described by his biographer, Sir G. Faule, as of " middle
stature, strong and well shaped, of a grave countenance and brown
complexion, black hair and eyes, his beard neither long nor thick."
He was noted for his hospitality, and was somewhat ostentatious in
his habits, sometimes visiting Canterbury and other towns attended
by a retinue of 800 horsemen. He left several unpublished works,
which are included among the MSS. Angliae. Many of his letters,
articles, injunctions, &c. are calendared in the published volumes of
the " State Paper " series of the reign of Elizabeth. His Collected
Works, edited for the Parker Society by John Ayre (3 vols.,Cambridge,
1851 1853), include, besides the controversial tracts already alluded
to, two sermons published during his lifetime, a selection from his
letters to Cecil and others, and some portions of his unpublished MSS.
A Life of Whitgift by Sir G. Paule appeared in 1612, 2nd ed. 1649.
1 1 was embodied by John Stry pe in his Life and Acts of Whitgift (1718).
There is also a life in C. Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Biography (1810),
W. F. Hook's Archbishops of Canterbury (1875), and vol. i. of Whit-
gift's Collected Works. See a\soC.H. Cooper's AthenaeCantabrigienses.
WHITHORN, a royal burgh of Wigtownshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 1118. It is situated near the southern extremity
of the peninsula of Machers, 12 J m. S. of Wigtown by railway.
The town consists of one long street running north and south,
in which the town-hall is situated. It is famous for its associa-
tions with St Ninian or Ringan, the first Christian missionary
to Scotland. He landed at the Isle of Whithorn, a small pro-
montory about 3! m. to the S.E. where he built (397) a church
of stone and lime, which, out of contrast with the dark mud and
wattle huts of the natives, was called Candida Casa, the White
House (Anglo-Saxon, Hwit <ern, Whitheme or Whithorn). This
he dedicated to his master St Martin of Tours. Ninian died
probably in 432 and was buried in the church. A hundred years
later the Magnum Monasterium, or monastery of Rosnat, was
founded at Whithorn, and became a noted home of learning
and, in the 8th century, the seat of the bishopric of Galloway.
It was succeeded in the I2th century by St Ninian's Priory, built
for Premonstratensian monks by Fergus " King " of Galloway,
of which only the chancel (used as the parish church till 1822)
with a richly decorated late Norman doorway, and fragments
of the lady chapel, vaults, cellars, buttresses and tombs remain.
The priory church was the cathedral church of the see till the
Reformation, when it fell into gradual decay. In Roman times
Whithorn belonged to the Novantae, and William Camden, the
antiquary, identified it with the Leukopibia of Ptolemy. It
was made a royal burgh by Robert Bruce.
WHITING, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the
S.W. shore of Lake Michigan, about 10 m. S.E. of Chicago.
Pop. (1890) 1408; (1000) 3983 (1597 foreign-born); (1910) 6587.
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern, the Pennsylvania, the Chicago, Indiana & Southern
and (for freight only) the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern, the
Chicago Terminal Transfer, and the Indiana Harbour Belt rail-
ways; and is connected with Chicago and with the surrounding
xxvrn. 20
towns by an electric line. The city has a Carnegie library and
a public park. Manual training, from the fourth to the twelfth
grades, is a feature of the public school system. Whiting adjoins
the cities of Hammond and East Chicago, and is practically a
part of industrial Chicago, from which it is separated only by a
state line. It is a shipping point; the Standard Oil Company
has a large refinery here, and among its manufactures are
asphaltum for street paving, linoleum and men's garments.
Whiting was first settled about 1870, was incorporated as a town
in 1895, and chartered as a city in 1903.
WHITING (Gadus merlangus), a fish of the family Gadidae,
which is abundant on the shores 'of the German Ocean and all
round the coasts of the British Islands; it is distinguished from
the other species of the genus by having from 33 to 35 rays in
the first anal fin, and by lacking the barbel on the chin. The
snout is long, and the upper jaw longer than the lower. A black
spot at the root of the pectoral fin is also very characteristic of
this species, and but rarely absent. The whiting is one of the
most valuable food fishes of northern Europe, and is caught
throughout the year by hook and line and by the trawl. It
is in better condition at the beginning of winter than after the
spawning season, which falls in the months of February and
March. Its usual size is from i to i$ lb, but it may attain to
twice that weight.
WHITLOW, a name applied loosely to any inflammation
involving the pulp of the finger, attended by swelling and
throbbing pain. In the simplest form, which is apt to occur in
sickly children, the inflammation results in a whitish vesicle of
the skin, containing watery or bloody fluid. In all such cases,
where the deeper structures are not implicated, no radical local
treatment is needed, although the illness is an indication for
constitutional treatment. The inflammation is not usually
spoken of as whitlow unless it involves the deeper structures
of the last joint of the finger, in which case it is associated with
intense pain. As the result of a scratch or prick of the finger
septic germs enter theskhtandgiverisetoan acute inflammation,
with throbbing and bursting pain. If the germs do not spread
from that spot, they set up an acute localized attack of erysipelas
which may end in a superficial abscess. More often, however,
they make their way to the periosteum of the last bone of the
finger, and involve it in a devastating inflammation which may
end in death (necrosis) of that bone. Sometimes the germs find
their way into the tendon-sheath, and, spreading into the palm
of the hand, cause a deep abscess with, perhaps, sloughing of
the tendon, and leaving a permanently stiffened finger. In some
cases amputation of the finger is eventually called for. Whitlow
is especially apt to occur in people who are out of health, as in
them the micro-organisms of the disease meet with less resistance.
So soon, therefore, as the acute stage of the disease is over, tonic
treatment, with quinine and iron, is needed. The local treatment
of whitlow demands a free incision into the area hi which the
germs are undergoing cultivation, and the sooner that this
is done the better. It is wrong to wait for an abscess to be
formed. A prompt incision may actually prevent the formation
of abscess, and the easing of the tension of the inflamed tissue by
the incision gives immediate relief. Perhaps, even in the early
stage of the disease, a bead or two of pus may find exit, but
whether there is abscess or not, the depths of the wound
should be swabbed out with some strong carbolic or mercuric
lotion in order to destroy the germs. The hand should then
be placed upon a splint with antiseptic fomentations around
the finger. It should, moreover, be kept well raised, or worn
in a sling. (E. O.*)
WHITMAN, MARCUS (1802-1847), American missionary
and pioneer, was born at Rushville, New York, on the 4th of
September 1802. He studied medicine at Pittsfield, Massachu-
setts, and practised in Canada and in Wheeler, Steuben county,
New York. In 1834 he was accepted by the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions for missionary work among
the American Indians, and was assigned to the Oregon territory,
then under the joint occupation of Great Britain and the United
States. Hesetout early in 1835, but returned almost immediately
6io
WHITMAN, WALT
to secure other workers. In February 1836 he married and in
March again crossed the continent, accompanied by his wife,
Rev. and Mrs H. H. Spalding and W. H. Gray, and settled at
Waiilatpu, near the present Walla Walla, Washington. Dis-
sensions which arose among the missionaries and their apparent
lack of success led to a resolution (February 1842) of the Pru-
dential Committee of the Board to abandon the southern station.
With the consent of his associates, Dr Whitman started from the
station (3rd October 1842) on the perilous winter journey over
the Rocky Mountains and across the plains for the missionary
headquarters at Boston, to urge the revocation of the order.
He visited New York and Washington also to enlist help and
sympathy. On his return journey he joined a considerable
body of emigrants on their way to Oregon and piloted them
across the mountains. The mission, however, gained the ill-will
of the Indians, and, on the 2gth of October 1847 Dr and Mrs
Whitman and twelve others were killed, and the station was
broken up.
On the 1 6th of November 1864 the statement was published, on the
authority of Mr Spalding, that the purpose of Dr Whitman's ride,
twenty-two years before, was to prevent the cession of the territory
to Great Britain. The story was ampliiied by Spalding and Gray in
1865, 1866 and 1870, and in its final form declared that Whitman
learned at the British fort Walla Walla in September 1842 that a
large number of British settlers were expected, and that it was hoped
that the treaty then supposed to be in process of negotiation between
Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster, Secretary of State, would give
the territory to the British. Thereupon Whitman made his way
to Washington, and with much difficulty convinced Webster and
President Tyler of the value of the country and prevented its ex-
change for fishing privileges off Newfoundland. This story has been
widely disseminated, but Professor E. G. Bourne and Mr W, I.
Marshall independently investigated the whole question, and showed
that there is no evidence that Dr Whitman influenced or attempted
to influence the State Department. For the pro-Whitman side, see
W. H. Gray, Oregon (Portland, 1870); William Barrows, Oregon
(Boston, 1883) ; O. W. Nixon, How Marcus Whitman saved Oregon
(Chicago, i895);W. A. Mpwry, Marcus Whitman (New York, 1901);
Myron Eells, Marcus Whitman (Seattle, 1909). On the other side see
H. H. Bancroft, Oregon (San Francisco, 1886-1888); E. G. Bourne,
Essays in Historical Criticism (New York, 1901); W. I. Marshall,
History v. The Whitman-saved-Oregon Story (Chicago, 1904).
WHITMAN, WALT (1810-1892), American poet, was born at
West Hills, on Long Island, New York, on the 3ist of May 1819.
His ancestry was mingled English and Holland Dutch, and had
flourished upon Long Island more than 150 years long enough
to have taken deep root in the soil and to have developed, in its
farmers and seafaring men, many strong family traits. His
father, Walter Whitman, was a farmer and carpenter; his
mother, Louisa Van Velsor, was the granddaughter of a sea
captain. There do not appear to be any men in his line of
descent given to scholarly or intellectual pursuits till we get
back to the iyth century, when we come to Abijah Whitman,
a clergyman, settled in Connecticut. Later this Abijah moved
to Long Island, and from him all the Whitmans on the island
descended. Walt was the second of a family of nine children.
The parents early moved to Brooklyn, where Whitman spent his
youth. His career was a chequered one, like that of so many
other self-made American men. First he was an errand boy in
a lawyer's office; then he was employed in a printing office;
next he became a country school teacher; he founded (1836)
and till 1839 edited the Long Islander at Huntingdon, and
later edited a daily paper in Brooklyn (the Eagle, 1846-1847);
then he was found in New Orleans, on the editorial staff of the
Crescent (1848-1849) ; afterwards he passed his time carpentering,
building and selling small houses in Brooklyn (1851-1854),
in the meanwhile writing for the magazines and reviews and
turning out several novels, and finally revolving in his mind the
scheme of his Leaves of Grass. This scheme was probably
gestating in his mind during the years 1853, 1854 and 1855.
He frequently stopped his carpentering to work at his poems.
He left voluminous manuscript notes, showing the preparatory
studies and reflections that preceded the Leaves; many of them,
under the title of Notes and Fragments, were privately printed
by his literary executor, Dr Richard Maurice Bucke, in 1899.
Finally, in the summer of 1855 the first edition of Leaves of
Grass appeared a small quarto of ninety-four pages. The book
did not attract the attention of the critics and the reading
public till a letter from Emerson to the poet, in which the volume
was characterized as " the most extraordinary piece of wit and
wisdom that America has yet contributed," was published in
the New York Tribune. This created a demand for the book,
and started it upon a career that has probably had more vicissi-
tudes and called forth more adverse as well as more eulogistic
criticism than any other contemporary literary work. In 1856
a second and much enlarged edition of Leaves of Grass appeared.
In 1860 a third edition, with much new matter, was published
in Boston. In 1862 Whitman went to Washington to look after
his brother, Lieutenant- Colonel George W. Whitman, who was
wounded at the battle of Fredericksburg. Henceforth, for more
than ten years he remained in and about Washington, acting as
a volunteer nurse in the army hospitals as long as the war lasted,
and longer, and then finding employment as a clerk in the
government departments, in the meantime adding to and revising
his Leaves and publishing two or three editions of them, himself
his own publisher and bookseller. Out of his war experiences
came in 1866 his Drum Taps, subsequently incorporated into the
main volume. Early in 1873 he suffered a paralytic stroke which
partially disabled him. He then went to Camden, New Jersey,
to live and continued to reside in that city till his death on the
27th of March 1892. In 1871 appeared his prose volume called
Democratic Vistas. In 1876 he published a thin volume, called
Two Rivulets, made up of prose and verse. Specimen Days and
Collect, also prose, appeared in 1882. New editions of his Leaves
continued to appear at intervals as long as he lived. A final and
complete edition of his works, including both prose and verse,
was published in Philadelphia in 1889.
Whitman never married, never left America, never laid up,
or aimed to lay up, riches: he gave his time and his substance
freely to others, belonged to no club nor coterie, associated
habitually with the common people mechanics, coach-drivers,
working men of all kinds was always cheerful and optimistic.
He was large and picturesque of figure, slow of movement,
tolerant, receptive, democratic and full of charity and goodwill
towards all. His life was a poet's life from first to last free,
unworldly, unhurried, unconventional, unselfish, and was con-
tentedly and joyously lived. He left many notes that throw
light upon his aims and methods in composing Leaves of Crass.
" Make no quotations," he charged himself, " and no reference
to any other writers. Lumber the writing with nothing let it
go as lightly as the bird flies in the air or a fish swims in the sea.
Avoid all poetical similes; be faithful to the perfect likelihoods
of nature healthy, exact, simple, disdaining ornaments. Do
not go into criticisms or arguments at all; make full-blooded,
rich, flush, natural works. Insert natural things, indestructibles,
idioms, characteristics, rivers, states, persons, &c. Be full of
strong sensual germs. . . . Poet! beware lest your poems are
made in the spirit that comes from the study of pictures of things
and not from the spirit that comes from the contact with
real things themselves." The mother-idea of his poems, he
says, is democracy, and democracy " carried far beyond politics
into the region of taste, the standards of manners and beauty,
and even into philosophy and theology." His Leaves certainly
radiates democracy as no other modern literary work does,
and brings the reader into intimate and enlarged relations with
fundamental human qualities with sex, manly love, charity,
faith, self-esteem, candour, purity of body, sanity of mind. He
was democratic because he was not in any way separated nor
detached from the common people by his quality, his culture, or
his aspirations. He was bone of their bone and flesh of the
flesh. Tried by current standards his poems lack form an
structure, but they undoubtedly have in full measure the qualitie
and merits that the poet sought to give them. (J- Bu -)
See his Complete Writings (10 vols., New York, 1902), with biblio
graphical and critical matter by O. L. Triggs. His Poems (1902) ha
a biographical introduction by John Burroughs, whose Whitman
A Study (Boston, 1896) forms the tenth volume of the " New Rive-
side " edition of the poet's works. See also Walt Whitman's Diary i
Canada, with Extracts from other of his Diaries and Literary Notebook
WHITNEY, E. WHITNEY, W. D.
611
(Huston, 1904) edited by W. S. Kennedy; In re Walt Whitman
1'Mladelphia, 1893) edited by his literary executors, H. L. Traubel
R. M. Uiicke, T. H. Harned; Horace Traubel, With Walt Whitman itt
Icn (Boston, TOOT}, a record of talks in 1888, full of material
Perry, Walt Whitman: His Life and Work (Boston, 1907), with
material and unpublished letters; Calamus, a series of letters
^-1880) written by Whitman to a "young friend" (Peter
le), edited by K. M. Bucke (1897), who also wrote an authorizec
aphy Wall Whitman (Philadelphia, 1883) which contains
mporary criticisms of Whitman and W D. O'Connor's " Gooci
Poet" (1866); Walt Whitman (London, 1893), a study by
LAddington Symonds; Reminiscences of Walt Whitman with
tsfram his Letters (London, 1896) by W. S. Kennedy; H. B.
Binns Life of Walt Whitman (New York, 1906); and critical esti-
- in R. L. Stevenson's Familiar Studies of Men and Books (1882) ;
K. Dowden's Studies in Literature (1892), and in E. C. Stedman's
Is of America, &c. A bibliography of writings on Whitman i:
nued to Selections (Boston, 1898), edited by O. L. Triggs.
WHITNEY, ELI (1765-1825), American inventor, was born on
a farm in Westboro, Massachusetts, on the 8th of December 1765.
xhibited unusual mechanical ability at an early age and
earned a considerable part of his expenses at Yale College, where
he graduated in 1792. He soon went to Savannah, Georgia,
expecting to secure a position as a teacher, but was disappointed,
and accepted the invitation of Mrs Nathanael Greene, the widow
of the Revolutionary general, to spend some time on her planta-
on the Savannah river, while deciding upon his future
course. The construction by Whitney of several ingenious
household contrivances led Mrs Greene to introduce him to some
gentlemen who were discussing the desirability of a machine to
rate the short staple upland cotton from its seeds, work
which was then done by hand at the rate of a pound of lint a day.
In a few weeks Whitney produced a model, consisting of a wooden
cylinder encircled by rows of slender spikes set half an inch apart,
which extended between the bars of a grid set so closely together
that the seeds could not pass, but the lint was pulled through
by the revolving spikes; a revolving brush cleaned the spikes,
and the seed fell into another compartment. The machine was
worked by hand and could clean 50 Ib of lint a day. The model
seems to have been stolen, but another was constructed and a
patent was granted on the I4th of March 1794. Meanwhile
Whitney had formed a partnership with Phineas Miller (who
afterward married Mrs Greene), and they built at New Haven,
Connecticut, a factory (burned in March 1795) for the manu-
facture of the gins. The partners intended to establish an
absolute monopoly and to charge a toll of one-third of the cotton
or to buy the whole crop. They were unable to supply the
demand for gins, and country blacksmiths constructed many
machines. A patent, later annulled, was granted (May 12, 1796)
to I logden Holmes for a gin which substituted circular saws for
the spikes. Whitney spent much time and money prosecuting
infringements of his patent, and in 1807 its validity was finally
settled. The financial returns in Georgia cannot be ascertained.
The legislature of South Carolina voted $50,000 for the rights for
that state, while North Carolina levied a license tax for five years,
from which about $30,000 was realized. Tennessee paid, perhaps,
$10,000. l Meanwhile Whitney, disgusted with the struggle,
began the manufacture of fire-arms near New Haven (1798) and
secured profitable government contracts; he introduced in this
fait i>ry division of labour and standardized parts. Although the
modern gin has been much enlarged and improved, the essential
res are the same as in Whitney's first model, and the inven-
tion profoundly influenced American industrial, economic and
serial history.
Denison Olmsted, Memoir (New Haven, 1846); D. A. Tomp-
hns, Cotton and Cotton Oil (Charlotte, N.C., 1901) ; and W. P. Blake,
' Ski-tch of Eli Whitney " in New Haven Colony Historical Society,
Papers, vol. v. (New Haven, 1894).
WHITNEY, JOSIAH DWIGHT (1819-1896), American geolo-
KM was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of
November 1819. He graduated at Yale in 1839, and after two
years' work as assistant in the geological survey of New Hamp-
shire, spent some time in Europe in the study of chemistry,
mineralogy and geology. Returning to the United States in
1847, he laboured successfully for a time in the copper and iron
1 D. A. Tompkins, Cotton (1901), p. 28.
lands of the Lake Superior region; in 1855 he became State
chemist and professor in the Iowa University and took part
in the geological survey of the state; he subsequently worked in
the lead region of the upper Missouri river, in Wisconsin, and
in Illinois, publishing many reports, singly or in collaboration
with others. From 1860 to 1874 he was state geologist of
California, and issued a comprehensive series of reports on its
topography, geology and botany. In 1869, with William H.
Brewer, he determined the heights of the principal Rocky
Mountain summits; and in recognition of his labours Mount
Whitney (14,502, in Inyo county, California, the highest peak in
the United States) received its name from him. From 1865 until
his death he was professor of geology and director of the school
of mining and practical geology at Harvard University, residing
in Cambridge save when absent on expeditions of research. The
records of his investigations are somewhat dispersed; the most
homogeneous of his writings are The Metallic Wealth of the
United States, described and compared with that of other Countries
(1854), a work of importance at the time of its issue, and Con-
tributions to American Geology (vol. i. only, 1880). He died at
Lake Sunapee, New Hampshire, on the iSth of August 1896.
WHITNEY, WILLIAM COLLINS (1841-1904), American
political leader and financier, was born at Conway, Massa-
chusetts, on the isth of July 1841, of Puritan stock. He gradu-
ated at Yale in 1863, studied law at Harvard, and practised with
success in New York City. He was an aggressive opponent of
the " Tweed Ring," and was actively allied with the anti-
Tammany organizations, the " Irving Hall Democracy " of
1875-1890, and the " County Democracy " of 1880-1890, but
upon the dissolution of the latter he became identified with
Tammany. In 1875-1882 he was corporation counsel of New
York, and as such brought about a codification of the laws
relating to the city, and successfully contested a large part of
certain claims, largely fraudulent, against the city, amounting
to about $20,000,000, and a heritage from the Tweed regime.
During President Cleveland's first administration (1885-1889),
Whitney was secretary of the navy department and did much
to develop the navy, especially by encouraging the domestic
manufacture of armour plate. In 1892 he was instrumental in
bringing about the third nomination of Mr Cleveland, and took
an influential part in the ensuing presidential campaign; but
in 1896, disapproving of the " free-silver " agitation, he refused
to support his party's candidate, Mr W. J. Bryan. Whitney
took an active interest in the development of urban transit in
New York, and was one of the organizers of the Metropolitan
Street Railway Company. He was also interested in horse-
racing, and in 1901 won the English Derby with Volodyovski,
leased by him from Lady Meux. He died in New York City on
the 2nd of February 1904.
WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT (1827-1894), American
philologist, was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the
9th of February 1827. He was the fourth child and the second
surviving son of Josiah Dwight Whitney, a banker, and Sarah
Williston, daughter of the Rev. Payson Williston (1763-1856)
of Easthampton, Mass., and a sister of Samuel W r illiston (1795-
1874), founder of Williston Seminary at Easthampton. Through
aoth parents he was descended from New England stock remark-
able alike for physical and mental vigour; and he inherited all
he social and intellectual advantages that were afforded by a
community noted, in the history of New England, for the large
number of distinguished men whom it produced. At the age of
if teen (1842) he entered the sophomore class of \Villiams College
(at Williamstown.Mass.), where he graduated three years later
with the highest honours. His attention was at first directed to
natural science, and his interest in it always remained keen,
and his knowledge of its principles and methods exerted a notice-
able influence upon his philological work. In the summer of
1849 he had charge of the botany, the barometrical observations
ind the accounts of the United States survey of the Lake Superior
egion conducted by his brother, Josiah D. Whitney, and in the
summer of 1873 assisted in the geographical work of the Hayden
expedition in Colorado. His interest in the study of Sanskrit
6l2
WHITSTABLE WHITSUNDAY
was first awakened in 1848, and he at once devoted himself
with enthusiasm to this at that time little-explored field of
philological labour. After a brief course at Yale with Professor
Edward Elbridge Salisbury (1814-1901), then the only trained
Orientalist in the United States, Whitney went to Germany (1850)
and studied for three years at Berlin, under Weber, Bopp and
Lepsius, and at Tubingen (two summer semesters) under Roth,
returning to the United States in 1853. In the following year
he was appointed professor of Sanskrit in Yale, and in 1869 also
of comparative philology. He also gave instruction in French
and German in the college until 1867, and in the Sheffield
scientific school until 1886. An urgent call to a professorship at
Harvard was declined in 1869. The importance of his contribu-
tions to science was early and widely recognized. He was
elected to membership in numerous learned societies in all parts
of the world, and received many honorary degrees, the most
notable testimonial to his fame being his election on the 3ist of
May 1 88 1, as foreign knight of the Prussian order pour le
merite for science and arts to fill the vacancy caused by the
death of Carlyle. In 1870 he received from the Berlin Academy
of Sciences the first Bopp prize for the most important contribu-
tion to Sanskrit philology during the preceding three years his
edition of the Tailtiriya-Prati^dkhya (Journal of the American
Oriental Society, vol. ix.). He died at New Haven, Connecticut,
on the 7th of June 1894.
As a philologist Whitney is noted especially for his work in
Sanskrit, which placed him among the first scholars of his time.
He edited (1855-1856), with Professor Roth, the Atharva-V 'eda-
Sanhita; published (1862) with a translation and notes the
Atharva-Veda-Prdtifdkhya; made important contributions to
the great Petersburg lexicon; issued an index verborum to the
published text of the Atharva-V eda (Journal of the American
Oriental Society, 1881); made a translation of the Atharva-Veda,
books i.-xix., with a critical commentary, which he did not live
to publish (edited by Lanman, 1905); and published a large
number of special articles upon various points of Sanskrit
philology. His most notable achievement in this field, however,
is his Sanskrit Grammar (1879), a work which, as. Professor
Delbriick has said, not only is " the best text-book of Sanskrit
which we possess," but also places its author, as a scientific
grammarian, on the same level with such writers as Madvig
and Kriiger. To the general public Whitney is best known
through his popular works on the science of language and his
labours as a lexicographer. The former are, perhaps, the most
widely read of all English books on the subject, and have merited
their popularity through the soundness of the views which they
present and the lucidity of their style. 1 His most important
service to lexicography was his guidance, as editor-in-chief, of
the work on The Century Dictionary (1880-1891). Apart from
the permanent value of his contributions to philology, Whitney
is notable for the great and stimulating influence which he
exerted throughout his life upon the development of American
scholarship.
The chronological bibliography of Whitney's writings appended to
vol. xix. (first half) of the Journal of the American Oriental Society,
issued in May 1897, contains 360 numbers. Of these the most im-
portant, in addition to those mentioned above, are: Translation of
the Suryasiddhanta, a Text-book of Hindu Astronomy (Jour. Am.
Oriental Soc., vol. vi., 1860); Language and the Study of Language
(1867); A Compendious German Grammar (1869); Oriental and
Linguistic Studies (1873; second series, 1874); The Life and Growth
of Language (1875); Essentials of English Grammar (1877); A
Compendious German and English Dictionary (1877); A Practical
French Grammar (1886); Max Muller and the Science of Language
(1892). (B. E. S.)
"* WHITSTABLE, a watering-place in the St Augustine's parlia-
mentary division of Kent, England, on the north coast at the
east end of the Swale, 6 m. N.N.W. of Canterbury, on the South
Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 7086.
1 They are particularly important in that they counteracted the
popular and interestingly written books of Max Muller: for instance,
Muller, like Renan and Wilhelm von Humboldt, regarded language as
an innate faculty and Whitney considered it the product of experience
and outward circumstance. See Whitney's article Philology in the
present edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The branch railway connecting Whitstable with Canterbury
was one of the earliest in England, opened in 1830. The
church of All Saints (Decorated and Perpendicular) possesses
some old brasses; it was restored in 1875. Whitstable has been
famous for its oyster beds from time immemorial. The fisheries
were held by the Incorporated Company of Dredgers (incor-
porated by Act of Parliament in 1793), the affairs being
administered by a foreman, deputy foreman and jury of twelve;
but in 1896 an Act of Parliament transferred the management of
the fishery to a company. The less extensive Seasalter and Ham
oyster fishery adjoins. There is also a considerable coasting trade
in coal in conjunction with the South-Eastern & Chatham railway
company, who are the owners of the harbour, which accom-
modates vessels of about 400 tons alongside the quay. The
urban district consists of parts of the old parishes of Whitstable
and Seasalter. In modern times the manor was held by Wynne
Ellis (1790-1875), who left a valuable collection of paintings to
the nation.
Tankerton, adjoining Whitstable to the N.E., is a newly
established seaside resort.
WHITSUNDAY, or PENTECOST (Lat. Pentecoste,Gr. Trarij/cexn^
sc. fiiiipa, Fr. Pentecole, Ger. Pfingsten, fr. O. H. Ger.fimfchustin),
one of the principal feasts of the Christian Church, celebrated
on the fiftieth (TrevrriKoarri) day after Easter to commemorate
the descent of the Holy Spirit on the disciples. The day became
one of the three baptismal seasons, and the name Whitsunday
is now generally attributed to the white garments formerly worn
by the candidates for baptism on this feast, as in the case of the
Dominica in albis. The festival is the third in importance of the
great feasts of the Church and the last of the annual cycle
commemorating the Lord. It is connected with the Jewish
Pentecost (q.v.), not only in the historical date of its origin (see
Acts vii.), but in idea; the Jewish festival is one of thanks for
the first-fruits of the earth, the Christian for the first-fruits of
the Spirit. In the early Church the name of Pentecost was given
to the whole fifty days between Easter and Whitsunday, which
were celebrated as a period of rejoicing (Tertullian, De idolatr.
c. 12, De bapt. 19, De cor. milit. 3, Aposl. Canons, c. 37, Canons of
Antioch, 30). In the narrower sense, as the designation of
the fiftieth day of this period, the word Pentecost occurs for
the first time in a canon of the council of Elvira (305), which
denounces as an heretical abuse the tendency to celebrate the
4oth day (Ascension) instead of the soth, and adds: " juxta
auctoritatem scripturarum cuncti diem Pentecostis celebremus."
There is plentiful evidence that the festival was regarded very
early as one of the great feasts; Gregory Nazianzen (Oral. xliv.
De Pentec.) calls it the " day of the Spirit " (tififpa. TOV Hvtvuaros),
and in 385 the Peregrinalio Silviae (see Duchesne, Origines,
App.) describes its elaborate celebration at Jerusalem. The code
of Theodosius (xv. 5, De spectaculis) forbade theatrical perform-
ances and the games of the circus during the feast. The custom
of hallowing the days immediately surrounding the festival is
comparatively late. Thus, among others, the synod of Mainz in
813 ordered the celebration of an octave similar to that at
Easter. The custom of celebrating the vigil by fasting had
already been introduced. The duration of the festival was,
however, ultimately fixed at three days. In the Church of
England this is still the rule (there are special collects, gospels
and epistles for Monday and Tuesday in Whitsun week); in
the Lutheran churches two days only are observed.
In the middle ages the Whitsun services were marked by many
curious customs. Among these described by Durandus (Rationale
div. off. vi. 107) are the letting down of a dove from the roof into
the church, the dropping of balls of fire, rose-leaves and the like.
Whitsun is one of the Scottish quarter-days, and though the
Church festival is movable, the legal date was fixed for the 1 5th
of May by an act of 1693. Whitmonday, which, with the Sunday
itself, was the occasion for the greatest of all the medieval church
ales, was made an English Bank Holiday by an act passed on th
25th of May 1871.
See Duchesne, Origines du culte Chretien (1889); W. Smith an
Cheetham, Die. of Christian Antiquities (1874-1880) ; Herzog-Hauck
WHITTIER
613
Rralencyklopddie (1904), xv. 254, s.v. " Pfingsten." For the
many superstitions and observances of the day see P. H. Ditch-
field, Old English Customs (1897); Brand, Antiquities of Great
Britain (Hazlitt's edit., 1905); B. Picart, Ceremonies et coutumes
rtligicuscs de tous Its peuples (1723).
WHITTIER, JOHN GREENLEAF (1807-1892), America's
" Quaker poet " of freedom, faith and the sentiment of the
common people, was born in a Merrimack Valley farmhouse,
Haverhill, Massachusetts, on the i7th of December 1807. The
dwelling was built in the i7th century by his ancestor, the sturdy
immigrant, Thomas Whittier, notable through his efforts to
secure toleration for the disciples of George Fox in New England.
Thomas's son Joseph joined the Society of Friends and bore his
share of obloquy. Successive generations obeyed the monitions
of the Inner Light. The poet was bom in the faith, and adhered
to its liberalized tenets, its garb and speech, throughout his
lifetime. His father, John, was a farmer of limited means but
independent spirit. His mother, Abigail Hussey, whom the poet
strongly resembled, was of good stock. The Rev. Stephen
Bachiler, an Oxford man and a Churchman, who became a
Nonconformist and emigrated to Boston in 1632, was one of her
forebears and also an ancestor of Daniel Webster. The poet and
the statesman showed their kinship by the " dark, deep-set and
lustrous eyes " that impressed one who met either of these
uncommon men. The former's name of Greenleaf is thought
to be derived from the French Feuillevert, and to be of Huguenot
origin; and there was Huguenot blood as well in Thomas
Whittier, the settler. The poet thus fairly inherited his con-
science, religious exaltation and spirit of protest. All the
Whittiers were men of stature and bodily strength, John Green-
leaf being almost the first exception, a lad of delicate mould,
scarcely adapted for the labour required of a Yankee farmer
and his household. He bore a fair proportion of it, but through-
out his life was frequently brought to a halt by pain and physical
debility. In youth he was described as " a handsome young man,
tall, slight, and very erect, bashful, but never awkward." His
shyness was extreme, though covered by a grave and quiet
exterior, which could not hide his love of fun and sense of the
ludicrous. In age he retained most of these characteristics,
refined by a serene expression of peace after contest. His eyes
never lost their glow, and were said by a woman to be those of
one " who had kept innocency all his days."
Whittier's early education was restricted to what he could gain
from the primitive "district school " of the neighbourhood.
His call as a poet came when a teacher lent to him the poems of
Rurns. He was then about fifteen, and his taste for writing,
bred thus far upon the quaint Journals of Friends, the Bible and
The Pilgrim's Progress, was at once stimulated. There was
little art or inspiration in his boyish verse, but in his nineteenth
year an older sister thought a specimen of it good enough for
submission to the Free Press, a weekly paper which William
Lloyd Garrison, the future emancipationist, had started in the
town of Newburyport. This initiated Whittier's literary career.
The poem was printed with a eulogy, and the editor sought out
his young contributor: their alliance began, and continued until
the triumph of the anti-slavery cause thirty-seven years later.
Garrison overcame the elder Whittier's desire for the full services
of his son, and gained permission for the latter to attend the
Haverhill academy. To meet expenses the youth worked in
various ways, even making slippers by hand in after-hours;
but when he came of age his text-book days were ended. Mean-
while he had written creditable student verse, and contributed
both prose and rhyme to newspapers, thus gaining friends and
obtaining a decided if provincial reputation. He soon essayed
journalism, first spending a year and a half in the service of a
publisher of two Boston newspapers, the Manufacturer, an organ
of the Clay protectionists, and the Philanthropist, devoted to
humane reform. Whittier edited the former, having a bent for
politics, but wrote for the latter also. His father's last illness
recalled him to the homestead, where both farm and family
became his pious charge. Money had to be earned, and he now
secured an editorial post at Hartford, Connecticut, which he
sustained until forced by ill-health, early in his twenty-fifth
year, to re-seek the Haverhill farm. There he remained from
1832 to 1836, when the property was sold, and the Whittiers
removed to Amesbury in order to be near their meeting-house
and to enable the poet to be in touch with affairs. The new
home became, as it proved, that of his whole after-life; a dwelling
then bought and in time remodelled was the poet's residence
for fifty-six years, and from it, after his death on the 7th of
September 1892,, his remains were borne to the Amesbury
graveyard.
While in Hartford Whittier issued in prose and verse his first
book, Legends of New England (1831), and edited the writings of
the poet John Gardiner C. Brainard. Thenceforward he was
constantly printing verse, but of the hundred or more pieces
composed before his settlement at Amesbury less than fifty are
retained in his final collection. Of these none has more signific-
ance than the poem to Garrison, which appeared in 1831, and
was read (December 1833) at the Philadelphia Convention that
formed the Anti-Slavery Society. To that convention, with
one-third of its membership composed of Friends, Whittier was
a delegate, and was appointed one of the committee that drafted
the famous Declaration of Sentiments. Although a Quaker,
he had a polemical spirit; men seeing Whittier only in his saintly
age knew little of the fire wherewith, setting aside ambition and
even love, he maintained his warfare against the " national
crime," employing action, argument and lyric scorn. A future
was open for him among the Protectionists, who formed the Whig
party, and doubtless soon would have carried him to the United
States Congress. As it was, he got no farther than the legislature
of his own state (1835-1836), elected by his neighbours in an
anti-slavery town. But if Garrison, Phillips and Sumner and
Mrs Stowe were to be the rhapsodists of the long emancipation
struggle, Whittier was its foreordained poet-seer. In 1833 he
had issued at his own cost a pamphlet, " Justice and Expediency,"
that provoked vehement discussion North and South. Later
he shared with the agitators their experience of lawlessness,
mob-violence and political odium. His sister Elizabeth, who
became his life companion, and whose verse is preserved with his
own, was president of the Woman's Anti-Slavery Society in
Amesbury. It is to be noted that the first collection of Whittier's
lyrics was the Poems written during the Progress of the Abolition
Question in the United States, issued by a friend in 1837. But
Mogg Megone (1836) was his first book, a crude attempt to apply
the manner of Scott's romantic cantos to a native theme. Among
his other lyrical volumes, of dates earlier than the Civil War, were
Lays of my Home (1843), Voices of Freedom (1846), Songs of
Labor (1850), The Chapd of the Hermits (1853), The Panorama
( 1 8 56) , Ho me Ballads ( 1 860) . The titles of In War Time ( 1 863 )
and National Lyrics (1865) rightly designate the patriotic rather
than Tyrtaean contents of these books. The poet was closely
affiliated with the Atlantic Monthly from the foundation of
that classic magazine in 1857. His repute became national with
the welcome awarded to Snow-Bound in 1866, and brought
a corresponding material reward. Of his later books of verse
may be mentioned The Tent on the Beach (1867), The Penn-
sylvania Pilgrim (1872), The Vision of Echard (1878), The King's
Missive (1881), At Sundown, his last poems (1890). As early as
1849 an illustrated collection of his poems appeared, and his
Poetical Works was issued in London in 1830. During the
ensuing forty years no less than ten successive collections of his
poems appeared. Meanwhile he did much editing and compiling,
and produced, among other works in prose, The Stranger in
Lowell (1845), Supernaturalism in New England (1847), Leaves
from Margaret Smith's Journal (1849), a pleasing treatment in
old-style English of an early Colonial theme. When he died,
in 1892, in New Hampshire, among the hills he loved and
sang so well, he had been an active writer for over sixty years,
leaving more than that number of publications that bore his name
as author or editor. His body was brought to Amesbury for
interment; the funeral services were held in the open air, and
conducted after the simple rites of the Friends, in the presence
of a large concourse, certain of whom " spake as they were
614
WHITTINGHAM, C.WHITTINGHAM, W.
moved " in tribute to the bard. The Amesbury house has been
acquired by the " Whittier Home Association," so that the
building and grounds are guarded as he left them, and form a
shrine to which there is a constant pilgrimage. The Haverhill
homestead, memorized in Snow-Bound, is also held by trustees
" to preserve the natural features of the landscape," and to keep
the buildings and furniture somewhat as they were in their
minstrel's boyhood.
It would be unjust to consider Whittier's genius from an academic
point of view. British lovers of poetry except John Bright and
others of like faith or spirit have been slow to comprehend his dis-
tinctive rank. As a poet he was essentially a balladist, with the faults
of his qualities; and his ballads, in their freedom, naivete', even in
their undue length, are among the few modern examples of unso-
phisticated verse. He returned again and again to their production,
seldom labouring on sonnets and lyrics of the Victorian mould. His
ear for melody was inferior to his sense of time, but that his over-
facility and structural defects were due less to lack of taste than to
early habit, Georgian models, disassociation from the schools, is indi-
cated by his work as a writer of prose. In Margaret Smith's^ Journal
an artistic, though suppositive, Colonial style is well maintained.
Whittier became very sensible of his shortcomings; and when at
leisure to devote himself to his art he greatly bettered it, giving much
of his later verse all the polish that it required. In extended com-
position, as when he followed Longfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn
with his own Tent on the Beach, he often failed to rival his graceful
brother poet. In American balladry he was pre-eminent; such
pieces as " The Swan Song of Parson Avery," " Marguerite," " Bar-
clay of Ury," " Skipper Ireson's Ride," " In the ' Old South,' " hold
their place in literature. It is necessary above all to consider the
relation of a people's years of growth and ferment to the song which
represents them ; for in the strains of Whittier, more than in those
of any other 19th-century lyrist, the saying of Fletcher of Saltpun
as to the ballads and laws of a nation finds a historic illustration.
He was the national bard of justice, humanity and reform, whose
voice went up as a trumpet until the victory was won. Its lapses
resembled those of Mrs Browning, who was of his own breed in her
fervour and exaltation. To the last it was uncertain whether a poem
by Whittier would " turn out a sang," or " perhaps turn out a
sermon "; if the latter, it had deep sincerity and was as close to his
soul as the other. He began as a liberator, but various causes em-
ployed his pen; his heart was with the people, and he was under-
standed of them ; he loved a worker, and the Songs of Labor convey
the zest of the artisan and pioneer. From 1832 to 1863 no occasion
escaped him for inspiring the assailants of slavery, or chanting paeans
of their martyrdom or triumph. No crusade ever had a truer laureate
than the author of "The Virginia Slave Mother," " The Pastoral
Letter " one of his stinging ballads against a time-serving Church
" A Sabbath Scene," and " The Slaves of Martinique." Randolph
of Roanoke " is one of the most pathetic and most elevated of
memorial tributes. " Ichabod " and " The Lost Occasion," both
evoked by the attitude of Webster, are Roman in their condemnation
and " wild with all regret."
The green rusticity of Whittier's farm and village life imparted
a bucolic charm to such lyrics as " In School Days," " The Bare-
foot Boy," " Telling the Bees," " Maud Muller," and " My School-
mate." His idyllic masterpiece is the sustained transcript of winter
scenery and home-life, Snow-Bound, which has had no equal except
Longfellow's "Evangeline" in American favour, but, in fact,
nothing of its class since " The Cottar's Saturday Night " can justly
be compared with it. Along with the Quaker poet's homing sense
and passion for liberty of body and soul, religion and patriotism are
the dominant notes of his song. His conception of a citizen's
prerogative and duty, as set forth in "The Eve of Election," certainly
is not that of one whose legend is " our country, right or wrong."
Faith, hope and boundless charity pervade the " Questions of Life,"
" Invocation," and " The Two Angels," and are exquisitely blended
in " The Eternal Goodness," perhaps the most enduring of his lyrical
poems. " We can do without a Church," he wrote in a letter; " we
cannot do without God, and of Him we are sure." The inward voice
was his inspiration, and of all American poets he was the one whose
song was most like a prayer. A knightly celibate, his stainless life,
his ardour, caused him to be termed a Yankee Galahad; a pure
and simple heart was laid bare to those who loved him in " My
Psalm," " My Triumph " and " An Autograph." The spiritual
habit abated no whit of his inborn sagacity, and it is said that in
his later years political leaders found no shrewder sage with whom to
take counsel. When the question of primacy among American poets
was canvassed by a group of the public men of Lincoln's time, the
vote was for Whittier; he was at least one whom they understood,
and who expressed their feeling and convictions. Parkman called
him " the poet of New England," but as the North and West then
were charged with the spirit of the New England states, the two
verdicts were much the same. The fact remains that no other poet
has sounded more native notes, or covered so much of the American
legendary, and that Whittier's name, among the patriotic, clean and
true, was one with which to conjure. He was revered by the people
cleaving to their altars and their fires, and his birthdays were
calendared as festivals, on which greetings were sent to him by
young and old.
In his age the poet revised his works, classifying them for a
definitive edition, in seven volumes, published at Boston, 1888.
Their metrical portion, annotated by Horace E. Scudder, can be
found in the one-volume "Cambridge Edition," (Boston, 1894).
Whittier's Life and Letters, prepared by his kinsman and literary
executor, Samuel T. Pickard, also appeared in 1894.
See also G. R. Carpenter, John Greenleaf Whittier (Boston, 1903) in
the "American Men of Letters" series; a life (1907) by Bliss Perry
and B. Wendell, SteUigeri (New York, 1893, pp. 149-201). (E.C.S.)
WHITTINGHAM, CHARLES (1767-1840), English printer,
was born on the i6th of June 1767, at Caludon or Calledon,
Warwickshire, the son of a farmer, and was apprenticed to a
Coventry printer and bookseller. In 1789 he set up a small
printing press in a garret off Fleet Street, London, with a loan
obtained from the typefounding firm of William Caslon, and by
1797 his business had so increased that he was enabled to move
into larger premises. An edition of Gray's Poems, printed by him
in 1799, secured him the patronage of all the leading publishers.
Whittingham inaugurated the idea of printing cheap, handy
editions of standard authors, and, on the bookselling trade
threatening not to sell his productions, took a room at a coffee
house and sold them by auction himself. In 1809 he started a
paper-pulp factory at Chiswick, near London, and in 1811
founded the Chiswick Press. From 1810 to 1815 he devoted
his chief attention to illustrated books, and is credited with having
been the first to use proper overlays in printing woodcuts, as he
was the first to print a fine, or " Indian Paper " edition. He
was one of the first to use a steam-engine in a pulp mill, but his
presses he preferred to have worked by hand. He died at
Chiswick on the 5th of January 1840.
His nephew, CHARLES WHITTINGHAM (1795-1876), who from
1824 to 1828 had been in partnership with his uncle, in 1838
assumed control of the business. He already had printing works
at Took's Court, Chancery Lane, London, and had printed
various notable books, specially devoting himself to the intro-
duction of ornamental initial letters, and the artistic arrange-
ment of the printed page. The imprint of the Chiswick press
was now placed on the productions of the Took's Court as well
as of the Chiswick works, and in 1852 the whole business was
removed to London. Under the management of the younger
Whittingham the Chiswick Press achieved a considerable
reputation. He died on the 2ist of April 1876.
WHITTINGHAM, WILLIAM (c. 1524-1579), English scholar,
who belonged to a Lancashire family, was born at Chester.
Educated at Brasenose College, Oxford, he became a fellow of
All Souls' College and a senior student of Christ Church, and
later he visited several universities in France and Germany.
A strong Protestant, he returned to England in 1553, but soon
found it expedient to travel again to France. In 1554 he was a
leading member of the band of English Protestant exiles who
were assembled at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and in the contro-
versies which took place between them concerning the form of
service to be adopted, Whittingham strongly supported the
Calvinistic views propounded by John Knox. These opinions,
however, did not prevail, and soon the Scottish reformer and his
follower were found at Geneva; in 1559 Whittingham succeeded
Knox as minister of the English congregation in that city, and
here he did his most noteworthy work, that of making an English
translation of the Bible. He was probably responsible for the
English translation of the New Testament which appeared in
1557, and he had certainly a large share in the translation of both
the Old and the New Testaments which is called the Genevan
or Breeches Bible. This was printed at Geneva in 1560 and
enjoyed a remarkable popularity (see BIBLE, ENGLISH). He
also made a metrical translation of some of the Psalms. Having
returned to England in 1560, Whittingham went to France in
the train of Francis Russell, 2nd earl of Bedford, and a little
later he acted as minister of the English garrison at Havre,
being in this place during its siege by the French in 1 562. In the
following year he was made dean of Durham. He attended well
to the duties of his office, but his liking for puritan customs made
WHITTINGTON, R. WHITTLESEY
615
certain prelates and others look upon him with suspicion, and
in 1576 or 1577 a commission was appointed to inquire into his
conduct. This had no result, and another commission was
appointed in 1578, one charge against Whittingham being that
he had not been duly ordained. The case was still under con-
sideration when the dean died on the roth of June 1579.
WHITTINGTON, RICHARD (d. 1423), mayor of London,
described himself as son of William and Joan (Dugdale, Mon-
asticon Anglicanum, vi. 740). This enables him to be identified
as the third son of Sir William Whittington of Pauntley in
Gloucestershire, a knight of good family, who married after
1355 Joan, daughter of William Mansel, and widow of Thomas
Berkeley of Cubberley. Consequently Richard was a very
young man when he is mentioned in 1379 as subscribing five
marks to a city loan. He was a mercer by trade, and clearly
entered on his commercial career under favourable circumstances.
He married Alice, daughter of Sir Ivo Fitzwaryn, a Dorset knight
of considerable property. Whittington sat in the common
council as a representative of Coleman Street Ward, was elected
alderman of Broad Street in March 1393, and served as sheriff
in 1393-1394. When Adam Bamme, the mayor, died in June
1397. Whittington was appointed by the king to succeed him,
and in October was elected mayor for the ensuing year. He had
acquired great wealth and much commercial importance, and
was mayor of the staple at London and Calais. He made
frequent large loans both to Henry IV. and Henry V., and accord-
ing to the legend, when he gave a banquet to the latter king and
his queen in 1421, completed the entertainment by burning
bonds for 60,000, which he had taken up and discharged.
Henry V. employed him to superintend the expenditure of
money on completing Westminster Abbey. But except as a
London commercial magnate Whittington took no great part in
public affairs. He was mayor for a third term in 1406-1407,
and for a fourth in 1419-1420. He died in March 1423. His
wife had predeceased him leaving no children, and Whittington
bequeathed the whole of his vast fortune to charitable and public
purposes. In his lifetime he had joined in procuring Leadenhall
for the city, and had borne nearly all the cost of building the
Greyfriars Library. In his last year as mayor he had been
shocked by the foul state of Newgate prison, and one of the first
works undertaken by his executors was its rebuilding. His
executors, chief of whom was John Carpenter, the famous town
clerk, also contributed to the cost of glazing and paving the new
Guildhall, and paid half the expense of building the library there;
they repaired St Bartholomew's hospital, and provided bosses for
water at Billingsgate and Cripplegate. But the chief of Whitting-
ton's foundations was his college at St Michael, Paternoster
church, and the adjoining hospital. The college was dissolved
at the Reformation, but the hospital or almshouses are still
maintained by the Mercers' Company at Highgate. Whittington
was buried at St Michael's church. Stow relates that his tomb
was spoiled during the reign of Edward VI., but that under Mary
the parishioners were compelled to restore it (Survey, i. 243).
Whittington had a house near St Michael's church; it is doubtful
whether he had any connexion with the so-called Whittington
Palace in Hart Street, Mark Lane. There is no proof that he was
ever knighted; Stow does not call him Sir Richard. Much of
Whittington's fame was probably due to the magnificence of his
charities. But a writer of the next generation bears witness to
his commercial success in A Libell of English Policy by styling
him " the sunne of marchaundy, that lodestarre and chief-chosen
flower."
' Pen and paper may not me suffice
Him to describe, so high he was of price."
The Richard Whittington of history is thus very different from
the Dick Whittington of popular legend, which makes him a
poor orphan employed as a scullion by the rich merchant, Sir
Hugh Fitzwarren, who ventures the cat, his only possession,
on one of his master's ships. Distressed by ill-treatment he
runs away, but turns back when he hears from Holloway the
prophetic peal of Bow bells. He returns to find that his venture
has brought him a fortune, marries his master's daughter, and
succeeds to his business. The legend is not referred to by Stow,
whose love for exposing fables would assuredly have prompted
him to notice it if it had been well established when he wrote.
The first reference to the story comes with the licensing in 1605
of a play, now lost, The History of Richard Whittinglon, of
his lowe byrth, his great fortune. Thomas Heywood in 1606
makes one of the characters in // you know not me you know
nobody, allude to the legend, to be rebuked by another because
" they did more wrong to the gentleman." " The legend of
Whittington," probably meaning the play of 1605, is also
mentioned by Beaumont and Fletcher in 1611 in The Knight
of the Burning Pestle. The story was then no doubt popular.
When a little later Robert Elstracke, the engraver, published a
supposed portrait of Whittington with his hand resting on a skull,
he had in deference to the public fancy to substitute a cat;
copies in the first state are very rare. Attempts have been made
to explain the story as possibly referring to vessels called " cats,"
which were employed in the North Sea trade, or to the French
achat (purchase). But Thomas Keightley traced the cat story in
Persian, Danish and Italian folk-lore at least as far back as
the I3th century. The assertion that a carved figure of a cat
existed on Newgate gaol before the great fire is an unsupported
assumption.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most important early references to Whitting-
ton are contained in Dr R. R. Sharpe's Calendar of Letter-book H ;
H. T. Riley's Memorials of London; and Political Songs, ii. 178
(Rolls series). For his charities see Stow's Survey of London (ed.
C. L. Kingsford, 1908). For documents relating to Whittington
College see Dugdaie, Monasticon A nglicanum, vi. 740, and the Calendar
of Patent Rolls, Henry VI., ii. 214-217. Samuel Lysons collected the
facts, but accepted the legend in The Model Merchant of the Middle
Ages (1860). The Life by W. Besant and J. Rice does not improve
on Lysons. Some useful references will be found in J. H. Wylie's
History of England under Henry IV. For an examination of the
legend see T. Keightley 's Tales and Popular Fictions, pp. 241-286
(1834), an d H. B. Wheatley's preface to his edition of The History
of Sir Richard Whittington (first published in 1656). (C. L. K.)
WHITTINGTON, an urban district in the north-eastern
parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 10 m. S. by E.
of Sheffield and 2 m. N. of Chesterfield, on the Midland railway.
Pop. (1901) 9416. The parish church of St Bartholomew was
restored after its destruction by fire, excepting the tower and
spire, in 1895. Samuel Pegge, the antiquary (1704-1796), was
vicar of Whittington and Heath for many years, and was buried
here. Stone bottles and coarse earthenware are manufactured
in the town, where there are also large ironworks, collieries and
brickworks. A small stone cottage, known as Revolution House,
was the meeting-place of John Darcy, the ist earl of Danby,
and the 4th earl of Devonshire, who there concerted the plans
by which, in 1688, the Whig party brought about the fall of
James II. and the succession of William III. It was then a
hostelry, known as the " Cock and Pynot "; pynot being the
local name for a magpie.
WHITTLESEA (or WHITTLESEY), WILLIAM (d. 1374), arch-
bishop of Canterbury, was probably born in the Cambridgeshire
village of Whittlesey. He was educated at Oxford, and owing
principally to the fact that he was a nephew of Simon Islip,
archbishop of Canterbury, he received numerous ecclesiastical
preferments; he held prebends at Lichfield, Chichester and
Lincoln, and livings at Ivychurch, Croydon and Cliffe. Later he
was appointed vicar-general, and then dean of the court of arches
by Islip. In 1360 he became bishop of Rochester, and two years
later bishop of Worcester. In 1368 Whittlesea was elected
archbishop of Canterbury in succession to Simon Langham, but
his term of office was very uneventful, a circumstance due partly,
but not wholly, to his feeble health. He died at Lambeth on the
5th or 6th of June 1374.
WHITTLESEY, a market town in the Wisbech parliamentary
division of Cambridgeshire, England, 5! m. E. of Peterborough,
between that city and March, on the Great Eastern railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 3909. It lies on a gentle eminence
in the flat fen country, and the fine Perpendicular tower and spire
of the church of St Mary are a landmark from far. A little to
the north is the great artificial cut carrying the waters of the
6i6
WHITWORTH WHOOPING-COUGH
river Nene; and the neighbourhood is intersected with many
other navigable " drains." To the south-west is the tract known
as Whittlesey Mere, 6 m. distant from the town, in Huntingdon-
shire. It was a lake until modern times, when it was included in
a scheme of drainage. The so-called Whittlesey Wash, in the
neighbourhood of the town, is among several tracts in the fens
which are perennially flooded. St Mary's church is principally
Perpendicular, but has Norman and Decorated portions; the
church of St Andrew is also Decorated and Perpendicular. The
town has manufactures of bricks and tiles, and a considerable
agricultural trade.
WHITWORTH, SIR JOSEPH, Bart. (1803-1887), English
engineer, was born at Stockport, near Manchester, on the 2ist
of December 1803. On leaving school at the age of fourteen, he
was placed with an uncle who was a cotton-spinner, with the view
of becoming a partner in the business; but his mechanical tastes
were not satisfied with this occupation, and in about four years
he gave it up. He then spent some time with various machine
manufacturers in the neighbourhood of Manchester, and in
1825 moved to London, where he gained more experience in
machine shops, including those of Henry Maudslay. In 1833
he returned to Manchester and started in business as a tool-
maker. In 1840 he attended the meeting of the British Associa-
tion at Glasgow, and read a paper on the preparation and value
of true planes, describing the method which he had successfully
used for making them when at Maudslay's, and which depended
on the principle that if any two of three surfaces exactly fit each
other, all three must be true planes. The accuracy of workman-
ship thus indicated was far ahead of what was contemplated
at the time as possible in mechanical engineering, but Wbitworth
not only proved that it could be attained in practice, but also
showed how it could be measured. He found that if two true
planes were arranged parallel to each other, an exceedingly small
motion towards or from each other was sufficient to determine
whether an object placed between them was held firmly or
allowed to drop, and by mounting one of the planes on a screwed
shaft provided with a comparatively large wheel bearing a scale
on its periphery, he was able to obtain a very exact measurement
of the amount, however minute, by which the distance between
the planes was altered, by observing through what .angular
distance the wheel had been turned. In 1841, in a paper read
before the Institution of Civil Engineers, he urged the necessity
for the adoption of a uniform system of screw threads in place
of the various heterogeneous pitches then employed. His system
of standard gauges was also widely adopted. The principles
of exact measurement and workmanship which he advocated
were strictly observed in his own manufactory, with the result
that in the Exhibition of 1851 he had a show of machine tools
which were far ahead of those of any competitor. It was doubt-
less this superiority in machine construction that caused the
government three years later to request him to design, and
estimate for making, the machinery for producing rifled muskets
at the new factory at Enfield. He did not see his way to agree to
the proposition in this form, but it was ultimately settled that he
should undertake the machinery for the barrels only. Finding
that there was no established practice to guide him, he began a
series of experiments to determine the best principles for the
manufacture of rifle barrels and projectiles. He ultimately
arrived at a weapon in which the necessary rotation of the pro-
jectile was obtained, not by means of grooving, but by making
the barrel polygonal in form, with gently rounded angles, the
bullets also being polygonal and thus travelling on broad bearing-
surfaces along the rotating polygon. The projectile he favoured
was 3 to 3^ calibres in length, and the bore he fixed on was
0-45 in., which was at first looked upon as too small. It is re-
ported that at the trial in 1857 weapons made according to these
principles excelled the Enfield weapons in accuracy of fire,
penetration and range to a degree " which hardly leaves room
for comparison." He also constructed heavy guns on the same
lines; these were tried in competition with Armstrong's ordnance
in 1864 and 1865, and in their inventor's opinion gave the better
results, but they were not adopted by the government. In
constructing them Whitworth experienced difficulty in getting
large steel castings of suitable soundness and ductility, and thus
was led about 1870 to devise his compressed steel process, in
which the metal is subjected to high pressure while still in the
fluid state, and is afterwards forged in hydraulic presses, not by
hammers. In 1868 he founded the Whitworth scholarships,
setting aside an annual sum of 3000 to be given for " intelligence
and proficiency in the theory and practice of mechanics and its
cognate sciences," and in the following year he was created a
baronet. He died at Monte Carlo, whither he had gone for the
sake of his health, on the 22nd of January 1887. In addition
to handing over 100,000 to the Science and Art Department for
the permanent endowment of the thirty Whitworth scholarships,
his residuary legatees, in pursuance of what they knew to be his
intentions, expended over half a million on charitable and educa-
tional objects, mainly in Manchester and the neighbourhood.
WHOOPING-COUGH, or HOOPING-COUGH (syn. Pertussis,
Chin-cough) , a specific infective disease of the respiratory mucous
membrane, of microbic origin (see PARASITIC DISEASES), mani-
festing itself by frequently recurring paroxysms of convulsive
coughing accompanied with peculiar sonorous inspirations (or
whoops). Although specially a disease of childhood, whooping-
cough is by no means limited to that period but may occur at any
time of life. It is one of the most dangerous diseases of infancy,
the yearly death-rate in England and Wales for each of the
five years 1904-1908 being greater than that from scarlet fever
and typhoid added together. The majority of these deaths were
in infants under one year, 97% in children under 5 years
(Tatham). It is more common in female than in male children.
There is a distinct period of incubation variously estimated at
from two to ten days. Three stages of the disease are recognized,
viz. (i) the catarrhal stage, (2) the spasmodic or paroxysmal
stage, (3) the stage of decline.
The first stage is characterized by the ordinary phenomena
of a catarrh, with sneezing, watering of the eyes, irritation of the
throat, feverishness and cough, but in general there is nothing
in the symptoms to indicate that they are to develop into
whooping-cough, but the presence of an ulcer on the fraenum
linguae is said to be diagnostic. The catarrhal stage usually
lasts from ten to fourteen days. The second stage is marked by
the abatement of the catarrhal symptoms, but at the same time
by increase in the cough, which now occurs in irregular paroxysms
both by day and by night. Each paroxysm consists in a series
of violent and rapid expiratory coughs, succeeded by a loud
sonorous or crowing inspiration the " whoop." During the
coughing efforts thp air is driven with great force out of the lungs,
and as none can enter the chest the symptoms of impending
asphyxia appear. The patient grows deep-red or livid in the face,
the eyes appear as if they would burst from their sockets, and
suffocation seems imminent till relief is brought by the " whoop "
the louder and more vigorous the better. Occasionally blood
bursts from the nose, mouth and ears, or is extravasated into
the conjunctiva of the eyes. A single fit rarely lasts beyond from
half to three-quarters of a minute, but after the " whoop "
another recurs, and of these a number may come and go for
several minutes. The paroxysm ends by the coughing or vomiting
up of a viscid tenacious secretion, and usually after this the
patient seems comparatively well, or, it may be, somewhat
wearied and fretful. The frequency of the paroxysms varies
according to the severity of the case, being in some instances only
to the extent of one or two in the whole day, while in others
there may be several in the course of a single hour. Slight causes
serve to bring on the fits of coughing, such as the acts of swallow-
ing, talking, laughing, crying, &c., or they may occur without
any apparent exciting cause. In general children come to
recognize an impending attack by a feeling of tickling in the
throat, and they cling with dread to their mothers or nurses, or
take hold of some object near them for support during the
paroxysm; but although exhausted by the severe fit of coughing
they soon resume their play, apparently little the worse. The
attacks are on the whole most severe at night. This stage of
the disease usually continues for thirty to fifty days, but it may
WHYMPER WHYTE-MELVILLE
617
be shorter or longer. It is during this time that complications
are apt to arise which may become a source of danger greater
even than the malady itself. The chief of these are inflamma-
tory affections of the bronchi and lungs and convulsions, any of
which may prove fatal. When, however, the disease progresses
favourably, the third or terminal stage is announced by the less
frequent paroxysms of the cough, which generally loses in great
measure its " whooping " character. The patient's condition
altogether undergoes amendment, and the symptoms disappear
in from one to three weeks. It is to be observed, however, that
for a long period afterwards in any simple catarrh from which
the patient suffers the cough often assumes a spasmodic character,
which may suggest the erroneous notion that a relapse of the
whooping-cough has occurred.
In severe cases it occasionally happens that the disease leaves
behind it such structural changes in the lungs (emphysema,
&c.), as entail permanent shortness of breathing or a liability to
attacks of asthma. Further, whooping-cough is well known to
be one of those diseases of early life which are apt to give rise
to a weakened and vulnerable state of the general health, or
to call into activity any inherited morbid tendency, such as that
towards consumption.
As regards the treatment in mild cases, little is necessary
beyond keeping the patient warm and carefully attending to the
general health. The remedies applicable in the case of catarrh
or the milder forms of bronchitis are of service here, while gentle
counter-irritation to the chest by stimulating liniments may be
employed all through the attack. In mild weather the patient
may be in the open air. An abdominal binder should be worn
night and day in order to prevent the occurrence of hernia.
Systematic disinfection of the sputum by means of a solution
of corrosive sublimate or by burning should be practised in order
to check the spread of infection. In the more severe forms
efforts have to be employed to modify the severity of the
paroxysms. Numerous remedies are recommended, the chief
of which are the bromides of ammonium or potassium, chloral,
codeine, &c. These can only be safely administered under
medical advice, and with due regard to the symptoms in
individual cases. During convalescence, where the cough still
continues to be troublesome, a change of air will often effect its
removal.
WHYMPER, EDWARD (1840- ), British artist, explorer
and mountaineer, was born in London on the 27th of April 1840.
The son of an artist, he was at an early age trained to the profes-
sion of a wood-engraver. In 1860 he was commissioned to make
a series of sketches of Alpine scenery, and undertook an extensive
journey in the Central and Western Alps. Among the objects
of this tour was the illustration of an attempt, which proved
unsuccessful, made by Professor Bonney's party, to ascend Mont
Pelvoux, at that time believed to be the highest peak of the
Dauphine Alps. He successfully accomplished the ascent in
1861 the first of a series of expeditions that threw much light
on the topography of a district at that time very imperfectly
mapped. From the summit of Mont Pelvoux he discovered that
it was overtopped by a neighbouring peak, subsequently named
the Pointe des Ecrins, which, before the annexation of Savoy
added Mont Blanc to the possessions of France, was the highest
point in the French Alps. Its ascent by Mr Whymper's party
in 1864 was perhaps the most remarkable feat of mountaineering
up to that date. The years 1861 to 1865 are filled with a number
of new expeditions in the Mont Blanc group and the Pennine Alps,
among them the ascent of the Aiguille Verte and the crossing of
the Morning Pass. Professor Tyndall and Mr Whymper emu-
lated each other in fruitless attempts to reach the summit of the
Matterhorn by the south-western or Italian ridge. Mr Whymper,
six times repulsed, determined to try the eastern face, convinced
that its precipitous appearance when viewed from Zermatt was
an optical illusion, and that the dip of the strata, which on the
Italian side formed a continuous series of overhangs, should make
the opposite side a natural staircase. His attempt by what is now
the usual route was crowned with success (i4th of July 1865);
but on the descent four of the party slipped and were killed, and
only the breaking of the rope saved Mr Whymper and the two
remaining guides from the same fate. The account of his
attempts on the Matterhorn occupies the greater part of his
Scrambles among the Alps (1871), in which the illustrations
are engraved by the author himself, and are very beautiful.
His campaign of 1865 had been planned to exercise his judgment
in the choice of routes as a preparation for an expedition to
Greenland (1867). This resulted in an important collection of
fossil plants, which were described by Professor Heer and
deposited in the British Museum. Mr Whymper's report was
published in the Report of the British Association for the year
1 86p. Though hampered by want of means and by the prevalence
of an epidemic among the natives, he proved that the interior
could be explored by the use of suitably constructed sledges, and
thus contributed an important advance to Arctic exploration.
Another expedition followed in 1872, and was devoted to a survey
of the coast-line. He next organized an expedition to Ecuador,
designed primarily to collect data for the study of mountain-
sickness and of the effect of diminished pressure on the human
frame. He took as his chief guide Jean-Antoine Carrel, whose
subsequent death from exhaustion on the Matterhorn after
bringing his employers into safety through a snowstorm forms
one of the noblest pages in the history of mountaineering. During
1880 Mr Whymper on two occasions ascended Chimborazo,
whose summit, 20,500 ft. above sea-level, had never before been
reached; spent a night on the summit of Cotopaxi, and made-
first ascents of half-a-dozen other great peaks. In 1892 he
published the results of his journey in a volume, entitled Travels
amongst the Great Andes of the Equator. His observations on
mountain-sickness led him to conclude that it was caused by
"diminution in atmospheric pressure, which operates in at least
two ways namely, (a) by lessening the value of the air that can
be inspired in any given time, and (6) by causing the air or gas
within the body to expand, and to press upon the internal organs" ;
and that " the effects produced by (6) may be temporary and
pass away when equilibrium has been restored between the
internal and external pressure." The publication of his work
was recognized on the part of the Royal Geographical Society
by the award of the Patron's medal. His experiences in South
America having convinced him of certain serious errors in the
readings of aneroid barometers at high altitudes, he published a
work, entitled How to Use the Aneroid Barometer, and succeeded
in introducing important improvements in their construction.
He afterwards published two guide-books to Zermatt and
Chamonix. In 1901-1905 he undertook an expedition in the
region of the Great Divide of the Canadian Rockies.
WHYTE, ALEXANDER (1837- ), Scottish divine, was
born at Kirriemuir in Forfarshire on the I3th of January 1837,
and was educated at the university of Aberdeen and at New
College, Edinburgh. He entered the ministry of the Free Church
of Scotland and after serving as colleague in Free St John's,
Glasgow (1866-1870), removed to Edinburgh as colleague and
successor to Dr R. S. Candlish at Free St George's. In 1909 he
succeeded Dr Marcus Dods as principal, and professor of New
Testament literature, at New College, Edinburgh.
Among his publications are Characters and Characteristics of
William Law (1893); Bunyan Characters (3 vols., 1894); Samuel
Rutherford (1894); An Appreciation of Jacob Behmen (1895);
Lancelot Andrewes and his Private Devotions (1895); Bible Characters
(7 vols., 1897); Santa Teresa (1897); Father John of Cronstadt
(1898); An Appreciation of Browne's Religio Medici (1898); Cardinal
Newman, An Appreciation (1901).
WHYTE-MELVILLE, GEORGE JOHN (1821-1878), English
novelist, son of John Whyte-Melville of Strathkinness, Fifeshire,
and grandson on his mother's side of the sth duke of Leeds,
was born on the igth of June 1821. Whyte-Melville received his
education at Eton, entered the army in 1839, became captain in
the Coldstream Guards in 1846 and retired in 1849. After trans-
lating Horace (1850) in fluent and graceful verse, he published
his first novel, Digby Grand, in 1853. The unflagging verve and
intimate technical knowledge with which he described sporting
scenes and sporting characters at once drew attention to him as
a novelist with a new vein. He was the laureate of fox-hunting;
6i8
WICHITA WICKLOW
all his most popular and distinctive heroes and heroines, Digby
Grand, Tilbury Nogo, the Honourable Crasher, Mr Sawyer,
Kate Coventry, Mrs Lascelles, are or would be mighty hunters.
Tilbury Nogo was contributed to the Sporting Magazine in 1853
and published separately in 1854. He showed in the adventures
of Mr Nogo and it became more apparent in his later works
that he had a surer hand in humorous narrative than in pathetic
description; his pathos is the pathos of the preacher. His next
novel, General Bounce, appeared in Eraser's Magazine (1854).
When the Crimean War broke out Whyte-Melville went out as
a volunteer major of Turkish irregular cavalry; but this was
the only break in his literary career from the time that he began
to write novels till his death. By a strange accident, he lost his
life in the hunting-field on the 5th of December 1878, the hero
of many a stiff ride meeting his fate in galloping quietly over an
ordinary ploughed field in the Vale of the White Horse.
Twenty-one novels appeared from his pen after his return from
the Crimea -.Kate Coventry (1856); The Interpreter (1858); Holmby
House (1860); Good for Nothing (1861); Market Harborough (1861);
The Queen's Maries (1862); The. Gladiators (1863); Brookes of
Bridlemere (1864); Cerise (1866); Bones and I (1868); The White
Rose (1868); M or N (1869); Contraband (1870); Sarchedon (1871);
Satanella (1873); Uncle John (1874); Sister Louise (i8T$);Kater-
felto (1875); Rosine (1875); Roy's Wife (1878); Black but Comely
(1878). Several of these novels are historical, The Gladiators being
perhaps the most famous of them. As an historical novelist Whyte-
Melville is not equal to Harrison Ainsworth in painstaking accuracy
and minuteness of detail ; but he makes his characters live and move
with great vividness. It is on his portraiture of contemporary sport-
ing society that his reputation as a novelist must rest ; and, though
now and then a character reappears, such as the supercilious stud-
groom, the dark and wary steeple-chaser, or the fascinating sporting
widow, his variety in the invention of incidents is amazing. Whyte-
Melville was not merely the annalist of sporting society for his genera-
tion, but may also be fairly described as the principal moralist of that
society ; he exerted a considerable and a wholesome influence on the
manners and morals of the gilded youth of his time. His Songs and
Verses (1869) and his metrical Legend of the True Cross (1873), though
respectable in point of versification, are of no particular merit.
WICHITA, a tribe of North American Indians of Caddoan
stock. They call themselves Kitikitish or Tawehash. Their
former range was between the Red and Washita rivers, Oklahoma,
and they are now on a reservation there. They were kinsmen
of the Pawnee, and the French called them Pani Pique ("Tat-
tooed Pawnee '"') They were known to other Indians as the
" Tattooed People " in allusion to the extensive tattooing
customary among them. They numbered 3000 in or about 1800,
but only about 300 now survive.
WICHITA, a city and the county-seat of Sedgwick county,
Kansas, U.S.A., on the Arkansas river, at the mouth of the
Little Arkansas, 208 m. (by rail) S.W. of Kansas City. Pop.
(1880) 4911; (1800) 23,853; (1900) 24,671, of whom 1447 were
foreign-born and 1389 were negroes; (1910 census), 52,450.
Area, 18-75 sq. m. Wichita is served by the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri
Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, and the Kansas City,
Mexico & Orient railways. The site of the city is level, about
1300 ft. above the sea. The principal public buildings are the
Federal building, the city hall, the county court house, a Y.M.C.A.
building, an auditorium and exposition hall and a Masonic
Temple. In Wichita are Fairmount College (Congregational;
co-educational; organized as a preparatory school in 1892 and as
a college in 1895); Friends' University (Society of Friends;
co-educational; 1898); and Mount Carmel Academy and the
Pro-Cathedral School (both Roman Catholic). Among the city's
parks (area in 1909, 325 acres) is one (Riverside) of 146 acres.
The city is supplied with natural gas. Wichita is a transporta-
tion centre for the rich agricultural region surrounding it, and is
an important market for broom-corn. In 1905 it ranked third
among the cities of the state in value of its factory product
($7,389,844). The principal industry is slaughtering and meat-
packing. The Kansas City, Mexico & Orient railway has car-
shops here. Wichita, named from an Indian tribe, was settled
in 1870, and was chartered as a city in 1871. In 1909 the city
adopted by popular vote government by commission under a
state law of 1907 providing for a mayor and four commissioners,
heads of the executive, finance, streets and public improvements,
parks, public buildings and health, and water and lights depart-
ments, all elected for two years and nominated by primary
election or by petition signed by at least 25 voters.
WICK, a royal, municipal and police burgh, seaport and
county town of Caithness, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 7911. It is
situated at the head of Wick Bay, on the North Sea, 327 m. N.
of Edinburgh, by the North British and Highland railways.
It consists of the old burgh and Louisburgh, its continuation,
on the north bank of the river Wick, and of Pulteneytown, the
chief seat of commerce and trade, on the south side. Pulteney-
town, laid out in 1805 by the British Fishery Society, is built on
a regular plan; and Wick proper consists chiefly of the narrow
and irregular High Street, with Bridge Street, more regularly
built, which contains the town hall and the county buildings.
In Pulteneytown there are an academy, a chamber of commerce,
a naval reserve station and a fish exchange. Among other
buildings are the free libraries, the Rhind Charitable Institution
and the combination hospital. The port consists of two harbours
of fair size, but the entrance is dangerous in stormy weather.
The chief exports are fish, cattle and agricultural produce, and
the imports include coal, wood and provisions. Steamers from
Leith and Aberdeen run twice a week and there is also weekly
communication with Stromness, Kirkwall and Lerwick. It is
to its fisheries that the town owes its prosperity. For many
years it was the chief seat of the herring fishing on the east coast,
but its insufficient harbour accommodation has hampered its
progress, and both Peterhead and Fraserburgh surpass it as
fishing ports. Women undertake the cleaning and curing, and
the work attracts them from all parts. So expert are they that
on the occasion of a heavy catch they are sent as far even as
Yarmouth to direct and assist the local hands. Shipbuilding
has now been discontinued, but boat-building and net-making
are extensively carried on. There are also cooperage, the
manufacture of fish-guano and fish products, flour mills, steam
saw mills, a ropery and a woollen manufactory, a brewery and
a distillery. The town, with Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch,
Kirkwall and Tain, forms the Wick group of parliamentary
burghs. Wick (Vik or " bay ") is mentioned as early as 1 140.
It was constituted a royal burgh by James VI. in 1589, its
superior being then George Sinclair, 5th earl of Caithness. By
a parliamentary bounty in 1768 some impetus was given to
the herring-fishery, but its real importance dates from the
construction of a harbour in 1808.
WICKLOW, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded E. by St George's Channel, N. by the county of Dublin,
S. by Wexford and W. by Carlow and detached portions of
Kildare. The area is 500, 216 acres or about 782 sq. m. Wicklow
is among the most famous counties of Ireland for beauty of
scenery, both coastal and more especially inland. The coast is
precipitous and picturesque, but very dangerous of approach
owing to sandbanks. There are no inlets that can be properly
termed bays. The harbour at Wicklow has a considerable trade;
but that of Arklow is suitable only for small vessels. To the
north of the town of Wicklow there is a remarkable shingle beach,
partly piled up by the waves and currents. The central portion
of the county is occupied by a mountain range, forming one of the
four principal mountain groups of Ireland. The direction of the
range is from N.E. to S.Wi, and the highest elevations are gener-
ally attained along the central line. The range consists of long
sweeping moorlands, rising occasionally by precipitous escarp-
ments into culminating points, the highest summits being
Kippure (2473 ft.), Duff Hill (2364), Table Mountain (2416) and
Lugnaquilla (3039), the last acquired by the War Office as a
manoeuvring ground. The range rises from the north by a
succession of ridges intersected by deep glens, and subsides
towards the borders of Wexford and Carlow. To the north its
foothills enter county Dublin, and add attraction to the southern
residential outskirts of the capital.
In the valleys there are many instances of old river terraces,
the more remarkable being those at the lower end of Glenmalure
and the lower end of Glendalough. It is in its deep glens that
WICKLOW WICKRAM
619
much of the peculiar charm of Wicklow scenery is to be found,
the frequently rugged natural features contrasting finely with
the rich and luxuriant foliage of the extensive woods which line
their banks. Among the more famous of these glens are Glen-
dalough, Dargle, Glencree, Glen of the Downs, Devil's Glen,
Glenmulure and the beautiful vale of Avoca or Ovoca. The
principal rivers are the Liffey, on the north-western border;
the Vartry, which passes through Devil's Glen to the sea north
of Wicklow Head; the Avonmore and the Avonbeg, which unite
at the " meeting of the waters " to form the Avoca, which is
afterwards joined by the Aughrim and falls into the sea at
Arklow; and the Slaney, in the west of the county, passing south-
wards into Carlow. There are a number of small but finely situ-
ated lakes in the valleys, the principal being Loughs Dan, Bray and
Tay or Luggelaw, and the loughs of Glendalough. The trout-
fishing is generally fair. Owing to its proximity to Dublin and
its accessibility from England, the portions of the county possess-
ing scenic interest have been opened up to great advantage.
Bray in the north is one of the most popular seaside resorts in
the country, and Greystones, 5 m. S., is a smaller one. Of the
small towns and villages inland which are much frequented for
the beauty of the country in which they lie, are Enniskerry,
west of Bray, and near the pass of the Scalp; Laragh, near
Glendalough, from which a great military road runs S.W. across
the hills below Lugnaquilla; and, on the railway south of
Wicklow, Rathdrum, a beautifully situated village, Woodenbridge
in the Vale of Avoca and Aughrim. Near the village of Shillelagh
lies the wood which is said to have given the name of shillelagh
to the oaken or blackthorn staves used by Irishmen. Ashford
and Roundwood on the Vastry river, Delgany near the Glen of
the Downs, and Rathnew, a centre of coach routes, especially
for the Devil's Glen, must also be mentioned. The beauty of
the central district of the Wicklow mountains lies in its wild
solitude in contradistinction to the more gentle scenery of the
populated glens. In the extreme north-west of the county
Blessington is a favourite resort from Dublin, served by a steam
tramway, which continues up the valley of the Liffey to the
waterfalls of Pollaphuca. The climate near the sea is remarkably
mild, and permits the myrtle and arbutus to grow.
Geology. Wicklow, as regards its geology, is mainly an extension
of county Wexford, the Leinster chain bounding it on the west, and
Silurian foothills sloping thence down to the sea. Theliighland of
muscovite-granite, with a marginal zone of mica-schist, produced by
contact-action on the Silurian shales, runs from Shillelagh to the sea
north of Bray, its highest point being Lugnaquilla. The rounded
heather-clad moors give way to more broken country on either side,
where the streams cut deeply into the Silurian region. The water-
supply of Dublin is obtained from an artificial lake on the first
plateau of the foothills at Roundwood. From Wicklow town to near
Bray, red and greenish slates and yellow-brown quartzites, probably
Cambrian, form a hilly country, in which rise Carrick Mt., the Great
Sugarloaf and Bray Head. Oldhamia occurs in this series. Volcanic
anil intrusive felsites and diprites abound in the Silurian beds of the
south, running along the strike of the strata. A considerable amount
of gold has been extracted from the valley-gravels north of Croghan
Kinshela on the Wexford border. Tinstone has also been found in
small quantities. Lead-ore is raised west of Laragh, and the mines
in the Avoca valley have been worked for copper, lead and sulphur,
the last-named being obtained from pyrite. Paving-setts are made
from the diorite at Arklow, and granite is extensively quarried at
Ballyknockan on the west side of the mountain-chain.
Industries. The land in the lower grounds is fertile; and although
tlu' greater part of the higher districts is covered with heath and turf,
it affords good pasturage for sheep. There is a considerable extent of
natural timber as well as artificial plantations. The acreage under
pasture is nearly three times that of tillage, and, whereas the principal
crops of oats and potatoes decrease considerably, the numbers of
sheep, cattle, pigs and poultry are well maintained. Except in the
Avoca district, where the mining industry is of some importance, the
occupations are chiefly agricujtural. The port of Wicklow is the
headquarters of a sea-fishery district.
The Dublin and South-Eastern railway skirts the coast by way of
Bray and the town of Wicklow, touching it again at Arklow, with a
branch line from Woodenbridge junction to Shillelagh. A branch
of the Great Southern & Western line from Sallins skirts the west
of the county by Baltinglass.
Population and Administration. The population (64,492 in
1891, 60,824 in 1901) decreases to a less extent than the average
of the Irish counties, and emigration is considerable. Of the
total about 80% are Roman Catholics, and 18% Protestant
Episcopalians; about 80% forms the rural population. Bray
(pop. 7424), Wicklow (the county town, 3288) and Arklow (4944)
are the principal towns, all on the coast; Wicklow is the only
considerable port. Wicklow returned to the Irish parliament,
until the Union in 1800, two county members and two each for
the boroughs of Baltinglass, Bray, Tinahely and Arklow; it
is now formed into two parliamentary divisions, an eastern and
a western, each returning one member. The county is divided
into eight baronies. It is mainly in the Protestant diocese of
Dublin and in the Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin, Kildare and
Leighlin and Ferns. Assizes are held at Wicklow, and quarter-
sessions at Bray, Baltinglass, Tinahely, Arklow and Wicklow.
History and Antiquities. Wicklow was not made a county
until 1606. It was the last Irish ground shired, for in this
mountainous district the Irish were long able to preserve inde-
pendence. Wicklow sided with the royal cause during the
Cromwellian wars, but on Cromwell's advance submitted to him
without striking a blow. During the rebellion of 1798 some of
the insurgents took refuge within its mountain fastnesses, and an
engagement took place near Aughrim between a band of them
under Joseph Holt (i 756-1826) and the British troops. A second
skirmish was fought at Arklow between the rebels and General
Needham, the former being defeated.
Of the ancient cromlechs there are three of some interest, one near
Enniskerry, another on the summit of Lugnaquilla and a third, with
a druidical circle, at Donaghmore. There are comparatively un-
important monastic remains at Rathdrum, Baltinglass and Wicklow.
The ruins in the vale of Glendalough, known as the " seven churches,"
including a perfect round tower, are, perhaps excepting Clonmacnoise,
the most remarkable ecclesiastical remains in Ireland. They owe
their origin to St Kevin, who lived in the vale as a hermit, and is
reputed to have died on the 3rd of June 618. Of the old fortalices or
strongholds associated with the early wars, those of special interest
are Black Castle, near Wicklow, originally founded by the Norman
invaders, but taken by the Irish in 1301, and afterwards rebuilt by
William Fitzwilliam; the scattered remains of Castle Kevin, the
ancient stronghold of the O'Tooles, by whom it was probably
originally built in the I2th century; and the ruins of the old castle o'f
the Ormondes at Arklow, founded by Theobald FitzWaltcr (d. 1285),
the scene of frequent conflicts up to the time of Cromwell, by whom it
was demolished in 1649, and now containing within the interior of its
ruined walls a constabulary barrack. The fine mansion of Powers-
court occupies the site of an old fortalice founded by De la Poer, one
of the knights who landed with Strongbow; in the reign of Henry
VIII. it was taken by the O'Tooles and O'Brynes.
WICKLOW, a seaport, market town, and the county town of
county Wicklow, Ireland, picturesquely situated at the mouth
cf a lagoon which receives the river Vartry and other streams,
28^ m. S. of Dublin by the Dublin & South-Eastern railway.
Pop. (1901) 3288. The harbour, which is governed by commis-
sioners and can accommodate vessels of 1 500 tons, has two piers,
with quayage. There is a considerable import trade in coal,
timber, iron and slate; and some exports of grain and metallic
ore, but the latter suffers by competition with the imports to
Britain of sulphur ore from Spain. The town has county build-
ings, a parish church embodying a good Norman door from a
previous structure, some ruins of a Franciscan abbey of the I3th
century, and remains of Black Castle, on a commanding situation
above the sea, founded in Norman times and rebuilt by William
Fitzwilliam after capture by the Irish in 1301. The name shows
the town to have been a settlement of the Norsemen. The cliff
scenery to the S. towards Wicklow Head is fine, and the town has
some claims as a seaside resort. It is governed by an urban
district council.
WICKRAM, JORG, or GEORG (d. c. 1560), German poet and
novelist, was a native of Colmar in Alsace; the date of his birth
is unknown. He passed the latter part of his life as town clerk
of Burgheim on the Rhine, and died before 1562. Wickram
was a many-sided writer. He founded a Meistersinger school
in Colmar in 1549, and has left a number of Mcislersingerliedcr.
He edited Albrecht von Halberstadt's Middle High German
version of Ovid's Metamorphoses (1545), and in 1555 he published
Das Rollwagenbucltlfin, one of the best of the many German
collections of tales and anecdotes which appeared in the i6th
century. The title of the book implies its object, namely, to
620
WIDDRINGTON, BARONS WIDUKIND
supply reading for the traveller in the " Rollwagen " or diligences.
As a dramatist, Wickram wrote Fastnachtsspiek (Das Narren-
giessen, 1537; Der treue Eckart, 1538; and two dramas on
biblical subjects, Der verlorene Sohn (1540) and Tobias (1551).
A moralizing poem, Der irrereitende Pilger (1556), is half -satiric,
half-didactic. It is, however, as a novelist that Wickram has
left the deepest mark on his time, his chief romances being Ritler
Galmy aus SchoMand (1539), Gabriotto una Reinhard (1554),
Der Knabenspiegel (1554), Von guten und bosen Nachbarn (1556)
and Der Goldfaden (1557). These may be regarded as the earliest
attempts in German literature to create that modern type of
middle-class fiction which ultimately took the place of the
decadent medieval romance of chivalry.
Wickram's works have been edited by J. Bolte and W. Scheel for
the Stuttgart Litsrarischer Verein (vols., 222, 223, 229, 230, 1900-
1903) ; Der Ritler Galmy was republished by F. de la Motte Fouque'
in 1806; Der Goldfaden by K. Brentano in 1809; the Rollwagen-
buchlein was edited by H. Kurz in 1865, and there is also a reprint
of it in Reclam's Universalbibliothek. See A. Stober, /. Wickram
(1866); W. Scherer, Die Anfdnge des deutschen Prosaromans (1877).
WIDDRINGTON, BARONS. In November 1643 Sir William
Widdrington (1610-1651), of Widdrington, Northumberland,
son and heir of Sir Henry Widdrington (d. 1623), was created
Baron Widdrington, as a reward for his loyalty to Charles I.
He had been member for Northumberland in both the Short
and the Long Parliaments in 1640, but in August 1642 he was
expelled because he had joined the royal standard. He fought
for the king chiefly in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire during 1642
and 1643; he was governor of Lincoln in 1643, but in 1644, after
helping to defend York, he left England. Although in 1648 he
had been condemned to death by the House of Commons, he
accompanied Charles II. to Scotland in 1650, and he was mortally
wounded whilst fighting for him at Wigan, dying on the 3rd of
September 1651. His great-grandson, William, the 4th baron
(1678-1743), took part in the Jacobite rising of 1715, and with
two of his. brothers was taken prisoner after the fight at Preston.
He was convicted of high treason, and his title and estates were
forfeited, but he was not put to death, and he survived until the
I9th of April 1743. When his son, Henry Francis Widdrington,
who claimed the barony, died in September 1774, the family
appears to have become extinct.
Other eminent members of this family were Sir Thomas Widdring-
ton and his brother Ralph. Havingmarried adaughterof Ferdinando
Fairfax, afterwards 2nd Lord Fairfax, Thomas Widdrington was
knighted at York in 1639, and in 1640 he became member of parlia-
ment for Berwick. He was already a barrister, and his legal know-
ledge was very useful during the Civil War. In 1651 he was chosen
a member of the council of state, although he had declined to have
any share in the trial of the king. Widdrington was elected Speaker
in September 1656, and in June 1658 he was appointed chief baron of
the exchequer. In 1659 and again in 1660 he was a member of the
council of state, and on three occasions he was one of the com-
missioners of the great seal, but he lost some of his offices when
Charles II. was restored. However, he remained in parliament until
his death on the I3th of May 1664. He left four daughters, but
no sons. Widdrington, who founded a school at Stamfordham,
Northumberland, wrote Analecta Eboracensia; some Remaynes of the
city of York. This was not published until 1877, when it was edited
with introduction and notes by the Rev. Caesar Caine. His younger
brother, Ralph Widdrington (d. 1688), was educated at Christ's
College, Cambridge, where he made the acquaintance of Milton. In
1654 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Cambridge, and in
1673 Lady Margaret professor of divinity.
The name of Roger Widdrington was taken by Thomas Preston
('563-1640), a Benedictine monk, who wrote several books of a
controversial nature, and passed much of his time in prison, being
still a captive when he died on the 3rd of April 1640. (See Rev. E.
Taunton, The English Black Monks of St Benedict, 1897.)
In 1840 the writer, Samuel Edward Cook, took the name of
Widdrington, his mother being the heiress of some of the estates of
this family. Having served in the British navy he lived for some
years in Spain, writing Sketches in Spain during the years 1829-
1832 (London, 1834) ; and Spain and the Spaniards in 1843 (London,
1844). He died at hfs residence, Newton Hall, Northumberland, on
the nth of January 1856 and was succeeded in the ownership of his
estates by his nephew, Shalcross Fitzherbert Jacson, who took the
name Widdrington. See Rev. John Hodgson, History of Northumber-
land (1820-1840).
WIDNES, a municipal borough in the Widnes parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, on the Mersey, 12 m. E.S.E.
from Liverpool, served by the London & North-Western and
Lancashire & Yorkshire railways and the Cheshire lines.
Pop. (1901) 28,580. It is wholly of modern growth, for in 1851
the population was under 2000. There are capacious docks on
the river, which is crossed by a wrought-iron bridge, 1000 ft.
long, and 95 in height, completed in 1868, and having two lines
of railway and a footpath. Widnes is one of the principal seats
of the alkali and soap manufacture, and has also grease-works
for locomotives and waggons, copper works, iron-foundries, oil
and paint works and sail-cloth manufactories. The barony of
Widnes in 1554-1555 was declared to be part of the duchy cf
Lancaster. The town was incorporated in 1892, and the corpora-
tion consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
3 no acres.
WIDOR, CHARLES MARIE (1845- ), French composer
and organist, was born at Lyons on the 22nd of February 1845.
He studied first at Lyons, then at Brussels under Lemmens for
the organ and Fetis for composition. In 1870 he became organist
of the church of Saint Sulpice in Paris. He succeeded Cesar
Franck as professor of the organ at the Paris Conservatoire, where
he was also appointed professor of composition, counterpoint
and fugue in 1896. A very prolific composer, he displayed his
creative ability in a variety of different styles. His works include
an opera, Maltre Ambros (Opera Comique, 1896), La Korrigane
(ballet, given at the Opera, 1880), incidental music to Conte
d'avrti (1885), Les Jacobites (1885) and Jeanne d' Arc (a panto-
mime play, 1890), three symphonies, The Walpurgis Night and
other works for orchestra, a quintet for strings and piano, trio
for piano and strings, a mass, psalms and other sacred composi-
tions, symphonies for organ, a large number of piano pieces and
many songs.
WIDUKIND, Saxon historian, was the author of Res gestae
Saxonicae. Nothing is known of his life except that he was a
monk at the Benedictine abbey of Corvey, and that he died about
1004, although various other conjectures have been formed by
students of his work. He is also supposed to have written lives
of St Paul and St Thecla, but no traces of these now remain.
It is uncertain whether he was a resident at the court of the
emperor Otto the Great or not, and ako whether he was on
intimate terms with Otto's illegitimate son William, archbishop
of Mainz. His Res gestae Saxonicae, dedicated to Matilda, abbess
of Quedlinburg, who was a daughter of Otto the Great, is divided
into three books, and the greater part of it was undoubtedly
written during the lifetime of the emperor, probably about 968.
Starting with certain surmises upon the origin of the Saxons,
he deals with the war between Theuderich I., king of Austrasia,
and the Thuringians, in which the Saxons played an important
part. An allusion to the conversion of the race to Christianity
under Charlemagne brings him to the early Saxon dukes and the
reign of Henry the Fowler, whose campaigns are referred to in
some detail. The second book opens with the election of Otto
the Great as German king, treats of the risings against his
authority, and concludes with the death of his wife Edith in 946.
In the third book the historian deals with Otto's expedition into
France, his troubles with his son Ludolf and his son-in-law,
Conrad the Red, duke of Lorraine, and the various wars in
Germany; but makes only casual reference to Otto's visits to
Italy in 951 and 962. He gives a vivid account of the defeat
of the Hungarians on the Lechfeld in August 955, and ends with
the death of Otto in 973 and a eulogy on his life.
Widukind formed his style upon that of Sallust; he was
familiar with the De vitis Caesarum of Suetonius, the Vita
Karoli magni of Einhard, and probably with Livy and Bede.
Many quotations from the Vulgate are found in his writings,
and there are traces of a knowledge of Virgil, Ovid and other
Roman poets. His sentences are occasionally abrupt and
lacking in clearness, his Latin words are sometimes germanized
(as when he writes michi for mihi) and grammatical errors are
not always absent. The earlier part of his work is taken from
tradition, but he wrote the contemporary part as one familiar
with court life and the events of the day. He says very little
about affairs outside Germany, and although laudatory of
WIDUKIND WIELAND
621
monastic life gives due prominence to secular affairs. He writes
.is a Saxon, proud of the history of his race and an admirer of
Henry the Fowler and Otto the Great.
Three manuscripts exist of the Res gestae, one of which is in the
Hritish Museum, and the book was first published at Basel in 1532.
I'lu- best edition is that edited by G. Waitz in the Monumenta
Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Band iii. (Hanover and Berlin,
1826). A good edition published at Hanover and Leipzig in 1904
contains an introduction by K. A. Kehr.
See R. Kopke, Widukind von Coney (BSrlin, 1867); I. Raase,
Widukind von Koryei (Rostock, 1880); and B. Simson, " Zur Kritik
lie-, Widukind " in the Neues Archiv der Gesellschafl fur altere
deulsche Geschichte, Band xii. (Hanover, 1876). (A. W. H.*)
WIDUKIND, or WITTEKIND (d. c. 807), leader of the Saxons
during the earlier part of their resistance to Charlemagne,
belonged to a noble Westphalian family, and is first mentioned
in 777 when his absence from an assembly of the Saxons held by
the Prankish king of Paderborn was a matter for remark. It is
inferred with considerable probability that he had taken a
leading part in the attacks on two Prankish garrisons in 776,
and possibly had shared in earlier fights against the Franks, and
so feared to meet the king. In 778 he returned from exile in
Denmark to lead a fresh rising, and in 782 the Saxons at his
instigation drove out the Prankish priests, and plundered the
border territories. It is uncertain whether Widukind shared in
the Saxon victory at the Siintel mountains, or what part he took
in the risings of 783 and 784. In 785 Charlemagne, leading an
expedition towards the mouth of the Elbe, learned that Widukind
was in the land of the Nordalbingians, on the right bank of the
river. Negotiations were begun, and the Saxon chief, assured of
his personal safety, appeared at the Prankish court at Attigny.
There he was baptized, the king acting as his sponsor and loading
him with gifts. The details of his later life are unknown. He
probably returned to Saxony and occupied there an influential
position, as in 922 the inheritance of the " old count or duke
Widukind " is referred to. Many legends have gathered around
his memory, and he was long regarded as a national hero by the
Saxons. He is reported to have been duke of Engria, to have
been a devoted Christian and a builder of churches, and to have
fallen in battle in 807. Kingly and princely houses have sought
to establish their descent from him, but except in the case of
Matilda, wife of the German king, Henry I. the Fowler, without
any success.
See W. Diekamp, Widukind der Sachsenfilhrer nach Geschichte und
Sage (Munster, 1877); J. Dettmer, Der Sachsenfilhrer Widukind
nach Geschichte und Sage (Wurzburg, 1879).
WIEDEMANN, GUSTAV HEINRICH (1826-1899), German
physicist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of October 1826. After
attending the Cologne gymnasium, he entered the university of
Berlin in 1844, and took his doctor's degree there three years
later. His thesis on that occasion was devoted to a question in
organic chemistry, for he held the opinion that the study of
chemistry is an indispensable preliminary to the pursuit of
physics, which was his ultimate aim. In Berlin he made the
acquaintance of H. von Helmholtz at the house of H. G. Magnus,
and was one of the founders of the Berlin Physical Society. In
1854 he left Berlin to become professor of physics in Basel
University, removing nine years afterwards to Brunswick
Polytechnic, and in 1866 to Karlsruhe Polytechnic. In 1871
he accepted the chair of physical chemistry at Leipzig. The
attention he had paid to chemistry in the earlier part of his
career enabled him to hold his own in this position, but he found
his work more congenial when in 1887 he was transferred to the
professorship of physics. He died at Leipzig on the 24th of
March 1899. His name is probably most widely known for his
literary work. In 1877 he undertook the editorship of the
Annalen der Physik und Chemie in succession to J. C. Poggen-
dorff, thus starting the series of that scientific periodical which
is familiarly cited as Wied. Ann. Another monumental work
for which he was responsible was Die Lehre ton der ElektricitSt,
or, as it was called in the first instance, Lehre von Galvanismus
und Elektromagnetismus, a book that is unsurpassed for accuracy
and comprehensiveness. He produced the first edition in
1861, and a fourth, revised and enlarged, was only completed a
short time before his death. But his original work was also
important. His data for the thermal conductivity of various
metals were for long the most trustworthy at the disposal of
physicists, and his determination of the ohm in terms of the
specific resistance of mercury showed remarkable skill in quanti-
tative research. He carried out a number of magnetic investiga-
tions which resulted in the discovery of many interesting pheno-
mena, some of which have been rediscovered by others; they
related among other things to the effect of mechanical strain on
the magnetic properties of the magnetic metals, to the relation
between the chemical composition of compound bodies and their
magnetic properties, and to a curious parallelism between the
laws of torsion and of magnetism. He also investigated electrical
endosmosis and the electrical resistance of electrolytes. His
eldest son, Eilhard Ernst Gustav, born at Berlin on the ist of
August 1852, became professor of physics at Erlangen in 1886,
and his younger son, Alfred, born at Berlin on the i8th of July
1856, was appointed to the extraordinary professorship of
Egyptology at Bonn in 1892.
WIELAND, CHRISTOPH MARTIN (1733-1813), German poet
and man of letters, was born at Oberholzheim, a village near
Biberach in Wurttemberg, on the sth of September 1733. His
father, who was pastor in Oberholzheim, and subsequently in
Biberach, took great pains with the child's education, and from
the town school of Biberach he passed on, before he had reached
his fourteenth year, to the gymnasium at Klosterberge, near
Magdeburg. He was a precocious child, and when he left school
in 1749 was widely read in the Latin classics and the leading
contemporary French writers; amongst German poets his
favourites were Brockes and Klopstock. While at home in the
summer of 1750, he fell in love with a kinswoman, Sephie Guter-
mann, and this love affair seems to have acted as an incentive
to poetic composition; under this inspiration he planned his
first ambitious work, Die Natur der Dinge (1752), a didactic poem
in six books. In 1750 he went to the university of Tubingen as
a student of law, but his time was mainly taken up with literary
studies. The poems he wrote at the university Hermann, an
epic (published by F. Muncker, 1886), Zwolf moralische Briefe
in Versen (1752), Anti-Ovid (1752) are pietistic in tone and
dominated by the influence of Klopstock. They attracted the
attention of the Swiss literary reformer, J. J. Bodmer, who
invited Wieland to visit him in Zurich in the summer of 1752.
After a few months, however, Bodmer felt himself as little in
sympathy with Wieland as, two years earlier, he had felt himself
with Klopstock, and the friends parted; but Wieland remained
in Switzerland until 1760, residing, in the last year, at Bern where
he obtained a position as private tutor. Here he stood in intimate
relations with Rousseau's friend Julie de Bondeli. Meanwhile
a change had come over Wieland's tastes; the writings of his
early Swiss years Der gepriifte Abraham (1753), Sympathies
(1756), Empfindungen eines Christen (1757) were still in the
manner of his earlier writings, but with the tragedies, Lady
Johanna Gray (1758), and Clementina von Porrelta (1760) the
latter based on Richardson's Sir Charles Grandison the epic
fragment Cyrus (1759), and the " moral story in dialogues,"
Araspes und Panthea (1760), Wieland, as Lessing said, " forsook
the ethereal spheres to wander again among the sons of men."
Wieland's conversion was completed at Biberach, whither he
had returned in 1760, as director of the chancery. The dullness
and monotony of his life here was relieved by the friendship of
a Count Stadion, whose library in the castle of Warthausen, not
far from Biberach, was well stocked with French and English
literature. Here, too, Wieland met again his early love Sophie
Gutermann, who had meanwhile become the wife of Hofrat La
Roche, then manager of Count Stadion's estates. The former poet
of an austere pietism now became the advocate of a light-hearted
philosophy, from which frivolity and sensuality were not ex-
cluded. In Don Sylvia von Rosalva (1764), a romance in imita-
tion of Don Quixote, he held up to ridicule his earlier faith and
in the Komische Enahlungen (1765) he gave his extravagant
imagination only too free a rein. More important is the novel
Geschichle des Agathon (1766-1767), in which, under the guise of
622
WIELICZKA WIENER-NEUSTADT
a Greek fiction, Wieland described his own spiritual and intel-
lectual growth. This work, which Lessing recommended as " a
novel of classic taste," marks an epoch in the development of
the modern psychological novel. Of equal importance was
Wieland's translation of twenty-two of Shakespeare's plays into
prose (8 vols., 1762-1766); it was the first attempt to present the
English poet to the German people in something approaching
entirety. With the poems Musarion oder die Philosophic der
Grazien (1768), Idris (1768), Combabus (1770), Der neue Amadis
(1771), Wieland opened the series of light and graceful romances
in verse which appealed so irresistibly to his contemporaries
and acted as an antidote to the sentimental excesses of the
subsequent Sturm und Drang movement. Wieland married in
1765, and between 1769 and 1772 was professor of philosophy
at Erfurt. In the last-mentioned year he published Der goldene
Spiegel oder die Kdnige von Scheschian, a pedagogic work in the
form of oriental stories; this attracted the attention of duchess
Anna Amalie of Saxe-Weimar and resulted in his appointment
as tutor to her two sons, Karl August and Konstantin, at Weimar.
With the exception of some years spent at Ossmannstedt, where
in later life he bought an estate, Weimar remained Wieland's
home until his death on the zoth of January 1813. Here, in
1773, he founded Der teutsche Merkur, which under his editorship
(1773-1789) became the most influential literary review in
Germany. Of the writings of his later years the most important
are the admirable satire on German provinciality the most
attractive of all his prose writings Die Abderilen, cine sehr
wahrscheinliche Geschichte (1774), and the charming poetic
romances, Das W^ntermarchen (1776), Das Sommermarchen (1777),
Geron der Adelige (1777), Die Wunsche oder Peruonte (1778), a
series culminating with Wieland's poetic masterpiece, the
romantic epic of Oberon (1780). Although belonging to a class
of poetry in which modern readers take but little interest, Oberon
has still, owing to the facile beauty of its stanzas, the power to
charm. In Wieland's later novels, such as the Geheime Geschichte
d:s Philosophen Peregrinus Proteus (1791) and Aristipp und
einige seiner Zeilgenossen (1800-1802), a didactic and philosophic
tendency obscures the small literary interest they possess. He
also translated Horace's Satires (1786), Lucian's Works (1788-
1789), Cicero's Letters (1808 ff.), and from 1796 to 1803 he
edited the Attisches Museum which did valuable service in
popularizing Greek studies.
Without creating a school in the strict sense of the term,
Wieland influenced very considerably the German literature of
his time. The verse-romance and the novel more especially
in Austria benefited by his example, and even the Romanticists
of a later date borrowed many a hint from him in their excursions
into the literatures of the south of Europe. The qualities which
distinguish his work, his fluent style and light touch, his careless
frivolity rather than poetic depth, show him to have been in
literary temperament more akin to Ariosto and Voltaire than to
the more spiritual and serious leaders of German poetry; but
these very qualities in Wieland's poetry introduced a balancing
element into German classical literature and added materially
to its fullness and completeness.
Editions of Wieland's Samtliche Werke appeared in (1704-1802, 45
vols.), (1818-1828, 53 vols.), (1839-1840, 36 vols.), and (1853-1858,
36 vols.). The latest edition (40 vols.) was edited by H. Diintzer
(1879-1882); a new critical edition is at present in preparation by
the Prussian Academy. There are numerous editions of selected
works, notably by H. Prohle in Kilrschner's Deutsche National-
literatur (vols. 51-56, 1883-1887); by F. Muncker (6 vols., 1889);
by W. Bolsche (4 vols., 1902). Collections of Wieland's letters were
edited by his son Ludwig (1815) and by H. Gessner (1815-1816);
his Letters to Sophie Laroche by F. Horn (1820). See J. G. Gruber,
C. M. Wielands Leben (4 vols., 1827-1828); H. Doring, C. M.
Wieland (1853); J. W. Loebell, C. M. Wieland (1858); H. Prohle,
Lessing, Wieland, Heinse (1876); L. F. Ofterdinger, Wielands Leben
und Wirken in Schwaben und in der Schweiz (1877) ; R. Keil, Wieland
und Reinhold (1885); F. Thalmeyr, Vber Wielands Klassizitdt,
Sprache und Stil (1894); M. Doll, Wieland und die Antike (1896);
C. A. Behmer, Sterne und Wieland (1899); W. Lenz, Wielands
Verhdltnis zu Spenser, Pope und Swift (1903); L. Hirzel, Wielands
Beziehungen zu den deutschen Romantikern (1904). See also M. Koch's
article in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1897). (J. G. R.)
WIELICZKA, a mining town in Galicia, Austria, 220 m.
by rail W. of Lemberg and 9 m. S.E. of Cracow. Pop. (1900)
6012. It is built on the slopes of a hill which half encircles the
place, and over the celebrated salt-mines of the same name.
These mines are the richest in Austria, and among the most
remarkable in the world. They consist of seven different levels,
one above the other, and have eleven shafts, two of which are
in the town. The levels are connected by flights of steps, and
are composed of a labyrinth of chambers and passages, whose
length aggregates over 65 m. The length of the mines from
E. to W. is 25 m., the breadth from N. to S. is 1050 yds. and the
depth reaches 980 ft. Many of the old chambers, some of which
are of enormous size, are embellished with portals, candelabra,
statues, &c., all hewn in rock-salt. There are also two large
chapels, containing altars, ornaments, &c., in rock-salt, a room
called the dancing saloon (Tanzsaal), where the objects of
interest found in the mines are kept; the Kronleuchtersaal, and
the chamber Michatovice are also worth mention. In the interior
of the mines are sixteen ponds, of which the large lake of Przykos
is 195 ft. long, no ft. broad, and 10-26 ft. deep. The mines
employ over 1000 workers, and yield about 60,000 tons annually.
The salt of Wieliczka is well known for its purity and solidity,
but has generally a grey or blackish colour. The date of the
discovery of the mines is unknown, but they were already worked
in the nth century. Since 1814 they have belonged entirely to
the Austrian government. The mines suffered greatly from
inundations in 1868 and 1879, and the soil on which the town is
built shows signs of subsidence.
See E. Windakiewicz, Das Steinsalzbergwerk in Witliczka (Freiberg,
1896).
WIELOPOLSKI, ALEKSANDER, Marquis of Gonzaga-Mysz-
kowski (1803-1877), Polish statesman, was educated in Vienna,
Warsaw, Paris and Gottingen. In 1830 he was elected a
member of the Polish diet on the Conservative side. At the
beginning of the Insurrection of 1831 he was sent to London to
obtain the assistance, or at least the mediation, of England; but
the only result of his mission was the publication of the pamphlet
Memoire presente a Lord Palmerston (Warsaw, 1831). On the
collapse of the insurrection he emigrated, and on his return to
Poland devoted himself exclusively to literature and the cultiva-
tion of his estates. On the occasion of the Galician outbreak
of 1845, when the Ruthenian peasantry massacred some hundreds
of Polish landowners, an outbreak generally attributed to the
machinations of the Austrian government, Wielopolski wrote
his famous Lettre d'un gentilhomme polonais au prince de Metter-
nich (Brussels, 1846), which caused a great sensation at the time,
and in which he attempted to prove that the Austrian court was
acting in collusion with the Russian in the affair. In 1861, when
Alexander II. was benevolently disposed towards the Poles and
made certain political and national concessions to them, Wielo-
polski was appointed president of the commissions of public
worship and justice and subsequently president of the council of
state. A visit to the Russian capital in November still further
established his influence, and in 1862 he was appointed adjutant
to the grand-duke Constantine. This office he held till the
1 2th of September 1863, when finding it impossible to resist the
rising current of radicalism and revolution he resigned all his
offices, and obtained at his own request unlimited leave of
absence. He retired to Dresden, where he died on the 3Oth of
December 1877.
See Henryk Lisicki, Le Marquis Wielopolski, sa vie et son temps
(Vienna, 1880); Wlodzimieriz Spasowicz, The Life and Policy of the
Marquis Wielopolski (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1882). (R. N. B.)
WIENER-NEUSTADT, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria,
31 m. S. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 28,438. It is situated
between the Fischa and the Leitha and is close to the Hungarian
frontier. It was almost entirely rebuilt after a destructive fire
in 1834, and ranks among the handsomest provincial towns in
Austria. Its ancient gates, walls and towers have disappeared,
but it still possesses a few medieval edifices, the most important
of which is the old castle of the dukes of Babenberg, founded in
the 1 2th century, and converted by Maria Theresa in 1752 into
a military academy. The Gothic chapel contains the remains
WIENIAWSKI WIESBADEN
623
of the emperor Maximilian I., who was born here in 1459. The
parish church, with its two lofty towers, is substantially a Roman-
building of the I3th century, but the choir and transepts
arc Gothic additions of a later date. The late Gothic church
of the old Cistercian abbey contains a handsome monument in
memory of Leonora of Portugal (d. 1467), consort of the emperor
Frederick III., and possesses a rich library and an interesting
museum. The town-house is also a noteworthy building and
contains large and important archives. The chief industrial
establishments are a large ammunition factory and an engine
factory; but manufactures of cotton, silk, velvet, pottery and
|i:ipcr, sugar-refining and tanning are also extensively carried on.
Trade is also brisk, and is facilitated by a canal connecting the
town with Vienna, and used chiefly for the transport of coal and
timber.
Neustadt was founded in 1 192, and was a favourite residence of
numerous Austrian sovereigns, acquiring the title of the " ever-
faithful town" (die aUtzeit getreue Stadt) from its unfailing
loyalty. In 1 246 it was the scene of a victory of the Hungarians
over the Austrians; and in 1486 it was taken by Matthias
Corvinus, king of Hungary, who, however, restored it to Maxi-
milian I. four years later. In 1529 and 1683 it was besieged by
the Turks. It was at Neustadt that the emperor Rudolf II.
granted to the Bohemian Protestants, in 1609, the " Majestats-
brief," or patent of equal rights, the revocation of which helped
to precipitate the Thirty Years' War.
Sec Hinner, Wandelbilder aus der Geschichte Wiener-Neustadts
(Wiener-Neustadt, 1892).
WIENIAWSKI, HENRI (1835-1880), Polish violinist and
composer, was born at Lublin, in Poland, on the loth of July
1835. He was a pupil of the Paris Conservatoire from 1843 to
1846, and again in 1849-1850. Meanwhile he had given concerts
in his native country and in Russia, and in 1850 entered upon
the career of a travelling virtuoso, together with his brother
Joseph, a distinguished pianist. He was appointed solo violinist
to the tsar in 1860, and taught in the Conservatoire of St Peters-
burg from 1862 to 1867. He went on tour again in 1872 with
Rubinstein in America, and on his return in 1874 was appointed
to succeed Vieuxtemps as professor in the Brussels Conservatoire;
but, like his predecessor, he was compelled through ill-health
to give up the post after three years, returning to a public
career in spite of his illness, until his death, which occurred in
a hospital in Moscow, on the 3ist of March 1880. He was a
wonderfully sympathetic solo player, and a good if not a great
quartet player. His Ligende, the fantasias on Faust and on
Russian airs, his two concertos and some other pieces, have
retained their high place in the violin repertory.
WIEPRECHT, WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1802-1872), German
musical conductor, composer and inventor, was born on the
ipth of August 1802, at Aschersleben, where his father was town
musician. According to his autobiography, Wieprecht early
learned from his father to play on nearly all wind instruments.
It was in violin-playing, however, that his father particularly
wished him to excel; and in 1819 he went to Dresden, where he
studied composition and the violin to such good purpose that
a year later he was given a position in the city orchestra of
Leipzig, playing also in those of the opera and the famous
Gewandhaus. At this time, besides playing the violin and
clarinet in the orchestra, he also gave solo performances on the
trombone. In 1824 he went to Berlin, where he became a member
of the royal orchestra, and was in the same year appointed
chamber musician to the king. His residence at Berlin gave
Wieprecht ample opportunity for the exercise of his genius for
military music, on which his fame mainiy rests. Several of his
marches were early adopted by the regimental bands, and a
more ambitious military composition attracted the attention
of Gasparo Spontini, at whose house he became an intimate guest.
It was now that he began to study acoustics, in order to correct
the deficiencies in military musical instruments. As the result,
he improved the valves of the brass instruments, and succeeded,
by constructing them on sounder acoustic principles, in greatly
increasing the volume and purity of their tone. He also invented
the bass tuba or bombardon in order to give greater richness and
power to the bass parts. In recognition of these inventions he
was, in 1835, honoured by the Royal Academy of Berlin. In
1838 he was appointed by the Prussian government director-
general of all the guards' bands, and in recognition of the magnifi-
cent performance by massed bands on the occasion of the
emperor Nicholas I.'s visit the same year, was awarded a special
uniform. In 1843 he became director-general of the bands of the
loth Confederate army corps, and from this time exercised a
profound influence on the development of military music through-
out Germany, and beyond. He was the first to arrange the
symphonies and overtures of the classical masters for military
instruments, and to organize those outdoor performances of
concert pieces by military bands which have done so much to
popularize good music in Germany and elsewhere. The perform-
ance arranged by him of Beethoven's " Battle of Vittoria," in
which the bugle calls were given by trumpeters stationed in
various parts of the garden and the cannon shots wore those of
real guns, created immense sensation. Besides the great work
he accomplished in Germany, Wieprecht, in 1847, reorganized the
military music in Turkey and, in 1852, in Guatemala. He
composed military songs as well as numerous marches, and con-
tributed frequently on his favourite subject to the Berlin musical
papers. He died on the 4th of August 1872. Wieprecht was a
man of genial, kindly and generous nature, and was associated
with many charitable foundations established for the benefit
of poor musicians.
WIESBADEN, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau. Pop. (1905) 100,953. It
is delightfully situated in a basin under the well-wooded south-
western spurs of the Taunus range, 5 m. N. of Mainz, 3 m. from
the right bank of the Rhine (at Biebrich), and 25 m. W. of
Frankfort -on-Main by rail. The town is on the whole sumptu-
ously built, with broad and regular streets. Villas and gardens
engirdle it on the north and east sides and extend up the hills
behind. Its prosperity is mainly due to its hot springs and mild
climate, which have rendered it a favourite winter as well as
summer resort. The general character of the place, with its
numerous hotels, pensions, bathing establishments, villas and
places of entertainment, is largely determined by the require-
ments of visitors, who in 1007 numbered 180,000. The principal
buildings are the royal palace, built in 1837-1840 as a residence
for the dukes of Nassau, and now a residence of the king of
Prussia; the Court Theatre (erected 1892-1894); the new
Kurhaus, a large and handsome establishment, with colonnades,
adjoining a beautiful and shady park; the town-hall, in the
German Renaissance style (1884-1888); the government offices
and the museum, with a picture gallery, a collection of antiquities,
and a library of 1 50,000 vols. Among the churches, which are all
modern, are the Protestant Marktkirche, in the Gothic style
with five towers, built 1853-1862; the Bergkirche; the Roman
Catholic church of St Boniface; the Anglican church and the
Russian church on the Neroberg. There are two synagogues.
Wiesbaden contains numerous scientific and educational institu-
tions, including a chemical laboratory, an agricultural college
and two musical conservatoria.
The alkaline thermal springs contain ? % of common salt, and
smaller quantities of other chlorides; and a great deal of their
efficacy is due to their high temperature, which varies from 1 56
to 104 Fahr. The water is generally cooled to 93 F. for bathing.
The principal spring is the Kochbrunnen (156 F.), the water of
which is drunk by sufferers from chronic dyspepsia and obesity.
There are twenty-eight other springs of nearly identical composi-
tion, many of which are used for bathing, and are efficacious
in cases of rheumatism, gout, nervous and female disorders and
skin diseases. The season lasts from April to October, but the
springs are open the whole year through and are also largely
attended in winter.
Two miles north-west of the town lies the Neroberg (800 ft.),
whence a fine view of the surrounding country is obtained, and
which is reached by a funicular railway from Beausite, and 6 m.
to the west lies the Hohe Wurzel (2025 ft.) with an outlook tower.
624
WIG
Wiesbaden is one of the oldest watering-places in Germany,
and may be regarded as the capital of the Taunus spas. The
springs mentioned by Pliny (Hist. nat. xxi. 2) as Fontes Matthiaci
were known to the Romans, who fortified the place c. 1 1 B.C. The
massive wall in the centre of the town known as the Heiden-
mauer was probably part of the fortifications built under Dio-
cletian. The name Wisibada (" meadow bath ") appears in 830.
Under the Carolingian monarchs it was the site of a palace, and
Otto I. gave it civic rights. In the nth century the town and
district passed to the counts of Nassau, fell to the Walram line
in 1255, and in 1353 Wiesbaden became with Idstein capital of
the county Nassau-Idstein. It suffered much from the ravages
of the Thirty Years' War and was destroyed in 1644. In 1744
it became the seat of government of the principality Nassau-
Usingen, and was from 1815 to 1-866 the capital of the duchy of
Nassau, when it passed with that duchy to Prussia. Though
the springs were never quite forgotten, they did not attain their
greatest repute until the close of the i8th century. From 1771
to 1873 Wiesbaden was a notorious gambling resort; but in the
latter year public gambling was suppressed by the Prussian
government.
See Roth, Geschichte und historische Topographic der Stadt Wies-
baden (Wiesbaden, 1883); Pagenstecher, Wiesbaden in medizinisch-
topographischer Beziehung (Wiesbaden, 1870); Kranz, Wiesbaden
und seine Thermen (Leipzig, 1884); Pfeiffer, Wiesbaden als Kurort
(5th ed., Wiesbaden, 1899); and Heyl, Wiesbaden und seine Umge-
bungen (27th ed., Wiesbaden, 1908).
WIG (short for " periwig," an alternative form of " peruke,"
Fr. perruque; cf. Span, peluca; conjecturally derived from
Lat. pilus), an artificial head of hair, worn as a personal adorn-
ment, disguise or symbol of office. The custom of wearing wigs
is of great antiquity. If, as seems probable, the curious head-
covering of a prehistoric ivory carving of a female head found
by M. Piette in the cave of Brassempouy in the Landes represents
a wig (see* Ray Lankester, Science from an Easy Chair, fig. 7)
the fashion is certainly some ioo,ooc years old. In historic
times, wigs were worn among the Egyptians as a royal and
official head-dress, and specimens of these have been recovered
from mummies. In Greece they were used by both men and
women, the most common name being ITTJCIKIJ or <t>tva.Kri, some-
times TTpoKoiuov or KOJUCU irpbaOtToi. A reference in Xenophon
(Cyr. i. 3. 2) to the false hair worn by Cyrus's grandfather
" as is customary among the Medes," and also a story in Aristotle
(Oecon. 4. 14), would suggest that wigs were introduced from
Persia, and were in use in Asia Minor. Another origin is sug-
gested by Athenaeus (xii. 523), who says that the lapygian
immigrants into Italy from Crete were the first to wear irpoKOfiia
irepiOerd, and the elaborately frizzled hair worn by some of the
figures in the frescoes found at Cnossus makes it probable that
the wearing of artificial hair was known to the Cretans. Lucian,
in the 2nd century, mentions wigs of both men and women as
a matter of course (Alex. 59, Dial. mer. n). The theatrical wig
was also in use in Greece, the various comic and tragic masks
having hair suited to the character represented. A. E. Haigh
(Attic Theatre, pp. 221, 239) refers to the black hair and beard
of the tyrant, the fair curls of the youthful hero, and the red
hair characteristic of the dishonest slave of comedy. These
conventions appear to have been handed on to the Roman
theatre.
At Rome wigs came into use certainly in the early days of the
empire. They were also known to the Carthaginians; Polybius
(iii. 78) says that Hannibal used wigs as a means of disguise.
The fashionable ladies of Rome were much addicted to false hair,
and we learn from Ovid, Amores, i. 14. 45) and Martial (v. 68)
that the golden hair imported from Germany was most favoured.
Juvenal (vi. 120) shows us Messalina assuming a yellow wig for
her visits to places of ill-fame, and the scholiast on the passage
says that the yellow wig was characteristic of courtesans.
The chief names for wigs were galerus, galericulum, corymbium,
capillamentrtm, caliendrum, or even comae emptae, &c. Galerus
meant in the first place a skull-cap, or coif, fastening under the
chin, and made of hide or fur, worn by peasants, athletes and
jiamines. The first men's wigs then would have been tight -fur
caps simulating hair, which would naturally suggest wigs of
false hair. Otho wore a wig (Suetonius, Olho 12), which could
not be distinguished from real hair, while Nero (Dio Cass. hi. 9)
wore a wig as a disguise, and Heliogabalus also wore one at times
(ibid. Ixxix. 13). Women continued to have wigs of different
colours as part of their ordinary wardrobe, and Faustina, wife
of Marcus Aurelius, is said to have had several hundred. An
amusing development of this is occasionally found in portrait
busts, e.g. that of Plautilla in the Louvre, in which the hair is
made movable, so that by changing the wig of the statue from
time to time it should never be out of fashion.
The Fathers of the Church violently attacked the custom of
wearing wigs, Tertullian (De cidtu fern. C. 7) being particularly
eloquent against them, but that they did not succeed in stamping
out the custom was proved by the finding of an auburn wig in
the grave of a Christian woman in the cemetery of St Cyriacus.
In 672 a synod of Constantinople forbade the wearing of artificial
hair.
Artificial hair has presumably always been worn by women
when the fashion required abundant locks. Thus, with the
development of elaborate coiffures in the i6th century, the
wearing of false hair became prevalent among ladies in Europe;
Queen Elizabeth had eighty attires of false hair, and Mary queen
of Scots was also in the habit of varying the attires of hair she
wore. The periwig of the i6th century, however, merely simu-
lated real hair, either as an adornment or to supply the defects
of nature. It was not till the i7th century that, the peruke was
worn as a distinctive feature of costume. The fashion started in
France. In 1620 the abb6 La Riviere appeared at the court of
Louis XIII. in a periwig made to simulate long fair hair, and
four years later the king himself, prematurely bald, also adopted
one and thus set the fashion. Louis XIV., who was proud of his
abundant hair, did not wear a wig till after 1670. Meanwhile,
his courtiers had continued to wear wigs in imitation of the royal
hair, and from Versailles the fashion spread through Europe.
In England it came in with the Restoration; for though the
prince of Wales (Charles I.), while in Paris on his way to Spain,
had " shadowed himself the most he could under a burly perruque,
which none in former days but bald-headed people used," he
had dropped the fashion on returning to England, and he and his
Cavaliers were distinguished from the " Roundheads " only by
wearing their own flowing locks. Under Charles II. the wearing
of the peruke became general. Pepys records that he parted
with his own hair and " paid 3 for a periwigg "j 1 and on going
to church in one he says " it did not prove so strange as I was
afraid it would." It was under Queen Anne, however, that the
wig attained its maximum development, covering the back and
shoulders and floating down over the chest. So far, indeed,
whatever the exaggeration of its proportions, the wig had been
a " counterfeit hair " intended to produce the illusion of abundant
natural locks. But, to quote the inimitable author of Ploca-
cosmos, " as the perukes became more common, their shape
and forms altered. Hence we hear of the clerical, the physical,
and the huge tie peruke for the man of law, the brigadier or
major for the army and navy; as also the tremendous fox ear,
or cluster of temple curls, with a pig-tail behind. The merchant,
the man of business and of letters, were distinguished by the
grave full bottom, or more moderate tie, neatly curled; the
tradesman by the long bob, or natty scratch; the country
gentleman by the natural fly and hunting peruke. All conditions
of men were distinguished by the cut of the wig, and none more
so than the coachman, who wore his, as there does some to this
day, in imitation of the curled hair of a water-dog." 2
1 This was cheap. The author of Plocacosmos says that " when
they first were wore, the price was usually one hundred guineas " ;
and the article in Diderot's Encyclopedie says that it sometimes cost
as much as 1000 ecus.
1 Plocacosmos, p. 203. The writer goes on to describe the fashions
on the stage. " So late as King William's reign, in one of Rowc's
pieces, Lady Jane Grey, the Lord Guildford Dudley is dressed in all
the modern fashion of laced coat, cravat, high peruke, &c., while the
heroine is simply drest, her hair parted in the middle, hanging care-
lessly on her shoulders.. . . Nearer our time, in the tragedy of Cato,
Mr Booth is dressed a-la-mode, with the huge peruke Mr Quir*
WIGAN WIGEON
625
This differentiation of wigs according to class and profession
explains why, when early in the reign of George III. the general
fashion of wearing wigs began to wane and die out, the practice
held its own among professional men. It was by slow degrees
that doctors, soldiers and clergymen gave up the custom. In
the Church it survived longest among the bishops, the wig
ultimately becoming a sort of ensign of the episcopal dignity.
Wigs were first discarded by the bishops, by permission of the
king, at the coronation banquet of William IV., the weather being
hot; and Greville comments on the odd appearance of the pre-
lates with their cropped polls. At the coronation of Queen
Victoria the archbishop of Canterbury, alone of the prelates,
still woie a wig. Wigs are now worn as part of official costume
only in the United Kingdom and its dependencies, their use
being confined, except in the case of the speaker of the house of
commons and the clerks of parliament, to the lord chancellor,
the judges and members of the bar (see ROBES). Wigs of course
continue to be worn by many to make up for natural deficiencies;
and on the stage the wig is, as in all times, an indispensable
adjunct. Many of the modern stage wigs are made of jute,
a fibre which lends itself to marvellously perfect imitations of
human hair.
See F. W. Fairholt, Costume in England, 2 vols., ed. Dillon (1885) ;
C. F. Nicolai, Ober den Gebrauih der falschen Haare und Perrucken
(1801); the articles "Coma" and " Galerus " in Darernberg and
Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquitts. There is an admirable article on
wigs and wig-making in Diderot's Encyclopedic (1765), t. xii., s.v.
" Perruque." James Stewart's Plocacosmos, or the Whole Art of
Hairdressing (London, 1782) also contains rich material.
WIGAN, a market town, and municipal, county and parlia-
mentary borough of Lancashire, England; 194 m. N.W. by N.
from London by the London & North-Western railway, served
also by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and the Great Central rail-
ways. Pop. (1891) 55,013, (1001) 60,764. It lies on the small
river Douglas, which flows into the estuary of the Kibble. There
is connexion by canal with Liverpool, Manchester, &c. The older
portions of the town occupy the north bank of the river, the
modern additions being chiefly on the south bank. The church
of All Saints, late Perpendicular, consisting of chancel with
aisles and two chapels, was restored in 1630 and in modern
times. There are numerous modern churches and chapels.
The principal public buildings are the Royal Albert Edward
Infirmary and Dispensary, the public hall, the borough courts
and offices, the arcade, the market hall, the free public library
and the county courts and offices (1888). The educational
institutions include the free grammar school (founded by James
Leigh in 1619 and rebuilt in 1876), the Wigan and District
Mining and Technical College (built by public subscription and
opened in 1903) and the mechanics' institution, also the convent
of Notre Dame (1854), with a college for pupil teachers and a
high school for girls, and several Roman Catholic schools. A
public park of 27 acres was opened in 1878. The town owes
much of its prosperity to its coal mines, which employ a large
proportion of the inhabitants and supply the factory furnaces.
The chief manufacture is that of cotton fabrics; the town also
possesses iron forges, iron and brass foundries, oil and grease
works, railway waggon factories, and bolt, screw and nail works.
The parliamentary borough, returning one member since 1885,
is coextensive with the municipal borough, and falls mainly
within the Ince division of the county. The county borough was
created in 1888. The corporation consists of a mayor, 10
aldermen and 30 councillors. Area 5082 acres, including the
former urban district of Pemberton (pop. 21,664 in 1901), which
was included with Wigan in 1904.
acted almost all his young characters, as Hamlet, Horatio, Pierre,
&c. in a full-dress suit and large peruke. But Mr Garrick's genius
. . . first attacked the mode of dress, and no part more than that of
the head of hair. The consequence of this was, that a capital player's
wardrobe " [came to include] " what they call natural heads of hair;
there is the comedy head of hair, and the tragedy ditto; the silver
locks, and the common gray; the carotty poll, and the yellow
caxon; the savage black, and the Italian brown, and Shylock's and
Falstaff's very different heads of hair; . . . with the Spanish fly,
the foxes tail, &c. &c." He adds that the tendency is to replace those
by " the hair, without powder, simply curled."
Roman remains have been found, and it is probable that the
town covers the site of a Roman post or fort, Coccium. Wigan,
otherwise Wygan and Wigham, is not mentioned in Domesday
Book, but three of the townships, Upholland, Dalton and Orrel
are named. After the Conquest Wigan was part of the barony
of Newton, and the church was endowed with a carucate of land,
the origin of the manor. Some time before Henry III.'s reign
the baron of Newton granted to the rector of Wigan the manorial
privileges. In 1246 Henry III. granted a charter to the famous
John Mansel, parson of the church, by which Wigan was con-
stituted a free borough and the burgesses permitted to have a
Giid Merchant. In 1249 John Mansel granted by charter to the
burgesses that each should have five roods of land to his burgage
as freehold on payment of I2d. each. Confirmations and exten-
sions of Henry III.'s charter were granted by Edward II. (1314),
Edward III. (1349), Richard II. (1378), Henry IV. (1400),
Henry V. (1413), Charles II. (1663), James II. (1685) and William
IV. (1832 and 1836). In 1258 Henry III. granted by charter
to John Mansel a weekly market on Monday and two fairs, each
of three days, beginning on the eve of Ascension Day and on the
eve of All Saints' Day, October 28th. Edward II. granted a
three days' fair from the eve of St Wilfrid instead of the All
Saints' fair, but in 1329 Edward III. by charter altered the
fair again to its original date. Charles II.'s charter granted,
and James II.'s confirmed, a three days' fair beginning on the
i6th of July. Pottery and bell-founding were formerly import-
ant trades here, and the manufacture of woollens, especially of
blankets, was carried on in the i8th century. The cotton trade
developed rapidly after the introduction of the cylindrical
carding machine, which was set up here two years before Peel
used it at Bolton. During the Civil War the town, from its
vicinity to Lathom House and the ''nfluencp of Lord Derby,
adhered staunchly to the king. On the ist of April 1643 the
Parliamentarians under Sir John Seaton captured Wigan after
severe fighting. In the following month Lord Derby regained
it for the Royalists, but Colonel Ashton soon retook it and
demolished the works. In 1651 Lord Derby landed from the
Isle of Man and marched through Preston to Wigan on the way
to join Charles II. At Wigan Lane on the 25th of August a
fierce battle took place between the Royalist forces under Lord
Derby and Sir Thomas Tyldesley and the Parliamentarians under
Colonel Lilburne, in which the Royalists were defeated, Tyldesley
was killed and Lord Derby wounded. During the rebellion of
1745 Prince Charles Edward spent one night (December loth)
here on his return march. In 1295 Wigan returned two members
to parliament and again in 1307; the right then remained in
abeyance till 1547, but from that time till 1885, except during
the Commonwealth, the borough returned two members, and
since 1885 one member. The church of All Saints is of Saxon
origin, and was existing in Edward the Confessor's time. The
list of rectors is complete from 1199.
WIGEON, or WIDGEON (Fr. Vigeon, from the Lat. Vipw), 1
also called locally " Whewer " and " Whew " (names imitative
of the whistling call-note of the male), the Anas penelope of
Linnaeus and Mareca penelope of modern ornithologists, one of
the most abundant species of ducks throughout the greater part
of Europe and northern Asia, reaching northern Africa and India
in winter. A good many pairs breed in the north of Scotland;
but the nurseries of the vast numbers which resort in autumn to
the waters of temperate Europe are in Lapland or farther to the
eastward. Comparatively few breed in Iceland.
Intermediate in size between the teal and the mallard, and less
showy in plumage than either, the drake wigeon is a beautiful bird,
with the greater part of his bill blue, his forehead cream-colour,
his head and neck chestnut,* replaced by greyish-pink below and
above by la vender -grey, which last, produced by the transverse
undulations of fine black and white lines, extends over the back and
upper surface of the wings, except some of the coverts, which are
1 So PIGEON (q.v.) from Pipio. Other French names, more
local, are, according to Rolland, Vignon, Vingeon, Watne, H'.er.
Wignet, Wuiot, Vioux and Digeon. In some parts of England the
small teasing flies, generally called midges, are known as " \\isicps."
* Hence come the additional local names " bald-pate " and " red-
head."
626
WIGGIN WIGHT, ISLE OF
conspicuously white, and shows itself again on the flanks. The wings
are further ornamented by a glossy green speculum between two
black bars; the tail is pointed and dark; the rest of the lower parts
is white. The female has the inconspicuous coloration character-
istic of her sex among most of the duck tribe. In habits the wigeon
differs not a little from most of the Anatinae. It greatly affects tidal
waters during the season of its southern stay, and becomes the object
of slaughter to hundreds of gunners on the coasts of Britain and
Holland; but, when it resorts to inland localities, as it also does to
some extent, it passes much of its time in grazing, especially by day,
on the pastures which surround the lakes or moors that it selects.
The wigeon occurs occasionally on the eastern coast of North
America, and not uncommonly, it would seem, on the Pribyloff
Islands in the Pacific. But the New World has two allied species
of its own. One of them, M. americana (a freshly killed example
of which was once found in a London market), inhabiting the
northern part of that continent, and in winter reaching Central
America and the West Indian islands as far as Trinidad, wholly
resembles its Old- World congener in habits and much in appear-
ance. But in it the chestnut of the head is replaced by a close
speckling of black and buff, the white wing-coverts are wanting,
and nearly all the plumage is subdued in tone. The other species,
M. sibilatrix, inhabits the southern portion of South America and
its islands, from Chik on the west to the Falklands on the east,
and is easily recognized by its nearly white head, nape glossy
with purple and green, and other differences; while the plumage
hardly differs sexually at all. (A. N.)
WIGGIN, KATE DOUGLAS (1857- ), American novelist,
daughter of Robert N. Smith, a lawyer, was born in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, on the 28th of September 1857. She was educated
at Abbott Academy, Andover, Massachusetts, and removed in
1876 to Los Angeles, California. She taught in Santa Barbara
College (1877-1878), established in San Francisco the first free
kindergartens for poor children on the western coast (1878), and,
with the help of her sister, Miss Nora Archibald Smith, and of
Mrs Sarah B. Cooper, organized the California Kindergarten
Training School (1880). She married, in 1880, Samuel Bradley
Wiggin of San Francisco, who died in 1889. In 1805 she married
George Christopher Riggs, but continued to write under the
name of Wiggin. Her interest in children's education was shown
in numerous books, some written in collaboration with her sister,
in both prose and verse. But her literary reputation rests
rather on her works of prose fiction, which show a real gift for
depicting character and an original vein of humour. The best
known of these are: The Birds' Christmas Carol (1888'); Penelope's
English Experiences (1893); Marm Lisa (1896); Penelope's
Progress (1898), being Penelope's experiences in Scotland;
Penelope's Irish Experiences (1901); The Diary of a Goose-Girl
(1902); and Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1903).
WIGGLESWORTH, MICHAEL (1631-1705), American clergy-
man and poet, was born in England, probably in Yorkshire, on
the i8th of October 1631. His father, Edward (d. 1653), perse-
cuted for his Puritan faith, emigrated with his family to New
England in 1638 and settled in New Haven. Michael studied
for a time at a school kept by Ezekiel Cheever, and in 1651
graduated at Harvard, where he was a tutor (and a Fellow)
in 1652-1654. Having fitted himself for the ministry, he
preached at Charlestown in 1653-1654, and was pastor at
Maiden from 1656 until his death, though for twenty years or
more bodily infirmities prevented his regular attendance upon his
duties Cotton Mather described him as " a little feeble shadow
of a man." During this interval he studied medicine and began
a successful practice. He was again a Fellow of Harvard in
1697-1705. He died at Maiden on the roth of June 1705.
Wigglesworth is best known as the author of The Day of Doom;
or a Poetical Description of the Great and Last Judgment (1662).
At least two English and eight American editions have appeared,
notable among them being that of 1867 (New York), edited by
W. H. Burr and including other poems of Wigglesworth, a
memoir and an autobiography. For a century this realistic
and terrible expression of the prevailing Calvinistic theology was
by far the most popular work written in America. His other
poenu include God's Controversy with New England (written in
1662, " in the time of the great drought," and first printed in the'
Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society for 1781),
and M cat out of the Eater; or Meditations concerning the Necessity,
End and Usefulness of Afflictions unto God's Children (1669;
revised in 1703).
His son, SAMUEL (1680-1768), also a clergyman, was the
author of several prose works and of one poem of merit, " A
Funeral Song" (1709). Another son, Edward (1693-1765),
was the first Hollis professor of Divinity at Harvard (1722-1765),
and the author of various theological works; and a grandson,
Edward (1732-1794), was the second Hollis professor of Divinity
(1765-1791), in which position he was succeeded by Michael
Wigglesworth's great-grandson, Rev. David Tappan (1752-1803).
See J. W. Deane, Memoir of Rev. Michael Wigglesworth (Boston,
1871).
WIGHT, ISLE OF, an island off the south coast of England,
forming part of Hampshire, separated from the mainland by
the Solent and Spithead. It is of diamond shape, measuring
225 m. from E. to W. and 135 from N. to S. (extremes). The area
is 147 sq. m. The south coast is for the most part cliff-bound
and grand, and there is much quietly beautiful scenery both
inland and along the northern shores. Although east winds are
at times prevalent in winter and spring, and summer heats may
be excessive, the climate, especially in certain favoured spots,
is mild and healthy. As a result numerous watering-places have
grown up on the coasts.
A range of high chalk downs crosses the island from east to
west, terminating seaward in the Culver cliffs and the cliffs near
Freshwater respectively. It is breached eastward by the Yar
stream flowing N.E., in the centre by the Medina, the principal
stream in the island, flowing N., and by another Yar, flowing N.,
in the extreme west. These downs reach a height over 700 ft.
west of the Medina, but east of it do not greatly exceed 400 ft.
The slope northward is gradual. The north-west and north-east
coasts, overlooking the Solent and Spithead respectively, rise
sharply, but hardly ever assume the cliff form; they are beauti-
fully wooded, and broken by many picturesque estuaries, such
as those of the western Yar and Newtown on the north-west,
the Medina opening northward opposite Southampton Water,
and Wootton Creek and the mouth of the eastern Yar on the
north-east. The streams mentioned rise very near the south
coast; the western Yar, indeed, so close to it that the high land
west of the stream is nearly insulated. A second range of downs
in the extreme south, between St Catherine's Point and Dunnose,
reaches the greatest elevation in the island, exceeding 800 ft.
in St Catherine's Hill. Below these heights on the seaward side
occurs the remarkable tract known as the Undercliff, a kind of
terrace formed by the collapse of rocks overlying soft strata
(sand and clay) which have been undermined. The upper cliffs
shelter this terrace from the north winds; the climate is re-
markably mild, and many delicate plants flourish luxuriantly.
This part of the island especially affords a winter resort for
sufferers from pulmonary complaints. Along the south coast
the action of small streams on the soft rocks has hollowed out
steep gullies or ravines, known as chines. Many of these, though
small, are of great beauty; the most famous are Shanklin and
Blackgang chines. The western peninsula shows perhaps the
finest development of sea-cliffs. Off the westernmost promontory
rise three detached masses of chalk, about 100 ft. in height,
known as the Needles, exposed to the full strength of the south-
westerly gales driving up the Channel. During a storm in 1764
a fourth spire was undermined and fell.
Geology. The geology of the island possesses many features of
interest. Its form has been determined by the simple monoclinal
fold which has thrown up the Chalk with a high northward dip, so
that it now exists as a narrow ridge running from the Needles east-
ward to Culver Cliffs. Owing to a kink in the fold the ridge expands
somewhat south of Carisbrooke. On the north side of the ridge the
Chalk dips beneath the Tertiaries of the Hampshire Basin. Imme-
diately north of the Chalk the Lower Eocene, Reading beds and
London Clay form a narrow parallel strip, followed by a similar strip
of Upper Eocene, Bracklesham and Bagshot beds. The remaining
northern portion of the island is occupied by fluvio-marine Oligocene
strata, including the Headon, Osborne, Bembridge and Hamstead
beds. The various Tertiary formations are exhibited along the north
WIGTOWN
627
coast, and may also be studied to great advantage in White Cliff and
Alum Bays. In Alum Bay the vertical disposition of the strata is
well shown, and the highly-coloured Bagshot sands and clays form a
conspicuous ir.iture. From the excellent coast sections many fossils
may be obtained. South of the Chalk ridge that rock has been com-
pleu-ly removed by denudation so as to expose the underlying Upper
isand, which has slipped in many places over the underlying
C.ault (locally called " blue slipper "), forming picturesque landslips.
The Lower Greensand formation may best be studied in the cliff
section from Athcrfiuld Point to Rocken End, and in the chines of
Shanklin and Blackgang. Beneath the Greensand the Wea!den is
exposed in the section from Brook to Atherfield, and also, to a much
\tent, in Sandown Bay. The Wealden strata have yielded
abundant fossil remains of extinct reptiles (1 guanodon) , especially
in the neighbourhood of Brook and Cowieaze Chines; and at Brook
Point an extensive fossil forest exists, being the remains of a great
if timber floated down and deposited in estuarine mud at the
mouth of a great river. At Brook also the characteristic Wealden
mollusk, Unio valdensis, occurs abundantly.
Towns, &c. Newport at the head of the Medina estuary is the
chief town; Cowes at the mouth the chief port. The principal
resorts of visitors are Cowes (the headquarters of the Royal Yacht
Squadron); Ryde on the north-east coast; Sandown, Shanklin
and Ventnor on the south-east; Freshwater Gate on the south-
west, and Yarmouth on the Solent. Others are Totland Bay
near the mouth of the Solent, Gurnard near Cowes, and Seaview
and Bembridge south of Ryde. The principal lines of com-
munication with the mainland are between Cowes and South-
ampton, Ryde and Portsmouth, and Yarmouth and'Lymington.
Newport is the chief railway centre, lines running N. to Cowes,
\\. to Yarmouth and Freshwater, S. to Ventnor, with a branch
to Sandown, and E. to Ryde. A direct line connects Ryde,
Sandown, Shanklin and Ventnor, and has a branch to St Helen's
and Bembridge. There are few industries in the island. The
land is chiefly agricultural, a large proportion being devoted to
sheep-grazing. Fishing is carried on to a considerable extent on
the south coast lobsters, crabs and- prawns being plentiful.
Oyster cultivation has been attempted in the Medina, in Brading
Harbour and in the Newtown river. At Cowes shipbuilding is
carried on, and timber is grown for the British navy in a part
of the ancient forest of Parkhurst, between the Medina and the
Solent. The general trade of the island centres at Newport,
but in the coast towns the chief occupation of the inhabitants
consists in providing for visitors. The island shares in the
defences of the Solent, Spithead and Portsmouth; there are
batteries at Puckpool near Ryde, and on the eastern foreland,
and along the west coast between the Needles and Yarmouth.
Strong associations connect the Isle of Wight with the British
royal family. Osborne House, near Cowes, was a residence and
the scene of the death of Queen Victoria, and was presented to
the nation by King Edward in 1902 (see COWES). Princess
Beatrice succeeded her husband Prince Henry of Battenberg as
honorary governor of the island in 1896. The island is divided
into two liberties, East and West Medina, excluding the boroughs
of Newport and Ryde; and it forms one petty and special
sessional division of the county. The urban districts are Cowes,
East Cowes, St Helen's, Sandown, Shanklin and Ventnor. Until
1885 there was one member of parliament for the island and one
for the borough of Newport; now, however, there is only one
member for the whole island. Episcopally the island has for
many centuries belonged to the see of Winchester. Pop. (1891)
78,672; (1901) 82,418.
History. Among the most interesting relics of the Roman
occupation of the Isle of Wight following its conquest by Ves-
pasian in A.D. 43 are the villas at Brading and Carisbrooke, the
cemetery at Newport, and remains of foundations at Combly
Farm, Gurnet, and between Brixton and Calboume. Of the
settlement of the island by the Jutes no authentic details are
preserved, but in 661 it was annexed by Wulfhere to Wessex and
subsequently bestowed on his vassal, the king of Sussex. In
ooS it was the headquarters of the Danes, who levied their supplies
from the opposite coasts of Hampshire and Sussex.
From the I4th to the i6th century the island was continuously
under fear of invasion by the French, who in 1377 burnt Yar-
mouth and Francheville (the latter being subsequently rebuilt
and known as Newtown), and so devastated Newport that it lay
uninhabited for two years. In 1419, on a French force landing
in the island and demanding tribute in the name of King Richard
and Queen Isabella, the islanders replied that the king was dead
and the queen sent home to her parents without any such
condition of tribute, " but if the Frenchmen's minde were to
fight, they willed them to come up, and no man should let them
for the space of five hours, to refresh themselves, but when that
time was expired they should have battayle given to them ";
a proposition prudently declined by the Frenchmen, who returned
to their ships and sailed home again. A more formidable raid
was attempted in 1545 when a French fleet of 150 large ships,
25 galleys, and 50 smaller vessels drew up off Brading Harbour,
and in spite of the brave defence of the islanders wrought much
serious destruction. Wolverton near Brading having lain a
ruined site ever since. As a result of this, the last French inva-
sion, an organized system of defence was planned for the island,
and forts were constructed at Cowes, Sandown, Freshwater
and Yarmouth. During the Civil War of the i?th century the
island was almost unanimous in support of the parliament, and
Carisbrooke Castle was the prison of Charles I. from 1647 to 1648,
and in 1650 of his two children, the princess Elizabeth and the
duke of Gloucester, the former dying there from the effects of
a chill after only a few weeks of captivity.
The lordship of the island was granted by William the Con-
queror to William Fitz-Osbern, but escheated to the crown by
the treason of Roger, son of William, and was bestowed by
Henry I. on Baldwin de Redvers, whose descendant Isabella de
Fortibus sold it to Edward I. in 1293 for 6000 marks. Hence-
forth the island was governed by wardens appointed by the
crown, who in the reign of Henry VII. were styled captains, a
title revived in 1889 in the person of Prince Henry of Battenberg.
The ancient place of assembly for the freemen of the island was
at Shide Bridge near Newport, and at Newport also was held
the Knighten Court, in which cases of small debt and trespasses
were judged by those who held a knight's fee or part of a knight's
fee of Carisbrooke Castle. The feudal tenants held their lands
for the service of escorting their lords into and out of the island,
and of serving forty days at their own cost in defence of Caris-
brooke Castle. In the Domesday Survey twenty-nine mills are
mentioned, and salt-works at Boarhunt, Bowcombe, Watching-
well and Whitfield. The Island quarries have been worked from
remote times, that of Quarr supplying material for Winchester
cathedral. Alum was collected at Parkhurst Forest in 1579.
Alum and sand for glass-making were formerly obtained at Alum
Bay. In 1295 the united boroughs of Yarmouth and Newport
made an isolated return of two members to parliament. From
1584 the boroughs of Lymington, Newport, Newtown and
Yarmouth returned two members each, until under the act of
1832 the two last were disfranchised. By the act of 1868
Lymington and Newport lost one member each, and by the act
of 1885 were disfranchised.
Antiquities. Early antiquities include British pit villages
near Rowborough, Celtic tumuli on several of the chalk downs,
and the so-called Long Stone at Mottiston, a lofty sandstone
monolith. The Roman villa near Brading contains some beauti-
ful and well-preserved examples of tesselated pavements.
Carisbrooke Castle is a beautiful ruin built upon the site of an
ancient British stronghold. There are slight remains of Quarr
Abbey near Ryde, founded for Benedictines (afterwards Cis-
tercians) by Baldwin de Redvers in the first half of the i2th
century. The most noteworthy ancient churches are those of
Bonchurch (Norman), Brading (transitional Norman and Early
English), Shalfleet (Norman and Decorated), and Carisbrooke,
of various styles.
See Victoria County History, Hampshire; Sir R. Worsley, Thr
History of the Isle of Wight (London, 1781); Richard Warner, The
History of the Isle of Wight (Southampton, 1795): B. B. Woodward,
History of Hampshire, including the Isle of Wight (3 vols., London,
1861-1869); Percy Stone, Architectural History of the Isle of Wight
(London, 1891).
WIGTOWN, a royal burgh and the county town of Wigtown-
shire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1329. It is situated on the western
628
WIGTOWNSHIRE
shore of Wigtown Bay whence the name, from the Scandinavian
vik, " bay " 7 m. S. by E. of Newton Stewart by railway.
It is built on an eminence around a spacious central area laid out
in walks. The town hall stands at a corner of this square, and
at the opposite side are two crosses, one of 1738 and the other
commemorating Waterloo. Some fishing is carried on. In the
old churchyard were buried Margaret MacLachlan, a widow aged
63, and Margaret Wilson, a girl of 18, two covenanting martyrs
who were tied to stakes in the sands of Wigtown Bay and drowned
by the rising waters (1685), to whose memory, as well as that of
three men who were hanged at the same lime without trial, an
obelisk surmounted by an urn was erected in 1858 on the top of
Windy Hill, outside the town. Wigtown was made a royal
burgh in 1469.
WIGTOWNSHIRE (sometimes called WEST GALLOWAY), a
south-western county of Scotland, bounded N. by Ayrshire, E.
by Kirkcudbrightshire and Wigtown Bay, S. by the Irish Sea
and W. and N. by the North Channel. Including the small
island of St Helena, at the head of Luce Bay, it covers an area
of 311,609 acres, or 487 sq. m. On the eastern boundary the
estuary of the Cree expands into Wigtown Bay, between which
and Luce Bay, farther west, extends the promontory of the
Machers, terminating in Burrow Head. By the indentation of
Luce Bay on the south and Loch Ryan on the north the hammer-
headed peninsula of the Rinns is formed, of which the Mull of
Galloway, the most southerly point of Scotland, is the southern,
and MiUeur Point the northern extremity. The more or less
rugged coast has many small inlets, few of which, owing to
hidden rocks, afford secure landing-places. Excepting Loch
Ryan, a fine natural harbour of which Stranraer is the port, the
harbours are not available for vessels of heavy burden, on
account either of the great distance to which the sea retires, or
of their exposure to frequent fierce gales. Much of the county
has a wild, bleak appearance, the higher land being covered with
heath and whins, while in the lower districts there are long
stretches of bog and moss, and in the north centre, a few miles
west of Newton Stewart, is a tract known as the Moors. Only
towards the Ayrshire border do the hills reach a considerable
altitude, Benbrake and Craigairie Fell being each 1000 ft. in
height. The chief rivers are the Cree, forming the boundary
with Kirkcudbrightshire and flowing past Newton Stewart
and Carty into Wigtown Bay; the Bladenoch, issuing from
Loch Maberry and falling into Wigtown Bay at Wigtown after
a course of 22 m., its principal affluents, all on the right, being
Black Burn, the Tarff and the Malzie; and the Luce, formed
by the junction at New Luce of Main Water and Cross Water of
Luce, and emptying itself into Luce Bay. Most of the numerous
lochs are small, several being situated in private parks, as at
the earl of Stair's estate of Castle Kennedy. Among the larger
lakes are Loch Maberry and Loch Dornal, both partly in Ayrshire,
and Loch Ochiltree in the north of the shire, Loch Connell in the
west, Loch Ronald in the centre and the group of Castle Loch
and four others in the parish of Mochrum, towards the south,
and Loch Dowalton, at the junction of Kirkinner, Sorbie and
Glasserton parishes.
Geology. A line drawn in a north-easterly direction from the coast
about 3 m. below Portpatrick, passing slightly north of the head of
Lucu Bay by Newton Stewart to the Cairnsmore of Fleet, divides the
county so that practically all the rocks on the northern side are of
Ordi/yician age, while those on the south are Silurian. This line
coincides with the general direction of the strike of the beds through-
out the county. Most of the Ordovician rocks are black shales, in
which graptolites may be found, along with greywackes and grits;
thi-y include the Glenkill and Hartfell groups of the Moffat district.
Ther-e rocks may be seen exposed on the coast south of Portpatrick
and in the valley of the Cree. The slate quarries of Cairn Ryan are of
Llandeilo age. Nearly the whole of the Silurian region is occupied by
dark grits, greywackes and shales ofuLlandovery age, though here and
there a small exposure of the underlying black Moffat shales appears
on the denuded crest of one of the innumerable folds into which all
these rocks have been thrown. A series of shales, flags and grey-
wackes of Wenlock age is found on the shore between Burrow Head
and VVhithorn. On the west side of Loch Ryan is a narrow belt of
Permian breccia and thin sandstones about 9 m. long and I m. wide:
this rests unconformably upon a similar belt of Carboniferous sand-
stones, about 8 m. long and J m. in width, which lies on the west
side of the Permian. A small patch of granite stands out on the coast
at Lageantulloch Head, north of the Mull of Galloway. There are
also a Tew patches and dikes of diorite and quartz-felsite. Glacial
moraines and drumlins are found over much of the older formations,
and are well seen between Glenluce and Newton Stewart and south
of Wigtown. The boulder-clay is used for brick-making near
Stranraer. On the coasts of Luce Bay and Loch Ryan raised
beaches are found at levels of 25 ft. and 50 ft. above the sea, and
tracts of blown sand lie above the shore. There are several peat-
covered areas in the county.
Climate and Agriculture. The mean annual rainfall amounts to
36-3 in., varying from 49-19 in. at Kirkcowan, a few miles west of
Newton Stewart, to 26-81 in. at the Mull of Galloway. The average
temperature for the year is 48-3 F., for January 40 F. and for July
58-5 F. In spite of^its humidity the climate is not unfavourable for
the ripening of crops, and frosts as a rule are not of long duration.
Much of the shire consists of stony moors, rendering the work of
reclamation difficult and in some parts impossible. The gravelly soil
along the coasts requires heavy manuring to make it fruitful, and in
the higher arable quarters a rocky soil prevails, better adapted for
grass and green crops than for gram. A large extent of the surface is
black top reclaimed from the moors, and in some districts loam and
clay are found. By dint of energy, however, and constant resort to
scientific agriculture, the farmers have placed half of the shire under
cultivation, and the standard of farming is as high as that of any
county in Scotland. Oats is the leading crop, barley and wheat occupy-
ing only a small area. Turnips and swedes constitute the great bulk of
the green crops, potatoes coming next. Large tracts are under clover
and rotation grasses and in permanent pasture, in consequence of the
increasing attention paid to dairy-farming, which is carried on in
combination and on scientific principles. Several creameries have
been established in the dairy country, cheese being a leading product.
Though the size of the herds is surpassed in several other Scottish
counties, the number of milch cattle is only exceeded in three (Ayr,
Aberdeen and Lanark). Ayrshire is the favourite breed for dairy
purposes, and black polled Galloways are found in the eastern
districts. A cross of the two breeds is also maintained. The sheep
are principally black-faced on the hill farms, and in other parts
Leicester and other long-woolled breeds. The flocks are usually
heavy, and great numbers of pigs are kept. The shire has acquired
some reputation for its horses, chiefly Clydesdale. The holdings are
fairly large, the average being considerably over 100 acres, one-
third of them running from 100 acres to 300, Most of the park land is
finely wooded, and there are a few nurseries, market gardens and
orchards.
Other Industries. There are small manufactures in several of the
towns, as woollens at Kirkcowan; tweeds, leather and agricultural
implements at Newton Stewart; dairy appliances, beer, flour and
bricks at Stranraer ; and whisky at Bladenoch. Sandstone and slates
are quarried, and peat is cut in various places. Fisheries, on a minor
scale, are conducted chiefly from Stranraer, certain villages on Loch
Ryan and Luce Bay, and Wigtown, and the Cree, Bladenoch and
Luce yield salmon. Shipping is mainly carried on from Stranraer,
but also from Port William, Portpatrick, Wigtown and Garliestown.
The Glasgow & South-Western railway runs to Stranraer via
Girvan, and the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire joint railway from
Newton Stewart to Portpatrick via Stranraer, with a branch line at
Newton Stewart to Wigtown and Whithorn. There are coach
services from Stranraer to Ballantrae on the Ayrshire coast and to
Drumore, 4 m. N. of the Mull, and regular communication by mail
steamer between Stranraer and Larne in Co. Antrim, Ireland.
Population and Administration. In 1891 the population
amounted to 36,062; in 1901 to 32,685 or 67 persons to the
sq. m., the decrease for the decade being the third highest in
Scotland. In 1901 there were 88 persons speaking Gaelic and
English. The principal towns are Stranraer (pop. 6036);
Newton Stewart (2598), which, however, standing on both banks
of the Cree, extends into Kirkcudbrightshire; Wigtown (1329);
and Whithorn (1188). Formerly Wigtown, Stranraer and
Whithorn formed with New Galloway, in Kirkcudbrightshire,
a group of burghs returning one member, but in 1885 the first
three were merged in the county, which returns one member to
parliament. Wigtown, the county town, Stranraer and Whit-
horn are royal burghs. The shire forms part of the sheriffdom of
Dumfries and Galloway, and a sheriff -substitute sits at Wigtown
and Stranraer. The administrative county is divided into the
Lower district, comprising the shire east of the parishes of New
Luce and Old Luce, and the Upper district, comprising the
shire west of and including these parishes. The county is under
school-board jurisdiction, and there are high schools in Newton
Stewart and Stranraer. The board-schools in Whithorn and
Wigtown have secondary departments, and several of the schools
in the shire earn grants for higher education. The county
WIGWAM WIHTRED
629
council expends the " residue " grant in providing bursaries
lor science pupils, and in subsidizing agricultural classes at
Kilmarnock and Edinburgh University, and the cookery classes
and science department of the high schools.
History and Antiquities. Galloway, or the country west of the
N'ith, belonged to a people whom Ptolemy called Novantae and
Aericola subdued in A.D. 79. They were Atecott Picts, and are
conjectured to have replaced a small, dark-haired aborij-inal
r.uc, akin probably to the Basques of the Iberian peninsula.
They held this south-western corner of Scotland for centuries,
protecting themselves from the northern and southern Picts by a
rampart, called the Deil's Dyke, which has been traced in a north-
easterly direction from Beoch on the eastern side of Loch Ryan
to a spot on the Nith near the present Thornhill, a distance of
50 m. Evidences of the Pictish occupation are prevalent in the
form of hill forts, cairns, standing stones, hut circles and crannogs
or lake dwellings (several of which were exposed when Dowalton
Loch near Sorbie and Barhapple Loch near Glenluce were
drained), besides canoes and flint, stone and bronze implements.
The Romans possessed a small camp at Rispain near Whithorn
and a station at Rerigonium, which has been identified with
Innermessan on the eastern shore of Loch Ryan; but so few
remains exist that it has been concluded they effected no per-
manent settlement in West Galloway. Ninian, the first Christian
missionary to Scotland, landed at Isle of Whithorn in 396 to
convert the natives. His efforts were temporarily successful,
but soon after his death (432) the people relapsed into paganism,
excepting a faithful remnant who continued to carry on Christian
work. A monastery was built at Whithorn, and, though the
bishopric founded in the 8th century was shortly afterwards
removed, it was established again in the I2th, when the priory
erected by Fergus, " king " of Galloway, became the cathedral
church of the see of Galloway and so remained till the Reforma-
tion. In the 6th century the people accepted the suzerainty of
the Northumbrian kings who allowed them in return autonomy
under their own Pictish chiefs. On the decay of the Saxon
power more than two hundred years later this overlordship was
abandoned, and the Atecotts formed an alliance with the North-
men then ravaging the Scottish coasts. Because of this relation-
ship the other Picts styled the Atecotts, by way of reproach,
Gallgaidhel, or stranger Gaels, whence is derived Galloway, the
name of their territory. With the aid of the Norsemen and the
men of Galloway Kenneth Macalpine defeated the northern
Picts at Forteviot and was crowned king of Scotland at Scone
in 844. Henceforward the general, history of Wigtownshire is
scarcely distinguishable from that of Kirkcudbrightshire. A few
particular points, however, must be noted. Malcolm MacHeth,
who had married a sister of Somerled, lord of the Isles, headed
about 1 1 50 a Celtic revolt against the intrusion of Anglo-Norman
lords, but was routed at Causewayend near the estuary of the
Cree. In 1190 Roland, lord of Galloway, built for Cistercians
from Melrose the fine abbey of Glenluce, of which the only
remains are the foundations of the nave, the gable of the south
transept, the cloisters, quadrangle and the vaulted chapter-house.
In the disordered state of the realm during David II. 's reign east
Galloway had been surrendered to Edward III. (1333), but
Wigtownshire, which had been constituted a shire in the previous
century and afterwards called the Shire to distinguish it from the
Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, remained Scottish territory. In
1342 Sir Malcolm Fleming, earl of Wigtown, was appointed
sheriff with power to hold the county separate from the other half
of Galloway, but falling into straitened circumstances he sold
his earldom and estates in 1372 to Archibald the Grim, 3rd earl
of Douglas, thus once more placing all Galloway under one lord.
Under Douglas's lordship the laws of Galloway, which had
obtained from Pictish times and included, among other features,
trial by battle (unless an accused person chose expressly to forgo
the native custom and ask for a jury), were modified, and in 1426
abolished, the province then coming under the general law. Soon
after the fall of the Douglases (1455) the Kennedy family, long
established in the Ayrshire district of Carrick, obtained a
preponderating influence in Wigtownshire, and in 1509 David
Kennedy was created earl of Cassillis. Gilbert, the 4th earl, so
powerful that he was called the " king of Carrick," held the shire
for Mary, queen of Scots, when she broke with the Lords of the
Congregation, but could do little for her cause. He profited by
the Reformation himself, however, to acquire by fraud and
murder the estate of Glenluce Abbey (about 1570). In 1603
James VI. instituted a bishop in the see of Galloway which
had not been filled for twenty years and otherwise strove to
impose episcopacy upon the people, but the inhabitants stood
firm for the Covenant. The acts against Nonconformity were
stringently enforced and almost every incumbent in Galloway
was deprived of his living. Field-preaching was a capital crime
and attendance at conventicles treason. A reign of terror
supervened, and numbers of persons emigrated to Ulster in order
to escape persecution. John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount
Dundee, having replaced Sir Andrew Agnew, who had refused
the Test, as sheriff (1682), goaded the people into rebellion, the
drowning of Margaret MacLachlan and Margaret Wilson within
flood-mark in Wigtown Bay (1685) being an instance of his
ruthless methods. With the Revolution of 1688 Presbyterianism
was restored, and John Gordon, recently consecrated bishop
of Galloway, retired to France. The Jacobite risings of 1715
and 1745 excited only, languid interest, but in 1747 heritable
jurisdictions were abolished and Sir Andrew Agnew ceased to be
hereditary sheriff, though he was the only official able to prove
continuous tenure of the post since it was granted to his family
in 1451. The first sheriff appointed under the new system was
Alexander Boswell, Lord Auchinleck, father of James Boswell,
the biographer of Dr Johnson. In 1 760 an engagement took place
in Luce Bay, when the young French seaman, Francois Thurot,
with three warships, attempting a diversion in Jacobite interests,
was defeated and killed with the loss of three hundred men and
his vessels.
Among ancient castles in Wigtownshire may be mentioned the
cliff towers, possibly of Norse origin, of Carghidown and Castle
Feather near Burrow Head; the ruins of Baldoon, south of
Wigtown, associated with events which suggested to Sir Walter
Scott the romance of The Bride of Lammermoor; Corsewall near
the northern extremity of the Rinns; the Norse stronghold of
Cruggleton, south of Garliestown, which belonged in the I3th
century to de Quincy, earl of Winchester, who had married a
daughter of Alan, " king " of Galloway, and to Alexander Comyn,
2nd earl of Buchan (d. 1289), his son-in-law; Dunskey, south of
Portpatrick, built in the i6th century,- occupying the site of an
older fortress; the fragments of Long Castle at Dowalton Loch,
the ancient seat of the MacDonells; Myrton, the seat of the
MacCullochs, in Mochrum parish; and the ruined tower of
Sorbie, the ancient keep of the Hannays.
See Sir Herbert Maxwell, History of Dumfries and Galloway
(Edinburgh, 1896); Sir Andrew Agnew, The Agnews of Lochnavi
(Edinburgh, 1893); The Galloway Herd-Book (Dumfries, 1880);
Proceedings of the Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, passim; Gordon Fraser,
Wigtown and Whithorn (Wigtown, 1877).
WIGWAM, a term loosely adopted as a general name for the
houses of North American Indians. It is, however, strictly
applied to a particular dome-shaped or conical hut made of poles
lashed together at the tops and covered with bark. The skin
tents of many of the Plains Indians are called tipis. The word
" wigwam " represents the Europeanized or Anglicized form of
the Algonkian wekou-om-ul, i.e. " in his (their) house."
WIHTRED, king of Kent (d. 725), son of Ecgberht, nephew of
Hlothhere and brother of Eadric, came to the Kentish throne in
690 after the period of anarchy which followed the death of the
latter king. Bede states that Wihtred and Swefheard were
both kings in Kent in 692, and this statement would appear to
imply a period of East Saxon influence (see KENT), while there
is also evidence of an attack by Wessex. Wihtred, however,
seems to have become sole king in 694. At his death, which did
not take place until 725, he left the kingdom to his sons Aethel-
berht, Eadberht and Alric. After the annal 694 in the Chronicle
there is inserted a grant of privileges to the church, which pur-
ports to have been issued by Wihtred at a place called Baccan-
celde. This grant, however, cannot be accepted as genuine and
630
WILBERFORCE, R. I. WILBERFORCE, S.
has merely an illustrative value, but there is still extant a
code of laws issued by him in a council held at a place called
Berghamstyde (Barham?) during the fifth year of his reign
(probably 695).
See Bede, Hist. Eccl., ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896); Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle, ed. Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899).
WILBERFORCE, ROBERT ISAAC (1802-1857), English
clergyman and writer, second son of William Wilberforce, was
born on the igth of December 1802. He was educated at Oriel
College, Oxford, taking a double first in 1823. In 1826 he was
chosen fellow of Oriel and was ordained, among his friends and
colleagues being Newman, Pusey and Keble. For a few years
he was one of the tutors at Oriel, but the provost, Edward
Hawkins, disliked his religious views, and in 1831 he resigned
and left Oxford. In 1832 he obtained the living of East Farleigh,
Kent, which in 1840 he exchanged for that of Burton Agnes,
near Hull. In 1841 he was appointed archdeacon of the East
Riding. About this time Wilberforce became very intimate with
Manning, and many letters on theological and ecclesiastical
questions passed between them. In 1851 Manning joined the
Church of Rome, and three years later Wilberforce took the same
step. He was preparing for his ordination when he died at
Albano on the 3rd of February 1857. He left two sons, the
younger of whom, Edward Wilberforce (b. 1834), became one
of the masters of the Supreme Court of Judicature. Edward's
son, Lionel Robert Wilberforce (b. 1861), was in 1900 appointed
professor of physics in the university of Liverpool.
R. I. Wilberforce assisted his brother Samuel to write the Life and
to edit the Correspondence of his father. His other writings include:
Church Courts and Church Discipline (1843); Doctrine of the Holy
Eucharist (1853); Doctrine of the Incarnation in Relation to Mankind
and the Church (1848 and later editions) ; The Five Empires, a Sketch
of Ancient History (1840); A Sketch of the History of Erastianism
(1851); An Enquiry into the Principles of Church Authority (1854);
and a romance, Rutilius and Lucius (1842).
WILBERFORCE, SAMUEL (1805-1873), English bishop,
third son of William Wilberforce, was born at Clapham Common,
London, on the 7th of September 1805. In 1823 he entered
Oriel College, Oxford. In the " United Debating Society,"
which afterwards developed into the " Union," he distinguished
himself as a zealous advocate of liberalism. The set of friends
with whom he chiefly associated at Oxford were sometimes
named, on account of their exceptionally decorous conduct,
the " Bethel Union "; but he was by no means averse to amuse-
ments, and specially delighted in hurdle jumping and hunting.
He graduated in 1826, taking a first class in mathematics and a
second in classics. After his marriage on the nth of June 1828
to Emily Sargent, he was in December ordained and appointed
curate-in-charge at Checkenden near Henley-on-Thames. In
1830 he was presented by Bishop Sumner of Winchester to the
rectory of Brightstone in the Isle of Wight. In this compara-
tively retired sphere he soon found scope for that manifold
activity which so prominently characterized his subsequent
career. In 1831 he published a tract on tithes, " to correct the
prejudices of the lower order of farmers," and in the following
year a collection of hymns for use in his parish, which had a
large general circulation; a small volume of stories entitled
the Note Book of a Country Clergyman; and a sermon, The
Apostolical Ministry. At the close of 1837 he published the
Letters and Journals of Henry Martyn. Although a High
Churchman Wilberforce held aloof from the Oxford movement,
and in 1838 his divergence from the " Tract " writers became so
marked that J. H. Newman declined further contributions from
him to the British Critic, not deeming it advisable that they
should longer " co-operate very closely." In 1838 Wilberforce
published, with his elder brother Robert, the Life of his father,
and two years later his father's Correspondence. In 1839 he also
published Eucharistka (from the old English divines), to which
he wrote an introduction, Agathos and other Sunday Stories, and
a volume of University Sermons, and in the following year Rocky
Island and other Parables. In November 1839 he was installed
archdeacon of Surrey, in August 1840 was collated canon of
Winchester and in October he accepted the rectory of Alverstoke.
In 1841 he was chosen Bampton lecturer, and shortly afterwards
made chaplain to Prince Albert, an appointment he owed to
the impression produced by a speech at an anti-slavery meeting
some months previously. In October 1843 he was appointed
by the archbishop of York to be sub-almoner to the queen. In
1844 appeared his History of the American Church. In March
of the following year he accepted the deanery of Westminster,
and in October the bishopric of Oxford.
The bishop in 1847 became involved in the Hampden con-
troversy, and signed the remonstrance of the thirteen bishops
to Lord John Russell against Hampden's appointment to the
bishopric of Hereford. He also endeavoured to obtain satis-
factory assurances from Hampden; but, though unsuccessful
in this, he withdrew from the suit against him. The publication
of a papal bull in 1850 establishing a Roman hierarchy in England
brought the High Church party, of whom Wilberforce was the
most prominent member, into temporary disrepute. The seces-
sion to the Church of Rome of his brother-in-law, Archdeacon
(afterwards Cardinal) Manning, and then of his brothers, as well
as his only daughter and his son-in-law, Mr and Mrs J. H. Pye,
brought him under further suspicion, and his revival of the
powers of convocation lessened his influence at court; but his
unfailing tact and wide sympathies, his marvellous energy in
church organization, the magnetism of his personality, and his
eloquence both on the platform and in the pulpit, gradually won
for him recognition as without a rival on the episcopal bench.
His diary reveals a tender and devout private life which has
been overlooked by those who have only considered the versatile
facility and persuasive expediency that marked the successful
public career of the bishop, and earned him the sobriquet of
" Soapy Sam." In the House of Lords he took a prominent part
in the discussion of social and ecclesiastical questions. He has
been styled the " bishop of society "; but society occupied only
a fraction of his time. The great bent of his energies was cease-
lessly directed to the better organization of his diocese and to
the furtherance of schemes for increasing the influence and
efficiency of the church. In 1854 he opened a theological college
at Cuddesdon, which was afterwards the subject of some con-
troversy on account of its alleged Romanist tendencies. His
attitude towards Essays and Reviews in 1861, against which he
wrote an article in the Quarterly, won him the special gratitude
of the Low Church party, and latterly he enjoyed the full con-
fidence and esteem of all except the extreme men of either side
and party. On the publication of J. W. Colenso's Commentary
on the Romans in 1861, Wilberforce endeavoured to induce the
author to hold a private conference with him; but after the
publication of the first two parts of the Pentateuch Critically
Examined he drew up the address of the bishops which called
on Colenso to resign his bishopric. In 1867 he framed the first
Report of the Ritualistic Commission, in which coercive measures
against ritualism were discountenanced by the use of the word
" restrain " instead of " abolish " or " prohibit." He also
endeavoured to take the sting out of some resolutions of the
second Ritualistic Commission in 1868, and was one of the four
who signed the Report with qualifications. Though strongly
opposed to the disestablishment of the Irish Church, yet, when
the constituencies decided for it, he advised that no opposition
should be made to it by the House of Lords. After twenty-four
years' labour in the diocese of Oxford, he was translated by
Gladstone to the bishopric of Winchester. He was killed on the
igth of July 1873, by the shock of a fall from his horse near
Dorking, Surrey.
Wilberforce left three sons. The eldest, Reginald Carton
Wilberforce, being the author of An Unrecorded Chapter of the
Indian Mutiny (1894). His two younger sons both attained dis-
tinction in the English church. Ernest Roland Wilberforce (1840-
1908) was bishop of Newcastle-on-Tyne from 1882 to 1895, and
bishop of Chichester from 1895 till his death. Albert Basil Orme
Wilberforce (b. 1841) was appointed canon residentiary of West-
minster in 1894, chaplain of the House of Commons in 1896 and
archdeacon of Westminster in 1900; he has published several
volumes of sermons.
WILBERFORCE, W.~ WILBRANDT
631
Besides the works already mentioned, Wilberforce wrote Heroes of
Hebrew History (1870), originally contributed to Good Words, and
i.il volumes of sermons. See Life of Samuel Wilberforce, with
Selections from his Diary and Correspondence (1873-1882), vol. i., ed.
anon A. R. Ashwell, and vols. ii. and iii., ed. by his son
K ( ',. Wilberforce, who also wrote a one-volume Life (1888). One of
tin- volumes of the " English Leaders of Religion " is devoted to him,
and he is included in Dean Burgon's Lives of Twelve Good Men (1888).
WILBERFORCE, WILLIAM (1739-1833), English philan-
thropist whose name is chiefly associated with the abolition of
the slave trade, was descended from a Yorkshire family which
possessed the manor of Wilberfoss in the East Riding from the
time of Henry II. till the middle of the i8th century. He was
the only son of Robert Wilberforce, member of a commercial
house at Hull, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Bird of
Barton, Oxon, and was born at Hull on the 24th of August 1759.
It was from his mother that he inherited both his feeble frame
and his many rich mental endowments. He was not a diligent
scholar, but at the grammar school of Hull his skill in elocution
attracted the attention of the master. Before he had completed
his tenth year he lost his father and was transferred to the care
of a paternal uncle at Wimbledon; but in his twelfth year he
returned to Hull, and soon afterwards was placed under the care
of the master of the endowed school of Pocklington. Here his
love of social pleasures made him neglectful of his studies, but
he entered St John's College, Cambridge, in October 1766. Left
by the death of his grandfather and uncle the possessor of an
independent fortune under his mother's sole guardianship, he
was somewhat idle at the university, though he acquitted himself
in the examinations with credit; but in his serious years he
" could not look back without unfeigned remorse " on the
opportunities he had then neglected. In 1780 he was elected to
the House of Commons for his native town, his success being
due to his personal popularity and his lavish expenditure. He
soon found his way into the fast political society of London, and
at the club at Goosetrees renewed an acquaintance begun at
Cambridge with Pitt, which ripened into a friendship of the
closest kind. In the autumn of 1783 he set out with Pitt on a
tour in France; and after his return his eloquence proved of
great assistance to Pitt in his struggle against the majority of
the House of Commons. In 1784 Wilberforce was elected for
both Hull and Yorkshire, and took his seat for the latter con-
stituency.
A journey to Nice in the autumn of the same year with his
friend Dr Isaac Milner (1750-1820), who had been a master at
Hull grammar school when Wilberforce was there as a boy, and
had since made a reputation as a mathematician, and afterwards
became president of Queens' College, Cambridge, and dean of
Carlisle, led to his conversion to Evangelical Christianity and
the adoption of more serious views of life. The change had a
marked effect on his public conduct. In the beginning of 1787
he busied himself with the establishment of a society for the
reformation of manners. About the same time he made the
acquaintance of Thomas Clarkson, and began the agitation against
the slave trade. Pitt entered heartily into their plans, and
recommended Wilberforce to undertake the guidance of the
project as a subject suited to his character and talents. While
Clarkson conducted the agitation throughout the country,
Wilberforce took every opportunity in the House of Commons
of exposing the evils and horrors of the trade. In 1788, however,
a serious illness compelled him to retire for some months from
public life, and the introduction of the subject in parliament
therefore devolved on Pitt, whose representations were so far
successful that an act was passed providing that the number of
slaves carried in ships should be in proportion to the tonnage.
On the 1 2th of May of the following year Wilberforce, in co-opera-
tion with Pitt, brought the subject of abolition again before the
House of Commons; but the friends of the planters succeeded
in getting the matter deferred. On the 27th of January following
Wilberforce carried a motion for referring to a special commit ten
the further examination of witnesses, but after full inquiry the
motion for abolition in April 1791 was lost by 163 votes to 88.
In the following April he carried a motion for gradual abolition
by 238 to 85 votes; but in the House of Lords the discussion
was finally postponed till the following session. Notwith-
standing his unremitting labours in educating public opinion
and annual motions in the House of Commons, it was not till
1807, the year following Pitt's death, that the first great step
towards the abolition of slavery was accomplished. When the
anti-slavery society was formed in 1823, Wilberforce and Clarkson
became vice-presidents; but before their aim was accomplished
Wilberforce had retired from public life, and the Emancipation
Bill was not passed till August 1833, a month after his death.
In 1797 Wilberforce published A Pratical View of the Prevail-
ing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and
Middle Classes of this Country Contrasted with Real Christianity,
which within half a year went through five editions and was
afterwards translated into French, Italian, Dutch and German.
In the same year (May 1797) he married Barbara Ann Spooner
and took a house at Clapham, where he became one of the
leaders of what was known as the " Clapham Sect " of Evangeli-
cals, including Henry Thornton, Charles Grant, E. J. Eliot,
Zacchary Macaulay and James Stephen. It was in connexion
with this group that he then occupied himself with a plan for a
religious periodical which should admit " a moderate degree
of political and common intelligence," the result being the
appearance in January 1801 of the Christian Observer. He
also interested himself in a variety of schemes for the advance-
ment of the social and religious welfare of the community,
including the establishment of the Association for the Better
Observance of Sunday, the foundation, with Hannah More (q.v.),
of schools at Cheddar, Somersetshire, a project for opening a
school in every parish for the religious instruction of children,
a plan for the education of the children of the lower classes,
a bill for securing better salaries to curates, and a method for
disseminating, by government help, Christianity in India. In
parliament he was a supporter of parliamentary reform and of
Roman Catholic emancipation. In 1812, on account of failing
health, he exchanged the representation of Yorkshire for that
of a constituency which would make less demands on his time,
and was returned for Bramber, Sussex. In 1825 he retired from
the House of Commons, and the following year settled at High-
wood Hill, near Mill Hill, "just beyond the disk of the metropolis."
He died at London on the 2Qth of July 1833, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey close to Pitt, Fox and Canning. In
Westminster Abbey a statue was erected to his memory, and in
Yorkshire a county asylum for the blind was founded in his
honour. A column was also erected to him by his townsmen of
Hull. Wilberforce left four sons, two of whom, Samuel and
Robert Isaac, are noticed separately. The youngest, Henry
William Wilberforce (1807-1873), was educated at Oriel College,
Oxford, and was president of the Oxford Union. He took
orders in the English Church, but in 1850 became a Roman
Catholic. He was an active journalist and edited the Catholic
Standard.
The chief authorities of the career of William Wilberforce are his
Life (5 vols., 1838) by his sons, Robert Isaac and Samuel, and his
Correspondence (1840) also published by his sons A smaller edition
of the Life was published by Samuel Wilberforce in 1868. See also
The private papers of William Wilberforce, edited by A. M. Wilberforce
(1807) ; Sir James Stephen, Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography (1849) ;
j. C. Colquhoun, Wilberforce, His Friends and Times (1866); John
Stoughton, William Wtlbtrforce (1880); I. J. Gurney, Familiar
Sketch of Wilberforce (1838); and J. S. Hartford, Recollections of
W. Wilberforce (1864).
WILBRANDT, ADOLF (1837- ), German novelist and
dramatist, was born at Rostock on the 24th of August 1837,
the son of a professor at that university. Having received his
early education at the gymnasium of his native town, he entered
the university and engaged in the study of law. This, however,
he soon abandoned in favour of philology and history, and
continued these studies in Berlin and Munich. After taking
the degree of doctor of philosophy, he joined the staff of the
Siiddeutsche Zeitung in Munich. He travelled abroad for a time
and in 1871 settled in Vienna, where, two years later, he married
the actress, Auguste Baudius. In 1881 Wilbrandt was appointed
632
WILBYE WILDE
director of the Hofburg theatre in succession to Franz Dingel-
stedt, an office he held until 1887. In this year he returned to
his native town of Rostock, and remained actively engaged in
literary production. Wilbrandt is distinguished both as a
dramatist and novelist. His merits were acknowledged by the
award of the Grillparzer prize on two occasions in 1875 for
the tragedy Gracchus dcr Volkstribun, and in 1890 for his dramatic
poem Der Meister von Palmyra, while in 1878 he received the
Schiller prize for his dramatic productions.
Among his plays may be mentioned the tragedies, Arria und
Messalina. (1874), Nero (1876); Kriemhild (1877); the comedies
Unerreichbar (1870), Die Maler (1872), Jugendliebe (1873) and
Der Kampf urns Dasein (1874); and the drama Die Tochter des
Herrn Fabricius (1883). Among bis novels the following deserve
notice: Meister Amor (1880); Hermann I finger (1892); Der
Dornenweg (1894); Die Osterinsel (1895); Die Rothenburger (1895);
and Hildegard Mahlmann (1897). He also published translations of
Sophocles and Euripides (1866), Gedichte (1874, 1889 and 1907), and
a volume of Erinnerungcn (1905).
See V. Klemperer, Adolf Wilbrandt. Eine Studie uber seine Werke
(1907), and A. Stern, Studien zur Literatur der Gegenwart (3rd ed.,
WILBYE, JOHN, English 16th-century madrigal composer,
was born probably at Bury St Edmunds, but the details of his
life are obscure. A set of madrigals by him appeared in 1598
and a second in 1608, the two sets containing sixty-four pieces;
and from a few contributions known to have been made by him
to other contemporary sets, we can infer that he was alive in
1614. He is the most famous of all the English madrigalists;
his pieces have long been favourites and are included in modern
collections.
WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725), English criminal, was born
about 1682 at Wolverhampton, where his father was a wig-maker.
After being apprenticed to a local buckle-maker, he went to
London to learn his trade, and, getting into debt, was imprisoned
for several years. The acquaintance of many criminals which
he made in prison he turned to account after his release by
setting up as a receiver of stolen goods. Wild shrewdly realized
that it was safer, and in most cases more profitable, to dispose
of such property by returning it to its legitimate owners than
to sell it, with the attendant risks, in the open market, and he
thus built up an immense business, posing as a recoverer of
stolen goods, the thieves receiving a commission on the price
paid for recovery. A special act of parliament was passed by
which receivers of stolen property were made accessories to the
theft, but Wild's professed " lost property office " had little
difficulty in evading the new law, and became so prosperous
that two branch offices were opened. From profiting by robberies
in which he had no share, Wild naturally came to arrange
robberies himself, and he devised and controlled a huge organiza-
tion, which plundered London and its approaches wholesale.
Such thieves as refused to work with him received short shrift.
The notorious Jack Sheppard, wearied of Wild's exactions, at
last refused to deal with him, whereupon Wild secured his arrest,
and himself arrested Sheppard's confederate, " Blueskin."
In return for Wild's services in tracking down such thieves as
he did not himself control, the authorities for some time toler-
ated the offences of his numerous agents, each a specialist in a
particular kind of robbery, and so themselves strengthened his
position. If an arrest were made, Wild had a plentiful supply
of false evidence at hand to establish his agents' alibi, and he
did not hesitate to obtain the conviction, by similar means, of
such thieves as refused to recognize his authority. Such stolen
property as could not be returned to the owners with profit
was taken abroad in a sloop purchased for this work. At last
either the authorities became more strict or Wild less cautious.
He was arrested, tried at the Old Bailey, and after being acquitted
on a charge of stealing lace, found guilty of taking a reward for
restoring it to the owner without informing the police. He was
hanged at Tyburn on the 24th of May 1725.
WILDBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wiirttemberg, picturesquely situated 1475 ft. above the sea,
in the romantic pine-clad gorge of the Enz in the Black Forest,
28 m. W. of Stuttgart and 14 E. of Baden-Baden by rail. Pop.
(1905) 3734- It contains an Evangelical, a Roman Catholic
and an English church, and has some small manufactures
(cigars, paper and toys). Its thermal alkaline springs have a
temperature of 9O-ioo Fahr. and are used for bathing in cases
of paralysis, rheumatism, gout, neuralgia and similar ailments.
The fact that the springs rise within the baths, and are thus
used at the fountain-head, is considered to contribute materially
to their curative value. The water is used internally for affections
of the stomach and digestive organs, and of the kidneys, bladder,
&c. Wildbad possesses all the usual arrangements for the
comfort and amusement of the visitors (over 15,000 annually),
including large and well-appointed hotels, a Kurhaus, a Trink-
Halle and promenades. The neighbourhood is picturesque,
the most attractive spot being the Wildsee, of which legends
are told.
See W. T. v. Renz, Die Kur zu Wildbad (with Guide, Wildbad,
i888),andWeizsacker, Wildbad (2nded., 1905).
WILDE, OSCAR O'FLAHERTIE WILLS (1856-1900), English
author, son of Sir William Wilde, a famous Irish surgeon, was
born in Dublin on the isth of October 1856; his mother, Jane
Francisca Elgee, was well known in Dublin as a graceful writer
of verse and prose, under the pen-name of " Speranza." Having
distinguished himself in classics at Trinity College, Dublin,
Oscar Wilde went to Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1874, and won
the Newdigate prize in 1878 with his poem " Ravenna," besides
taking a first-class in classical Moderations and in Literae
Humaniores. But his career af75xlord, brilliant intellectually
as he showed himself to be, was chiefly signalized by the part
he played in what came to be known as the aesthetic movement.
He adopted what to undergraduates appeared the effeminate
pose of casting scorn on manly sports, wearing his hair long,
decorating his rooms with peacock's feathers, lilies, sunflowers,
blue china and other objets d'arl, which he declared his desire
to " live up to," affecting a lackadaisical manner, and professing
intense emotions on the subject of " art for art's sake " then
a new-fangled doctrine which J. M. Whistler was bringing into
prominence. Wilde made himself the apostle of this new cult.
At Oxford his behaviour procured him a ducking in the Cherwell,
and a wrecking of his rooms, but the cult spread among certain
sections of society to such an extent that languishing attitudes,
" too-too " costumes and " aestheticism " generally became a
recognized pose. Its affectations were burlesqued in Gilbert
and Sullivan's travesty Patience (1881), which practically
killed by ridicule the absurdities to which it had grown. At
the same time it cannot be denied that the " aesthetic " move-
ment, in the aspect fundamentally represented by the school of
William Morris and Rossetti, had a permanent influence on
English decorative art. As the leading " aesthete," Oscar
Wilde became one of the most prominent personalities of the
day; apart from the ridicule he encountered, his affected
paradoxes and his witty sayings were quoted on all sides, and
in 1882 he went on a lecturing tour in the United States. In
1884 he married Constance Lloyd. He had already published
in 1881 a selection of his poems,' whicn7however, only attracted
admiration in a limited circle. In 1888 appeared The Happy
Prince and Other Tales, illustrated by Walter Crane and Jacomb
Hood. This charming volume of fairy tales was followed up
later by a second collection, The House of Pomegranates (1892),
acknowledged by the author to be " intended neither for the
British child nor the British public." In much of his writings,
and in his general attitude, there was to most people an undertone
of rather nasty suggestion which created prejudice against him,
and his novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), with all its
sparkle and cleverness, impressed them more Trbm this point
of view than from its pjurely literary brilliance. Wilde contri-
buted some characteristic articles to the reviews, all coloured
by his peculiar attitude towards art and life, and in 1891 re-
published three of them as a book called Intentions. His first
real success with the larger public was as a dramatist with
Lady Windermere's Fan^&t the St James's Theatre in 1892,
followed by A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband
(1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895). The
WILDENBRUCH WILDERNESS
633
dramatic and literary ability shown in these plays, all of which
were published later in book form, was as undoubted as their
diction and ideas were characteristically paradoxical. In 1893
the licenser of plays refused a licence to Wilde's Salome, but it
was produced in French in Paris by Sarah Bernhardt in 1894.
Mis success as a dramatist had by this time gone some way to
ilisabuse hostile critics of the suspicions as regards his personal
character which had been excited by the apparent looseness of
morals which since his Oxford days it had always pleased him
to affect; but to the consternation of his friends, who had
ceased to credit the existence of any real moral obliquity, in
i8()5 came fatal revelations as the result of his bringing' a_libel
action against the marquis of Queensberry; and at the Old
Bailey, in May, Wilde was sentenced to two years' imprisonment
with hard labour for offences under the Criminal Law Amend-
ment Act. It was a melancholy end to what might have been
a singularly brilliant career. Even after leaving prison he was
necessarily an outcast from decent circles, and he lived mainly
on the Continent, under the name of " Sebastian Melmoth."
He died in Paris on the 3oth of November 1900. In 1898 he
published his powerful Ballad of Reading Gaol. His Collected
Poems, containing some beautiful verse, had been issued in
1892. While in prison he wrote an apology for his life which
was placed in the hands of his executor and published in 1905.
The manuscripts of A Florentine Tragedy and an essay on
Shakespeare's sonnets were stolen from his house in 1895. In
1004 a five-act tragedy, Tke Duchess of Padua, writterfby Wilde
about 1883 for Mary Anderson, but not acted by her, was pub-
lished in a German translation (Die Herzogin von Padua, trans-
lated by Max Meyerfeld) in Berlin. L It is still impossible to
take a purely objective view of Oscar Wilde's work.. The Old
Bailey revelations removed all doubt as to the essential un-
healthiness of his personal influence; but his literary genius was
none the less remarkable, and his plays were perhaps the most
original contributions to English dramatic writing during the
period. (H. CH.)
WILDENBRUCH, ERNST VON (1845-1909), German poet and
ilramatist, was born on the 3rd of February 1845 at Beyrout
in Syria, the son of the Prussian consul-general. Having passed
his early years at Athens and Constantinople, where his father
was attached to the Prussian legation, he came in 1857 to
Germany, received his early schooling at the Padagogium at
Halle and the Franzosische Gymnasium in Berlin, and, after
passing through the Cadet school, became, in 1863, an officer
in the Prussian army. He abandoned the military career two
years later, but was recalled to the colours in 1866 for the war
with Austria. He next studied law at the university of Berlin,
and again served in the army during the Franco-Prussian War,
1870-71. In 1876 Wildenbruch was attached to the foreign
office, which he finally quitted in 1000 with the title of counsellor
of legation. He achieved his first literary successes with the
epics Vionville (1874) and Sedan (1875). After publishing
a volume df poems, Lieder und Balladen (Berl., 1877; 7th ed.,
1900), he produced, in 1882, the tragedy, Die Karolinger. Among
his chief dramas may be mentioned the tragedy Harold (1882);
Die Quitzows (1888); Der Generalfeldobersl (1889); Die Hauben-
lerche (1891); Heinrich und Hcinrichs Geschlecht (1895); Die
Tochter des Erasmus (1900); and Konig Laurin (1902). Wilden-
bruch was twice (in 1884 and 1896) awarded the Schiller prize,
and was, in 1892, created a doctor of philosophy honoris causa
by the university of Jena. He also wrote several volumes of
short stories (Novdlcn, 1883; New Novellen, 1885; Tiefe
Wasser, 1897, &c.). He died on the isth of January 1909.
Cf. B. Litzmann, Das deutsche Drama in den Bewegungen der
Geeenwart (1894; 4th ed., 1897); H. Bulthaupt, Dramaturgie des
Schauspiels, vol. iv. (1901).
WILDERNESS, a large forest in Spottsylvania county,
Virginia, U.S.A., on the S. bank of the Rapidan, extending
from Mine Run on the E. to Chancellorsville on the W. It is
famous in military history for the battles of Chancellorsville
(1863) and Wilderness (1864) during the American Civil War.
Chancellorsville. In May 1863 a three days' battle was fought
at Chancellorsville between the Army of the Potomac, under
General J. Hooker, and General Lee's Army of Northern Virginia,
which had stemmed the tide of invasion in the East by taking
up a defensive position along the right or south bank of the
Rappahannock. General Burnside had suffered a severe repulse
in front of the Confederate position at Fredericksburg in
December 1862, and his successor resolved to adopt the alterna-
tive plan of turning Lee's flank and so gaining the road to
Richmond. General Lee had meanwhile weakened his forces
by detaching Longstreet's two divisions and the cavalry brigades
of Hampton, Robertson and Jones. Hooker had now at his
disposal 12,000 cavalry, 400 guns and 120,000 infantry and
artillery, organized in seven corps (I. Reynolds, II. Couch,
III. Sickles, V. Meade, VI. Sedgwick,XI. Howard, XII. Slocum).
General Lee counted only 45,000 men of all arms effective.
Hooker detached 10,000 cavalry under Stoneman and Sedg-
wick's corps (30,000) to demonstrate on his flanks along the
Rapidan and at Fredericksburg, while with the remainder he
moved up the Rappahannock and crossed that river and after-
wards the Rapidan and on the 30th of April fixed his head-
quarters at Chancellorsville, a farmhouse in the Wilderness.
Lee's cavalry under Stuart had duly reported the Federal
movements and Lee called up " Stonewall " Jackson's four
divisions from below the Massaponax as soon as Sedgwick's
corps crossed the river at Fredericksburg. At Chancellorsville
Anderson's division was in position, and McLaws was sent to
support him, while Jackson took three divisions to the same
point, leaving Early's division to observe Sedgwick. Hooker
had cleared and entrenched a position in the forest, inviting
attack from the E. or S. General Lee, however, discovered a
route by which the Federals might be attacked from the N.
and W., and Jackson was instructed to execute the turning
movement and fall upon them. As soon as a brigade of cavalry
was placed at his disposal Jackson marched westward with his
corps of 22,000 men and by a dStour of 15 m. gained the Federal
right flank, while Anderson and McLaws with 20 guns and 12,000
men demonstrated in front of Hooker's army and so kept
90,000 men idle behind their earthworks. One of Stuart's
cavalry brigades neutralized Stoneman's 10,000 horsemen.
Sedgwick was being contained by Early. Jackson's attack
surprised the Federals, who fled in panic at nightfall, but Jackson
was mortally wounded. Next day the attack was resumed
under the direction of Stuart, who was reinforced by Anderson,
while McLaws now threatened the left flank of the Federals
and Fitz Lee's cavalry brigade operated against their line of
retreat. Hooker finally gained the shelter of an inner line of
works covering the ford by which he must retreat. Meanwhile,
Early had checked Sedgwick, but when at last the Federal corps
was about to overwhelm the Confederate division Lee came to
succour it. Then Sedgwick was assailed by Early, McLaws and
Anderson, and driven over the Rappahannock to join the re-
mainder of Hooker's beaten army, which had recrossed the
Rapidan on the sth of May and marched back to Falmouth.
Phisterer's Record states that the Federal loss was 16,000 and
that of the Confederates 12,000 men.
See A. C. Hamlin, Chancellorsville ; G. F. R. Henderson, Stonewall
Jackson; A. Doubleday, Chancellorsville and Gtttysburg, Battles and
Leaders of the Civil War and Official Records of the War of Secession.
(G. W. R.)
Grant's Campaign of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor: On
the evening of the 3rd of May 1864, after dark, the Army of the
Potomac, commanded by Major-General G. G. Meade and
consisting of the II., V. and VI., and Cavalry corps, left its
winter quarters about Culpeper to manoeuvre across the Rapidan
with a view to fighting a battle at or near New Hope Church
and Craig's Church. The army, and the IX. corps (Burnside),
which was an independent command, were directed by
Lieutenant-General Grant, the newly appointed commander of
the armies of the United States, who accompanied Meade's head-
quarters. The opposing Army of Northern Virginia under General
R. E. Lee lay in quarters around Orange Court House (A. P.
Hill's corps), Verdiersville (Ewell's corps) and Gordonsville
WILDERNESS
(Longstreet's corps). The respective numbers were: Army of the
Potomac, 98,000; IX. corps, 22,000; Army of Northern Virginia
rather less than 70,000.
The crossing of the Rapidan was made at Germanna and Ely's
Fords, out of reach of Lee's interference, and in a few hours the
two leading corps had reached their halting-places V., Wilder-
ness Tavern; and II., Chancellorsville. The VI. followed the V.
and halted south of Germanna Ford. Two of the three divisions
of cavalry preceded the march, and scouted to the front and
flanks. Controversy has arisen as to whether the early halt of
the Union army in the midst of the Wilderness was not a serious
Grant's intention of avoiding a battle until he was clear
the Wilderness was not achieved, for Confederate infantry
appeared on the Orange Turnpike east of Mine Run, where on
his own initiative Warren had posted a division of the V. corps
overnight as flank-guard, and some cavalry, judiciously left
behind by Wilson at Parker's Store, became engaged a little
later with hostile forces on the Orange Plank Road. This led
to the suspension of the whole manoeuvre towards Lee's right
rear. The first idea of the Union headquarters was that Lee
was falling back to the North Anna, covered by a bold rear-
guard, which Grant and Meade arranged to cut off and destroy
WILDERNESS
Redrawn from The Wilderness and Cold Harbor, by permission of Hugh Rees, Ltd.
error of judgment. The reason assigned was the necessity of
protecting an enormous wagon train, carrying 15 days' supplies
for the whole army, that was crossing after the II. corps at
Ely's Ford. Burnside's corps was far to the rear when the
advance began, but by making forced marches it was able to
reach Germanna Ford during the 5th of May. On that day the
manoeuvre towards Craig's Church was resumed at 5 A.M.,
Wilson's cavalry division moving from Parker's Store south-
ward, the V. corps (Warren) moving from Wilderness Tavern
towards Parker's Store, followed by the VI. under Sedgwick,
the II. from Chancellorsville by way of Todd's Tavern towards
Shady Grove Church. Of the other cavalry divisions, Gregg's
went towards Fredericksburg (near where the Confederate
cavalry corps had been reported) and Torbert's (which had acted
as rearguard and watched the upper Rapidan during the first
day's march) was not yet across the river.
j by a convergent attack of Warren and Sedgwick. But the
appearance of infantry on the Plank Road as well as the Pike
had shown that Lee intended to fight in the Wilderness, and
Hancock (II. corps) was called in from Todd's Tavern, while
one division (Getty's) of the VI. was hurried to the intersection
of the Brock and Plank roads to hold that point until Hancock's
arrival. Getty arrived just hi time, for Confederate skirmishers
were found dead and wounded only 30 yds. from the cross roads.
The division then formed up to await Hancock's arrival up the
Brock Road, practically unmolested, for Lee had only two of
his corps on the ground (Hill on the Plank Road, Ewell on the
Pike), and did not desire to force a decision until Longstreet's
distant corps should arrive.
Meanwhile Warren had been slowly forming up his attacking
line with great difficulty in the woods. Grant appears to have
used bitter words to Meade on the subject of Warren's delays,
WILDERNESS
635
and Meade passed these on to Warren, who in turn forced his
rdinates into premature action. In the end, about noon,
(iriltin's division of Warren's corps attacked directly along the
I'il.r and crushed the enemy's first line, but, unsupported by
the VI. corps on the right and Wadsworth's division (V. corps)
on the left, both of which units were still groping their way for-
ward in the woods, was forced back with heavy losses. Wads-
worth took a wrong direction in the woods and presented himself
a.s an easy victim to Ewell's right, soon after Griffin's repulse.
Tin 1 VI. corps advanced later in the day on Warren's right,
u-as only partially engaged. The result of the attack on
i was thus completely unsatisfactory, and for the rest of
the battle the V. and VI. corps were used principally as reser-
voirs to find supports for the offensive wing under Hancock, who
arrived on the Plank Road about 2 P.M.
Hancock's divisions, as they came up, entrenched themselves
along the Brock Road. In the afternoon he was ordered to
attack whatever force of the enemy was on the Plank Road in
front of him, but was unwilling to do so until he had his forces
well in hand. Finally Getty was ordered to attack " whether
ock was ready or not." This may have been an attempt
to force Hancock's hand by an appeal to his soldierly honour, and
fact he did not leave Getty unsupported. But the dis-
jointed attacks of the II. corps on Hill's entrenchments, while
ug the Confederates to the verge of ruin, were not as success-
ful ;is the preponderance of force on the Union side ought to
have ensured. For four hours the two lines of battle were
fighting 50 yds. apart, until at nightfall the contest was given
up through mutual exhaustion.
The battle of the 6th was timed to begin at 5 A.M. and Grant's
attack was wholly directed on Parker's Store, with the object of
crushing Hill before Longstreet could assist him. If Longstreet,
instead of helping Hill, were to attack the extreme Union left,
so much the better; but the far more probable course for him
to take was to support Hill on or north of the Plank Road, and
Grant not only ordered Hancock with six of the eleven divisions
of Meade 's army to attack towards Parker's Store, but sent his
own " mass of manoeuvre " (the IX. corps) thither in such a
way as to strike Hill's left. The cavalry was drawn back for the
protection of the trains, 1 for " every musket " was required in
the ranks of the infantry. Warren and Sedgwick were to hold
Ewell occupied on the Pike by vigorous attacks. At 5 o'clock
Hancock advanced, drove back and broke up Hill's divisions,
and on his right Wadsworth attacked their left rear. But after
an hour's wood fighting the Union attack came to a standstill,
and at this moment, the critical moment for the action of the
IX. corps, Burnside was still more than a mile away, having
scarcely passed through Warren's lines into the woods. Then
Longstreet's corps, pushing its way in two columns of fours
through Hill's retreating groups, attacked Hancock with the
greatest fury, and forced him back some hundreds of yards.
But the woods broke the force of this attack too, and by 7.30
the battle had become a stationary fire-fight. After an interval
in which both sides rallied their confused masses, Longstreet
attacked again and gained more ground. Persistent rumours
came into the Union headquarters of a Confederate advance
against the Union left rear, and when Grant realized the situation
he broke off one of Burnside's divisions from the IX. corps
column and sent it to the cross roads as direct reserve to Hancock.
At this moment the battle took a very unfavourable turn on
the Plank Road. Longstreet had sent four brigades of infantry
by a detour through the woods south of the Plank Road to attack
Hancock's left. This was very effective, and the Union troops
were hustled back to the cross-roads. But Longstreet, like
Jackson a year before in these woods, was wounded by his own
men at the critical moment and the battle again came to a
standstill (2-2.30 P.M.).
Burnside's corps, arriving shortly before 10 A.M. near Chewn-
1 XVilson's division, in its movement on Shady Grove Church on
the 5th, had been cut off by the enemy's advance on the Plank Road
and attacked by some Confederate cavalry. But it extricated itself
and joined Gregg, who had been sent to assist him, at Todd's Tavern.
ing's house, the position whence it was to have attacked Hill's
left in the early morning, was about to attack, in ignorance of
Hancock's repulse, when fortunately an order reached it to
suspend the advance and to make its way through the woods
towards Hancock's right. This dangerous flank march, screened
by the woods, was completed by 2 P.M., and General Burnside
began an attack upon the left of Longstreet's command (R. H.
Anderson's fresh division of Hill's corps). But Hancock being
in no condition to support the IX. corps, the whole attack was,
at 3 P.M., postponed by Grant's order until 6 P.M. Thus there
was a long respite for both sides, varied only by a little skirmish-
ing. But Lee was determined, as always, to have the last word,
and about 4.15-4.30 a fierce assault was delivered amidst the
burning woods upon Hancock's entrenchments along the Brock
Road. For a moment, aided by the dense smoke, the Con-
federates seized and held the first line of works, but a counter-
stroke dislodged them. Burnside, though not expecting to have
to attack before 6, put into the fight such of his troops as were
ready, and at 5.30 or thereabouts the assaulting line receded into
the woods. Grant cancelled his order to attack at 6, and at
the decisive point the battle was at an end. But on the extreme
right of the Union army a sudden attack was delivered at sunset
upon the hitherto unmolested VI. corps, by Gordon, one of
Ewell's brigadiers. This carried off two generals and several
hundred prisoners, and a panic ensued which affected all the
Union forces on the Pike, and -was not quieted until after
nightfall.
Lee, therefore, had the last word on both flanks, but in spite
of this and of the very heavy losses, 2 Grant had already resolved
to go on, instead of going back like his various predecessors.
To him, indeed, the battle of the Wilderness was a victory, an
indecisive victory indeed, but one that had given him a moral
superiority which he did not intend to forfeit. His scheme,
drafted early on the morning of the 7th, was for the army to
march to Spottsylvania on the night of the 7th-8th, to assemble
there on the 8th, and thence to undertake a fresh manoeuvre
against Lee's right rear on the gth. This movement required
the trains with the fighting line to be cleared away from the
roads needed for the troops at once, and Lee promptly discovered
that a movement was in progress. He mistook its object , however,
and assuming that Grant was falling back on Fredericksburg,
he prepared to shift his own forces to the south of that place
so as to bar the Richmond road. This led to a race for Spott-
sylvania, which was decided more by accidents to either side
than by the measures of the two commanding generals. On the
Union side Warren was to move to the line Spottsylvania Court
House-Todd's Tavern, followed by Hancock; Sedgwick was
to take a roundabout route and to come in between the V. and
II. corps; Burnside to follow Sedgwick. The cavalry was
ordered to watch the approaches towards the right of the army.
The movement began promptly after nightfall on the 7th. But
ere long the head of Warren's column, passing in rear of Han-
cock's line of battle, was blocked by the headquarters escort
of Grant and Meade. Next, the head of the V. corps was again
checked at Todd's Tavern by two cavalry divisions which had
been sent by Sheridan to regain the ground at Todd's Tavern, 1
given up on the 6th, and after fighting the action of Todd's
Tavern had received no further orders from him. Meade,
greatly irritated, ordered Gregg's division out towards Corbin's
Bridge and Merrill's (Torberl'sl lo Spottsylvania. On the latter
road the Union cavalry found themselves opposed by Fitz Lee's
cavalry, and afler some hours of disheartening work in the
woods, Merrill asked Warren to send forward infantry to drive
the enemy. This Warren did, although he was jusl preparing
to rest and to feed his men after Iheir exhausling night-march.
Robinson's division at the head of the corps deployed and swiflly
drove in Filz Lee. A little beyond Alsop's, however, Robinson
found his path barred by enlrenched infantry. This was part
* The Union losses in the battle were 18,000, the Confederates at
least 1 i ,500.
* In consequence of a mistaken order that the trains which he was
protecting were to move forward to Piney Branch Church.
6 3 6
WILDERNESS
of Anderson's (Longstreet's) corps. That officer had been
ordered to draw out of his (Wilderness) works, and to bivouac,
preparatory to marching at 3 A.M. to the Court House, but,
finding no good resting-place, he had moved on at once. His
route took him to the Catharpin Road (Hampton's cavalry
protecting him towards Todd's Tavern), and thence over Corbin's
Bridge to Block House Bridge. At or near Block House Bridge
the corps halted to rest, but Stuart (who was with Fitz Lee)
called upon Anderson for assistance and the march was resumed
at full speed. Sheridan's new orders to Gregg and Merritt did
not arrive until Meade had given these officers other instruc-
tions, but Wilson's cavalry division, which was out of the line
of march of the infantry, acted in accordance with Sheridan's
plan of occupying the bridges in front of the army's intended
position at Spottsylvania Court House, and seized that place,
inflicting a smart blow upon a brigade of Stuart's force that
was met there.
The situation about 9 A.M. on the 8th was therefore curious.
Warren, facing E., and opposed by part of Anderson's corps,
was seeking to fight his way to Spottsylvania Court House by
the Brock Road. Wilson, facing S., was holding the Court
House and driving Fitz Lee's cavalry partly westward on to the
backs of the infantry opposing Warren, partly towards Block
House Bridge, whence the rest of Anderson's infantry was
approaching. All the troops were weary and hungry, and
Sheridan ordered Wilson to evacuate the Court House and to
fall back over the Ny. Warren fruitlessly attacked the Con-
federate infantry at Spindler's, General Robinson being severely
wounded, and his division disorganized. The other divisions
came up by degrees, and another attack was made about n.
It was pressed close up to, and in some places over, the Con-
federate log-works, but it ended in failure like the first. A third
attempt in the evening dwindled down to a reconnaissance in
force. Anderson was no longer isolated. Early's division ob-
served Hancock's corps at Todd's Tavern, but the rest of Ewell's
and all Hill's corps went to Spottsylvania and prolonged Ander-
son's line northward towards the Ny. Thus the re-grouping of
the Union army for manoeuvre, and even the running fight or
strategic pursuit imagined by Grant when he found Anderson
at Spottsylvania, were given up, and on the gth both armies
rested. On this day General Sedgwick was killed by a long-
range shot from a Confederate rifle. His place was taken by
General H. G. Wright. On this day also a violent quarrel
between Meade and Sheridan led to the departure of the cavalry
corps on an independent mission. This was the so-called
Richmond raid, in which Sheridan defeated Stuart at Yellow
Tavern (where Stuart was killed) and captured the outworks
of Richmond, but, having started with empty forage wagons, 1
had then to make his way down the Chickahominy to the nearest
supply depots of the Army of the James, leaving the Confederate
cavalry free to rally and to rejoin Lee.
Finding the enemy thus gathered in his front, Grant decided
to fight again on the roth. While Hancock opposed Early, and
Warren and Wright Hill and Anderson, Burnside was ordered
by Grant to work his way to the Fredericksburg-Spottsylvania
road, thence to attack the enemy's right rear. The first stage
of this movement of the IX. corps was to be made on the gth,
but not the attack itself, and Burnside was consequently ordered
not to go beyond a place called " Gate " on the maps used by the^
Union staff. This, it turned out, was not the farm of a person
called Gate, as headquarters supposed, but a mere gate into a
field. Consequently it was missed, and the IX. corps went on
to Gale's or Gayle's house, where the enemy's skirmishers were
driven in. s The news of an enemy opposing Burnside at " Gate,"
which Grant still supposed to be the position of the IX. corps,
at once radically altered the plan of battle. Lee was presumed
1 Owing to the circumstances of his departure, the angry army
staff told him to move out at once with the forage that he had, and
Sheridan, though the army reserve supplies were at hand, made no
attempt to fill up from them.
1 A further source of confusion, for the historian at least, is that
on the survey maps made in 1867 this " Gayle " is called " Beverly "
(see map II.).
to be moving north towards Fredericksburg, and Grant saw an
opportunity of a great and decisive success. The IX. corps was
ordered to hold its position at all costs, and the others were to
follow up the enemy as he concentrated upon Burnside. Hancock
was called in from Todd's Tavern, sent down to force the fords
of the Po at and below Tinder's Mill, and directed upon Block
House Bridge by an officer of Grant's own staff, while Warren
and Wright were held ready. But once more a handful of
cavalry in the woods delayed the effective deployment of the
moving wing, and by the time that the II. corps was collected
opposite Block House Bridge it was already night. Still there was,
apparently, no diminution of force opposite Burnside, and Hancock
was ordered to resume bis advance at early dawn on the loth.
Meade, however, had little or no cognizance of Grant's orders
to the independent IX. corps, and his orders, conflicting with
those emanating from the Lieutenant-General's staff, puzzled
Hancock and crippled his advance. At 10 the whole scheme
was given up, and the now widely deployed Union army closed
on its centre as best it could for a direct attack on the Spott-
sylvania position. At 4, before the new concentration was
complete, and while Hancock was still engaged in the difficult
operation of drawing back over the Po in the face of the enemy.
Warren attacked unsupported and was repulsed. In the woods
on the left Wright was more successful, and at 6 P. M. a rush of
twelve selected regiments under Colonel Emory Upton carried
the right of Lee's log-works. But for want of support this
attack too was fruitless, though Upton held the captured works
for an hour and brought off icoo prisoners. Burnside, receiving
Grant's new orders to attack from Gayle's towards Spottsylvania,
sent for further orders as to the method of attack, and his advance-
was thus made too late in the day to be of use. Lee had again
averted disaster, this time by his magnificent handling of his only
reserve, Hill's (now Early's) corps, which he used first against
Hancock and then against Burnside with the greatest effect.
This was the fourth battle since the evening of the 4th of
May. On the morning of the 1 1 th Grant sent his famous message
to Washington, " I purpose to fight it out on this line if it takes
all summer." The izth was to be the fifth and, Grant hoped,
the decisive battle. A maze of useful and useless entrench-
ments had been constructed on both sides, especially on the
Union side, from mere force of habit. Grant, seeing from the
experience of the loth that his corps commanders were manning
these entrenchments so strongly that they had only feeble forces
disposable for the attack, ordered all superfluous defences to
be given up. Three corps were formed in a connected line (from
right to left, V., VI., IX.) during the nth, and that night the
II. corps moved silently to a position between Wright and
Burnside and formed up in the open field at Brown's in an
attacking mass of Napoleonic density three lines of divisions,
in line and in battalion and brigade columns. Burnside was to
attack from Gayle's (Beverly's on the map) towards McCool's.
Warren and Wright were to have at least one division each clear
of their entrenchments and ready to move.
Up to the nth Lee's line had extended from the woods in
front of Block House Bridge, through Perry's and Spindler's
fields to McCool's house, and its right was refused and formed
a loop round McCool's. All these works faced N.W. In addi-
tion, Burnside's advance had caused Early's corps to entrench
Spottsylvania and the church to the south of it, facing E.
Between these two sections were woods. The connexion made
between them gave the loop around McCool's the appearance
from which it derives its historic name of The Salient. Upon
the northern face of this Salient Hancock's attack was delivered.
On the nth the abandonment of Burnside's threatening
advance on his rear and other indices had disquieted Lee as to
his left or Block House flank, and he had drawn off practically
all Swell's artillery from the McCool works to aid in that quarter.
The infantry that manned the Salient was what remained of
Stonewall Jackson's " foot cavalry," veterans of Antietam,
Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. But at 4.35, in the mist,
Hancock's mass swept over their works at the first rush and
swarmed in the interior of the Salient, gathering thousands of
WILDERNESS
637
prisoners and seizing the field batteries that Lee had sent back
just too late.
The thronging and excited Federals were completely dis-
ordered by success, and the counter-attack of one or two Con-
federate brigades in good order drove them back to the line of
the captured works. Then, about 6, there began one of the most
remarkable struggles in history. While Early, swiftly drawing
back from Block House, checked Burnside's attack from the
east, and Anderson, attacked again and again by parts of the
V. corps, 1 was fully occupied in preserving his own front, Lee,
with Ewell's corps and the few thousand men whom the other
time came, Lee succeeded so well that after twenty hours' bitter
fighting the new line was ready and the Confederates gave up
the barren prize to Hancock. Lee had lost 4000 prisoners as
well as 4500 killed and wounded, as against 7000 in the Army of
the Potomac and the IX. corps.
There were other battles in front of Spottsylvania, but that
of the izth was the climax. From the I3th to the aoth the
Federals gradually worked round from west to east, delivering
a few partial attacks in the vain hope of discovering a weak
point. Lee's position, now semicircular, enabled him to con-
centrate on interior lines on each occasion. In the end the
.^SPOTTSYLVANIA
Federals ..^mm Confederates
Abandoned Works xxxxxx
New Works at the base
of the Salient
From The Wilderness and Cold Harbor, by permission of Hugh Rees, Limited.
generals could spare, delivered all day a series of fierce counter-
strokes against Hancock. Nearly aU Wright's corps and even
part of Warren's (in the end 45,000 men) were drawn into the
fight at the Salient, for Grant and Meade well knew that Lee
was struggling to gain time for the construction of a retrench-
ment across the base of it. If the counter-attacks failed to gain
this respite, the Confederates would have to retreat as best
they could, pressed in front and flank. But the initial superi-
ority of the Federals was neutralized by their disorder, and,
keeping the fight alive by successive brigade attacks, while the
troops not actually employed were held out of danger till their
1 The tension was so great that, after threatening to deprive
Warren of his command, Meade sent General Humphreys, his
chief of staff, to direct the V. corps' attack.
j Federals were entrenched facing E. between Beverly's house
(Burnside's old " Gayle ") and Quisenberry's, Lee facing W.
from the new works south of Harrison's through the Court House
to Snell's Bridge on the Po. In the fork of the Po and the Ny.
with woods and marshes to obstruct every movement, Grant
knew that nothing could be done, and he prepared to execute
a new manoeuvre. But here, as in the Wilderness, Lee managed
to have the last word. While the Union army was resting in
camp for the first time since leaving Culpeper, Ewell's corps
suddenly attacked its baggage-train near Harris's house. The
Confederates were driven off, but Grant had to defer his intended
manoeuvre for two daj's. ' When the armies left Spottsylvania,
little more than a fortnight after breaking up from winter
quarters, the casualties had reached the totals of 35,000 out of
6 3 8
WILDERNESS
an original total of 120,000 for the Union army, 26,000 out of
70,000 for the Confederates.
The next manoeuvre attempted by Grant to bring Lee's army
to action " outside works " was of an unusual character, though
it had been foreshadowed in the improvised plan of crushing
Lee against Burnside's corps on the gth. Hancock was now
(2oth) ordered to move off under cover of night to Milford;
thence he was to march south-west as far as possible along the
Richmond and Fredericksburg railroad, and to attack whatever
NORTH
ANNA JSSffiround Squirrel
Positions about 3a.m. on May 22.
From The Wilderness and Cold Harbor, by permission of Hugh Rees, Limited.
force of the enemy he met. It was hoped that this bold stroke
by an isolated corps would draw Lee's army upon it, and the
rest of the Army of the Potomac would, if this hope were realized,
drive down upon Lee's rear while Hancock held him up in front.
Supposing, however, that Lee did not take the bait, the man-
oeuvre would resolve itself into a turning movement with the
object of compelling Lee to come out of his Spottsylvania lines
on pain of being surrounded.
The II. corps started on the night of the 2oth-2ist. The
alarm was soon given. At Milford, where he forced the passage
of the Mattapony, Hancock found himself in the presence of
hostile infantry from Richmond and heard that more had
arrived at Hanover Junction, both from Richmond and from
the Shenandoah Valley. He therefore suspended his advance
and entrenched. The main army began to move off, after giving
Lee time to turn against Hancock, at 10 a.m. on the 2ist, and
marched to Catlett's, a place a few miles S.W. of Guinea's
bridge, Warren leading, Burnside and Wright following. But no
news came in from Hancock until late in the evening, and the
development of the manoeuvre was consequently delayed, so
that on the night of the 2ist-22nd Lee's army slipped across
Warren's front en route for
Hanover Junction. The other
Confederate forces that had
opposed Hancock likewise fell
back. Grant's manoeuvre had
failed. Its principal aim was
to induce Lee to attack the
II. corps at Milford, its secondary
and alternative purpose was,
by dislodging Lee from Spott-
sylvania, to force on an en-
counter battle in open ground.
But he was only offered the
bait not compelled to take
it, as he would have been if
Hancock with two corps had
been placed directly athwart the
road between Spottsylvania and
Hanover Junction and, having
unimpaired freedom of action,
he chose to retreat to the
Junction. The four Union corps,
therefore, could only pursue him
to the North Anna, at which
river they arrived on the morn-
ing of the 23rd, Warren on the
right, Hancock on the left,
Wright and Burnside being well
to the rear in second line. The
same afternoon Warren seized
Jericho Ford, brought over the
V. corps to the south, side, and
repulsed a very sharp counter-
stroke made by one of Lee's
corps. Hancock at the same
time stormed a Confederate re-
doubt which covered the Tele-
graph Road bridge over the river.
Wright and Burnside closed up.
It seemed as if a battle was at
hand, but in the night reports
came in that Lee had fallen back
to the South Anna, and as these
were more or less confirmed
by the fact that Warren met
with no further opposition, and
by the enemy's retirement from
the river bank on Hancock's
front, the Union generals gave
orders, about midday on the
24th, for what was practically a
general pursuit. This led incidentally to an attempt to drive
Lee's rearguard away from the point of passage, between
Warren's and Hancock's, required for Burnside, and in the
course of this it became apparent that Lee's army had
not fallen back, but was posted in a semicircle to which
the North Anna formed a tangent. On the morning of
the 25th this position was reconnoitred, and found to be
more formidable than that of Spottsylvania. Moreover, it
divided the two halves of the Union army that had crossed
above and below.
Grant gave up the game as drawn and planned a new move.
This had as its objects, first, the seizure of a point of passage
WILDERNESS
6 39
on the Pamunkey; secondly, the deployment of the Army of
the Potomac and of a contingent expected from the Army of
the James, and thirdly, the prevention of Lee's further retire-
ment, which was not desired by the Urion commanders, owing
ic proximity of the Richmond defences and the consequent
want of room to manoeuvre. On the 27th Sheridan's cavalry
and a light division of infantry passed the Pamunkey at Hanover
Town, and the two divided wings of the Army of the Potomac
were withdrawn over the North Anna without mishap thanks
to exactitude in arrangement and punctuality in execution.
On the z8th the Army of the Potomac had arrived near Hanover
Town, while at Hawes's Shop, on the road to Richmond, Sheridan
and anvil battle was again taken up, the " anvil " being Smith's
XVIII. corps, which had come up from the James river to White
House on the 3oth; but once more the lure failed because it
was not made sufficiently tempting.
The last episode of the campaign centred on Cold Harbor,
a village close to the Chickahominy, which Sheridan's cavalry
seized, on its own initiative, on the 3ist. Here, contrary to
the expectation of the Union staff, a considerable force of
Confederate infantry new arrivals from the James was met,
and in the hope of bringing on a battle before either side had time
to entrench, Grant and Meade ordered Sheridan to hold the
village at all costs, and directed Wright's (VI.) corps from the
TOTOPOTOMOY
/ AND COLD HARBOR,
positions May26
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From The Wilderness and Cold Harbor, by pcrmissija of Hugh Recs, Limited.
had a severe engagement with the enemy's cavalry. Lee was
now approaching from Hanover Junction via Ashland, and
the Army cf the Potomac swung round somewhat to the right
so as to face in the presumed direction of the impending attack.
The Confederate general, however, instead of attacking, swerved
south, and planted himself behind the Totopotomoy. Here
he was discovered, entrenched as always, on the 2Qth, and
skirmishing all along the line, varied at times by more severe
fighting, occupied that day and the 3oth. On the morning of
the 3ist the Union army was arranged from right to left in the
order VI., II., IX. and V. corps, Sheridan having meantime
drawn off to the left rear of the infantry.
Now, for the last time in the campaign, the idea of a hammer
extreme right wing, and Smith's (XVIII.) from Old Church,
to march thither with all possible speed, Wright in the night of
the 3ist of May and Smith on the morning of the ist of June.
Lee had actually ordered his corps commanders to attack, but
was too ill to enforce his wishes, and in the evening Wright
and Smith themselves assaulted the Confederate front opposite
Cold Harbor. The assault, though delivered by tired men, was
successful. The enemy's first or skirmish line was everywhere
stormed, and parts of the VI. corps even penetrated the main
line. Nearly 800 prisoners were taken, and Grant at once pre-
pared to renew the attack, as at Spottsylvania, with larger
forces, bringing Hancock over from the right of the line on the
night of the ist, and ordering Hancock, Wright and Smith to
640
WILDMAN WILFRID
assault on the next morning. But Lee had by now moved more
forces down, and his line extended from the Totopotomoy to
the Chickahominy. Hancock's corps, very greatly fatigued
by its night march, did not form up until after midday, and
meanwhile Smith, whose corps, originally but 10,000 strong,
had been severely tried by its hard marching and fighting on the
ist, refused to consider the idea of renewing the attack. The
passive resistance thus encountered dominated Grant's fighting
instinct for a moment. But after reconsidering the problem he
again ordered the attack to be made by Wright, Smith and
Hancock at 5 p.m. A last modification was made when, during
the afternoon, Lee's far distant left wing attacked Burnside
and Warren. This, showing that Lee had still a considerable
force to the northward, and being, not very inaccurately, read
to mean that the 6 m. of Confederate entrenchments were equally
i.e. equally thinly guarded at all points, led to the order being
given to all five Union corps to attack at 4-30 a.m. on the 3rd
of June.
The resolution to make this plain, unvarnished frontal assault
on entrenchments has been as severely criticized as any action
of any commander in the Civil War, and Grant himself subse-
quently expressed his regret at having formed it. But such
criticisms derive all their force from the event, not from the
conditions in which, beforehand, the resolution was made. The
risks of failure were deliberately accepted, and the battle if.it
can be called a battle was fought as ordered. The assault
was made at the time arranged and was repulsed at all points,
with a loss to the assailants of about 8000 men. Thereafter the
two armies lay for ten days less than a hundred yards apart.
There was more or less severe fighting at times, and an almost
ceaseless bickering of skirmishers. Owing to Grant's refusal
to sue for permission to remove his dead and wounded in the
terms demanded, Lee turned back the Federal ambulance parties,
and many wounded were left to die between the lines. It was
only on the 7th that Grant pocketed his feelings and the dead
were buried.
This is one of the many incidents of Cold Harbor that
must always rouse painful memories though to blame Lee or
Grant supposes that these great generals were infinitely more
inhuman here than at any other occasion in their lives, and takes
no account of the consequences of admitting a defeat at this
critical moment, when the causes for which the Union army
and people contended were about to be put to the hazard of a
presidential election.
The Federal army lost, in this month of almost incessant
campaigning, about 50,000 men, the Confederates about 32,000.
Though the aggregate of the Union losses awed both contem-
poraries and historians of a later generation, proportionately
the losses of the South were heavier (46% of the original strength
as compared with 41% on the Union side), and whereas within
a few weeks Grant was able to replace nearly every man he had
lost by a new recruit, the Confederate government was almost
at the end of its resources.
See A. A. Humphreys, The Campaign nf Virginia, 1864-65 (New
York, 1882); Military History Society of Massachusetts, The
Wilderness Campaign; Official Records of the Rebellion, serial numbers
67, 68 and 69; and C. F. Atkinson, The Wilderness and Cold Harbor
(London, 1908). (C.F.A.)
WILDMAN, SIR JOHN (c. 1621-1693), English agitator, was
educated at the university of Cambridge, and during the Civil
War served for a short time under Sir Thomas Fairfax. He
became prominent, however, not as a soldier but as an agitator,
being in 1647 one of the leaders of that section of the army
which objected to all compromise with the king. In a pamphlet,
Putney Projects, he attacked Cromwell; he was responsible
for The Case of the Army stated, and he put the views of his associ-
ates before the council of the army at a meeting in Putney church
in October 1647. The authorities looked upon him with suspicion,
and in January 1648 he and John Lilburne were imprisoned,
preparations, says Clarendon, being made " for his trial and
towards his execution." However, he was released in the
following August, and for a time he was associated with the
party known as the levellers, but he quickly severed his
connexion with them and became an officer in the army. He
was a large buyer of the land forfeited by the royalists, and in
1654 he was sent to the House of Commons as member for
Scarborough. In the following year he was arrested for con-
spiring against Cromwell, and after his release four months
later be resumed the career of plotting, intriguing alike with
royalists and republicans for the overthrow of the existing
regime. In 1659 he helped to seize Windsor castle for the Long
Parliament, and then in November 1661 he was again a prisoner
on some suspicion of participating in republican plots. For
six years he was a captive, only regaining his freedom after
the fall of Clarendon in October 1667.
In or before 1681 Wildman became prominent among those
who were discontented with the rule of Charles II., being
especially intimate with Algernon Sydney. He was undoubtedly
concerned in the Rye House Plot, and under James II. he
was active in the interests of the duke of Monmouth, but
owing to some disagreements, or perhaps to his cowardice, he
took no part in the rising of 1685. He found it advisable,
however, to escape to Holland, and returned to England with
the army of William of Orange in 1688. In 1689 he was a
member of the convention parliament.
Wildman was postmaster - general from April 1689 to
February 1691, when some ugly rumours about his con-
duct brought about his dismissal. Nevertheless, he was
knighted by William III. in 1692, and he died on the and
of June 1693. Sir John, who was the author of many political
pamphlets, left an only son, John, who died childless in
1710.
WILES, IRVING RAMSAY (1861- ), American artist, was
born at Utica, New York, on the 8th of April 1 86 1. He studied
under his father, the landscape painter, Lemuel Maynard Wiles
(1826-1905), in the Art Students' League, New York, and under
Carolus Duran, at Paris. His earlier work was as an illustrator
for American magazines, and later he devoted himself with great
success to portraiture. He became a full member of the National
Academy of Design (1897) and a member of the American Water
Color Society.
WILFRID (c. 634-709), English archbishop, was born of good
parentage in Northumbria, c. 634. When serving in King Oswio's
court, he attracted the notice of the queen* Eanfled, who, foster-
ing his inclination for a religious life, placed him under the care
of an old noble, Cudda, now a monk at Lindisfarne. Later on
Eanfled enabled him to visit Rome in the company of Benedict
Biscop. At Lyons Wilfrid's pleasing features and quick intelli-
gence made Annemund, the archbishop, desire to adopt him and
marry him to his niece. Resisting his offers, the youth went on
to Rome, received the papal benediction, and then, in accordance
with his promise, returned to Lyons, where he stayed for three
years, till the murder of his patron, whose fate the executioners
would not let him share. On his return home, Oswio's son
Alchfrid gave him a monastery at Ripon, and, before long,
Agilbert, bishop of the Gewissae, or West Saxons, ordained him
priest.
He was probably already regarded as the leading exponent
of the Roman discipline in England when his speech at the
council of Whitby determined the overthrow of the Celtic
party (664). About a year later he was consecrated to the see
of York, not, however, in England, where perhaps he could not
find the fitting number of orthodox prelates, but at Compiegne,
Agilbert being now bishop of Paris. On his return journey he
narrowly escaped the pagan wreckers of Sussex, and only
reached his own country to find Ceadda (St Chad) installed
in his see.
The rest of his life is largely a record of wandering and
misfortune. For three years (665-668) he ruled his mon-
astery at Ripon in peace, though acting as bishop in Mercia and
Kent during vacancies in sees there. On Archbishop Theodore's
arrival (668) he was restored to his see, and spent in it nine years
of ceaseless activity, especially in building churches, only to be
driven out through the anger of King Ecgfrith's queen (677).
WILHELMINA (NETHERLANDS) WILHELMSHA YEN 641
Theodore now divided Wilfrid's large diocese into three; and
the aggrieved prelate went to lay his case before the bishop of
Rome. On his way a west wind drove him to Friesland, where
he evangelized the natives and prepared the way for Willibrord
(q.v.). Late in life he ordained Suidbert bishop of the Frisians,
nod held at Rome under Agatho (680) ordained his restitu-
tion; but even this decision could not prevent his being cast into
prison on his return home. When released he wandered first to
Mercia, then to Wessex and finally to Sussex. Here he rescued
the pagan folk from an impending famine, sent preachers to the
Isle of Wight and founded a monastery at Selsey. After Ecgfrith's
death (2oth May 685) Wilfrid was restored to York (much
circumscribed), and Ripon (686-687). He was once more driven
out in 691-692, and spent seven years in Mercia. A great council
of the English Church held in Northumbria excommunicated him
in 702. He again appealed to Rome in person, and obtained
another decision in his favour ( 703-704) . Despite the intercession
of Brihwald, archbishop of Canterbury, Aldfrith king of North-
umbria refused to admit the aged prelate into his kingdom till
his last illness (705). This year or the next a council was held
near the River Nidd, the papal letters were read, and, despite the
opposition of the bishops, Wilfrid once more received the abbeys
of Ripon and Hexham. Not long after he died at Oundle in
Northamptonshire as he was going on a visit to Ceolred, king of
Mercia (709). He was buried at Ripon, whence, according to
Eadmer, his bones were afterwards removed to Canterbury.
Wilfrid's is a memorable name in English history, not only because
of the large part he played in supplanting the Celtic discipline and
in establishing a precedent of appeal to papal authority, but also by
reason of his services to architecture and learning. At York he re-
newed Paulinus's old church, roofing it with lead and furnishing it
with glass windows; at Ripon he built an entirely new basilica with
columns and porches ; at Hexham in honour of St Andrew he reared a
still nobler church, over which Eddius grows eloquent. In the early
days of his bishopric he used to travel about his diocese attended by
a little troop of skilled masons. He seems to have also reformed the
method of conducting the divine services by the aid of his skilled
chanters, jEdde and ^Eona, and to have established or renewed
the rule of St Benedict in the monasteries. On each visit to Rome it
was his delight to collect relics for his native land; and to his
favourite basilica at Ripon he gave a bookcase wrought in gold and
precious stones, besides a splendid copy of the Gospels.
Wilfrid's life was written shortly after his death by Eddius at the
request of Acca, his successor at Hexham, and Tatbert, abbot of
Ripon both intimate friends of the great bishop. Other lives were
written by Frithegode in the loth, by Folcard in the nth, and by
Eadmer early in the I2th century. See also Bede's Hist. Eccl. v. 19,
iii. 25, iv. 13, &c. All the lives are printed in J. Raine's Historians of
the Church of York, vol. i. " Rolls " series.
WILHELMINA [WILHELMINA HELENA PAULINE MARIA
OF ORANGE-NASSAU] (1880- ), queen of the Nether-
lands, was born at the Hague on the 3ist of August 1880.
Her father, William III. (Willem Paul Alexander Frederik
Lodewijk), had by his first wife, Sophia Frederika Mathilde of
Wurttemberg, three sons, all of whom predeceased him. Having
been left a widower on the 3rd of June 1877, he married on the
7th of January 1879 Adelheid Emma Wilhclmina Theresia,
second daughter of Prince George Victor of Waldeck-Pyrmont,
born on the 2nd of August 1858, and Wilhelmina was the only
issue of that union. She succeeded to the throne on her father's
death, which took place on the 23rd of November 1890, but until
her eighteenth year, when she was " inaugurated " at Amsterdam
on the 6th of September 1898, the business of the state was
carried on under the regency of the queen-mother, in accordance
with a law made on the 2nd of August 1884. On the 7th of
February 1901 Queen Wilhelmina married Henry Wladimir
Albert Ernst, duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (born on the igth
of April 1876). To the great joy of the Dutch people, Queen
Wilhelmina, on the 3oth of April 1909, gave birth to an heir
to the throne, the Princess Juliana (Juliana Louise Emma
Maria Wilhelmina). (See HOLLAND: History.)
WILHELMINA (SOPHIA FRIDERIKA WILHELMINA) (1700-
1758), margravine of Baireuth, was born in Berlin on the
3rd of July 1709, the daughter of Frederick William I., crown
prince, afterwards king of Prussia, and of Sophia Dorothea,
daughter of the elector of Hanover (George I. of England).
xxvni. 21
Wilhelmina shared the unhappy childhood of her brother,
Frederick the Great, whose friend and confidante she remained,
with the exception of one short interval, all her life. Sophia
Dorothea wished to marry her daughter to Frederick, prince of
Wales, but on the English side there was no disposition to make
the offer except in exchange for substantial concessions, to which
the king of Prussia was not prepared to assent. The fruitless
intrigues carried on by Sophia Dorothea to bring about this
match played a large part in Wilhelmina's early life. After
much talk of other matches, which came to nothing, she was
eventually married in 1731 to Frederick, hereditary .prince of
Baireuth. The marriage, only accepted by Wilhelmina under
threats from her father and with a view to lightening her brother's
disgrace, proved at the outset a happy one, though it was
clouded at first by narrow means, and afterwards by the
infidelities of the future margrave with Dorothea von Marwitz,
whose ascendancy at the court of Baireuth was bitterly resented
by Frederick the Great, and caused an estrangement of some
three years between Wilhelmina and the brother she so devotedly
loved. When Wilhelmina's husband came into his inheritance in
1735 the pair set about making Baireuth a miniature Versailles.
Their building operations included the rebuilding of their
summer residence, the Ermitage, the great Baireuth opera-house,
the building of a theatre and the reconstruction of the Baireuth
palace and of the new opera house. They also founded the
university of Erlangen, the undertakings bringing the court
to the verge of bankruptcy.
The margravine made Baireuth one of the intellectual centres
of Germany, surrounding herself with a little court of wits and
artists which gained added prestige from the occasional visits
of Voltaire and Frederick the Great. With the outbreak of the
Seven Years' War, Wilhelmina's interests shifted from dilettant-
ism to diplomacy. She acted as eyes and ears for her brother in
southern Germany until her death on the i4th of October 1758,
the day of Frederick's defeat by the Austrians at Hochkirch.
Her only daughter Frederica had contracted in 1 748 an unhappy
marriage with Charles Eugene, duke of Wiirttemberg.
The margravine's memoirs, Memoires de ma vie, written or revised
between 1748 and her death, are preserved in the Royal Library of
Berlin. They were first printed in two forms in 1810 a German
translation down to the year 1 733 from the firm of Cotta of Tubingen ;
and in French published by Vieweg of Brunswick, and coming down
to 1742. There have been several subsequent editions, including a
German one published at Leipzig in 1908. An English translation
was published in Berlin in 1904. For the discussion on the authen-
ticity of these entertaining, though not very trustworthy, memoirs,
see G. H. Pertz, Vber die Merkwiirdigkeiten der Markgrafin (1851).
See also Arvede Barine, Princesses et grandes dames (Paris, 1890);
E. E. Cuttell, Wilhelmine, Mcrgravine of Baireuth (London, 2 veils.,
1^05); and R. Fester, Die BayretUher Schwester Friedrichs des
Crossen (Berlin, 1902).
WILHELMSHAVEN, or WILHELMSHAFEN, a town of Germany,
and the chief naval station and war harbour of the empire on the
North Sea, situated on the north-west shore of the Jade Busen,
a large shallow basin formed by inundations and united with
the sea by the Jade, a channel 3 m. long. Pop. (1885), 19,422;
(1905), 26,012, of whom 8227 belonged to the navy or army.
The ground on which it stands (4 sq. m.) was purchased by
Prussia from the grand-duke of Oldenburg in 1853, when the
Prussian navy was being formed. The construction of the
harbour and town was begun in 1855, and the former was opened
in 1869. Though reckoned a part of the Prussian province of
Hanover it is completely surrounded on the landward side by
Oldenburg territory. The town is laid out on a regular plan
and ample scale, and the streets are wide and shaded with trees.
The main thoroughfare is the Roonstrasse, which, running E.
and W., passes the market-square, upon which stand the town
hall and the post office. There are two Evangelical and two
Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium, schools for warrant
officers and engineers and other naval educational institutions.
The original harbour, constructed in 1855-1869, consists of an
inner and outer basin. To the south-east of the inner harbour
a large new harbour has been more recently constructed for
war vessels in commission. This so-called new harbour (170
642
WILKES, C. WILKES, J.
acres in area and 265 ft. deep) is connected by means of a lock
(571 ft. long) with the new harbour entrance, which was com-
pleted in 1886. On the north it is connected with the fitting-out
basin (3832 ft. long, 446 ft. wide), which again is connected by a
lock (158 ft. long) with the outer basin (617 ft. long, 410 ft. wide),
and so with the old harbour entrance. North of this the " third
entrance " has been recently constructed, with two enormous
locks, one of which in an emergency could be used as an additional
dock. On the west side of the fitting-out basin lies the shipbuild-
ing basin (1237 ft. long by 742 ft. wide), with three dry-docks
(of which two are each 453 ft. long, 85 ft. wide and more than
30 ft. deep, whilst the third is 394 ft. long), and also with two
slips of the largest size. Further new docks (each about 617 ft.
by 97 ft.), capable of containing large battle-ships, were com-
pleted in 1906. A torpedo harbour lies to the south-east of the
new harbour. The three entrances to the old and new harbours
are sheltered by long and massive moles; and the whole complex
of docks, building slips, machine shops, &c., forms the govern-
ment dockyard, which is enclosed by a lofty wall with fourteen
iron gates. The establishment is defended by strong fortifica-
tions. The commercial harbour lies on the south side of the town
at the east end of the Ems-Jade canal. The industries of the place
are almost exclusively connected with the requirements of the
dockyard, and embrace machine shops, iron foundries and boiler
works. Wilhelmshaven is visited for its sea-bathine. Itpossesses
depots for artillery and mines, a meteorological observatory and
a signalling station. A battalion of marines is stationed here.
Since 1 900 the development of the naval establishment and of the
town has been exceptionally rapid, coincident with the growth
of the German navy, and with the shifting of political and naval
activity from the Baltic to the North Sea.
See Eberhard, Fiihrer durch Wilhelmshaven und seine Umgebung
(Wilhelmshaven, 1906) ; L. v. Krohn, Vierzig Jahre in einem deutschen
Kriegshafen (Wilhelmshaven, 1905).
WILKES, CHARLES (1798-1877), American naval officer and
explorer, was born in New York City on the 3rd of April 1798.
He entered the United States Navy as a midshipman in 1818,
and became a lieutenant in 1826. In 1830 he was placed in
charge of the division of instruments and charts, and in 1838
was appointed to command an exploring and surveying expedi-
tion in the Southern Seas, authorized by Congress in 1836. The
expedition, including naturalists, botanists, a mineralogist,
taxidermists, a philologist, &c., was carried by the sloops-of-war
" Vincennes " and " Peacock," the brig " Porpoise," the store-
ship " Relief " and two tenders. Leaving Hampton Roads on
the i8th of August 1838, it stopped at Madeira and Rio de
Janeiro; visited Tierra del Fuego, Chile, Peru, the Paumotu
group of the Low Archipelago, the Samoan islands and New
South Wales; from Sydney sailed into the Antarctic Ocean in
December 1839 and reported the discovery of an Antarctic
continent west of the Balleny islands; 1 visited the Fiji and
the Hawaiian islands in 1840, explored the west coast of the
United States, including the Columbia river, San Francisco Bay
and the Sacramento river, in 1841, and returned by way of the
Philippine islands, the Sulu archipelago, Borneo, Singapore,
Polynesia and the Cape of Good Hope, reaching New York on
the xoth of June 1842. He was court-martialled on his return,
but was acquitted on all charges except that of illegally punishing
men in his squadron. For a short time he was attached to the
Coast Survey, but from 1844 to 1861 he was chiefly engaged in
preparing the report of the expedition. Twenty-eight volumes
were planned but only nineteen were published. Of these Wilkes
wrote the Narrative (6 vols., 1845; 5 vols., 1850) and the volumes
Hydrography and Meteorology (1851). The Narrative contains
much interesting material concerning the manners and customs
1 This discovery was made on the igth of January 1840, one day
before Dumont d'Urville sighted Adelie Land about 400 m. farther
W. That Wilkes discovered an Antarctic continent was long doubted ,
and one of the charges against him when he was court-martialled
was that he had fabricated this discovery, but the expedition of Sir
Ernest Shackleton in 1908-1909 corroborated Wilkes. That part
of the Antarctic continent known as Wilkes Land was named in his
honour.
and political and economic conditions in many places then little
known. Other valuable contributions were the three reports of
James D. Dana on Zoophytes (1846), Geology (1849) and Crustacea
(2 vols., 1852-1854). At the outbreak of the Civil War, Wilkes
(who had reached the rank of commander in 1843 and that of
captain in 1855) was assigned to the command of the " San
Jacinto " to search for the Confederate commerce destroyer,
" Sumter." On the 8th of November 1861 he stopped the
British mail packet " Trent," and took off the Confederate
commissioners to Europe, James M. Mason and John Slidell.
Though he was officially thanked by Congress, his action was
later disavowed by President Lincoln. His next service was in
the James river flotilla, but after reaching the rank of commodore,
on the i6th of July 1862, he was assigned to duty against blockade
runners in the West Indies. He was disrated (becoming a captain
on the retired list) in November 1862 on the ground that he had
been too old to receive the rank of commodore under the act
then governing promotions; and engaged in a long controversy
with Gideon Welles, secretary of the navy. This controversy
ended in his being court-martialled in 1864 and being found
guilty on several counts and sentenced to public reprimand and
suspension for three years. But on the 25th of July 1866 he was
promoted to the rank of rear-admiral on the retired list. He
died at Washington on the 8th of February 1877.
In addition to many shorter articles, reports, &c., he published
Western America, including California and Oregon (1849) and Theory
of the Winds (1856).
WILKES, JOHN (1727-1797), English politician, descended
from a family long connected with Leighton-Buzzard in Bedford-
shire, was born at Clerkenwell, London, on the i7th of October
1727, being the second son of Israel Wilkes, a rich distiller,
and the owner, througjvhis wife Sarah, daughter of John Heaton
of Hoxton, of considerable house property in its north-eastern
suburbs. After some training under private tuition John Wilkes
was sent to the university of Leyden, matriculating there on
the 8th of September 1744. Several young men of talent from
Scotland and England were studying in this Dutch university
at that period, and a lively picture of their life, in which Wilkes
displays the gaiety of temper which remained faithful to him all
his days, is presented to us by Alexander Carlyle (Autobiog.,
1860, ed. J. H. Burton). With this training he acquired an
intimate knowledge of classical literature, and he enlarged his
mind by travelling through Holland, Flanders and part of
Germany. At the close of 1748 he returned to his native land,
and in a few months (October 1749) was drawn by his relations
into marrying Mary, sole daughter and heiress of John Mead,
citizen and grocer of London, who was ten years his senior. The
ill-assorted pair for she was grave and staid, while he rioted in
exuberant spirits and love of society lived together at Ayles-
bury for some months, when, to make matters worse, they
returned to town to dwell with the wife's mother. One child, a
daughter, was born to them (5th of August 1 7 50) , and then Wilkes
left his wife and removed to Westminster, where he kept open
house for many young men about town possessing more wit than
morals. In 1754 he contested the constituency of Berwick-upon-
Tweed, but failed to gain the seat.
Wilkes was now a well-known figure in the life of the west end
and among his associates were Thomas Potter, the son of tl:
archbishop of Canterbury, Sir Francis Dashwood, afterward
Lord le Despencer, and Lord Sandwich, the last of whom in
after years showed great animosity towards his old companion in
revelry. In July 1757, by a triangular arrangement in which
Potter and the first William Pitt played the other parts, Wilkes
was elected for Aylesbury, and for this constituency he was again
returned at the general election in March 1761. Pitt was his
leader in politics; but to Pitt he applied in vain for a seat at the
Board of Trade, nor was he successful in his application for
the post of ambassador at Constantinople, or for that of governor
of Quebec. As he attributed these failures to the opposition
of Lord Bute, he established a paper called the North Briton
(June 1762), in which he from the first attacked the Scotc
prime minister with exceeding bitterness, and grew bolder as it
WILKES-BARRE
643
proceeded in its course. One of its articles ridiculed Lord Talbot,
the steward of the royal household, and a duel was the result.
When Bute resigned, the issue of the journal was suspended;
but, when the royal speech framed by George Grenville's ministry
showed that the change was one of men only, not of measures,
a supplementary number, No. 45, was published, 23rd of April
1763, containing a caustic criticism of the king's message to his
parliament. Lord Halifax, the leading secretary of state, issued
a general warrant " to search for authors, printers and pub-
lishers," and to bring them before him for examination. Charles
Churchill, the poet and a coadjutor in this newspaper enterprise,
escaped through the good offices of Wilkes; but the chief offender
was arrested and thrown into the Tower (3Oth of April 1763). A
week later, however, he was released by order of the Court of
Common Pleas on the ground that his privilege as a member
of parliament afforded him immunity from arrest. General
warrants were afterwards declared illegal, and Halifax himself,
after a series of discreditable shifts, was cast in heavy sums, on
actions brought against him by the persons whom he had injured
the total expenses incurred by the ministry in these lawless
proceedings amounting to at least 100,000. So far Wilkes had
triumphed over his enemies, but he gave them cause for rejoicing
by an indiscreet reprint of the obnoxious No. 45, and by striking
off at his private press thirteen copies of an obscene Essay on
Woman, written by his friend Potter, in parody of Pope's Essay
on Man, one of which got into the hands of Lord Sandwich.
Immediately on the meeting of the House of Commons (isth
of November 1763) proceedings were taken against him. Lord
North moved that No. 45 was " a false, scandalous and seditious
libel," and the paper was publicly burnt in Cheapside on the 4th
of December. The Essay on Woman was on the same day brought
before the Upper House by Lord Sandwich, and, on account of
the improper use which had been made of Bishop Warburton's
name as the author of some coarse notes, the work was voted a
breach of privilege, and Wilkes was ordered to be prosecuted in
the Court of King's Bench for printing and publishing an impious
libel. He was expelled from the House of Commons on the
igth of January 1764; and on the zist of February he was found
guilty in the King's Bench of reprinting No. 45 and of printing
and publishing the Essay on Woman. Wilkes was on these dates
absent from England. Some strong expressions applied to him
by Samuel Martin, an ex-secretary of the treasury, had provoked
a duel (i6th of November 1763), in which Wilkes was severely
wounded in the stomach. He withdrew to Paris, and as he did
not return to England to receive his sentence in the law courts
was pronounced an outlaw.
For several years Wilkes remained abroad, receiving 1000 a
year from the leading Whigs, and in the course of his travels he
visited many parts of Italy. In February 1768 he returned to
London and sued the king for pardon, but in vain. His next step
was to offer himself as a candidate for the representation of the
city of London, when he was the lowest at the poll. Undaunted
by this defeat, he solicited the freeholders of Middlesex to return
him as their champion, and they placed him at the head of all
competitors (28th of March). He appeared before the King's
Bench, and on a technical point procured a reversal of his out-
lawry; but the original verdict was maintained, and he was
sentenced to imprisonment for twenty-two months as well as to
a fine of 1000, and he was further ordered to produce securities
for good behaviour for seven years after his liberation. His
conduct was brought before the House of Commons, with the
result that he was expelled from the House on the 3rd of February
1769, and with this proceeding there began a series of contests
between the ministry and the electors of Middlesex without
parallel in English history. They promptly re-elected him
(i6th of February), only to find him pronounced incapable of
sitting and his election void. Again they returned him (i6th of
March) and again he was rejected. A fourth election then
followed (i3th of April), when Colonel Henry Lawes Luttrell,
with all the influence of the court and the Fox family in his
favour, obtained 296 votes, while 1143 were given for Wilkes,
but two days later the House declared that Luttrell had been
duly elected. Through these audacious proceedings a storm of
fury broke out throughout the country. In the cause of " Wilkes
and liberty " high and low enlisted themselves. His prison cell
was thronged daily by the chief of the Whigs, and large sums
of money were subscribed for his support. So great was the
popular sympathy in his favour, that a keen judge of contem-
porary politics declared that, had George III. possessed a bad
and Wilkes a good character, the king would have been an
outcast from his dominions. At the height of the combat in
January 1769 Wilkes was elected an alderman for the city of
London; in 1771 he served as sheriff for London and Middlesex,
and as alderman he took an active part in the struggle between
the corporation and the House of Commons by which freedom
of publication of the parliamentary debates was obtained.
His admirers endeavoured in 1772 to procure his election as lord
mayor of London, but he was set aside by the aldermen, some
of whom were allied with the ministry of Lord North, while others,
as Oliver and Townshend, leant to the Liberalism of Lord
Shelburne. In 1774, however, he obtained that dignity, and
he retained his seat for Middlesex from the dissolution in 1774
until 1790. He moved in 1776 for leave to bring in a bill " for
a just and equal representation of the people of England in
parliament"; but attempts at parliamentary reform were
premature by at least half a century. After several failures
better fortune attended his efforts in another direction, for on
the 3rd of May 1782 all the declarations and orders against him
for his elections in Middlesex were ordered to be expunged from
the journals of the House. In 1779 Wilkes was elected chamber-
lain of the city by a large majority, and the office became his
freehold for life. He died at his house in Grosvenor Square,
London, on the 26th of December 1797. His daughter Mary,
to whom he was tenderly attached, died on the i2th of March
1802.
Wilkes printed editions of Catullus (1788) and Theophrastus (1790),
and at the time of his death had made considerable progress with a
translation of Anacreon. His conversation was often sullied by
obscenity and profanity ; but he knew how to suit his conversation
to his company, and his well-known assertion that, in spite of his
squint and ugly as he was, with the start of a quarter of an hour he
could get the better of any man, however good-looking, in the graces
of any lady, shows his confidence in his powers of fascination. The
king was obliged to own that he had never met so well-bred a lord
mayor, and Dr Johnson, who made his acquaintance at the house of
Dilly, the bookseller in the Poultry, confessed that " Jack has great
variety of talk, Jack is a scholar, and Jack has the manners of a
gentleman." It is doubtful how far he himself believed in the justice
of the principles which he espoused. To George III. he remarked of
his devoted friend and legal adviser, Serjeant Glynn, " Ah, sir! he
was a Wilkite, which I never was." His writings were marked by
great power of sarcasm. Two collections of his letters were published,
one of Letters to his Daughter, in four volumes in 1804, the other
Correspondence -with his Friends, in which are introduced Memoirs oj
his Life, by John Almon, in five volumes, in 1805. A Life by Percy
Fitzgerald was published in 1888. Essays on him are in Historical
Gleanings, by J. E. Thorold Rogers, 2nd sen (1870); Wilkes and
Cobbett, by J. S. Watson (1870); and Wilkes, Sheridan and Fox, by
W. F. Rae (1874). His connexion with Bath is set out in John
Wilkes, by W. Gregory (1888). and that with the city of London in
Modern History of the City, by Charles Welch (1896). A fragment of
his autobiography (Br. Museum Addit. MSS. 30865), chiefly de-
scriptive of his exile in France and Italy, was printed for W F.
Taylor of Harrow in 1888. (W. P. C.)
WILKES-BARRfi, a city and the county-seat of Luzeme
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the north branch of the
Susquehanna river, about 100 m. N.N.W. of Philadelphia.
Pop. (1890), 37,718; (1900), 51,721, of whom 12,188 were foreign-
born, including 2792 Germans, 2083 Welsh, 2034 Irish, 1578
English and 1000 Russian Poles; (1910 census), 67,105. Area,
4-8 sq. m. Wilkes-Barr6 is served by the Central Railroad of
New Jersey, the Lehigh Valley, the Delaware, Lackawanna &
Western, the Delaware & Hudson, the New York, Susquehanna
& Western and the Pennsylvania railways, and by three inter-
urban electric lines the Wilkes-Barre & Hazleton, connecting
with Hazleton, about 20 m. S., the Wilkes-Barr6 & Wyoming
Valley, and the Lackawanna & W r yoming Valley, connecting
with Scranton about 17 m. N.E. On the opposite bank of the
river (which is here spanned by two iron bridges) lies Kingston.
644
WILKIE, SIR DAVID
The city is attractively situated in the historic Wyoming Valley.
The principal public buildings include the county court-house,
the post office, the city hall, the county gaol and the gth Regiment
Armory. Among the city parks are Hollenback (102 acres)
and Riverside (19 acres) parks, the River Common (35 acres)
and the Frances Slocum Playground. In the city are the Harry
Hillman Academy (non-sectarian), a secondary school for boys;
the Malinckrodt Convent, the Wilkes-Barre Institute (Presby-
terian), a school for girls; St Mary's Academy (Roman Catholic),
for girls; the Osterhout Free Library (44,000 vols.), the Library
of the Law and Library Association (10,000 vols.) and that of
the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society (18,000 vols.),
which was founded in 1858. Wilkes-Barre is situated in the centre
of the richest anthracite coal region in the United States, Luzerne
county ranking first in 1908 in the production of anthracite in
Pennsylvania; and the value of the factory products increased
from $8,616,765 in 1900 to $11,240,893 in 1905, or 30-5 %.
Among important manufactures are foundry and machine-shop
products, valued at $1,273,491 in 1905; silk and silk goods
($1,054,863); lace curtains, cotton goods, wirework, &c. The
city is governed by a mayor elected for three years, and by a
legislative body composed of a select council (one member from
each of the 16 wards elected for four years) and of a common
council (one member from each ward, elected for two years).
The township of Wilkes-Barre was one of five townships
the free grant of which, in December 1768, by the Susque-
hanna Land Company of Connecticut was intended to encourage
settlement and make good the company's claim to the
Wyoming Valley (?..). In May 1769 more than too settlers
from New England, in command of Major John Durkee (1728-
1782), arrived at this place. With others who came a few days
later they erected the necessary log cabins on the river bank,
near the present Ross Street, and in June began to enclose
these within a stockade, known as Fort Durkee. During the
same summer Major Durkee gave the town its present name in
honour of John Wilkes (1727-1797) and Colonel Isaac Barre
(1726-1802), both stout defenders in parliament of the American
colonists' cause before and during the War of Independence, and
in the following year the town plat was made. In September
1769 the " First Pennamite- Yankee War," as the conflict
between Connecticut and Pennsylvania for the possession of the
valley is called, broke out. The Yankees lost Fort Durkee in
November, but recovered it in the following February. The
Pennamites erected Fort Wyoming on the river bank near the
present Northampton Street in January 1771, but the Yankees
took it from them in the following August. In the War of
Independence, immediately after the battle of Wyoming (July 3,
1778), Wilkes-Barre was burned by the Indians and British
Rangers; and again in July 1784, during the " Second Pennamite-
Yankee War," twenty-three of the twenty-six buildings were
burned. In 1786 the Pennsylvania legislature sent here Colonel
Timothy Pickering (q.v.) to organize Luzerne county, and to
effect a reconciliation between the Connecticut settlers and the
government of Pennsylvania. Colonel John Franklin (1749-
1831) led a counter movement, and was imprisoned on a charge
of treason in October 1787, but Franklin's followers retaliated
by kidnapping Pickering in June 1788, and kept him in the
woods for nearly three weeks in a vain effort to make him
promise to intercede for Franklin's pardon. Wilkes-Barre
was gradually rebuilt after its destruction in 1784, and in 1806
the borough was erected, though it was not separated politically
from the township until 1818 (or 1819). A new charter was
granted to the borough in 1855, and Wilkes-Barre was chartered
as a city in 1871.
See O. J. Harvey, A History of Wilkes-Barre (3 vols., Wilkes-Barre",
1909-1910).
WILKIE, SIR DAVID (1785-1841), Scottish painter, was born
on the 1 8th of November 1785, the son of the parish minister
of Cults in Fifeshire. He very early developed an extraordinary
love for art. In 1799, after he had attended school at Pitlessie,
Kettle and Cupar, his father reluctantly yielded to his desire
to become a painter; and through the influence of the earl of
Leven Wilkie was admitted to the Trustees' Academy in
Edinburgh, and began the study of art under John Graham,
the teacher of the school. From William Allan (afterwards
Sir William Allan and president of the Royal Scottish Academy)
and John Burnet, the engraver of Wilkie's works, we have an
interesting account of his early studies, of his indomitable
perseverance and power of close application, of his habit of
haunting fairs and market-places, and transferring to his sketch-
book all that struck him as characteristic and telling in figure or
incident, and of his admiration for the works of Carse and David
Allan, two Scottish painters of scenes from humble life. Among
his pictures of this period are mentioned a subject from Macbeth,
" Ceres in Search of Proserpine," and " Diana and Calisto,"
which in 1803 gained a premrum of ten guineas at the Trustees'
Academy, while his pencil portraits of himself and his mother,
dated that year, and now in the possession of the duke of
Buccleuch, prove that he had already attained considerable
certainty of touch and power of rendering character. A scene
from Allan Ramsay, and a sketch from Macneill's ballad of
Scotland's Skaith, afterwards developed into the well-known
" Village Politicians," were the first subjects in which his true
artistic individuality began to assert itself.
In 1804 Wilkie returned to Cults, established himself in the
manse, and began his first important subject-picture, " Pitlessie
Fair," which includes about 140 figures, and in which he intro-
duced portraits of his neighbours and of several members of
his family circle. In addition to this elaborate figure-piece,
Wilkie was much employed at the time upon portraits, both at
home and in Kinghorn, St Andrews and Aberdeen. In the
spring of 1805 he left Scotland for London, carrying with him
his " Bounty-Money, or the Village Recruit," which he soon
disposed of for 6, and began to study in the schools of the Royal
Academy. One of his first patrons in London was Stodart, a
pianoforte maker, a distant connexion of the Wilkie family,
who commissioned his portrait and other works and introduced
the young artist to the dowager-countess of Mansfield. This
lady's son was the purchaser of the " Village Politicians," which
attracted great attention when it was exhibited in the Royal
Academy of 1806, where it was followed in the succeeding year
by the " Blind Fiddler," a commission from the painter's
lifelong friend Sir George Beaumont. Wilkie now turned aside
into the paths of historical art, and painted his " Alfred in the
Neatherd's Cottage," for the gallery illustrative of English
history which was being formed by Alexander Davison. After
its completion he returned to genre-painting, producing the
" Card-Players " and the admirable picture of the " Rent Day,"
which was composed during recovery from a fever contracted
in 1807 while on a visit to his native village. His next great
work was the " Ale-House Door," afterwards entitled the
" Village Festival " (now in the National Gallery), which was
purchased by J J. Angerstein for 800 guineas. It was followed
in 1813 by the well-known " Blind Man's Buff," a commission
from the prince regent, to which a companion picture,
" Penny Wedding," was added in 1818.
Meanwhile Wilkie's eminent success in art had been rewar
by professional honours. In November 1809 he was electe
an associate of the Royal Academy, when he had hardly at
tained the age prescribed by its laws, and in February 1811
became a full academician. In 1812 he opened an exhibitio
of his collected works in Pall Mall, but the experiment wa
unsuccessful, entailing pecuniary loss upon the artist. In 1814
he executed the " Letter of Introduction," one of the most
delicately finished and perfect of his cabinet pictures. In the
same year he made his first visit to the continent, and at Paris
entered upon a profitable and delighted study of the works of
art collected in the Louvre. Interesting particulars of the time
are preserved in his own matter-of-fact diary, and in the more
sprightly and flowing pages of the journal of Haydon, his fellow-
traveller. On his return he began " Distraining for Rent,"
one of the most popular and dramatic of his works. In 1816 he
made a tour through Holland and Belgium in company wit
Raimbach, the engraver of many of his paintings. The
WILKINS, SIR C.
645
\V:ilter Scott and his Family," a cabinet-sized picture with small
full-length figures in the dress of Scottish peasants, was the
result of a visit to Abbotsford in 1818. " Reading a Will," a
commission from the king of Bavaria, now in the New Pinakothek
at Munich, was completed in 1820; and two years later the
great picture of " Chelsea Pensioners Reading the Gazette of
the Battle of Waterloo," commissioned by the duke of Wellington
in 1816, at a cost of 1200 guineas, was exhibited at the Royal
Academy.
In 1822 Wilkie visited Edinburgh, in order to select from
the royal progress of George IV. a fitting subject for a picture.
The " Reception of the King at the Entrance of Holyrood
Palace " was the incident ultimately chosen; and in the follow-
ing year, when the artist, upon the death of Raeburn, had been
appointed royal limner for Scotland, he received sittings from
the monarch, and began to work diligently upon the subject.
But several years elapsed before its completion; for, like all
such ceremonial works, it proved a harassing commission,
uncongenial to the painter while in progress and unsatisfactory
when finished. His health suffered from the strain to which
he was subjected, and his condition was aggravated by heavy
domestic trials and responsibilities. In 1825 he sought relief
in foreign travel: after visiting Paris, he passed into Italy,
where, at Rome, he received the news of fresh disasters through
t he failure of his publishers. A residence at Tb'plitz and Carlsbad
was tried in 1826, with little good result, and then Wilkie re-
turned to Italy, to Venice and Florence. The summer of 1827
spent in Geneva, where he had sufficiently recovered to
paint his " Princess Doria Washing the Pilgrims' Feet," a work
which, like several small pictures executed at Rome, was strongly
influenced by the Italian art by which the painter had been
surrounded. In October he passed into Spain, whence he
returned to England in June 1828.
It is impossible to over-estimate the influence upon Wilkie's
art of these three years of foreign travel. It amounts to nothing
short of a complete change of style. Up to the period of his
leaving England he had been mainly influenced by the Dutch
genre-painters, whose technique he had carefully studied, whose
works he frequently kept beside him in his studio for reference
as he painted, and whose method he applied to the rendering
of those scenes of English and Scottish life of which he was so
close and faithful an observer. Teniers, in particular, appears
to have been his chief master; and in his earlier productions
we find the sharp, precise, spirited touch, the rather subdued
colouring, and the clear, silvery grey tone which distinguish
this master; while in his subjects of a slightly later period
those, such as the " Chelsea Pensioners," the " Highland Whisky
Still " and the " Rabbit on the Wall," executed in what Burnet
styles his second manner, which, however, may be regarded
as only the development and maturity of his first he begins
to unite to the qualities of Teniers that greater richness and
fulness of effect which are characteristic of Ostade. But now he
experienced the spell of the Italian masters, and of Velazquez
and the great Spaniards.
In the works which Wilkie produced in his final period he
exchanged the detailed handling, the delicate finish and the
reticent hues of his earlier works for a style distinguished by
breadth of touch, largeness of effect, richness of tone and full
force of melting and powerful colour. His subjects, too, were
no longer the homely things of the genre-painter: with his
broader method he attempted the portrayal of scenes from
history, suggested for the most part by the associations of his
foreign travel. His change of style and change of subject were
severely criticized at the time; to some extent he lost his hold
upon the public, who regretted the familiar subjects and the
interest and pathos of his earlier productions, and were less
ready to follow him into the historic scenes towards which this
final phase of his art sought to lead them. The popular verdict
had in it a basis of truth: Wilkie was indeed greatest as a genre-
painter. But on technical grounds his change of style was
criticized with undue severity. While his later works are
admittedly more frequently faulty in form and draughtsmanship
than those of his earlier period, some of them at least (the
" Bride's Toilet," 1837, for instance) show a true gain and
development in power of handling, and in mastery over com-
plex and forcible colour harmonies. Most of Wilkie's foreign
subjects the " Pifferari," " Princess Doria," the " Maid of
Saragossa," the " Spanish Podado," a " Guerilla Council of
War," the " Guerilla Taking Leave of his Family " and the
" Guerilla's Return to his Family " passed into the English
royal collection; but the dramatic "Two Spanish Monks of
Toledo," also entitled the " Confessor Confessing," became the
property of the marquis of Lansdowne. On his return to
England Wilkie completed the " Reception of the King at the
Entrance of Holyrood Palace," a curious example of a union
of his earlier and later styles, a " mixture " which was very
justly pronounced by Haydon to be " like oil and water." His
" Preaching of John Knox before the Lords of the Congrega-
tion " had also been begun before he left for abroad; but it
was painted throughout in the later style, and consequently
presents a more satisfactory unity and harmony of treatment
and handling. It was one of the most successful pictures of
the artist's later period.
In the beginning of 1830 Wilkie was appointed to succeed
Sir T. Lawrence as painter in ordinary to the king, and in 1836
he received the honour of knighthood. The main figure-pictures
which occupied him until the end were " Columbus in the
Convent at La Rabida " (1835); "Napoleon and Pius VII.
at Fontainebleau " (1836); "Sir David Baird Discovering the
Body of Tippoo Sahib " (1838); the " Empress Josephine and
the Fortune-Teller" (1838); and "Queen Victoria Presiding
at her First Council " (1838). His time was also much occupied
with portraiture, many of his works of this class being royal
commissions. His portraits are pictorial and excellent in
general distribution, but the faces are frequently wanting in
drawing and character. He seldom succeeded in showing his
sitters at their best, and his female portraits, in particular,
rarely gave satisfaction. A favourable example of his cabinet-
sized portraits is that of Sir Robert Listen; his likeness of
W. Esdaile is an admirable three-quarter length; and one of
his finest full-lengths is the gallery portrait of Lord Kellie, in
the town hall of Cupar.
In the autumn of 1840 Wilkie resolved on a voyage to the
East. Passing through Holland and Germany, he reached
Constantinople, where, while detained by the war in Syria, he
painted a portrait of the young sultan. He then sailed for
Smyrna and travelled to Jerusalem, where he remained for some
five busy weeks. The last work of all upon which he was en-
gaged was a portrait of Mehemet AH, done at Alexandria. On
his return voyage he suffered from an attack of illness at Malta,
and died at sea off Gibraltar on the morning of the ist of June
1841. His body was consigned to the deep in the Bay of
Gibraltar.
An elaborate Life of Sir David Wilkie, by Allan Cunningham,
containing the painter's journals and his observant and well-con-
sidered " Critical Remarks on Works of Art," was published in 1843.'
Redgrave's Century of Painters of the English School and John
Burnet's Practical Essays on the Fine Arts may also be referred to for
a critical estimate of his works. A list of the exceptionally numerous
and excellent engravings from his pictures will be found in the Art
Union Journal for January 1840. Apart from his skill as a painter
Wilkie was an admirable etcher. The best of his plates, such as the
" Gentleman at his Desk " (Laing, VII.), the " Pope examining a
Censer " (Laing, VIII.), and the " Seat of Hands " (Laing, IV.), are
worthy to rank with the work of the greatest figure-etchers. During
his lifetime he issued a portfolio of seven plates, and in 1875 Dr David
Laing catalogued and published the complete series of his etchings
and dry-points, supplying the place of a few copper-plates that had
been lost by reproductions, in his Etchings of David Wilkie and
Andrew Geddes. (J. M. G.)
WILKINS, SIR CHARLES (17497-1836), English Orientalist,
was born at Frome, Somersetshire, probably in 1749, and in
1770 he went to India as a writer in the East India Company's
service. He was soon attracted to the study of Oriental languages,
particularly Sanskrit, and did an important work towards
facilitating such study by founding a printing press for these
languages, taking a large personal share in the practical work of
6 4 6
WILKINS, G. WILKINSON, J.
preparing the type. He returned to England in 1786, but con-
tinued his study of Sanskrit, and he afterwards became librarian
to the East India Company, and examiner at Haileybury on the
establishment of the college there in 1805. Wilkins was knighted
in 1833 in recognition of his services to Oriental scholarship, and
he died in London in 1836. He was a pioneer in the department
of learning with which his name was associated, being the first
Englishman to acquire mastery of Sanskrit, and to make a
thorough study of Indian inscriptions in that script. He compiled
a Sanskrit grammar and published several translations from the
sacred books of the East, besides preparing a new edition of
Richardson's Persian and Arabic dictionary, and a catalogue of
the manuscripts collected by Sir William Jones, who acknow-
ledged his indebtedness to Wilkins, and whom the latter assisted
in founding the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
WILKINS, GEORGE (fl. 1607), English playwright and
pamphleteer, is first mentioned as the author of a pamphlet on
the Three Miseries of Barbary, which probably dates from 1604.
He was associated with the King's Men, and was thus a colleague
of Shakespeare. He was chiefly employed in remodelling old
plays. He collaborated in 1607 with William Rowley and John
Day in The Travailes of the Three English Brothers. In the
same year a play was produced which was apparently entirely
Wilkins's work. It is The Miseries of Inforst Mariage, and
treats the story of Walter Calverley, whose identity is thinly
veiled under the name of " Scarborough." This man had killed
his two children and had attempted to murder his wife. The
play had originally a tragic ending, but as played in 1607 ended
in comedy, and the story stopped short before the catastrophe,
perhaps because of objections raised by Mrs Calverley's family,
the Cobhams. The crime itself is dealt with in A Yorkshire
Tragedy, which was originally performed with three other plays
under the title of All's One. It was entered on the Stationers'
Register in 1608 as " written by William Shakespeare," pub-
lished with the same ascription in that year, and reprinted in
1619 without contradiction of the statement. Mr Sidney Lee
assigns to George Wilkins a share in Shakespeare's Pericles and
possibly in Timon of Athens. Delius conjectured that Wilkins
was the original author of Pericles and that Shakespeare re-
modelled it. However that may be, Wilkins published in 1608
a novel entitled The Painfull Adventures of Pericles, Prynce of
Tyre, being the true history of Pericles as it was lately presented
by . . . John Cower, which sometimes follows the play very
closely.
Mr Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) says that the external evi-
dence for the Shakespearian authorship of the Yorkshire Tragedy
cannot be impugned, and in the absence of other authorship cannot
be lightly set aside, but he does not abandon the hope of establishing
a contrary opinion. Both Mr Fleay and Professor A. W. Ward
(Eng. Dram. Lit. ii. p. 182) seem to think that the story of Marina in
Pericles was a complete original play by Shakespeare, and that the
remodelling story should be reversed, i.e. that Pericles is a Shake-
spearian play remodelled by a playwright, possibly Wilkins. Mr
Lee (Diet. Nat. Biog., Art. " Wilkins ") says the Yorkshire Tragedy
was " fraudulently " assigned to Shakespeare by Thomas Pavier, the
publisher.
WILKINS, JOHN (1614-1672), bishop of Chester, was born
at Fawsley, Northamptonshire, and educated at Magdalen Hall,
Oxford. He was ordained and became vicar of Fawsley in 1637,
but soon resigned and became chaplain successively to Lord Saye
and Sele, Lord Berkeley, and Prince Charles Louis, nephew of
Charles I. and afterwards elector palatine of the Rhine. In 1648
he became warden of Wadham College, Oxford. Under him the
college was extraordinarily prosperous, for, although a supporter
of Cromwell, he was in touch with the most cultured royalists,
who placed their sons in his charge. In 1659 Richard Cromwell
appointed him master of Trinity College, Cambridge. At the
Restoration in 1660 he was deprived, but appointed prebendary
of York and rector of Cranford, Middlesex. In 1661 he was
preacher at Gray's Inn, and in 1662 vicar of St Lawrence Jewry,
London. He became vicar of Polebrook, Northamptonshire,
in 1666, prebendary of Exeter in 1667, and in the following year
prebendary of St Paul's and bishop of Chester. Possessing strong
scientific tastes, he was the chief founder of the Royal Society
and its first secretary.
November 1672.
He died in London on the igth of
The chief of his numerous works is an Essay towards a Real Char-
acter and a Philosophical Language (London, 1668), in which he ex-
pounds a new universal language for the use of philosophers. He is
remembered also for a curious work entitled The Discovery of a
World in the Moon (1638, 3rd ed., with an appendix " The possibility
of a passage thither,"l64o). Other works are A Discourse concerning
a New Planet (1640); Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger
(1641), a work of some ingenuity on the means of rapid correspond-
ence; and Mathematical Magick (1648).
See P. A. Wright Henderson, The Life and Times of John Wilkins
(1910), and also the article AERONAUTICS.
WILKINS, MARY ELEANOR (1862- ), American novelist,
was born in Randolph, Massachusetts, on the 7th of January
1862, of Puritan ancestry. Her early education, chiefly from
reading and observation, was supplemented by a course at
Mount Holyoke Seminary, South Hadley, Mass. Her home was
in her native village and in Brattleboro, Vermont, until her
marriage in 1902 to Dr Charles M. Freeman of Metuchen, New
Jersey. She contributed poems and stories to children's
magazines, and published several books for children, including
Young Lucretia and other Stories (1892), The Pot of Cold and
other Stories (1892), and Once upon a Time and other Child
Verses (1897). For older readers she wrote the following volumes
of short stories: A Humble Romance and other Stories (1887),
A New England Nun and other Stories (1891), Silence and other
Stories (1898), three books which gave her a prominent place
among American short-story writers; The People of Our Neigh-
borhood (1898), The Love of Parson Lord and other Stories (1900),
Understudies (1901) and The Givers (1904); the novels Jane
Field (1892), Pembroke (1894), Madelon (1896), Jerome, a Poor
Man (1897), The Jamesons (1899), The Portion of Labor (1901)
and The Debtor (1905); and Giles Corey, Yeoman (1893), a prose
tragedy founded on incidents from New England history. Her
longer novels, though successful in the portrayal of character,
lack something of the unity, suggestiveness and charm of her
short stories, which are notable contributions to modern American
literature. She deals usually with a few traits peculiar to the
village and country life of New England, and she gave literary
permanence to certain characteristics of New England life which
are fast disappearing.
WILKINSBURG, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., immediately E. of Pittsburg, of which it is a
residential suburb. Pop. (1890) 4662; (190x3) 11,886, of whom
1336 were foreign-born and 275 were negroes; (1910 census)
18,924. Wilkinsburg is served by the Pennsylvania railway and
by interurban electric lines. It is a post-station of Pittsburg.
In the borough are a Home for Aged Protestants (1882), the
United Presbyterian Home for the Aged (1879), and Columbia
hospital (1908). Settled in 1798 and known first as McNairville
and then as Rippeyville, the place was renamed about 1840 in
honour of William Wilkins (1770-1865), a member of the United
States Senate in 1831-1834, minister to Russia in 1834-1835,
a representative in Congress in 1843-1844, and secretary of war
in President John Tyler's cabinet in 1844-1845. In 1887
Wilkinsburg was incorporated as a borough.
WILKINSON, JAMES (1757-1825), American soldier and
adventurer, was born in Calvert county, Maryland, in 1757. At
the outbreak of the War of Independence he abandoned the
study of medicine to enter the American army, and he served
with General Benedict Arnold in the Quebec campaign and was
later under General Horatio Gates, acting from May 1777 to
March 1778 as adjutant-general of the Northern Department.
He was sent to Congress to report Gates's success against Bur-
goyne, but his tardiness secured for him a sarcastic reception.
Gates recommended him for a brigadier-general's commission
for services which another actually performed, and succeeded
in gaining it, but their friendship was broken by the collapse
of the Conway Cabal against Washington in which both were
implicated and about which Wilkinson had indiscreetly blabbed.
Wilkinson then resigned (March 1778) his newly-acquired
commission, but later re-entered the service in the quartermaster-
WILKINSON, J. J. G. WILKINSON, J.
647
general's department, and was clothier-general from July 1779
to March 1781.
In common with many other army officers Wilkinson now
turned toward the West, and in 1784 settled near the Falls of
the Ohio (Louisville), where he speedily became a prominent
merchant and farmer and a man of considerable influence. He
began to take an active part in the movement for separate state-
hood for Kentucky, and in 1787 he entered into an irregular
commercial agreement with the Spanish officials of Louisiana.
At this time, as his own papers in the Spanish archives show, he
took an oath of allegiance to Spain and began to intrigue with his
fellow-Kentuckians to detach the western settlements from the
Union and bring them under the influence of the Louisiana
authorit ies. His commercial connections at New Orleans enabled
him to hold out the lure of a ready market at that port for
Kentucky products, and this added greatly to the strength of the
separatist movement. He neutralized the intrigues of certain
British agents who were then working in Kentucky. For these
various services he received until 1800 a substantial pension from
the Spanish authorities, being officially known in their corre-
spondence as " Number Thirteen." At the same time he worked
actively against the Spanish authorities, especially through
Philip Nolan. Wilkinson's ventures were not as lucrative as he
hoped for, and in October 1791 he was given a lieut.-colonel's
commission in the regular army, possibly, as a contemporary
suggested, to keep him out of mischief. During this year he took
an active part in the minor campaigns which preceded General
Arthur St Glair's disastrous defeat by the Indians. As brigadier-
general (from March 1792) and second in command, he served
under General Anthony Wayne in the latter's successful cam-
paign of 1794 against the Indians, and in this campaign he seems
to have tried to arouse discontent against his superior among
the Kentucky troops, and to have intrigued to supplant him
upon the reduction of the army. Upon Wayne's death in 1796,
Wilkinson became general in command of the regular army,
retaining his rank as brigadier and likewise his Spanish pension.
He seems to have tried to stir up both the Indians and the
Spaniards to prevent the survey of the southern boundary of
the United States in 1797 and 1798, and succeeded in delaying
Commissioner Andrew Ellicott for several months in this import-
ant task. At the same time his prot6ge, the filibusterer, Philip
Nolan, was engaged in a reconnaissance for him west of the
Mississippi. In 1803 Wilkinson was one of the commissioners
to receive Louisiana from France, and in 1805 became governor
of that portion of the Purchase above the 33rd parallel, with
headquarters at St Louis. In his double capacity as governor
of the Territory and commanding officer of the army, reasonably
certain of his hold on Jefferson, and favourably situated upon
the frontier remote from the centre of government, he attempted
to realize his ambition to conquer the Mexican provinces of Spain.
For this purpose in 1805 he entered into some sort of agreement
with Aaron Burr, and in 1806 sent Z. M. Pike to explore the most
favourable route for the conquest of the south-west. Before his
agent returned, however, he had betrayed his colleague's plans
to Jefferson, formed the Neutral Ground Agreement with the
Spanish commander of the Texas frontier, placed New Orleans
under martial law, and apprehended Burr and some of his alleged
accomplices. In the ensuing trial at Richmond the prisoners
were released for lack of sufficient evidence to convict, and
Wilkinson himself emerged with a much damaged reputation.
Ho was then subjected to a series of courts-martial and con-
gressional investigations, but succeeded so well in hiding traces of
his duplicity that in 1812 he resumed his military command at
New Orleans, and in 1813 was promoted major-general and took
possession of Mobile. Later in this year he made a most miserable
fiasco of the campaign against Montreal, and this finally brought
his military career to a dishonourable end. For a time he lived
upon his plantation near New Orleans, but later appeared in
Mexico City as an applicant for a land grant, incidentally acting
as agent for the American Bible Society. Here on the z8th of
December 1825 he succumbed to the combined effects of climate
and of opium.
See Wilkinson's Memoirs of My Own Time (Philadelphia, 1816);
untrustworthy and to be used with caution; W. R. Shepherd,
" Wilkinson and the Beginning of the Spanish Conspiracy " in
American Historical Review, vol. ix. (New York, 1904). (I. J. C.)
WILKINSON, JAMES JOHN GARTH (1812-1899), Sweden-
borgian writer, the son of James John Wilkinson (died 1845),
a writer on mercantile law and judge of the County Palatine of
Durham, was born in London on the 3rd of June 1812. He
studied medicine, and set up as a homoeopathic doctor in
Wimpole Street in 1834. He was early attracted by the works of
William Blake, whose Songs of Experience he endeavoured to
interpret, and of Swedenborg, to the elucidation of whose writings
he devoted the best energies of his life. Between 1840 and 1850
he edited Swedenborg's treatises on The Doctrine of Charity,
The Animal Kingdom, Outlines of a Philosophic Argument on the
Infinite, and Hieroglyphic Key to Natural and Spiritual Mysteries.
Wilkinson's preliminary discourses to these translations and his
criticisms of Coleridge's comments upon Swedenborg displayed
a striking aptitude not only for mystical research, but also for
original philosophic debate. The vigour of his thought won
admiration from Henry James (father of the novelist) and from
Emerson, through whom he became known to Carlyle and Froude ;
and his speculation further attracted Tennyson, the Oliphants
and Edward Maitland. He wrote an able sketch of Swedenborg
for the Penny Cyclopaedia, and a standard biography, Emanuel
Swedenborg (published in 1849); but interest in this subject far
from exhausted his intellectual energy, which was, indeed,
multiform. He was a traveller, a linguist, well versed in Scan-
dinavian literature and philology, the author of mystical poems
entitled Improvisations from the Spirit (1857), a social and
medical reformer, and a convinced opponent of vivisection and
also of vaccination. He died at Finchley Road, South Hamp-
stead, where he had resided for nearly fifty years, on i8th
October 1899. He is commemorated by a bust and portrait in
the rooms cf the Swedenborgian Society in Bloomsbury Street,
London.
WILKINSON, JOHN (1728-1808), "the great Staffordshire
iron-master," was born in 1728 at Clifton, Cumberland, where
his father had risen from day labourer to be overlooker in an
iron furnace. A box-iron, patented by his father, but said to
have been invented by the son, helping laundresses to gratify
the frilled taste of the dandies of the day, was the beginning of
their fortunes. This they made at Blackbarrow, near Furness.
When he was about twenty, John moved to Staffordshire, and
built, at Bilston, the first furnace there, and, after many experi-
ments, succeeded in utilizing coal instead of wood-charcoal in
puddling and smelting. The father, who now had works at
Bersham, near Chester, was again joined by his son, who con-
structed a new boring machine, of an accuracy heretofore
unequalled. James Watt found that the work of this machine
exactly filled his requirements for his " fire-engine " for cylinders
bored with greater precision. Wilkinson, who now owned the
Bersham works, resolved to start the manufacture of wrought
iron at Broseley on a larger scale, and the first engine made by
Boulton and Watt was for him to blow the bellows there. Here-
tofore bellows were worked by a water wheel or, when power
failed, by horses. His neighbours in the business, who were
contemplating installing Newcomen engines, waited to see how
his would turn out. Great care was taken in all its parts, and
Watt himself set it up early in 1776. Its success made the re-
putation of Boulton and Watt in the Midland counties. Wilkin-
son now found he had the power alike for the nicest and the most
stupendous operations. The steam cylinder suggested to him
the plan of producing blast now in use. He was near coal ; he
surrounded himself with capable men, whom he fully trusted;
he made a good article, and soon obtained large orders and
prospered. In 1786 he was making 32-pounders, howitzers,
swivels, mortars and shells for government. The difficulty of
getting barges to cany his war material down the Severn led
him, in 1787, to construct the first iron barge creating a wonder-
ful sensation among owners and builders. Wilkinson taught the
French the art of boring cannon from the solid, and cast all the
WILKINSON, SIR J. G. WILL
tubes, cylinders and iron work required for the Paris water- works,
the most formidable undertaking of the day. He also erected
the first steam engine in France, in connexion with these works.
Wilkinson is said to have anticipated by many years the
introduction of the hot blast for furnaces, but the leathern pipes,
then used, scorched, and it was not a success. His were the first
coal^cutting machines. He proposed and cast the first iron bridge.
It connected Broseley and Madeley, across the Severn, and its
span of 100 ft. 6 in. was considered a triumphal wonder. Wilkin-
son was now a man of great means and greater influence. He
issued tokens of copper, bearing his likeness and on the reverse
a forge and tools of the trade, silver coins for 33. 6d., and also
pound notes, as other tradesmen of that day did. He never
wrote a letter without using the word iron, indeed he was iron-
mad, and provided by will that he should be buried in an iron
coffin, preferably in his garden at Castle Head, near Lindal. He
died on the i4th of July 1808.
Wilkinson was twice married without issue. His very large
property was frittered away during a lawsuit brought by a
nephew against the illegitimate children whom he had named as
his heirs. It was carried from various courts in the kingdom to
the House of Lords and then to the Court of Chancery. Here
Lord Eldon decided for the defendants, thus reversing all previous
decisions taken upon the law of the case.
WILKINSON, SIR JOHN GARDNER. (1797-1875), English
traveller and Egyptologist, was born on the sth of October
1797, the son of the Rev. John Wilkinson, a well-known student
of antiquarian subjects. Having inherited a sufficient income
from his parents, who died when he was young, he was sent by
his guardian to Harrow in 1813, and to Exeter College, Oxford,
in 1816. He took no degree, and, suffering from ill-health,
went to Italy, where he met Sir William Cell, and resolved to
study Egyptology. Between 1821 and 1833 he travelled widely
in the Nile Valley and began to publish the results. He returned
to England in 1833 for the sake of his health, was elected fellow
of the Royal Society in 1834, published The Topography of
Thebes and General Survey of Egypt (1835) and Manners and
Customs of the Ancient Egyptians (3 vols., 1837), and on the
26th of August 1839 was knighted by the Melbourne ministry.
In 1842 he returned to Egypt and contributed to the Journal
of the Geographical Society an article entitled " Survey of
the Valley of the Natron Lakes." This appeared in 1843, in
which year he also published an enlarged edition of his Topo-
graphy, entitled Moslem Egypt and Thebes, a work afterwards
reissued in Murray's series. During 1844 he travelled in Monte-
negro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, an account of his observations
being published in 1848 (Dalmalia and Montenegro, 2 vols.).
A third visit to Egypt in 1848-1849 resulted in a further article
in the Journal, " On the Country between Wady Halfah and
Jebel Berkel " (1851); in 1855 he again visited Thebes. Subse-
quently he investigated Cornish antiquities, and studied zoology.
He died at Llandovery on the 29th of October 1875. To his
old school, Harrow, he had already in 1864 presented his collec-
tions with an elaborate catalogue.
Besides the works mentioned he published Materia Hieroglyphica
(Malta, 1828); Extracts from several Hieroglyphical. Subjects (1830);
Topographical Survey of Thebes (1830); facsimile of the Turin
papyrus (1851), previously edited without the writing on the back
of the papyrus by Lepsius; Architecture of Ancient Egypt (1850);
A Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians (1854) ; important notes
in Rawlinson's Herodotus; Colour and Taste (1858); articles in
archaeological and scientific periodicals.
WILKINSON, TATE (1730-1803), English actor and manager,
was born on the 27th of October 1739, the son of a clergyman.
His first attempts at acting were badly received, and it was to
his wonderful gift of mimicry that he owed his success. His
imitations, however, naturally gave offence to the important
actors and managers whose peculiarities he hit off to the life.
Garrick, Peg Woffington, Samuel Foote and Sheridan, after
being delighted with the imitations of the others, were among
the most angry, when it came to their turn, and threatened never
to forgive him. Garrick never did. As an actor, Wilkinson
was most successful in Foote's plays, but his list of parts was a
long one. In Shakespearian characters he was very popular
in the provinces. In 1766 he became a partner of Joseph Baker
in the management of several Yorkshire theatres, and sole
manager after his partner's death in 1770 of these and others.
In this capacity he was both liberal and successful. He died
on the i6th of November 1803.
See his Memoirs (4 vols., 1790) and The Wandering Patentee (4
vols., 1795).
WILL, in philosophy. The " Problem of Freedom " provides
in reality a common title under which are grouped difficulties
and questions of varying and divergent interest and character.
These difficulties arise quite naturally from the obligation,
which metaphysicians, theologians, moral philosophers, men
of science, and psychologists alike recognize, to give an account,
consistent with their theories, of the relation of man's power
of deliberate and purposive activity to the rest of the universe.
In the main, no doubt, the problem is a metaphysical problem,
and has its origin in the effort to reconcile that belief in man's
freedom which is regarded by the unsophisticated moral con-
sciousness as indisputable, with a belief in a universe governed by
rational and necessary laws. But the historical origin of the
questions at issue is to be sought rather in theology than in
metaphysics, while the discovery made from time to time by
men of science of the inapplicability of natural laws or modes
of operation (which they have been accustomed to regard as of
universal range and necessity) to the facts or assumed facts of
human activity, is a constant source of fresh discussions of the
problem. Similarly the modern attempt upon the part of
psychology to analyse (under whatever limitations and with
whatever object of inquiry) all the forms and processes of
human consciousness has inevitably led to an examination of
the consciousness of human freedom: while the postulate
of most modern psychologists that conscious processes are not
to be considered as removed from the sphere of those necessary
causal sequences with which science deals, produces, if the
consciousness of freedom be admitted as a fact of mental
history, the old metaphysical difficulty in a new and highly
specialized form.
There is some ground nevertheless for maintaining, contrary
to much modern opinion, that the controversy is fundamentally
and in the main a moral controversy. It is true that the precise
relation between the activities of human wills and other forms
of activity in the natural world is a highly speculative problem
and one with which the ordinary man is not immediately con-
cerned. It is true also that the ordinary moral consciousness
accepts without hesitation the postulate of freedom, and is
unaware of, or imperfectly acquainted with, the speculative
difficulties that surround its possibility. Moreover, much work
of the highest importance in ethics in modern as well as ancient
times has been completed with but scanty, if any, reference to
the subject of the freedom of the will, or upon a metaphysical
basis compatible with most of the doctrines of both the riva"
theories. The determinist equally with the libertarian mora
philosopher can give an account of morality possessing intern
coherence and a certain degree of verisimilitude. Yet it may
doubted (i) whether the problem would ever have arisen at
except for the necessity of reconciling the theological an
metaphysical hypotheses of the omniscience and omnipotenc
of God with the needs of a moral universe: and (2) whether it
would retain its perennial interest if the incursions of moder:
scientific and psychological inquiry into the domain of huma
consciousness did not appear to come into conflict from time
to time with the presuppositions of morality. The arguments
proceeding from either of the disputants by means of which
the controversy is debated may be largely or almost wholly
speculative and philosophical. But that which produces the
rival arguments is primarily a moral need. And there are not
wanting signs of a revival in recent years of the earlier tendency
of philosophical speculation to subordinate the necessities of
metaphysical, scientific and even psychological inquiries to
the prima facie demands of the moral consciousness.
There is no trace of the emergence of the problem of freedom
WILL
649
in any intelligible or distinct form in the minds of early
Greek physicists or philosophers. Their doctrines were mainly
based upon a belief in the government of the universe
by some form of physical necessity, and though
'oph'ers. different opinions might prevail as to the mode of opera-
tion of the various forms of physical necessity the
occasional recognition of non-material contributory causes never
amounted to a recognition of the independence of human volition
or intelligence. Nor can it be seriously maintained that the
problem of freedom in the form in which it is presented to the
modern mind ever became the subject of debate in the philosophy
of Socrates, Plato or Aristotle. It is true that Socrates brought
into prominence the moral importance of rational and intelligent
conduct as opposed to action which is the result of unintelligent
caprice. Moral conduct was, according to Socrates, the result
of knowledge while it is strictly impossible to do wrong knowingly.
Vice, therefore, is the result of ignorance and to this extent
Socrates is a determinist. But the subsequent speculations of
Aristotle upon the extent to which ignorance invalidates responsi-
bility, though they seem to assume man's immediate conscious-
ness of freedom, do not in reality amount to very much more
than an analysis of the conditions ordinarily held sufficient to
constitute voluntary or involuntary action. The further
question whether the voluntary acts for which a man is ordinarily
held responsible are really the outcome of his freedom of choice,
is barely touched upon, and most of the problems which surround
the attempt to distinguish human agency from natural and
necessary causation and caprice or chance are left unsolved.
For Aristotle remained content with a successful demonstration
of the dependence of " voluntariness " as an attribute of conduct
upon knowledge and human personality. And though ultimately
the attribution of responsibility for conduct is further limited to
actions which are the result of purposive choice (irpocupecrij),
Aristotle appears to waver between a view which regards
7rpoaip7is as involving an ultimate choice between divergent
ends of moral action and one which would make it consist in
the choice of means to an end already determined. A similar
absence of discussion of the main problem at issue is noticeable in
Plato. It is true that in a famous passage in the tenth book
of the Republic (x. 617 ff.) he seems to make human souls respon-
sible through their power of choice for the destinies which they
meet with during their respective lives. But, as with Socrates,
their power of making a right choice is limited by their degree
of knowledge or of ignorance, and the vexed question of the
relation of this determining intelligence to the human will is left
unsolved. With the Stoic and Epicurean philosophies the
problem as it shapes itself for the consideration of the modern
world begins to appear in clearer outlines. Stoic loyalty to a
belief in responsibility based on freedom of choice appeared
difficult to reconcile with a belief in an all-pervading Anima
Mundi, a world power directing and controlling actions of
every kind. And though the Stoic doctrine of determinism
did not, when applied to moral problems, advance much beyond
the reiteration of arguments derived from the universal
validity of the principles of causality, nor the Epicurean
counter-assertion of freedom avoid the error of regarding
chance as a real cause and universal contingency as an
explanation of the universe, it was nevertheless a real step
forward to perceive the existence of the problem. Moreover,
the argument by means of which Chrysippus endeavoured to
prove the compatibility of determinism with ethical responsibility
is in some respects an anticipation of modern views. For the
distinction between main and contributory causes of conduct
(causae adjuvantes and causae principals the alriov and
tvvtuTtov of Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy) preserved
the possibility of regarding character, the main cause, as the
responsible and accountable element in morality. And there
is much that is anticipatory of modern libertarian views in the
psychological argument by which Carneades attempted at once
to avoid the Epicurean identification of will with chance, and
to prove the rationality of choice, undetermined by any external
or antecedent necessity, as an explanation of human actions
(cf. Janet and S6ailles, Hist, of Problems of Philosophy Psy-
chology, p. 324).
It was not until the rise of Christianity as an historical religion
that the difficulty of reconciling a belief in human freedom with
a belief in the Divine government of the world became
apparent to its fullest extent. The Christian doctrine
of the Creation at once challenged the pantheistic
presuppositions of Hellenic thought and reinforced the belief
already existing in will as a real cause. At the same time the
dualism involved in the simultaneous acceptance of an optimistic
account of the origin and nature of the universe (such as is implied
in Christian theology) and a belief in the reality of moral evil
witnessed to by the Christian doctrine of Redemption, intensified
the difficulties already felt concerning man's responsibility and
God's omnipotence. Neoplatonic philosophy had been in the
main content either to formulate the contradiction or to deny
the reality of one of the opposing terms. And traces of Neo-
platonic influence, more especially as regards their doctrine
of the unreality of the material and sensible world, are to be
found everywhere in the Christian philosophers of Alexandria,
preventing or impeding their formulation of the problem of free-
dom in its full scope and urgency. St Augustine was, perhaps,
the first thinker to face, though not to solve, the true theological
and moral difficulty inherent in Christian thought. Two lines of
thought are to be traced in the most implacable hostility and
contradiction throughout his system. On the one hand no
thinker reiterates or emphasizes more cogently the reality of
individual responsibility and of will. He affirms the priority
of will to knowledge and the dependence of consciousness upon
physical attention. He asserts also the fact that our human
power of receiving divine illumination (i.e. a capacity of spiritual
insight in no sense dependent upon the creative activity of the
intellect) is conditioned by our spontaneous acts of faith. And
he finds in the existence of divine foreknowledge no argument
for the impotence or determined character of human acts of will.
The timeless foreknowledge of the Deity foresees human actions
as contingent, not as causally determined. But when Augustine
is concerned to reconcile the reality of individual freedom
with humanity's universal need of redemption and with the
absolute voluntariness of Divine Grace, he is constrained to
contradict most of those postulates of which in his advocacy
of libertarianism he was an eager champion. He limits the
possession of freedom to Adam, the first man, who, by abusing
his prerogative, has corrupted the human race. Man as he now
is cannot do otherwise than evil. Inherited incapacity for the
choice of good is the punishment for Adam's misuse of freedom.
The possibility of redemption depends upon the bestowal of
Divine Grace, which, because it is in no instance deserved, can be
awarded or withdrawn without injustice. And because Adam's
choice necessitates punishment it follows that in some instances
Divine Grace can never be bestowed. Hence arises in Augustine's
system the doctrine of Predestination (q.v.). From the theo-
logical standpoint every individual is predestined either by his
natural birthright to evil or by Divine Grace to good, and the
absolute foreknowledge and omnipotence of God excludes even
the possibility of any initiative on the part of the individual
by means of which he might influence God's timeless choice.
The medieval treatment of the problem follows in the main
Augustinian or Aristotelian traditional lines of thought, though
successive thinkers arrive at very diverse conclusions.
Thomas Aquinas, for example, develops the Platonic
argument which proves the dependence of the will
upon the intellect and makes the identification of morality
with knowledge. Freedom exists for Thomas, if it exists at all,
only as the power of choosing what is necessarily determined
by the intellect to be choiceworthy, the various possibilities
of choice being themselves presented by the understanding to
the will. And though in a certain sense Divine foreknowledge
is compatible upon his view with human freedom, the freedom
with which men act is itself the product of Divine determination.
Man is predetermined to act freely, and Divine foreknowledge
foresees human actions as contingent. Duns Scotus on the other
650
WILL
hand is the great champion of indeterminism. Upon his view
the intellect must always be subordinate to the will, and to the
will belongs the power of complete self-determination. Morality
in effect to such an extreme position is he driven in his opposi-
tion to the Thomists becomes the arbitrary creation of the
Divine Will and in no sense depends for its authority upon
rational principles or is a form of knowledge.
The modern treatment of the problem from Descartes, Hobbes,
Spinoza and Leibnitz down to Kant is too much inwoven into
the metaphysical systems of individual great philoso-
Hobbes phers to afford the possibility of detailed treatment
Descartes * n ' ne P resen t article. Reference should be made
either to the individual philosophers themselves or
to articles on metaphysics or on ethics. Hobbes is the great
exponent of materialistic determinism. Ideals and volitions are
upon his view ultimately movements of the brain. Will is
identified with appetite or fear, the causes of which are to be
found only in the external world. Descartes advocates a kind
of freedom which is apparently consistent with forms both of
determinism and indeterminism. He explains the possibility
of error on the ground that the mind possesses the liberum
arbitrium indifferenliae and can always refuse to affirm the
truth of a conclusion drawn from premises which are not self-
evident. And even when the presentations before the mind
are so clear that assent to their truth cannot be refused, the
possibility of assenting still rests with the will, which can refuse
to attend to any presentation, or can refuse assent with the sole
motive of proving its freedom. Spinoza is a convinced deter-
minist regarding the will as necessarily determined by ideas.
Extension, i.e. the spatial world, and the world of
Spinoza consciousness are alike attributes of the one sub-
TeiboHz. stance which can only be called free in the sense of
being determined by nothing but itself. Freedom in
the moral sphere consists simply in the control of the passions
by reason. Leibnitz retains this attenuated belief in moral
freedom and combines with it a belief in the spontaneity of
moral agents in the sense that they possess the power of acting
and need no other principle of action save the laws of their own
natures. But inasmuch as the agreement between the acts of
Leibnitz's monads is due to a divine pre-established harmony,
and the theoretical contingency which in the abstract, i.e. as
.logically possible, can be predicated of their acts, is in practice
aon-existent, Leibnitz is in effect a determinist.
Locke's treatment of the problem is in some respects more
interesting than the theories of other English philosophers
of his school. Freedom, according to Locke, belongs
to the man, not to the will. If we will at all we are
to that extent free, i.e. our actions express our pur-
poses. If, on the other hand, we press Leibnitz's objection, i.e.
that such an argument is no answer to the question whether an
act of will can be free in the sense that it is not determined by
reasons presented by the understanding, Locke replies that
the will is in effect determined by the uneasiness of desire, i.e.
by the desire to avoid pain. Hume's doctrine follows logically
from his theory as to the nature of causality. If our belief in
necessary connexion in the physical world is in reality an illusion,
it follows that the opposition between freedom and necessity
will be illusory also. On the other hand if our belief in the
necessity of causal connexion is the result of custom, to custom
will be due also the belief in a necessity governing human actions
observable everywhere in men's ordinary opinions and practice.
Contrasted with this belief in necessity the supposition we have
of freedom is illusory, and, if extended so as to involve a belief
that men's actions do not proceed from character or habitual
disposition, immoral.
Kant's theory of freedom is, perhaps, the most characteristic
doctrine of his system of ethics. Distinguishing between two
worlds, the sensuous and the intelligible, the pheno-
menal and the noumenal, Kant allows no freedom to
the natural will determined by the succession of motives, desires
and appetites which form the empirical and sensuous self. But
in contrast with the phenomenal world governed by empirical
Locke and
Hume.
laws Kant sets the noumenal and intelligible world in which
by a timeless act of will man is free to accept the moral command
of an unconditional imperative for no. reason other than its own
rational necessity as the deliverance of his highest nature. The
difficulties of the Kantian system are mainly to be looked for
in his account of the relation between the phenomenal and
noumenal world.
In more recent times the controversy has been concerned
either with the attempted proof of determinism by the advo-
cates of psychological Hedonism, an attempt which
at the present time is generally admitted to have Modem
failed; or with the new biological knowledge con- jjj,' en
cerning the influence of heredity and environment
in its bearing upon the development of character and the possi-
bility of freedom. The great advance of biological knowledge
in recent times though it has in no sense created a new problem
(men have always been aware of the importance of racial or
hereditary physical qualities in their influence upon human
conduct) has certainly rendered the existence of complete
individual freedom (in the sense in which it was advocated by
older libertarians) in the highest degree unlikely. The ad-
vocates of freedom are content in the present day to postulate
a relative power of influencing conduct, e.g. a power of controlling
inherited temperament or subduing natural passion. Such a
relative freedom, indeed, taking into account the admitted
inviolability of natural laws, was from the very beginning all
that they could claim.
But it was inevitable that the enormous advances made by
the physical and other sciences in modern times should bring
with them a reasoned attempt to bring the phenomena of
consciousness within the sphere controlled by physical laws and
natural necessity. There will never perhaps in any period of
the world's history be wanting advocates of materialism, who
find in the sensible the only reality. But the materialism of
modern times is more subtle than that of Hobbes. And the
determinism of modern science no longer consists in a crude
denial of the reality of conscious processes, or an attempt to
explain them as only a sublimated form of matter and its move-
ments; it is content to admit the relative independence' of the
world of consciousness, while it maintains that laws and hypo-
theses sufficient to explain material processes may be extended
to and will be discovered to be valid of the changing sequences
of conscious states of mind. Moreover, much of the apparent
cogency of modern scientific determinist arguments has been
derived from the unguarded admissions or timorous acquiescence
of their opponents. It is not enough merely to repel the in-
cursions of physiological science, armed with hypotheses and
theories valid enough in their own sphere, upon the domain of
consciousness. If the attack is to be finally repulsed it will be
imperatively necessary for the libertarian to maintain that no
full explanation of the physical universe can ever gain assent
which does not take account of the reality and influence within
the material world of human power of initiative and freedom.
Of this necessity there is a growing consciousness in recent years,
and no more notable exposition of it has been published than is
contained in James Ward's Naturalism and Agnosticism. Nor
is there any lack of evidence of a growing dissatisfaction on the
part of many physiologists with the complacent assumption
that the methods of physical science, and particularly the con-
ception of causal activity common to the sciences which study
inorganic nature, can be transferred without further criticism
to the examination of life and mind. Meanwhile the scientific
onslaught upon the libertarian position has been directed from
two chief quarters. It has been maintained, on the one hand,
that any theory which presupposes a direct correspondence
between the molecular movements of the brain, and the states
of consciousness which accompany them must make the freedom
of the will impossible. On the other hand it is asserted that
quite apart from any particular view as to the relation between
mind and body the existence of the freedom of the will is
necessarily incompatible with the principle of the conserva-
tion of energy and is therefore in direct contradiction to
WILL
651
many if not most of the assured conclusions of the physical
>dc-nces.
As regards the first of these two main contentions, it must
sutiice here to point out the main difficulties in which a
determinist and especially materialist account of
Objections tne re i a tj on between consciousness and the organic
processes which accompany it appears to be involved.
The arguments of thorough-going materialism can in
most cases be met with a direct negative. No kind of evidence
can be adduced sufficient to prove that consciousness is a secre-
tion of the brain, an effect or even a consequent of material
processes or modes of motion. No direct causal relationship
between a molecular movement and a state of consciousness
has ever been established. No physiologist has ever claimed
the power to prophesy with any approach to accuracy the future
mental states of any individual from an examination of his
brain. And, though some kind of correspondence between the
physical and conscious series of states has been observed and is
commonly taken for granted in a number of instances, proof
that entire correspondence exists is still wanting, and the precise
kind of correspondence is left undetermined. Nevertheless, the
belief that material processes must be held sufficient to account
for material changes in the human organism as in all other
regions of the material world, can be held quite independently
of any particular theory as to the relation between mind and
body, and in many of its forms is equally destructive of a belief in
the freedom of the will. It is a belief, too, which is increasingly
prevalent in modern science. The theory of psychophysical
parallelism involves no doubt in the minds of the majority of
its upholders the further assumption of some unity underlying
both the physical and psychical series which may one day be
discovered to be susceptible of scientific expression and inter-
pretation. Certainly without some such assumption the hypo-
thesis of an exact correspondence between the series described
as parallel becomes, as Professor Ward has shown, unmeaning.
And many scientific thinkers, while professing allegiance to a
theory which insists upon the independence of each parallel
series, in reality tacitly assume the superior importance if not
the controlling force of the physical over the psychical terms.
But a mere insistence upon the complete independence of the
physical series coupled with the belief that its changes are
wholly explicable as modes of motion, i.e. that the study of
molecular physics is competent to explain all the phenomena
of life and organic movements, is sufficient to eliminate the
possibility of spontaneity and free origination from the universe.
Tor if consciousness be looked upon as simply an epiphenomenon,
an unaccountable appearance accompanying the succession of
material changes, the possibility either of active interference
by human volition at any point within the physical series or of
any controlling or directing efficacy of consciousness over the
whole set of material changes which accompany its activity
becomes unthinkable. There are, nevertheless, serious diffi-
culties involved in the supposition that the changes in the brain
with which physiology and the biological sciences deal can be
-factorily explained by the mechanical and mathematical
conceptions common to all these sciences, or, indeed, that
any of these organic changes is susceptible in the last resort
t explanation derived from purely material premises. The
nomena of life and growth and assimilation have not been
satisfactorily explained as mechanical modes of motion, and
the fact that identical cerebral movements have not been dis-
covered to recur makes scientific and accurate prediction of
future cerebral changes an impossibility. But more convincing
than most of the philosophical arguments by which the theories
of psychophysical parallelism have been assailed is the fact that
it runs counter to the plain evidence of the ordinary conscious-
ness. No matter to what extent the unphilosophical thinker
may be under the influence of materialistic presuppositions, he
always recoils from the conclusion that the facts of his mental
life have no influence upon his -physical movements. Meaning,
design and purpose are to him terms far more explanatory of
his movements in the outer world than the mechanical and
mathematical equivalents to which his actions will ultimately
be reduced if the sciences should achieve their avowed purpose.
To regard himself as a conscious automaton he can never be
persuaded. Further, he finds in the series of antecedents and
consequents capable of mathematical and spatial determination,
which certain men of science present to him as their final account
of his physical and psychical history, no real explanation of the
facts: he is far more inclined to look for an explanation of the
efficacy of causal changes in the categories of will and purpose
for which they are a substitution.
Nor, finally, is the last defensive position of scientific deter-
minism the theory, namely, that the freedom of the will is
incompatible with the doctrine of the conservation of energy
to be accepted without question. That doctrine, if it is to
possess cogency as a proof of the impossibility of the libertarian
position, must assume that the amount of energy sufficient to
account for physical and psychical changes is constant and
invariable in quantity, an assumption which no scientific in-
vestigator is competent to prove. A regulative principle which
may possess great value when applied and confined to the
comparatively abstract material of the mathematical and quasi-
mathematical sciences is highly dangerous if extended to the
investigation of living bodies. " In its present form, and since
the development of the mechanical theory of heat, the principle
of the conservation of energy certainly seems to apply to the
whole range of physico-chemical phenomena. But no one can
tell whether the study of physiological phenomena in general,
and of nervous phenomena in particular, will not reveal to us,
besides the vis viva or kinetic energy of which Leibnitz spoke,
and the potential energy which was a later and necessary ad-
junct, some new kind of energy which may differ from the other
two by rebelling against calculation " (Bergson, Time and Free
Will, Eng. trans, by F. L. Pogson, pp. 151, 152).
It is, however, from the development of the scientific study
of psychology more than from any other region of thought
that light has been thrown upon the problem of
freedom. The determinist presuppositions of psy-
chology (determinist because they involve the applica-
tion of the causal conceptions of modern science to mental
phenomena) have in many instances in no way retarded the
utilization of new information concerning mental processes
in order to prove the reality of freedom. Bergson is perhaps
the most notable instance of a philosopher fully conversant with
psychological studies and methods who remains a convinced
libertarian. But the contribution made by psychology to the
solution of the problem has taken the form not so much of a
direct reinforcement of the arguments of either of the opponent
systems, as of a searching criticism of the false assumptions
concerning conative processes and the phenomena of choice
common alike to determinists and libertarians. It has already
been pointed out that the problem as it presented itself to
utilitarian philosophers could lead only to a false solution,
depending as it did upon a wholly fictitious theory as to the
nature of desire. There are still many traces to be found in
modern psychology of a similar unreal identification of desire
with will. But, nevertheless, the new light thrown upon the
unity of the self and the more careful and accurate scrutiny
made by recent psychologists of the phenomena of decision have
rendered it no longer possible either for determinists to deny
the fact of choice (whatever be their theory as to its nature)
or for libertarians to regard the self or the will as isolated from
and unaffected by other mental constituents and antecedents,
and hence, by an appeal to wholly fictitious entities, to prove
the truth of freedom. The self or the will can no longer be
looked upon as possessing a kind of imperium in impcrio, " this
way and that dividing the swift mind." And if freedom of
choice be a possibility at all, it must in future be regarded as the
prerogative of a man's whole personality, exhibited continuously
throughout the development of his character, displayed to some
extent in all conscious conative processes, though especially
apparent in crises necessitating deliberate and serious purpose.
The mistake of earlier advocates of determinism lay in the
652
WILL
supposition that self-conscious moral action could be explained
by the use of the same categories and upon the same hypotheses
usually considered sufficient to explain the causal sequences
observable in the physical world. Conduct was regarded as
the result of interaction between character and environment;
or it was asserted to be the resultant effect of a struggle between
motives in which the strongest prevailed. And the libertarian
critic had before him a comparatively easy task when he ex-
hibited the complete interdependence of character and en-
vironment, or rather the impossibility of treating either as
definite and fixed factors in a process explicable by the use of
ordinary scientific categories.
It was not difficult to show that motives have meaning only
with reference to a self, and that it is the self which alone has
power to erect a desire into a motive, or that the attraction of
an object of appetite derives much of its power from the character
of the self to which it makes its appeal. What is possibly not
so obvious is the extent to which libertarians have themselves
been guilty of a similar fallacy. It is comparatively unimportant
to the determinist whether the cause to which he attributes
conduct be the self, or the will, or character, or the strongest
motive, provided that each of these causes be regarded as
definitely ascertainable and that its effects in sufficiently known
circumstances be calculable. It is possible to treat will as a
permanent cause manifesting itself through a series of sequent
changes, and obedient to the laws which govern the development
of the personality of the single individual.
And the libertarian, by his arguments showing that appeal
must be made to an act of will or of the self in the explanation
of the phenomena of choice, does nothing directly
/o*/ert to dis P rove tne trutn of such a contention. If, how-
ianism. ' ever, it be argued by libertarians that no explanation
is possible of the manner in which the self or the will
makes its decisions and inclines to this motive or to that, while
they still assert the independent existence of the self or will,
then they are undoubtedly open to the retort of their opponents
that upon such a theory no rational explanation of conduct
will be possible. For to regard a particular decision as the
effect of the " fiat" of a self or will unmotived and uninfluenced
by the idea of a future object of attainment seems to be equiva-
lent to the simple statement that the choice was made or the
decision taken. Such a theory can prove nothing either for
or against the possibility of freedom.
Moreover, many of the arguments by which the position of
rigid libertarians of the older school has been proved untenable
idealism ^ ave ^ een a dvanced by moral philosophers, and by
thinkers not always inclined to regard psychology
with complete sympathy. The doctrine of self-determination,
advocated by T. H. Green and idealist writers of his school,
has little or nothing in common with the doctrine that the self
manifests its freedom in unmotived acts of will. The advocates
of self-determination maintain that conduct is never determined,
in the sense in which, e.g. movements in the physical world are
determined, because man in virtue of his self-consciousness has
a power of distinguishing himself from, even while he identifies
himself with, a purely natural object of desire ; and this must always
make it impossible to regard him as an object governed by purely
natural forces. Consciousness and especially self-consciousness,
can never be explained upon hypotheses adequate only to
explain the blind working of the unconscious world. But the
insistence of idealist writers upon the relation of the world of
nature to conscious intelligence, and especially to a universal
consciousness realizing itself throughout the history of in-
dividuals, rendered it alike impossible to deny altogether some
influence of environment upon character, and to regard the
history of individual willing selves as consisting in isolated
and unconnected acts of choice. Self-consciousness, if it be
conceived as distinguishing itself from its past history or from
the natural world, must be conceived also as in some sense
related to the empirical self which has a history in time and to
the natural organism in which it finds a home. It is the precise
mode of this relation which idealist philosophers leave obscure.
Nor is that obscurity to any appreciable degree illuminated
by the tendency also noticeable in idealist writers to find the
true possession of freedom only in a self emancipated from the
influence of irrational passion, and liberated by knowledge from
the dominion of chance or the despotism of unknown natural
forces. Here also psychology, by its elucidation of the important
part which instinctive appetites and animal impulses play in
the development of intelligence, still more perhaps by arguments
(based largely upon the examination of hypnotic subjects or
the phenomena of fixed ideas) which show the permanent
influence of irrational or semi-rational suggestions or habits
upon human conduct, has done much to aid and abet idealists
in their contentions. It cannot in fact be denied that from
one point of view human freedom is strictly relative, a posses-
sion to be won only after painful effort, exhibiting itself in ks
entirety only in supreme moments when the self is unswayed
by habit, and out of full knowledge makes an individual and
personal choice. Ideal freedom will be the supreme achieve-
ment of a self completely moralized. But the process by which
such freedom is eventually to be gained must, if the prize is to
be worth the having, itself exhibit the gradual development
of a self which, under whatever limitations, possesses the same
liberty of choice in its early stages as in its latest. And no
theory which limits the exercise of freedom to the choice only
of what is strictly good or rational can avoid the imputation of
destroying man's responsibility for the choice of evil.
But the most important point at issue between the opposing
theories has remained throughout the history of the controversy,
the morality or immorality of their respective solutions
of the problem. The advocates of either theory must
in the last resort appeal to the direct evidence of the
moral consciousness. It remains to give a brief sketch of the
arguments advanced on either side.
It has always been maintained by convinced libertarians that
without a belief in the freedom of the will morality becomes
unmeaning (see DETERMINISM). Moreover, without a belief in
the freedom of the will the conception of moral obligation upon
which the existence of morality depends and from which ah 1 other
moral terms derive their meaning loses its chief significance.
What is opposed to obligation, or at least always distinguished
from it, is that very domain of necessity within which deter-
minists would bring the will. For even when the felt obligation
is absolute, where the will is completely moralized, where it
is inconceivable in the case of a good man that the act which he
performs should be other than it is, there the obligation which
he recognizes is an obligation to choose autonomously, and as
such is distinguished from desire or appetite or any of the other
alleged determinants of action. If the question be asked " Where
is the evidence for this alleged freedom to choose between
alternatives ? " the appeal is always made to the witness of the
moral consciousness itself. No one, it is said, who ever feels
remorse for the committal of a wrong act can honestly avoid the
admission that at the moment when the act was committed he
could have acted otherwise. No one at the moment of action
is ever aware that his will is being necessitated. What he is
clearly conscious of is the power to choose. Any proof, in the
scientific sense, that a man's acts are due to his power of free
initiative would be from the nature of the case impossible.
For, inasmuch as scientific proof depends upon the evidence of
causality, such efforts after scientific demonstration would end
only by bringing either the man's whole personality or some
element in it within the sequence of the chain of natural causes
and effects, under the domination of that natural necessity from
which as a conscious being he is free. The science of morality
must be content in its search for causes to recognize the rationality
of choice as a real determining agent in human affairs. And no
account of the psychology of human action which regards conduct
as due to self-determination, but leaves open the question
whether the self is free to choose is, so it is argued, capable of
providing an adequate theory -of the admitted facts of moral
consciousness.
We must now consider the arguments by which determinists
WILL
Punish-
ment.
attack the position of their opponents and the evidence which
they adduce to show that the freedom of the will is no necessary
postulate for moral action. For thorough-going deter-
i/n/si minism of the older type the dependence of morality
ethics. upon freedom did not of necessity prove an obstacle.
Hedonistic psychology denied thelibertarianhypothesis,
but it denied also the absoluteness and intuitive character of moral
obligation, and attached no validity to the ordinary interpreta-
tion of terms like " ought " and duty. Modern determinists
differ from the earlier advocates of their theory in their endeavour
to exhibit at least the compatibility of morality with the absence
of freedom, if not the enhancement of moral values which,
according to some of its advocates, follows upon the acceptance
of the deterministic account of conduct.
If a coherent theory capable of giving an explanation of the
ordinary facts of morality and not involving too violent a breach
with the meaning of moral terms in their accepted usage
were all that need be required of determinists in order to
reconcile the defenders of the moral consciousness to the
loss of their belief in the will's freedom, it would follow without
question that the determinists have proved their case. Neither the
deterrent nor the reformatory theories of punishment (q.v.) neces-
sarily depend upon or carry with them a belief in the freedom of the
will. On the contrary, a belief that conduct necessarily results upon
the presence of certain motives, and that upon the application of
certain incentives, whether of pain or pleasure, upon the presence of
certain stimuli whether in the shape of rewards or punishments,
actions of a certain character will necessarily ensue, would seem to
vindicate the rationality of ordinary penal legislation, if its aim be
deterrent or reformatory, to a far greater extent than is possible upon
the libertarian hypothesis. Humanitarian moralists, who hesitate
to believe in the retributive theory of punishment because, as they
think, its aim is not the criminal's future well-being but merely the
vindication through pain of an outrage upon the moral law which
the criminal need never have committed, might welcome a theory
which urges that the sole aim of punishment should be the exercise
of an influence determining the criminal's future conduct for his own
or the social good.
Moreover, the belief that the justice of punishment depends upon
the responsibility of the criminal for his past offences and the ad-
mission of the moral consciousness that his previous wrong-doing
was freely chosen carries with it, so it is argued, consequences which
the libertarian moralist might be willing to accept with reluctance.
For whatever may have been the character of the individual in the
past, it is possible upon the libertarian view that by the exercise of
his freedom he has brought about in himself a complete change of
character: he may be now the exact opposite in character of what he
was then. Upon what grounds, therefore, shall we discriminate
between the justice of punishing him for what he was at a previous
period in his life and the injustice of forgiving him because of what
he is in the present? While if the deterrent and reformatory theories
alone provide a rational end for punishment to aim at then the
libertarian hypothesis pushed to its extreme conclusion must make
all punishments equally useless. For no puni&hments can prevent
the individual from becoming a person of whatsoever character he
chooses or from committing acts of whatsoever moral quality he
determines to prefer. A similar line of argument would lead to the
conclusion that the conception of the state as an educating, controlling
and civilizing agency involves the belief that individual citizens can
be influenced and directed by motives which have their origin in
external suggestion, i.e. that the determinist theory alone provides a
rational basis for state activity of whatever kind.
It might, however, be thought that whatever be the compati-
bility of theories of punishment or of the activity of the state as a
Hemorse moralizing agency with determinism, to reconcile the
denial of freedom with a belief in the reality of remorse
or penitence will be plainly impossible. Nevertheless there is no
tendency on the part of modern determinists to evade the difficulty.
They argue with considerable cogency that determinism is very far
from affording any ground for believing in the impotence of will.
The belief that our actions have been determined in the past carries
with it no argument that they will be of a like character in the future.
Though in the future as in the past they must be equally determined,
yet the forces that will determine their character in the future may
be as yet unanalysed and unapparent. No man can exhaust by
introspective analysis the hidden elements in his personality. The
existence of feelings of remorse and penitence testify to the presence
in the individual of motives to good conduct which, if acted upon and
allowed full scope and development, may produce a complete change
of character. Determinism is not necessarily the logic of despair.
Moreover, in a certain sense the very feelings of remorse and penitence
which are the chief weapons in the libertarians' armoury, testify to
the truth of the determinists' contention. For they are the natural
and logical consequence of the acts which the penitent deplores.
Such feelings follow the committal of acts of a certain character hi a
consciousness sufficiently moralized as inevitably as pain in the
natural world follows upon the violation of one of nature's laws.
And they would lose a great part of their significance if they did not
testify to the continued existence in a man s personality of motives
and tendencies likely to influence his conduct in the future as they
have already influenced it in the past. Nor is it possible to give any
rational explanation of the idea of responsibility itself upon inde-
terminist assumptions. For to hold a person to be a responsible agent
is to believe that he possesses a certain fixity and stability of char-
acter. Freedom in the sense of complete liberty of choice would
seem to lead to the conclusion that free .agents are irresponsible, un-
accountable. The truth seems to be that throughout the history
of the controversy the chief arguments for either side have been pro-
vided by the extreme and exaggerated statements to which their
opponents have been driven in the presentation of their case. So
long as libertarians contend that what alone possesses moral value is
unmotived choice, acts of will of which no explanation can be given
save the arbitrary fiat of individual selves at the moment of decision,
it is not difficult for determinists to exhibit the absurdities to which
their arguments lead. It can easily be shown that men do as a
matter of fact attach moral adjectives to environment, tempera-
mental tendencies, natural endowments, instinctive desires, in a
word to all or most of those forces moulding character, from which,
according to libertarians, the individual's freedom of choice should be
clearly distinguished and separated, and to which it can be and is
frequently opposed. While it is not easy to avoid the suspicion that
a choice of which nothing can be predicated, which is guided by no
motive, influenced by no desire, which is due neither to the natural
display of character nor to the influence of environment, is either
merely fortuitous or the product of a philosophical theory.
But, as has been already suggested, the libertarian argument by
no means necessarily leads to such extreme conclusions. The
libertarian is not pledged to the belief that acts which alone exhibit
real freedom are isolated acts which depend upon a complete change
of character, a change which is in no sense continuous with, and is in
no kind of relation to, the series of successive changes which make up
an individual's mental and moral history. It is true that a consistent
advocate of indeterminism must deny that the will is determined by
motives, and must admit that no reason can finally be given for the
individual's choice beyond the act of choice itself. For to give a
reason for choosing (where " reason " is not merely equivalent to the
determinists' " cause " or " necessary antecedent ") would simply
be to find the explanation of the individual's choice in some previous
decision. Moral conduct is conduct which follows upon the choice of
ends, and to give a reason for the choice of an end in any particular
instance is either to explain the nature of the end.chosen and thus to
describe the choice (a process which can in no sense show that the act
of choice was itself necessitated), or it is to find the ground of the
particular decision in its relation to an end already chosen. But
whatever be the nature of the end chosen the libertarian is not con-
cerned to deny that it must possess a fixed determinate character.
If duty be chosen as opposed to pleasure the opposition between
duty and pleasure is a necessary one. The recognition of such a
necessary opposition is involved in the determinate act of choice.
But the choice itself is neither necessary nor determined. The belief
that libertarianism denies the binding force of habit or the gradual
development of unchecked tendencies in character depends upon a
similar misconception. The continuity of a man's life and purposes
would be equally apparent whether he habitually performed the same
acts and made the same decisions in virtue of his freedom of choice
or as the product of necessary forces moulding his character in ac-
cordance with fixed laws. Just as the phenomena of sudden con-
version, complete revolutions of character occurring to outward
appearance in a momentary space of time, are no valid argument
against determinism they may be due to the sudden emergence of
elements in life and character long concealed so what looks like
the orderly and necessary development of a character growing and
exhibiting its activity in accordance with fixed laws may in reality
be due to innumerable secret struggles and momentous decisions,
acts of choice of which only the results are outwardly apparent. The
ends which at any moment the individual is free to choose or reject
possess a determinate character: their existence or non-existence as
possibilities is also to a very large extent determined for him. No
man can choose to become whatsoever he will, for the ends which he
can accomplish are restricted in number as well as definite in quality.
But the real strength of the libertarian position is to be found in the
fact that consciousness is capable of distinguishing ends at all.
Whenever, for example, there is an admission on the part of any
individual that in any previous act he made the attainment of
pleasure his end rather than the performance of duty, there is also a
tacit admission that he might have acted otherwise. And the exist-
ence of penitence and remorse is not merely a sign of the emergence in
consciousness of elements in character nobler than and opposed to
those tendencies which once held sway. They are feelings which
are incapable of coming into being at all save when coupled with the
judgment, " I ought to have acted otherwise because I possessed the
power. " The same argument holds good concerning pur feelings
with regard to the justice or injustice of punishing a criminal if we
believe that his will was determined. It may be politic or expedient
to inflict pain upon a criminal in order either to effect an alteration
in his character or to deter him or others from future performance of
654
WILL
acts of a certain character. But even with regard to the expediency
of such punishments we may have doubts. For the very argument
from the undeveloped possibilities of each man's character by which
the determinist proves the compatibility of his theory with the
phenomenon of sudden conversion and the like is sufficient also to
prove that the state can never be sure that the punishments which it
inflicts upon the individual will have the effect upon his character and
conduct which it desires. It may be replied that experience makes it
reasonably certain that the infliction of certain penalties will produce
acts of a certain character and that the influence of certain incentives
upon conduct may be established as reasonably probable by in-
duction. But when the data are admittedly so uncertain is a valid
inductive argument of such a character possible? And even if it
were what would be its bearing upon the justice or injustice of
inflicting punishments at all? The unsophisticated moral conscious-
ness will still consider it unjust to punish a man for deeds of which
he could not avoid the performance, and regard the alleged desire
to produce in his future life consequences favourable to him-
self or society as beside the mark and irrelevant to the question
at issue.
At the moment of action the individual invariably regards
himself as free to choose between alternatives. This immediate
consciousness of freedom persists upon another
Tree-will occasion even though subsequent reflection upon
position, conduct should lead the individual to regard himself
as determined at the very moment when he was aware
of himself as free. It is this immediate consciousness of the
power of choosing between alternatives which the determinist
finds so difficult to explain. He may regard it as an illusion,
and attempt to prove the incompatibility of our consciousness of
freedom with the facts of existence and the nature of the world.
But, in ordinary cases of illusion, once let the reason for the
illusion be discovered, and there is no longer the possibility of
our being longer deceived. The phenomena which deceived us
may continue to persist, but they no longer persist as illusory:
the appearance which deceived us is seen in its true nature, even
though it should still retain those characteristic marks or signs
of reality which hitherto we regarded as significant of a nature
which we now no longer believe it to possess. But can it be
maintained that the same truth holds good of our consciousness
of freedom? Is it possible to hold that determinist arguments
are of so convincing a character as to enable us to perceive at
the moment of action the untrustworthy nature of our con-
sciousness that we are free to choose between alternatives and
to grasp beneath the appearance the underlying necessity which
rules our wills? Our actual consciousness of freedom is not
seriously disputed. And though reflection upon conduct may
lead us to suppose that our past acts were determined, that desire
of pleasure or the wish to avoid pain controlled our wills, the
unphilosophical observer interprets, in offenders against morality,
such arguments as a mere excuse. Moreover, remorse and penit-
ence are witnesses in the wrongdoer to the truth of the interpreta-
tion. On the other hand we have no such immediate conscious-
ness of the necessity which is said to control our wills. We
sharply distinguish that freedom which is the prerogative of
human action from the necessary causation discoverable in
nature. Within the domain of consciousness introspective
analysis is unable to discover those chains of necessary sequences
which it is the province of science to investigate in the physical
world. And until the determinist can successfully explain to us
how in a world obeying throughout its history necessary laws
and limited in its nature to the exhibition of causal sequences
the consciousness of freedom could ever have arisen, we may
be content to trust the immediate affirmation of our moral
selves.
For modern discussions of the problem consult Lotze, Micro-
cosmus, i. 256 seq., English trans. Martineau; Study of Religion,
vol. ii. bk. iii. chap. 2; Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism; Rashdall,
The Theory of Good and Evil, vol. ii. bk. iii. ; Taylor, Elements of
Metaphysics, bk. iv. chap. 4; McTaggart, Some Dogmas of Religion,
v.; Shadworth Hodgson, The Philosophy of Experience, iv.
118 seq.; Galloway, Studies in the Philosophy of Religion; Bergson,
Essai sur les donnees immediates de la conscience; James, The Will
to Believe; Fonsegrive, Essai sur le libre arbitre; Renouvier, Les
Dilemmes de la metaphysique pure; Boutrpux, La Contingence des lois
de la nature; Noel, La Conscience du libre arbitre; Boyce Gibson,
Essay in Personal Idealism on " The Problem of Freedom. "
(H. H. W.)
WILL, or TESTAMENT, the legal documentary instrument by
which a person regulates the rights of others over his property or
family after his death. 1 For the devolution of property not
disposed of by will, see INHERITANCE, INTESTACY. In strictness
" will " is a general term whilst " testament " applies only to
dispositions of personalty; but this distinction is seldom
observed. The conception of freedom of disposition by will,
familiar as it is in modern England, is by no means universal. In
fact, complete freedom is the exception rather than the rule.
Legal systems which are based upon Roman law, such as those
of Scotland and France, allow the whole property to be alienated
only where the deceased leaves no widow or near relatives. In
France this restriction has met with condemnation from eminent
legal and economical authorities. R. T. Troplong, for instance,
held that " un peuple n'est pas libre, s'il n'a pas le droit de tester,
et la liberte du testament est la plus grande preuve de la liberte
civile." 2
History. The will, if not purely Roman in origin, at least owes to
Roman law its complete development a development which in
most European countries was greatly aided at a later period
1 I . J > r f TT1* J KOtlt&B
by ecclesiastics versed in Roman law. In India, accord- Iaw
ing to the better opinion, it was unknown before the English
conquest; in the Mosaic law and in ancient Athens the will, if it
existed at all, was of a very rudimentary character. The same is the
case with the Leges barbarorum, where they are unaffected by Roman
law. The will is, on the other hand, recognized by Rabbinical and
Mohammedan law. The early Roman will, as Sir H. Maine shows, *
differed from the modern will in most important respects. It was at
first effectual during the lifetime of the person who made it; it
was made in public; and it was irrevocable. Its original object, like
that of adoption, was to secure the perpetuation of the family.
This was done by securing the due vesting of the hereditas in a person
who could be relied upon to keep up the family rites. There is much
probability in the conjecture that a will was only allowed to be made
when the testator had no gentiles discoverable, or when the gentiles
had waived their rights. It is certain from the text of Gaius 4 that the
earliest forms of will were those made in the comitia calata and those
madeinprocinctu, or on the eve of battle. The former were published
before the comitia, as representative of the patrician gentes, and were
originally a legislative act. These wills were the peculiar privilege of
patricians. At a later time grew up a form of plebeian will (tesla-
mentum per aes et libram), and the law of succession under testament
was further modified by the influence of the praetor, especially in
the direction of recognition of fideicommissa or testamentary trusts.
Codicilli or informal wills, also came into use, and were sufficient for
almost every purpose but the appointment of an heir. In the time
of Justinian a will founded partly on the jus civile, partly on the edict
of the praetor, partly on imperial constitutions and so called testa-
mentum tripertitum, was generally in use. The main points essential
to its validity were that the testator should possess testamentary
capacity, and that the will should be signed or acknowledged by the
testator in the presence of seven witnesses, or published orally in
open court. The witnesses must be idonei, or free from legal dis-
ability. For instance, women and slaves were not good witnesses.
The whole property of the testator could not be alienated. The
rights of heirs and descendants were protected by enactments which
secured to them a legal minimum, the guerela inofficiosi testamcnti
being the remedy of those passed over. The age at which testa-
mentary capacity began was fourteen in the case of males, twelve in
the case of females. Up to A.D. 439 a will must have been in Latin;
after that date Greek was allowed. Certain persons, especially
soldiers, were privileged from observing the ordinary forms. The
liability of the heir to the debts of the testator varied at different
periods. At first it was practically unlimited. Then the law was
gradually modified in his favour, until in the time of Justinian the
heir who duly made an inventory of the property of the deceased was
liable only to the assets to which he had succeeded. This limitation
of liability is generally termed by the civilians beneficium inveniarii.
Something like the English probate is to be found in the rules for
breaking the seals of a will in presence of the praetor. Closely con-
nected with the will was the donatio mortis causa, the rules of which
have been as a whole adopted in England (see below). An immense
space in the Corpus juris is occupied with testamentary law. The
whole of part v. of the Digest (books xxviii.-xxxvi.) deals with the
subject, and so do a large number of constitutions in the Code and
Novels.
The effect of Christianity upon the will was very marked. For
instance, the duty of bequeathing to the Church was inculcated as
1 This is practically in accordance with the definition of Modestinus
in Digest xxviii. I, I, voluntatis nostrae jusla sententia de eo quod quis
post mortem suam fieri velit.
2 TraM des donations entre-vifs et des testaments (1855), preface.
3 Ancient Law, chap. vi.
4 ii. 101.
WILL
655
early as Constantine, and heretics-and monks were placed under a
disability to make a will or take gifts left by will. A will was often de-
posited in a church. The canon law follows the Roman law
Canon w j tn a st ;jj greater leaning to the advantage of the Church.
IMW. NoChurchpropertycouldbebequeathed. Manifest usurers
were added to the list of those under disability. For the validity
of a will it was generally necessary that it should be made in the
presence of a priest and two witnesses, unless where it was made in
pias causas. The witnesses, as in Roman law, must be idonei. Gifts
to the Church were not subject to the deductions in favour of the heir
and the children necessary in ordinary cases. l In England the Church
clril in holding in its own hands for centuries jurisdiction in
.ntary matters.
The Roman law of wills has had considerable effect upon English
law. In the words of Sir H. Maine, " The English law of testa-
mentary succession to personalty has become a modified
English form of the dispensation under which the inheritances of
'"*' Roman citizens were administered." * At the same time
there are some broad and striking differences which should be borne
in mind. The following among others may be noticed. (l) A Roman
ti-iiator could not, unless a soldier, die partly testate and partly
imitate. The will must stand or fall as a whole. This is not the
case in England. (2) There is no one in English law to whom the
universitas juris of the testator descends as it did to the Roman heres,
whose appointment was essential to the validity of a formal will, and
who partook of the nature of the English heir, executor, adminis-
trator, devisee and legatee. (3) The disabilities of testators differed
in the two systems. The disability of a slave or a heretic is peculiar
to Roman law, of a youth between fourteen and twenty-one to
English law. (4) The whole property may be disposed of in England ;
but it was not so at Rome, where, except by the wills of soldiers,
children could not be disinherited unless for specified acts of mis-
conduct. During the greater part of the period of Roman law the
heir must also have had his Falcidian fourth in order to induce him to
accept the inheritance. (5) In English law all wills must conform to
certain statutory requirements; the Romans recognized from the
time of Augustus an informal will called codicilli. The English codicil
has little in common with this but the name. It is not an informal
will, but an addition to a will, read as apart of it, and needing the
same formalities of execution. (6) The Roman legatum applied to
both movables and immovables; in England a legacy or bequest is a
;ift of personalty only, a gift of real estate being called a devise. 3
7) The Roman will spoke from the time of making; the English
speaks from the time of death. This difference becomes very im-
portant in case of alteration in the position of the testator between
the making of the will and his death. As a rule the Roman will
could not, the English can, pass after-acquired property.
Liberty of alienation by will is found at an early period in England.
To judge from the words of a law of Canute, intestacy appears to
have been the exception at that time. 4 How far the liberty extended
is uncertain; it is the opinion of some authorities that complete
disposition of land and goods was allowed, of others that limited
- of wife and children were recognized. However this may be,
after the Conquest a distinction, the result of feudalism, to use a
convenient if inaccurate term, arose between real and personal
property. It will be convenient to treat the history of the two kinds
of will separately.
It became the law after the Conquest, according to Sir E. Coke, 5
that no estate greater than for a term of years could be disposed of
by will, unless in Kent, where the custom of gavelkind
prevailed, and in some manors and boroughs (especially
property. t j le Q t f London), where the pre-Conquest law was
preserved by special indulgence. The reason why devise of land was
not acknowledged by law was, no doubt, partly to discourage death-
:ifts in mortmain, a view supported by Glanvill, partly because
the testator could not give the devisee that seisin which was the
principal element in a feudal conveyance. By means of the doctrine
cf uses, however, the devise of land was secured by a circuitous
method, generally by conveyance to feoffees to uses in the lifetime of
the feoffor to such uses as he should appoint by his will (see TRUST).*
Up to comparatively recent times a will of lands still bore traces of
its origin in the conveyance to uses inter vivos. On the passing of the
Statute of Uses lands again became non-devisable, with a saving in
the statute for the validity of wills made before the ist of May 1536.
The inconvenience of this state of things soon began to be felt, and
\\.i-i probably aggravated by the large amount of land thrown into
the market after the dissolution of the monasteries. As a remedy an
act was passed in 1540, and a further explanatory act in 1542-1543.
1 Most of- the law is contained in Decretals, iii. 26, " De Testa-
mentis."
'Ancient Law, chap. vi.
'The distinction between bequest and devise did not always exist.
For instance, the Assize of Northampton, c. 4, speaks of a devise
(divisa) of chattels (see BEQUEST).
4 Secular Laws, c. 68. 2 Jnst. 7.
* Many instances of such conveyances occur in Sir Harris Nicolas'
Testaments vetusta and in Fifty Earliest English Wills (1387-1439),
edited by Dr F. J. Furnivall in 1882.
The effect of these acts was to make lands held in fee simple devisable
by will in writing, to the extent of two-thirds where the tenure was by
knight service, and the whole where it was in socage. Corporations
were incapacitated to receive, and married women, infants, idiots and
lunatics to devise. An act of 1660, by abolishing tenure by knight
service, made all lands devisable. In the same reign the Statute of
Frauds (1677) dealt with the formalities of execution. Up to this
time simple notes, even in the handwriting of another person, con-
stituted a sufficient will, if published by the testator as such. The
Statute of Frauds required, inter alia, that all devises should be in
writing, signed by the testator or by some person for him in his
presence and by his direction, and should also be subscribed by
three or four credible witnesses. The strict interpretation by the
courts of the credibility of witnesses led to the passing of an act in
1751-1752, making interested witnesses sufficient for the due execu-
tion of the will, but declaring gifts to them void. The will of a man
was revoked by marriage and the birth of a child, of a woman by
marriage only. A will was also revoked by an alteration in circum-
stances, and even by a void conveyance inter vivos of land devised by
the will made subsequently to the date of the will, which was pre-
sumed to be an attempt by the grantor to give legal effect to a change
of intention. As in Roman law, a will spoke from the time of the
making, so that it could not avail to pass after-acquired property
without republication, which was equivalent to making a new will.
Copyholds were not devisable before 1815, but were usually sur-
rendered to the use of the will of the copyhold tenant; an act of 1815
made them devisable simply. Devises of lands have gradually been
made liable to the claims of creditors by a series of statutes beginning
with the year 1691.
The history of wills of personalty was considerably different,
but to some extent followed parallel lines. In both cases partial
preceded complete power of disposition. The general
opinion of the best authorities is that by the common law
of England a man could only dispose of his whole personal P r P c| t>'-
property if he left no wife or children ; if he left either wife or children
ne could only dispose of one-half, and one-third if he left both wife
and children. The shares of wife and children were called their pars
rationabilis. This pars rationabilis is expressly recognized in Magna
Carta and was sued for by the writ de rationabili parle. At what
period the right of disposition of the whole personalty superseded the
old law is uncertain. That it did so is certain, and the places.where
the old rule still existed the province of York, Wales and the City
of London were regarded as exceptions. The right of bequest in
these places was not assimilated to the general law until compara-
tively recent times by acts passed between 1693 and 1726. A will of
personalty could be made by a male at fourteen, by a female at
twelve. The formalities in the case of wills of personalty were not as
numerous as in the case of wills of land. Up to 1838 a nuncupative
or oral will was sufficient, subject, where the gift was of 30 or more,
to the restrictions contained in the Statute of ^Frauds. The witnesses
to a written will need not be " credible," and it was specially enacted
by an act of 1705 that any one who could give evidence in a court of
law was a good witness to a will of personalty. A will entirely in the
testator's handwriting, called a holograph will, was valid without
signature. At one time the executor was entitled to the residue in
default of a residuary legatee. But the Executors Act 1830 made
him in such an event trustee for the next of kin.
Jurisdiction over wills of personalty was till 1858 in the ecclesi-
astical courts, probate being granted by the diocesan court 7 if the
goods of the deceased lay in the same diocese, in the provincial court
of Canterbury (the prerogative court) or York (the chancery court)
if the deceased had bona notabilia, that is, goods to the value of 5 in
two dioceses. The ecclesiastical jurisdiction was of a very ancient
origin. It was fully established under Henry II., as it is mentioned
by Glanvill. In the city of London wills were enrolled in the Court of
Hustings from 1258 to 1688 after having been proved before the
ordinary. Contested cases before 1858 were tried in the provincial
court with an appeal originally to the Court of Delegates, later to the
judicial committee of the privy council. There were also a few special
local jurisdictions, courts baron, the university courts, and others,
probably for the most part survivals of the pre-Conquest period, when
wills seem to have been published in the county court. The ecclesi-
astical courts had no jurisdiction over wills of land, and the common
law courts were careful to keep the ecclesiastical courts within their
limits by means of prohibition. No probate of a will of land was
necessary, and title to real estate by will might be made by pro-
duction of the will as a document of title. The liability of the
executor and legatee for the debts of the testator has been gradually
established by legislation. In general it is limited to the amount of
the succession. Personal liability of the executor beyond this can
by the Statute of Frauds only be established by contract in writing.
Modern English Law. Such were the principal stages in the
history of the law as it affected wills made before 1838 or proved
before 1858. The principal acts now in force are the Wills Act
1837, the amending act of 1852, the Court of Probate Act 1857,
'The testamentary jurisdiction of the archdeacon's court is
alluded to by Chaucer in the " Friar's Tale," but it was afterwards
completely superseded by the bishop's court.
6 5 6
WILL
the Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875 an< i the Land Transfer Act
1897. All but the acts of 1837 and 1852 deal mainly with what
happens to the will after death, whether under the voluntary or
contentious jurisdiction of the Probate Division (see PROBATE).
Some of the earlier acts are still law, though of little importance
since the more modern and comprehensive enactments.
The earliest on the statute roll is an act of Henry III. (1236),
enabling a widow to bequeath the crops of her lands. Before the
Wills Act uniformity in the law had been urgently recommended by
the Real Property Commissioners in 1833. It appears from their
report l that at the time of its appearance there were ten different
ways in which a will might be made under different circumstances.
The act of 1837 affected both the making and the interpretation
of wills. 2 Excluding the latter for the present, its main provisions
were these. All property, real and personal, and of whatever tenure,
may be disposed of by will. If customary freeholds or copyholds
be devised, the will must be entered on the court rolls. No will made
by any person under the age of twenty-one is valid. Every will is to
be in writing, signed at the foot or end thereof by the testator or by
some person in his presence and by his direction, and such signature
is to be made or acknowledged by the testator in the presence of two
or more witnesses present at the same time, who are to subscribe the
will in the presence of the testator. It is usual for the testator and
the witnesses to sign every sheet. Publication is not necessary. A
will is not void on account of the incompetency of a witness. Gifts
to a witness or the husband or wife of a witness are void. A creditor
or executor may attest. A will is revoked (except where made in
exercise of a power of appointment of a certain kind) by a later will,
or by destruction with the intention of revoking, but not by pre-
sumption arising from an alteration in circumstances. Alterations in
a will must be executed and attested as a will. A will speaks from
the death of the testator, unless a contrary intention appear. An
unattested document may be, if properly identified, incorporated in
a will, but such a document, if executed subsequently to the will, is
inoperative.
Rules of interpretation or construction depend chiefly on decisions
of the courts, to a smaller extent on statutory enactment. The
law was gradually brought into its present condition through pre-
cedents extending back for centuries, especially decisions of the
court of chancery, the court par excellence of construction, as dis-
tinguished from the court of probate. The court of probate did
not deal unless incidentally with the meaning of the will; its juris-
diction was confined to seeing that it was duly executed. The
present state of the law of interpretation is highly technical. Some
phrases have obtained a conventional meaning which the testators
who used them probably did not dream of. Many of the judicial
doctrines which had gradually become established were altered by
the Wills Act. These provisions of the act have since that time
themselves become the subject of judicial decision. Among other
provisions are these, most of them to take effect only in the absence
of a contrary intention. A residuary devise is to include estates
comprised in lapsed and void devises. A general gift of the testator's
lands is to include copyholds and leaseholds. A general gift of real
or personal estate is to include real or personal estate over which the
testator had a general power of appointment. A devise without
words of limitation is to pass the fee simple. The words "diewithout
issue," or similar words, are to mean die without issue living at the
time of the death of the person whose issue was named, not as before
the act, an indefinite failure of issue, an estate tail being thus created.
Trustees under an unlimited devise are to take the fee simple.
Devises of estates tail are not to lapse if the devisee, though he pre-
deceased the testator, left issue inheritable under the entail. Gifts
to children or other issue leaving issue living at the testator's death
are not to lapse. Rules of interpretation founded on principles of
equity independent of statute are very numerous, and for them the
works devoted to the subject must be consulted. Some of the more
important, stated in as general a form as possible, are these. The
intention of the testator is to be observed. This rule is called by
Sir E. Coke the pole star to guide the judges. There is a presumption
against intestacy, against double portions, against constructing
merely precatory words to import a trust, &c. One part of the will
is to be expounded by another. Interlineations and alterations are
presumed to have been made after, not as in deeds before, execution.
Words are supposed to be used in their strict and primary sense.
Manywordsand phrases, however, such as" money," ' residue" and
" issue " and other words of relationship, have become invested with
a technical meaning, but there has been a recent tendency to include
illegitimate children in a gift to " children." Evidence is admissible
in certain cases to explain latent ambiguity, and parol evidence of the
terms of a lost will may be given as in the famous case of Sugden v.
Lord St Leonards (1876), I Prob. Div. 154.
A will may be void, in whole or in part, for many reasons, which
may be divided into two great classes, those arising from external
circumstances and those arising from the will itself. The main
1 Fourth Report, p. 12.
J By i oi the act the word " will " includes codicil.
examples of the former class are revocation by burning, tearing, &c.,
by a later will, or by marriage of the testator (except as below),
incapacity of the testator from insanity, infancy or legal disability
(such as being a convict), undue influence and fraud, any one of
which is ground for the court to refuse or revoke probate of a will.
A will being ambulatory is always revocable, unless in one or two
exceptional instances. Undue influence is a ground upon which
frequent attempts are made to set aside wills. Its nature is well
explained in a judgment of Lord Penzance's: " Pressure of whatever
character, whether acting on the fears or the hopes, if so exerted as to
overpower the volition without convincing the judgment, is a species
of restraint under which no valid will can be made." 8 There is
nothing corresponding to the querela inofficiosi testamenti, but un-
natural provisions may be evidence of mental defect. The circum-
stances appearing on the face of the will which make it open to ob-
jection may either avoid it altogether or create a partial intestacy,
the will remaining; good as a whole. Where the will is not duly
executed, e.g. if it is a forgery or if it is not signed by the testator or
the proper number of witnesses, the will is not admitted to probate at
all. Where it contains devises or bequests bad in law, as in general
restraint of marriage, or tending to create perpetuities, or contrary
to public policy, or to some particular enactment, only the illegal
part is void. A remarkable instance is a well-known case in which a
condition subsequent in a devise was held void as against public
policy, being a gift over of the estate devised in case the first devisee,
the eldest son of an earl, did not before his death obtain the lapsed
title of duke of Bridgewater. 4
There are some wills of an exceptional kind which demand special
notice. The King. It was resolved in parliament in Richard II. 's
reign (1392) that the king, his heirs and successors, might lawfully
make their testaments.' In some later cases parliamentary authority
has been given to royal wills, in others not. The executors of
Henry IV. were confirmed in their office by letters patent of Henry V.,
those of Henry V. by parliament. The largest testamentary powers
ever conferred on an English king were given to Henry VIII. by an
act of i533-l534,empowering him to limit and appoint the succession
to the crown by will, in default of children by Jane Seymour or any
future wife. By 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 88 the king and his successor
may devise or bequeath their private property. 6 No court, however,
has jurisdiction to grant probate of the will of a king. Guardian-
ship. As a general rule wills deal with property, but even at common
law a will simply appointing a guardian was good. The common law
was superseded by an act of 1660, under which a father may dispose
of the custody of his unmarried infant children by will. The
Guardianship of Infants Act 1886 extended such powers in certain
cases to the mother. Married Woman. At common law a married
woman could not (with a few exceptions) make a will without her
husband's licence and consent, and this disability was specially pre-
served by the Wills Acts of Henry VIII. and of 1837. A common
mode of avoiding this difficulty was for the husband to contract before
marriage to permit the wife to make an appointment disposing of
personalty to a certain value. Courts of equity from an early time
allowed her, under certain restrictions, to make a will of property
held for her separate use. In some cases her husband could dispose
of her property by will, in others not. The law as it existed previously
to 1883 is now practically obsolete, the Married Women's Property
Act 1882 enabling a married woman to dispose by will of any real or
personal property as her separate property as a. feme sole without the
intervention of any trustee. The act also enables a married woman
who is executrix of a will to act as if she were a feme sole. The
Married Women's Property Act 1893 extended the act of 1882 by
making it unnecessary for the will of a married woman to be re-
executed or republished after the death of her husband. Alien.
Before 1870 an alien enemy resident in England could only dispose
of property by will with the king's licence. The Naturalization Act
1870 enables him to do so as fully as a natural-born British subject.
But if he be an alien domiciled abroad he cannot avail himself of Lord
Kingsdown's Act (see below). Soldier and Sailor Wills of soldiers
in actual military service, and of sailors, are subject to special legis-
lation, and are excepted from the operation of the Wills Act. The
privilege only applies to wills of personal estate. Such wills may
usually be made when the testator has attained the age of fourteen,
and are not revoked by marriage only but by marriage and the birth
of a child. Wills of soldiers on an expedition may be made by un-
attested writing or by nuncupative testament before two witnesses.
Wills of petty officers and seamen in the navy, and of marines, as far
as relates to their pay or prize-money, must be attested by an officer,
and wills made by a seaman in the merchant service must, if made at
sea, be attested by the master or mate, if made on land by a super-
intendent of a mercantile marine office, a minister of religion, justice
of the peace, or consular or customs officer. See the Merchant
Shipping Act 1894, s. 177. The wills of prisoners of war are subject
to special regulations, and the Admiralty may at its discretion waive
'Hall v. Hall, L.R. I Prob. 481.
4 Egerton v. Earl Brownlow, 4 House of Lords Cases, 2 IO.
* 4 Inst. 335.
6 See the Collection of Royal Wills printed for the Society of Anti-
quaries by J. Nichols (1780).
WILL
657
the due execution of wills in other instances. The effects of seamen,
marines and soldiers, killed or dying in the service, are exempt
from duty. Pay, wages, prize money and pensions due to persons
employed in the navy may be paid out without probate where the
whole assets do not exceed 32. The Board of Trade may at its dis-
cretion dispense with probate of the will of a merchant seaman whose
effects do not exceed 50 in value. By an act passed in 1868 the
existing exemptions are extended to the sum of 100 in the case of
civil service pay or annuities, of civil or military allowances charge-
able to the army votes, and of army prize money. Will made under
p owe r. A will made under a power of appointment is not revoked
by marriage when the real or personal estate thereby appointed
would not in default of appointment pass to the testator's executor
or administrator or to the next of kin. Before the Wills Act a will
exercising a power of appointment had to conform to any special
requisitions in the power, but since the act the power is duly exercised
if executed and attested like an ordinary will. Registration. In the
register counties memorials of wills affecting lands in those counties
must be registered. Member of friendly society, &c. Members of
friendly, industrial and provident societies, depositors in savings
banks, and servants in certain public offices, may under the pro-
visions of numerous acts make a nomination to an amount not ex-
ceeding 100. Such nomination is practically equivalent to a will,
and may be made at the age of sixteen.
At common law there could be no larceny of a will of lands. But
now by the Larceny Act of 1861 stealing, injuring or concealing a
will, whether of real or personal estate, is punishable with penal
servitude for life. Forgery of a will (at one time a capital crime)
renders the offender liable to the same penalty. Fraudulent con-
cealment of a will material to the title by a vendor or mortgagor of
land or chattels is, by the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859, a
misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment or both. It
should be noticed that a contract to make a will containing pro-
visions in favour of a certain person or certain persons is valid if it
fulfil the requirements of the law regulating contract. A good
example is Synge v. Synge (1894) I K.B. 466.
For death duties see ESTATE DUTY, LEGACY, SUCCESSION DUTY.
The principal authorities for the English law are, for the formalities,
Sir E. V. Williams, Executors; Holdsworth and Vickers, Law of
Succession; J. Williams, Wills and Succession; for the construction,
the works of Sir James Wigram and of Messrs Jarman, F. V.
Hawkins and Theobald. Precedents will be found in Hayes and
Jarman's Concise forms of Wills, and in ordinary collections of pre-
cedents in conveyancing. For comparative law see E. Lambert,
Le Regime successoral (Paris, 1903).
The act of 1837 applies to Ireland. The main difference between
the law of the two countries is that in Ireland a bequest for masses
... for the repose of the testator's soul is valid, provided that
the masses be public, in England such a bequest is void as
tending to superstitious uses.
Up to 1868 wills of immovables were not aljowed in Scotland. The
usual means of obtaining disposition of heritage after death was a
trust disposition and settlement by deed depraesenti, under
which the truster disponed the property to trustees
according to the trusts of the settlement, reserving a life interest.
Thus something very similar to a testamentary disposition was
secured by means resembling those employed in England before the
Wills Act of Henry VIII. The main disadvantage of the trust dis-
position was that it was liable to be overthrown by the heir, who
could reduce ex capite lecti all voluntary deeds made to his prejudice
within sixty days of the death of his ancestor. In 1868 the Titles to
Land Consolidation Act made it competent to any owner of lands to
settle the succession to the same in the event of death by testa-
mentary or mortis causa deeds or writings. In 1871 reduction ex
capite lecti was abolished. A will of immovables must be executed
with the formalities of a deed and registered to give title. The dis-
ability of a woman as a witness was removed by the Titles to Land
Consolidation Act. As to wills of movables, there are several im-
portant points in which they differ from corresponding wills in
England, the influence of Roman law being more marked. Males
may make a will at fourteen, females at twelve. A nuncupative
legacy is good to the amount of 100 Scots (8, 6s. 8d.), and a holo-
graph testament is good without witnesses, but it must be signed by
the testator, differing in this from the old English holograph. By the
Conveyancing Act 1874 such a will is presumed to have been executed
on the date which it bears. Not all movables can be left, as in
England. The movable property of the deceased is subject to jus
relictae and legitim. See McLaren, Wills and Succession, for the law,
and Judicial Styles for styles.
United Stales. By the constitutions of many states laws
giving effect to informal or invalid wills are forbidden. The
age of testamentary capacity varies very much. Eighteen is a
common one. Full liberty of disposition is not universal. Home-
steads generally, and dower estates frequently, are not devisable.
In some states only a disposable portion of the property can
be left, so that children cannot be disinherited without good
cause, and in some children omitted in a will may still take
their share. It is frequently provided that a certain amount
must be left to the widow. Louisiana follows French law, by
which the testator can under no circumstances alienate by will
more than half his property if he leave issue or ascendants. In
some states a married woman may not leave more than half her
property away from her husband. Some require the husband's
consent and subscription to make the will of a married woman
valid. Nuncupative and holograph wills are in use. The
former are confined to personalty and must generally be reduced
to writing within a short time after the words are spoken. In
Louisiana the mystic or sealed will still exists. The number of
witnesses necessary for the validity of a will of any kind is
usually two, sometimes three. Wills of soldiers and sailors are
privileged, as in England. There are several decisions of state
courts that belief in spiritualism does not of itself constitute
testamentary incapacity.
.See Jarman, American edition by Randolph and Talcott.
France. The law is mainly contained in ss. 967-1074 of the
Code Civil. Wills in France may be of three kinds: (i) holo-
graph, which must be wholly .written, dated and signed by the
testator; (2) made as a public instrument, i.e. received by two
notaries before two witnesses or by one notary before four
witnesses; this form of will must be dictated by the testator
and written by the notary, must be read over to the testator
in the presence of the witnesses and must be signed by testator
and witnesses; (3) mystic, which are signed by the testator,
then closed and sealed and delivered by him to a notary before
six witnesses; the notary then draws up an account of the
proceedings on the instrument which is signed by the testator,
notary and witnesses. Legatees and their blood relations to
the fourth degree may not be witnesses. Nuncupative wills
are not recognized. Soldiers' and sailors' wills are subject to
special rules as in most other countries. Full liberty of dis-
position only exists where the testator has no ascendants or
descendants, in other cases his quantite disponible is subject
to reserve; if the testator has one child he may only dispose
of half his estate, if tw'o only one-third, if three or more only
one-fourth; if he has no descendants but ascendants in both
lines he may dispose of half, if ascendants in one line only he
may dispose of three-fourths. The full age of testamentary
capacity is twenty-one years, but minors over the age of sixteen
may dispose by will of half of the estate of which they could
dispose had they been of full age. There is no restriction against
married women making wills. A contract to dispose of the
succession is invalid, s. 791.
The codes of the Latin races in Europe are in general accord-
ance with the French law.
Germany. Most of the law will be found in the Biirgerlichts
Geselzbuch, ss. 2064-2273. A holograph will, either single or
joint, is allowed. Other wills must be declared before a judge
or notary or (outside Germany) a consul. Two witnesses are
required, unless the witness be a notary or the registrar of the
court, who is sufficient alone. The formalities may be relaxed
in certain cases, such as imminent death, a state of siege, a
prevailing epidemic, &c. Descendants, ascendants and the
husband and wife, are entitled to compulsory portions (pflicht-
teilsberecltligt). But those prima facie entitled may be deprived
of their share for certain specified kinds of misconduct. A con-
tract to make any specified testamentary disposition is in-
operative. But a contract of inheritance (Erbvertrag) made
inter vivos by direct disposition is valid in certain cases and
will operate on the death of the contractor. The modes of
revocation are much the same as in England (except marriage).
But there is one peculiar to Germany, the inconsistency of a will
with an Erbvertrag; in such an event the will is wholly or pro
tanto revoked.
International Law. There are three main directions which the
opinion of jurists and the practice of courts have taken, (i) The
whole property of the testator may be subjected to the law of his
domicif To this effect is the opinion of Savigny and the German
practice. Certain modifications have been made by modern law,
especially by the Einfukrungsgesetz of 1896. (2) The property may
be subjected to the law of the place where it happens to be at the
6 5 8
WILLARD WILLESDEN
time of the testator's death. (3) The movable property may be sub-
jected to the law of the domicil, the immovable (including leaseholds)
to the law of the place where it is situate, the lex loci rei sitae. England
and the United States follow this rule. Testamentary capacity is
generally governed by the law of the testator's domicil at the time
of his death, the form of the instrument in most countries either by
the law of his domicil or the law of the place where the will was made,
at his option. The old rule of English law was to allow the former
alternative only. The law was altered for the United Kingdom in
1861 by the Wills Act 1861 (known as Lord Kingsdown's Act),
by which a will made out of the United Kingdom by a British subject
is, as far as regards personal estate, good if made according to the
forms required by the law of the place where it was made, or by the
law of the testator's domicil at the time of making it, or by the law
of the place of his domicil of origin. Subsequent change of domicil
does not avoid such a will. Another act passed on the same day, the
Domicile Act 1 86 1, enacted that by convention with any foreign
government foreign domicil with regard to wills could not be acquired
by a testator without a year's residence and a written declaration
of intention to become domiciled. By the same act foreign consuls
may by convention have certain authority over the wills and property
of subjects of foreign states dying in England. In the United States
some states have adopted the narrow policy of enacting by statute
the old common law rule, and providing that no will is valid unless
made in the form required by the law of the state of the testator's
domicil. The capacity of the testator, revocation and construction
of a will, are governed by the law of the domicil of the testator at the
time of his death except in cases affected by Lord Kingsdown's
Act, as he must be supposed to have used language in consonance
with that law, unless indeed he express himself in technical language
of another country. A good instance is Groos' Case (1904), Prob. 269,
where it was held that the will of a Dutch woman (at the time of her
death domiciled in England) duly made in Holland was not revoked
by her marriage, that being no ground of revocation by the law of
Holland. 1 The persons who are to take under a will are decided by
different rules according as the property is movable or immovable,
the former being governed by the law of the domicil, the latter by the
lex loci rei sitae. It was held, however, in 1881 by the court of appeal
in England that, under the will of an Englishman domiciled in
Holland, leaving personal property to children, children legitimated
per subsequent matrimonium could take, as they were legitimate by
the law of Holland, though not by the law of England {re Goodman's
Trusts, 17 Ch. D. 266). This principle was carried further in re
Grey's Trusts (1892), 3 Ch. 88, where it was held that a legitimated
child was entitled to share in a devise of English realtv. But it is
to be noted that a person born out of lawful wedlock, though legiti-
mated, cannot succeed as heir to real estate in England (Birtwhistle
v. Vardill, 2 Cl. and F. 895). A will duly executed abroad is generally
required to be clothed with the authority of a court of the country
where any property affected by the will is situate. (J. W.)
WILLARD, FRANCES ELIZABETH (1839-1898), American
reformer, was born at Churchville, Monroe county, New York,
on the 28th of September 1839. She attended the Milwaukee
Female College in 1857 and in 1859 graduated at the North-
western Female College at Evanston, Illinois. She then became
a teacher, and in 1871-1874 she was president and professor
of aesthetics of the Woman's College at Evanston, which became
part of the North-Western University in 1873. In 1874 she
became corresponding secretary and from 1879 until her death
was president of the National Woman's Christian Temperance
Union, and from 1887 until her death was president of the
World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union. She first spoke
in favour of woman's suffrage in 1877; and in 1884 she was
a member of the Executive Committee of the Prohibition party.
In 1890 she was elected president of the Woman's National
Council, which represented nearly all of the women's societies in
America. She was one of the founders of Our Union, a New
York publication in the interests of the National Woman's
Christian Temperance Union, and of the Signal (after 1882 the
Union Signal), which she edited in 1892-1898 and which was
the Illinois organ of the union. She died in New York City
on the 1 8th of February 1898.
With Mary A. Livermore she edited A Woman of the Century
(Buffalo, N.Y., 1893), which includes a sketch of her life; and she
published Nineteen Beautiful Years (1864), a life of her sister; How
to Win: A Book for Girls (1886), Glimpses of Fifty Years (1889),
and, in collaboration with H. M. Winslow, Mrs S. J. White and others,
Occupations for Women (1897). See A. A. Gordon, The Beautiful Life
of Frances E. Willard (Chicago, 1898), with an introduction by Lady
Henry Somerset, and W. M. Thayer, Women Who Win (New York,
1896).
1 The law of Holland will be found set out in the case. It is in
general accordance with that of France.
WILLEMITE, a mineral consisting of zinc orthosilicate,
Zn 2 SiO 4 , crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemihedral class
of the rhombohedral system. Crystals have the form of hexa-
gonal prisms terminated by rhombohedral planes: there are
distinct cleavages parallel to the prism-faces and to the base.
Granular and cleavage masses are of more common occurrence.
The colour varies considerably, being colourless, white, greenish-
yellow, apple-green, flesh-red, &c. The hardness is 5^, and the
specific gravity 3-9-4-2. A variety containing much manganese
replacing zinc is called " troostite." Willemite occurs at Sterling
Hill, Sussex county, and Franklin Furnace in New Jersey,
where it is associated with other zinc ores (franklinite and
zincite) in crystalline limestone. It has been found at only
a few other localities, one of which is near Liege, and for this
reason the mineral was named after William I. of the Nether-
lands. Under the influence of radium radiations, willemite
fluoresces with a brilliant green colour. (L. J. S.)
WILLEMS, FLORENT JOSEPH MARIE (1823-1905), Belgian
painter, was born at Liege on the 8th of January 1823. He had
no regular tuition in painting, but learnt by copying and restoring
old pictures at Malines, where he lived from 1832. He made
his debut at the Brussels Salon in 1842 with a " Music Party "
and an "Interior of a 17th-century Guard-room" in the style
of Terburg and Metsu. Soon afterwards he settled in Paris,
where his pictures enjoyed considerable popularity under the
second empire. Among his most famous works may be men-
tioned " The Wedding Dress " (Brussels Gallery), " La Fete des
grands-parents" (Brussels Gallery), " Le Baise-main " (Mme.
Garden's collection, Brussels), " Farewell " (Willems coll.,
Brussels), " The Arches of the Peace " (Delahaye coll., Antwerp)
and " The Widow " (engraved by Desvachez). He died at
Neuilly-sur-Seine on the 23rd of October 1905.
WILLEMS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1793-1846), Flemish writer,
began life in the office of a notary at Anvers. He devoted his
leisure to literature, and in 1810 he gained a prize for poetry
with an ode in celebration of the peace of Tilsit. He hailed with
enthusiasm the constitution of the kingdom of the Netherlands,
and the revival of Flemish literature; and he published a
number of spirited and eloquent writings in support of the
claims of the native tongue of the Netherlands. His political
sympathies were with the Orange party at the revolution of
1830, and these views led him into trouble with the provisional
government. Willems, however, was soon recognized as the
unquestioned leader of the Flemish popular movement, the chief
plank in whose platform he made the complete equality of the
languages in the government and the law courts. He died at
Ghent in 1846.
Among his writings, which were very numerous, the most im-
portant were: Les Sciences et les arts (1816), Aux Beiges (1818);
tude sur les origines et I'histoire des temps primitifs de la mile d'A nrers
(1828); Melanges de litterature et d'histoire (1829); besides several
learned critical editions of old Flemish texts.
WILLESDEN, an urban district in the Harrow parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, lying
immediately outside the boundary of the county of London
(boroughs of Hammersmith and Kensington). Pop. (1881)
2 7i4S3i (rQoi) 114,811. It has increased greatly as a residential
district, mainly of the working classes. There are, moreover,
considerable railway works attached to Willesden Junction,
where the suburban lines of the London & North Western, North
London, and Great Western railways connect with the main line
of the first-named company. Remains of Norman building have
been discovered in the church of St Mary, which is of various
dates, and has been much enlarged in modern times. Several
ancient monuments and brasses are retained. There is a Jewish
cemetery in Willesden Lane. The adjoining residential districts
are Harlesden on the south, Kilburn and Brondesbury on the
east, Cricklewood and Neasden (with the works of the Metro-
politan railway) on the north.
At Domesday the manor of Willesden and Harlesden was held
by the canons of St Paul's. In the I2th century it was formed
into eight distinct manors, seven of which were held by the same
number of prebendaries. A shrine or image of St Mary (Our
WILLETTE WILLIAM I. (ENGLAND)
659
Lady of Willesden) was in the I5th century an object of pilgrim-
age, but by the middle of the century following the ceremonies
had fallen into abuse, and the shrine was suppressed.
WILLETTE, LEON ADOLPHE (1857- ), French painter,
illustrator, caricaturist, and lithographer, was born in Chalons-
sur-Marne. He studied for four years at the Ecole des Beaux-
Arts under Cabanel a training which gave him a unique position
among the graphic humorists of France. Whether comedy or
tragedy, dainty triviality or political satire, his work is instinct
with the profound sincerity of the artist. He set Pierrot upon a
lofty pedestal among the imaginary heroes of France, and
established Mimi Pinson, frail, lovable, and essentially good-
hearted, in the affections of the nation. WilleMe is at once the
modern Watteau of the pencil, and the exponent of sentiments
that move the more emotional section of the public. Always a
poet, and usually gay, fresh, and delicate, in his presentation of
idylls exquisitely dainty and characteristically Gallic, illustrating
the more " charming " side of love, often pure and sometimes
unnecessarily materialistic, Willette frequently reveals himself
bitter and fierce, even ferocious, in his hatreds, being a violent
though at the same time a generous partizan of political ideas,
furiously compassionate with love and pity for the people
whether they be ground down under the heel of political oppres-
sion, or are merely the victims ot unrequited love, suffering all
the pangs of graceful anguish that are born of scornful treatment.
There is charm even in his thrilling apotheosis of the guillotine,
and in the introduction into his caricatures of the figure of Death
itself. The artist was a prolific contributor to the French illus-
trated press under the pseudonyms " Cemoi," " Pierrot,"
" Louison," " Bebe," and " Nox," but more often under his own
name. He illustrated Melandri's Lcs Pierrots and Les Giboulles
d'avril, and has published his own Pauvre Pierrot and other
works, in which he tells his stories in scenes in the manner of
Busch. He decorated several " brasseries artistiques " with
wall-paintings, stained glass, &c., notably Le Chat noir and
La Palette d'or, and he painted^ the highly imaginative ceiling
for La Cigale music hall. His characteristically fantastic " Parce
Domine" was shown in the Franco-British Exhibition in 1908.
A remarkable collection of his works was exhibited in 1888.
His " Valmy " is in the Luxembourg, Paris.
WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger.
Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehdm, Mod.Ger.
Wilhelm; Du. Willem; 0. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume;
from " will," Goth, vilja, and " helm," Goth, hilms, Old Norse
hidlmr, meaning possibly " one who wills to protect" ), a
masculine proper name borne by many European sovereigns
and others, of whom the more important are treated below in the
following order: (i) kings of England and Scotland. (2)
Other sovereigns in the alphabetical order of their states. (3)
Other ruling princes. (4) Prelates, Chroniclers, &c.
WILLIAM I. (1027 or 1028-1087), king of England, surnamed
the Conqueror, was bom in 1027 or 1028. He was the bastard
son of Robert the Devil, duke of Normandy, by Arietta, the
daughter of a tanner at Falaise. In 1034 Robert resolved on a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Having no legitimate son he induced
the Norman barons to acknowledge William as his successor.
They kept their engagement when Robert died on his journey
(1035), though the young duke-elect was a mere boy. But the
next twelve years was a period of the wildest anarchy. Three
of William's guardians were murdered; and for some time
he was kept in strict concealment by his relatives, who feared
that he might experience the same fate. Trained in a hard
school, he showed a precocious aptitude for war and government.
He was but twenty years old when he stamped out, with the help
of his overlord, Henry I. of France, a serious rising in the districts
of the Bessin and Cotentin, the object of which was to put in his
place his kinsman, Guy of Brionne. Accompanied by King Henry,
he met and overthrew the rebels at Val-des-Dunes near Caen
(1047). It was by no means his last encounter with Norman
traitors, but for the moment the victory gave him an assured
position. Next year he joined Henry in attacking their common
enemy, Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou. Geoffrey occupied the
border fortress of Alenfon with the good will of the inhabitants.
But the duke recovered the place after a severe siege, and inflicted
a terrible vengeance on the defenders, who had taunted him with
his base birth ; he also captured the castle of Domf ront from the
Angevins (1049).
In 1051 the duke visited England, and probaWy received from
his kinsman, Edward the Confessor, a promise of the English
succession. Two years later he strengthened the claims which he
had thus established by marrying Matilda, a daughter of Baldwin
V. of Flanders, who traced her descent in the female line from
Alfred the Great. This union took place in defiance of a prohibi-
tion which had been promulgated, in 1049, by the papal council
of Reims. But the affinity of William and Matilda was so remote
that political rather than moral considerations may have deter-
mined the pope's action. The marriage was zealously opposed
by Archbishop Malger of Rouen and Lanfranc, the prior of Bee;
but Lanfranc was persuaded to intercede with the Curia, and
Pope Nicholas II. at length granted the needful dispensation
(1059). By way of penance William and his wife founded the
abbeys of St Stephen and the Holy Trinity at Caen. The political
difficulties caused by the marriage were more serious. Alarmed
at the close connexion of Normandy with Flanders, Henry I.
renounced the alliance which had long existed between the Capets
and the house of Rollo. He joined forces with Geoffrey Martel
in order to crush the duke, and Normandy was twice invaded by
the allies. In each case William decided the campaign by a signal
victory. The invasion of 1054 was checked by the battle of
Mortemer; in 1058 the French rearguard was cut to pieces at
Varaville on the Dive, in the act of crossing the stream. Between
these two wars William aggrandized his power at the expense
of Anjou by annexing Mayenne. Soon after the campaign of
Varaville both Henry I. and Geoffrey Martel were removed from
his path by death (1060). He at once recovered Maine from the
Angevins, nominally in the interest of Herbert II., the lawful
count, who became his vassal. In 1062, however, Herbert died
and Maine was formally annexed to Normandy. This acquisition
brought the Norman frontier almost to the Loire and isolated
Brittany, long coveted by the Norman dukes, from the rest of
France.
About 1064 the accidental visit of Harold to the Norman
court added another link to the chain of events by which William's
fortunes were connected with England. Whatever doubt hangs
over the details of the story, it seems clear that the earl made
a promise to support the claims of his host upon the English
succession. This promise he was invited to fulfil in 1066, after
the Confessor's death and his own coronation. Harold's perjury
formed the chief excuse for the Norman Conquest of England,
which in reality was a piratical venture resembling that of the
sons of Tancred d'Hauteville in Lower Italy. William had some
difficulty in securing the help of his barons. When consulted
in a great council at Lillebonne they returned an unfavourable
reply, and it was necessary to convince them individually by
threats and persuasions. Otherwise the conditions were favour-
able. William secured the benevolent neutrality of the emperor
Henry IV. ; the influence of the archdeacon Hildebrand obtained
for the expedition the solemn approval of Pope Alexander II.
Philip I. of France was a minor under the guardianship of
William's father-in-law, the count of Flanders. With Tostig,
the banished brother of Harold, William formed an alliance
which proved of the utmost service. The duke and his Ncrnians
were enabled, by Tostig's invasion of northern England, to land
unmolested at Pevensey on the 28th of September 1066. On
the 1 4th of October a crushing defeat was inflicted on Harold
at the battle of Senlac or Hastings; and on Christmas Day
William was crowned at Westminster.
Five years more were to elapse before he became master
of the west and north. Early in 1067 he made a progress through
parts of the south, receiving submissions, disposing of the lands
of those who had fought against him, and ordering castles to
be built; he then crossed the Channel to celebrate his triumph
in Normandy. Disturbances at once occurred in Northumbria,
on the Welsh marches and in Kent; and he was compelled to
66o
WILLIAM I. (ENGLAND)
return in December. The year 1068 was spent in military
expeditions against Exeter and York, in both of which the
adherents of Harold had found a welcome. In 1069 Robert of
Comines, a Norman to whom William had given the earldom
of Northumberland, was murdered by the English at Durham;
the north declared for Edgar Atheling, the last male representa-
tive of the West-Saxon dynasty; and Sweyn Estrithson of
Denmark sent a fleet to aid the rebels. Joining forces, the Danes
and English captured York, although it was defended by two
Norman castles. The position seemed critical; but, fortunately
for the king, the south and west gave no effective support to
the rebellion. Marching rapidly on York he drove the Danes
to their ships; and the city was then reduced by a blockade.
The king ravaged the country as far north as Durham with such
completeness that traces of devastation were still to be seen
sixty years later. But the English leaders were treated with
politic clemency, and the Danish leader, Jarl Osbiorn, was
bribed to withdraw his fleet. Early in 1070 the reduction of the
north was completed by a march over the moors to Chester,
which had not hitherto submitted but was now placed under an
earl of William's choice. From this point we hear no more of
general rebellions against the foreign rule. In 1071 a local rising
in the fens caused some trouble. An outlawed Englishman,
Hereward by name, fortified the Isle of Ely and attracted a
number of desperate spirits to his side; amongst others came
Morcar, formerly earl of Northumbria, who had been dis-
appointed in the hopes which he based on William's personal
favour. The king in person undertook the siege of Ely, which
proved unexpectedly difficult. But the failure of the insurgents
was a foregone conclusion.
Of the measures which William took to consolidate his
authority we have many details; but the chronological order
of his proceedings is obscure. The redistribution of land appears
to have proceeded pari passu with the reduction of the country;
and at every stage of the conquest each important follower
received a new reward. Thus were formed the vast but straggling
fiefs which are recorded in Domesday. The great earldoms
of the West-Saxon period were allowed to lapse; the new earls,
for the most part closely connected with William by the ties of
blood or friendship, were lords of single shires; and only on the
marches of the kingdom was the whole of the royal jurisdiction
delegated to such feudatories. William's writs show not only
that he kept intact the old system of governing through the
sheriffs and the courts of shire and hundred, but also that he
found it highly serviceable. Those whom he enfeoffed with
land held it according to the law of Norman feudalism, which
was already becoming precise. They were thus brought into
close personal relations with the king. But he forced the most
powerful of them to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the ancient
local courts; and the old fyrd-system was maintained in order
that the crown might not be wholly dependent on feudal levies.
Though his forest-laws and his heavy taxation caused bitter
complaints, William soon won the respect of his English subjects.
They appear to have accepted him as the lawful heir of the
Confessor; and they regarded him as their natural protector
against feudal oppression. This is to be explained by his regard
for legal forms, by his confirmation of the " laws of Edward "
and by the support which he received from the church. Domes-
day Book shows that in his confiscations he can have paid little
attention to abstract justice. Almost every English landholder
of importance was dispossessed, though only those who had
actually borne arms against William should have been so treated.
As far as possible Englishmen were excluded from all responsible
positions both in church and state. After 1071 our accounts
of William's doings become jejune and disconnected. Much of
his attention must have been engrossed by the work of adminis-
tration, carried on without the help of those elaborate institu-
tions, judicial and financial, which were perfected by Henry I.
and Henry II. William had few ministers of note. William
Fitz Osbern, earl of Hereford, who had been his right-hand man
in Normandy, fell in the civil wars of Flanders (1071). Odo,
bishop of Bayeux, William's half-brother, lost favour and was
finally thrown into prison on a charge of disloyalty (1082).
Another half-brother, Robert of Mortain, earl of Cornwall,
showed little capacity. Of the king's sons Robert, though
titular count of Maine, was kept in leading strings; and even
William Rufus, who was in constant attendance on his father,
never held a public office. The Conqueror reposed much con-
fidence in two prelates, Lanfranc of Canterbury and Geoffrey
of Coutances. They took an active part in the civil no less than
the ecclesiastical government. But the king himself worked
hard in hearing lawsuits, in holding councils and ceremonious
courts, in travelling between England and Normandy, and
finally in conducting military operations.
In 1072 he undertook a campaign against Malcolm, king of
Scots, who had married Margaret, the sister of Edgar Atheling,
and was inclined to promote English rebellions. When William
reached the Forth his adversary submitted, did homage as a
vassal, and consented to expel Edgar Atheling, who was subse-
quently endowed with an English estate and admitted to
William's favour. From Scotland the king turned to Maine,
which had profited by the troubles of 1069 to expel the Norman
garrisons. Since then the Manceaux had fallen out among
themselves. The barons supported Azo of Liguria, the lawful
successor of Herbert II.; the citizens of Le Mans set up a
commune, expelled Azo's representatives and made war on the
barons. William had therefore no difficulty in reducing the
country, even though Le Mans was assisted by Fulk of Anjou
(1073). In 1075 t ne king's attention was claimed by a conspiracy
of the earls of Hereford and Norfolk, in which the Englishman
Waltheof, earl of Northampton, was implicated to some degree.
The rebels were defeated by Lanfranc in the king's absence;
but William returned to settle the difficult question of their
punishment, and to stamp out the last sparks of disaffection.
The execution of Waltheof, though strictly in accordance with
the English law of treason, was a measure which he sanctioned
after long hesitation, and probably from considerations of
expediency rather than justice. This severity to a man who
was generally thought innocent, is one of the dark stains on his
career. In 1076 he invaded Brittany to get possession of the
fugitive earl of Norfolk; but Philip of France came to the aid of
the Bretons, and William gave way before his suzerain. The
next few years were troubled by a quarrel between the king and
his eldest son. Robert fled from Normandy and after aimless
wanderings obtained from King Philip the castle of Gerberoi,
in the Beauvaisis, from which he harassed the Norman marches.
William besieged Gerberoi in 1079, and was wounded in single
combat by his son. A little later they were reconciled; but the
reconciliation was short-lived; to the end of the reign Robert
was a source of trouble. In the years 1083-1085 there was a
second rising in Maine which was not laid to rest until William
had granted liberal terms to the leader, Hubert of Beaumont.
In 1085 news arrived that Cnut the Saint, king of Denmark,
was preparing to assert the claims of his house in England.
The project fell through, but gave occasion for the famous
moot at Salisbury in which William took an oath of direct
allegiance from " all the land-sitting men that were in England "
(1086). While the danger was still impending he took in hand the
compilation of Domesday Book. The necessary inquiries were
ordered at the Christmas Council of 1085, and carried out in
the following year. It is probable that William never saw the
Domesday Book as we possess it, since he left England in the
summer of 1086 and never returned. In 1087 he invaded the
French Vexin to retaliate on the garrison of Mantes for raids
committed on his territory. He sacked and burned the town.
But as he rode out to view the ruins his horse plunged on the
burning cinders and inflicted on him an internal injury. He
was carried in great suffering to Rouen and there died on the
9th of September 1087. He was buried in St Stephen's at Caen.
A plain slab still marks the place of his tomb, before the high
altar; but his bones were scattered by the Huguenots in 1562.
In a profligate age William was distinguished by the purity
of his married life, by temperate habits and by a sincere piety.
His most severe measures were taken in cold blood, as part of
WILLIAM II. (ENGLAND)
661
his general policy; but his natural disposition was averse to
unnecessary bloodshed or cruelty. His one act of wanton
devastation, the clearing of the New Forest, has been grossly
exaggerated. He was avaricious, but his church policy (see
article ENGLISH HISTORY) shows a disinterestedness as rare as
it was honourable. In personal appearance he was tall and
corpulent, of a dignified presence and extremely powerful
physique, with a bald forehead, close-cropped hair and short
moustaches.
By Matilda, who died in Normandy on the 3rd of November
1083, William had four sons, Robert, duke of Normandy,
Richard, who was killed whilst hunting, and the futuie kings,
William II. and Henry I., and five or six daughters, including
Adela, who married Stephen, count of Blois.
Of the original authorities the most important are the Gesla
Willelmi, by William of Poitiers (ed. A. Duchesne in Historiae
Normannorum scripteres, Paris, 1619); the Winchester, Worcester
and Peterborough texts of the A nglo-Saxon Chronicle (ed. B. Thorpe,
" Rolls " series, 2 vols., 1861, and also C. Plummer, 2 vols., Oxford,
1892-1899); William of Malmesbury's De gestis regum (ed. W.
Stubbs, " Rolls" series, 2 vols., 1887-1889); William of Jumieges'
Historia Normannorum (ed. A. Duchesne, op. cit.); Qrdericus
Vitalis' Historia ecclesiastica (ed. A. le PreVost, Soc. de I'hislorie de
France, 5 vols., Paris, 1838-1855). Of modern works the most
elaborate is E. A. Freeman's History of the Norman Conquest, vols.
iii.-v. (Oxford, 1870-1876). Domesday Book was edited in 1783-
1816 by H. Farley and Sir H. Ellis in four volumes. Of commentaries
the following are important : Domesday Studies (ed. P. E. Dove, 2
vols., London, 1888-1891); Feudal England, by J. H. Round
(London, 1895); Domesday Book and Beyond, by F. W. Maitland
(Cambridge, 1897); English Society in the Eleventh Century, by P.
Vinogradoff (Oxford, 1908). See also F. M. Stenton, William the
Conqueror (1908). (H. W. C. D.)
WILLIAM II. (c. 1056-1100), king of England, surnamed
Rufus, was the third son of William I. by his queen Matilda of
Flanders. Rufus was born some years before the conquest
of England, but the exact date is uncertain. He seems to have
been his father's favourite son, and constantly appears in the
Conqueror's company, although like his brothers he was carefully
excluded from any share in the government cither of England
or Normandy. A squabble with Rufus was the immediate cause
of Robert's first rupture with the Conqueror; in the ensuing
civil war we find Rufus bearing arms on the royal side (1077-
1080). On this death-bed the Conqueror was inclined to dis-
inherit his eldest son in favour of Rufus, who, by the early death
of Prince Richard, was now left second in the order of succession.
The king's advisers, however, used their influence to obtain a
partition; Normandy was accordingly bequeathed to Robert,
while Rufus was designated as the son on whom the Conqueror
desired that the kingdom of England should devolve. With
the help of Lanfranc the English were easily induced to accept
this arrangement. Rufus was crowned at Westminster on the
26th of September 1087, fifteen days after the death of his father.
It may be in part the fault of our authorities that the reign
of Rufus presents itself to us as a series of episodes between
which the connexion is often of the slightest. In his domestic
administration we can trace a certain continuity of purpose, and
in his dealings with the Welsh and Scots he proceeded, though
intermittently, along the broad lines of policy which his father
had marked out. Beyond the Channel he busied himself with
schemes, first for the reunion of England and Normandy, then
for the aggrandisement of Normandy at the expense of France.
But his attention was perpetually distracted by the exigencies
of the moment. He threw himself into each particular design
with unreflecting impetuosity, but never completed what had
been well begun. The violence, the irregularity, the shameless-
ness of his private life are faithfully reflected in his public career.
Even in cases where his general purpose could be justified, his
methods of execution were crudely conceived, brutal and short-
sighted. Rufus may well stand as the typical product of early
feudalism. He was not without valour or glimmerings of chivalry,
but perfidious to his equals, oppressive to his subjects, contemptu-
ous of religion; with no sense of his responsibilities, and possessed
by a fixed determination to exact the last farthing of his rights.
The first year of his reign was troubled by a general conspiracy
among the baronage, who took up arms for Robert in the name
of the hereditary principle, but with the secret design of sub-
stituting a weak and indolent for a ruthless and energetic
sovereign. Local risings in Norfolk, Somerset and the Welsh
marches were easily repressed by the king's lieutenants. The
castles of Kent and Sussex offered a more formidable resistance,
since their lords were in direct communication with Robert of
Normandy, and were led by the able Odo of Bayeux (q.v.), the
king's uncle, who had been released from prison at the opening
of the reign. Rufus, however, made an earnest appeal to the
native English, promising good laws, the abolition of unjust
taxes and redress for those who had suffered by the afforcstments
of the late king. These promises, which he never attempted
to fulfil, served the purpose of the moment. Followed by large
contingents of the national militia he successfully laid siege to
the strongholds of the rebels. They were leniently treated, and
the arch-conspirator, Odo of Bayeux, left England under a
safe-conduct to sow fresh seeds of discord in Normandy. But
Rufus resolved to take vengeance on his brother, and two years
later invaded eastern Normandy. Encountering little resistance
for under Robert's rule the duchy had relapsed into a state
of anarchy he might have expelled the duke with no great
trouble. But in 1091 a treaty was hastily patched up. Rufus
retained the eastern marches of the duchy, and also received
certain seaports. In return he undertook to aid Robert in
reducing the rebellious county of Maine, and in recovering the
Cotentin from their younger brother, Henry Beauclerk, to whom
it had been pledged by the impecunious duke. The last part of
the agreement was duly executed. But Rufus then recrossed
the Channel to chastise the Scots who in his absence had raided
the north country. By a march to the Firth of Forth he vindi-
cated English honour; Malcolm III. of Scotland prudently
purchased his withdrawal, by doing homage (Aug. 1091) on the
same terms which William I. had imposed in 1072. Next year
Rufus broke the treaty by seizing the stronghold of Carlisle
and the other lands held or claimed by Malcolm in Cumberland
and Westmorland. Malcolm in vain demanded satisfaction;
while attempting reprisals on Northumberland he was slain in
an obscure skirmish (1093). Rufus immediately put forward a
candidate for the vacant throne; and this policy, though at
first unsuccessful, finally resulted in the accession of Edgar
(1097), a son of Malcolm, who had acknowledged the English
overlordship. Carlisle remained an English possession; in the
next reign Cumberland and Westmorland appear as shires in
the accounts of the Exchequer. The Scottish policy of Rufus,
though legally unjustifiable, was thus comparatively successful.
In dealing with the Welsh he was less fortunate. Three cam-
paigns which he conducted in North Wales, during 1095 and
1097, yielded no tangible result. The expansion of the Welsh
marches in this reign was due to the enterprise of individual
The affairs of Wales and Scotland did not prevent Rufus
from resuming his designs on Normandy at the first opportunity.
Robert was rash enough to reproach his brother with non-
fulfilment of the terms arranged in 1091; and Rufus seized the
excuse for a second invasion of the duchy (1094). Less prosper-
ous than the first, and interrupted by a baronial conspiracy,
which kept Rufus in England for the whole of 1095, this enter-
prise found an unexpected termination. Robert resolved to
go upon Crusade and, to obtain the necessary funds, gave
Normandy in pledge to his brother (1096). There can be no
doubt that Rufus intended to remain in lasting possession of
this rich security. The interests of Normandy at once became
the first consideration of his policy. In 1098-1099 he recovered
Maine at the cost of a vast expenditure on mercenaries, and
commenced operations for the recovery of the Vexin. Early in
uoo he accepted a proposal, made by William IX. of Aquitaine.
that he should take over that duchy on terms similar to those
arranged in the case of Normandy. Contemporaries were
startled at the rapid progress of the king's ambitions, and saw
the direct interposition of heaven in the fate which cut them
short. On the 2nd of August uoo Rufus fell, in the New
662
WILLIAM III. (ENGLAND)
Forest, the victim of an arrow from an unknown hand. The
common story names Walter Tirel, who was certainly close at
hand and fled the country without venturing to abide the issue
of a trial. But a certain Ralph of Aix is also accused; and
Tirel, from a safe distance, solemnly protested his innocence.
It remains to notice the main features of the domestic ad-
ministration which made the names of William and his minister,
Ralph Flambard, infamous. Respecting the grievances of the
laity we have few specific details. But we are told that the
" moots " all over England were " driven " in the interests of
the king; which perhaps means that aids were extorted from
the shire-courts. We also learn that the forest-laws were
rigorously administered; that the king revived, for certain
offences, the death-penalty which his father had abolished;
that all men were vexed by unjust gelds and the feudal classes
by unscrupulous misinterpretations of the customs relating to
the incidents of wardship, marriage and relief. On one occasion
the militia were summoned in considerable numbers for a Norman
expedition, which was no part of their duty; but when they
arrived at the sea-coast they were bidden to hand over their
journey money and go home. The incident is not uninstructive
as a side-light on the king's finance. As to the oppression of
the church we are more fully informed; after allowing for
exaggeration there still remains evidence enough to prove that
the ecclesiastkal policy of Rufus was unscrupulously venal.
Vacant sees and abbacies were either kept for years in the hands
of the king, who claimed the right of a feudal guardian to
appropriate the revenues so long as the vacancy continued;
or they were openly sold to the highest bidder. The history of
Anselm's relations with the king is fully narrated by the bio-
grapher Eadmer. Anselm received the see of Canterbury in
1093, after it had been in the king's hands for upwards of
four years. William made the appointment in a moment of
repentance, when sick and at death's door. But he resented
Anselm's demand for full restitution of the temporalities and
his refusal to make any payment, in the nature of an aid or
relief, which might be construed as simoniacal. Other grounds
of quarrel were found in the reproofs which the primate aimed
at the vices of the court, and in his requests for leave to hold a
church-council and initiate reforms. Finally, in 1095, Anselm
exasperated the king by insisting on his right to recognize
Urban II. as the lawful pope. By the " customs " of the Con-
queror it had been the rule that no pope should be recognized
in England without the king's permission; and Rufus was
unwilling that the English Church should be committed to
either party in the papal schism which had already lasted
fifteen years. Anselm, on the other hand, asserted that he had
accepted the primacy on the distinct condition that he should
be allowed to acknowledge Urban. The dispute came before a
great council which was held at Rockingham (Feb. 25, 1095).
The king demanded that the assembly should adjudge Anselm
guilty of contumacy, and was supported by the bishops. The
lay barons, however, showed their ill-will towards the king's
general policy by taking Anselm's part. Rufus was forced to
give way. He recognized Urban, but entered upon intrigues
at Rome to procure the suspension of the archbishop. Finding
that Urban would not betray a loyal supporter, the king fell
back upon his authority as a feudal suzerain. He taxed Anselm
with having failed to provide a satisfactory quota of knights
for the Welsh war (1097). The archbishop, seeing that he was
never to be left in peace, and despairing of an opportunity to
effect the reforms on which his heart was set, demanded urgently
that he should be allowed to leave England for the purpose
of visiting Urban. Both the king and the baronS suspected
that this was the first step towards an appeal to the pope's
jurisdiction against that of the royal court. Leave was at first
refused; but ultimately, as Anselm continued to press his
demand, he was suffered to depart, not without experiencing
some petty insults on his way (Oct. 1097). The motive of the
king's apparent clemency was soon revealed. He seized the
estates of the archbishopric, and kept them in his own hands
for the future. The friends of the archbishop were thus justified
in their assertion that the zeal of Rufus for his father's
" customs " was a mere cloak for avarice and tyranny.
In appearance William II. was unattractive; bull-necked,
with sloping shoulders, extremely corpulent and awkward in
his gait. His long locks and clean-shaven face marked his
predilection for the new-fangled fashions which contemporary
ecclesiastics were never weary of denouncing. His features were
strongly marked and coarse, his eyes grey and deeply set; he
owed his nickname to the fiery hue of his complexion. He
stuttered violently and in moments of passion was almost
inarticulate. His familiar conversation was witty and blas-
phemous. He was surrounded by a circle of vicious parasites,
and no semblance of decorum was maintained in his household.
His character was assailed by the darkest rumours which he
never attempted to confute. He died unmarried and without
issue.
The main authorities for the reign are the Peterborough Chronicle
(ed. C. Plummer, 2 vols., Oxford, 1892-1899); Eadmer's Vita
Anselmi and Historia Novorum (ed. M. Rule, " Rolls " series, 1884);
William of Malmesbury's De gestis regum (ed. W. Stubbs, " Rolls "
series, 2 vols., 18871889); Orderic Vitalis' Historia ecclesiastica
(ed. A. le Preyost, 5 vols., Paris, 1838-1855). Of modern works the
most exhaustive is E. A. Freeman's Reign of William Rufus (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1882). See also J. H. Round s Feudal England (London,
1895). (H. W. C. D.)
WILLIAM III. (1650-1702), king of England and prince of
Orange, was the only son of William II., prince of Orange,
stadtholder of the Dutch republic, and Mary, daughter of
Charles I. of England, and was born at the Hague on the 4th of
November 1650, eight days after his father's death. His father
had attempted a coup d'etat, which had failed, with the result
that on his death the office of stadtholder was abolished. Power
passed into the hands of John de Witt, who represented the
oligarchic element and the special interests of one province,
Holland, and was taken from the Orange party which repre-
sented the more democratic element and the more general
interests of the Seven Provinces. William inherited the baleful
lustre, without the substantial power, which his ancestors had
given to the name of Orange. He grew up among enemies, and
became artful, suspicious and self-controlled, concealing his
feeling behind the mask of an immobile, almost repulsive, cold-
ness. Like Charles XII. of Sweden and the younger Pitt, he
was a wonderful example of premature mental development.
In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly invaded Dutch territory. The
startling successes of the French produced a revolution among
the Dutch people, who naturally turned for help to the scion
of the house of Orange. On the 8th of July 1672 the states
general revived the stadtholderate, and declared William stadt-
holder, captain-general and admiral for life. This revolution
was followed by a riot, in which John de Witt and his brother
Cornelius were murdered by the mob at the Hague. Evidence
may be sought in vain to connect William with the outrage,
but since he lavishly rewarded its leaders and promoters this
circumstance is not very much to his credit. The cold cynicism
with which he acted towards de Witt is only matched by the
heroic obstinacy with which he confronted Louis. Resolved as
he said " to die in the last ditch," he rejected all thought of sur-
render and appealed to the last resource of Dutch patriotism
by opening the sluices and laying vast tracts under water. The
French army could not advance, while the French and English
fleets were defeated by the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter. William
summoned Brandenburg to his aid (1672) and made treaties
with Austria and Spain (1673). In August 1674 he fought his
first great battle at Seneffe, where, though the struggle was not
unequal, the honours lay with Conde. The French evacuated
Dutch territory early in 1674, but continued to hold places on
the Rhine and in Flanders. In April 1677 William was badly
beaten at St Omer, but balanced his military defeat by France
by a diplomatic victory over England. In November 1677 he
married Mary, eldest daughter of James, duke of York, after-
wards King James II., and undertook negotiations with England
in the following year which forced Louis to make terms and
sign the treaty of Nijmwegen in August 1678, which gave
WILLIAM III. (ENGLAND)
663
Franche Comte and other places in Spanish Flanders to France.
For some reason never yet made clear, but perhaps in order to
produce a modification of terms which threatened the balance
of power, William attacked the French army at Mons four days
after the signature of peace. Luxembourg defeated him after
a sanguinary and resultless struggle, and William gained nothing
by his inexplicable action.
After the war Louis continued a course of aggression, absorb-
ing frontier-towns in imperial or Spanish territory. William
started a new coalition against him in October 1681 by making
a treaty with Sweden, and subsequently with the empire, Spain
and several German princes. After absorbing Strassburg (1681),
Louis invaded Spanish Flanders and took Luxemburg (1684).
Even then the new league would not fight and allowed Louis
to retain his conquests by the truce of Regensburg (1685), but
none the less these humiliations gave rise to a more closely-
knit and aggressive coalition, which was organized in 1686 and
known as the League of Augsburg.
From 1677 onwards William had carefully watched the
politics of England. On the accession of James II. in 1685 he
forced the duke of Monmouth to leave Holland, and sought to
dissuade him from his ill-starred expedition to England. He
apparently tried to conciliate his father-in-law in the hope of
bringing him into the League of Augsburg. At the same time
he astutely avoided offending the party in England which was
opposed to James. By November 1687 he had decided that
it was hopeless to expect that James would join the league
against Louis, and he therefore turned for support to the English
opposition. He caused his chief minister Fagel to write a letter
expressing his disapprobation of the religious policy of James,
which was published in November 1687. This announcement
of his views was received with wild enthusiasm by the English
who saw in him the friend of their liberties and their Church.
But he knew too much of the English to suppose they would
tolerate an armed invasion, and he accordingly made it clear
that he would not undertake active interference unless he
received a definite invitation from leading Englishmen. On
the 3Oth of June 1688 Admiral Herbert, disguised as a blue-
jacket, set out from England with a letter from seven influential
Englishmen, asking William to " bring over an army and secure
the infringed liberties " of England.
William set out from Holland with an army on the 2nd of
November and landed at Torbay (Nov. sth 1688). After a few
days of hesitation, many influential noblemen declared for him
in different parts of the country. James, who had at first joined
his army at Salisbury, fell back to London and tried to negotiate.
While his commissioners were amusing William, James sent off
his wife and son to France, and tried to follow them. He was
stopped in his flight by some fishermen at Faversham, and was
forced to return to London. William insisted that he should be
sent to Rochester, and there allowed him to escape to France.
After this final flight of James, William, on the advice of an
assembly of notables, summoned a convention parliament on
the 22nd of January 1689. After a great deal of discussion,
William was at length proclaimed joint-sovereign of England
in conjunction with his wife, Mary (Feb. I3th 1689).
A constitutional settlement was effected by the end of 1689,
almost all the disputed points between king and parliament
being settled in favour of the latter. Though William by no
means appreciated this confinement of his prerogative, he was
too wise to oppose it. His own initiative is mors clearly trace-
able in the Toleration Act, extending liberty of private worship
to Dissenters. He also succeeded in passing an Act of Grace
and Indemnity in 1690, by which he calmed the violence of
party passion. But in general his domestic policy was not very
fortunate, and he can hardly claim any personal credit for the
reassessment of the land-tax (1692), the creation of the national
debt or the recoinage act (1693-1695). Further, he threatened
the existence of the Bank of England, by lending his support
to a counter-institution, the Land Bank, which ignominiously
collapsed. Though he was not blind to the commercial interests
of England, he was neglectful of the administration and affairs
of her oversea colonies. But though he was unable to extract
the best results from parliament he was always able to avert
its worst excesses. In spite of strong personal opinions to the
contrary, he accepted the Triennial Act (1694), the vote reducing
the army to 10,000 men (1697). the vote disbanding his favourite
Dutch Guards (1699) and even (November 1699) a bill re-
scinding the grants of forfeited Irish estates, which he had made
to his favourites. The main cause of the humiliations William
suffered from parliament lay in his incapacity to understand the
party or cabinet system. In his view the best way to govern
was to have both parties represented in the ministry, so that,
as Whig and Tory fell out, the king came by his own. A study
of his reign shows that this method was unsuccessful, and that
his affairs went most smoothly when the parliamentary majority
held the same views as the ministry. It is not often remembered
that William possessed an experience of the workings of repre-
sentative government in Holland, which was remarkably
similar to that in England. Hence his mistakes though easy
to understand are by no means so pardonable as were, for
example, those of the Georges, who had been absolute monarchs
in their own country. William's unpopularity with his new
people was, on the whole, unjustified, but his memory is rightly
darkened by the stain of the " Massacre of Glencoe." In 1692
he signed an order for the " extirpation " of the Macdonalds,
a small clan in the vale of Glencoe. It is improbable that he
meant his order to be literally executed, it is not certain that
he knew they had taken the oath of allegiance to him. None
the less, when the massacre was carried out with circumstances
of revolting barbarity, William behaved as he had done after
the murder of De Witt. Popular pressure forced him to bring
the murderers to justice, to punish them and dismiss them his
service. But shortly afterwards they were all received into favour;
" pne became a colonel, another a knight, a third a peer."
These and other actions indicate that William could show
on occasion a cold and cynical ruthlessness. But while admit-
ting that his means were sometimes unprincipled, it must be
recollected that his real ends were high and noble. While he
sometimes disregarded the wishes of others, no one was more
ready to sacrifice his own feelings for the attainment of the
master aim of his life, the restoration of the " Balance of Power,"
by the overthrow of the predominance of France. This was
the real aim of William in going to England in 1688, He had
set off to secure an ally against Louis, and he came back from
his expedition with a crown on his head and a new nation at
his back, united in its detestation of popery and of France.
As king of England he concluded treaties of alliance with
the members of the League of Augsburg and sent a large army
to oppose the French in Flanders. But his greatest immediate
peril during 1689-1690 came from the circumstance that the
French disputed the mastery of the seas with the Anglo-Dutch
fleet, and that Ireland was strongly for King James. On the ist
of July 1690 the allies were badly beaten at sea off Beachy Head,
but on the same day William himself won a decisive victory over
James's army at the Boyne in Ireland. Dublin and Drogheda
soon fell and James fled from Ireland. The chances of continued
resistance in Ireland, which depended on communication with
France, were finally destroyed by the great victory off Cape La
Hogue (May igth, 1692). Ireland was speedily conquered when
once the supremacy of England on the sea became assured. Now
the French fleet was definitely destroyed, and though a destruc-
tive privateering warfare continued, England was no longer in
danger of invasion.
The decisive successes for the Alliance were gained by its naval
victories, whose importance William somewhat underrated and
for whose execution he had only an indirect responsibility. In
1692 he lost Namur and was badly defeated at Steinkirk (August
4th), and in 1693 he was disastrously beaten at Neerwinden or
Landen (July igth). In 1695 he was able to resume the offensive
and to retake Namur in a brilliant and, what was more unusual,
a successful campaign. William had assumed the duties of
commander-in-chief too young to learn the full duties of a pro-
fessional soldier himself, and his imperious will did not suffer
66 4
WILLIAM IV. (ENGLAND)
others to direct him. Hence though often fertile in resource
and ingenious in plan, he was always a brilliant amateur; and,
though sometimes unlucky, he was never really the equal of such
generals as Conde or Luxembourg.
In diplomacy William was as uniformly successful as in
war he was the reverse. His unity of aim and constancy of
purpose make him one of the greatest of modem diplomatists.
He held together his ill-assorted coalition, and finally concluded
peace at Ryswick in September 1697. Louis restored all his
acquisitions since 1678, except Strassburg, and recognized William
as king of England. During the subsequent years William tried
to arrange a partition treaty with France, by which the domains
of the childless Charles II. of Spain were to be divided at his
death. But on the death of Charles in 1700 the whole heritage
was left to France. . William endeavoured to oppose this, and
used Louis's recognition of James Edward the " Old Pretender "
as king of England (September 1701) to set the English people
in a flame. War was already declared in 1702, but William,
who had long been ailing, died from the combined effects of a fall
from his horse and a chill on the 8th of March 1702. It was
truly tragic that his doom should have come at the moment when
he had once more drawn together a great alliance in Europe,
and when he possessed a popularity in England such as he had
never before enjoyed.
In viewing William's character as a whole one is struck by its
entire absence of ostentation, a circumstance which reveals his
mind and polity more clearly than would otherwise be the case.
No one can doubt his real belief in religion in spite of many
moral failings or weaknesses. He was an unfaithful husband
and often treated his wife with scant consideration; he was
too fond of Dutch favourites like Keppel or worthless women
like Lady Orkney. When it suited his interests he sanctioned the
systematic corruption of members of parliament, and he con-
doned massacres like those at the Hague or in Glencoe. On the
other hand he did not hesitate to inflict considerable injury on his
own people, the Dutch, by the terms of the treaty with England
(1689), when it became clear that only in this way could England's
co-operation be secured. The Dutch criticism on him has been
that he might have done more to reform the clumsiness of their
constitutional procedure, and thus given them some return for
the crippling expenses of the war. English criticism avers that
he ought to have recognized more fully the system of party
government, and to have done more to promote our colonial
and commercial development. Military historians point out
that he sometimes sacrificed great advantages to impetuosity;
naval experts that he sometimes threw away great opportunities
by indifference. Some of these criticisms are rather beside the
mark, but were all true, they would not impair his essential
greatness, which lay in another sphere. The best proof of his
real powers of statesmanship is that the peace of Utrecht was
subsequently made on the broad lines which he had laid down
as the only security for European peace nearly a dozen years
before its conclusion. While he lacked in diplomacy the arts of
a Louis XIV. or the graces of a Marlborough, he grasped the
central problems of his time with more clearness, or advanced
solutions with more ultimate success, than any other statesman
of his age. Often baffled, but never despairing, William fought
on to the end, and the ideas and the spirit of his policy continued
to triumph long after the death of their author.
ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES. Gilbert Burnd, History of my Own Time,
ed. O. Airy (London, 1897) ; William Carstares (The King's Secretary)
Papers, edited by J. McCormick (London, 1774); Queen Mary,
Letters with Those of James II. and William III., ed. R. Doebner
(Leipzig, 1886); Lettres et memoires, edited by Countess Bentinct
(London, 1880); duke of Portland, Hist. MSS. Comm. Report, xv.
App. pt. iv. (London, 1897) ; Shrewsbury Correspondence, ed. W. Coxe
(London, 1821); Shrewsbury MSS. Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep. xv.
vol. ii. pts. i. and ii. (London, 1903) ; Letters, ed. P. Grimblot (2 vols.,
London, 1848).
MODERN WORKS (see also under JAMES II.). Dr Paul Haake,
Brandenburgische Politik in 1688-1680 (Kassel, 1896); Marquis of
Halifax, Life, H. C. Foxcroft (2 vols., London, 1898); Macaulay,
History, vols. i.-vi.; Essays, vols. i.-iii. (London, 1898); Baroness
Nyevelt, Court Life in the Dutch Republic (London, 1906); F. A. J.
Mazure, Histoire de la revolution de 1688 (3 vols., Paris, 1848).
WILLIAM IV. (1765-1837), king of England, third son of
George III., was born at Buckingham Palace on the 2ist of
August 1765. In 1779 he was sent to sea and became a midship-
man under Admiral Digby. Next year he sailed under Rodney
and took part in the action off Cape St Vincent (i6th of January
1780). During the rest of the war the young prince saw plenty
of service, for which he imbibed a strong liking, and so laid the
foundation of his popularity. On the conclusion of the war he
travelled in Germany, visiting Hanover and Berlin, where he
was entertained by Frederick the Great. In 1785 he passed for
lieutenant; next year he was made captain and -stationed in the
West Indies. Shortly after 1787, being tired of his station, he
sailed home without orders, and was punished for his insub-
ordination by being obliged to stay at Plymouth till his ship was
refitted, when he again sailed for the West Indies.
In 1789 he was made duke of Clarence. When war was
declared against the French republic in 1793, he strongly sup-
ported it and was anxious for active employment; but, though
he was made rear-admiral of the red, he could obtain no com-
mand. Thus condemned to inactivity, he amused or revenged
himself by joining the prince of Wales and the duke of York
in their opposition to the king. He threw himself into the dissi-
pations of society, and his hearty geniality and bluff, sailor-like
manners gained him popularity, though they did not secure him
respect. He took his seat in the House of Lords, where he
defended the extravagancies of the prince of Wales, spoke on
the Divorce Bill, vehemently opposed the emancipation of slaves
and defended slavery on the ground of his experience in the West
Indies. Meanwhile he formed a connexion with Mrs Jordan,
the actress, with whom he lived on terms of mutual affection
and fidelity for nearly twenty years, and the union was only
broken off eventually for political reasons. During all this
period the prince had lived in compaiative obscurity. The death
of Princess Charlotte in 1817 brought him forward as in the line
of succession to the crown. In 1818 he married Adelaide of Saxe-
Meiningen, a lady half his age, without special attractions, but
of a strone, self-willed nature, which enabled her subsequently
to obtain great influence over her husband. On the death of the
duke of York in 1827 the duke of Clarence became heir to the
throne, and in the same year he was appointed lord high admiral.
In discharging the functions of that office he endeavoured to
assume independent control of naval affairs, although his patent
precluded him from acting without the advice of two members
of his council. This involved him in a quarrel with Sir George
Cockbuin, in which he had to give way. As he still continued
to act in defiance of rules, the king was at length obliged to call
upon him to resign.
On the 28th of June 1830 the death of George IV. placed him
on the throne. During the first two years of his reign England
underwent an agitation more violent than any from which it
had suffered since 1688. William IV. was well-meaning and
conscientious; but his timidity and irresolution drove ministers
to despair, while his anxiety to avoid extremes and his want of
insight into affairs prolonged a dangerous crisis and brought the
country to the verge of revolution. Immediately after his acces-
sion the revolution of July broke out in France and gave a great
impulse to the reform movement in England. The king, though
he called himself an " old Whig," did not dismiss the Tory
ministry which had governed the country during the last two
years of his brother's reign; but the elections for the new
parliament placed them in a minority. Within a fortnight of the
opening of parliament they were beaten on a motion for the
reform of the civil list, and resigned. Lord Grey undertook to
form a ministry, with the avowed intention of bringing in a
large measure of reform. This was not in itself displeasing to the
king, who had liberal tendencies, and a few years before had
supported Catholic emancipation. But, when the struggle in
parliament began, his disinclination to take up a decided attitude
soon exposed the government to difficulties. The first Reform
Bill was introduced on the ist of March 1831; the second
reading was carried on the 2ist of March by a majority of one.
Shortly afterwards the government were beaten in committee.
WILLIAM (SCOTLAND) WILLIAM I. (GERMANY) 665
and offered to resign. The king declined to accept their resigna-
tion, but at the same time was unwilling to dissolve, although it
was obvious that in the existing parliament a ministry pledged
to reform could not retain office. From this dilemma William
was rescued by the conduct of the opposition, which, anxious
to bring on a change of ministry, moved an address against
dissolution. Regarding this as an attack on his prerogative,
William at once dissolved parliament (April 1831). The elections
gave the ministry an overwhelming majority. The second
Reform Bill was brought in in June, and passed its third reading
(zist of September) by a majority of 109. A fortnight later
(8th of October) the Lords threw out the bill by a majority of 41.
But after a protracted political crisis (see the article on GREY,
CHARLES GREY, 2nd earl) the king was compelled to consent to
create a sufficient number of new peers to carry the bill, and the
threat was successful in bringing about the passing of the act in
1832.
During the rest of his reign William IV. had not much oppor-
tunity of active political interference, but on one other occasion
he made an unjustifiable use of his prerogative. Two years after
the passing' of the Reform Bill the ministry of Lord Grey had
become unpopular. In July 1834 Lord Grey himself retired and
Lord Melbourne took the lead. There were divergences of
opinion in the cabinet, and the king strongly objected to the
ministerial policy respecting the Irish Church. On the shallow
pretext that Lord Althorp's removal to the Upper House would
weaken the ministry in the House of Commons, where, however,
they still had a majority, he suddenly dismissed them and
summoned Sir Robert Peel (i4th of November). Peel's ministry,
containing many members who had been in the government on
the king's accession, was called from its short duration " the
ministry of the hundred days." Its formation clearly indicated
that the Whig proclivities of the king, which had never been more
than partial or lukewarm, had wholly disappeared. The step
was regarded with general disapprobation. It was immediately
followed by a dissolution, and the ministry soon found themselves
in a minority. Beaten on Lord John Russell's motion respecting
the Irish Church (3rd of April 1835), Peel resigned and Melbourne
again came into power. Under him the Whigs retained the lead
during the remainder of the reign. This coup d'etat of November
1834 was the last occasion on which the English sovereign has
attempted to impose an unpopular ministry on the majority in
parliament.
In May 1837 the king began to show signs of debility.and died
from an affection of the heart on the 2oth of June, leaving behind
him the memory of a genial, frank, warm-hearted man, but a
blundering, though well-intentioned prince. He was succeeded
by his niece Queen Victoria.
AUTHORITIES. Correspondence of Earl Grey with William IV. and
Sir Herbert Taylor (London, 1867); Fitzgerald's Life and Times of
William IV.; Greville's Memoirs; Memoirs of Sir Robert Peel; the
C.-eevey Papers; Civil Correspondence of the Duke of Wellington;
Walpole's History of England; Martineau's History of the Peace.
(G. W. P.)
WILLIAM (1143-1214), king of Scotland, surnamcd "the
Lion," was the second son of Henry, earl of Huntingdon (d. 1152),
a son of King David I., and became king of Scotland on the death
of his brother, Malcolm IV., in December 1165, being crowned
at Scone during the same month. After his accession to the
throne William spent some time at the court of the English
king, Henry II.; then, quarrelling with Henry, he arranged
in 1168 the first definite treaty of alliance between France and
Scotland, and with Louis VII. of France assisted Henry's sons
in their revolt against their father in 1173. In return for this
aid the younger Henry granted to William the earldom of
Northumberland, a possession which the latter had vainly sought
from the English king, and which was possibly the cause of their
first estrangement. However, when ravaging the country near
Alnwick, William was taken prisoner in July 1174, and after a
short captivity at Richmond was carried to Normandy, where he
soon purchased his release by assenting in December 1174 to the
treaty of Falaise. By this arrangement the king and his nobles,
clerical and lay, undertook to do homage to Henry and his son ;
this and other provisions placing both the church and state of
Scotland thoroughly under the suzerainty of England. William's
next quarrel was with Pope Alexander III., and arose out of a
double choice for the vacant bishopric of St Andrews. The king
put forward his chaplain, Hugh ; the pope supported the arch-
deacon, John the Scot, who had been canonically elected. The
usual interchange of threats and defiances followed; then after
the death of Alexander in 1181 his successor, Lucius III., con-
sented to a compromise by which Hugh got the coveted bishopric
and John became bishop of Dunkeld. In 1188 William secured a
papal bull which declared that the Church of Scotland was directly
subject only to the see of Rome, thus rejecting the claims to
supremacy put forward by the English archbishop. This step
was followed by the temporal independence of Scotland, which
was one result of the continual poverty of Richard I. In
December 1189, by the treaty of Canterbury, Richard gave up
all claim to suzerainty over Scotland in return for 10,000 marks,
the treaty of Falaise being thus definitely annulled.
In 1 1 86 at Woodstock William married Ermengarde de
Beaumont, a cousin of Henry II., and peace with England being
assured three years later, he turned his arms against the turbulent
chiefs in the outlying parts of his kingdom. His authority was
recognized in Galloway which, hitherto, had been practically
independent; he put an end to a formidable insurrection in
Moray and Inverness; and a series of campaigns taught the
far north, Caithness and Sutherland, to respect the power of the
crown. The story of William's relations with King John is
interesting, although the details are somewhat obscure. Soon
after John's accession in 1199 the Scottish king asked for the
earldom of Northumberland, which Richard I., like his father,
had refused to restore to Scotland. John, too, refused this de-
mand, but the threatened war did not take place, and in 1200
William did homage to the English king at Lincoln with the
ambiguous phrase " saving his own rights." After a period of
inaction war between the two countries again became imminent
in 1209; but a peace was made at Norham, and about three
years later another amicable arrangement was reached. Both
these treaties seem to have been more favourable to England
than to Scotland, and it is possible that William acknowledged
John as overlord of his kingdom. William died at Stirling on the
4th of December 1214 and was buried at Arbroath. He left one
son, his successor Alexander II., and two daughters, Margaret and
Isabella, who were sent to England after the treaty of 1209,
and who both married English nobles, Margaret becoming the
wife of Hubert de Burgh. He also left some illegitimate children.
William's reign is a very important period in the early history of
Scotland, and may almost be said to mark an epoch in every
department of public life. The relations of England and Scotland
and of Scotland and France; the rise of towns, the development
of trade and the establishment of order in Scotland itself; and
the attitude of the Scottish Church, both to the papal see and to
England, were all vitally affected by the events of this reign.
William founded and richly endowed the abbey at Arbroath,
and many of the Scottish towns owe their origin to his charters.
See E. W. Robertson, Scotland under her Early Kings (Edinburgh,
1862) ; Lord Hailes, Annals of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1819) ; A. Lang,
History of Scotland, vol. i. (1900) ; also SCOTLAND: History.
WILLIAM I. (1797-1888), king of Prussia and German emperor,
was the second son of Frederick William III. of Prussia and
Louise, a princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. He was born at
Berlin on the 22nd of March 1797, and received the names of
Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig. He was a delicate child and had to
be carefully nurtured. His constitution, however, was sound,
and he became one of the most vigorous men in Germany. After
the battle of Jena he spent three years at Konigsberg and Memel.
Meanwhile he had given evidence of sterling honesty, a strict
love of order, and an almost passionate interest in everything
relating to war. On the ist of January 1807 he received an
officer's patent, and on the 3Oth of October 1813 was appointed
a captain. William accompanied his father in the campaign of
1814, and early in the following year received the iron cross for
personal bravery shown at Bar-sur-Aube. He took part in the
666
WILLIAM I. (GERMANY)
entry into Paris on the 3ist of March 1814, and afterwards
visited London. He joined the Prussian army in the final
campaign of the Napoleonic wars, and again entered Paris. The
prince was made a colonel and a member of the permanent
military commission immediately after his twentieth birthday,
and at the age of twenty-one became a major-general. In 1820
he received the command of a division; and during the following
nine years he had not only made himself master of the military
system of his own country but studied closely those of the other
European states. In 1825 he was promoted to the rank of
lieutenant-general, and obtained the command of the corps of
guards. On the i ith of June 1829 he married Augusta, daughter
of Charles Frederick, grand duke of Saxe-Weimar. This lady,
who had imbibed the Liberal tendencies of the court of
Weimar and later developed a keen sympathy with Catholicism,
exercised afterwards as queen and empress a considerable
influence at court, in a sense generally hostile to Bismarck's
views. She died on the yth of January 1890.
On the death of his father in 1840 the new king, Frederick
William IV., being childless Prince William, as heir presumptive
to the throne, received the title of prince of Prussia. He was also
made lieutenant-governor of Pomerania and appointed a general
of infantry. In politics he was decidedly conservative; but at
the outbreak of the revolutionary movement of 1848 he saw that
some concessions to the popular demand for liberal forms of
government were necessary. He urged, however, that order
should be restored before the establishment of a constitutional
system. At this time he was the best-hated man in Germany,
the mass of the Prussian people believing him to be a vehement
supporter of an absolutist and reactionary policy. He was even
held responsible for the blood shed in Berlin on the i8th of March,
and was nicknamed the " Cartridge Prince," although he had
been relieved nine days before of his command of the guards.
So bitter was the feeling against him that the king entreated
him to leave the country for some time, and accordingly he went
to London, where he formed intimate personal relations with
Prince Albert, Sir Robert Peel, Lord John Russell, Lord Palmer-
ston and other English statesmen. On the 8th of June he was
back at Berlin, and on the same day he took his seat as member
for Wirsitz in the Prussian national assembly, and delivered a
speech in which he expressed belief in constitutional principles.
In 1849, when the revolutionary party in the grand-duchy of
Baden became dangerous, he accepted the command of " the
army of operation in Baden and the Palatinate," and his plans
were so judiciously formed and so skilfully executed that in the
course of a few days the rebellion was crushed. At the beginning
of the campaign an unsuccessful attempt was made on his life.
In October 1849 he was appointed military governor of the
Rhineland and Westphalia, and took up his residence at Coblenz.
In 1854 the prince was raised to the rank of a field-marshal and
made governor of the federal fortress of Mainz. When the king
was attacked with a disease of the brain, Prince William assumed
the regency (7th October 1858), and on his brother's death, on
the 2nd of January 1861, succeeded him as William I.
The political events of William's regency and reign are told
elsewhere (see GERMANY: History; PRUSSIA: History). His
personal influence upon these events is, however, of great
importance and deserves separate notice. William was not a
ruler of the intellectual type of Frederick the Great; but he
believed intensely in the " God of battles " and in his own divine
right as the vicegerent of God so conceived. He believed also
in the ultimate union of Germany and in the destiny of Prussia
as its instrument; and he held that whoever aspired to rule
Germany must seize it for himself (Letter to von Natzmer of the
2oth of May 1849, in Natzmer's Unter den Hohenzollern). But
an attitude so wholly alien to the Liberal temper of contemporary
Germany was tempered by shrewd common sense, and, above
all, by a capacity to choose his advisers well and listen to their
advice. Thus it came about that the regent, whose reactionary
views were feared, called the Liberals into office on Bismarck's
advice, though later he did not hesitate to override the constitu-
tion when the refusal of the supplies for the new armaments
made this course necessary. From September 1862, when
Bismarck took office as minister president, William's personality
tends to be obscured by that of his masterful servant, who
remained beside him till his death. But Bismarck's Reminis-
cences contain plentiful proof that his master was by no means a
cipher. His prejudices, indeed, were apt to run athwart the
minister's plans; as in the Schleswig-Holstein question, when
the king's conscience in the matter of the claims of the Augusten-
burg prince threatened to wreck Bismarck's combinations.
But, as Bismarck put it, the annexation of the duchies gave him
" a taste for conquest," and in the campaign of 1866 the difficulty
was to restrain the king, who wished to enter Vienna in triumph.
Whatever may have been the feelings of the Prussians before
the war, its striking success fully justified the king's policy,
and on his return to Berlin he was received with unbounded
enthusiasm.
In the events immediately preceding the Franco-German War
of 1870-71 again it was Bismarck and not the king that gave
the determining impulse. In the matter of the Hohenzollern
candidature King William's attitude was strictly " correct."
He was justified in refusing to discuss further with Benedetti
the question of " guarantees," a matter which touched his honour;
and if the refusal, courteously framed, was read in Paris as an
insult, this was due to Bismarck's " editing " of the Ems telegram
(see BISMARCK). The result of the outcry in France and of the
French declaration of war was that all Germany rallied round the
king of Prussia, and when, on the 3ist of July, he quitted Berlin
to join his army, he knew that he had the support of a unked
nation. He crossed the French frontier on the nth of August,
and personally commanded at the battles of Gravelotte and
Sedan. It was during the siege of Paris, at his headquarters in
Versailles, that he was proclaimed German emperor on the i8th
of January 1871. On the 3rd of March 1871 he signed the pre-
liminaries of peace which had been accepted by the French
Assembly; and on the 2ist of March he opened the first imperial
parliament of Germany. On the i6th of June he triumphantly
entered Berlin at the head of his troops.
After that period the emperor left the destinies of Germany
almost entirely in the hands of Bismarck, who held the office of
imperial chancellor. In his personal history the most notable
events were two attempts upon his life in 1878 one by a working
lad called Hodel, another by an educated man, Karl Nobiling.
On the first occasion the emperor escaped without injury, but
on the second he was seriously wounded. These attacks grew
out of the Socialist agitation; and a new Reichstag, elected for
the purpose, passed a severe anti-Socialist law, which was after-
wards from time to time renewed. Until within a few days of
his death the emperor's health was remarkably robust; he died
at Berlin on the oth of March 1888.
- The reign of William I. marked an era of vast importance in the
history of Germany. In his time Prussia became the first power
in Germany and Germany the first power in Europe, though these
momentous changes were due in a less degree to him than to
Bismarck and Moltke; but to him belongs the credit of having
recognized the genius of these men, and of having trusted them
absolutely. Personally William maintained the best traditions of the
Hohenzollerns, not only by the splendour of the achievements with
which his name will always be intimately associated, but by the
simplicity, manliness and uprightness of his daily life. By his
marriage with Augusta of Saxe-Weimar William I. had two children :
the crown prince Frederick William (b. 1831), who succeeded him as
Frederick III. (q.v.), and the princess Louise (b. 1838), married in
1856 to the grand-duke of Baden.
William I.'s military writings were published in 2 vols. at Berlin
in 1897. Of his letters and speeches several collections have ap-
peared: Politische Korrespondenz Kaiser Wilhelms I. (1890); Kaiser
Wilhelms des Grossen Briefe, Reden und Schriften (2 vols., 1905), and
his correspondence with Bismarck (ed. Penzler, Leipzig, rgoo). A
large number of biographies have appeared in German, of which
may be mentioned L. Schneider's Aus dem Leben Kaiser Wilhelms
(3 vols., Berlin, 1888; Fr. translation, 1888); v. Bernhardi, Die
ersten Regierungsjahre K. Wilhelms, Tagebuchbldtter (Leipzig, rSgs);
Oncken, Das Zeitalter Kaiser Wilhelms (2 vols., Berlin, 1890-1892);
F. Delbruck, Die Jugend des Konigs Friedrich Wilhelm IV. von
Preussen und des Kaisers u. Konigs Wilhelm I., TagebuMldtler
(Berlin, 1907) ; Blume, Kaiser Wilhelm und . . . Roon als Bildner
des preussisch-deutschen Heeres (Berlin, 1906) ; E. Marcks, Kaiser
WILLIAM II. (GERMANY)
667
\Vilhclm I. (Leipzig, 1897; 5th ed. 1905). In English have appeared
William of Germany, by Archibald Forbes (1888), a translation of
Edouard Simon's The Emperor William and his Reign (2 vols., 1886).
ilso Sybel's Founding of the German Empire (Eng. trans.. New
York, 1890-1891).
WILLIAM II. [FRJEDRICH WILHELM VICTOR ALBERT]
(1859- ), king of Prussia and German emperor, was born
on the 27th of January 1859 at Berlin, being the eldest child
of Prince Frederick of Prussia, afterwards crown prince and
second German emperor, and of Victoria, princess royal of Great
Britain and Ireland. On his tenth birthday he was appointed
second lieutenant in the First Regiment of the Guards. From
S ptcmber 1874 to January 1877 he attended the gymnasium
at Casscl; he studied for two years at Bonn, and was then for
some time chiefly occupied with his military duties. In 1885
he was appointed colonel of the Hussars of the Guard. He was
much influenced by the military atmosphere in which his life
\vas spent, and was more in sympathy with the strongly mon-
archical feelings of the emperor William and Bismarck than
with the more liberal views of his own parents, but until the
illness of his father in 1887 he took no part in political life. The
death of his grandfather was quickly followed by that of his
father, and on the I5th of June he became ninth king of Prussia
and third German emperor. The chief events of his reign up
to 1910 are narrated under GERMANY: History, but here it is
necessary to dwell rather on the personality of the emperor
himself. His first act was an address to the army and navy,
while that to his people followed after three days. Throughout
his reign, indeed, he repeatedly stated that the army was the
true basis of his throne: " The soldier and the army, not parlia-
mentary majorities, have welded together the German Empire.
My confidence is placed on the army."
From the first he showed his intention to be his own chancellor,
and it was this which brought about the quarrel with Bismarck,
who could not endure to be less than all-powerful. The
dismissal and disgrace of the great statesman first revealed the
resolution of the new ruler; but, as regards foreign affairs,
the apprehensions felt at his accession were not fulfilled. While
he maintained and confirmed the alliance with Austria and Italy,
in obedience to the last injunctions of his grandfather, he
repeatedly attempted to establish more cordial relations with
Russia. His overtures, indeed, were scarcely received with
corresponding cordiality. The intimacy of Russia with France
increased, and more than a year passed before the Russian
emperor appeared on a short visit to Berlin. In 1890 the
emperor again went to Russia, and the last meeting between
him and Alexander III. took place at Kiel in the autumn of
1891, but was marked by considerable coolness. By his visit
to Copenhagen, as in his treatment of the duke of Cumberland
and in his frequent overtures to France, the emperor showed the
strong desire, by the exercise of his own great personal charm
and ability, to heal the wounds left by the events of a generation
before. In the autumn of 1888 he visited not only the courts
of the confederate princes, but those of Austria and Italy.
While at Rome he went to the Vatican and had a private con-
versation with Pope Leo XIII., and this visit was repeated in
1895 and again in 1903. In 1889 the marriage of his sister, the
Princess Sophie, to the duke of Sparta, took him to Athens;
and thence he sailed to Constantinople, It was the first time
that one of the great rulers of Christendom had been the guest
of the sultan. A more active interest was now taken by Germany
in the affairs of the Levant, and the emperor showed that he
would not be content to follow the secure and ascertained roads
along which Bismarck had so long guided the country. It was
not enough that Berlin had become the centre of the European
system. The emperor was the apostle of a new Germany,
which claimed that her voice should be heard in all political
affairs, in whatever quarter of the globe they might rise. Once
again, in 1898, he went to Constantinople. It was the time
when the Armenian massacres had made the name of Abd-ul
Hamid notorious, and the very striking friendliness shown
towards him scarcely seemed consistent with the frequent
claims made by the emperor to be the leader of Christendom;
but any scruples were doubtless outweighed by the great impulse
he was able to give to German influence in the East. From
Constantinople he passed on to Palestine. He was present at
the consecration of the German Protestant church of the Re-
deemer. By the favour of the sultan he was able to present to
the German Catholics a plot of ground, the Dormition de la
Sainte Vierge, very near to the Holy Places.
The motive of his frequent travels, which gained for him
the nickname of Der Reise- Kaiser, was not solely political, but
a keen interest in men and things. His love of the sea was
shown in an annual voyage to Norway, and in repeated visits
to the Cowes regatta. He was a keen yachtsman and fond of
all sorts of sport, and, though deprived of the use of his left
arm through an accident when he was a child, he became an
excellent shot and rider.
At the time of his accession there was a strong manifestation
of anti-British feeling in Berlin, and there seemed reason to
suppose that the party from which it proceeded had the patronage
of the emperor. Any temporary misunderstanding was removed,
however, by his visit to England in 1889. For the next six years
he was every year the guest of Queen Victoria, and during the
period that Caprivi held office the political relations between
Germany and Great Britain were very close. While the emperor's
visits were largely prompted by personal reasons, they had an
important political effect; and in 1890, when he was entertained
at the Mansion House in London and visited Lord Salisbury
at Hatfield, the basis for an entente cordiale seemed to be under
discussion. But after 1895 tne growth of the colonial spirit
in Germany and the strong commercial rivalry with Great
Britain, which was creating in Germany a feeling that a navy
must be built adequate to protect German interests, made the
situation as regards England more difficult. And an unexpected
incident occurred at the end of that year, which brought to a
head all the latent feelings of suspicion and jealousy in both
countries. On the occasion of the Jameson Raid he despatched
to the president of the Transvaal a telegram, in which he con-
gratulated him that " without appealing to the help of friendly
powers," he had succeeded in restoring peace and preserving the
independence of his country. It was very difficult to regard
this merely as an impulsive act of generous sympathy with a
weak state unjustly attacked, and though warmly approved
in Germany, it caused a long alienation from Great Britain.
The emperor did not again visit England till the beginning of
1901, when he attended the deathbed and funeral of Queen
Victoria. On this occasion he placed himself in strong opposition
to the feelings of the large majority of his countrymen by
conferring on Lord Roberts the Order of the Black Eagle, the
most highly prized of Prussian decorations. He had already
refused to receive the ex-president of the Transvaal on his visit
to Europe. Meanwhile, with the other great branch of the
English-speaking people in the United States, it was the emperor's
policy to cultivate more cordial relations. In 1902, on the
occasion of the launching of a yacht built for him in America,
he sent his brother Prince Henry to the United States as his
representative. The occasion was rendered of international
importance by his official attitude and by his gifts to the American
people, which included a statue of Frederick the Great. The
emperor also initiated in 1906 the exchange of professors between
German and American universities.
As regards home policy, the most important work to which
the emperor turned his attention was the increase of the German
naval forces. From the moment of his accession he constantly
showed the keenest interest in naval affairs, and the numerous
changes made, in the organization were due to his personal
initiative. It was in January 1895, at an evening reception to
members of the Reichstag, that he publicly put himself at the
head of the movement for making Germany a sea power. In
all the subsequent discussions on the naval bills his influence
was decisively used to overcome the resistance of the Reichstag.
" Our future," he declared," is on the water," and in speeches
in all parts of the country he combated the indifference of
668
WILLIAM II. (GERMANY)
the inland Germans to the sea. " I will not rest," he telegraphed
to his brother, " till I have brought my navy to the same height
at which my army stands." The development of German
armaments during the next few years (see NAVY) showed that
this was no idle boast. But, while it was inevitable that the
inference should be drawn that the increase of the German
navy was directed towards eventual hostilities with Great Britain,
the emperor himself insisted that the real object was the preserva-
tion of peace consistently with the maintenance of Germany's
" place in the sun." In March 1905, in a speech at Bremen,
he declared the aim of the Hohenzollerns to be " a world-wide
dominion founded upon conquests not gained by the sword,
but by the mutual confidence of nations that press towards
the same goal." " Every German warship launched," he said,
" is one guarantee more for peace on earth." In the same
spirit he protested later, in an " interview " published in the
Daily Telegraph of the 28th of October 1908, that he had always
been actuated by the friendliest feelings towards England, but
that " Germany must be prepared for any eventualities in the
East," and that, in view of the growing naval power of Japan,
England should welcome the existence of a German fleet " when
they speak together on the same side in the great debates of the
future " For to the emperor, who had published a cartoon,
drawn by himself, representing the European powers in league
against the Yellow Peril, the Anglo-Japanese alliance seemed
a betrayal of the white race, an unnatural league which could
not last. The justification of his naval policy so far as European
affairs were concerned was revealed in the effective intervention
of Germany in regard to France and Morocco in 1905, and
in 1909 in the defiance of British policy when Austria,
backed by Germany, tore up the treaty of Berlin in regard to
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In numerous rhetorical speeches the emperor had impressed
the world with his personal conviction of autocratic sovereignty,
and his monarchical activity was certain, sooner or later, to bring
him into conflict with the constitutional limitations of his
position as king of Prussia and German emperor. His imperial
style, constitutionally but the honorary title of the primus inter
pares in a free confederation of sovereign princes, was invested
by him with something of the glamour of that of the Holy Roman
emperors, with their shadowy claim to world-dominion. In
speech after speech he proclaimed the world-mission of Germany,
of which he himself was the divinely appointed instrument;
Germans are " the salt of the earth 1 ;" they must not " weary
in the work of civilization," and Germanism, like the spirit of
imperial Rome, must expand and impose itself. 2 This new
imperialism, too, had a religious basis, for " the whole of human
life hinges simply and solely on our attitude towards our Lord
and Saviour." 3 The emperor's progresses in the East were
conceived in the spirit of the new crusade, at once Christian
and German; and a solemn service, to which none but the
emperor and his train were admitted, was held on the summit of
the Mount of Olives. In the same spirit, too, the emperor dis-
pensed the marks of his approval and disapproval beyond the
borders of his own jurisdiction, sometimes with results which
were open to criticism. The " Kruger telegram " has been
mentioned; scarcely less characteristic was the message
despatched by him on the gth of April 1006. after the Algeciras
conference, to Count Goluchowski, the Austro-Hungarian
foreign minister, congratulating him on having proved " a
brilliant second on the duelling-ground." Goluchowski's retire-
ment was mainly due to this compliment. In 1905 he bestowed
the order Pour le Merite not only on the Japanese general Nogi,
but also on the Russian general Stossel, the defender of Port
Arthur, who was afterwards condemned by a Russian court-
martial for dereliction of duty. In 1902 his telegram to the
regent of Bavaria condemning the refusal of the clerical majority
in the diet to vote 5000 for art purposes, and offering himself
to supply the money, was regarded as an unwarrantable inter-
1 Speech at Bremen (March 1905).
2 Speech at Gniezno, Poland (August 1905).
* Speech at confirmation of his son (October 1903).
ference in the internal affairs of Bavaria and roused strong
resentment among the clericals all over Germany.
Owing to the political conditions in Germany it was generally
left for the Socialists to attack these excursions on the part of
the emperor into fields which lay beyond his strict prerogative.
But, apart from the traditional lines of political cleavage, such
as the inherited hatred of the Liberal South for the Hohenzollern
" corporal's cane," other centres of dissatisfaction were coming
into being. The emperor was isolated in his efforts to impose
the old, strenuous, Prussian ideals of " self-denial, discipline,
religion, avoidance of foreign contagion." With the growth
of wealth Germany was becoming materialized and to some
extent Americanized, partly through the actual reflux of emi-
grants grown rich in the United States. In this new society,
far removed from the days, denounced by the historian Gervinus,
when the Germans were content to " fiddle and be slaves," the
phrases which still woke responsive echoes in the squires of the
Old Mark of Brandenburg were apt to create surprise, if not
indignation; and in the great industrial classes the principles of
Social Democracy spread apace. The emperor himself here and
there even yielded a little to the new ideas, as when, in the
famous " Babel and Bible " controversy of 1903, arising out of
lectures in which Professor Delitzsch had derived Jewish mono-
theism from Babylonian polytheism, he publicly accepted the
main conclusion of the " higher criticism " of the Old Testament,
while maintaining that the kernel and contents, God and His
works, remain always the same; or when on the lyth of November
1906, on the 25th anniversary of William I.'s edict announcing
national insurance, he promised further social reforms. But he
was impatient of what he considered factious opposition, and
was apt to appeal from the nation in parliament to the nation
in arms, as when in 1906, at the Silesian manoeuvres, he con-
demned the critical spirit exercised towaids the government, and
invoked once more the protection of Germany's " Divine Ally."
Clearly, this was an attitude which was inconsistent with the
development of what prided itself on being a constitutional
state; but there were obvious difficulties in the way of
controlling the utterances of a ruler, vigorous, self-confident
and conscious of the best intentions, who was also the master
of many legions, whose military spirit he could evoke at
will. In October 1906 the publication of Prince Hohenlohe's
Memoirs, containing indiscreet revelations of the emperor's
action in the dismissal of Bismarck, caused a profound
sensation. A few months later, in February 1907, the prestige
of the court was further damaged by various unsavoury revela-
tions, made by Herr Harden in the Zukunft, as to the character
of the " camarilla " by which the emperor was surrounded, and
it was affirmed that a connexion could hers be traced with the
fall of Caprivi in 1894. The long-drawn-out trials and counter-
trials left the character of the emperor entirely unstained, but
they resulted in the disgrace of men who had been his confidants
Prince Philip Eulenburg, Count Kuno Moltke and others.
The attitude of the emperor throughout was manly and sensible;
and not the least satisfactory outcome of the whole sorry business
was the issue, on the 28th of January 1907, of an edict, afterwards
embodied in a bill, greatly modifying the law of lese-majesU,
which in the earlier part of the reign had been used to ridiculous
excess in the imprisonment of the authors of the slightest
reflection on the person of the sovereign.
Anglo-German relations were apparently improved by a visit
of the emperor to England in November 1907. But early in 1908
they were again strained by the revelation, made in The Times
of the 6th of March, of a correspondence between the emperor
and Lord Tweedmouth, the first lord of the admiralty, in which,
in answer to friendly assurances on the emperor's part, the
British secretary of state had communicated to him an outline
of the new naval programme before it had even been laid on the
table of the House of Commons. The angry controversy to
which this gave rise, and the emperor's attempts to allay it, led
at the end of the year to a serious crisis in his relations with his
subjects. On the nth of August he had met Edward VII. at
Cronberg; on the 3Qth, in a speech at Strassburg, he reiterated
WILLIAM I. (NETHERLANDS)
669
the intention of Germany to maintain the high level of her
armaments; and on the z8th of October there appeared in the
Daily Telegraph an extraordinary " interview," authorized by
him, in which he expounded his attitude. The document was a
resumfe of his table-talk during his stay at Highcliffe Castle, on
the Hampshire coast opposite the Isle of Wight, in the autumn
of 1907. In it he reiterated that his heart was. set on peace;
he declared that, so far from being hostile to the English, he had
offended large sections of his people by his friendship for England.
He instanced his refusal to receive the Boer delegates and his
rejection of the proposals of France and Russia for a joint inter-
vention to stop the South African War; he also mentioned the
curious fact that at an early stage of the war he had himself
drawn up a plan of campaign for the British and sent it to
Windsor. It was on this occasion, too, that he made the sugges-
tion of an eventual co-operation of the British and German fleets
in the Far East. This pronouncement created a profound
sensation, not only in Germany, where the indignation was
intense, but in Russia, France and Japan, where it was regarded
as a Machiavellian attempt to loosen existing alliances. In
the German press and parliament a storm of protest arose.
Prince Biilow, as technically responsible, handed in his resigna-
tion, which was not accepted, and he was forced to make in the
Reichstag the best defence that he could for the imperial indis-
cretion, declaring that henceforth the emperor would show more
reserve. The emperor publicly endorsed the chancellor's ex-
planations, and for nearly two years maintained in public an
almost unbroken silence. But this came to an end in a speech
delivered at Konigsberg, on the 25th of August 1910. In this
the emperor again laid special stress upon the divine right
by which alone the kings of Prussia rule, adding: " considering
myself as the instrument of the Lord, without heeding the views
and opinions of the day, I go my way." This speech led to a
debate, on a Socialist interpellation, in the Reichstag (November
26). In reply to the enquiry what the government intended to
do in fulfilment of the pledge given in 1908, the chancellor
denied that the emperor had exceeded his constitutional rights,
a view supported by the majority of the House.
The emperor married on the 27th of February 1881 Princess
Auguste Victoria, daughter of Frederick, duke of Augustenburg, who
in 1864 had come forward as claimant to the duchies of Schleswig-
Holstem; the marriage had, theiefore, some political importance,
for it sealed the reconciliation of one of the dynasties that had suffered
by the rise of Prussia. They had six sons and one daughter: (l)
Wilhelm, born 6th May 1882, Crown Prince, whose coming of age
was celebrated with much ceremony on his eighteenth birthday,
and who married on the 6th of June 1905 the duchess Cecilia of
Mecklenburg, their eldest son, Wilhelm, being born on the 4th of July
1906; (2) Eitel Friedrich, born on the 7th of July 1883; (3) Adalbert,
born on the I4th of July 1884; (4) August Wilhelm, born on the
29th of January 1887; (5) Oskar, born on the 27th of July 1888;
(6) Joachim, born on the I7th of December 1890; and .(7) Viktoria
Luise, born on the I3th of September 1892.
For the emperor's speeches, &c., see Kaiserreden. Reden und
Erlasse, Briefe und Telegrammt Kaiser Wilhelms II. (Leipzig, 1902) ;
translated by L. Elkind, as The German Emperor's Speeches (London,
1904).
WILLIAM I. (1772-1844), king of the Netherlands, born at
the Hague on the 24th of August 1772, was the son of William V.,
prince of Orange and hereditary stadtholder of the United
Netherlands by Sophia Wilhelmina, princess of Prussia. In
1791 he married Frederica Wilhelmina, daughter of Frederick
William II., king of Prussia, thus cementing very closely the
relations between the houses of Orange-Nassau and Hohenzollern.
After the outbreak of war with the French republic in 1793,
he distinguished himself in the struggle against the revolutionary
army under Dumouriez by the capture of Landrecies and the
relief of Charleroi. By the victories of Pichegru the stadtholder
and all his family were, however, compelled to leave Holland and
seek refuge in England, where the palace of Hampton Court was
set apart for their use. He afterwards made Berlin his residence,
and took an active part in the unfortunate campaign under the
duke of York for the reconquest of the Netherlands. After the
peace of Amiens he had an interview with Napoleon at Paris,
and received some territory adjoining the hereditary domains
of the house of Nassau in Westphalia as a compensation for the
abandonment of the stadtholderate and the domains of his house.
William refused, however, in 1806, in which year by the death of
his father he became prince of Orange, to separate his interests
from those of his Prussian relatives, and fought bravely at Jena.
He was therefore despoiled by Napoleon of all his possessions.
In 1809 he accepted a command in the Austrian army under the
archduke Charles and was wounded at the battle of Wagram.
When Holland rose in revolt against French domination in 1813,
after eighteen years of exile he landed at Scheveningen (on the
ipth of November) and was on the 3rd of December, amid uni-
versal rejoicing, proclaimed prince sovereign of the Netherlands.
His assumption in the following year of the title of king of the
Netherlands was recognized by the powers, and by the treaty
of Paris his sovereignty was extended over the southern as well
as the northern Netherlands, Belgium being added to Holland
" as an increase of territory." After the battle of Waterloo, in
which Dutch and Belgian troops fought side by side under his
command, the congress of Vienna further aggrandized him by
making him sovereign of the territory of Luxemburg with the
title of grand duke.
William had many excellent qualities, but his long life of exile
and hardship had made him niggardly and narrow. He was
unable to rise to the great opportunity which lay before him
of creating out of the Dutch and Belgian provinces a strong and
united state. Two hundred and fifty years of political separation
and widely differing experiences had caused the two kindred
populations on this and that side of the Scheldt to grow apart
in sentiment and tradition. This difference was still further
accentuated by strong divergence in religious creed. Further,
one-third of the Belgian provinces was inhabited by a Walloon
population divided from the Flemings by racial characteristics
and their use of a Romance instead of a Teutonic dialect. All
these things William was inclined to ignore. He drew up a
constitution, which was accepted unanimously by the Dutch,
but was rejected by the Belgians, because it contained provisions
for liberty of Worship. The king, however, by a subterfuge
declared that the fundamental law had been approved. The
new constitution, therefore, started badly, and it was soon
evident that William intended to make his will prevail, and to
carry out his projects for what he conceived the social, industrial
and educational welfare of the kingdom regardless of the opposi-
tion of Belgian public opinion. The Belgians had many griev-
ances. Their representation in the states general was exactly
equal to that of the Dutch, though their population was in the
proportion of seven to five. With the help of the official vote of
ministers the Dutch were thus able to have a perpetual majority.
The whole machinery of government was centralized at the
Hague, and Dutchmen filled nearly all the principal posts. The
attempt of the king to enforce the official use of the Dutch
language, and the foundation of the so-called philosophical
college at Louvain helped to exacerbate the growing discontent.
The rapid advance of Belgium in industrial and manufacturing
prosperity, due largely to the stimulus of William's personal
initiative, did nothing to bring north and south together, but
rather increased their rivalry and jealousy, for the Dutch pro-
vinces had neither manufactures nor iron- and coal-mines, but
were dependent on agriculture and sea-borne commerce for
their welfare. Such clashing of interests was sure to produce
alienation, but the king remained apparently blind to the signs
of the times, and the severe enforcement of a harsh law restricting
freedom of the press led suddenly in 1830 to a revolt (see
BELGIUM), which, beginning at Brussels at the end of August,
rapidly spread over the whole country. The Dutch were almost
without striking a blow expelled from the country, the strongly
fortified seaport of Antwerp alone remaining in their hands.
Had the king consented at once to the administrative autonomy
of Belgium, and appointed the prince of Orange governor of the
southern Netherlands, it is probable that the revolt might have
been appeased. At the first there was undoubtedly a strong
body of public opinion in favour of such a compromise, and the
house of Orange had many adherents in the country. William,
670 WILLIAM II. (NETHERLANDS) WILLIAM OF HOLLAND
however, was too proud and too obstinate to lend himself to such
a course. He appealed to the powers, who had, in 1815, created
and guaranteed the independence of the kingdom of the Nether-
lands. By the treaty of the eighteen articles, however, concluded
at London on the 2gth of June 1831, the kingdom of Belgium
was recognized, and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was elected king.
William refused his assent, and in August suddenly invaded
Belgium. The Belgian forces were dispersed, and the Dutch
would have entered Brussels in triumph but for the intervention
of the French. Still, however, William declined to recognize
the new throne, and he had behind him the unanimous support
of Dutch public opinion. For nine years he maintained this
attitude, and resolutely refused to append his signature to the
treaty of 1831. His subjects at length grew weary of the heavy
expense of maintaining a large military force on the Belgian
frontier and in 1839 the king gave way. He did so, however,
on favourable terms and was able to insist on the Belgians yielding
up their possession of portions of Limburg and Luxemburg,
which they had occupied since 1830.
A cry now arose in Holland for a revision of the fundamental
law and for more liberal institutions; ministerial responsibility
was introduced, and the royal control over finance diminished.
William, however, disliked these changes, and finding further
that his proposed marriage with the countess d'Oultremont, a
Belgian and a Roman Catholic, was very unpopular, he suddenly
abdicated on the 7th of October 1840. After his abdication he
married the countess and spent the rest of his life in quiet
retirement upon his private estate in Silesia. He died in 1844.
See L. Jottsand, Guillaume d'Orange ayant son avbnement au
trone des Pays-Bas; E. C. de Gerlache, Histoire du royaume des Pays-
Bas depuis 1814 jusqu'en 1830 (3 vols., Brussels, 1842); W. H. de
Beaufort, De eerste regeeringsjaren van Koning Willem I. (Amsterdam,
1886); H. C. Coienbrander, De Belgische Om-wenteling (The Hague,
1905) ; T. Juste, Le Soulevement de la Hollande en 1813 et lafondation
du royaume des Pays-Bas (Brussels, 1 870); and P. Blok, Geschiedenis
der Nederlandsche Volk, vols. vii. and viii. (Leiden, 1907-1908).
WILLIAM II. (1792-1849), king of the Netherlands, son of
William I., was born at the Hague on the 6th of December 1792.
When he was three years old his family was driven out of Holland
by the French republican armies, and lived in exile until 1813.
He was educated at the military school at Berlin and afterwards
at the university of Oxford. He entered the English army,
and in 181 1, as aide-de-camp to the duke of Wellington, took part
in several campaigns of the Peninsula War. In 1815 he com-
manded the Dutch and Belgian contingents, and won high
commendations for his courage and conduct at the battles of
Quatre Bras and Waterloo, at the latter of which he was wounded.
The prince of Orange married in 1816 the grand duchess Anna
Paulowna, sister of the tzar Alexander I. He enjoyed consider-
able popularity in Belgium, as well as in Holland for his affability
and moderation, and in 1830, on the outbreak of the Belgian
revolution, he betook himself to Brussels, and did his utmost
by personal conferences with the most influential men in the
Belgian capital to bring about a peaceable settlement on the
basis of the administrative autonomy of the southern provinces
under the house of Orange. His father had given him powers
to treat, but afterwards threw him over and rejected the terms
of accommodation that he had proposed. He withdrew on
this to England and resided there for several months. In April
1831 William took the command of a Dutch army for the invasion
of Belgium, and in a ten-days' campaign defeated and dispersed
the Belgian forces under Leopold I. after a sharp fight near
Louvain. He would have entered Brussels in triumph, but his
victorious advance was stayed by the intervention of the French.
In 1840, on the abdication of his father, he ascended the throne
as William II. The peace of 1839 had settled all differences
between Holland and Belgium, and the new king found himself
confronted with the task of the reorganization of the finances,
and the necessity of meeting the popular demand for a revision
ot the fundamental law, and the establishment of the electoral
franchise on a wider basis. He acted with good sense and
moderation, and, although by no means a believer in democratic
ideas, he saw the necessity of satisfying public opinion and
frankly gave his support to larger measures of reform. The
fundamental law was altered in 1848 and the Dutch monarchy,
from being autocratic, became henceforth constitutional. The
king's attitude secured for him the good will and affection of a
people, loyal by tradition to the house of Orange, and the
revolutionary disturbances of 1848 found no echo in Holland.
William died suddenly on the I7th of March 1849.
See J. J. Abbink, Leven van Koning Willem II. (Amsterdam,
1849) ; J. Bosscha, Het Leven van Willem den Tweede, Koning der
Nederlanden, 1^93-1849 (Amsterdam, 1852) ; P. Blok, Geschiedenis
der Nederlandsche Volk (Leiden, 1908). (G. E.)
WILLIAM III. (1817-1890), king of the Netherlands, son of
William II., was born at Brussels on the igth of February 1817.
He married in 1839 Sophia, daughter of William I., king of
Wiirttemberg. Sophia was an accomplished woman of high
intelligence, but unfortunately the relations between the royal
pair were far from cordial and finally ended in complete disagree-
ment, and the breach between them continued until the death
of the queen in 1877. The private life of the king in fact gave
rise to much scandal; nevertheless he was an excellent con-
stitutional monarch, and, though he never sought to win
popular favour, succeeded in winning and retaining in a remark-
able degree his people's affectionate loyalty. He had no sym-
pathy with political liberalism, but throughout his long reign
of forty-two years, with a constant interchange of ministries
and many ministerial crises, he never had a serious conflict with
the states-general, and his ministers could always count upon
his fair-mindedness and an earnest desire to help them to further
the national welfare. He was economical, and gave up a third
of his civil list in order to help forward the task of establishing
an equilibrium in the annual budget, and he was always ready
from his large private fortune to help forward all schemes for the
social or industrial progress of the country. It was largely
due to his prudent diplomacy that Holland passed pacifically
through the difficult period of the Luxemburg settlement in
1866 and the Franco-German War of 1870.
William III. had two sons by his marriage with Sophia of
Wurttemberg, William (1841-1879), and Alexander (1843-1884).
Both of them died unmarried. The decease of Prince Alexander
left the house of Orange without a direct heir male, but the
prospect of a disputed succession had fortunately been averted
by the marriage of the king in 1879 with the princess Emma
of Waldeck-Pyrmont. From this union a daughter, Wilhelmina,
was born in 1880. On her father's death at the Loo, on the
23rd of November 1890, she succeeded as queen of the Nether-
lands under the regency of her mother.
William was grand duke of Luxemburg by a personal title,
and his death severed the dynastic relation between the kingdom
of the Netherlands and the grand duchy. The sovereignty of
the Luxemburg duchy passed to the next heir male of the house
of Nassau, Adolphus, ex-duke of Nassau.
See J. A. Bruijne, Geschiedenis van Nederlandin onzen tijd. (5 vols.,
Schiedam, 1889-1906) ; P. Blok, Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche
Volk (Leiden, 1908), vol. viii.; and G. L. Keppers, De regeering van
Koning Willem III. (Groningen, 1887). (G. E.)
WILLIAM (1227-1256), king of the Romans and count of
Holland, was the son of Count Floris IV. and his wife Matilda,
daughter of Henry, duke of Brabant. He was about six years
of age when his father was killed in a tournament, and the fact
that his long minority was peaceful and uneventful speaks well
for the good government of his two paternal uncles, who were
his guardians. William was, however, suddenly in 1247 to
become a prominent figure in the great Guelph-Ghibelline
struggle, which at that time was disturbing the peace of Europe.
The quarrel between the church and the emperor Frederick II.
had now reached an acute stage. Pope Innocent IV., who had
failed in repeated efforts to induce various princes to accept the
dignity of king of the Romans in place of the excommunicated
Frederick, found the youthful William of Holland ready to
accept the proffered crown. After a long siege William succeeded
in taking the imperial city of Aix-la-Chapelle, where he was
crowned on All Saints' Day 1248. As the recognized head of
the Guelph party he spared no efforts to win for himself friends
WILLIAM I. (SICILY) WILLIAM I. (WURTTEMBERG) 671
in Germany, but he never really succeeded in forming a party
or gaining for himself a footing in the Empire during the lifetime
of Frederick. With the extinction of the Hohenstaufen house
in 1254 his chances were much improved, but shortly afterwards
his death occurred on the 28th of January 1256 through his
horse breaking through the ice during an obscure campaign
among the Frisian marshes. William was more successful in
his struggles with Margaret, countess of Flanders and Hainaut,
known as " Black Meg." She wished her succession to pass to
the sons of her second marriage with William of Dampierre in
preference to those of his first marriage with Bouchard of
Avennes. But John of Avennes, her eldest son, had married
William's sister Aleidis. William took up arms in defence of
his brother-in-law's rights and Margaret was decisively beaten
at West Kappel in 1253, and was compelled to acknowledge
John of Avennes as her successor to the county of Hainaut.
See A. Ulrich, Geschichte des romischen Konigs, Wilhelm von
Holland (Hanover, 1882).
WILLIAM I. (d. 1166), king of Sicily, son of King Roger II.
by Elvira of Castile, succeeded in 1154. His title " the Bad "
seems little merited and expresses the bias of the historian
Falcandus and the baronial class against the king and the official
class by whom he was guided. It is obvious, however, that
William was far inferior in character and energy to his father,
and was attached to the semi-Moslem life of his gorgeous palaces
of Palermo. The real power in the kingdom was at first exercised
by Maio of Bari, a man of low birth, whose title ammiratus
ammiratorum was the highest in the realm. Maio continued
Roger's policy of excluding the nobles from the administration,
and sought also to curtail the liberties of the towns. The barons,
always chafing against the royal power, were encouraged to revolt
by Pope Adrian IV., whose recognition William had not yet
sought, by the Basileus Manuel and the emperor Frederick II.
At the end of 1155 Greek troops recovered Bari and began to
besiege Brindisi. William, however, was not devoid of military
energy; landing in Italy he destroyed the Greek fleet and army
at Brindisi (28th May 1156) and recovered Bari. Adrian came
to terms at Bene.vento (i8th June 1156), abandoned the rebels
and confirmed William as king, and in 1158 peace was made with
the Greeks. These diplomatic successes were probably due to
Maio; on the other hand, the African dominions were lost to
the Almohads (1156-1160), and it is possible that he advised their
abandonment in face of the dangers threatening the kingdom
clown from the north. The policy of the minister led to a general
conspiracy, and in November 1160 he was murdered in Palermo
by Matthew Bonello, leader of the Sicilian nobles. For a while
the king was in the hands of the conspirators, who purposed
murdering or deposing him, but the people and the army tallied
round him; he recovered power, crushed the Sicilian rebels,
had Bonello blinded, and in a short campaign reduced the rest
of the Regno. Thus freed from feudal revolts, William confided
the government to men trained in Maio's school, such as the
grand notary, Matthew d'Agello. His latter years were peaceful;
he was now the champion of the true pope against the emperor,
and Alexander III. was installed in the Lateran in November
1165 by a guard of Normans. William died on the yth of May
1166. (E. Cu.)
WILLIAM II. (d. 1189), king of Sicily, was only thirteen
years old at the death of his father William I. when he was
placed under the regency of his mother, Marguerite of Navarre.
Until the king came of age in 1171 the government was controlled
first by the chancellor Stephen of Perche, cousin of Marguerite
(i 166-1168) , and then by Walter Ophamil, archbishop of Palermo,
and Matthew d'Ajello, the vice-chancellor. William's character
is very indistinct. Lacking in military enterprise, secluded and
pleasure-loving, he seldom emerged from his palace life at Palermo.
Yet his reign is marked by an ambitious foreign policy and a
vigorous diplomacy. Champion of the papacy and in secret
league with the Lombard cities he was able to defy the common
enemy, Frederick II. In 1174 and 1175 he made treaties with
Genoa and Venice and his marriage in February 1177 with
Joan, daughter of Henry II. of England, marks his high position
in European politics. To secure peace with the emperor he
sanctioned the marriage of his aunt Constance, daughter of
Roger II., with Frederick's son Henry, afterwards the emperor
Henry VI., causing a general oath to be taken to her as his
successor in case of his death without heirs. This step, fatal to
the Norman kingdom, was possibly taken that William might
devote himself to foreign conquests. 1
Unable to revive the African dominion, William directed his
attack on Egypt, from which Saladin threatened the Latin
kingdom of Jerusalem. In July 1 1 74, 50,000 men were landed
before Alexandria, but Saladin's arrival forced the Sicilians to
re-embark in disorder. A better prospect opened in the confusion
in Byzantine affairs which followed the death of Manuel Com-
nenus (1180), and William took up the old design and feud
against Constantinople. Durazzo was captured (nth June 1185)
and in August Thessalonica surrendered to the joint attack of
the Sicilian fleet and army. The troops then marched upon the
capital, but the troop of the emperor Isaac Angelus overthrew
the invaders on the banks of the Strymon (7th Sept. 1185).
Thessalonica was at once abandoned and in 1189 William made
peace with Isaac, abandoning all the conquests. He was now
planning to induce the crusading armies of the West to pass
through his territories, and seemed about to play a leading part
in the third Crusade. His admiral Margarito, a naval genius
equal to George of Antioch, with 600 vessels kept the eastern
Mediterranean open for the Franks, and forced the all -victorious
Saladin to retire from before Tripoli in the spring of 1188. In
November 1189 William died, leaving no children. His title
of " the Good " is due perhaps less to his character than to the
cessation of internal troubles in his reign. The " Voyage " of
Ibn-Giobair, a traveller in Sicily in 1183-1185, shows William
surrounded by Moslem women and eunuchs, speaking and reading
Arabic and living like " a Moslem king." (E. Cu.)
WILLIAM I. [FRIEDRICH KARL] (1781-1864), king of Wttrt-
temberg, son of Frederick, afterwards King Frederick I. of
Wurttemberg, was born at Luben in Silesia on the 27th of
September 1781. In his early days he was debarred from public
life owing to a quarrel with his father, whose time-serving
deference to Napoleon was distasteful to him. In 1814-1815 he
suddenly rose into prominence through the Wars of Liberation
against France, in which he commanded an army corps with no
little credit to himself. On his accession to the throne of Wiirttem-
berg in 1816 he realized the expectations formed of him as a
liberal-minded ruler by promulgating a constitution (1819),
under which serfdom and obsolete class privileges were swept
away, and by issuing ordinances which greatly assisted the
financial and industrial development and the educational progress
of his country. In 1848 he sought to disarm the revolutionary
movement by a series of further liberal reforms which removed
the restrictions more recently imposed at Metternich's instance
by the Germanic diet. But his relations with the legislature,
which had from time to time become strained owing to the
bureaucratic spirit which he kept alive in the administration,
were definitely broken off in consequence of a prolonged conflict
on questions of Germanic policy. He cut the knot by repudiating
the enactments of 1848-1849 and by summoning a packed
parliament (1851), which re-enforced the code of 1819.
The same difficulties which beset William as a constitutional
reformer impeded him as a champion of Germanic union. Intent
above all on preserving the rights of the Middle Germanic states
against encroachments by Austria and Prussia he lapsed into
a policy of mere obstruction. The protests which he made in
1820-1823 against Metternich's policy of making the minor
German states subservient to Austria met with less success than
they perhaps deserved. In 1849-1850 he made a firm stand
against the proposals for a Germanic union propounded in the
National Parliament at Frankfort, for fear lest the exaltation
of Prussia should eclipse the lesser principalities. Though forced
to accede to the proffering of the imperial crown to the king of
Prussia, he joined heartily in Prince Schwarzenberg's schemes for
undoing the work of the National Parliament, and by means of
1 Chalandon, La Domination normande, ii. 389.
672 WILLIAM IV. (OF HESSE) WILLIAM OF ORANGE
the coup d'ttat described above forced his country into a policy
of alliance with Austria against Prussia. Nevertheless his
devotion to the cause of Germanic union is proved by the eager-
ness with which he helped the formation of the Zollverein (1828-
1830), and in spite of his conflicts with his chambers he achieved
unusual popularity among his subjects. He died on the 251!) ol
June 1864, and was succeeded by his son Charles.
See Nick, Wilhelm I., Konig von Wurttemberg, und seine Regierung
(Stuttgart, 1864) ; P. Stalin, " Konig Wilhelm I. von Wurttemberg,
Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Geschichte, 1885, pp. 353-367, 417-434.
WILLIAM IV., landgrave of Hesse (1532-1592), was the
son and successor of the landgrave Philip the Magnanimous.
He took a leading part in safeguarding the results of the Reforma-
tion and was indefatigable in his endeavours to unite the different
sections of Protestantism for the sake of effective resistance
against the Catholic reaction. His counsels were marred by
his reluctance to appeal to arms at the critical moments of action,
and by the slenderness of his own resources, but they deserve
attention for their broad common sense and spirit of tolerance.
As an administrator of his principality he displayed rare energy,
issuing numerous ordinances, appointing expert officials, and in
particular establishing the finances on a scientific basis. By
a law of primogeniture he secured his land against such testa-
mentary divisions as had diminished his own portion of his
father's estate. He not only patronized art and science, but
continued as ruler the intercourse with scholars which he had
cultivated in his youth.
William was a pioneer in astronomical research and perhaps owes
his most lasting fame to his discoveries in this branch of study.
Most of the mechanical contrivances which made Tycho Brahe's
instruments so superior to those of his contemporaries were adopted
at Cassel about 1584, and from that time the observations made
there seem to have been about as accurate as Tycho's; but the re-
sulting longitudes were 6' top great in consequence of the adopted
solar parallax of 3'. The principal fruit of the observations was a
catalogue of about a thousand stars, the places oi which were deter-
mined by the methods usually employed in the l6th century, con-
necting a fundamental star by means of Venus with the sun, and
thus finding its longitude and latitude, while other stars could at
any time be referred to the fundamental star. It should be noticed
that clocks, on which Tycho Brahe depended very little, were used
at Cassel for finding the difference of right ascension between Venus
and the sun before sunset; Tycho preferred observing the angular
distance between the sun and Venus when the latter was visible in
the daytime. The Hessian star catalogue was published in Lucius
Barettus's Historic, coelestis (Augsburg, 1668), and a number of other
observations are to be found in Coeli et siderum in eo errantium
observations Hassiacae (Leiden, 1618), edited by Willebrord Snell.
R. Wolf, in his " Astronomische Mittheilungen," No. 45 (Viertel-
jahrsschrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zurich, 1878), has
given a resume of the manuscripts still preserved at Cassel, which
throw much light on the methods adopted in the observations and
reductions.
WILLIAM (1533-1584), surnamed the SILENT, prince of
Orange and count of Nassau, was born at the castle of Dillenburg
in Nassau, on the 25th of April 1533. His grandfather, John,
count of Nassau, had left his Netherland possessions to his
elder son Henry, his German to his younger son William. This
William of Nassau (d. 1559) had by his wife, Juliana of Stolberg,
a family of five sons, of whom the subject of this notice was the
eldest, and seven daughters. Henry became the trusted friend
and counsellor of Charles V., and married (1515) Claude, sister
of Philibert, prince of Orange. Philibert, having no issue,
made Rene, the son of Henry and Claude, his heir. Rene, at
the age of twenty-six, was killed at the siege of St Dizier in 1544,
and left his titles and great possessions by will to his cousin
William, who thus became prince of Orange. William's parents
were Lutherans, but the emperor insisted that the boy-successor
to Rene's heritage should be brought up in his court at Brussels,
as a Catholic. The remembrance of his ancestors' services and
his own high qualities endeared William to Charles, who secured
for him, at the age of seventeen, the hand of Anne of Egmont,
heiress of the count of Buren. Anne died in 1558, leaving issue
a son Philip William, prince of Orange and count of Buren,
and a daughter. It was on the shoulder of the young prince of
Orange that Charles V. leant when, in 1555, in the presence
of a great assembly at Brussels, he abdicated, in favour of his
son Philip, the sovereignty of the Netherlands. William was
also selected to carry the insignia of the empire to Ferdinand,
king of the Romans, when Charles resigned the imperial crown.
He had, at the age of twenty-one, been placed by the emperor,
before his abdication, at the head of an army of 20,000 men in
the war with France, and he continued to fill that post under
Philip in 1556, but without distinction. His services, as a
diplomatist, were much more brilliant. He was one of the three
plenipotentiaries who negotiated the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis
(JSSP)) and was largely responsible for bringing about a settle-
ment so favourable to Spanish interests. After the conclusion
of the peace, the prince spent some time at the French court,
in the capacity of a state hostage for the carrying out of the
treaty. It was during his sojourn in France that William by
his discreetness acquired the soubriquet of le Taciturne (the
Silent), which has ever since clung to his name. The appellation
is in no way expressive of the character of the man, who was
fond of conversation, most eloquent in speech, and a master of
persuasion. His two great adversaries of the decade, which
followed the peace of Cateau-Cambresis, were in 1559 closely
associated with him; Granvelle as a plenipotentiary, Alva
as a fellow-hostage.
Up to this time the life of Orange had been marked by lavish
display and extravagance. As a grand seigneur in one of the most
splendid of courts, he surrounded himself with a retinue of gay
young noblemen and dependents, kept open house in his magni-
ficent Nassau palace at Brussels, and indulged in every kind of
pleasure and dissipation. The revenue of his vast estates was
not sufficient to prevent him being crippled by debt. But after
his return from France, a change began to come over Orange.
Philip made him councillor of state, knight of the Golden Fleece,
and stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht; but there
was a latent antagonism between the natures of the two men
which speedily developed into relations of coolness and then of
distrust. The harshness with which the stern laws against
heretics were carried out, the presence of Spanish troops, the
filling up of ministerial offices by Spaniards and other foreigners
had, even before the departure of Philip for Spain (August 1559),
stirred the most influential Netherland noblemen foremost
among them the prince of Orange, and the counts of Egmont
and Hoorn to a policy of constitutional opposition. With the
advent of Margaret of Parma the situation became more serious:
All state business was carried out by the Consulla; all power
virtually placed in the hands of Cardinal Granvelle; the edicts
against heretics enforced with the utmost severity; the number
of bishoprics increased from three to fourteen (see NETHER-
LANDS). As a protest, Orange, Egmont and Hoorn withdrew
From the council of state, and wrote to the king setting forth
their grievances. At this time Orange was still nominally a
Catholic, but his marriage in August 1561 with Anne, daughter
and heiress of the elector Maurice of Saxony, with Lutheran
rites, at Dresden, was significant of what was to come. It
marked the beginning of that gradual change in his religious
opinions, which was to lead William through Lutheranism to
that moderate Calvinism which he professed after 1573. Of the
sincerity of the man during this period of transformation there
can be little doubt. Policy possibly played its part in dictating
he particular moments at which the changes of faith were
acknowledged. No student of the prince's voluminous corre-
spondence can fail, however, to see that he was a deeply religious
man. The charges of insincerity brought against him by his
enemies arise from the fact that in an age of bigotry and fanati-
cism the statesmanlike breadth and tolerance of William's
reatment of religious questions, and his aversion to persecution
or matters of opinion, were misunderstood. His point of view
was in advance of that of his time.
In the spring of 1564 the constitutional opposition of the
real nobles to the policy of the king appeared to be successful.
Iranvelle was withdrawn, the Consulla abolished, and Orange,
igmont and Hoorn took their seats once more on the Council.
t"hey speedily found, however, that things did not mend.
ranvelle had gone, but the royal policy was unchanged. In
WILLIAM OF ORANGE
673
August 1 564 Philip issued an order for carrying out the decrees
of the Council of Trent, and for the strict execution of the
placards against heretics. Protests, letters, personal missions
were in vain, the king's will was not to be moved from its purpose.
The spirit of resistance spread first to the lesser nobles, then to
the people. In the memorable year 1566 came " the Com-
promise," " the Request," the banquet at the Hotel Culemburg
with its cries of " Vivent les Gueux " followed by the wild
iconoclastic riots and outrages by bodies of fanatical Protestant
sectaries at Antwerp and elsewhere. The effect of this last
outbreak was disastrous. Philip was filled with anger and vowed
vengeance. The national leaders drew back, afraid to identify
themselves with revolutionary movements, or the cause of
extreme Protestantism. Egmont was a good Catholic, and took
active steps to suppress disorder, and Orange himself at the
request of the regent betook himself to Antwerp, where the
citizens in arms were on the point of engaging in civil strife.
At the risk of his life the prince succeeded in bringing about an
accord, and as he proclaimed its terms to a sullen and half-hostile
crowd he uttered for the last time the words, " Long live the
King!" It was his final act of loyal service to a sovereign,
who from secret emissaries that he kept at Madrid, he knew to
be plotting the destruction of himself and his friends. In vain
he endeavoured to rouse Egmont to a sense of his danger, and
to induce him and other prominent leaders to take steps, if
necessary by armed resistance, to avert their doom. Finding
all his efforts fruitless William, after resigning all his poets, left
the country (22nd of April 1567), and took up his residence with
his family at the ancestral home of the Nassaus at Dillenburg.
At that very time Alva was quitting Madrid for his terrible
mission of vengeance in the Netherlands (see ALVA). The
story of the Council of Blood and of the executions of Egmont
and Hoorn is told elsewhere. The prince of Orange was out of
reach of the tyrant's arm, but by an act of imprudence he had
left his eldest son, Philip William, count of Buren, studying at
the university of Louvain. He was seized (February 1568) and
carried off to Spain, to be brought up as an enemy to the political
and religious principles of his father. He himself was outlawed,
and his property confiscated. In March he published a lengthy
defence of his conduct, entitled " Justification of the Prince of
Orange against his Calumniators," and meanwhile strained
every nerve to enlist an armed force for the invasion of the
Netherlands. To raise money his brother, John of Nassau,
pledged his estate?, William himself sold his plate and jewels.
An attack was made in three directions, but with disastrous
results. The force under Louis of Nassau indeed gained a victory
at Heiligerlee in Friesland (May 23rd), but met with a crushing
defeat at the hands of Alva in person (July 2ist) at Jemmingen.
All seemed lost, but William's indomitable spirit did not despair.
" With God's help," he wrote to his brother Louis, " I am
determined to go on." In September he himself crossed the
Meuse at the head of 18,000 infantry and 7000 cavalry. But
Alva, while clinging to his steps, refused to fight, and William,
through lack of funds, was compelled to disband his .mercenaries,
and withdraw over the French frontier (November I7th).
Then followed the most miserable period of Orange's life.
In fear of assassination, in fear of creditors, he wandered about
from place to place, and his misfortunes were aggravated by the
bad conduct of his wife, Anne of Saxony, who left him. She was
finally, on the ground of insanity, placed in close confinement
by her own family, and remained incarcerated until her death
six years later. During the years 1 569-1 572 the brothers William
and Louis, the one in Germany, the other in France, were,
however, actively preparing for a renewal of the struggle for the
freedom of the Netherlands. The barbarities of Alva had caused
Spanish rule to be universally hated, and the agents of the
Nassaus were busy in the provinces rousing the spirit of resistance
and trying to raise funds. In 1569 eighteen vessels provided
with letters of marque from the prince of Orange were preying
upon Spanish commerce in the narrow seas. Stimulated by the
hope of plunder their number rapidly grew, until the wild and
fierce corsairs named " Beggars of the sea " (Gueux de mer)
xxvm. 22
became a terror to their enemies. The refusal of Queen Elizabeth
in 1572 tc allow the Beggars to refit in English harbours led to
the first success of the patriot cause. On the ist of April a force
under the command of Lumbres and Tresling, being compelled
to take refuge in the Maas, seized the town of Brill by surprise.
Encouraged by their success they likewise took by assault the
important sea-port of Flushing. Like wildfire the revolt spread
through Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Friesland, and the
principal towns, one after the other, submitted themselves to the
authority of the prince of Orange as their lawful stadtholder.
Louis of Nassau immediately afterwards dashed with a small
force from France into Hainault, and captured Valenciennes
and Mons. In Mons, however, Louis was blockaded by a
superior Spanish force, and eventually forced to surrender.
William crossed the Rhine with 20,000 men to relieve him, but
he was out-generalled by Alva, nearly lost his life during a night
attack on his camp at Harmignies (September nth), and retired
into Holland. Delft became henceforth his home, and he cast
in his lot for good and all with the brave Hollanders and Zee-
landers in their struggle for freedom, " being resolved," as he
wrote to his brother John, " to maintain the affair there as long
as possible and decided to find there my grave." It was his
spirit that animated the desperate resistance that was offered
to the Spanish arms at Haarlem and Alkmaar, and it was through
his personal and unremitting exertions that, despite an attack
of fever which kept him to his bed, the relief of Leiden, on the
3rd of October 1574, was effected just as the town had been
reduced to the last extremity.
In order to identify himself more closely with the cause for
which he was fighting, Orange had, on October 23rd, 1573, made
a public profession of the Calvinist religion. But he was never
a bigot in religious matters. The three conditions which he
laid down as the irreducible minimum on which negotiations
could be based, and from which he never departed, were: (i)
freedom of worship and liberty to preach the Gospel according
to the word of God; (2) the restoration and maintenance of all
the ancient charters, privileges and liberties of the land; (3) the
withdrawal of all Spaniards and other foreigners from all posts
and employments, civil and military. On these points he was
inflexible, but he was a thoroughly moderate man. He hated
religious tyranny whether it were exercised by Papist or Calvinist,
and his political aims were not self-seeking. His object was to
prevent the liberties of the Netherlands from being trampled
underfoot by a foreign despotism, and he did not counsel the
provinces to abjure their allegiance to Philip, until he found the
Spanish monarch was intractable. But when the abjuration
became a necessity he sought to find in Elizabeth of England
or the duke of Anjou, a sovereign possessing sufficient resources
to protect the land from the Spaniard.
William (24th of June 1575) took as his third wife, Charlotte
de Bourbon, daughter of the duke of Montpensier. This marriage
gave great offence to the Catholic party, for Charlotte was a
renegade nun, having been abbess of Jouarre, and Anne of
Saxony was still alive. In April 1 576, an act of Union between
Holland and Zeeland was agreed upon and signed at Delft,
by which supreme authority was conferred upon the prince,
as ad interim ruler. In this year (1576) the outrages of the
Spanish troops in the southern Netherlands, who had mutinied
for want of pay, caused a revulsion of feeling. The horrors of
the " Spanish Fury " at Antwerp (November 4th) led to a
definite treaty being concluded, known as the Pacification of
Ghent, by which under the leadership of the prince of Orange, the
whole seventeen provinces bound themselves together to drivt
the foreigners out of the country. This was supplemented by
the Union of Brussels (January 1577) by which the Southerners
pledged themselves to expel the Spaniards, but to maintain the
Catholic religion and the king's authority. To these conditions
William willingly assented; he desired to force no man's con-
science, and as yet he professed to be acting as stadtholder
under the king's commission. On September 23rd he entered
Brussels in triumph as the acknowledged leader of the whole
people of the Netherlands, Catholic as well as -Protestant, in
5
674
WILLIAM II. OF ORANGE
their resistance to foreign oppression. At this moment he
touched the zenith of his career. It was, however, but a short-
lived position of eminence. After the entry into Brussels
followed the period of tangled intrigue during which the archduke
Matthias, the duke of Anjou, the palatine count John Casimir
and Don John of Austria were all striving to secure for themselves
a position of supremacy in the land. William had to steer a
difficult course amidst shoals and quicksands, and never did his
brilliant talents as diplomatist and statesman shine more
brightly. But after the sudden death of Don John he found
himself face to face with an opponent of abilities equal to his own
in the person of Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, appointed
governor general by Philip. Farnese skilfully fomented the
jealousy of the Catholic nobles of the south the Malcontents
against the prince of Orange, and the Pacification of Ghent was
henceforth doomed. The Walloon provinces bound themselves
together in a defensive league, known as the league of Arras
(Sth of January 1579) and by the exertions of John of Nassau
(at that time governor of Gelderland) Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht,
Gelderland and Zutphen replied by signing (29th of January)
the compact known as the Union of Utrecht. William still
struggled to keep the larger federation together, but in vain.
The die was now cast, and the Northern and Southern Nether-
lands from this time forward had separate histories.
On the 25th of March 1581 a ban was promulgated by King
Philip against the prince of Orange, in which William was de-
nounced as a traitor and enemy of the human race, and a reward
of 25,000 crowns in gold or land with a patent of nobility was
offered to any one who should deliver the world of this pest.
William replied in a lengthy document, the Apology, in which he
defended himself from the accusations brought against him, and
on his part charged the Spanish king with a series of misdeeds
and crimes. The Apology is valuable for the biographical details
which it contains. William now felt that his struggle with
Philip was a war & outrance, and knowing that the United Pro-
vinces were too weak to resist the Spanish armies unaided, he
endeavoured to secure the powerful aid of France, by making
the duke of Anjou sovereign of the Netherlands. Holland and
Zeeland were averse to this project, and to conciliate their
prejudices Orange, provisionally, and after some demur, accepted
from those provinces the offer of the countship (24th of July
1581). Two days later the representatives of Brabant, Flanders,
Utrecht, Gelderland, Holland and Zeeland assembled at The
Hague, solemnly abjured the sovereignty ef Philip, and agreed to
accept the French duke as their sovereign in his place. Anjou
was solemnly inaugurated by the prince in person at Antwerp,
as duke of Brabant, on the i9th of February 1582. While at
Antwerp an attempt was made upon William's life (March i8th)
by a Biscayan youth, named Juan Jaureguy. Professing to offer
a petition he fired a pistol at the prince's head, the ball passing
in at the right ear and out by the left jaw. After hanging for
some time between life and death, William ultimately recovered
and was able to attend a thanksgiving service on the 2nd of May.
The shock and anxiety proved, however, fatal to his wife, Char-
lotte de Bourbon. She expired on the 5th of May after a very
short illness.
The French sovereign soon made himself impossible to his new
subjects, and the hopes that William had based upon Anjou were
sorely disappointed. The duke was dissatisfied with his position,
aimed at being an absolute ruler, and tried to carry his ambitious
ideas into effect by the treacherous attack on Antweip, which
bears the name of the " French Fury." Its failure rendered
Anjou at once ridiculous and detested, and his shameless mis-
conduct brought no small share of opprobrium on William him-
self. The trusty Hollanders and Zeelanders remained, however,
staunchly loyal to him, and Orange now fixed his residence
permanently in their midst. On the 7th of April 1583 he married
in fourth wedlock Louise de Coligny, daughter of the famous
Huguenot leader, and widow of the Seigneur de Teligny. With
her, " Father William," as he was affectionately styled, settled
at the Prinsenhof at Delft, and lived like a plain, homely Dutch
burgher, quietly and unostentatiously, as became a man who had
spent his all in his country's cause, and whose resources were now
of the most modest description.
Ever since the promulgation of the ban and the offer of a
reward upon his life, religion and political fanaticism had been
continually compassing his assassination, and the free access
which the prince ga.ve to his person offered facilities for such a
purpose, despite the careful watch and ward kept over him by
the burghers of Delft and his own household. He was shot dead
by a Burgundian, Balthazar Gerard, on the gth of July 1584,
as he was leaving his dining hall. Gerard was moved by devoted
loyalty to his faith and king, and endured the torments of a
barbarous dea th with supreme courage and resignation. William
was buried with great pomp at the public charges in the Neuwe
Kerk at Delft amidst the tears of a mourning people.
William the Silent was tall and well formed, of a dark com-
plexion, with brown hair and eyes. He was the foremost states-
man of his time, capable of forming wise and far-reaching plans
and of modifying them to suit the changing circumstances in
which it was necessary to put them in execution. In moments
of difficulty he displayed splendid resource and courage, and he
had a will of iron, which misfortunes were never able to bend or
break. To rescue the Netherlands from the tyrannical power
of Spain, he sacrificed a great position, vast wealth and eventu-
ally his life. He had the satisfaction, however, of knowing before
he died that the cause for which he had endured so much and
striven so hard had survived many dangers, and had acquired
strength to offer successful resistance to the overwhelming
power of King Philip. He was the real founder of the independ-
ence and greatness of the Dutch republic.
He left a large number of children. By Anne of Egmont he had
a son Philip William, who was kidnapped from Louvain (1567)
and educated at Madrid, and a daughter. By Anne of Saxony,
a son Maurice (see MAURICE OF NASSAU, prince of Orange) and
two daughters. By Charlotte de Bourbon, six daughters. By
Louise de Coligny, one son, Frederick Henry (see FREDERICK
HENRY, prince of Orange).
See Genhard, Correspondance de Guillaume le Taciturne; Groen von
Prinsterer, Archives ou correspondance inedile de la maison d' Orange-
Nassau; Commelin, Wilhelm en Maurits van Nassau, prinsen van
Orangien, haer leven en bedrijf; Meursius, Gulielmus Auriacus;
Putnam, William the Silent, Prince of Orange, the Moderate Man of the
Sixteenth Century; Harrison, William the Silent; Vorsterman van
Oyen, Het Vorstenhuis Orange-Nassau; Delaborde, Charlotte de
Bourbon, princesse d' Orange; Delaborde, Louise de Coligny, princesse
d 'Orange; Blok, Geschiedenis van net Nederlandsche Volk, vol. ii. ;
R. Fruin, Het voorspel van den tachtigjatigen oorlog; Motley, Rise of
the Dutch Republic; Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii. cc. vi.,
vii. (G. E.)
WILLIAM II. (1626-1650), prince of Orange, born at The
Hague on the 27th of May 1626, was the son of Frederick Henry,
prince of Orange, and his wife Amalia von Solms, and grandson
of William the Silent. By the act of survivance passed in 1631
the offices and dignities held by Frederick Henry were made
hereditary in his family. On the I2th of May 1641 William
married, in the royal chapel at Whitehall, Mary, princess royal
of England, eldest daughter of King Charles I. At the time of
the wedding the bridegroom was not yet fifteen years old, the
bride was five years younger. William from his early youth
accompanied his father in his campaigns, and already in 1643
highly distinguished himself in a brilliant cavalry fight at
Burgerhout (September 5). On the death of Frederick Henry
William succeeded him, not only in the family honours and
possessions, but in accordance with the terms of the act of
survivance in all his official posts, as stadtholder of Holland,
Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Overyssel and Groningen and
captain-general and admiral-general of the Union. At the
moment of his accession to power the negotiations for a separate
treaty of peace with Spain were almost concluded, and peace was
actually signed at Munster on the 3oth of January 1648. By
this treaty Spain recognized the independence of the United
Netherlands and made large concessions to the Dutch. William,
who had always been bitterly opposed to the policy of abandoning
the French alliance in order to gain better terms from Spain, did
his utmost to prevent the ratification, but matters were too far
WILLIAM THE BRETON WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY 675
advanced for his interposition to prevail in the face of the deter-
mination of the states of Holland to conclude a peace so advan-
tageous to their trade interests. William, however, speedily
opened secret negotiations with France in the hope of securing
the armed assistance of that power for the carrying out of his
ambitious projects of a war of aggrandisement against the Spanish
i Netherlands and of a restoration of his brother-in-law, Charles 11.,
to the throne of England. The states of Holland, on the other
hand, were determined to thwart any attempts for a renewal of
war, and insisted, in defiance of the authority of the captain-
general supported by the states-general, in virtue of their claim
to be a sovereign province, in disbanding a large part of the
regiments in their pay. A prolonged controversy arose, which
ended in the states-general in June 1650 commissioning the
prince of Orange to visit the towns of Holland and secure a
recognition of their authority. The mission was unsuccessful.
Amsterdam refused any hearing at all. William resolved
therefore to use force and crush resistance. On the 3oth ot
July six leading members of the states of Holland were seized
and imprisoned in the castle of Loevestein. On the same day
an attempt was made to occupy Amsterdam with troops. The
citi/.ens were, however, warned in time, and the gates closed.
\\ illiam's triumph was nevertheless complete. Cowed by the
bold seizure of their leaders, the states of Holland submitted.
The prince bad now obtained that position of supremacy in the
republic at which he had been aiming, and could count on the
support alike of the states-general and of the provincial states
for his policy. He lost no time in entering into fresh negotiations
with the French government, and a draft treaty was already
early in October drawn up in Paris and the Count d'Estrades
i ommissioned to deliver it in person to the prince of Orange.
It was, however, never to reach his hands. William had, on the
8th of October, after his victory was assured, gone to his hunting
seat at Dieren. Here on the 27th he became ill and returned
to The Hague. The complaint proved to be small-pox, and on
the 6th of November he died. William was one of the ablest
of a race rich in great men, and had he lived he would
probably have left his mark upon history. A week after his
death his widow gave birth to a son, who was one day to become
William III., king of England. (G. E.)
WILLIAM THE BRETON (c. n6o-c. 1225), French chronicler
and poet, was as bis name indicates born in Brittany. He was
educated at Mantes and at the university of Paris, afterwards
becoming chaplain to the French king Philip Augustus, who
employed him on diplomatic errands, and entrusted him with
the education of his natural son, Pierre Chariot. William is
supposed to have been present at the battle of Bouvines. His
works are the Philippide and the Gesta Philippi II. regis Fran-
' coruin. The forme'', a poem three versions of which were written
by the author, gives some very interesting details about Philip
Augustus and his time, including some information about
military matters and shows that William was an excellent Latin
scholar. In its final form the Gesta is an abbreviation of the work
of Rigord (g.r.), who wrote a life of Philip Augustus from 1179
to 1206, and a continuation by William himself from 1207 to
1 2 20. In both works William speaks in very laudatory terms
of the king; but his writings are valuable because he had personal
knowledge of many of the facts which he relates. He also v/rote
a poem Karlotis, dedicated to Pierre Chariot, which is lost.
William's works have been edited with introduction by H. F.
Delaborde as CEuvres de Rigord el de Guillaume le Breton (Paris,
1882-1885), an d have been translated into French by Guizot in
Collection des memoires relatifs & I'histoire de France, tomes xi. and
xii. (Paris, 1823-1835). See Delaborde's introduction, and A.
Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (Paris, 1903).
WILLIAM THE CLITO (1101-1128) was the son of Robert,
duke of Normandy, by his marriage with Sibylla of Conversano.
After his father's defeat and capture by Henry I. of England at
the battle of Tinchebrai (1106) the young William fell into the
hands of the conqueror. Henry magnanimously placed his
nephew in the custody of Helias of Saint Saens, who had married
a natural daughter of Duke Robert. Fearing for the safety
of the boy, Helias carried him, in mi, to the court of Louis VI.
of France. That sovereign joined with the discontented Norman
barons and others of Henry's enemies in recognizing William as
the rightful claimant to the duchy; Robert, a prisoner whom
there was no hope of releasing, they appear to have regarded as
dead in the eye of the law. William's claims furnished the pretext
for two Norman rebellions. The first which lasted from 1112 to
1 1 20 was abetted by Louis, by Fulk V. of Anjou and by Baldwin
VII. of Flanders. In the second, which broke out during 1123,
Henry I. had merely to encounter the forces of his own Norman
subjects; his diplomatic skill had been successfully employed
to paralyse the ill-will of other enemies. In 1122 or 1123 William
married Sibylle, daughter of Fulk of Anjou, and with her received
the county of Maine; but Henry I. prevailed upon the Curia
to annul this union, as being within the forbidden degrees.
In 1127, however, the pretender obtained from Louis the hand
of Johanna of Montferrat, half-sister of the French queen, and
the vacant fief of Flanders. His own rigorous government or the
intrigues of Henry I. raised up against William a host of rebels;
a rival claimant to Flanders appeared in the person of Thierry
or Dirk of Alsace. In besieging Alost, one of the strongholds
of the rival party, William received a wound which mortified
and proved fatal (July 28, 1128). He left no issue; although
Duke Robert survived him and only died in 1134, the power
of Henry I. was thenceforth undisputed by the Normans.
See Ordericus Vitalis, Hist, ecclesiastica, and Sir James Ramsay's
Foundations of England, vol. ii. (1898).
WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY (c. io8o-c. 1143), English
historian of the i2th century, was born about the year 1080,
in the south country. He had French as well as English blood
in his veins, but he appears to have spent his whole life in England,
and the best years of it as a monk at Malmesbury. His tastes
were literary, and the earliest fact which he records of his career
is that he assisted Abbot Godfrey (1081-1105) i n collecting a
library for the use of the community. The education which
he received at Malmesbury included a smattering of logic and
physics; but moral philosophy and history, especially the latter,
were the subjects to which he devoted most attention. Later
he made for himself a collection of the histories of foreign
countries, from reading which he conceived an ambition to
produce a popular account of English history, modelled on the
great work of Bede. In fulfilment of this idea, William produced
about 1 1 20 the first edition of his Gesta regum, which at once gave
him a reputation. It was followed by the first edition of the
Gesta ponlificum (1125). Subsequently the author turned aside
to write on theological subjects. A second edition of the Gesta
regum (1127) was dedicated to Earl Robert of Gloucester, whose
literary tastes made him an appreciative patron. William also
formed an acquaintance with Bishop Roger of Salisbury, who
had a castle at Malmesbury. It may have been due to these
friends that he was offered the abbacy of Malmesbury in 1140.
But he preferred to remain a simple bibliothecarius. His one
public appearance was made at the council of Winchester (1141),
in which the clergy declared for the empress Matilda. About
this date he undertook to write the Historia norella, giving an
account of events since 1125. This work breaks off abruptly
at the end of 1142, with an unfulfilled promise that it will be
continued. Presumably William died before he could redeem
his pledge.
He is the best English historian of his time. The master of
a good Latin style, he shows literary instincts which are, for his
time, remarkably sound. But his contempt for the annalistic
form makes him at times careless in his chronology and arbitrary
in his method of arranging his material; he not infrequently
flies off at a tangent to relate stories which have little or no
connexion with the main narrative; his critical faculty is too
often allowed to lie dormant. His researches were by no means
profound; he gives us less of the history of his own time than
we have a right to expect far less, for example, than Orderic.
He is, however, an authority of considerable value from 1066
onwards; many telling anecdotes, many shrewd judgments on
persons and events, can be gleaned from his pages.
6 7 6
WILLIAM OF NANGIS WILLIAM OF ST CALAIS
Printed Works. The Gesta regum covers, in its final form, the
years 449-1127. But the later recensions add little, beyond fulsome
dedications to Earl Robert, to the edition of 1 120. The sources used
are not always easy to trace. But for the pre-Conquest period
William had at his disposal the works of Bede, Ado of Vienne and
William of Jumieges; one or more English chronicles similar to the
extant " Worcester " and " Peterborough " texts; Asser's life of
Alfred, and a metrical biography of ^Ethelstan; the chronicles of
S. Riquier and Fontanelle ; a collection of tales relating to the reign
of the emperor Henry III.; and the lives of various saints. For
the life of William I. he draws on William of Poitiers; for the first
crusade he mainly follows Fulcher of Chartres; his knowledge of
Anselm's primacy comes mainly from Eadmer; and at least up to
1 100, he makes use of an English chronicle. The fifth and last book,
dealing with the reign of Henry I., is chiefly remarkable for its de-
sultoriness and an obvious desire to make the best case for that
monarch, whose treatment of Anselm he prudently ascribes to
Robert of Meulan (d. 1118). Both in this work and in the Gesta
pontificunt the later recensions are remarkable for the omission of
certain passages which might give offence to those in high places.
The deleted sentences usually relate to eminent persons ; they some-
times repeat scandal, sometimes give the author's own opinion.
The Gesta pontificum gives accounts of the several English sees and
their bishops, from the beginning to about 1120; the later recensions
continue the work, in part, to 1140. Many saints of the south and
midlands are also noticed. This work, like the Gesta regum, contains
five books; the fifth relates the life and miracles of St Aldhelm of
Malmesbury, and is based upon the biography by Abbot Faricius;
it is less useful than books i.-iv., which are of the greatest value to
the ecclesiastical historian. The Historia novella is annalistic in form.
It was projected soon after the battle of Lincoln, as an apology for the
supporters of the empress. The author embarks on special pleading
in favour of Earl Robert and Bishop Roger of Salisbury, but shows
a certain liking for the personal character of Stephen, whose case
he states with studious fairness.
The historical works of William of Malmesbury were edited by
Savile in his Scriptores post Bedam (London, 1596); but the text of
that edition is full of errors. Sir T. D. Hardy edited the Gesta regum
and Historia novella for the English Historical Society in 1840, and
put the criticism of the manuscripts on a sound basis. But the
standard edition of these works is that of W. Stubbs in the " Rolls "
series (l vol., in 2, 1887-1889); the second part of this edition
contains a valuable introduction on the sources and value of the
chronicler. The Gesta pontificum has been edited for the " Rolls "
series by N. G. S. A. Hamilton (London, 1870) from a manuscript
which he was the first to identify as the archetype. Another work,
De antiquitate Glastoniensis ecclesiae (A.D. 63-1126), is printed in
Gale's Scriptores XV. (Oxford, 1601). Wharton in the second
volume of his Anglia- sacra (London, 1691) gives considerable portions
of a life of Wulfstan which is an amplified translation of an Anglo-
Saxon biography. Finally Stubbs in his Memorials of St Dunstan
(" Rolls " series, London, 1874) prints a Vita S. Dunstani which was
written about 1126.
Unprinted Extant Works. Among these are Miracles of the Virgin ;
Liber super explanationem lamentationum Yeremiae prophetae;
an abridgment of Amalarius' De diyinis officiis; De dictts et factis
mem,orabilibus philosophorum ; an epitome of the Historia of Haymo
of Fleury and some other works, historical and legal (autograph in the
Bodleian) ; Lives of the English Saints. The MSS. of these works are
to be found partly in the British Museum, partly in the Bodleian.
Lost Works. A Vita Sancti Palricii and Miracula Sancti Benigni
are mentioned in the prologue to the book on Glastonbury; a
metrical life of St jElfgyfu is quoted in the Gesta pontificum;
Chronica tribus libellis are mentioned in the prologue to the Historia
novella, and a fragment of them is apparently preserved in the Brit.
Mus. Lansdowne MS. 436. Leland gives extracts from an Itine-
rarium Johannis abbatis, describing the journey of Abbot John to
Rome in 1140 (Leland, Collectanea, lii. 272). (H. W. C. D.)
WILLIAM OF NANGIS (d. 1300), French chronicler, was a
monk in the abbey of St Denis. About 1285 he was placed
in charge of the abbey library as custos cartarum, and he died
in June or July 1300. Having doubtless done some work on the
Latin manuscripts on which the Grandes Chroniques de France
are based, William wrote a long Chronicon, dealing with the
history of the world from the creation until 1300. For the
period before 1113 this work merely repeats that of Sigebert
of Gembloux and others; but after this date it contains some
new and valuable matter.
William's other writings are : Gesta Ludovici IX. ; Gesta Philippi
HI., sive Audacis; Chronicon abbreviatum regum Francorum; and a
French translation of the same work written for the laity. Making
use of the large store of manuscripts at St Denis, William was a com-
piler rather than an author, and with the exception of the latter
part of the Chronicon his writings do not add materially to our know-
ledge of the time. Both his chronicles, however, became very popular
and found several continuators, Jean de Joinville being among those
who made use of the Chronicon. This work from 1113 to 1300,
with continuations to 1368, has been edited by H. Geraud for the
Society de I'histoire de France (Paris, 1843), and practically all
William's writings are found in tome xx. of Dom Bouquet's Recveil des
historiens des Gaules et tie la France (Paris, 1738-1876). A French
translation of the Chronicon is in tome xiii. of Gui/ot's Collection des
m&moires relatifs d I'histoire de France (Paris, 1823-1835).
See A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica (Berlin, 1896); and A.
Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (Paris, 1903).
WILLIAM OF NEWBURGH (d. c. 1198), or, as he is sometimes
styled, Guillelmus Parvus, English ecclesiastic and chronicler,
was a canon of the Augustinian priory of Newburgh in the North
Riding of Yorkshire. He was born about 1136, and lived at
Newburgh from his boyhood. Shortly before 1196 he began his
Historia rerum Anglicarum. This work, divided into five books,
covers the period 1066-1198. A great part of it is derived from
known sources, especially from Henry of Huntingdon, Jordan
Fantosme, the Itinerarium regis Ricardi, or its French original,
and a lost account, by Anselm the chaplain, of the captivity of
Richard I. The value of Newburgh's work lies in his estimates of
men and situations. Except for the years 1154-1173 and the
reign of Richard he records few facts which cannot be found
elsewhere; and in matters of detail he is prone to inaccuracy.
But his political insight and his impartiality entitle him to a high
place among the historians of the I2th century.
See the editions of the Historia by H. C. Hamilton (2 vols. , London,
1856) and by R. Hewlett in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, &c.
(" Rolls " series, 1884-1885), vols. i. and ii. In the latter edition a
continuation, the Annales Furnesienses (1190-1298), composed by a
monk of Furness Abbey, Lancashire, is also given. See also Sir T. D.
Hardy's Descriptive Catalogue (" Rolls " series, 1865), ii. p. 512; and
H. E. Salter in the English Historical Review, vol. xxii. (1907).
(H.W.C. D.)
WILLIAM OF POITIERS (c. io2o-c. 1090), Norman chronicler,
was born at Preaux, near Pont Audemer, and belonged to an
influential Norman family. After serving as a soldier he studied
at Poitiers, and then returning to Normandy became chaplain
to Duke William (William the Conqueror) and archdeacon of
Lisieux. He wrote an eulogistic life of the duke, the earlier and
concluding parts of which are lost; and Ordericus Vitalis, who
gives a short biography of him in his Historia ecclesiastica, says ,
that he also wrote verses. William's Gesta Guilclmi II. duds
Normannorum, the extant part of which covers the period between
1047 and 1068, is valuable for details of the Conqueror's life,
although untrustworthy with regard to affairs in England.
According to Freeman, " the work is disfigured by his constant
spirit of violent partisanship." It was written between 107
and 1077, and was used by Ordericus Vitalis.
The Gesta was first published by A. Duchesne in the Historii
Normannorum Scriptores (Paris, 1619); and it is also found in the
Scriptores rerum gestarum Willelmi Conquestoris of J. A. Giles
(London, 1845). There is a French translation in tome xxix. of
Guizot's Collection des memoires relatifs a I'histoire de France (Paris,
1826). See G. Korting, Wilhelms von Poitiers Gesta Guilelmi duds
(Dresden, 1875) ; and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France,
tome iii. (Paris, 1903).
WILLIAM OF ST CALAIS (CARILEF) (d. 1096), bishop of
Durham and chief counsellor of William Rufus, was a Norman
monk and prior of St Calais in Maine, who received the see of
Durham from the Conqueror (1081). In Durham annals he is
honourably remembered as the prelate who designed the existing
cathedral, and also for his reform of ecclesiastical discipline.
His political career is less creditable. Honoured with the special
confidence of William Rufus he deserted his patron's cause at
the first sign of rebellion, and joined with Odo of Bayeux in
urging Duke Robert of Normandy to claim the crown (1088).
After the collapse of this plot William was put upon his trial
before the Great Council. He claimed the right to be judged by
his fellow-bishops alone ; this claim being rejected he appealed to
the see of Rome. This was the first case of an appeal to the
pope from an English tribunal which had occurred since the
7th century. Rufus and Lanfranc did not venture to dispute
the right of appeal, but contended that the bishop, as a royi
vassal, could not appeal against the forfeiture of his temporalitii
These were confiscated, and William left the kingdom, but
more was heard of his appeal, and in 1091 he regained the roy
ni
:;
WILLIAM "OF TYRE "WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM 677
favour and his see. Thenceforward he showed the utmost
subservience. He managed the king's case against Anselm, and
at Rockingham (1095) actually claimed the right of appeal, when
it was claimed by the archbishop. Notwithstanding his zeal for
the royal interests, William was soon afterwards disgraced. He
died in January 1096.
See E. A. Freeman, William Rufus (1882), and Synteon of Durham,
vol. i. pp. 170-195 (Rolls ed.).
WILLIAM (c. H30-C. 1190), archbishop of Tyre and chronicler,
belonged to a noble French family and was probably born in
Palestine about 1 130. This, however, is only an inference from his
works, borne out by the fact that he had seen Ralph, the patriarch
of Antioch, who died about 1141; that he seems to call himself a
contemporary historian from the accession of Baldwin III. to the
throne of Jerusalem, an event which he places in November
1142; and that he remembered the fall of Edessa in 1144.
Unfortunately the chapter (xix. 12) which relates to his early
life has been excised or omitted from every extant manuscript
of his Historia, and this remark holds good, not only for the
original Latin, but also for the French translation of the I3th
century. William was still pursuing his studies in Europe when
Amalric I. became king of Jerusalem in 1162, but he returned
to Palestine towards the close of 1166, or early in 1167, and was
appointed archdeacon of Tyre at the request of Amalric in August
1167. In i i 68 he was sent on an embassy, the forerunner of
several others, to the emperor Manuel I. at Constantinople, and
in 1169, at the time of the disastrous campaign against Damietta,
he was obliged to take refuge in Rome from the " unmerited
anger " of his archbishop. But he was soon in Palestine again, and
about 1170 he was appointed tutor to Amalric's son, Baldwin,
afterwards King Baldwin IV. Towards the end of 1 174, soon after
Baldwin's accession to the throne, he was made chancellor of
the kingdom of Jerusalem, an office which he held until 1183,
and less than a year later (May 1175) he was consecrated arch-
bishop of Tyre. He was one of those who went to negotiate
with Philip I., count of Flanders, in 1177, and in 1179 he was one
of the bishops who represented the Latin Church of the East at
the Lateran council in Rome. On his return to Palestine he
stayed seven months at Constantinople with Manuel. This is
William's last appearance in history, but he was writing his history
in 1181, and this breaks off abruptly at the end of 1183 or early
in 1184. He died probably between 1187 and 1190. About
fifty years later one of his continuators accused Heraclius, the
patriarch of Jerusalem, of procuring his death by poison at Rome,
but this story appears to be legendary. Equally untrustworthy
is the theory which identifies William with the archbishop of Tyre
sent to Europe to preach a new crusade in 1188. It is true that
Matthew Paris speaks of the English king, Henry II., as receiving
the cross from the hands of Willelmus episcopus Tyrensis; but
more contemporary writers omit the Christian name, while
others write it Josce or Joscius.
If not the greatest, William of Tyre is at least among the greatest,
of medieval historians. His Historia rerum in parlibus transmarinis
ges'arum, or Historia Hierosolymitana or Belli sacri historic, covers the
period between 1095 and 1184, and is the main authority for the
history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem between 1127, where
Fulcher of Chartres leaves off, and 1 1 83 or 1 1 84, where Ernoul takes
up the narrative. It was translated into French in the I3th century,
or possibly before the end of the I2th, and this translation, known as
the Chronique d'outremer, or Livre d' Erodes or Livre du conquest, is
quoted by Jean de Joinville, and increased by various continuations,
is the standard account of the exploits of the French warriors in the
East. William's work consists of twenty-two books and a fragment
of another book ; it extends from the preaching of the first crusade by
Peter the Hermit and Pope Urban II. to the end of 1183 or the
beginning of 1184. It was undertaken at the request of Amalric,
who was himself a lover of history and who supplied the author with
Arabic manuscripts, and William says of it, in this work we have
had no guide, whethe-- Greek or Arab, but have had recourse to
traditions only, save as regards a few things that we ourselves have
seen." The traditions " here referred to must be taken to include
the Gesta Francorum of Tudebode, the writings of Fulcher of Chartres,
of Baudry of Bourgueil and, above all, of Albert of Aix. From the
beginning to about 114^ the Historia is taken from these writers;
from 1144 to the end it is contemporary and original.
William also wrote Historia de ortentalibus principibus. This
work, which is now unfortunately lost, was partly based upon the
Arabic chronicle of a certain Said-ibn-Batrik (d. 940), patriarch of
Alexandria.
No medieval writer, except perhaps Giraldus Cambrensis, possesses
William's power of delineating the physical and mental features of
his heroes. Very few, moreover, had his instinctive insight into what
would be of real value to future ages; genealogy, topography,
archaeology, social life, both political and ecclesiastical, and military
and naval matters all find due exposition in his pages. It is hardly
too much to say that from his work alone a fairly detailed map of the-
Levant, as it was in the I2th century, might be constructed ; and it i-.
impossible to praise too highly the scrupulous fidelity with which he
defines nearly all the technical terms, whether relating to land or sea,
which he uses. His chief fault is in his chronology, where, indeed, he-
is often at discord with himself. In the later books of the Historia
his information, even regarding events taking place beyond the Nile
or the Euphrates as well as in Europe, is singularly exact.
His powers of industry were exceptionally great, and although a
man of much learning and almost certainly acquainted with Greek
and Arabic, he is as ready to enliven his pages with a homely proverb
as he is to embellish them with quotations from Cicero, Virgil, Ovid
or Plato. A prelate of pious character, he was inclined to see the
judgment of God on the iniquities of his fellow-countrymen in every
disaster that overtook them and in every success which attended the
arms of the Saracens.
As Belli sacri historia the Historia rerum was first published in 1549
at Basel. More recent editions are in J. P. Migne's Patrolotia Latino.,
tome cci., and in the " Recueil des historiens des croisades," Hist,
occid.i. (Paris, 1844). Manuscripts are in the British Museum, London,
and in Corpus Chnsti College, Cambridge. It has been translated into
German by E. and R. Kausler (Stuttgart, 1848); into French in
Guizot's Collection des memoires, tomes xvi., xviii. (Paris, 1824);
into Italian and into Spanish. An English translation has been made
for the Early English Text Society by M. N. Colvin (London, 1893).
See the Histoire littiraire de la France, tome xiv. (1869) ; B. Kugler,
Studien zur Geschichte des zweiten Kreuzzuges (Stuttgart, 1866);
H. Prutz, Studien uber Wilhelm von Tyrus (Hanover, 1883); and
H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881).
WILLIAM OF VALENCE (d. 1296), brother of Henry III. of
England, was a son of John's widow, Isabelle of Angoule'me,
by her second marriage. William came to England with his
brothers in 1247, and at once became a court favourite. He
married Joan de Munchensi, the heiress to the Pembroke
estates, whence he is sorr. Jtimes styled earl of Pembroke.
In 1258 he was attacked by the baronial opposition and forced
to leave England. He returned in 1261, after Henry III. had
repudiated the Provisions of Oxford, and fought on the royal side
at Lewes (1264). Escaping from the pursuit of the victorious
Montfortians, he later appeared at the head of a small army in
Pembrokeshire. This gave the signal for the outbreak of a new
civil war which ended with the defeat of Montfort at Evesham
(1265). Valence accompanied Prince Edward to the Holy Land
and, in later years, became a trusted agent of the crown, especially
in the Welsh wars. The position of his estates made him the
natural leader of all expeditions undertaken against Llewelyn
from South Wales. He was also employed in Aquitaine.
He died at Bayonne in 1296. Despite his oriein he had
become, in course of time, a respected leader of the baronage;
and as a military commander rose high above the average
level.
See R. Pauli's Geschichte von England, vol. iii. (Hamburg, 1853);
W. H. Blaauw, Barons' War (1871).
WILLIAM OF WYKEKAM (1323-1404), English lord chan-
cellor and bishop of Winchester. William de Wykham, as he
is called in earlier, William Wykeham in later life, has been
variously guessed to be the son of a freedman carpenter, and an
illegitimate son of Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer (Notes
and Queries, loth s. i. 222). In sober truth (Life by Robert
Heete in Reg. Winch. Coll. c. 1430) he was born at Wickham,
Hants, in 1323 or 1324, son of John, whose name was probably
Wykeham, but nicknamed Long, who was " endowed with the
freedom of his ancestors," and " according to seme " had a
brother called Henry Aas. His mother Sibyl was " of gentle
birth," a daughter of William Bowate and granddaughter of
William Stratton of Stratton, Hants. His education at Win-
chester, no doubt in the Great Grammar school or High school
in Minster Street, was paid for by some patron unnamed by the
biographer, perhaps Sir Ralph Sutton, who is named first by
Wykeham among his benefactors to be prayed for by his colleges.
That he was, as stated by Archdeacon Thomas Martin, the
678
WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM
author of a Life of Wykeham, published in 1597, taught classics,
French and geometry by a learned Frenchman on the site of
Winchester College, is a guess due to Wykeham's extant letters
being in French and to the assumption that he was an architect.
After some unspecified secular employment, Wykeham became
" under-notary (vice tabellio) to a certain squire, constable of
Winchester Castle," probably Robert of Popham, sheriff of
Hampshire, appointed constable on the 25th of April 1340, not
as commonly asserted Sir John Scures, the lord of Wykeham,
who was not a squire but a knight, and had held the office from
1321, though, from Scures being named as second of his bene-
factors, Wykeham perhaps owed this appointment to his influence.
" Two or three years afterwards, namely after he was twenty,"
Wykeham " was transferred to the king's court," i.e. c. 1343.
Wykeham has been credited (Gent. Mag. Ixxxv. 189) with the
living of Irstead, Norfolk, of the king's gift on the I2th of July
1349. But apart from the fact that this Wykeham is described
in the grant as " chaplain," the probate of his will on the 8th of
March 1376-1377 (Norwich Reg. Heydon, f. 139) shows that he
was a different person (H. Chitty in Notes and Queries, loth ser.
iv. 130). Our Wykeham first appears in the public records in
. 1350 as keeper of the manor of Rochford, Hants, during the
minority of the heir, William Botreaux.
On the i2th of October 1352 Henry Sturmy of Elvetham,
sheriff and escheator of Hants, and frequently a justice in eyre
for the forests of Hants and Wilts, at Winchester, describes
William of Wykeham as " my clerk " in a power of attorney
dated at Winchester, to deliver seisin of lands in Meonstoke
Ferrand, Hants, which he had sold to William of Edyndon,
bishop of Winchester (Win. Coll. Lib. H. 249). On the loth of
November (not December as Lowth, Life of Wykeham, 14)
Edyndon, by a letter dated at London, appointed William of
Wykeham, clerk (not " my clerk " as Kirby, Archaeol. 57, ii. 292,
where the deed is also misdated 1353), his attorney to take
seisin of lands in Meonstoke Tour, Hants, which he had bought
from Alice de Roche, daughter of William of Tour (ibid. f. 250).
These lands were afterwards bought by Wykeham and given to
Winchester College. On the i4th of April 1353 (Claus. 29 E-. III.
m. 29 d) Wykeham served as attorney of John of Foxle, of
Bramshill, Hants, son of Thomas of Foxle, constable of Windsor
Castle, in acknowledging payment of a debt due from John of
Palton, sheriff of Somerset and of Hants. On the isth of April
1356 schedules touching the New Forest and other forests in
Hants and Wilts were delivered out of the Tower of London to
William of Wykeham to take to the justices in eyre (Claus. 30
E. III. m. 19 d). In the same year on the 24th of August Peter-
atte-Wode and William of Wykeham, clerk, were appointed
keepers of the rolls and writs in the eyre for the forests of Hants
and Wilts, of which Henry Sturmy was one of the justices. On
the loth of May 1356 Wykeham first appears in the direct
employment of the king, being appointed clerk of the king's
works in the manors of Henley and Yeshampsted (Easthamp-
stead) to pay all outgoings and expenses, including wages of
masons and carpenters and other workmen, the purchase of stone,
timber and other materials, and their carriage, under the view
of one controller in Henley and two in Easthampstead. On the
8th of June Walter Nuthirst and Wykeham were made com-
missioners to keep the statute of labourers and servants in the
b'berty of the Free Chapel (St George's), Windsor. On the 3Oth
of October 1356 Wykeham was appointed during pleasure sur-
veyor (supervisor) of the king's works in the castle of Windsor,
for the same purposes as at Henley, with power to take workmen
everywhere, except in the fee of the church or those employed
in the king's works at Westminster, the Tower of Dartford, at
the same wages as Robert of Bernham, probably Burnham, Bucks,
who had been appointed in 1353, used to have, viz. is. a day
and 33. a week for his clerk. He was to do this under supervision
of Richard of Teynton, John le Peyntour (the painter) and
another. From this appointment it has been inferred that
Wykeham was the architect of the " Round Table " at Windsor,
which has been confused with the Round Tower, and a story
which is first told by Archbishop Parker, writing thirty years
>l
i
afterwards (Antiq. Brit. Eccles. ed. 1729, p. 383), relates that
Wykeham nearly got into trouble for inscribing on it, " This made
Wickam," which he only escaped by explaining that it did not
mean that Wykeham made the tower, but that the tower was
the making of Wykeham. But Wykeham had nothing to do
with building either the Round Tower or the Round Table.
The Round Tower, called the High Tower in Wykeham's day,
is the Norman Keep. It was being refitted for apartments for
the king and queen a little before Wykeham's time, and his first
accounts include the last items for its internal decoration
including 28 stained glass windows. The Round Table,
building 200 ft. in diameter for the knights of the Round Table,
who preceded the knights of the Garter, had been built in 1344
(Citron. Angl. " Rolls " ser. No. 61, p. 17) when Wykeham had
nothing to do with Windsor. The inscription, " This made
Wykeham," did exist on a small square tower in the Middle
Bailey formerly known as Wykeham Tower, now entirely rebuilt
with the inscription recopied and known as Winchester Tower.
But it could hardly be of sufficient importance to cause Wykeham
to play the sphinx, and the story is apparently due to the Eliza-
bethan love of quips. All that was built during the five years,
1356 to 1361, when Wykeham was clerk of the works, were the
new royal apartments, two long haHs and some- chambers in
the upper ward, quite unconnected with and east of the Round
Tower, and a gateway or two leading to them, the order for
building which was given on the ist of August 1351 (Pipe Rol
30 Ed. III.). The accounts of Robert of Bernham, Wykeham';
predecessor, who was a canon of St George's Chapel (Le Neve':
Fasti, iii. 378), are extant, and from the payments of is. a da;
to Mr John Sponle, mason and orderer or setter-out (ordinator
of the king's works, and Geoffrey of Carlton " appareller "
the carpentry work, it is clear that they, and not Bernham, we;
the architects and builders. Canon Bernham was only th
paymaster and overlooker to see that men and materials w
provided and to pay for them. While in 1353-1354 1440 an<
in 1355-1356 747 was expended under the supervision
Robert of Bernham, in 1357-1358 867 was spent by Wykeham
including Winchester Tower. In 1358-1359 the expenditu
rose to 1254, while between the 6th of June 1360 and the I2t
of April 1361 it amounted to 2817. The chief items were a ne 1
Great Gate with two flanking towers, a belfry for St George':
Chapel and houses in the Lower Bailey, probably for the canon:
and in the Upper Bailey, probably for the royal household
On the ist of November 1361 Wykeham was succeeded as cler!
of the works by William of Mulsho, another canon of Windsor
who afterwards succeeded him also as dean of St Martin-1
Grand. Under Wykeham, William of Wynford, who appea
in 1360 as " appareller " under Sponle, in 1361 became chi
mason and ordinator, and he was probably what we should c
the architect of the Great Gate, the rest of which was built und
Wykeham's supervision. For wherever we find Wykeha:
building afterwards, we find Wynford as chief mason. Whe
Wykeham was provost of Wells, Wynford was retained
architect on the ist of February 1364-1365 at a fee of 405.
year and 6d. a day when in Wells (Wells, Lib. Abb. f. 253). H
was architect to Abingdon Abbey (at a fee of 3, 6s. 8d. and
furred robe) in 1375-1376 when the existing Outer Gate of th
abbey was built (Abingdon Obed. Ace. Camd. Soc., 1892). H
was chief mason for Wykeham's works at Winchester Cathedr;
and for Winchester College, where his portrait may be see
in the east window of the chapel, and where his contract wit
the clerk of the works, an ex-scholar of the college, for
building of the outer gate, is still preserved.
The ascription to Wykeham of the invention of the Perpen
dicular style of medieval architecture is now an abandom
theory. In so far as he gave vogue to that style the credit
must be given to William of Wynford, not to William of Wyke-
ham. At all events he had very little to do with building
Windsor Castle. How far he really was responsible for the other
great castle attributed to him, that of Queenborough Castle
in the Isle of Sheppey, cannot be tested, as the building accounts
for it are only partially extant. The account from the ist of
WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM
679
November 1361 to 1362 shows Simon of Bradstede, clerk of the
works, then expending 1773, of which 100 was received by
the hands of William of Wykeham at the exchequer, and that
from 1369 shows Bernard Cokles, clerk of the works, expending
2306. The chief evidence cited in support of the theory that
Wykeham owed his advancement to his skill as an architect is
the remark in a tract Why Poor Priests have no benefices that
" Lords will not present a clerk able of cunning of God's law
and good life and holy ensample . . . but a kitchen clerk or a
fancy clerk or wise in building castles or worldly doing, though
he cannot well read his psalter." This tract has been attributed
to Wycliffe, but without adequate authority, and it is thought
to be of later date, and if Wykeham is meant by the castle-
building clerk it only shows that popular repute is no guide to
fact. That Wykeham, who was clearly an extremely good man
of business, should, when clerk of the works, have played a
considerable part in determining what works should be done and
the general character of the buildings with which he was con-
nected, we may believe; but to think that this attorney and
notary, this keeper of the king's dogs (2oth Aug. 1356, Devon's
Issues of the Exchequer, 163) and of the king's forests, this carrier
of rolls and paymaster at the exchequer, was also the architect
of Windsor and Queenborough Castles, of Winchester Cathedral
and College, is to credit Wykeham with a superhuman combina-
tion of knowledge, of training and of functions.
That he gave great satisfaction to the king when once he was
appointed surveyor at Windsor in 1356 is unquestionable. He
is first called king's clerk on the I4th of November 1357, when
he was given is. a day, beyond the wages he was already receiving
for his offices at Windsor and elsewhere, " until peacefully
advanced to some benefice." Ecclesiastical benefices were the
chief means by which, before the Reformation, the civil servants
of the crown were paid for services which, being clerical, were
also ecclesiastical, and for which the settled stipends were wholly
inadequate. In his accumulation of benefices Wykeham seems
to have distanced all his predecessors and successors, except
perhaps John Maunsell, the chancellor of Henry III., and Thomas
Wolsey, the chancellor of Henry VIII., the latter being a pluralist
not in canonries and livings but in bishoprics.
Wykeham's first benefice was the rectory of Pulham, the
richest in Norfolk, worth 53 a year, or some 1600 of our money,
to which he was presented on the 3oth of November 1357.
But this was not a " peaceful " advancement, for it was only in
the king's patronage by reason of the temporalities of the see
of Ely having been seized into the king's hands the year before,
on account of the bishop being implicated in certain murders
and robberies, which he denied, contesting the king's action in
the papal court. On the i6th of April 1359 the king gave
Wykeham a pension of 20 a year from the exchequer until he
could obtain peaceful possession of Pulham. On this, and what
may have been a similarly contested presentation to the canonry
and prebend of Flixton in Lichfield cathedral on the ist of
M;irch 1359, repeated on the 22nd of August 1360, and supported
by a mandate to the new bishop on the 29th of January 1361,
Wykeham's latest biographer (George Herbert Moberly, Life of
\V\kcham, 1887, 2nd ed., 1893) has built an elaborate story of
Wykeham's advancement being opposed by the pope because
he was the leader of a national party against papal authority in
England. The baselessness of this is clear when we find that
Wykeham had obtained from Innocent VI., on the 27th of
January 1357, an indulgence to choose his own confessor (Cal.
Pap. Reg.), and on the 8th of July 1358 (Cal. Pap. Pel. i. 331)
asked and obtained a papal provision to this very church of
Pulham on the ground that it had passed to the pope's patronage
by the promotion of its former possessor to the see of London.
In spite of papal and royal authority, it is doubtful whether
Wykeham obtained peaceful possession of Pulham till again
presented to it by the king on the loth of July 1361 after the
bishop of Ely's death. The difficulty as to the prebend of
Flixton was no doubt something of the same kind. Between
bishop, pope and king the next vacant prebend in every great
church was generally promised two or three deep before it was
vacant, and the episcopal and chapter registers are full of the
contests which ensued.
Wykeham's civil offices rapidly increased. On the Ides
(iSth) of March 1359 a French fleet sacked Winchelsea, carrying
off the women and girls. On the icth of July 1359 Wykeham
was made chief keeper and surveyor, not only of Windsor, but
of the castles of Dover, Iladley and Leeds (Kent), and of the
manors of Foliejohn, Eton, Guildford, Kennington, Sheen (now
Richmond), Eltham and Langly and their parks, with power
to repair them and to pay for workmen and materials. On the
zoth of February 1360, when another French invasion was
feared, the bailiff of Sandwich was ordered to send all the lead
he had to Wykeham for the works at Dover. In April the
sheriffs of four batches of counties were each ordered to send
forty masons to Wykeham at Windsor. This secular activity
was rewarded by presentation to the deanery of St Martin-le-
Grand, with an order for induction on the 2ist of May, on which
day he was commissioned to inquire by a jury of men of Kent
into the defects of the walls and tower of Dover (Pat. 34 E. III. pt.
i. m. 12). On the isth of August he was directed to hand over
40 given him for the purpose, to a successor, the treaty of
Bretigny having been made meanwhile and confirmed at Calais
with Wykeham as one of the witnesses on the 24th of October.
In January 1361 building work at Windsor was vigorously
resumed, and again the sheriffs were ordered to contribute their
quotas of 40 freestone masons and 40 cementarii to Wykeham's
charge. On the I3th of February, on the joint petition of the
kings of England and of France, the pope " provided " Wyke-
ham to a canonry and dignity at Lincoln, notwithstanding his
deanery and a prebend at Llandaff . On the 2nd of April four com-
missioners were appointed to superintend the construction of
the new castle ordered in the Isle of Sheppey, which when
finished was called Queenborough, the purchases and payments,
not the works, being under the beloved clerk, Wykeham. In
this year came the second visitation of the Black Death, the
Second Plague, as it was called, and carried off four bishops and
several magnates, with many clerics, whose vacated preferments
were poured on Wykeham. The bishop of Hereford being dead,
on the 1 2th of July 1361, the king presented Wykeham to a
prebend in Hereford cathedral, and on the 24th of July to one
in Bromyard collegiate church; the bishop of St David's being
dead, prebends in the collegiate churches of Abergwilly and
Llandewybrewi were given him on the i6th of July. On the
nth of August the pope, on the king's request, provided him
with a prebend in St Andrew's Auckland collegiate church.
This Mr Moberly curiously misrepresents as action against
Wykeham. He in fact never obtained possession of it, probably
because the pope had already " provided " it to Robert of
Stretton, a papal chaplain, who, however, asked in January
1362 for a canonry at Lincoln instead, because he was " in fear
and terror of a certain William of Wykeham." On the 24th of
September 1361 the king gave Wykeham a prebend in Beverley
Minster, on the ist of October the prebend of Oxgate in St
Paul's (which he exchanged for Tattenhall on the loth of
December), on the 22nd of November a prebend in St David's
cathedral, on the 2oth of December a prebend in Wherwell
Abbey, Hants. So far the Patent Rolls. The Salisbury records
show him also admitted to a prebend there on the i6th of August,
which he exchanged for other prebends on the 9th and isth
of October. All these clerical preferments Wykeham held when
he was a simple clerk, who had no doubt undergone the " first
tonsure," but was not even ordained an acolyte till the 5th of
December of this golden year. He added to his civil offices
during the year that of clerk (officium cirograffie) of the exchequer
on the 24th of October. On the gth of October he acted as
attorney to the king in the purchase of the manor of Thunderley,
Essex. Next year, 1362, he entered holy orders, being ordained
subdeacon on the i2th of March and priest on the i2th of June;
and adding to his canonries and prebends one in Shaftesbury
Abbey on the isth of July and another in Lincoln cathedral
on the 20th of August. Wykeham meanwhile was acting as
keeper of the forests south of Trent and as a trustee for Juliana,
68o
WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM
countess of Huntingdon. Next year, 1363, he was made a canon
of the collegiate church in Hastings Castle on the 3rd of February,
and of the royal chapel of St Stephen's, Westminster, then newly
founded, or re-founded, on the 2ist of April. He obtained the
archdeaconry of Northampton on the 26th of April, and resigned
it on the I2th of June, having been promoted to that of Lincoln,
the richest of all his preferments, on the 23rd of May. On the
3ist of October he was made a canon of York, and on the isth
of December provost of the fourteen prebends of Combe in Wells
cathedral, while at some date unknown he obtained also prebends
in Bridgenorth collegiate church and St Patrick's, Dublin, and
the rectory of Menheniot in Cornwall. On the 5th of May 1364
he became privy seal, and in June is addressed by the new pope.
Urban V., as king's secretary. On the I4th of March 1365 he
was given 205. a day from the exchequer " notwithstanding
that he is living in the household." He was so much the king's
factotum that Froissart (i. 249) says " a priest called Sir William
de Wican reigned in England ... by him everything was done
and without him they did nothing." In fact, as privy seal he
was practically prime minister, as Thomas Cromwell was after-
wards to Henry VIII. On the 7th of October 1366, William
Edingdon, the treasurer of England and bishop of Winchester,
died; on the I3th of October Wykeham was recommended
by the king to the chapter of monks of St Swithun's cathedral
priory and elected bishop.
A long story has been made out of Pope Urban V.'s delay in
the recognition of Wykeham, which has been conjectured to
have been because of his nationalist proclivities. But little
more than the ordinary delays took place. On the ist of
December the king, " for a large sum of money paid down,"
gave Wykeham, not only the custody of the temporalities of the
see, but all the profits from the day of Edingdon's death. On
the nth the pope granted him the adminisf ration of the spiritu-
alities. The papal court was then moving from Avignon to
Rome, and on the I4th of July 1367 the bull of " provision "
issued at Viterbo. Wykeham was in no hurry himself, as it
was not till the loth of October 1367 that he was consecrated,
nor till the 9th of July 1368, after the war parliament which
met on the 3rd of June had been dissolved on the loth of June,
that he was enthroned. Meanwhile he had been made chancellor
on the 1 7th of September 1367 thus at the age of forty-three
he held the richest ecclesiastical, and the best-paid civil, office
in the kingdom at the same time. The war in France was
disastrous, how far through Wykeham's fault we have no means
of knowing. When parliament again met in 1371, the blame
was laid on the clerical ministers, under the influence of Wyciiffe.
He had been born in the same year as Wykeham, and like him
had profited by papal provisions to prebends in 1361, but had
since led an attack on papal and clerical abuses. Parliament
demanded that laymen only should be chancellor, treasurer,
privy seal and chamberlain of the exchequer. On the 8th of
March 1372 Wykeham resigned the chancellorship, and Bishop
Brantingham of Exeter the treasurership, and laymen were
appointed in their places, though Sir Robert Thorp, who became
chancellor, was master of Pembroke Hall at Cambridge, and as
much a cleric as Wykeham had been when he was dean of St
Martin-le-Grand and surveyor of Windsor Castle.
As soon as he became bishop Wykeham had begun his career
as founder. In 1367 (Pat. 41 E. III. pt. 2, m. 5) he purchased
the estates of Sir John of Boarhunt, near Southwick, with which
he endowed a chantry in Southwick Priory for his parents. Next
year he began buying lands in Upsomborne, Hants, which he
gave to Winchester College, and in Oxford, which he gave to
New College. On the ist of September 1373 he entered into
an agreement (Episc. Reg. iii. 98) with Master Richard of Herton
" gramaticus " for ten years faithfully to teach and instruct the
poor scholars, whom the bishop maintained at his own cost, in
the art of grammar, and to provide an usher to help him. Mean-
while the war with France was even more unsuccessful under the
lay ministry and John of Gaunt. In the parliam.ent of 1373
Wykeham was named by the Commons as one of the eight peers
to treat with them on the state of the realm. In the parliament
~
and
*"
;
v
which met on the i2th of February 1376, Lord Latimer and
Alice Ferrers, the king's mistress, a lady of good birth, and not
(as the mendacious St Albans chronicler alleged) the ugly but
persuasive daughter of a tiler, were impeached, and Wykeham
took a leading part against Latimer, even to the extent of
opposing his being allowed counsel. At the dissolution of
parliament a council of nine, of whom Wykeham was one, was
appointed to assist the king. But on the 8th of June the Black
Prince died. Alice Ferrers returned. John of Gaunt called a
council on the i6th of October to impeach Wykeham on articles
which alleged misapplication of the revenues, oppressive fines
on the leaders of the free companies, taking bribes for the release
of the royal French prisoners, especially of the duke of Bourbon,
who helped to make him bishop, failing to send relief to Pontbieu
and making illegal profits by buying up crown debts cheap.
He was condemned on one only, that of halving a fine of 80
paid by Sir John Grey of Rotherfield for licence to alienate lands,
and tampering with the rolls of chancery to conceal the transac-
tion. Wykeham's answer was that he had reduced the fine
because it was too large, and that he had received nothing for
doing so. Skipwith, a judge of the common pleas, cited a statute
under which for any erasure hi the rolls to the deceit of the king
100 marks fine was imposed for every penny, and so Wykeham
owed 960,000 marks. Wykeham was convicted, and on the
1 7th of November his revenues were seized and bestowed on
the isth of March 1377 on the young prince Richard, and he
ordered not to come within 20 m. of the king. He " brake
household . . . sending also to Oxford, whear upon almose
for God's sake he found 70 scollers, that they should depart to
their frendis for he could no longer help or finde them " (Chron.
Angliae, Ixxx.). But when convocation met in 1377 the bishops
refused to proceed to business without Wykeham, and he w;
fetched back from Waverley Abbey. He was exempted, howeve:
from the general pardon issued on the occasion of Edward III.'s
jubilee. But on the i3th of June the prince restored his tempor-
alities, on condition of his maintaining three galleys with
men-at-arms and 50 archers for three months, or providing t
wages of 300 men. The St Albans monk says that this
obtained by a bribe to Alice Ferrers. Meonstoke Ferrers,
of the endowment of Winchester College, was certainly bough
on the 1 2th of June 1380 from Sir William Windsor, hi
husband, whose name seems to be derived from Windsor,
near Southampton water. As Hampshire people they may ha'
helped Wykeham. But as Wykeham was of the party of
Black Prince and his widow Joan of Kent, no dea ex machi;
was needed.
On the 2ist of June 1377 Edward III. died. Wykeham wi
present at the coronation of Richard II. on the igth of July
and on the 3 ist of July full pardons were granted him under tl
privy seal, which at the request of Richard's first parliament wi
ratified under the great seal on the 4th of December 1377. Wyk<
ham at once took an active part in the financial affairs of the ne'
king, giving security for his debts and himself lending 500 mark
afterwards secured on the customs (Pat. 4 Rich. II. pt. i. m. 4)
He then set to work to buy endowments for Winchester am
New Colleges. On the 3Oth of June he obtained licence i
mortmain and on the 26th of November issued his charter
foundation of " Seynt Marie College of Wynchestre in Oxenford
for a warden and 70 scholars to study theology, canon and ci
law and arts, who were temporarily housed in various old hi
On the 5th of March 1380 the first stone was laid of the presen
buildings, which were entered on by the college on the I4th
April 1386. The foundation of Winchester was begun with a b
of Pope Urban VI. on the ist of June 1378, enabling Wykeha
to found " a certain college he proposed to establish for 70 pot
scholars, clerks, who should live college-wise and study in gram
maticals near the city of Winchester," and appropriate to ii
Downton rectory, one of the richest livings belonging to hi
bishopric. The bull says that the bishop " had, as he assert
for several years administered the necessaries of life to schola:
studying grammar in the same city." On the 6th of Octobe
1382 the crown licence in mortmain was issued, on the ioth-i3
WILLIAMS, JOHN
681
of October the site was conveyed, and on the zoth of October
1382 " Sancte Marie collegium " or in vulgar tongue " Seinte
Marie College of Wynchestre by Wynchestre " was founded for a
warden and " 70 pore and needy scholars studying and becoming
proficient in grammaticals or the art and science of grammar."
The first stone of the buildings was laid on the z6th of March
1388, and they were entered on by the scholars on the 28th of
March 1394, not, as supposed at the quincentenary celebration
in 1893, in 1393. While the new buildings were being erected,
the college remained in the parish of " St John the Baptist on
the Kill " of St Giles, supplying scholars to New College then
as since. A reference to this in a letter of Wykeham's of the
8th of April 1388 has given rise to the creation of an imaginary
college of St John the Baptist at Winchester by the Rev. W.
Hunt (Die. Nat. Biog. sub. " Chicheley "). The foundation was on
the model of Merton and Queen's colleges at Oxford, to which
grammar schools were attached by their founders, while fellows
of Merton were the first wardens of both of Wykeham's colleges.
Both were double the size of Merton, and the same size as the
Navarre college of the queen of France and Navarre, founded
at Paris in 1304, which also contained a school. But each of
Wykeham's colleges contained as many members as the French
queen's. The severance of the school which was to feed the
college exclusively, placing it not at Oxford, but at Winchester,
and constituting it a separate college, was a new departure of
great importance in the history of education. Ten fellows and
16 choristers were added in 1394 to the 70 scholars, the choristers
attending the school like the scholars, and being generally,
during the first three centuries of the foundation, promoted to be
scholars. The original statutes have not come down to us.
Those which governed the colleges until 1857 were made in 1400.
They state that the colleges were provided to repair the ravages
caused by the Black Deaths in the ranks of the clergy, and for
the benefit of those whose parents could not without help main-
tain them at the universities, and the names of the boys ap-
pointed by Wykeham and in his time show that " poor and
indigent " meant the younger sons of the gentry, and the sons
of yeomen, citizens of Winchester or London, and the middle
classes generally, who needed the help of exhibitions.
The time which elapsed between the foundation and com-
pletion of the colleges may be attributed to Wykeham's pre-
occupation with politics in the disturbed state of affairs, due to
the papal schism begun in 1379, in which England adhered to
Urban VI. and France to Clement VII., to the rising of the
Commons in 1381, and the wars with France, Scotland and
Spain during John of Gaunt's ascendancy. Then followed the
constitutional revolution of the lords appellant in 1388. When
Richard II. took power on himself, on the 3rd of May 1389, he
at once made Wykeham chancellor, with Brantingham of Exeter
again as treasurer. Wykeham's business capacity is shown
perhaps by the first record of the minutes of the privy council
being kept during his term of office, and his promulgation in
1390 of general orders as to its business. At least one occasion
is recorded in the minutes on which Wykeham, on behalf of the
council, took a firm stand against Richard II. and that in spite
of the king's leaving the council in a rage. Peace was made with
France in August. On the meeting of parliament in January
1390 Wykeham resigned the great seal; and asked for an
inquiry into the conduct of the privy council, and on being assured
that all was well resumed it. He now showed that he had not
by his charities wronged his relations by settling on his great-
nephew and heir Thomas Wykeham, whom he had educated at
Winchester and New College, Broughton Castle and estates,
still held by his descendants in the female line, the family of
Twisleton-Wykeham-Fiennes (peerage of Saye and Sele). In
July 1391 he obtained a papal bull enabling him to appoint at
pleasure coadjutors to do his episcopal business.
On the 27th of September 1391, Wykeham finally resigned the
chancellorship. For three years after there are no minutes of
the Council. On the 24th of November 1394 Wykeham lent the
king the sum of 1000 (some 30,000 of our money), which same
sum or another 1000 he promised on the 2ist of February 1395
to repay by midsummer, and did so (Pat. 18, Rich. II. pt. ii.
m. 23, 41). The murder of the duke of Gloucester, Richard's
uncle, in 1397, was followed next year by the assumption of
absolute power by Richard. Wykeham was clearly against these
proceedings. He excused himself from convocation in 1397,
and from the subservient parliament at Shrewsbury in 1398.
The extraordinary comings and goings of strangers to Winchester
College, just opposite the gates of the bishop's palace at Wolvesey
in 1399, suggest that he took part in the revolution of Henry IV.
He appeared in the privy council four times at the beginning of
Henry's reign (Proc. P.C. i. 100). On the 23rd of July 1400 he
lent Henry IV. 500 for his journey towards Scotland, and in
1402 another 500, while a general loan for the war with France
and Scotland on the ist of April 1403 was headed by Wykeham
with 1000, the bishop of Durham lending 1000 marks
(666, 133. 4d.). and no one else more than 500. Meanwhile
on the 29th of September 1394 he had begun the recasting of the
nave of the cathedral with William Wynford, the architect of
the college, as chief mason, and Simon Membury, an old Wyke-
hamist, as clerk of the works. On the 24th of July 1403, he
made his will, giving large bequests amounting to some 10,000
(300,000 of our money), to friends and relations and every kind
of religious house. On the i6th of August 1404, he signed an
agreement with the prior and convent for three monks to sing
daily three masses in his beautiful chantry chapel in the nave of
the cathedral, while the boys of the almonry, the cathedral
choir-boys, were to say their evening prayers there for his soul.
He died on the 2 7th of September 1404, aged eighty.
His effigy in the cathedral chantry and a bust on the groining of the
muniment tower at Winchester college are no doubt authentic
portraits. The pictures at Winchester and New College are late
16th-century productions. Three autograph letters of his, all in
French, and of the years 1364-1366, are preserved, one at the British
Museum, one at the Record Office, a third at New College, Oxford.
A fourth letter imputed to Wykeham at the British Museum is shown
alike by its contents and its handwriting not to be his.
See Thomas Martin, Wilhelmi Wicami (1597); R. Lowth, Life
of Wykeham (1736); Mackenzie E. C. Walcott, William of Wyke-
ham and his Colleges (1852); T. F. Kirby, Annals of Winchester
College (1892) ; G. H. Moberly, Life of Wykeham (1887) ; A. F. Leach,
History of Winchester College (1899); and the Calendars of Patent
and Close Rolls. Edward III. and Richard II. (A. F. L.)
WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650), English archbishop and lord
keeper, son of Edmund Williams of Conway, a Welsh gentleman
of property, was born in March 1582 and educated at St John's
College, Cambridge. He was ordained about 1605, and in 1610
he preached before King James I., whose favour he quickly
gained by his love of compromise. The result was the rapid
promotion of Williams in the church; he obtained several
livings besides prebends at Hereford, Lincoln and Peterborough.
In 1617 he became chaplain to the king, in 1619 dean of Salisbury,
and in the following year dean of Westminster. On the fall of
Bacon in 1621 Williams, who had meantime ingratiated himself
with the duke of Buckingham, was appointed lord keeper, and
was at the same time made bishop of Lincoln, retaining also
the deanery of Westminster. As a political adviser of the king
682
WILLIAMS, JOHN WILLIAMS, ROGER
Williams consistently counselled moderation and compromise
between the unqualified assertion of the royal prerogative and
the puritan views of popular liberties which were now coming
to the front. He warned Buckingham and Prince Charles of the
perils of their project for the Spanish marriage, and after their
return from Madrid he encountered their resentment by opposing
war with Spain. The lord keeper's counsel of moderation was
less pleasing to Charles I. than it had been to his father. The
new king was offended by Williams's advice to proceed with
caution in dealing with the parliament, with the result that
within a few months of Charles's accession the Great Seal was
taken from Williams. In the quarrel between the king and the
Commons over the petition of right, Williams took the popular
side in condemning arbitrary imprisonment by the sovereign.
In the matter of ecclesiastical administration he similarly
followed a middle course; but he had now to contend against the
growing influence of Laud and the extreme high church party.
A case was preferred against him in the Star Chamber of revealing
state secrets, to which was added in 1635 a charge of subornation
of perjury, of which he had undoubtedly been guilty and for
which he was condemned in 1637 to pay a fine of 10,000, to be
deprived of the temporalities of all his benefices, and to be
imprisoned during the king's pleasure. He was sent to the
Tower. In 1639 he was again condemned by the Star Chamber
for libelling Laud, a further heavy fine being imposed for this
offence. In 1641 he recovered his liberty on the demand of the
House of Lords, who maintained that as a peer he was entitled
to be summoned to parliament. When the Long Parliament
met, Williams was made chairman of a committee of inquiry
into innovations in the church; and he was one of the bishops
consulted by Charles as to whether he should veto the bill for
the attainder of Straff ord. In December 1641 the king, anxious
to conciliate public opinion, appointed Williams archbishop of
York. In the same month he was one of the twelve bishops
impeached by the Commons for high treason and committed to
the Tower. Released on an undertaking not to go to Yorkshire,
a promise which he did not observe, the archbishop was en-
throned in York Minster in June 1642. On the outbreak of the
Civil War, after visiting Conway in the Royalist interest, he
joined the king at Oxford; he then returned to Wales, and
finding that Sir John Owen, acting on Charles's orders, had
seized certain property in Conway Castle that had been deposited
with the archbishop for safe-keeping, he went over to the Parlia-
mentary side and assisted in the recapture of Conway Castle
in November 1646. Williams, who was a generous benefactor
of St John's College, Cambridge, died on the 25th of March 1650.
WILLIAMS, JOHN (1796-1839), English Nonconformist
missionary, was born at Tottenham near London on the 29th of
June 1796. He was trained as an ironmonger, and acquired
considerable experience in mechanical work. Having offered
himself to the London Missionary Society, he was sent, after
some training, in 1816 to Eimeo, in the Society Islands, where
he rapidly acquired a knowledge of the native language. After
staying there for a short time, he finally settled at Raiatea,
which became his permanent headquarters. His success as a
missionary here and elsewhere was remarkable. The people
rapidly became Christianized and adopted many of the habits
of civilization. Williams was fairly liberal for his age, and the
results of his labours among the Pacific Islands were essentially
beneficial. He travelled unceasingly among the various island
groups, planting stations and settling native missionaries whom
he himself had trained. From the Society Islands he visited
the Hervey group, where he discovered, and stayed for a con-
siderable time on, the island of Rarotonga. Most of the in-
habitants of the group were converted in a remarkably short
time, and Williams's influence over them, as over the people of
other groups, was very great. Besides establishing Christianity
and civilization among them, he also, at their own request,
helped them to draw up a code of laws for civil administration
upon the basis of the new religion. While at Rarotonga he,
with the help of the natives, built himself a 6o-ft. ship, " The
Messenger of Peace," within about four months; with this he
returned to Raiatea, and made voyages among other island
groups, including Samoa and the neighbouring islands. Williams
returned to England in 1834 (having previously visited New
South Wales in 1821); and during his four years' stay at home
he had the New Testament, which he had translated into Raro-
tongan, printed. Returning in 1838 to the Pacific, he visited
the stations already established by him, as well as several fresh
groups. He went as far west as the New Hebrides, and, while
visiting Eromanga, one of the group, for the first time, was
murdered by cannibal natives on the 2oth of November 1839.
His Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands
was published in 1837, and formed an important contribution to our
knowledge of the islands with which the author was acquainted.
See Memoir of John Williams, by Ebenezer Prout (London, 1843) ;
C. S. Horne, The Story of the L.M.S., pp. 41-54.
WILLIAMS, ROGER (c. 1604-1684), founder of the colony of
Rhode Island in America and pioneer of religious liberty, son of
a merchant tailor, was born (probably) about 1604 in London.
It seems reasonably certain thatjhe was educated, under the
patronage of Sir Edward Coke, at the Charter House and at
Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he received his degree in
1627. According to tradition (probably untrue), he studied law
under Sir Edward Coke; he certainly devoted himself to the study
of theology, and in 1629 was chaplain to Sir William Masham
oi Otes, in the parish of High Laver, Essex, but from conscientious
scruples, in view of the condition of ecclesiastical affairs in
England at the time, refused preferment. He soon decided to
emigrate to New England, and, with his wife Mary, arrived at
Boston early in February 1631. In April he became teacher of
the church at Salem, Mass., as assistant to the Reverend Samuel
Skelton. Owing to the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities
at Boston, with whose views his own were not in accord, he
removed to Plymouth in the summer, and there remained for two
years as assistant pastor. In August 1633 he again became
assistant teacher at Salem, and in the following year succeeded
Skelton as teacher. Here he incurred the hostility of the
authorities of the Massachusetts Bay Colony by asserting,
among other things, that the civil power of a state could properly
have no jurisdiction over the consciences of men, that the King's
patent conveyed no just title to the land of the colonists, which
should be bought from its rightful owners, the Indians, and that
a magistrate should not tender an oath to an unregenerate man,
an oath being, in reality, a form of worship. For the expression
of these opinions he was formally tried in July 1635 by the
Massachusetts General Court, and at the next meeting of the
General Court in October, he not having taken advantage of the
opportunity given to him to recant, a sentence of banishment
was passed upon him, and he was ordered to leave the juris-
diction of Massachusetts within six weeks. The time was
subsequently extended, conditionally, but in January 1636 an
attempt was made to seize him and transport him to England,
and he, forewarned, escaped from his home at Salem and pro-
ceeded alone to Manton's Neck, on the east bank of the Seekonk
river. At the instance of the authorities at Plymouth, within
whose jurisdiction Manton's Neck was included, Williams, with
four companions, who had joined him, founded in June 1636 the
first settlement in Rhode Island, to which, in remembrance of
" God's merciful providence to him in his distress," he gave the
name Providence. He immediately established friendly relations
with the Indians in the vicinity, whose language he had learned,
and, in accordance with his principles, bought the land upon
which he had settled from the sachems Canonicus (c. 1565-1647)
and Miantonomo. His influence with the Indians, and their
implicit confidence in him, enabled him in 1636, soon after
arriving at Providence, to induce the Narragansets to ally
themselves with the Massachusetts colonists' at the time of the
Pequot War, and thus to render a most effective service to those
who had driven him from their community. Williams and his
companions founded their new settlement upon the basis
complete religious toleration, with a view to its becoming
shelter for persons distressed for conscience " (see RHC
ISLAND) . Many settlers came from Massachusetts and elsewhe
WILLIAMS, ROWLAND WILLIAMSBURG
683
among others some Anabaptists, by one of whom in 1639 Williams
w;is baptized, he baptizing others in turn and thus establishing
what has been considered the first Baptist church in America.
Williams, however, maintained his connexion with this church
for only three or four months, and then became what was known
as a " Seeker," or Independent, though he continued to preach.
In June 1643 he went to England, and there in the following
year obtained a charter for Providence, Newport and Ports-
mouth, under the title " The Providence Plantations in the
Nurragansett Bay." He returned to Providence in the autumn
of 1644, and soon afterwards was instrumental in averting an
k by the Narragansets upon the United Colonies of New
England and the Mohegans. In 1646 he removed from
Providence to a place now known as Wickford, R.I. He was at
various times a member of the general assembly of the colony,
acted as deputy president for a short time in 1649, was president,
or governor, from September 1654 to May 1657, and was an
assistant in 1664, 1667 and 1670. In 1651, with John Clarke
(1609-1676), he went to England to secure the annulment of
a commission which had been obtained by William Coddington
for the government of Rhode Island (Newport and Portsmouth)
and Connecticut, and the issue of a new and more explicit charter,
and in the following year succeeded in having the Coddington
commission vacated. He returned in the summer of 1654,
having enjoyed the friendship of Cromwell, Milton and other
prominent Puritans; but Clarke remained in England and in
1663 obtained from Charles II. a new charter for "Rhode
Island and Providence Plantations." Williams died at Provi-
dence in March or April 1684; the exact date is unknown.
Though headstrong, opinionative and rigid in his theological
views, he was uniformly tolerant, and he occupies a high place
among those who have striven for complete liberty of conscience.
He was the first and the foremost exponent in America of the
theory of the absolute freedom of the individual in matters of
religion; and Rhode Island, of which he was pre-eminently the
founder, was the first colony consistently to apply this principle
in practice.
Williams was a vigorous controversialist, and published, chiefly
during his two visits to England, besides A Key into the Language of
the Indians of America (written at sea on his first voyage to England
(1643) ; reprinted in vol. i. of the Collections of the Rhode Island
Historical Society (1827), and in series i. vol. iii. of the Massachusetts
Historical Society Collections); Mr Cotton's Letter Examined and
Answered (1644); The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for the Cause of
Conscience (1644); Queries of Highest Consideration (1644); The
Bloudy Tenent yet more Bloudy (1652); The Hireling Ministry none
of Christ's (1652); Experiments of Spiritual Life and Health(i(>52) ;
and George Fox Digged out of his Burrowes (1676).
Mis writings have been republished in the Publications of the
Narragansett Club (6 vols., Providence, 1866-1874), the last volume
containing his extant letters, written between 1632 and 1682. The
best biographies are those by Oscar Straus (New York, 1894) and
5. J. Carpenter (ibid. 1910). Also see J. D. Knowles, Memoir of
Roger Williams (Boston, 1834), and Elton, Life of Roger Williams
(London, 1 852 ; Providence, 1 853) ; New England Hist, and Gen. Regis-
ter, July and October 1889, and January 1 899; and M.C. Tyler, History
of American Literature, 1607-1765 (New York, 1878). For the best
apology for his expulsion from Massachusetts, see Henry M. Dexter's
As to Roger Williams and his "Banishment "from the Massachusetts
Plantation (Boston, 1876), an unsuccessful attempt to prevent
Massachusetts from revoking the order of banishment.
WILLIAMS, ROWLAND (1817-1870), English divine and
scholar, was born at Halkyn, Flint, the son of Rowland Williams
(d. 1854), canon of St Asaph, and educated at Eton and Cam-
bridge. He was elected fellow of King's College, Cambridge,
in 1839, and took orders in 1842. During the next few years he
actively opposed the amalgamation of the sees of St Asaph and
Bangor. In 1850 he became vice-principal and Hebrew lecturer
at St David's College, Lampeter, where he introduced much-
needed educational and financial reforms. He was appointed
select preacher of Cambridge University in 1854, and preached a
sermon on inspiration, afterwards published in his Rational
Godliness after the Mind of Christ and the Written Voices of the
Church (London, 1855). He was charged with heterodoxy, and
Alfred Ollivant (1798-1882), bishop of Llandaff, required him
to resign his chaplaincy, but he remained at the college in spite
of these difficulties. His views were further denned in Christi-
anity and Hinduism (Cambridge, 1856), an expansion of the Muir
prize essay which he had won in 1848. He became vicar in 1858
of Broadchalke with Bowerchalke and Alvedistone, Wiltshire.
As a result of his favourable review of Bunsen's " Biblical Re-
searches " contributed to Essays and Reviews (1860) he was
prosecuted for heterodoxy. An unfavourable judgment was given
by the Canterbury Court of Arches in 1862, but reversed by the
Privy Council in 1864. Williams died on the i8th of January
1870.
Besides the above works his most important production was a
translation of the Hebrew Prophets with commentary (pt. i. 1866;
pt. ii. edited by Mrs Williams 1871 ; pt. iii. though planned was never
written). See Life and Letters, edited by Mrs Williams (2 vols., 1874) ;
and T. K. Cheyne, Founders of Old Testament Criticism (1893).
WILLIAMS, SIR WILLIAM FENWICK, Bart. (1800-1883),
British general, second son of Commissary-General Thomas
Williams, barrack-master at Halifax, Nova Scotia, was born at
Annapolis, Nova Scotia, on the 4th of December 1800. He
entered the Royal Artillery as second lieutenant in 1825. His
services were lent to Turkey in 1841, and he was employed as a
captain in the arsenal at Constantinople. He was British com-
missioner in the conferences preceding the treaty of Erzerum in
1847, and again in the settlement of the Turko-Persian boundary
in 1848 (brevet majority and lieutenant-colonelcy and C.B.).
Promoted colonel, he was British commissioner with the Turkish
army in Anatolia in the Russian War of 1854-56, and, having been
made a ferik (lieutenant-general) and a pasha, he practically
commanded the Turks during the heroic defence of Kars, repuls-
ing several Russian attacks and severely defeating the Russian
general Muraviev in the battle of Kars on 29th September 1855.
Cold, cholera, famine and hopelessness of succour from without,
however, compelled Williams to make an honourable capitulation
on the 28th of November following. A baronetcy with pension
for life, the K.C.B., the grand cross of the Legion of Honour and
of the Turkish Medjidie, the freedom of the City of London with
a sword of honour, and the honorary degree of D.C.L. of Oxford
University, were the distinctions conferred upon him for his
valour. Promoted major-general in November 1855 on his
return from captivity in Russia, he held the Woolwich command,
and represented the borough of Calne in parliament from 1856 to
1859. He became lieutenant-general and colonel-commandant
Royal Artillery in 1864, general in 1868, commanded the forces
in Canada from 1859 to 1865, held the governorship of Nova
Scotia until 1870, and the governorship of Gibraltar until 1876.
He was made G.C.B. in 1871, and Constable of the Tower of
London in 1881. He died in London on the 26th of July 1883.
WILLIAMSBURG, a city and the county-seat of James City
county, Virginia, U.S.A., on a peninsula between the York and
James rivers, 48 m. by rail E.S.E. of Richmond. Pop. (1000)
2044; (1910) 2714. Williamsburg is served by the Chesapeake &
Ohio railway. It is the seat of the Williamsburg Female Institute
(Presbyterian), and of the College of William and Mary, chartered
by the Crown in 1693 and the second oldest college in the United
States. Besides the main building and the president's house,
the College of William and Mary has a science hall, a gymnasium,
a library building, an infirmary and dormitories; in front of
the main building is a statue by Richard Hayward of Norborne
Berkeley, Lord Botetourt (1717-1770), the most popular royal
governor of Virginia. The college offers a classical course and a
scientific course, two-thirds of the work in each being prescribed,
and in connexion with the normal department is the Matthew
Whaley Model and Practice School. In 1009 there were 21
instructors and 228 students in the college, 6 instructors and 140
pupils in the model school, and 20,000 volumes, many of them
rare, in the library. Since 1892 the college has published the
William and Mary College Quarterly, an historical magazine.
Here in December 1776 was established the Phi Beta Kappa
Society, the first American college " Greek Letter " Society,
low an inter-collegiate honorary fraternity. The college suf-
fered heavy losses during the War of Independence and in the
^.ivil War. In June 1781 Lord Cornwallis made the president's
house his headquarters, and the institution was closed for a few
68 4
WILLIAMSON, A. W. WILLIAMSON, W. C.
months of that year. It was closed in 1861 because of the Civil War,
and the main building was occupied in turn by Confederate troops
and by Federal troops until some of the latter burned it in 1862.
Although reopened in 1869, the college was closed again from 1881 to
1888 because of the low state of its finances. In 1888 it was reorgan-
ized under an act of the state legislature which provided for the
addition of a normal course and an annual appropriation towards its
maintenance. In 1893 Congress passed an act indemnifying it in
some measure for its loss during the Civil War; and in 1906 its
endowment was increased to more than $150,000 and it was made a
state institution governed by a board (appointed by the governor)
and receiving $35,000 annually from the state. Peyton Randolph,
Edmund Randolph, Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, John Tyler,
Chief Justice John Marshall and General Winfield Scott were
graduates of the college.
Bruton Parish Church, completed in 1717 and enlarged in 1752,
is the second church of a parish dating from 1674. It contains a
Bible given by King Edward VII., a leotern given by President
Roosevelt, and some old relics. The church itself has been
restored (1905-1907) so far as practicable to its original form
and appearance. The Association for the Preservation of
Virginia Antiquities has preserved a powder magazine, erected
in 1714, from which the last royal governor of Virginia, Lord
Dunmore, removed the powder on the day after the encounter
at Lexington, Massachusetts, and thus occasioned the first armed
uprising of the Virginia patriots. The County and City Court-
House was erected in 1769. The Eastern State Hospital for the
Insane was opened here in 1773, but its original building was
burned in 1885. Among several colonial residences are the
George Wythe House, which was the headquarters of Washington
during the siege of Yorktown in 1781, and the Peyton Randolph
House. The principal industries are the manufacture of men's
winter underwear, lumber and ice, and the shipment of lumber
and farm and garden produce.
Williamsburg, originally named Middle Plantation from its
position midway between the York and James rivers, was
founded in 1632. It was immediately walled in and for several
years it served as a refuge from Indian attacks. On the 3rd of
August 1676 Nathaniel Bacon held here his " rebel " assembly
of the leading men of the province, and in January 1677 two
of the " rebels " were hanged here. In 1698 Middle Plantation
was made the provincial capital; and in 1699 the present name
was adopted in honour of William III. Williamsburg was
chartered as a city in 1722. In 1736 the Virginia Gazette, the
oldest newspaper in the South, was established here. In the
capitol here Patrick Henry, on the 3Oth of May 1765, presented
his historic resolutions and made his famous speech against
the Stamp Act. On the isth of May 1776, the Virginia Conven-
tion in session here passed resolutions urging the Continental
Congress to declare for Independence. In 1779 Richmond
became the seat of the state government, and in 1832 fire
destroyed the last of the old capitol at Williamsburg with the
exception of the foundations, which since 1897 have been cared
for by the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities.
In the Peninsula campaign of the Civil War the Battle of
Williamsburg was fought on the 5th of May 1862 on the south-
eastern outskirts of the city. The Confederate army under
General J. E. Johnston was retreating from Yorktown toward
Richmond and a part of it under General James Longstreet
waited here to check the pursuit of the advance portion of the
Union army under General E. V. Sumner. A Union division
under General J. D. Hooker began a spirited attack at 7.30 A.M.,
other Union divisions dealt heavy blows, but they failed from
lack of co-operation to rout the Confederates and at night the
latter continued their retreat. The Union loss in killed, wounded
and missing was 2 2 28 ; the Confederate about 1 560.
See L. G. Tyler, Williamsburg, the Old Colonial Capital (Richmond,
1907), and his" ; Williamsburg, the Ancient Capital," in L. P. Powell's
Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York, 1900).
WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM (1824-1904), English
chemist, was born at Wandsworth, London, on the ist of May
1824. After working under Leopold Gmelin at Heidelberg,
and Liebig at Giessen, he spent three years in Paris studying
the higher mathematics under Comte. In 1849 he was appointed
professor of practical chemistry at University College, London,
and from 1855 until his retirement in 1887 he also held the
professorship of chemistry. He had the credit of being the
first to explain the process of etherification and to elucidate the
formation of ether by the interaction of sulphuric acid and
alcohol. Ether and alcohol he regarded as substances analogous
to and built up on the same type as water, and he further intro-
duced the water-type as a widely applicable basis for the classifi-
cation of chemical compounds. The method of stating the
rational constitution of bodies by comparison with water he
believed capable of wide extension, and that one type, he
thought, would suffice for all inorganic compounds, as well as
for the best-known organic ones, the formula of water being
taken in certain cases as doubled or tripled. So far back as 1850
he also suggested a view which, in a modified form, is of funda-
mental importance in the modern theory of ionic dissociation,
for, in a paper on the theory of the formation of ether, he urged
that in an aggregate of molecules of any compound there is an
exchange constantly going on between the elements which are
contained in it; for instance, in hydrochloric acid each atom
of hydrogen does not remain quietly in juxtaposition with the
atom of chlorine with which it first united, but changes places
with other atoms of hydrogen. A somewhat similar hypothesis
was put forward by R. J. E. Clausius about the same time.
For his work on etherification Williamson in 1862 received a
Royal medal from the Royal Society, of which he became a
fellow in 1855, and which he served as foreign secretary from
1873 to 1889. He was twice president of the London Chemical
Society, in 1863-1865, and again in 1860-1871. His death
occurred on the 6th of May 1904, at Hindhead, Surrey, England.
WILLIAMSON, SIR JOSEPH (1633-1701), English politician,
was born at Bridekirk, near Cockermouth, his father, Joseph
Williamson, being vicar of this place. He was educated at
St Bees, at Westminster school and at Queen's College, Oxford,
of which he became a fellow, and in 1660 he entered the service
of the secretary of state, Sir Edward Nicholas, retaining his
position under the succeeding secretary, Sir Henry Bennet,
afterwards earl of Arlington. For his connexion with the
foundation of the London Gazette in 1665 see NEWSPAPERS. He
entered parliament in 1669, and in 1672 was made one of the
clerks of the council and a knight. In 1673 and 1674 he repre-
sented his country at the congress of Cologne, and in the latter
year he became secretary of state, having practically purchased
this position from Arlington for 6000, a sum which he required
from his successor when he left office in 1679. Just before his
removal he had been arrested on a charge of sharing in the
popish plots, but he had been at once released by order of
Charles II. After a period of comparative inactivity Sir Joseph
represented England at the congress of Nijmwegen in 1697, and
in 1698 he signed the first treaty for the partition of the Spanish
monarchy. He died at Cobham, Kent, on the 3rd of October
1 701. Williamson was the second president of the Royal Society,
but his main interests, after politics, were rather in antiquarian
than in scientific matters. Taking advantage of the many
opportunities of making money which his official position gave
him, he became very rich. He left 6000 and his library to
Queen's College, Oxford; 5000 to found a school at Rochester;
and 2000 to Thetford.
A great number of Williamson's letters, despatches, memoranda,
&c., are among the English state papers.
WILLIAMSON, WILLIAM CRAWFORD (1816-1895), English
naturalist, was born at Scarborough on the 24th of November
1816. His father, John Williamson, after beginning life as a
gardener, became a well-known local naturalist, who, in con-
junction with William Bean, first explored the rich fossiliferous
beds of the Yorkshire coast. He was for many years curator
of the Scarborough natural history museum, and the younger
Williamson was thus from the first brought up among scientific
surroundings and in association with scientific people. William
Smith, the " father of English geology," lived for two year
in the Williamsons' house. Young Williamson's materna
grandfather was a lapidary, and from him he learnt the art
cutting stones, an accomplishment which he found of great us
WILLIAMSPORT WILLIAMSTOWN
685
in later years, when he undertook his work on the structure
of fossil plants. Williamson very early made a beginning as an
original contributor to science. When little more than sixteen
he published a paper on the rare birds of Yorkshire, and a little
later (in 1834) presented to the Geological Society of London
his first memoir on the Mesozoic fossils of his native district.
In the meantime he had assisted Lindley and Hutton in the
preparation of their well-known Fossil Flora of Great Britain.
On entering the medical profession he still found time to carry
on his scientific work during his student days, and for three
years acted as curator of the Natural History Society's museum
at Manchester. After completing his medical studies at Univer-
sity College, London, in 1841, he returned to Manchester to
practise his profession, in which he met with much success.
When Owens College at Manchester was founded in 1851 he
became professor of natural history there, with the duty of
teaching geology, zoology and botany. A very necessary
division of labour took place as additional professors were
appointed, but he retained the chair of botany down to 1892.
Shortly afterwards he removed to Clapham, where he died on
the 23rd of June 1895. Williamson's teaching work was not
confined to his university classes, for he was also a successful
popular lecturer, especially for the Gilchrist Trustees. His
scientific work, pursued with remarkable energy throughout
life) in the midst of official and professional duties, had a wide
scope. In geology, his early work on the zones of distribution
of Mesozoic fossils (begun in 1834), and on the part played by
microscopic organisms in the formation of marine deposits
(1845), was of fundamental importance. In zoology, his investi-
gations of the development of the teeth and bones of fishes
(1842-1851), and on recent Foraminifera, a group on which he
wrote a monograph for the Ray Society in 1857, were no less
valuable. In botany, in addition to a remarkable memoir on
the minute structure of Volvox (1852), his work on the structure
of fossil plants established British palaeobotany on a scientific
basis; on the ground of these researches Williamson may rank
with A. T. Brongniart as one of the founders of this branch
of science. His contributions to fossil botany began in the
earliest days of his career, and he returned to the subject from
time to time during the period of his geological and zoological
activity. His investigation of the Mesozoic cycadioid fossil
Zamia (now Williamsonid) gigas was the chief palaeobotanical
work of this intermediate period. His long course of researches
on the structure of Carboniferous plants belongs mainly to the
latter part of his life, and his results are chiefly, though not
wholly, embodied in a series of nineteen memoirs, ranging in
date from 1871 to 1893, in the Philosophical Transactions. In
this series, and in some works (notably the monograph on
Stigmaria ficoides, Palaeontographical Society, 1886), published
elsewhere, Williamson elucidated the structure of every group
of Palaeozoic vascular plants. Among the chief results of his
researches may be mentioned the discovery of plants intermediate
between ferns and cycads, the description of the true structure
of the fructification in the extinct cryptogamic family Spheno-
phylleae, and the demonstration of the cryptogamic nature of the
dominant Palaeozoic orders Calamarieae, Lepidodendreae and
Sigillarieae, plants which on account of the growth of their
stems in thickness, after the manner of gymnospermous trees,
were regarded as phanerogams by Brongniart and his followers.
After a long controversy the truth of Williamson's views has
been fully established, and it is now known that the mode of
growth, characteristic in present times, of dicotyledons and
gymnosperms prevailed in Palaeozoic ages in every family
of vascular cryptogams. Thus, as Count Solms-Laubach has
pointed out, palaeobotany for the first time spoke the decisive
word in an important question of general botany. Williamson's
work in fossil botany was scarcely appreciated at the time as
it deserved, for its great merits were somewhat obscured by the
author's want of familiarity with the modern technicalities of
the science. Since, however, the subject has been seriously
taken up by botanists of a newer school, the soundness of the
foundation he laid has become fully recognized. It may be
added that he was a skilled draughtsman, illustrating all his
works by his own drawings, and practising water-colour painting
as his favourite recreation.
A full account of Williamson's career will be found in his auto-
biography, entitled Reminiscences of a Yorkshire Naturalist, edited
by his wife (London, 1896). Among obituary notices may be
mentioned that by Count Solms-Laubach, Nature (5th September
1895), and one by D. H. Scott in Proc. R.S. vol. Ix. (1897).
(O. H. S.)
WILLIAMSPORT, a city and the county-seat of Lycoming
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the north bank of the west
branch of the Susquehanna river, about 70 m. N. by W. of
Harrisburg. Pop. (1890) 27,132; (1900) 28,757, of whom 1144
were negroes and 2228 were foreign-born, including 1089 Ger-
mans; (1910 census), 31,860. Area, about 7 sq. m. Williamsport
is served by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Penn-
sylvania, the Susquehanna & New York, and the Philadelphia
& Reading railways, and by electric lines connecting with the
neighbouring towns of Montoursville (pop. in 1900, 1665),
South Williamsport (pop. in 1900, 3328), on the S. bank of the
river, and Du Boistown .(pop. in 1900, 650). The city has an
attractive site, on a high plain, nearly surrounded by hills. It
has five parks, Brandon (44 acres) within the city limits, and
Vallamont, Starr Island, Sylvan Dell and Nippono in its suburbs.
Williamsport is the seat of Williamsport Dickinson Seminary
(Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, 1848), a secondary school.
Among the principal buildings are the county court house,
the city hall, the United States Government building, the
Scottish Rite Cathedral, the Masonic Temple, a Y.M.C.A.
building, and the James V. Brown Memorial Library (1907).
In the city are a Boys' Industrial Home (1898), a Girls' Training
School (1895), a Florence Crittenton Home (1895), a Home for
Aged Coloured Women (1898), a Home for the Friendless (1872),
and Williamsport Hospital (1873). There are practically no
tenement houses. The value of factory products in 1905 was
$11,738,473, 20-7% more than in 1900. Williamsport has the
largest lumber market in Pennsylvania; lumber was for forty
years the most important of its manufactures, and Williamsport
was styled the " sawdust city." The decreasing importance
of the industry is due to the virtual exhaustion of standing
timber in the neighbourhood. Lumber and timber products
were valued at $1,310,368 in 1905, and lumber and planing mill
products at $579,667. Among other manufactures are silk
and silk goods, valued at $1,191,273 in 1905; foundry and
machine shop products, $1,164,737; rubber and leather boots
and shoes, furniture, &c. The city has a large trade with the
surrounding country. The water supply is derived from moun-
tain streams S. of the city. Lycoming county was erected in
1795, in which year Williamsport was founded and became
the county-seat, after a bitter contest with Jaysburg, which was
then a village of only some half a dozen houses and which
subsequently ceased to exist. Williamsport was incorporated
as a borough in 1806, and was chartered as a city in 1866.
WILLIAMSTOWN, a town of Bourke county, Victoria,
Australia, 9 m. by rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1001) 14,083.
Shipping is the chief business of the place, there being com-
modious piers, breakwater, also provision for the repair of
vessels, patent slips and shipbuilding yards. Several quarries
of superior basalt are worked near the town, and brown coal
of good quality has also been found. The flourishing industries
include woollen-milling, bottle-making, fodder-compressing,
meat-freezing and cycle-making.
WILLIAMSTOWN, a township of Berkshire county, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A., on the Hoosick and Green rivers, in the N.W.
corner of the state, and about 20 m. N. of Pittsfield. Pop.
(1890) 4221; (1900) 5013, of whom 929 were foreign-born
and 138 were negroes; (1910 census), 3708. Williamstown is
served by the Boston & Maine railway and by an interurban
electric line to North Adams. It covers an area of about 49 sq . m .
and contains five villages. Williamstown, the principal village,
is a pleasant residential centre on the Green river; it is sur-
rounded by beautiful scenery and its streets are shaded by some
fine old trees. Mission Park (10 acres) here is adorned by native
686
WILLIAMS- WYNN WILLIS, N. P.
and foreign shrubs and by maples, elms, pines and arbor vitae,
and " Haystack Monument " in this park marks the place where
Samuel John Mills (1783-1818), in 1806, held the prayer meeting
which was the forerunner of the American foreign missionary
movement. Williamstown village is best known as the seat
of Williams College, chartered in 1793 as a successor to a " free
school " in Williamstown (chartered in 1785 and endowed by a
bequest of Colonel Ephraim Williams). Besides recitation and
residence halls, it has the Lawrence Hall Library (1846), contain-
ing (1910) 68,000 volumes, the Thompson Memorial Chapel
(1904), the Lasell Gymnasium (1886), an infirmary (1895), the
Hopkins Observatory (1837) and the Field Memorial Observatory
(1882), the Thompson Chemical Laboratory (1892), the Thompson
Biological Laboratory (1893) and the Thompson Physical
Laboratory (1893). In 1910 the college had 59 instructors and
537 students. The fourth president of the college was Mark
Hopkins (q.v.), and one of its most distinguished alumni was
James A. Garfield, president of the United States, whose son,
Harry Augustus Garfield (b. 1863), became president of the
college in 1908.
The principal manufactures of the township are cotton and
woollen goods (especially corduroy), and market gardening is an
important industry. The limits of the township, originally
called West Hoosac, were determined by a committee of the
General Court of Massachusetts in 1749, and two or three years
later the village was laid out. Two of the lots were immediately
purchased by Captain Ephraim Williams (1715-1755), who was
at the time commander of Fort Massachusetts in the vicinity;
several other lots were bought by soldiers under him; and in
1 7 53 the proprietors organized a township government. Williams
was killed in the battle of Lake George on the 8th of September
1755, but while in camp in Albany, New York, a few days before
the battle, he drew a will containing a small bequest for a free
school at West Hoosac on condition that the township when
incorporated should be called Williamstown. The township was
incorporated with that name in 1765.
See A. L. Perry, Origins in Williamstown (New York, 1894; 3rd
ed. 1900) ; and Williamstown and Williams College (Norwood, Mass.,
1899).
WILLIAMS-WYNN, SIR WATKIN, BART. (1692-1749), Welsh
politician, was the eldest son and heir of Sir William Williams,
Bart., of Llanforda near Oswestry; his mother, Jane Thelwall,
was a descendant of the antiquary, Sir John Wynn of Gwydir,
Carnarvonshire. Educated at Jesus College, Oxford, Williams
succeeded to Wynnstay near Ruabon and the estates of the Wynns
on the death of a later Sir John Wynn in 1719, and took the
name of Williams- Wynn. He was member of parliament for
Denbighshire from 1716 to 1741, and was prominent among the
opponents of Sir Robert Walpole; as a leading and influential
Jacobite he was in communication with the supporters of Prince
Charles Edward before the rising of 1745, but his definite offer
of help did not reach the prince until the retreat to Scotland had
begun. He died on the 26th of September 1749. His first wife,
Ann Vaughan (d. 1748), was the heiress of extensive estates in
Montgomeryshire which still belong to the family. His son and
heir, Sir Watkin Williams-Wynn, Bart. (1749-1789), was the
father of another Sir Watkin (1772-1842), the sth baronet. Two
other sons attained some measure of distinction: Charles (1775-
1850), a prominent Tory politician, and Sir Henry (1783-1856),
a diplomatist. A daughter, Frances Williams-Wynn (d. 1857),
was the authoress of Diaries of a Lady of Quality, 1797-1844,
which were edited with notes by Abraham Hay ward in 1864.
See Askew Roberts, Wynnstay and tlie Wynns (Oswestry, 1876).
WILLIBRORD (or WILBRORD), ST (d. 738), English missionary,
" the apostle of the Frisians," was born about 657. His father,
Wilgils, an Angle or, as Alcuin styles him, a Saxon, of North-
umbria, withdrew from the world and constructed for himself
a little oratory dedicated to St Andrew. The king and nobles
of the district endowed him with estates till he was at last able
to build a church, over which Alcuin afterwards ruled. Willi-
brord, almost as soon as he was weaned, was sent to be brought
up at Ripon, where he must doubtless have come under the
influence of Wilfrid. About the age of twenty the desire of
increasing his stock of knowledge (c. 679) drew him to Ireland,
which had so long been the headquarters of learning in western
Europe. Here he stayed for twelve years, enjoying the society of
Ecgberht and Wihtberht, from the former of whom he received his
commission to missionary work among the North-German tribes.
In his thirty-third year (c. 690) he started with twelve com-
panions for the mouth of the Rhine. These districts were then
occupied by the Frisians under their king, Rathbod, who gave
allegiance to Pippin of Herstal. Pippin befriended him and sent
him to Rome, where he was consecrated archbishop (with the
name Clemens) by Pope Sergius on St Cecilia's Day 696.' Bede
says that when he returned to Frisia his see was fixed in Ultra-
jectum (Utrecht). He spent several years in founding churches
and evangelizing, till his success tempted him to pass into other
districts. From Denmark he carried away thirty boys to be
brought up among the Franks. On his return he was wrecked
on the holy island of Fosite (Heligoland), where his disregard of
the pagan superstition nearly cost him his life. When Pippin
died, Willibrord found a supporter in his son Charles Martel.
He was assisted for three years in his missionary work by St
Boniface (719-722), who, however, was not willing to become his
successor.
He was still living when Bede wrote in 731. A passage in one
of Boniface's letters to Stephen III. speaks of his preaching to the
Frisians for fifty years, apparently reckoning from the time of
his consecration. This would fix the date of his death in 738;
and, as Alcuin tells us he was eighty-one years old when he died,
it may be inferred that he was born in 657 a theory on which
all the dates given above are based, though it must be added
that they are substantially confirmed by the incidental notices
of Bede. The day of his death was the 6th of November, and his
body was buried in the monastery of Echternach, near Trier,
which he had himself founded. Even in Alcuin's time miracles
were reported to be still wrought at his tomb.
The chief authorities for Willibrord's life are Alcuin's Vita Willi-
brordi, both in prose and in verse, and Bede's Hist. Eccl. v. cc. 9-11.
See also Eddius's Vita Wilfridii, and J. Mabillon, Annales ordinis
sancti Benedicti, lib. xviii.
WILLIMANTIC, a city of Windham county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., in the township of Windham, at the junction of the
Willimantic and Natchaug rivers to form the Shetucket, in the
E. part of the state, about 16 m. N.W. of Norwich. Pop. (1890)
8648; (1900) 8937, of whom 2491 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 11,230. It is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford and the Central Vermont railways, and by electric
lines to Baltic, Norwich and New London, and to South Coventry.
It is the seat of a State Normal Training School, and has a public
library and Dunham Hall Library (1878). The Willimantic
river provides good water-power, and there are various manu-
factures. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
$4,902,447. The township of Windham was incorporated in
1692. Willimantic was settled in 1822, incorporated as a borough
in 1833, and chartered as a city in 1893. The name is from an
Indian word meaning " good look-out " or " good cedar swamps."
WILLIS, NATHANIEL PARKER (1806-1867), American
author, was descended from George Willis, described as a " Puritan
of considerable distinction," who arrived in New England about
1630 and settled in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Nathaniel
Parker was the eldest son and second child of Nathaniel Willis,
a newspaper proprietor in Boston, and was born in Portland,
Maine, on the 2oth of January 1806. After attending Boston
grammar school and the academy at Andover, he entered Yale
College in October 1823. Although he did not specially dis-
tinguish himself as a student, university life had considerable
influence in the development of his character, and furnished him
with much of his literary material. . Immediately after leaving
Yale he published in 1827 a volume of poetical Sketches, which
attracted some attention, although the critics found in his
verses more to blame than to praise. It was followed by Fugitive
Poetry (1829) and another volume of verse (1831). He also
1 He had been consecrated bishop, also by Sergius, on a previous
visit in 692.
WILLIS, T. WILLOBIE
687
contributed frequently to magazines and periodicals. In 1829
he started the American Monthly Magazine, which was continued
from April of that year to August 1831, but failed to achieve
success. On its discontinuance he went to Europe as foreign
editor and correspondent of the New York Mirror. To this
journal he contributed a series of letters, which, under the title
Pendllings by the Way, were published at London in 1835
. (3 vols. ; Philadelphia, 1836, 2 vols. ; and first complete edition,
New York, 1841). Their vivid and rapid sketches of scenes and
modes of life in the old world at once gained them a wide popu-
larity; but he was censured by some critics for indiscretion in
reporting conversations in private gatherings. Notwithstanding,
however, the small affectations and fopperies which were his
besetting weaknesses as a man as well as an author, the grace,
ease and artistic finish of his style won general recognition.
His " Slingsby Papers," a series of magazine articles descriptive
of American life and adventure, republished in 1836 under the
title Inklings of Adventure, were as successful in England as were
his Pendllings by the Way in America. He also published while
in [England Melanie and other Poems (London, 1835; New York,
1837), which was introduced by a preface by Barry Cornwall
(Procter). After his marriage to Mary Stace, daughter of
General William Stace of Woolwich, he returned to America,
and settled at a small estate on Oswego Creek, just above its
junction with the Susquehanna. Here he lived off and on from
1837 to 1842, and wrote Letters from under a Bridge (London,
1840; first complete edition, New York, 1844), the most charm-
ing of all his works. During a short visit to England in 1839-
1840 he published Two Ways of Dying for a Husband. Returning
to New York, he established, along with George P. Morris, a
newspaper entitled the Evening Mirror. On the death of his
wife in 1845 he again visited England. Returning to America
in the spring of 1846, he married Cornelia Grinnell, and estab-
lished the National Press, afterwards named the Home Journal.
In 1845 he published Dashes at Life with a Free Pencil, in 1846
a collected edition of his Prose and Poetical Works, in 1849 Rural
Letters, and in 1850 Life Here and There. In that year he settled
at Idlewild on the Hudson river, and on account pf failing
health spent the remainder of his life chiefly in retirement.
Among his later works were Hurry-Graphs (1851), Outdoors at
Idlewild (1854), Ragbag (1855), Paul Fane (1856), and the
Convalescent (1859), but he had survived his great reputation.
He died on the 2oth of January 1867, and was buried in Mount
Auburn, Boston.
The best edition of his verse writings is The Poems, Sacred,
Passionate and Humorous, of N. P. Willis (New York, 1868);
13 volumes of his prose, Complete Prose Works, were published at
New York (1849-1859), and a Selection from his Pros'. Writings
was edited by Henry A. Beers (New York, 1885). His Life, by
Henry A. Beers, appeared in the series of " American Men of
Letters " the same year. See also E. P. Whipple, Essays and
Reviews (vol. i., 1848); M. A. de Wolfe Howe, American Bookmen
(New York, 1898).
WILLIS, THOMAS (1621-1675), English anatomist and
physician, was born at Great Bedwin, Wiltshire, on the 27th
of January 1621. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford; and
when that city was garrisoned for the king he bore arms for the
Royalists. He took the degree of bachelor of medicine in 1646,
and applied himself to the practice of his profession. In 1660,
shortly after the Restoration, he became Sedleian professor
of natural philosophy in place of Dr Joshua Cross, who was
ejected, and the same year he took the degree of doctor of physic.
In 1664 he discovered the medicinal spring at Astrop, near
Brackley in Northamptonshire. He was one of the first members
of the Royal Society, and was elected an honorary fellow of the
Royal College of Physicians in 1664. In 1666, after the fire of
London, he took a house in St Martin's Lane, and there rapidly
acquired an extensive practice, his reputation and skill marking
him out as one of the first physicians of his time. He died in
St Martin's Lane on the nth of November 1675 and was buried
in Westminster Abbey.
_ Willis was admired for his piety and charity, for his deep insight
into natural and experimental philosophy, anatomy and chemistry,
and for the elegance and purity of his Latin style. Among his
writings were Cenbri anatome neryorumque descriptio el usus (1664).
in which he described what is still known, in the anatomy of tht
brain, as the circle of Willis, and Pharmaceutics rationalis (1674), in
which he characterized diabetes mellitus. He wrote in English A
Plain and Easy Method for Preserving those that are Well from the
Infection of the Plague, and for Curing such as are Infected. His
Latin works were printed in two vols. 410 at Geneva in 1676, and at
Amsterdam in 1682. Browne Willis (1682-1760), the antiquarian,
author of three volumes of Surveys of the cathedrals of England,
was his grandson.
See M\ink, Roll of the Royal College of Physicians, London (2nd
ed., vol. i., London, 1878).
WILLMORE, JAMES TIBBITTS (1800-1863), English line
engraver, was born at Bristnall's End, Handsworth, near
Birmingham, on the isth of September 1800. At the age of
fourteen he was apprenticed to William Radcliffe, a Birmingham
engraver, and in 1823 he went to London and was employed for
three years by Charles Heath. He was afterwards engaged
upon the plates of Brockedon's Passes of the Alps and Turner's
England and Wales. He engraved after Chalon, Leitch, Stan-
field, Landseer, Eastlake, Creswick and Ansdell, and especially
after Turner, from whose " Alnwick Castle by Moonlight," " The
Old Temeraire," "Mercury and Argus," "Ancient Rome,"
and the subjects of the rivers of France, he executed many
admirable plates. He was elected an associate engraver of the
Royal Academy in 1843. He died on the i2th of March 1863.
WILLOBIE (or WILLOUGHBY), HENRY ds7S?-i596?), the
supposed author of a poem called Willobie his Avisa, which
derives interest from its possible connexion with Shakespeare's
personal history. Henry Willoughby was the second son of a
Wiltshire gentleman of the same name, and matriculated from
St John's College, Oxford, in December 1591, at the age of
sixteen. He is probably identical with the Henry Willoughby
who graduated B.A. from Exeter College early in 1595, and
he died before the 3oth of June 1596, when to a new edition of
the poem Hadrian Dorrell added an " Apologie " in defence of
his friend the author " now of late gone to God," and another
poem in praise of chastity written by Henry's brother, Thomas
Willoughby. Willobie his Avisa was licensed for the press on
the 3rd of September 1594, four months after the entry of
Shakespeare's Rape of Lucrece, and printed by John Windet.
It is preceded by two commendatory poems, the second of which,
signed " Contraria Contrariis; Vigilantius; Dormitanus,"
contains the earliest known printed allusion to Shakespeare by
name:
" Yet Tarquyne pluckt his glistering grape,
And Shake-speare paints poore Lucrece rape."
In the poem itself, Avisa, whose name is explained in Dorrell's
"Epistle to the Reader" as Amans Uxor Inviolala Semper
Amanda, takes up the parable alternately with her suitors, one
of whom is introduced to the reader in a prose interlude signed
by the author H. W., as Henrico Willobego Italo Hispalensis.
This passage contains a reference which may fairly be applied
to the sonnets of Shakespeare. It runs:
" H. W. being sodenly infected with the contagion of a fantastical!
fit, at the first sight of A, ... bewrayeth the secresy of his disease
unto his familiar frend W. S. who not long before had tryed the
curtesy of the like passion, and was now newly recouered ... he
determined to see whether it would sort to a happier end for this
new actor, then it did for the old player."
Then follows a dialogue between H. W. and W. S., in which
W. S.," the old player," a phrase susceptible of a double sense,
gives somewhat commonplace advice to the disconsolate wooer.
Dorrell alleges that he found the MS. of Willobie his Avisa
among his friend's papers left in his charge when Willoughby
departed from Oxford on her majesty's service. There is no
trace of any Hadrian Dorrell, and the name is probably fictitious;
there is, indeed, good reason to think that the pseudonym,
if such it is, covers the personality of the real author of the
work. Willobie his Avisa proved extremely popular, and passed
through numerous editions, and Peter Colse produced in 1596 an
imitation named Penelope's Complaint.
See Shakspere Allusion-Books, part i., ed. C. M. Ingleby (New
Shakspere Society, 1874); A. B. Grosart's " Introduction" to his
reprint of Willobie his Avisa (1880).
688
WILLOCK WILLOW
WILLOCK (or WILLOCKS), JOHN (c. 1515-1585), Scottish
reformer, was a native of Ayrshire and was educated at the
university of Glasgow. After being a monk for a short time
he embraced the reformed religion and went to London, where,
about 1542, he became chaplain to Henry Grey, afterwards
duke of Suffolk, the father of Lady Jane Grey. On the accession
of Mary to the English throne in 1553 he went to Emden in
Friesland, where he practised as a physician, varying this pro-
fession with visits to Scotland. He was associated with the
leading Scottish reformers in their opposition to the queen regent,
Mary of Lorraine, and the Roman Catholic religion, and in 1558
he returned definitely to his native land. Willock now began
to preach and in 1559 was outlawed. Popular sympathy,
however, rendered this sentence fruitless, and in the same year,
being Knox's deputy as minister of St Giles' cathedral, Edinburgh,
he frustrated the efforts of the regent to restore the Roman
Catholic religion, and administered the communion for the first
time in accordance with the ideas of the reformers. He was one
of the four ministers chosen by the convention of October 1559
to seats on the council of government, and was one of those
appointed to compile the first book of discipline. About 1562
he became rector of Loughborough in Leicestershire, but he
retained his connexion with the Scottish church and was
moderator of the general assembly in 1562, and again in 1564,
in 1565 and in 1568. He died at Loughborough on the 4th of
December 1585.
WILLOUGHBY, the name of an English family long settled
in Nottinghamshire, and now represented by Baron Middleton.
Having exchanged his name of Bugge for that of Willoughby,
Richard de Willoughby became a judge during the reign of
Edward II. and purchased the manors of Wollaton in Notting-
hamshire and of Risley in Derbyshire. His son, Richard de
Willoughby (d. 1362), was justice of the common pleas under
Edward III. Richard's descendant, Dorothy, who became the
heiress of the family estates, married Robert Willoughby of
Bore Place, Kent, and their descendant, Sir Thomas Willoughby,
Bart. (c. 1670-1729), of Wollaton, was created Baron Middleton
in 1712. In 1877 his descendant, Digby Wentworth Bayard
Willoughby (b. 1844), became the gth baron. This title must
be distinguished from that of Viscount Midleton, borne by the
Brodrick family.
Sir Hugh Willoughby, the seaman, was a member of this
family. He was a son of Sir Henry Willoughby (d. 1528), and
a grandson of Sir Hugh Willoughby of Wollaton. His early
services were as a soldier on the Scottish borders, but he soon
turned his thoughts to the sea, and was appointed captain of a
fleet of three ships which set out in 1553 with the object of
discovering a north-eastern passage to Cathay and India. Two
of the three ships reached the coast of Lapland, where it was
proposed to winter, and here Willoughby and his companions
died of cold and starvation soon after January 1 554. A few years
later their remains were found, and with them Willoughby's
Journal, which is printed in vol. i. of R. Hakluyt's Principal
Navigations.
Another famous member of this family was Sir Nesbit Josiah
Willoughby (1777-1849), who entered the British navy in 1790
and was present at the battle of Copenhagen. In 1800, however,
he was dismissed from the service by the sentence of a court-
martial for his insolent conduct towards a superior officer, a
previous offence of this kind having been punished less severely.
In 1803, on the renewal of war, as a volunteer he joined an
English squadron bound for the West Indies, and was soon
admitted again to the navy; his courage and promptness at
Cape Frangais were responsible for saving 900 lives, and he
distinguished himself on other occasions, being soon restored
to his former rank in the service. After further services in the
West Indies, during which he displayed marked gallantry on
several occasions, Willoughby was tried by court-martial at
Cape Town in 1808 on charges of cruelty; he seems to have taken
a great delight in inflicting punishment, but he was acquitted
with the advice to be more moderate in future in his language.
Again in the West Indies, where he commanded the Nereide
frigate, he was responsible for the heroic defence made by his
ship against a much stronger French force at Port Louis,
Mauritius, in August 1810, when 222 out of his crew of 281 men
were disabled before he surrendered. Undeterred by the severe
wounds which he had received, and seeing no prospect of active
service with the British fleet, Willoughby offered his services
in 1812 to the Russian government, and while serving with the
Russian army he was captured by the French. He was taken to
France, whence he escaped to England. Having seen a little
more service in the navy, he was knighted in 1827, was made
a rear-admiral in 1847, and died unmarried in London on the
igth of May 1849.
WILLOW (Salix), a very well-marked genus of plants con-
stituting, with the poplar (Populus), the order Salicaceae.
Willows are trees or shrubs, varying in stature from a few inches,
like the small British 5. herbacea and arctic species generally,
to ico ft., and occurring most abundantly in cold or temperate
climates in both hemispheres, and generally in moist situations;
a few species occur in the tropical and sub-tropical portions of
the three great continents. Their leaves are deciduous, alternate,
simple, and generally much longer than broad, whence the term
willow-leaved has become proverbial . At their base they are pro-
vided with stipules, which are also modified to form the scales
investing the winter buds. The flowers are borne in catkins
(fig. i), which are on one tree male (staminate) only, on another
female (pistillate). Each male flower consists of a small scale or
bract, in the axil of which are usually two, sometimes three, rarely
five stamens, and still more rarely a larger number. In addition
there is a small glandular disk, which assumes different shapes in
FIG. i. Salix caprea Common Sallow or Goat Willow.
1, Leaf shoot. 4, Female catkin.
2, Branchlet bearing male cat- 5, Female flower.
kins. 6, Capsule, opened.
3, Male flower. 7, Seed.
i, 2, 4 reduced; 3, 5-7 enlarged.
different species. The female flowers are equally simple, consist-
ing of a bract, from whose axil arises usually a very short stalk,
surmounted by two carpels adherent one to the other for their
whole length, except that the upper ends of the styles are
separated into two stigmas. When ripe the two carpels separate
in the form of two valves and liberate a large number of seeds,
each provided at the base with a tuft of silky hairs, and containing
a straight embryo without any investing albumen. The flowers
appear generally before the leaves and are thus rendered more
conspicuous, while passage of pollen by the wind is facilitated.
Fertilization is effected by insects, especially by bees, which are
directed in their search by the colour and fragrance of the
WILLOW-HERBWILLS
689
flowers; but some pollen must also be transported by the
wind to the female flowers, especially in arctic species which,
in spite of the poverty of insect life, set abundant fruit. The
tuft of hairs at the base facilitates rapid dispersion of the
seed, early germination of which is rendered desirable owing to
its tenuity. Although the limitations of the genus are well
marked, and its recognition in consequence easy, it is otherwise
with regard to the species. The greatest difference of opinion
exists among botanists as to their number and the bounds to be
assigned to each; and the cross-fertilization that takes place
between the species intensifies the difficulty. Andersson, a
Swede, spent nearly a quarter of a century in their investigation,
and ultimately published a monograph which is the standard
authority on the subject. He admits about a hundred species.
Professor C. S. Sargent (Silva of North America) suggests 160
to 170 as the number of distinguishable species. Some botanists
have enumerated 80 species from Great Britain alone, while
others count only 12 or 15. Dr Buchanan White, who made
a special study of the British willows, grouped them under 17
species with numerous varieties and hybrids. To illustrate the
great perplexity surrounding the subject, we may mention that
to one species, 5. nigricans, one hundred and twenty synonyms
FIG. 2. Salix fragilis Crack Willow.
shoot from male 4, Female flower with and with-
out bract.
5, Single fruit from which the
hairy seeds are escaping;
one seed shown separately.
A, B, i, 2, half natural size, 3-5
enlarged.
A, Flowering
plant.
B, Flowering shoot from female
plant.
1, Foliage.
2, Catkin of fruits.
3, Male flower.
have been attached. Some of these are doubtless such as no
botanist, with adequate material for forming an opinion, would
accept; but, after making the necessary deductions for actual
mistakes and misstatements, there still remains a large number
upon which legitimate differences of opinion prevail. Andersson
says that he has rarely seen two specimens of this species which
were alike in the collective characters offered by the stature,
foliage and catkins. No better example could be found of the
almost limitless variation in so-called species.
Few genera have greater claims to notice from an economic point
of view. As timber trees many of the species are valuable from
their rapidity of growth and for the production of light durable
wood, serviceable for many purposes. Among the best trees of this
kind are S. fragilis, the crack willow (fig. 2), especially the variety
known as S. fragilis, var. Russtlliana, and 5. alba, the white or
Huntingdon willow. These trees are usually found growing by
rivers' banks or in other moist situations, and are generally pollarded
for the purpose of securing a crop of straight poles. This plan is,
however, objectionable, as inducing decay in the centre of the
trunk. Where poles are required, it is better to treat the trees as
coppice and to cut the trunk level with the soil. The wood of S.
fragilis is used for cricket-bats; there is a great difference in the
value for this purpose of timber from different soils; and wood
of the female tree is said to be preferable to that of the male.
S. caprea (fig. i), a hedgerow tree, generally grows in drier situations.
It is a useful timber tree, and its wood, like that of S. alba, is prized
in the manufacture of charcoal. Its catkins are collected in England
in celebration of Palm Sunday, the bright-coloured flowers being
available in early spring when other decorations of the kind are
scarce. Certain sorts of willow are largely used for basket-making
and wicker-work. The species employed for this purpose are
mostly of shrubby habit, and are known under the collective name
of osiers (see BASKET, and OSIER). The best for planting is the
bitter osier, S. purpurea; planted on rich, well-drained soil, subject
to occasional immersion, this willow may be grown profitably for
basket-work. It is also well adapted for forming wind-breaks or
screens, or for holding the banks of streams and preventing the
removal of the soil by the current. 5. viminalis is one of the best of
the green osiers, suitable for hoops and valuable for retaining the
soil on sloping embankments. 5. vitellina yields the yellow osiers.
S. acuminata and other species do well by the seaside, and are
serviceable as wind-screens, nurse-trees and hedges. 5. daphnoides,
S. repens and other dwarf kinds are useful for binding heathy or
sandy soil. In addition to their use for timber or basket-making,
willows contain a large quantity of tannin in their bark. A valuable
medicinal glucoside named salicin (q.v.) is also extracted from the
bark. The wood, especially of S. alba, is used for paper pulp. As
ornamental trees some willows also take a high rank. The white
willow is a great favourite, while the drooping habit of the weeping
willow renders it very attractive. Though named 5. babylonica, it
is really a native of China, from which it has been widely spread by
man; the willow of the Euphrates (Ps. cxxxvii.) is in all probability
Popidus euphratica. S. babylonica is sometimes spoken of as Pope s
willow, having been cultivated by that poet, or as Napoleon's
willow, because his tomb at St Helena is overshadowed by a tree
of this species, from which many offsets exist or are reputed to
exist in modern gardens. 5. regalis has very white, silvery leaves.
5. rosmarinifolia is remarkable for its very narrow leaves purplish
above, silvery beneath.
The larvae of several nocturnal Lepidoptera feed upon the leaves
of the willows, and the trunk of the sallow is often injured by the
perforations of the lunar hornet sphinx (Trochilium rrabroniforme).
WILLOW-HERB, in botany, the popular name for the species
of Epilobium, a genus of often tall herbaceous plants, several
of which are natives of Britain. The slender stems bear narrow
leaves and pink or purple flowers, which in the rose-bay (.
angustifolium) , found by moist river-sides and in copses, ace i in.
in diameter and form showy spikes. E. hirsutum, found by sides
of ditches and rivers, a tall plant with many large rose-purple
flowers, is known popularly as codlins-and-cream.
WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891), Irish dramatist,
was born at Kilmurry, Ireland, on the 28th of January 1828,
the son of James Wills (1790- 1868), author of Lives of Illustrious
and Distinguished Irishmen (1839-1847). The son was educated
at Waterford Grammar School and Trinity College, Dublin.
After several years of journalistic and literary work in Dublin,
he settled in London, where he wrote stories for the magazines.
In 1868 he determined that he could make a better living at
portrait-painting, for which, though his art education had been
meagre, he had always had talent. He soon made a fair income,
though in the long run his excessive Bohemianism, coupled with
persistent absent-mindedness, lost him many sitters. Meanwhile
he had begun to write for the stage. His first original work was
the Man o'Airlie, produced at the Princess's theatre, London,
in 1867. Early in 1872 he was engaged by Colonel Bateman
as " dramatist to the Lyceum " at an annual salary. Under
the terms of his agreement he wrote Medea in Corinth, Charles I.
and Eugene Aram, all of which were produced at the Lyceum
in 1872-1873. With Charles I., in which Mr (afterwards Sir
Henry) Irving confirmed the reputation he had earned by his
performance in The Bells, Wills made a popular success, which
he repeated in Olivia (adapted from Goldsmith's Vicar of Wake-
field) in 1873. From this date onwards Wills wrote continuously,
and till 1887 his name was practically never absent from the bill
of some London theatre. His work never, however, quite came
up to the expectations which were based on his genuine ability.
690
WILLUGHBY WILMINGTON
and much of it is of an inferior quality. In Claudian (Princess's
Theatre, 1883) and Faust (Lyceum Theatre, 1885) he merely
supplied the text to a variety of dramatic situations. In 1887
his mother, whom he had supported for many years, died, and
after her death he seemed to have less incentive for work. Wills
was a painter by choice, and never put his whole heart into his
dramatic work. He had some skill in ballad-writing, shown
in the well-known " I'll sing thee songs of Araby." He died
on the i3th of December 1891.
WILLUGHBY, FRANCIS (1635-1672), English ornithologist
and ichthyologist, son of Sir Francis Willughby, was born at
Middleton, Warwickshire, in 1 63 5. He is memorable as the pupil,
friend and patron as well as the active and original co-worker
of John Ray (q.v.), and hence to be reckoned as one of the most
important precursors of Linnaeus. His connexion with Ray
dated from his studies at Trinity College, Cambridge (1653-1659) ;
and, after concluding his academic life by a brief sojourn at
Oxford, and acquiring considerable experience of travel in
England, he made an extensive Continental tour in his company.
The specimens, figures and notes thus accumulated were in great
part elaborated on his return into his Ornithologia, which, how-
ever, he did not live to publish, having injured a naturally delicate
constitution by alternate exposure and over-study. This work
was published in 1676, and translated by Ray as the Ornithology
of Fr. Willughby (London, 1678, fol.) ; the same friend published
his Historia Piscium (1686, fol.). Willughby died at Middleton
Hall on the 3rd of July 1672.
In Ray's preface to the former work he gives Willughby much
of the credit usually assigned to himself, both as critic and system-
atist. Thus, while founding on Gesner and Aldrovandus, he omitted
their irrelevancies, being careful to exclude " hieroglyphics, emblems,
morals, fables, presages or ought else pertaining to divinity, ethics,
grammar, or any sort of humane learning, and present him [the
reader] with what properly belongs only to natural history." Again,
he not only devised artificial keys to his species and genera, but,
" that he might clear up all these obscurities [of former writers]
and render the knowledge and distinction of species facile to all
that should come after, he bent his endeavours mainly to find out
certain characteristic notes of each kind," while finally, in apolo-
gizing for his engravings, he yet not unjustly claims that " they
are best and truest of any hitherto graven in brass." (See also
ORNITHOLOGY.)
WILMINGTON, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat of
New Castle county, Delaware, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state,
near the Delaware river, at the mouth of Brandywine and
Christiana creeks. Pop. (1890) 61,431; (1900) 76,508, of whom
10,478 were foreign-born (3820 Irish, 1762 German, 998 English)
and 9736 were negroes; (1910 census) 87,411. Area, 10-18
sq. m. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Philadelphia,
Baltimore & Washington (Pennsylvania) and the Philadelphia
& Reading railways, and by several steamship lines. Wilmington
Harbor includes Christiana Creek for 4 m. above its mouth and
the navigable part (2 m.) of the Brandywine, which enters the
Christiana about if m. above its mouth. By 1881 the channel
depth had been increased from 8j to 15 ft., in 1896-1906 it was
increased to 21 ft. in the lower part of the harbour, and in 1908
the upper part was dredged to 18 or 19 ft. for widths of 100, 200
and 250 ft. Between 1836 and 1909 $994,404 was expended on
the improvement of the harbour. Most of the streets which run
from E. to W. are numbered; those which run from N. to S.
are named, often in honour of prominent American statesmen.
The public parks and squares have a total area of 381 acres;
the most important parks are Brandywine and Rockford, which
lie along and near Brandywine creek, in the northern part of the
city. Among the buildings of interest are the City Hall (1798);
Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church (1698), probably the oldest
church in the United States which has been in continuous use;
the building occupied by the Historical Society of Delaware
(organized in 1864), which was the old First Presbyterian Meeting
House, built in 1740; the County Court House; and the Federal
building. In Wilmington, besides other educational institutions,
is the Wilmington Friends' School (1748), the oldest preparatory
school in the state. The Wilmington Institute Free Library
{69,000 volumes in 1910) was founded in 1788, but was not made
free to the public until 1894. Wilmington is the see of a Roman
Catholic bishop, and of a Protestant Episcopal bishop.
The favourable situation, railway facilities and proximity to
the coal-fields of Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia, to
the sources of supply of raw materials, and the water-power
furnished by the Brandywine, combined with the enterprise of
its citizens, have made Wilmington the most important manu-
facturing centre of Delaware. In 1905 the value of the factory
product of the city, $30,390,039, was 73-8% of the total product
value of the state. The principal manufactures are tanned,
curried and finished leather ($10,250,842), steam railway cars
($3,597,736), foundry and machine-shop products ($3,432,118),
paper and wood pulp ($1,904,556), &c. Shipbuilding ($1,780,904
in 1905) was established as early as 1739, and in 1836 the first iron
steamship and in 1854 the first iron sailing-boat built in the
United States were built here. On the Brandywine, near the city,
are the works of the Du Pont Powder Company, which extend
over nearly 1000 acres, the largest powder plant in the world.
The company was founded in 1802 by the French refugee,
Eleuthere Irenee du Pont de Nemours (1771-1834), who had
learned from Lavoisier the modern methods of powder-making,
and here introduced them into the United States. Wilmington
is the port of entry of the customs district of Delaware, with
branch offices at New Castle and Lewes. In 1909 the imports
of the district were valued at $463,092.
The city is governed under a charter of 1886, amended in 1893,
by a mayor, who is chosen biennially and who appoints the board
of water commissioners and the board of directors of the street
and sewer departments, and by a unicameral legislature, the
twelve members of which are elected by wards (except the presi-
dent of the council, who is elected at large, and is acting mayor
in the absence of the mayor). The council appoints the auditor,
the clerk of council who acts as city clerk and various inspectors,
&c. The police commission is appointed by the resident associate
judge of New Castle county court. A board of education (two
members from each ward), the city attorney and the city
treasurer are elected by popular vote.
The site of Wilmington was settled in 1638 on behalf of the
South Company of Sweden by Swedish and Dutch colonists,
under the leadership of Peter Minuit. The fort which they built
was called Christina, and the settlement that grew up around it,
Christinaham, in honour of Queen Christina, daughter of Gustavus
Adolphus. The fort was captured, without bloodshed, by
Governor Peter Stuyvesant of New Netherland in 1655, but very
few of the Swedes left Christinaham. The Swedish language
and Swedish customs persisted, and the religion of the Swedes
was tolerated. After the English conquest in 1664, especially
after the annexation of the Delaware counties to Pennsylvania
in 1682, Swedish influence declined. In 1731 a large part of the
territory now included in the city was owned by Thomas Willing,
who named it Willingtown. About eight years later, by a
borough charter granted by William Penn, this named was changed
to Wilmington, in honour of Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilming-
ton (c. 1673-1743). During the War of Independence the
battle of Brandywine was fought 13 m. N.W. of Wilmington.
In the first half of the igth century Wilmington was the centre
of a strong anti-slavery sentiment and was a " station " of the
" Underground Railroad." In 1809 the borough was enlarged
by a new charter; in 1832 Wilmington was chartered as a city.
In 1900 the city contained 41-4% of the total population of the
state and, under the state constitution of 1897, it elects five of
the thirty-five representatives and two of the seventeen senators
in the state legislature.
See Records of Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church (Wilmington,
1890); Benjamin Ferris, History of the Original Settlements on the
Delaware, part iii. (Wilmington, 1846); and Elizabeth Montgomery,
Reminiscences of Wilmington (Philadelphia, 1851).
WILMINGTON, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat
of New Hanover county, North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Cape
Fear river, about 30 m. from its mouth, 10 m. in direct line from
the ocean, and about 145 m. S.S.E. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890)
20,056; (1900) 20,976, of whom 10,407 were negroes and 467
WILMOT WILSON, A.
691
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 25,748. It is the largest city
and the chief seaport of the state. Wilmington is served by
the Atlantic Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line railways,
and by steamboat lines to New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore
and to ports on the Cape Fear and Black rivers, and is connected
by an electric b'ne with Wrightsville Beach, a pleasure resort
12 m. distant on the Atlantic Ocean. Below Wilmington the
channel of the Cape Fear river is 20 ft. deep throughout and in
some parts 22 and 24 ft. deep; the width of the channel is to be
made 270 fi.. under Federal projects on which, up to the 3oth of
June 1909, there had been expended $4,344,029. Above Wil-
mington the Cape Fear river is navigable for boats drawing 2 ft.
for 115 m. to Fayetteville. The city lies on an elevated sand
ridge and extends along the river front for about 2^ m. Among
its prominent buildings are the United States Government
Building, the United States marine hospital, the city and county
hospital, the county court house, the city hall (which houses the
public library) and the masonic temple. The city is the seat of
Cape Fear Academy (1872) for boys, of the Academy of the
Incarnation (Roman Catholic) and of the Gregory Normal School
(for negroes). The city is the see of a Protestant Episcopal
bishop. Wilmington is chiefly a commercial city, and ships
large quantities of cotton, lumber, naval stores, rice, market-
garden produce and turpentine; in 1909 the value of its exports
was $23,310,070 and the value of its imports $1,282,724. The
total value of the factory product in 1905 was $3, 155,458, of which
$893,715 was the value of lumber and timber products.
A settlement was established here in 1730 and was named
New Liverpool; about 1732 the name was changed to New
Town; in 1739 the town was incorporated, was made the
county-seat and was renamed, this time in honour of Spencer
Compton, Earl of Wilmington (c. 1673-1743). In 1760 it was
incorporated as a borough and in 1866 was chartered as a city.
Some of Wilmington's citizens were among the first to offer
armed resistance to the carrying out of the Stamp Act, compelling
the stamp-master to take an oath that he would distribute no
stamps. During most of 1781 the borough was occupied by the
British, and Lord Cornwallis had his headquarters here.
Although blockaded by the Union fleet, Wilmington was during
the Civil War the centre of an important intercourse between
the Confederacy and foreign countries by means of blockade
runners, and was the last important port open to the Confederates.
It was defended by Fort Fisher, a heavy earthwork on the
peninsula between the ocean and Cape Fear river, manned by
1400 men under Colonel William Lamb. A federal expedition
of 150 vessels under Admiral D. D. Porter and land forces (about
3000) under General B. F. Butler approached the fort on the
2oth of December 1864; on the 24th the " Louisiana," loaded
with 215 tons of powder, was exploded 400 yds. from the fort
without doing any damage; on the 24th and 25th there was a
terrific naval bombardment, which General Butler decided had
not sufficiently injured the fort to make an assault by land
possible; on the I3th and I4th of January there was another
bombardment, and on the istha combined naval and land at tack,
in which General A. H. Terry, who had succeeded General
Butler in command, stormed the fort with the help of the
marines and sailors, and took 2000 prisoners and 169 guns.
The Union losses were 266 killed, 57 missing and 1018 wounded.
A magazine explosion on the morning of the i6th killed about
100 men in each army. The city was evacuated immediately
afterwards.
WILMOT, DAVID (1814-1868), American political leader,
was born at Bethany, Pennsylvania, on the 2oth of January 1814.
He was admitted to the bar in 1834 and practised law in Towanda.
He entered politics as a Democrat, served in the National House
of Representatives from 1845 to 1851, and although he favoured
the Walker Tariff, the Mexican War and other party measures,
opposed the extension of slavery. On the 8th of August 1846,
when a bill was introduced appropriating $2,000,000 to be used
by the president in negotiating a treaty of peace with Mexico,
Wilmot immediately offered the following amendment: " Pro-
vided, That, as an express and fundamental condition to the
acquisition of any territory from the Republic of Mexico by
the United States, by virtue of any treaty which may be negoti-
ated between them, and to the use by the Executive of the
moneys herein appropriated, neither slavery nor involuntary
servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory, except
for crime, whereof the party shall first be duly convicted."
The amendment, famous in American history as the " Wilmot
Proviso," was adopted by the House, but was defeated, with
the original bill, by the Senate's adjournment. A similar
measure was brought forward at the next session, the appropria-
tion, however, being increased to $3,000,000, and the amendment
being extended to include all territory which might be acquired
by the United States; in. this form it passed the House by a
vote of 115 to 105; but the Senate refused to concur, passed
a bill of its own without the amendment; and the House,
owing largely to the influence of General Lewis Cass, in March
1847, receded from its position. The amendment was never
actually adopted by Congress, and was in fact expressly repudi-
ated in the Compromise of 1850, and its content declared
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott case.
Although known as the Wilmot Proviso it really originated with
Jacob Brinkerhoff (1810-1880) of Ohio, Wilmot being selected
to present it only because his party standing was more regular.
The extension of the principle to territory other than that to be
acquired from Mexico was probably due to Preston King (1806-
1865) of New York. Wilmot supported Van Buren in 1848 and
entered the Republican party at the time of its formation, and
was a delegate to the national conventions of 1856 and 1860.
He was president judge of the I3th Judicial District of Penn-
sylvania in 1853-1861, United States senator in 1861-1863
and Judge of the United States Court of Claims in 1863-1868.
He died at Towanda, Pennsylvania, on the i6th of March 1868.
See G. P. Garrison, Westward Extension (New York and London,
1906).
WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813), American ornithologist,
was born in Paisley, Scotland, on the 6th of July 1766. His
father, a handloom weaver, soon removed to the country, and
there combined weaving with agriculture, distilling and smuggling
conditions which no doubt helped to develop in the boy that
love of rural pursuits and adventure which was to determine
his career. At first he was placed with a tutor and destined
for the church, but afterwards he was apprenticed as a weaver.
Then he became a peddler and spent a year or two in travelling
through Scotland, recording in his journal every matter of
natural history or antiquarian interest. Having incurred a
short imprisonment for lampooning the master-weavers in a
trade dispute, he emigrated to America in 1794. After a few
years of weaving, peddling and desultory observation, he
became a village schoolmaster, and in 1802 obtained an appoint-
ment near Philadelphia, where he formed the acquaintance of
William Bartram the naturalist. Under his influence Wilson
began to draw birds, having conceived the idea of illustrating
the ornithology of the United States; and thenceforward he
steadily accumulated materials and made many expeditions.
In 1806 he obtained the assistant-editorship of the American
edition of Rees's Encyclopaedia, and thus acquired more means
and leisure for his great work, American Ornithology, the first
volume of which appeared in the autumn of 1808, after which
he spent the winter in a journey" in search of birds and sub-
scribers." By the spring of 1813 seven volumes had appeared;
but the arduous expedition of that summer, in search of the
marine waterfowl to which the remaining volume was to be
devoted, gave a shock to his already impaired health, and he
succumbed to dysentery at Philadelphia on the 23rd of August
1813.
Of his poems, not excepting the Foresters (Philadelphia, 1805),
nothing need now be said, save that they no doubt served to develop
his descriptive powers. The eighth and ninth volumes of the
American Ornithology were edited after his decease by his friend
George Ord, and the work was continued by Lucien Bonaparte
(4 vols., Philadelphia, 1825-1833). The complete work was re-
published several times, and his Miscellaneous Prose Works and
Poems was edited with a memoir by the Rev. A. B. Grosart (Paisley,
1876). A statue was erected to him at Paisley in 1876.
692
WILSON, SIR D. WILSON, H. H.
WILSON, SIR DAKIEL (1816-1892), archaeologist and
Canadian educational reformer, was born in Edinburgh on the
5th of January 1816, the son of Archibald Wilson, a wine-
merchant, and Janet Aitken. After studying at the High School
and the University of Edinburgh, he spent the next ten years
in journalism and in other forms of literary work (London
1837-1842, Edinburgh 1842-1847). In 1845 he became secretary
to the Scottish Society of Antiquaries, and in 1848 published
Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time, of which the chief
value lies in the numerous illustrations, done by himself. In
1851 appeared his most important work, Prehistoric Annals
of Scotland, which placed him in the front rank of archaeologists.
In 1853 he became professor of History and English Literature
in the University of Toronto, where his practical ability and
energy soon made him the most important member of the staff.
While writing extensively on the archaeology and anthropology
of Canada, and giving an impetus to the study, he produced
nothing of lasting importance. His main work lay in asserting
the claims of the University of Toronto, and of University
College, the teaching body in connexion with it, against the
sectarian universities of the province which denounced the
provincial university as godless, and against the private medical
schools in Toronto. Largely owing to Wilson's energy in
fighting for what he called " the maintenance of a national
system of university education in opposition to sectarian or
denominational colleges," the provincial university gained the
chief position in the intellectual life of Ontario. Two of the
sectarian universities, the Methodist and the Anglican, have
now become united to the provincial university, but the Baptist
and the Presbyterian (see KINGSTON) still retain a vigorous
existence. He was equally successful in his struggle against the
rival medical schools in Toronto, the chief of which is now
incorporated with Toronto university. In his efforts to escape
the control of local politicians he was less successful, and in some
cases appointments to the provincial university were made for
political rather than for academic reasons. Though seeing that
in a young and democratic country the Scotch-American model
must be followed rather than the English, and though resisting
attempts to follow the practice of Oxford or Cambridge, Wilson
was a believer in the merits of a modified form of the residential
system. He was one of the first in Canada to cast aside the
classical tradition, and as early as 1860 had the courage to say:
" It is just because . . . German and French are now the keys
of so much modern philosophy and science that all wise Univer-
sity reformers are learning to give to modern languages the place
they justly claim in a liberal education." In 1881 he was made
president of Toronto university; and in 1885 president of the
literature section of the Canadian Royal Society; in 1888 he
was knighted; and in 1891 given the freedom of the city of
Edinburgh. He died at Toronto on the 6th of August 1892.
Record of Historical Publications relating to Canada, edited by
G. M. Wrong, vol. v. (Toronto and London, 1901), pp. 199-217,
gives a good sketch of his career, and a bibliography of his numerous
works. (W. L. G.)
WILSON, HENRY (1812-1875), vice-president of the United
States from 1873 to 1875, was born at Farmington, New Hamp-
shire, on the 1 6th of February 1812. His name originally was
Jeremiah J. Colbaith. His father was a day-labourer and very
poor. At ten years of age the son went to work as a farm-
labourer. He was fond of reading, and before the end of his
apprenticeship had read more than a thousand volumes. At
the age of twenty-one, for some unstated reason, he had his
name changed by Act of the Legislature to that of Henry Wilson.
At Natick, Massachusetts, whither he travelled on foot, he
learned the trade of shoemaker, and during his leisure hours
studied much and read with avidity. For short periods, also,
he studied in the academies of Strafford, N.H., Wolfeborough,
N.H., and Concord, N.H. After successfully establishing himself
as a shoe manufacturer, he attracted attention as a public
speaker in support of William Henry Harrison during the
presidential campaign of 1840. He was in the state House of
Representatives in 1841-42, 1846 and 1850, and in the Senate in
1844-45 and 1851-52. In 1848 he left the Whig party and
became one of the chief leaders of the Free Soil party, serving
as presiding officer of that party's national convention in 1852,
acting as chairman of the Free Soil national committee and
editing from 1848 to 1851 the Boston Republican, which he made
the chief Free Soil organ. The Free Soil party nominated him
for governor of the state iii 1853, but he was defeated. For a
short time (1855) he identified himself with the American or Know
Nothing party, and afterwards acted with the Republican party.
In 1855 he was elected to the United States Senate and remained
there by re-elections until 1873. His uncompromising opposition
to the institution of slavery furnished the keynote of his earlier
senatorial career, and he soon took rank as one of the ablest and
most effective anti-slavery orators in the United States. He had
been deeply interested from 1840 until 1850 in the militia of his
state, and had risen through its grades of service to that of
brigadier-general. Upon the outbreak of the Civil War he was
made chairman of the military committee of the Senate, and in
this position performed most laborious and important work for
the four years of the war. The Republicans nominated Wilson for
the vice-presidency in 1872, and he was elected; but he died on
the 22nd of November 1875 before completing his term of office.
He published, besides many orations, a History of the Anti-Slavery
Measures of the Thirty-Seventh and Thirty-Eighth United States
Congresses (1865); Military Measures of the United States Congress
(1868); a History of the Reconstruction Measures of the Thirty- Ninth
and Fortieth Congresses (1868) and a History of the Rise and Fall oj
the Slave Power in America (3 vols., 1872-1875), his most important
work.
The best biography is that by Elias Nason and Thomas Russell,
The Life and Public Services of Henry Wilson (Boston, 1876).
WILSON, HORACE HAYMAN (1786-1860), English orientalist,
was born in London on the 26th of September 1786. He studied
medicine at St Thomas's Hospital, and went out to India in
1808 as assistant-surgeon on the Bengal establishment of the
East India Company. His knowledge of metallurgy caused him
to be attached to the mint at Calcutta, where he was for a time
associated with John Leyden. He became deeply interested
in the ancient language and literature of India, and by the
recommendation of Henry T. Colebrooke, he was in 1811 ap-
pointed secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal. In 1813
he published the Sanskrit text with a graceful, if somewhat
free, translation in English rhymed verse of Kalidasa's charming
lyrical poem, the Meghaduta, or Cloud-Messenger. He prepared
the first Sanskrit-English Dictionary (1819) from materials
compiled by native scholars, supplemented by bis own researches.
This work was only superseded by the Sanskritworlerbuch (1853-
1876) of R. von Roth and Otto Bohtlingk, who expressed their
obligations to Wilson in the preface to their great work. Wilson
published in 1827 Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus,
which contained a very full survey of the Indian drama, transla-
tions of six complete plays and short accounts of twenty-three
others. His Mackenzie Collection (1828) is a descriptive catalogue
of the extensive collection of Oriental, especially South Indian,
MSS. and antiquities made by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, now
deposited partly in the India Office, London, and partly at
Madras. He also wrote a Historical Sketch of the First Burmese
War, with Documents, Political and Geographical (1827), a
Review of the External Commerce of Bengal from 1813 to 1828
(1830) and a History of British India from 1805 to 1833, in
continuation of Mill's History (1844-1848). He acted for many
years as secretary to the committee of public instruction, and
superintended the studies of the Sanskrit College in Calcutta.
He was one of the staunchest opponents of the proposal that
English should be made the sole medium of instruction in native
schools, and became for a time the object of bitter attacks. In
1832 the university of Oxford selected Dr Wilson to be the
first occupant of the newly founded Boden chair of Sanskrit,
and in 1836 he was appointed librarian to the East India
Company. He was an original member of the Royal Asiatic
Society, of which he was director from 1837 up to the time
of his death, which took place in London on the 8th of May
1860.
WILSON, JAMES
693
A full list of Wilson's works may be found in an Annual Report
of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1860. A considerable number of
Sanskrit MSS. (540 vols.) collected by Wilson in India are now in
the Bodleian Library.
WILSON, JAMES (1742-1798), American statesman and
jurist, was born in or near St Andrews, Scotland, on the I4th
of September 1742. He matriculated at the University of St
Andrews in 1757 and was subsequently a student at the universi-
ties of Glasgow and Edinburgh. In 1 765 he emigrated to America.
Landing at New York in June, he went to Philadelphia in. the
following year and in 1766-1767 was instructor of Latin in
the college of Philadelphia, later the university of Pennsylvania.
Meanwhile he studied law in the office of John Dickinson, was
admitted to the bar in 1767, removed first to Reading and soon
afterward to Carlisle, and rapidly rose to prominence. In August
1774 he published a pamphlet Considerations on the Nature
and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament,
in which he argued that parliament had no constitutional power
to legislate for the colonies; this pamphlet strongly influenced
members of the Continental Congress which met in September.
Wilson was a delegate to the Pennsylvania provincial convention
in January 1775, and he sustained there the right of Massa-
chusetts to resist the change in its charter, declaring that as the
force which the British Government was exercising to compel
obedience was " force unwarranted by any act of parliament,
unsupported by any principle of the common law, unauthorized
by any commission from the crown," resistance was justified
by " both the letter and the spirit of the British constitution ";
he also, by his speech, led the colonies in shifting the burden
of responsibility from parliament or the king's ministers to the
king himself. In May 1775 Wilson became a member of the
Continental Congress. When a declaration of independence
was first proposed in that body he expressed the belief that a
majority of the people of Pennsylvania were in favour of it,
but as the instructions of the delegates from Pennsylvania and
some of the other colonies opposed such a declaration, he urged
postponement of action for the purpose of giving the constituents
in those colonies an opportunity of removing such instructions.
When independence was finally declared the unanimity of all
the colonies except New York had been obtained. Receiving
a commission as colonel in May 1775, Wilson raised a battalion
of troops in his county of Cumberland, and for a short time in
1776 he took part in the New Jersey campaign, but his principal
labours in 1776 and 1777 were in Congress. In January 1776 he
was appointed a member of a committee to prepare an address
to the colonies, and the address was written by him; he served
on a similar committee in May 1777, and wrote the address
To the Inhabitants of the United Stales, urging their firm support
of the cause of Independence; he drafted the plan of treaty with
France together with instructions for negotiating it; he was a
member of the Board of War from its establishment in June
1776 until his retirement from Congress in September 1777;
from January to September 1777 he was chairman of the Com-
mittee on Appeals, to hear and determine appeals from the
courts of admiralty in the several states; and he was a member
of many other important committees. In September 1777 the
political faction in his state which had opposed Independence
again came into power, and Wilson was kept out of Congress
until the close of the war; he was back again, however, in 1783,
and 1785-1786, and, advocating a sound currency, laboured
in co-operation with Robert Morris to direct the financial policy
of the Confederation.
Soon after leaving Congress in 1777 Wilson removed to
Annapolis, Maryland, to practise law, but he returned to Phila-
delphia in the following year. In 1779 he was commissioned
Advocate- General for France, and in this capacity he represented
Louis XVI. in all claims arising out of the French alliance
until the close of the war. In 1781-1782 he was the principal
counsel for Pennsylvania in the Wyoming Valley dispute with
Connecticut, which was decided in favour of Pennsylvania in
December 1782 by an arbitration court appointed by Congress.
Wilson was closely associated with Robert Morris in organizing
the Bank of North America, and in the Act of Congress incorpor-
ating it (December 31, 1781) he was made one of the directors.
In 1 782 the legislature of Pennsylvania granted a charter to this
bank, but three years later it passed an act to repeal it. Wilson
responded with a famous constitutional argument in which he
sustained the constitutionality of the bank on the basis of the
implied powers of Congress.
As a constructive statesman Wilson had no superior in the
Federal Convention of 1787. He favoured the independence of
the executive, legislative and judicial departments, the supremacy
of the Federal government over the state governments, and the
election of senators as well as representatives by the people,
and was opposed to the election of the President or the judges
by Congress. His political philosophy was based upon implicit
confidence in the people, and he strove for such provisions as
he thought would best guarantee a government by the people.
When the constitution had been framed Wilson pronounced it
" the best form of government which has ever been offered to the
world," and he, at least, among the framers regarded it not as a
compact but as an ordinance to be established by the people.
During the struggle for ratification he made a speech before
a mass meeting in Philadelphia which has been characterized
as " the ablest single presentation of the whole subject." In
the Pennsylvania ratification convention (November 21 to
December 15, 1787) he was the constitution's principal defender.
Having been appointed professor of law in the university of
Pennsylvania in 1790, he delivered at that institution in 1790-
1791 a course of lectures on public and private law; some of these
lectures, together with his speeches in the Federal convention,
before the mass meeting in Philadelphia, and in the Pennsylvania
ratification convention, are among the, most valuable commen-
taries on the constitution.
Wilson was a delegate to the state constitutional convention
of 1789-1790, and a member of the committee which drafted
the new constitution. In 1789 Washington appointed him an
associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, and in
1793 he wrote the important decision in the case of Chiselm
v. Georgia, the purport of which was that the people of the
United States constituted a sovereign nation and that the United
States were not a mere confederacy of sovereign states. He
continued to serve as associate justice until his death, near
Edenton, North Carolina, on the 28th of August 1798.
Wilson's Works, consisting principally of his law lectures and a
few speeches, were published under the direction of his son, Bird
Wilson (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1803-1804). A revised edition in
two volumes with notes by James D. Andrews was published in
Chicago in 1896. See also Documentary History of the Censiitution
of the United States of America, vols. i. and iii. (Washington, 1804);
J. B. McMaster and F. D. Stone, Pennsylvania and the Federal
Constitution, 1787-1788 (Philadelphia, 1888); L. H. Alexander
(ed.), James Wilson (Philadelphia, 1908); a biographical sketch
entitled " James Wilson, Nation-Builder," by L. H. Alexander, in
the Green Bag, vol. 19 (1907); "James Wilson, Patriot, and the
Wilson Doctrine," by Alexander, in the North American Review,
vol. 185 (1906); Justice }. M. Harlan, "James Wilson and the
Formation of the Constitution," in the American Law Review,
vol. 34; B. A. Konkle et al. "The James Wilson Memorial," in
the American Law Register, voL 55 (1907).
WILSON, JAMES (1835- ), American administrator, was
born in Ayrshire, Scotland, on the i6th of August 1835. In 1851
he was taken by his parents to America, where they originally
settled in Connecticut, but in 1855 removed to Tama county
Iowa. He studied at Iowa College, and in 1861 became a fanner.
He was a Republican member of the state House of Representa-
tives in 1868-1873, and was its speaker in 1872-1873, and he
was a member of the National House of Representatives from
1873 to 1877 and again in 1883-1885. From 1870 to 1874 he
was a regent of the State University of Iowa; in 1877-1883 was
a member of the Iowa State Railway Commission, and from 1890
to 1897 was professor of agriculture at the Iowa Agricultural
College, at Ames, and director of the State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. In March 1897 he became Secretary of Agriculture
in President McKinley's Cabinet and served into President
Taft's administration, holding office longer than any other
cabinet officer since the organization of the government.
6 94
WILSON, JOHN
WILSON, JOHN (1627-1696), English playwright, son of
Aaron Wilson, a royalist divine, was born in London in 1627.
He matriculated from Exeter College, Oxford, in 1644, and
entered Lincoln's Inn two years later, being called to the bar
in 1649. His unswerving support of the royal pretensions
recommended him to James, duke of York, through whose
influence he became Recorder of Londonderry about 1681.
His Discourse of Monarchy (1684), a tract in favour of the
succession of the duke of York, was followed (1685) by a
" Pindarique " on his coronation. In 1688 he wrote Jus regium
Coronae, a learned defence of James's action in dispensing with
the penal statutes. He died in obscurity; due perhaps to his
political opinions, in 1696. Wilson was the author of four
plays, showing a vigorous and learned wit, and a power of
character-drawing that place him rather among the followers
of Ben Jonson than with the Restoration dramatists.
The Cheats (written in 1662, printed 1664, 1671, &c.) was played
with great success in 1663. John Lacy found one of his best parts
in Scruple, a caricature of a Presbyterian minister of accommodating
morality. Andronicus Comnenius (1664), a blank verse tragedy, is
based on the story of Andronicus Comnenus as told by Peter Heylin
in his Cosmography. It contains a scene between the usurper and
the widow of his victim Alexius which follows very closely Shake-
speare's treatment of a parallel situation in Richard III. The
Projectors (1665), a prose comedy of London life, is, like Moliere's
L'Avare, founded on the Aulularia of Plautus, but there is no evidence
that Wilson was acquainted with the French play. Belphegor, or the
Marriage of the Devil; a Tragi-comedy (1690), treats of a theme
familiar to Elizabethan drama, but Wilson took the subject from the
Belphegor attributed to Machiavelli, and alludes also to Straparola's
version in the Nolti. He also translated into English Erasmus's
Encomium Moriae (1668).
See The Dramatic Works of John Wilson, edited with intro-
duction and notes by James Maidment and W. H. Logan in 1874
for the " Dramatists of the Restoration " series.
WILSON, JOHN (1785-1854), Scottish writer, the CHRISTOPHER
NORTH of Blackwood's Magazine, was born at Paisley on the i8th
of May 1785, the son of a wealthy gauze manufacturer who died
when John was eleven years old. He was the fourth child, but
the eldest son, and he had nine brothers and sisters. 1 He was
only twelve when he was first entered at the university of
Glasgow,, and he continued to attend various classes in that
university for six years, being for the most part under the
tutorship of Professor George Jardine, with whose family he lived.
In these six years Wilson " made himself " in all ways, acquiring
not inconsiderable scholarship, perfecting himself in all sports
and exercises, and falling in love with a certain " Margaret,"
who was the object of his affections for several years.
In 1803 Wilson was entered as a gentleman commoner at
Magdalen College, Oxford. Few men have felt more than he
the charm of Oxford, and in much of his later work, notably in
the essay called " Old North and Young North," he has expressed
his feeling. But it does not appear that his Magdalen days were
altogether happy, though he perfected himself in " bruising,"
pedestrianism and other sports, and read so as to obtain a
brilliant first class. His love affairs did not go happily, and he
seems to have made no intimate friends at his own college and
few in the university. He took his degree in 1807, and found
himself at twenty-two his own master, with a good income,
no father or guardian to control him, and apparently not under
any of the influences which in similar circumstances generally
make it necessary for a young man to adopt some profession,
if only in name. His profession was an estate on Windermere
called Elleray, ever since connected with his name. Here he
built, boated, wrestled, shot, fished, walked and otherwise
diverted himself for four years, besides composing or collecting
from previous compositions a considerable volume of poems,
published in 1812 as the Isle of Palms. Here he became
intimate with Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey and De Quincey.
1 His youngest brother was James Wilson " of Woodville "
(1795-1856), the zoologist. He purchased, on behalf of Edinburgh
University, in Paris, the Dufresne collection of birds, and arranged
them on his return to Scotland. He contributed to Blackwood's
Magazine and to the North British Quarterly Review, and wrote many
of the articles on natural history in the seventh edition of the
Encyclopaedia britannica.
He married in 1811 Jane Penny, a Liverpool lady of good family,
and four years of happy married life at Elleray succeeded; then
came the event which made a working man of letters of Wilson,
and without which he would probably have produced a few
volumes of verse and nothing more. The major part of his
fortune was lost by the dishonest speculation of an uncle, in
whose hands Wilson had carelessly left it. But this hard fate
was by no means unqualified. His mother had a house in
Edinburgh, in which she was able and willing to receive her son
and his family; nor had he even to give up Elleray, though
henceforward he was not able constantly to reside in it. He
read law and was called to the Scottish bar, in 1815, still taking
many a sporting and pedestrian excursion, and publishing in
1816 a second volume of poems, The City of the Plague. In 1817,
soon after the founding of Blackwood's Magazine, Wilson began
his connexion with that great Tory monthly by joining with
J. G. Lockhart in the October number, in a satire called the
Chaldee Manuscript, in the form of biblical parody, on the rival
Edinburgh Review, its publisher and his contributors. From
this time he was the principal writer for Blackwood's, though
never its nominal editor, the publisher retaining a certain
supervision even over Lockhart's and " Christopher North's "
contributions, which were the making of the magazine. In
1822 began the series of Nodes Ambrosianae, after 1825 mostly
Wilson's work. These are discussions in the form of convivial
table-talk, giving occasion to wonderfully various digressions
of criticism, description and miscellaneous writing. From their
origin it necessarily followed that there was much ephemeral,
a certain amount purely local, and something wholly trivial
in them. But their dramatic force, their incessant flashes of
happy thought and happy expression, their almost incompar-
able fulness of life, and their magnificent humour give them
all but the highest place among genial and recreative literature.
" The Ettrick Shepherd," an idealized portrait of James Hogg,
one of the talkers, is a most delightful creation. Before this,
Wilson had contributed to Blackwood's prose tales and sketches,
and novels, some of which were afterwards published separately
in Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life (1822), The Trials cf
Margaret Lyndsay (1823) and The Foresters (1825); later
appeared essays on Spenser, Homer and all sorts of modern
subjects and authors.
The first result of his new occupation on Wilson's general
mode of life was that he left his mother's house and established
himself (1819) in Ann Street, Edinburgh, with his wife and
family of five children. The second was much more unlocked
for, his election to the chair of moral philosophy in the university
of Edinburgh (1820). His qualifications for the post were by
no means obvious, even if the fact that the best qualified man
in Great Britain, Sir William Hamilton, was also a candidate,
be left out of the question. But the matter was made a political
one; the Tories still had a majority in the town council; Wilson
was powerfully backed by friends, Sir Walter Scott at their
head; and his adversaries played into his hands by attacking
his moral character, which was not open to any fair reproach.
Wilson made a very excellent professor, never perhaps attaining
to any great scientific knowledge in his subject or power of
expounding it, but acting on generation after generation of
students with a stimulating force that is far more valuable
than the most exhaustive knowledge of a particular topic.
His duties left him plenty of time for magazine work, and for
many years his contributions to Black-wood were extraordinarily
voluminous, in one year (1834) amounting to over fifty separate
articles. Most of the best and best known of them appeared
between 1825 and 1835.
The domestic events of Wilson's life in the last thirty years
of it may be briefly told. He oscillated between Edinburgh
and Elleray, with excursions and summer residences elsewhere,
a sea trip on board the Experimental Squadron in the Channel
during the summer of 1832, and a few other unimportant diver-
sions. The death of his wife in 1837 was an exceedingly severe
blow to him, especially as it followed within three years that of
his friend Blackwood. For many years after, his literary work
WILSON, J. H. WILSON, SIR R. T.
6 95
was intermittent, and, with some exceptions, not up to the level
of his earlier years. Late in 1850 his health showed definite
signs of breaking up; and in the next year he resigned his
professorship, and a Civil List pension of 300 a year was
conferred on him. He died at Edinburgh on the 3rd of April
1854-
Only a very small part of Wilson's extensive work was published
in a collected and generally accessible form during his lifetime, the
chief and almost sole exceptions being the two volumes of poems
referred to, the Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life, and the Re-
creations of Christopher North (1842), a selection from his magazine
articles. These volumes, with a selected edition of the Nodes
Ambrosianae in four volumes, and of further essays, critical and
imaginative, also in four volumes, were collected and reissued
uniformly after his death by his son-in-law, Professor J. F. Ferrier.
The collection is very far from exhaustive; and, though it un-
doubtedly contains most of his best work and comparatively little
that is not good, it has been complained, with some justice, that the
characteristic, if rather immature, productions of his first eight
years on Blackwood are almost entirely omitted, that the Noctes are
given but in part, if in their best part, and that at least three long,
important and interesting series of papers, less desultory than is
his wont, on " Spenser," on " British Critics " and the set called
" Dies Boreales,' have been left out altogether. Wilson's char-
acteristics are, however, uniform enough, and the standard edition
exhibits them sufficiently, if not exhaustively. His poems may be
dismissed at once as little more than interesting. They would
probably not have been written at all if he had not been a young
man in the time of the full flood of the Lake school influence. His
prose tales have in some estimates stood higher, but will hardly
survive the tests of universal criticism. It is as an essayist and
critic of the most abounding geniality, if not genius, of great acute-
ness, of extraordinary eloquence and of a fervid and manifold
sympathy, in which he has hardly an equal, that Christopher North
will live. His defects lay in the directions of measure and of taste
properly so called, that is to say, of the modification of capricious
tikes and dislikes by reason and principle. He is constantly ex-
aggerated, boisterous, wanting in refinement. But these are the
almost necessary defects of his qualities of enthusiasm, eloquence
and generous feeling. The well-known adaptation of phrase in which
he did not recant but made up for numerous earlier attacks on Leigh
Hunt, " the Animosities are mortal, but the Humanities live for
ever," shows him as a writer at his very best, but not without
a little characteristic touch of grandiosity and emphasis. As a
literary critic, as a sportsman, as a lover of nature and as a convivial
humorist, he is not to be shown at equal advantage in miniature;
but almost any volume of his miscellaneous works will exhibit him
at full length in one of these capacities, if not in all.
See Christopher North, by Mrs Mary Gordon, his daughter (1862) ;
and Mrs Oliphant, Annals of a Publishing House; William Black-
wood and his Sons (1897).
WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (1837- ), American cavalry
soldier, was born at Shawneetown, Illinois, in 1837 and entered
West Point military academy in 1855, graduating in 1860. He
was appointed to the engineer branch of the United States army,
served in the Port Royal and Fort Pulaski operations, being
breveted major for his gallant conduct at Pulaski, was on
M'Clellan's staff at Antietam as a lieutenant-colonel in 1862,
and as a topographical engineer on the headquarters staff of
the Army of the Tennessee during the Vicksburg and Chattanooga
campaigns. His services in the intricate operations before
Vicksburg were rewarded by promotion to brigadier-general
U.S.V. In 1864 he was appointed to command a division in
Sheridan's cavalry corps, and played a distinguished part in the
cavalry operations of the 4th to 6th of May during the battle
of the Wilderness (for which he was breveted colonel U.S.A.),
the so-called Richmond Raid, the operations on the Totopotomoy,
&c. Later in 1864 he commanded the cavalry of Thomas's
army in Tennessee. During the closing operations of the war
he led a cavalry expedition on a grand scale through the South-
western states, occupying Selma, Montgomery and Macon, and
capturing at different times nearly 7000 prisoners, including
President Davis. He was promoted major-general of volunteers
and breveted major-general U.S.A. shortly before the end of
the war. Returning to duty in the regular army as a lieutenant-
colonel of infantry for some years, he resigned in 1870 and
engaged in engineering and railway construction. In 1898,
during the Spanish-American War, he was appointed a major-
general in the new volunteer army, and took part in the operations
in Porto Rico. He served in the China expedition of 1900 as a
brigadier-general and in 1001 was placed on the retired list as a
brigadier-general U.S.A.
WILSON, RICHARD (1714-1782), English landscape painter,
was born at Penegoes, Montgomeryshire, where his father was a
clergyman, on the ist of August 1714. His early taste for art
was observed by a relative of his mother, Sir George Wynne,
who in 1729 sent him to London to study under Thomas Wright,
a little-known portrait painter of the time, by whom he was
instructed for six years. He then started on his own account,
and was soon in a good practice. Among his commissions was
a full-length of the prince of Wales and the duke of York, painted
for their tutor, the bishop of Norwich. Examples of his portraits
may be studied in Greenwich Hospital, in the Garrick Club,
and in various private collections. In 1749 Wilson visited
Italy, where he spent six years. He had previously executed
some landscapes, but it was now that the advice of Zuccarelli
and Joseph Vernet decided him to adopt this department of art
exclusively. He studied Claude and Poussin, but retained his
own individuality, and produced some admirable views of Rome
and the Campagna. In 1755 he returned to England, and became
one of the first of English landscape painters. " Niobe," one
of his most powerful works, was exhibited at the Society of
Artists in 1760. On the establishment of the Royal Academy
in 1768 he was appointed one of the original members, and
he was a regulai contributor to its exhibitions till 1780. He
frequently executed replicas of his more important subjects,
repeating some of them several times; in the figures which he
introduced in his landscapes he was occasionally assisted by
Mortimer and Hayman. During his lifetime his landscapes
were never widely popular; his temper was consequently
embittered by neglect, and so impoverished was he that he was
obliged to seclude himself in an obscure, half-furnished room in
Tottenham Court Road, London. In 1776, however, he obtained
the post of librarian to the Academy; and by the death of a
brother he acquired a small property near Llanferras, Denbigh-
shire, to which he retired to soend his last days, and where he
died suddenly in May 1782. After his death his fame increased,
and in 1814 about seventy of his works were exhibited in the
British Institution. The National Gallery, London, contains
nine of his landscapes.
The works of Wilson are skilled and learned compositions
rather than direct transcripts from nature. His landscapes are
treated with great breadth, and with a power of generalization
which occasionally led to a disregard of detail. They are full
of classical feeling and poetic sentiment; they possess noble
qualities of colour, and of delicate silvern tone; and their
handling is vigorous and easy, the work of a painter who was
thoroughly master of his materials.
See Studies and Designs by Richard Wilson, done at Rome in the
year 1752 (Oxford, 1811); T. Wright, Some Account of the Life of
Richard Wilson (London, 1824); Thomas Hastings, Etchings from
the Works of Richard Wilson, with some Memoirs of his Life (London,
1825). Many of Wilson's best works were reproduced by Woollett
and other engravers of the time.
WILSON, ROBERT (d. 1600), English actor and playwright,
was a comedian in the earl of Leicester's company, beginning
with its establishment in 1574, and from 1583 to 1588 in the
Queen's and afterwards in Lord Strange's company. He wrote
several morality plays. In his Three Ladies of London (1584)
he has the episode of the attempt of the Jew to recover his
debt, afterwards adapted by Shakespeare in The Merchant of
Venice. Another Robert Wilson (1579-1610), probably his son,
was one of Henslowe's dramatic hack-writers.
WILSON, SIR ROBERT THOMAS (1777-1849), British
general, was a son of the painter Benjamin Wilson (1721-1788),
and obtained a commission in the isth light dragoons in 1794,
taking part in the famous charge at Villers-en-Cauchics. He
was one of eight officers who received the emperor's commemora-
tion medal (of which only nine were struck), the order of Maria
Theresa and the dignity of Freiherr of the Empire. In the
campaigns of Tourcoing and Tournay and in the retreat through
Holland, Wilson repeatedly distinguished himself. In 1796
he became captain by purchase, in 1798 he served as a
6 9 6
WILSON, T. WILSON, SIR ERASMUS
brigade-major during the suppression of the Irish Rebellion, and in
1799 was with the i sth in the fielder expedition. Having in 1800
purchased a majority in a regiment serving in the Mediterranean
he was sent on a military mission to Vienna in that year, but
returned to take part in the battle of Alexandria. In 1802 he
published an account of the expedition to Egypt, which was
shortly afterwards translated into French, and created a con-
siderable impression by its strictures upon French officers'
barbarity. Wilson shortly afterwards produced a translation
of General Regnier's work on the same campaign, with comments.
Shortly afterwards Wilson published a work on the defects of
the British army system which is remembered as the first protest
against flogging. In 1804 he bought the colonelcy of the igth
light dragoons, in 1805 exchanged into the 2oth, and in 1806
served with the 2oth in the Cape of Good Hope expedition. In
1807 he was employed as military attache of a mission to the
king of Prussia, and so was present at Eylau, Heilsberg and
Friedland, of which battles he published an account in 1810.
Returning to England with despatches from St Petersburg he
reached London before the Russian declaration of war and so
gave the admiralty twenty-four hours' start in the operation
at sea. In the early part of the Peninsular War Wilson raised
and commanded the Lusitanian Legion, an irregular Portuguese
corps which did good service in 1808 and 1809 and formed the
starting-point of the new Portuguese army organized by Beresford
in 1810. His services were rewarded by knighthood, a colonelcy
in the British army and the Portuguese order of the Tower and
Sword. In 1811, with the rank of brigadier-general, he went
to Turkey, and in 1812 he travelled thence to Russia, where
he was attached to Kutuzov's headquarters during the pursuit
of the retreating French, being present at Malo-Jaroslavietz,
Vyazma and Krasnoye. His account of the campaign, published
in 1860, is one of the most valuable works on these events. He
continued to serve with the Russian army during 1813 and
distinguished himself at Liitzen and Bautzen, the emperor
Alexander decorating him with the knighthood of the St George
order on the battlefield. He was promoted major-general in the
British army about the same time. He was at Dresden, Kulm
and Leipzig, and distinguished himself at the last great battle
so much that Schwarzenberg writing to the British ambassador
at Vienna attributed to Wilson's skill a large part in the successful
issue of the battle. But his services in the counsels of the Allies
were still more important on account of the confidence reposed
in him personally by the allied sovereigns. But Castlereagh,
treating Wilson as a political opponent, removed him to the
minor theatre of Italy, in spite of the protests of the British
ambassador. With the Austrian Army of Italy he served through
the campaign of 1814. In 1816 after Waterloo he contrived the
escape of one of Napoleon's supporters, condemned to death
by the Restoration government, and was imprisoned for three
months with his comrade in this adventure, Captain Hely-
Hutchinson (3rd earl of Donoughmore), and censured by the
commander-in-chief in a general order. In 1817 he published
The Military and Political Power of Russia, in 1818 he became
member of parliament for Southwark and in 1821 he interposed
between the mob and the troops on the occasion of Queen
Caroline's funeral, for which his political opponents secured his
dismissal from the army, without compensation for the price
of his commissions. He took an active part in politics on the
opposition side, and also spent some time in Spain during the
wars of 1822-23. On the accession of William IV., his political
services in the formation of the Canning ministry of 1827 were
rewarded by reinstatement in the army with the rank of
lieutenant-general. But, disapproving of the Reform bill, he
resigned his place in the Commons. He was promoted general
in 1.841 and appointed governor of Gibraltar in 1842. He died
in London on the gth of May 1849.
Besides the works mentioned above, Wilson left a diary of his
travels and experiences in 1812-1814, published in 1861, and an
incomplete autobiography, published two years later.
WILSON, THOMAS (c. 1525-1581), English statesman and
critic, the son of Thomas Wilson of Strubby, in Lincolnshire,
was bom about 1525. He was educated at Eton and King's
College, Cambridge, where he joined the school of Hellenists to
which Cheke, Thomas Smith, Walter Haddon and others belonged.
He graduated B.A. in 1546 and M.A. in 1549. In 1551 he
produced, in conjunction with Walter Haddon, a Latin life of
Henry and Charles Brandon, dukes of Suffolk. His earliest work
of importance was The Rule of Reason, contcinynge the Arte of
Logique set forth inEnglishe (1551) , which was frequently reprinted.
It has been maintained that the book on which Wilson's fame
mainly rests, The Arte of Rhetorique, was printed about the same
time, but this is probably an error: the first edition extant is
dated January 1553. It is the earliest systematic work of
literary criticism existing in the English language. Wilson
threw in his lot with the Dudley family, and when they fell, he
fled to the Continent. He was with Sir John Cheke in Padua
in 1555-1557, and afterwards at Rome, whither in 1558 Queen
Mary wrote, ordering him to return to England to stand his
trial as a heretic. He refused to come, but was arrested by the
Roman Inquisition and tortured. He escaped, and fled to
Ferrara, but in 1560 he was once more in London. Wilson
became Master of St Katherine's Hospital in the Tower, and
entered parliament in January 1563. In 1570 he published a
translation, the first attempted in English, of the Olynthiacs
and Philippics of Demosthenes, on which he had been engaged
since 1 556. His Discourse upon Usury appeared in 1572. From
1574 to 1577, Wilson, who had now become a prominent person
in the diplomatic world, was principally engaged on embassies
to the Low Countries, and on his return to England he was made
a privy councillor and sworn secretary of state; Walsingham
was his colleague. In 1580, although he was not in holy orders,
Queen Elizabeth made Wilson dean of Durham. He died at
St Katherine's Hospital on the i6th of June 1581, and was
buried next day, " without charge or pomp," at his express
wish. The Arte of Rhetorique gives Wilson a high place among
the earliest artificers of English style; and it is interesting to
see that he was opposed to pedantry of phrase, and above all
to a revival of uncouth medieval forms of speech, and encouraged
a simpler manner of prose writing than was generally appreciated
in the middle of the i6th century.
WILSON, THOMAS (1663-1755), English bishop, was bom
at Burton, Cheshire, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin.
He was ordained in 1686, and became curate at Newchurch
Kenyon, Lancashire. In 1692 he was appointed chaplain to
the 9th earl of Derby, who in 1697 offered him the bishopric
of Sodor and Man. He was consecrated bishop in 1698. His
episcopate was marked by a number of reforms in the Isle of
Man. New churches were built, libraries founded and books
were printed in Manx, his Principles and Duties of Christianity
(London, 1707) being the first book published in that language.
He also encouraged farming, and set the example of planting
fruit and forest trees. In order to restore discipline in the island
he drew up in 1704 his well-known Ecclesiastical Constitutions.
The judgments of his courts often brought him into conflict
with the governors of the island, and in 1722 he was even im-
prisoned for a time in Castle Rushen. In 1737, however, the
jurisdiction of the civil and spiritual courts was better defined
by new statutes, the lordship of the island having passed in
1736 to James Murray, and duke of Atholl, with whom Wilson
had no personal difficulties. In 1749 on Zinzendorf's invitation
he accepted the title of Antistes a synonym for bishop in the
Moravian Church.
A life of Wilson, by John Keble, was published with his Works
(Oxford, 1847-1863). The Sodor and Man Theological School in
the Isle of Man is called in his memory the Bishop Wilson School.
WILSON, SIR WILLIAM JAMES ERASMUS, generally
known as Sir ERASMUS WILSON (1809-1884), British surgeon
and philanthropist, was born in London on the 25th of November
1809, studied at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London, and
at Aberdeen, and early in life became known as a skilful operator
and dissector. It was his sympathy with the poor of London
and a suggestion from Thomas Wakley of the Lancet, of which
Wilson acted for a time as sub-editor, which first led him to take
WILSON, W. WILTON
697
up skin diseases as a special study. The horrible cases of
scrofula, anaemia and blood-poisoning which he saw made him
set to work to alleviate the sufferings of persons so afflicted,
and he quickly established a reputation for treating this class
of patient. It was said that he cured the rich by ordering them
to give up luxuries; the poor, by prescribing for them proper
nourishment, which was often provided out of his own pocket.
In the opinion of one of his biographers, we owe to Wilson in
great measure the habit of the daily bath, and he helped very
much to bring the Turkish bath into use in Great Britain. He
wrote much upon the diseases which specially occupied his
attention, and his books, A Healthy Skin and Student's Book of
Diseases of the Skin, though they were not received without
criticism at the time of their appearance, long remained text-
books of their subject. He visited the East in order to study
leprosy, Switzerland that he might investigate the causes of
goitre, and Italy with the purpose of adding to his knowledge
of the skin diseases affecting an ill-nourished peasantry. He
made a large fortune by his successful practice and by skilful
investments, and, since he had no family, he devoted a great
deal of his money to charitable and educational purposes. He
founded in 1869 the chair and museum of dermatology in the
Royal College of Surgeons, of which he was chosen president in
1881, and which just before his death awarded him its honorary
gold medal, founded in 1800 and only six times previously
awarded. He also founded a professorship of pathology at
Aberdeen University. After the death of his wife the bulk of
his property, some 200,000, went to the Royal College of
Surgeons. In 1878 he earned the thanks of the nation, upon
different grounds, by defraying the expense of bringing the
Egyptian obelisk called Cleopatra's Needle from Alexandria
to London, where it was erected on the Thames Embankment.
The British government had not thought it worth the expense
of transportation. He was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1881,
and died at Westgate-on-Sea on the yth of August 1884.
WILSON, WOODROW (1856- ), American educationist,
was born in Staunton, Virginia, on the 28th of December 1856.
He graduated at Princeton in 1879, studied law at the University
of Virginia in 1879-1880, practised law in Atlanta in 1882-1883,
and received the degree of Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins University
in 1886, his thesis being on Congressional Government (1885;
and often reprinted). He was associate professor of history
and political economy at Bryn Mawr in 1885-1888 and at
Wesleyan University in 1888-1800; professor of jurisprudence
and political economy at Princeton in 1800-1895, of juris-
prudence in 1895-1897, and subsequently of jurisprudence and
politics; and in 1902 he became president of Princeton Univer-
sity, being the first layman to hold that office. He retired in
1910, and was elected Democratic governor of New Jersey.
His administration of the University was marked by the intro-
duction of the "preceptorial" system, by the provision of
dormitories and college eating-halls for members of the lower
classes, and by the development of the graduate school.
He wrote: The State: Elements of Historical and Practical
Politics, Sketch of Institutional History and Administration (1889) ;
The State and Federal Government of the United States (1891);
Division and Reunion, 1829-1889 (1893) in the" Epochs of American
History " series; An Old Master and Other Political Essays (1893);
Mere Literature and Other Essays (1893); George Washington
(1896), an excellent biography; the popular History of the Anencan
People (1902) ; Constitutional Government in the United States
(1908), being Columbia University Lectures; and in the seventh
volume of the Cambridge Modern History the chapter on " State
Rights, 1850-1860."
WILTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Wilton
parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S.
of London, on the London & South-Western and Great Western
railways. Pop. (1901) 2203. It lies among the pastures beside
the rivers Nadder and Wylye. The church of St Mary and St
Nicholas was built in 1844 by Lord Herbert of Lea, in a Roman-
esque style, richly adorned with marbles and mosaics. The
central entrance is upheld by twisted columns based upon stone
lions. The belfry is detached. Wilton House, a little to the
south, was founded by William Herbert, first earl of Pembroke
by the second creation, on the estates of the dissolved convent,
which were granted him by Henry VIII.
Tradition says that Shakespeare and his company played here
before Jarnes I. in 1603, and the house is rich in memories of Sir
Philip Sidney the poet and soldier, of the artists Holbein and
Vandyck, of the dramatists Jonson and Massinger, whose father
was steward here, and of Inigo Jones the architect. The first folio
edition of Shakespeare was dedicated, seven years after the poet's
death, to the third earl and his brother. In style Wilton House is
Italian of the i6th century, with a porch added by Holbein. The
garden front was rebuilt and other changes made by the advice of
Charles I., a frequent visitor; and many subsequent alterations
were made. The art collections include the marbles gathered
together by the eighth earl.
Carpet-making forms the main industry of Wilton; the
most famous fabrics being those known as Wilton carpets;
Saxony carpets made of short-staple wool; and the rich and
durable Axminsters, long woven by hand at Axminster in
Devonshire. It is also an important centre for the sale of sheep.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 1915 acres.
A chantry was founded here about A.D. 800, afterwards
changed into a priory of Benedictine sisters, and refounded by
Alfred. In 968 Wulftrude, a mistress of King Edgar, became
abbess; and the same office was declined by her daughter
Edith, who died at twenty-three. Miracles, it was said, were
worked by Edith's remains, and she became patron saint of the
convent, which afterwards gave shelter to many noble ladies
and survived until the Dissolution. Its abbess was a baroness
of England. Antiquaries have seen in Wilton the capital of
a British kingdom. It was certainly the chief town of the
Wilsaetas, or men of Wilts, whom Cynric the Saxon leader
crushed in 556. It afterwards became a residence of the Wessex
kings; and here, in 871, Alfred was severely defeated by the
Danes. Wilton was burned in 1003 by Sweyn, the Danish
king. After the Conquest it ranked among the richest of royal
boroughs. In 1141 Queen Matilda celebrated Easter here with
great pomp, and two years later Stephen, who came to found
a castle, was driven off by her adherents. The prosperity of
Wilton began to fail when Icknield Street, the great highway
of commerce, was diverted to pass through Salisbury in 1224;
and its decline was hastened by the plague, by which a third
of the townsfolk were swept away in 1349.
Wilton (Wylion, Wiltune) was a seat of the West Saxon kings
and a prosperous town until the removal thence in 1075 of the
seat of the bishop of Sherborne to Sarum. The excessive number
of markets held at the latter town in the I3th century caused
its further decline into a poor and unimportant place. Sweyn
burnt and sacked it in 1003. consequently under Edward the
Confessor it rendered only 22. However, Domesday presents
it as a valuable royal borough held in farm by the burgesses for
50. From 1204 onwards Wilton figures in various grants.
Richard, earl of Cornwall, obtained it from Henry III., and
William, earl of Pembroke, finally from Elizabeth. The first
charter given by Henry I. (probably in noi) granted franchises
to the burgesses of the merchant gild and company of Wilton
as enjoyed by London and Winchester, and was confirmed by
succeeding monarchs from Henry II. to Henry VI. The corpora-
tion consisted in 1350 of a mayor, recorder, 5 aldermen, 3
capital burgesses, n common councilmen and other officers,
the mayor being the returning officer. Two members were
returned to parliament from 1293 to 1832 and one from 1832
to 1885, at which date Wilton lost its separate representation.
In 1414 Henry V. granted a fair on July 21 and 22. This
was cancelled in 1416 and another substituted on July 22 and
the three preceding days. Two yearly fairs were obtained by
the burgesses from Henry VII. for four days from April 23
and September i. In 1792 the fair days were November 13,
September 12 and May 4; the two latter are still held, that in
September being one of the largest sheep fairs in the west of
England. Henry III. granted three markets weekly on Monday,
Wednesday and Friday, and Henry VI., in 1433, one on
Wednesday. The latter was still held in 1825, but had ceased
in 1888.
6 9 8
WILTSHIRE
WILTSHIRE [WILTS], a south-western county of England,
bounded N.W. and N. by Gloucestershire, N.E. and E. by
Berkshire, S.E. by Hampshire, S.W. and S. by Dorsetshire,
and W. by Somersetshire. The area is 1374-9 sq. m. A great
upland covers two-thirds of the county, comprising, in the
north-east, Marlborough Downs, with Savernake Forest; in
the centre, the broad undulating sweep of Salisbury Plain;
and in the south, the more varied hills and dales of the Nadder
watershed, the vale of Chalk and Cranborne Chase. Large
tracts of the Chalk are over 600 ft. above the sea, rising in many
parts into steep and picturesque escarpments. Several peaks
attain an altitude of 900 ft., and Inkpen Beacon, on the
borders of Berkshire, Wiltshire and Hampshire, reaches ion ft.
Scattered in thousands over the downs lie huge blocks of silicious
Tertiary grits, called sarsen stones or grey wethers, which were
used by the primitive builders of Stonehenge and Avebury.
The underlying Greensand is exposed in the deeper valleys of the
Chalk, such as the vale of Pewsey, dividing Salisbury Plain from
Marlborough Downs, and the vale of Chalk, dividing the Nadder
westward from the heights of Cranborne Chase. One of the most
charming features of the county is its fertile and well-wooded
valleys. Three ancient forests remain : Cranborne Chase, which
extends into Dorset, was a royal deer-park as early as the reign
of John, and, like Savernake Forest, contains many noble old
oaks and beeches. The main part of the New Forest belongs to
Hampshire; but No Man's Land and Hampworth Common,
its outlying heaths and coppices, encroach upon the south-eastern
corner of Wilts. Bentley Wood, 5 m. E. of Salisbury, and the
Great Ridge and Grovely Woods between the Nadder and
Wylye, are fine uplands parks. There is no great sheet of water,
but the reservoir near Swindon, and the lakes of Longleat,
Stourton and Fonthill in the south-west of Earl Stoke near
Westbury, and of Bowood, Corsham and Seagry near Chippen-
ham, deserve mention for the beauty of their scenery. The
upper reaches of the Thames skirt the north-eastern border,
and three other considerable rivers drain the Wiltshire Downs.
The Kennet, rising west of Marlborough, winds eastward into
Berkshire and meets the Thames at Reading. The Lower or
Bristol Avon flows from its source among the Cotteswolds in
southern Gloucestershire, past Malmesbury, Chippenham,
Melksham and Bradford, where it curves north-eastward into
Somerset, finally falling into the Bristol Channel. Besides
many lesser tributaries it receives from the south the Frome,
which forms for about 5 m. the boundary between Wilts and
Somerset. The East or Christchurch Avon, which rises near
Bishops Cannings in the centre of the county, flows east and
south into Hampshire, and enters the sea at Christchurch.
Close to Salisbury it is joined by the united streams of the
Nadder and the Wylye; by the Ebble, which drains the vale of
Chalk; and by the Bourne, which flows south by west from its
head near Ludgershall.
Geology. As has been said, about two-thirds of the surface of
Wilts is occupied by a great Chalk upland. Cropping out from
beneath the Chalk is a fringe of the Selbornian Upper Greensand
and Gault the former is well exposed in the vale of Pewsey, west
of Devizes, and along the margins of the vale of Wardour; it forms
a broad, hilly tract from Mere through Stourton to Warminster.
The Gault Clay runs regularly at the foot of the Upper Greensand ;
it is excavated in several places for brick-making. The Lower
Greensand, which oversteps the underlying formations, appears from
beneath the Gault at Poulshot and follows the same line of outcrop
northwards; a small outlier at Seend is worked for the iron it
contains. About one-third of the county lying on the north-west
side of the Chalk downs, including a portion of the vale of the
White Horse, is occupied by Jurassic rocks. The Upper Lias the
oldest formation in the county forms the floor of the valley near
Box; it is followed by the overlying Inferior Oolite and Fuller's
Earth. Then succeeds the Great Oolite Series, which includes the
famous building-stones of Bath, quarried at Winsley Down, near
Bradford, and at Box, Corsham Down and other places in the neigh-
bourhood. Above the freestones near Bradford comes the Bradford
clay, with the well-known fossil Apiocrinus or pear-encrinite, followed
by the Forest Marble limestones and clays. The rubbly Cornbrash
crops at Westwood, Trowbridge, and Malmesbury. Further east
lies the outcrop of Oxfordian strata, comprising the sandy Kellaways
beds and overlying Oxford Clay, together forming a broad low-lying
tract in which stand Trowbridge, Melksham, Chippenham and
Cricklade. Rising up from the eastern margin of the Oxfordian
vale is the irregular scarp formed by the Corallian oolitic limestones
and marls. The iron ores of Westbury are obtained in this forma-
tion. Another clay-bottomed vale lies on the eastern side of the
Corallian ground, from near Calne to Swindon, where it is exploited
for bricks. It appears also between Seend, Coulston and West-
bury; also between Mere and Semley. About the former place
it is brought into apposition with Cretaceous rocks through the
agency of an east to west fault. At Tisbury and near Potterne are
small outcrops of Portlandian rocks which yield the familiar building-
stones of Tisbury and Chilmark. Limestones and clays of Purbeck
age lie in the vale of Wardour about Teffont Evias. At Dinton in
the same vale the Wealden formation just makes its appearance.
In the south-eastern corner of the county there are tracts of
Tertiary Reading Beds and London Clay east of Downton and on
the Clarendon Hills; these are covered by Bagshot Beds at Alder-
bury and Grinstead, also on Hampworth Common. Outliers of
Reading Beds and London Clay occur about Great Bedwin; the
sarsen stones previously referred to represent the last remnants of
a mantle of Tertiary rocks which formerly covered the district.
Here and there drift gravels and brick earths, besides low-level river
gravels, rest upon the older rocks.
Agriculture. Some five-sixths of the total area, a high proportion,
is under cultivation, but a large amount of this is in permanent
pasture. The soil, a heavy reddish loam, with a subsoil of broken
stones, in the north-west, but lighter in the chalk region, is essentially
that of a pastoral country, although there are wide tracts of richer
land, suitable for wheat and beans. Oats, however, are the largest
grain crop. There is a small acreage classified as hill pasture. The
green crops consist mainly of turnips, mangolds and swedes. Bacon-
curing is carried on. Large numbers of sheep are bred on the
downs, and dairy-farming is practised in the north-west. There are
manufactures of condensed milk. An agricultural college is esta-
blished at Downton.
Manufacture!. A majority of the hands employed in factories
and workshops are occupied in the locomotive works of the Great
Western railway at Swindon. There are also large engineering
works at Devizes. Cloth is still woven, though in greatly diminished
quantities, at Trowbridge, Melksham, Chippenham and other
places where water-power is available. Carpets are woven at
Wilton, haircloth and coco-nut fibre at Melksham, silk at Malmes-
bury, Mere and Warminster. Portland and Bath stone are quarried
for building purposes, while iron ore from mines near Westbury is
smelted in that town.
Communications. Three great railway lines traverse Wiltshire
from E. to W., throwing out a number of branch lines to the larger
towns. In the N. the Great Western main line passes through
Swindon on its way from London to Bath. A second line of the same
system runs also to Bath from Hungerford, by way of Devizes.
South of Salisbury Plain the South-Western main line goes through
Salisbury and the southern quarter of Wilts on its way into Somerset.
The chief branch line is that between Salisbury and Westbury on
the Great Western. The Midland & South-Western Junction rail-
way runs north from Andover by Swindon, Cricklade and Ciren-
cester. Swindon, Salisbury and Westbury are the three centres of
railway traffic. The Avon is navigable as far as Salisbury, and
goods are carried on the Thames & Severn Canal in the N.E.,
and on the Kennet & Avon Canal across Salisbury Plain. These
waterways were formerly connected by a branch of the Berks &
Wilts Canal, which runs S.W. from Berkshire, through Swindon and
Melksham, but was closed in 1899.
The area of the ancient county is 879,943 acres, with a popula-
tion in 1891 of 264,997 an d i n 1 9 I f 2 73>869. The area of the
administrative county is 864,105 acres. The county contains
29 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Calne (pop. 3457),
Chippenham (5074), Devizes (6532), Malmesbury (2854), Marl-
borough (3887), Salisbury, a city and the county town (17,117),
Swindon (45,006), Wilton (2203). The urban districts are
Bradford-on-Avon (4514), Melksham (245o),Trowbridge (11,526),
Warminster (5547), Westbury (3305). Other small towns are
Cricklade (1517), Downton (1786), Highworth (2047), Mere
(1977), Pewsey (1722), Wootton Bassett (2258). The county
is in the western circuit, and assizes are held at Salisbury and
Devizes. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into
1 6 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Devizes and
Salisbury have separate courts of quarter sessions and commis-
sions of the peace, and the borough of Marlborough has a separate
commission of the peace. There are 335 civil parishes. Wiltshire
is mainly in the diocese of Salisbury, but a considerable part is
in that of Bristol, and small parts in those of Gloucester, Oxford
and Winchester. It contains 322 ecclesiastical parishes or
districts, wholly or in part. The county is divided into five
parliamentary divisions, each returning one member Northern
or Cricklade, North-western or Chippenham, Western or West-
WILTSHIRE
699
bury, Eastern or Devizes and Southern or Wilton. It also
contains the parliamentary borough of Salisbury, returning one
member.
History. The English conquest of the district now known
as Wiltshire began in 552 with the victory of Cynric at Old
Sarum, by which the way was opened to Salisbury Plain. Four
years later, pushing his way through the vale of Pewsey, Cynric
extended the limits of the West Saxon kingdom to the Marl-
borough Downs by a victory at Barbury Hill At this period
the district south of the Avon and the Nadder was occupied
by dense woodland, the relics of which survive in Cranborne
Chase, and the first wave of West Saxon colonization was chiefly
confined to the valleys of the Avon and the Wylye, the little
township of Wilton which arose in the latter giving the name
of Wilsaetan to the new settlers. By the Qth century the
district had acquired a definite administrative and territorial
organization, Walstan, ealdorman of the Wilsaetan, being
mentioned as early as 800 as repelling an attempted invasion
of the Mercians. Moreover, " Wiltunscire " is mentioned by
Asser in 878, in which year the Danes established their head-
quarters at Chippenham and remained there a year, plundering
the surrounding country. In the time of .fEthelstan mints
existed at Old Sarum, Malmesbury, Wilton, Cricklade and
Marlborough. Wilton and Salisbury were destroyed by. the
Danish invaders under Sweyn in 1003, and in 1015 the district
was harried by Canute.
With the redistribution of estates after the Conquest more
than two-fifths of the county fell into the hands of the church;
the possessions of the crown covered one-fifth; while among
the chief lay proprietors were Edward of Salisbury, William,
count of Ewe, Ralph de Mortimer, Aubrey de Vere, Robert
Fitzgerald, Miles Crispin, Robert d'Oily and Osbern Giffard.
The first earl of Wiltshire after the Conquest was William le
Scrope, who received the honour in 1397. The title subsequently
passed to Sir James Butler in 1449, Sir John Strafford in 1470,
Sir Thomas Boleyn in 1529, and in 1550 to the Paulett family.
The Benedictine foundations at Wilton, Malmesbury and
Amesbury existed before the Conquest; the Augustinian house
at Bradenstoke was founded by Walter d'Evreux in 1142;
that at Lacock by Ela, countess of Salisbury, in 1232; that at
Longleat by Sir John Vernon before 1272. The Cluniac priory
of Monkton Farleigh was founded by Humphrey de Bohun in
1125; the Cistercian house at Kingswood by William de Berkeley
in 1139; and that of Stanley by the Empress Maud in 1154.
Of the forty Wiltshire hundreds mentioned in the Domesday
Survey, Selkley, Ramsbury, Bradford, Melksham, Calne,
Whorwellsdown, Westbury, Warminster, Heytesbury, Kinward-
stone, Ambresbury, Underditch, Furstfield, Alderbury and
Downton remain to the present day practically unaltered in
name and extent; Thorngrave, Dunelawe and Cepeham hundreds
form the modern hundred of Chippenham; Malmesbury hundred
represents the Domesday hundreds of Cicemethorn and Sterchelee,
which were held at farm by the abbot of Malmesbury; High-
worth represents the Domesday hundreds of Crechelade, Scipe,
Wurde and Staple; Kingbridge the hundreds of Chingbridge,
Blachegrave and Thornhylle; Swanborough the hundreds of
Rugeberge, Stodfaed and Swaneberg; Branch the hundreds
of Branchesberge and Dolesfeld; Cawden the hundreds of
Cawdon and Cadworth. A noticeable feature in the I4th century
is the aggregation of church manors into distinct hundreds,
at the court of which their ecclesiastical owners required their
tenants to do suit and service. Thus the bishop of Winchester
had a separate hundred called Kurwel Bishop, afterwards
absorbed in Downton hundred; the abbot of Damerham had
that of Damerham; and the prior of St Swithin's that of Elstub,
under each of which were included manors situate in different
parts of the county.
The meeting-place of Swanborough hundred was at Swan-
borough Tump, a hillock in the parish of Manningford Abbots
identified as the moot -place mentioned in the will of King Alfred;
that of Malmesbury was at Colepark; that of Bradford at Brad-
ford Leigh; that of Warminster at Iley Oak, about 2 m. south of
Warminster, near Southleigh Wood. The shire court for Wilt-
shire was held at Wilton, and until 1446 the shrievalty was
enjoyed ex officio by the castellans of Old Sarum. Edward of
Salisbury was sheriff at the time of the Domesday Survey,
and the office remained hereditary in his family, descending to
William Longespee by his marriage with Ela, great-grand-
daughter of Edward. In the I3th century the assizes were held
at Wilton, Malmesbury and New Sarum.
On the division of the West Saxon see in 703 Wiltshire was
included in the diocese of Sherborne, but in 905 a separate
diocese of Wilton was founded, the see being fixed alternately
at Ramsbury, Wilton and Sunning in Berkshire. Shortly
before the Conquest Wilton was reunited to the Sherborne
diocese, and by the synod of 1075-1076 the see was transferred
to Salisbury. The archdeaconries of Wiltshire and Salisbury are
mentioned in 1180; in 1291 the former included the deaneries
of Avebury, Malmesbury, Marlborough and Cricklade within
this county, and the latter the deaneries of Amesbury, Potterne,
Wilton, Chalke and Wylye. In 1535 the archdeaconry of
Salisbury included the additional deanery of Salisbury, while
Potterne deanery had been transferred to the archdeaconry of
Wiltshire. The deaneries of the archdeaconry of Salisbury have
remained unaltered; Wiltshire archdeaconry now includes the
deaneries of Avebury, Marlborough and Potteme; and the
deaneries of Chippenham, Cricklade and Malmesbury form part
of the archdeaconry and diocese of Bristol.
The inhabitants of Wiltshire have always been addicted
to industrial rather than warlike pursuits, and the political
history of the county is not remarkable. In 1086, after the
completion of the Domesday Survey, Salisbury was the scene
of a great council, in which all the landholders took oaths of
allegiance to the king, and a council for the same purpose
assembled at Salisbury in 1116. At Clarendon in 1166 was
drawn up the assize which remodelled the provincial administra-
tion of justice. Parliaments were held at Marlborough in 1267
and at Salisbury in 1328 and 1384. During the wars of Stephen's
reign Salisbury, Devizes and Malmesbury were garrisoned by
Roger, bishop of Salisbury, for the empress, but in 1138 Stephen
seized the bishop and captured Devizes Castle. In 1216 Marl-
borough Castle was surrendered to Louis by Hugh de Neville.
Hubert de Burgh escaped in 1233 from Devizes Castle, where he
had been imprisoned in the previous year. In the Civil War
of the 1 7th century Wiltshire actively supported the parlia-
mentary cause, displaying a spirit of violent anti-Catholicism,
and the efforts of the marquess of Hertford and of Lord Seymour
to raise a party for the king met with vigorous resistance from
the inhabitants. The Royalists, however, made some progress
in the early stage of the struggle, Marlborough being captured
for the king in 1642, while in 1643 the foices of the earl of Essex
were routed by Charles I. and Prince Rupert at Aldbourne, and
in the same year Waller, after failing to capture Devizes, was
defeated in a skirmish at Roundway Down. The year 16*5
saw the rise of the " Clubmen " of Dorset and Wiltshire, whose
sole object was peace; they systematically punished any member
of either party discovered in acts of plunder. Devizes, the last
stronghold of the Royalists, was captured by Cromwell in 1645.
In 1655 a rising organized on behalf of the king at Salisbury
was dispersed in the same year.
At the time of the Domesday Survey the industrial pursuits
of Wiltshire were almost exclusively agricultural; 390 mills
are mentioned, and vineyards at Tollard and Lacock. In the
succeeding centuries sheep-farming was vigorously pursued,
and the Cistercian monasteries of Kingswood and Stanlegh
exported wool to the Florentine and Flemish markets in the I3th
and I4th centuries. WDtshire at this time was already reckoned
among the chief of the clothing counties, the principal centres
of the industry being Bradford, Malmesbury, Trowbridge,
Devizes and Chippenham. In the i6th century Devizes was
noted for its blankets, Warminster had a famous corn-market,
and cheese was extensively made in north Wiltshire. Amesbury
was famous for its tobacco pipes in the i6th century. The
clothing trade went through a period of great depression in the
yoo
WIMBLEDON
1 7th century, partly owing to the constant outbreaks of plague
Linen, cotton, gloves and cutlery were also manufactured in
the county, silk at Malmesbury and carpets at Wilton.
In 1295 Wiltshire was represented by no less than twenty-eight
members in parliament, the shire returning two knights, and the
boroughs of Bedwin, Bradford, Calne, Chippenham, Cricklade
Devizes, Downton, Ludgershall, Malmesbury, Marlborough,
Old Sarum, Salisbury and Wilton, two burgesses each, but the
boroughs for the most part made very irregular returns. Hindon
Heytesbury and Wootton Bassett were enfranchised in the
1 5th century, and at the time of the Reform Act of 1832 the
county with sixteen boroughs returned a total of thirty-four
members. Under the latter act Great Bedwin, Downton,
Heytesbury, Hindon, Ludgershall, Old Sarum and Wootton
Bassett were disfranchised, and Calne, Malmesbury, Westbury
and Wilton lost one member each. Under the act of 1868 the
county returned two members in two divisions, and Chippenham,
Devizes and Marlborough lost one member each . Under the act
of 1885 the county returned five members in five divisions;
Cricklade, Calne, Chippenham, Devizes, Malmesbury, Marl-
borough, Westbury and Wilton were disfranchised; and
Salisbury lost one member.
Antiquities. Wiltshire is extraordinarily rich in prehistoric
antiquities. The stone age is represented by a number of flint and
stone implements, preserved in the unsurpassed collection at Salis-
bury Museum. Stonehenge, with its circles of giant stones, and
Avebury, with its avenues of monoliths leading to what was once a
stone circle, surrounded by an earthwork, and enclosing two lesser
circles, are the largest and most famous megalithic works in England.
A valley near Avebury is filled with immense sarsen blocks, re-
sembling a river of stone, and perhaps laid there by prehistoric
architects. There are also menhirs, dolmens and cromlechs. Sur-
rounded as they were by forests and marshy hollows, it is clear that
the downs were densely peopled at a very early period. Circles,
formed by a ditch within a bank, are common, as are grave-mounds
or barrows. These have been classified according to their shape
as bell-barrows, bowl-barrows and long barrows. Bones, ashes,
tools, weapons and ornaments have been dug up from such mounds,
many of which contain kistvaens or chambers of stone. The
" lynchets " or terraces which score some of the hillsides are said
to be the work of primitive agriculturists. Ancient strongholds
are scattered over the county. Among the most remarkable are
Vespasian's Camp, near Amesbury ; Silbury Hill, the largest artificial
mound in Europe, near Avebury; the mounds of Marlborough and
Old Sarum; the camps of Battlesbury and Scratchbury, near
Warminster; Yarnbury, to the N. of Wylye, in very perfect pre-
servation; Casterlcy, on a ridgeway about 7 m. E.S.E. of Devizes;
Whitesheet and Winkelbttry, overlooking the vale of Chalk; Chis-
bury, near Savernake; Sidbury, near Ludgershall; and Figbury
Ring, 3 m. N.E. of Salisbury. Ogbury, 6 m. N. of Salisbury, is an
undoubted British enclosure. Durrington Walls, N. of Amesbury,
are probably the remains of a British village, and there are vestiges
of others on Salisbury Plain and Marlborough Downs.
There are many signs of the Roman rule. Wans Dyke or Woden's
Dyke, one of the largest extant entrenchments, runs west for about
60 m. from a point east of Savernake, nearly as far as the Bristol
Channel, and is almost unaltered for several miles along the Marl-
borough Downs. Its date is uncertain; but the work has been
proved, wherever excavated, to be Roman or Romano-British. It
consists of a bank, with a trench on the north side, and was clearly
meant for defence, not as a boundary. Forts strengthened it at
intervals. Bokerly Dyke, which forms a part of the boundary
between Wilts and Dorset, is the largest among several similar
entrenchments, and has also a ditch north of the rampart.
Chief among the few monastic buildings of which any vestiges
remain are the ruined abbeys of Malmesbury and of Lacock near
Melksham. There are some traces of the hospital for leprous women
afterwards converted into an Austin priory at Maiden Bradley.
Monkton Farleigh, farther north along the Somerset border, had its
Cluniac priory, founded as a cell of Lewes in the I3th century, and
represented by some outbuildings of the manor-house. A college
for a dean and 12 prebendaries, afterwards a monastery of Bon-
hommes, was founded in 1347 at Edington. The church, Decorated
and Perpendicular, resembles a cathedral in size and stately beauty.
The I4th century buildings of Bradenstoke Priory or deck Abbey,
founded near Chippenham for Austin canons, are incorporated
in a farmhouse. The finest churches of Wiltshire, generally Per-
pendicular, were built in the districts where good stone could be
obtained, while the architecture is more simple in the Chalk region,
where flint was used perforce. Small wooden steeples and pyra-
midal bell-turrets are not uncommon; and the churches of Purton,
3! m. N.W. of Swindon, and Wanborough, 3 m. S.E., have each
two steeples, one in the centre, one at the west end. St Lawrence's
church at Bradford-on-Avon is one of the most perfect Saxon
ecclesiastical buildings in England; and elsewhere there are
fragments of Saxon work imbedded in later masonry. Such are three
arches m the nave of Britford church, within a mile of Salisbury-
the east end of the chancel at Burcombe, near Wilton; and parts'
ot the churches at Bremhill, and at Manningford Bruce or Braose
m the vale of Pewsey. St John's at Devizes retains its original
Norman tower and has Norman masonry in its chancel; while the
chancel of St Mary's, in the same town, is also Norman, and tl
porch has characteristic Norman mouldings. The churches of
Preshute, near Marlborough, Ditteridge or Ditcheridge, near Box
and Nether Avon, near Amesbury, preserve sundry Norman features'
Early English is illustrated by Salisbury Cathedral, its purest and
most beautiful example; and, on a smaller scale, at Amesbury
Bishops Cannings, Boyton in the vale of the Wylye, Collingbourne
Kingston, east of Salisbury Plain, Downton and Potterne near
Devizes. Bishopstone, in the vale of Chalk, has the finest Decorated
church m the county, with a curious external cloister, and unique
south chancel doorway, recessed beneath a stone canopy. Mere,
close to the borders of Dorset and Somerset, is interesting not only
for its Perpendicular church, but for a medieval chantry, used as
a schoolhouse by Barnes, the Dorsetshire poet, and for its 14th-
century dwelling-houses.
The castles of Wiltshire have been almost entirely swept away.
At Old Sarum, Marlborough and Devizes only a few vestiges are left
in walls and vaults. Castle Combe and Trowbridge castle have
long been demolished, and of Ludgershail castle only a small frag-
ment survives. The ruins of Wardour castle, standing in a richly
wooded park near Tisbury, date from the I4th century, and consist
of a hexagonal outer wall of great height, enclosing an open court
Two towers overlook the entrance. The 18th-century castle, one
mile distant, across the park, is noteworthy for its collection of
paintings, and, among other curiosities, for the " Glastonbury
Cup," said to be fashioned out of a branch of the celebrated thorn-
tree at Glastonbury. The number of old country houses is a marked
feature in Wilts. Few parishes, especially in the N.W., are without
their old manor-house, usually converted into a farm, but preserving
its flagged roof, stone-mullioned windows, gabled front, two-storeyed
porch and oak-panelled interior. Place House, in Tisbury, and
Barton Farm, at Bradford, date from the I4th century. Fifteenth-
century work is best exemplified in the manor-houses of Norrington
in the vale of Chalk; Teffont Evias, in the vale of Nadder;
Potterne ; and Great Chaldfield. near Monkton Farleigh. At South
Wraxall the hall of a very beautiful house of the same period is
celebrated in local tradition as the spot where tobacco was first
smoked in England by Sir Walter Raleigh and his host, Sir Walter
Long. Later styles are represented by Longford Castle, near
Salisbury, where the picture galleries are of great interest; by
Heytesbury Park; by Wilton House at Wilton, Kingston House at
Bradford, Bowood near Calne, Longleat near Warminster, Corsham
Court, Littlecote near Ramsbury, Charlton House near Malmes-
bury, Compton Chamberlayne m the Nadder valley, Grittleton
House and- the modern Castle Combe, both near Chippenham and
Stourhead, on the borders of Dorset and Somerset. Each of these
is noteworthy for its architecture, its art treasures or the beauty of
its surroundings.
See Victoria County History, Wiltshire; Sir R. C. Hoare, The
Ancient History of Wiltshire (2 vols., London, 1812-1821), The
History of Modern Wiltshire (14 pts., London, 1822-1844) : Aubrey's
Collections for Wiltshire, edited by SirT. Phillipps, pts. I, 2 (London,
1821); Leland's Journey through Wiltshire, A.D. 1540-1542, with
notes by J. E. Jackson (Devizes, 1875); W. H. Jones, Domesday for
Wiltshire (Bath, 1865); John Britton, The Beauties of Wiltshire
(3 vols., London, 1801-1825); J. E. Jackson, The Sheriff's Tourn,
Co. Wilts, A.D. 1439 (Devizes, 1872); see also Proceedings of the
Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society.
WIMBLEDON, a municipal borough and western residential
suburb of London, in the Wimbledon parliamentary division
of Surrey, England, adjoining the metropolitan borough of
Wandsworth, 8 m. S.W. of Charing Cross. Pop. (1891), 25,777;
(1901) 41,652. Wimbledon Common, to the north-west of the
district, forms a continuation of Putney Heath and a pleasant
recreation ground. It was the meeting-place of the Rifle Associa-
tion from its foundation in 1860 till 1888. The parish church
of St Mary is supposed to date from Saxon times; but, after
"t had undergone various restorations and reconstructions,
t was rebuilt in 1833 in the Perpendicular style. There are
various other churches and chapels, all modern. A free library
was established in 1887.- Benevolent institutions are numerous.
The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 coun-
cillors. Area, 3221 acres.
Wimbledon (Wibbandune) is supposed to have been the scene of
battle in 568 between Ceawlin, king of Wessex, and yEthelberht,
king of Kent, in which ^Ethelberht was defeated, and an earthwork
which existed on the Common may have marked the site. At
WIMBORNE WINCHCOMB
701
Coombe's Hill and elsewhere British relics have been found.
At Domesday Wimbledon formed part of the manor of Mortlake,
held by the archbishops of Canterbury. Afterwards the name
was sometimes used interchangeably with Mortlake, and in
1327 it is described as a grange or farm belonging to Mortlake.
On the impeachment of Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury,
in 1398, it was confiscated. In the reign of Henry VIII. Cromwell,
earl of Essex, held the manor of Wimbledon, with Bristow Park
as an appendage. On the confiscation of Cromwell's estates
in 1540 it again fell to the crown, and by Henry VIII. it was
settled on Catherine Parr for life. By Queen Mary it was granted
to Cardinal Pole. In 1574 Elizabeth bestowed the manor-house,
while retaining the manor, on Sir Christopher Hatton, who sold
it the same year to Sir Thomas Cecil. In 1 588 Elizabeth trans-
ferred the manor to his son Sir Edward Cecil, in exchange for
an estate in Lincolnshire. At the time of the Civil War the manor
was sold to Adam Baynes, a Yorkshireman, who shortly after-
wards sold it to General Lambert; and at the Restoration it
was granted to the queen dowager, Henrietta Maria, who sold
it in 1 66 1 to George Digby, earl of Bristol. On his death in
1676 it was sold by his widow to the lord-treasurer Danby.
Some years after Danby's death it was purchased by Sarah,
duchess of Marlborough, who bequeathed it to her grandson,
John Spencer. It was sold by the fifth Earl Spencer in 1877.
Wimbledon House, built by Sir Thomas Cecil in 1588, was
replaced by another building in 1735 by the duchess of Marl-
borough; this was destroyed by fire in 1785, and a new house,
called Wimbledon Park House, was erected about 1801. Wimble-
don was incorporated in 1905.
WIMBORNE ( WIMBORNE MINSTER), a market town, in the
eastern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, mj m.
S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western
railway; served also by the Somerset and Dorset railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 3696. It is situated on a gentle
slope above the river Allen near its confluence with the Stour.
The church or minster of St Cuthberga is a fine cruciform
structure o{ various styles from Early Norman to Perpendicular,
and consists of a central lantern tower, nave and choir with
aisles, transepts without aisles, western or bell tower, north
and south porches, crypt and vestry or sacristy, with the library
over it. It contains a large number of interesting monuments,
including a brass with the date 873 (supposed to mark the resting-
place of King jEthelred I.), a lunar orrery of the I4th century and
an octagonal Norman font of Purbeck marble. There is a church
dedicated to St John the Evangelist. The free grammar school
occupies modern buildings in the Elizabethan style. Near
Wimborne is Canford Manor, the seat of Lord Wimborne, a
mansion in the Tudor style, built by Blore in 1826, and improved
from designs of Sir Charles Barry. The town depends chiefly
on agriculture; but the manufacture of hose is carried on to a
small extent, and there are also coachbuilding works.
Although Wimborne (Wimburn) has been identified with the
Vindogladia of the Antonine Itinerary, the first undoubted
evidence of settlement is the entry of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
under the date 718, that Cuthburh, sister of King Ine, founded
the abbey here and became the first abbess; the house is also
mentioned in a somewhat doubtful epistle of St Aldhelm in 705.
The importance of the foundation made it the burial-place of
King /Ethelred in 871, and of King Sifferth in 962. .dLthelwald
seized and fortified Wimborne in his revolt in 901 against Edward
the Elder. The early abbey was probably destroyed by the
Danes in the reign of ^thelred the Unready (978-1015), for in
1043 Edward the Confessor founded here a college of secular
canons. The college remained unaltered until 1496, when
Margaret, countess of Richmond, obtained letters patent from
her son, Henry VII., to found a chantry, in connexion with
which she established a school. The continuance of this was
recommended by the commissioners of 1547, and in 1562 Eliza-
beth vested a great part of the property of the former college
in a school corporation of twelve governors, who had charge of
the church. New charters for the school were obtained from
James I. in 1 562 and from Charles I. At the conquest Wimborne
was a royal borough, ancient demesne of the crown, and part of
the manor of Kingston Lacy, which Henry I. gave to Robert
Mellent, earl of Leicester. From him it descended by marriage
to the earls of Lincoln, and, then passing by marriage to Earl
Thomas of Lancaster, it became parcel of the county and later
of the duchy of Lancaster; an inquisition of 1352 found that
Henry, duke of Lancaster, had 775. 3d. rent of assize in the
borough of Wimborne. The borough is again mentioned in
1487-14*88, when John Plecy held six messuages in free burgage
of the king as of his borough of Wimborne, but it seems to have
been entirely prescriptive, and was never a parliamentary
borough. The town was governed until the I9th century by
two bailiffs, chosen annually at a court leet of the royal manor
of Wimborne borough, part of the manor of Kingston Lacy.
The market held here on Friday of each week is not mentioned
in Domesday Book, but seems to be of early origin. Wimborne
carried on considerable manufactures of linen and woollen goods
until the time of Charles II., when they declined, their place
being taken by the stocking-knitting industry of the 1 8th century.
See John Hutchins, The History and Antiquities of the County of
Dorset (3rd edition, Westminster, 1861); Anon., History of Wim-
borne Minster (London, 1860).
WIMPFFEN, EMMANUEL FELIX DE (1811-1884), French
soldier. Entering the army from the military school of St Cyr,
he saw considerable active service in Algeria, and in 1 840 became
captain, in 1847 chef de bataillon. He first earned marked
distinction in the Crimean War as colonel of a Turco regiment,
and his conduct at the storm of the Mamelon won him the grade
of general of brigade. In the campaign of 1859 he was with
General MacMahon at Magenta at the head of a brigade of Guard
Infantry, and again won promotion on the field of battle.
Between this campaign and that of 1870 he was mainly employed
in Algeria, and was not at first given a command in the ill-fated
" Army of the Rhine." But when the earlier battles revealed
incapacity in the commander of the sth corps, De Wimpffen
was ordered to take it over, and was given a dormant commission
appointing him to command the Army of Chalons in case of
Marshal MacMahon 's disablement. He only arrived at the front
in time to rally the fugitives of the sth corps, beaten at Beaumont,
and to march them to Sedan. In the disastrous battle of the ist
of September, MacMahon was soon wounded, and the senior
officer, General Ducrot, assumed the command. Ducrot was
beginning to withdraw the troops when Wimpffen produced his
commission and countermanded the orders. In consequence
it fell to him to negotiate the surrender of the whole French
army. After his release from captivity, he lived in retirement
at Algiers, and died at Paris in 1884. His later years were
occupied with polemical discussions on the surrender of Sedan,
the responsibility for which was laid upon him.
He wrote, amongst other works, Sedan (1871), La Situation de la
France, et les reformes necessaires (1873) and La Nation armee
(1875).
WINBURG, a town in the Orange Free State, oo m. N.E. by rail
of Bloemfontein. Pop. (1904) 2762, of whom 1003 were whites.
It is built by the banks of a tributary of the Vet affluent of the
Vaal, and is a trading centre for a large grain and pastoral
district. It is joined to the trunk railway from Port Elizabeth
to the Transvaal by a branch line from Smaldeel, 28 m. N.W.
The town was founded in 1837 by Commandant H. Potgieter,
one of the voortrekers, and was named by him in commemoration
of a victory gained over the Matabele chief Mosilikatze. It
became the capital of a quasi-independent Boer state, which
included considerable areas north of the Vaal. In 1848 the town
and district were annexed to Great Britain and thereafter followed
the fortunes of the Orange river sovereignty (see ORANGE FREE
STATE). In the Boer War of 1899-1902 Winburg was one of the
Boer centres in the guerrilla fighting which followed the fall of
Pretoria.
WINCHCOMB, a market town in the northern parliamentary
division of Gloucestershire, England, 7 m. N.E. of Cheltenham.
Pop. (1901) 2864. It is picturesquely situated among the
Cotteswold Hills, in the narrow valley of the Isbourne stream.
The Perpendicular church of St Peter, cruciform, with a central
7 02 WINCHELSEA, COUNTESS OF--WINCHELSEA, R.
tower, is a good example of its period. In the vicinity is Sudeley
Castle, originally built by Thomas Boteler, Lord Sudeley (d.
1398). By gift of Edward VI. it came into the hands of Sir
Thomas Seymour, fourth husband of Catherine Parr; this
queen died here and was buried in the chapel. The castle suffered
severely at the hands of the parliamentarians in 1644, and
remained ruinous until 1837, when a careful restoration was
begun. There are a tower of the i4th century, and considerable
remains of the isth, the inhabited portion being mainly of
Tudor date. There are flour mills, paper-works and tanneries
at Winchcomb.
Excavations prove that there were both British and Roman
settlements at Winchcomb (Wincdcumbe, Winchelcum.be), It
owed its growth to the foundation of religious houses by Offa
and Coenwulf of Mercia in the 8th century. It became a borough
in Saxon times, was the chief town of a shire to which it gave
its name, and was the seat of government of the Mercian kings.
Witenagemots were held there in 771 and 942. Harold, earl of
Wessex, was the first overlord. It had become a royal borough
by 1087, and was granted by a charter of 1224 to the abbots of
St Mary's to be held of the king by a rent of 50. Winchcomb
never received a charter and was not incorporated, but as a
borough by prescription it was governed by 2 bailiffs and 10
chief burgesses until the corporate body was dissolved by act
of parliament in 1883. It was never represented in parliament
except by its mitred abbots before the dissolution of the
monasteries. There is no trace of the original grant of a fair
on July 17 (now held on July 28), but it is mentioned as already
existing in a charter of 1221, which changed the market day
from Sunday to Saturday. Elizabeth granted another fair
on April 25 by charter in 1575. A Tuesday market was also
granted under this charter, but the Saturday market only is now
held. Both the modern fairs are horse and cattle fairs, but in the
middle ages they were centres of the cloth manufacture. Tanning
has been a local industry since the beginning of the ipth century,
and paper and silk factories were introduced about 1830. Winch-
comb took the side of the king in the Civil War and was twice
plundered.
See Victoria County History, Gloucestershire; Emma Dent, Annals
of Winchecombe (1877); David Royce, Winchecombe Cartulary
(1892).
WINCHELSEA, ANNE FINCH. COUNTESS or (1661-1720),
English author, daughter of Sir William Kingsmill of Sidmonton,
near Southampton, was born in April 1661. Five months later
her father died, and her mother married in 1662 Sir Thomas
Ogle. Lady Ogle died in 1664, and nothing is heard of her
daughter Anne until 1683, when she is mentioned as one of the
maids of honour of Mary of Modena, duchess of York. She
married in May 1684 Colonel Heneage Finch, who was attached
to the duke of York's household. To him she addressed poems
and versified epistles, in which he figures as Daphnis and she
as Ardelia. At the Revolution Heneage Finch refused the
oath of allegiance to William and Mary, and he and his wife had
no fixed home until they were invited in 1690 to East well Park,
Kent, by Finch's nephew Charles, 4th earl of Winchelsea, on
whose death in 1712 Heneage Finch succeeded to the earldom.
The countess of Winchelsea died in London on the sth of August
1720, leaving no issue, her husband surviving until 1726.
Lady Winchelsea's poems contain many copies of verse
addressed to her friends and contemporaries. She was to some
extent a follower of the " matchless Orinda " in the fervour of
her friendships. During her lifetime she published her poem
" The Spleen " in Gildon's Miscellany (1701) and a volume of
Poems in 1713 which included a tragedy called Aristomenes.
With Alexander Pope she was on friendly terms, and one of the
seven commendatory poems printed with the 1717 edition of his
works was by her. But in the farce Three Hours after Marriage
(1717) attributed to Gay, but really the work of Pope, Arbuthnot
and Gay, she is ridiculed as the learned lady, Phoebe Clinket,
a character assigned to Pope's hand. Lady Winchelsea's poems
were almost forgotten when Wordsworth in the " Essay, supple-
mentary to the Preface " of his Poems (1815), drew attention
to her nature-poetry, asserting that with the exception of
Pope's " Windsor Forest " and her " Nocturnal Reverie,"
English poetry between Paradise Lost and Thomson's Seasons
did not present " a single new image of external nature." Words-
worth sent at Christmas 1819 a MS. of extracts from Lady
Winchelsea and other writers to Lady Mary Lowther, and his
correspondence with Alexander Dyce contains some minute
criticism and appreciation of her poetry.
Mr Edmund Gosse wrote a notice of her poems for T. H. Ward's
English Poets (vol. iii., 1880), and in 1884 came into possession of a
MS. volume of her poems. A complete edition of her verse, The
Poems of Anne, Countess of Winchelsea, was edited by Myra Reynolds
(Chicago, 1903) with an exhaustive essay. See also E. Gosse,
Gossip in a Library (1891), and E. Dowden, Essays, Modern and
Elizabethan. Wordsworth's anthology for Lady Mary Lowther was
first printed in 1905 (Oxford). Some of her work remains in MS. in
the possession of Professor Dowden.
WINCHELSEA, ROBERT (d. 1313), archbishop of Canterbury,
was probably born at Old Winchelsea. He studied and then
taught at the universities of Paris and Oxford, where he attained
celebrity as a scholar, and became rector of the former, and
subsequently chancellor of the latter university. He held
prebendal stalls in the cathedrals of Lincoln and St Paul's, and
was made archdeacon of Essex about 1283. In December 1292
John Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury, died, and early in
the following year Winchelsea was elected as his successor.
His consecration, which took place at Aquila in September 1294,
was delayed owing to the vacancy in the papacy, but he found
no difficulty in obtaining the temporalities of the see from King
Edward I. Winchelsea is chiefly renowned as a strenuous
upholder of the privileges of the clergy and the authority of the
pope, and as a fearless opponent of Edward I. Strengthened
by the issue of the papal bull Clericis laicos in 1 296, he stimulated
the clergy to refuse pecuniary assistance to Edward in 1297;
but after the king had pronounced sentence of outlawry against
the delinquents he instructed each clerk to decide this question
for himself. Personally the archbishop still declined to make
any contribution towards the expenses of the French war,
and his lands were seized and held by Edward until July 1297,
when a somewhat ostentatious reconciliation between king and
prelate took place at Westminster. He took some part in the
movement which led to the confirmation of the charters by
Edward later in the same year, but the struggle with the king
did not exhaust his energies. He asserted his authority over
his suffragans to the full; quarrelled with Pope Boniface VIII.
over the presentation to a Sussex living, and was excommunicated
by one of the pope's minions; and vigorously contested the
claim of the archbishop of York to carry his cross erect in the
province of Canterbury. Before these events, however, the
quarrel with Edward had been renewed, although Winchelsea
officiated in 1299 at the king's marriage with Margaret, daughter
of Philip III., king of France. Joining the barons in demanding
certain reforms from Edward at the parliament of Lincoln in
1301, he compelled the king to give way on the main issues;
but the indignation which followed the claim of Pope Boniface
to be the protector of Scotland, a claim which was supported
by Winchelsea, led to the rupture of this alliance. It is probable
that one of the reasons which led the archbishop to join in these
proceedings was his hostility to Edward's adviser, Walter
Langton, bishop of Lichfield, whom he sought to disgrace both
in England and at Rome. The king cherished his indignation
until his friend Clement V. became pope in 1305, when he made
his final move against Winchelsea. Listening to Edward's
envoys, Langton and Henry Lacy, earl of Lincoln, Clement
suspended the archbishop, who, after vainly imploring the
intercession of the king, left England and journeyed to the papal
court at Bordeaux, remaining in exile until Edward's death
in July 1307. The new king, Edward II., requested Clement
to allow Winchelsea to return to his see. The pope assented,
but soon after his return to England early in 1308 the archbishop
joined the king's enemies; even demanded the release from
prison of his old enemy, Langton, and was one of the " ordainers "
appointed in 1310. He assisted the barons in their struggle
WINCHELSEA WINCHESTER, EARLS & MARQUESSES OF 703
with Edward II. by a frequent use of spiritual weapons, and took
part in the proceedings against the Templars. He died at Otford
on the i ith of May 1313. Miracles were said to have been worked
at his tomb in Canterbury cathedral, but efforts to procure his
canonization were unavailing. Although a secular priest Winchel-
sea was somewhat ascetic, and his private life was distinguished
for sanctity and generosity. As an ecclesiastic, however, he was
haughty and fond of power; and he has been not inappropriately
described as " the greatest churchman of the time."
See Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II., edited
with introduction by W. Stubbs (London, 1882-1883); S. Birching-
ton, in the Anglia sacra, edited by H. Wharton (London, 1691);
and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896).
WINCHELSEA, a village in the Rye parliamentary division
of Sussex, England, 9 m. N.E. by E. from Hastings by the
South Eastern and Chatham railways. Pop. (1901) 670. It
stands on an abrupt hill-spur rising above flat lowlands which
form a southward continuation of Romney marsh. This was
within historic times a great inlet of the English Channel, and
Winchelsea was a famous seaport until the isth century. Two
gates, the one of the time of Edward I., the other erected early
in the isth century, overlook the marshes; a third stands
at a considerable distance west of the town, its position pointing
the contrast between the extent of the ancient town and that
of the shrunken village of to-day. The town was laid out by
Edward I. with regular streets intersecting at right angles;
the form is preserved, and in a picturesque open space in the
centre stands the church of St Thomas a Becket. This comprises
only the chancel and aisles of a building which, if entire, would
rank as one of the finest parish churches in England. As it
stands it is of the highest interest, showing remarkable Decorated
work, with windows of beautiful and unusual design, and a
magnificent series of canopied tombs. In the grounds of the
residence called the Friars stands the shell of the apsidal choir
of a Decorated chapel which belonged to a Franciscan house.
Of a Dominican convent and other religious foundations and
churches there are no remains.
The town of which the relics have been described was not the
first of its name. On a site supposed to be about 3 m. S.E., and
now therefore about ij m. out in the English Channel, a seaport
had grown up on a low peninsula. In 1236 and at various
subsequent dates in the same century this town suffered severely
from encroachments of the sea, and in 1266 it paid the penalty
for its adherence to the cause of Simon de Montfort. The waves
finally obliterated the site in 1288, and Edward I. thereafter
planted the new town in a safe position. In the I4th and isth
centuries Winchelsea was frequently attacked by the French,
and in 1350 Edward III. defeated the Spaniards in a naval
action close by.
In the time of the Confessor Winchelsea (Winchenesel, Win-
chelese, Wynchelse) was included in Rameslie which was granted
by him to the abbey of Fecamp. The town remained under the
lordship of the abbey until it was resumed by Henry III. Its
early importance was due to its harbour, and by 1066 it was
probably already a port of some consequence. By the reign of
Henry II., if not before, Winchelsea was practically added to the
Cinque Ports and shared their liberties. After the destruction
of Old Winchelsea, New Winchelsea, a walled town, flourished
for about a hundred years and provided a large proportion of
the ships furnished by the Cinque Ports to the crown; but the
ravages of the French destroyed it, its walls were broken down,
and the decay of the harbour, owing to the recession of the sea,
prevented any later return of its prosperity. The corporation,
which in 1 298 included a mayor, barons and bailiffs, was dissolved
by an act of 1883.
Winchelsea as a Cinque Port was summoned to parliament in
1264-1265 and returned two members from 1366 till 1832, when it
was disfranchised. The abbot of Fecamp seems to have originally
held a market. In 1792 a market was held on Saturdays and a
fair on the Hth of May, but no market or fair now exists. Ship-
building and fishing were carried on in the 13th and 1 4th centuries
In later years Winchelsea became a great resort for smugglers, and
the vaults originally constructed for the Gascon wine trade were
used for storing contraband goods.
WINCHESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. The title
of earl of Winchester was first borne by Saier, or Seer, de Quincy,
who was endowed by King John on the I3th of March 1207,
with the earldom of Winchester, or the county of Southampton.
Saier de Quincy was one of the twenty-five barons named to
enforce the observance of the Great Charter. He served in the
Crusades at the siege of Damietta in 1219, and died soon after-
wards, probably on the 3rd of November of that year. His
second son Roger de Quincy (c. 1193-1264), who is said to have
usurped the earldom during the absence of his elder brother
Robert in the Holy Land, took part in the struggle between
Henry III. and the barons. He died without male issue in April
1264, and the earldom reverted to the crown. It was revived
in 1322 in favour of Hugh le Despenser, favourite of King
Edward II., and was forfeited when he was put to death by the
aarons as a traitor in 1326. In 1472 the title, together with a
pension of 200 a year from the customs of Southampton, but
lot the right of sitting in parliament, was given by King Edward
IV. to a Burgundian, Louis de Bruges, lord of Gruthuyse and
prince of Steenhuyse, as a reward for services rendered to
limself while an exile on the continent. Louis de Bruges
surrendered his patent to Henry VII. in 1499.
The marquessate of Winchester was created in 1551 in favour
of William Paulet, or Pawlet, K.G., a successful courtier during
tour reigns, who died on the loth of March 1572. It has de-
scended in the male line of his family to the sixteenth possessor.
John Paulet, 2nd marquess (c. 1517-1576), was summoned to
parliament as Baron St John during the life of his father, a
distinction which was shared by his three immediate successors
William Paulet (c. 1535-1598), William Paulet (c. 1560-1628)
and John Paulet (c. 1598-1674). Charles Paulet, son and heir
of John Paulet, the eighth marquess, was created duke of Bolton,
on the gth of April 1689, and the marquessate of Winchester
remained in connexion with the duchy of Bolton (q.v.) till the
death of Harry Paulet, sixth duke and eleventh marquess,
without male issue in December 1794. There being no male
representative of the dukes of Bolton this title lapsed, but the
marquessate of Winchester was inherited by George Paulet
(1722-1800), great-grandson of Lord Henry Paulet (d. 1672),
second son of William, the fourth marquess. On George's
death on the 22nd of April 1800 he was succeeded by his son
Charles Ingoldesby Burroughs-Paulet (1764-1843), who, in 1839,
prefixed the name of Burroughs to his own by royal licence.
Upon his death on the 29th of November 1843, the title passed
to his son John Paulet (1801-1887), fourteenth marquess, who
was succeeded, on the 4th of July 1887, by his son, Augustus
John Henry Beaumont (1858-1899), officer in the Guards, who
was killed at Magersfontein during the Boer War on the nth
of December 1899, and was followed in the peerage by his brother,
Henry William Montague Paulet (b. 1862).
Three of the marquesses of Winchester were men of note.
It is recorded of the founder of the family, William Paulet, that
when asked how he had contrived to live through a long period
of troubled times during four reigns, he replied that he came
of the willow and not of the oak, ortus sum e salice non ex quercu.
This saying, repeated by Sir Robert Naunton in his Fragments
regalia, may possibly not have been due to the marquess
himself, but if not it was well invented of a man who passed
through many dangers and always contrived to keep, or to
improve, his places. He was the son of Sir John Paulet of
Basing, near Basingstoke in Hampshire, and his wife Alice or
Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Paulet of Hinton St George,
Somerset. The year of his birth has been variously given as
1474 and 1485. Between 1512 and 1527 he was several times
sheriff of Hampshire. He was knighted before 1525, and in that
year became privy councillor. He was. henceforth, continually
employed in the royal household and on the council, but his
only military service was in the easy suppression of the Pilgrimage
of Grace in 1536. In 1525 he was named master of the wards
and keeper of the king's widows and idiots, that is to say he had
the lucrative charge of persons of property who were wards in
chivalry. He was a member of the House of Commons which
704
WINCHESTER
co-operated with the king in carrying out the separation of the
Church from Rome between 1529 and 1536. He served on the
courts which tried Sir Thomas More and Anne Boleyn, and he
was employed to tell Catharine of Aragon that she and her
daughter were degraded from their rank. It is characteristic
of the type of man that he did his work gently, and with a constant
recollection of the changes of fortune. His personal kindness
to Anne Boleyn, which she acknowledged, no doubt stood him
in good stead on the accession of her daughter Queen Elizabeth.
In 1538 he was created Lord St John, and he was enriched by a
grant of the lands of Netley Abbey, near Southampton. He
was appointed lord steward of the household, and lord chamber-
lain, and became a knignt of the garter in 1543. Henry VIII.
named him one of the council of regency for his son Edward VI.
During the reign of Edward VI., St John kept the favour both
of the Protector Somerset, who made him lord keeper of the great
seal, and of Somerset's enemy, the duke of Northumberland,
who kept him in office. He was created earl of Wiltshire in
1550, and marquess of Winchester in 1551. On the death of
Edward VI., he trimmed cleverly between the parties of Lady
Jane Grey, and Mary Tudor till he saw which was going to win,
and then threw himself on the winning side. He opposed Queen
Mary's marriage to Philip, prince of Spain (Philip II.), till he
saw she was set on it, and then gave his approval, for it was
his wise rule to show just as much independence as enhanced
the merit of his obedience. He was lord treasurer under Mary,
and kept his place under Elizabeth, to whose ecclesiastical policy
he gave his usual discreet opposition and final obedience. Win-
chester died at his house of Basing on the loth of March 1572.
He had built it on so grand a scale that his descendants are said
to have found it necessary to pull down a part. He married,
first Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Capel, Lord Mayor of
London, by whom he had four sons and four daughters, and then
Winifred, daughter of Sir John Bruges, alderman of London,
and widow of Sir Richard Sackville, by whom he had no children.
It is said that one hundred and three of his descendants were
alive at the date of his death.
His grandson, William Paulet, third marquess (c. 1535-1598)
was one of the judges of Mary, queen of Scots, and author of a
book called The Lord Marquesses Idleness which contains a
Latin acrostic of extreme ingenuity on the words Regina nostra
Angliae.
The fifth marquess, John Paulet (1628-1674), was a Roman
Catholic. He lived much in retirement in order to be able to
pay off debts left by his father. He is remembered by the
ardour and sincerity of his loyalty to King Charles I. It is said
that he caused the words " Aimez Loyaut6 " to be engraved
on every pane of glass in his house of Basing. During the first
Civil War it was fortified for the king, and stood a succession
of sieges by the parliamentary forces between 1643 and 1645.
On the I4th of October 1645, it was stormed by Oliver Cromwell.
The marquess, who fought valiantly, told Hugh Peters, chaplain
of the New Model Army of the parliament, who had the vulgarity
to crow over him, " That if the king had no more ground in
England but Basing House, he would adventure as he did, and
so maintain it to the utmost," fo- " that Basing House was
called Loyalty." The house caught fire during the storm and
was burnt down, the very ruins being carried away by order of
the parliament. The marquess was imprisoned in the Tower of
London, but was finally allowed to compound for his estate;
after the restoration of King Charles II. he was promised com-
pensation for his losses, but nothing was given to him. He died
in Englefield Park on the 5th of March 1674. He was three
times married, first to Jane, daughter of Viscount Savage, by
whom he had one son; then to Honora de Burgh, daughter of
Richard, earl of St Albans and Clanricarde, by whom he had
four sons; and then to Isabella Howard, daughter of Viscount
Stafford.
See Doyle, Official Baronage (London, 1886); and J. A. Froude,
History of England (London, 1856-1870), for the first marquess;
J. P. Collier, Bibliographical Account of Early English Literature
(London, 1865), for the second marquess; and Clarendon, History of
Ike Rebellion (Oxford, 1886), for the fifth marquess.
WINCHESTER, a city and municipal and parliament
borough of Hampshire, England, 66| m. S.W. by W. fron
London by the London & South- Western railway; serve
also by the Southampton branch of the Great Western railwaj
with a separate station. Pop. (1901) 20,929. It occupies
hilly and picturesque site in and above the valley oi the Itcher
lying principally on the left bank. The surrounding hills
chalk downs, but the valley is well wooded.
Setting aside for the present the legends which place
foundation of a great Christian church at Winchester in
2nd century, the erection of Winchester into an episcopal
may be placed early in the second half of the 7th century, thoug
it cannot be dated exactly. The West Saxon see was removed
hither from Dorchester on the Thame, and the first bishop of
Winchester was Hedda (d. 705). The modern diocese includes
nearly the whole of Hampshire, part of Surrey and very small
portions of Wiltshire, Dorsetshire and Sussex. St Swithin
(852-862), well known through the connexion of his feast day
( 1 5th July) with the superstition that weather-conditions thereon
determine those of the next forty days, is considered to have
enlarged the cathedral, as are ^Ethelwold (963-984) and Alphege
(984-1005). The history of the Saxon building, however, is
very slight, and as usual, its place was taken by a Norman one,
erected by Bishop Walkelin (1070-1098). The cathedral church
of St Swithin lies in the lower part of the city in a wide and
beautiful walled close. It is not very conspicuous from a
distance, a low central tower alone rising above the general level
of the roof. It consists of a nave, transepts, choir and retrochoir,
all with aisles, and a lady-chapel forms the eastward termination.
The work of the exterior, of whatever date, is severely plain.
The cathedral, however, is the longest in England, and indeed
exceeds any other church of its character in length, which is
close upon 556 ft. Within, the effect of this feature is very fine.
The magnificent Perpendicular nave is the work of Bishop
Edington (1346-1366) and the famous William of Wykeham
(1367-1404), by whom only the skeleton of Walkelin 's work was
retained. The massive Norman work of the original building,
however, remains comparatively intact in both transepts. The
central tower is Norman, but later than Walkelin's structure,
which fell in 1107, a mishap which was readily attributed to
divine wrath because King William II., who fell to the arrow
in the neighbouring New Forest, had been buried here seven years
earlier, in spite of his unchristian life. The tomb believed to
be his is in the choir, but its identity has been widely disputed,
and even an examination of the remains has failed to establish
the truth. The choir is largely Edington's work, though the
clerestory is later, and the eastern part of the cathedral shows
construction of several dates. Here appears the fine Early
English construction of Bishop de Lucy (1189-1204), in the
retrochoir and the lady-chapel, though this was considerably
altered later. Beneath the cathedral east of the choir there are
three crypts, connected together. The western and the central
chambers are Norman, and have apsidal terminations, while
the eastern is Early English. The cathedral contains many
objects of interest. The square font of black marble is a fine
example of Norman art, its sides sculptured with scenes from
the life of St Nicholas of Myra. The magnificent reredos behind
the high altar must have been erected late in the isth century;
it consists of a lofty wall, the full width of the choir, pierced
by two processional doors, and covered with tiers of rich canopied
niches, the statues in which are modern. A cross of plain ashlar
stone in the centre shows where an immense silver crucifix was
once attached; and a plain rectangular recess above the altar
once contained a massive silver-gilt retable, covered with cast
and repousse statuettes and reliefs. A second stdne screen,
placed at the interval of one bay behind the great reredos,
served to enclose the small chapel in which stood the gold shrine,
studded with jewels, the gift of King Edgar, which contained
the body of St Swithin. Under many of the arches of the nave
and choir are a number of very elaborate chantry chapels, each
containing the tomb of its founder. Some of these have fine
recumbent effigies, noble examples of English medieval sculpture;
WINCHESTER
705
the most notable are the monuments of Bishops Edington,
Wykeham, Waynflete, Cardinal Beaufort, Langton and Fox.
The door of iron grills, of beautiful design, now in the north
nave aisle, is considered to be the oldest work of its character
in England; its date is placed in the nth or I2th century.
The mortuary chests in the presbytery contain the bones of
Saxon kings who were buried here. The remains were collected
in this manner by Bishop Henry de Blois (1120-1171), and again
after they had been scattered by the soldiers of Cromwell. The
choir stalls furnish a magnificent example of Decorated wood-
work, and much stained glass of the Decorated and Perpendicular
periods remains in fragmentary form. The library contains a
Vulgate of the izth century, a finely ornamented MS. on
vellum.
In 1905 serious signs of weakness were manifested in the
fabric of the cathedral, and it was found that a large part of
the foundation was insecure, being laid on piles, or tree-trunks
set flat, in soft and watery soil. Extensive works of restoration,
including the underpinning of the foundations with cement
concrete (which necessitated the employment of divers), were
undertaken under the direction of Mr T. G. Jackson.
Relics of the monastic buildings are slight, and there are
Early English arches and Perpendicular work in the deanery.
Other old houses in the Close are very picturesque. Here
formerly stood the house which Charles II. desired of Ken for
Nell Gwyn. Ken refused it, but the king bore no malice, settling
Nell Gwyn in another house near by, and afterwards raising
Ken to the bishopric of Bath and Wells.
King Alfred founded a minster immediately north of the
present site of the cathedral, and here he and other Saxon kings
were buried. The house, known as Hyde Abbey, was removed
(as was Alfred's body) to a point outside the walls considerably
north of the cathedral, during the reign of Henry I. Here
foundations may be traced, and a gateway remains. To the
east of the cathedral are ruins of Wolvesey Castle, a foundation
of Henry de Blois, where the bishops resided. On the southern
outskirts of the city, in a pleasant meadow by the Itchen, is the
Hospital of St Cross. This also was founded by Henry de Blois,
in 1 136, whose wish was to provide board and lodging for 13 poor
men and a daily dinner for zoo others. It was reformed by
William of Wykeham, and enlarged and mostly rebuilt by
Cardinal Beaufort (1405-1447). The buildings form three sides
of a quadrangle, with a lawn and sun-dial in its midst; while the
fourth side is partly open, and partly formed by the magnificent
cruciform church. The earliest parts of this building are late
or transitional Norman, but other parts are Early English or
Decorated. The work throughout is very rich and massive.
St Cross is a unique example of a medieval almshouse, and its
picturesqueness is enhanced by the curious costume of its
inmates. It is still customary to provide a dole of bread and beer
to all who desire it. The parish churches of Winchester are not
of special interest, but the church of St S within is curious as
occupying the upper part of the King's Gate. This gate and the
West Gate alone remain of the gates in the walls which formerly
surrounded the city. The West Gate is a fine structure of the
1 3th century. In the High Street stands the graceful Per-
pendicular city cross. The county hall embodies remains of the
Norman castle, and in it is preserved the so-called King Arthur's
round table. This is supposed to date actually from the time
of King Stephen, but the painted designs upon it are of the
Tudor period.
Winchester is famous as an educational centre, and in addition
to Winchester College there are several modern preparatory
schools here. The College of St Mary, lying to the south of the
cathedral close, is one of the greatest of English public schools.
While a monastic school was in existence here from very early
times, the college was originated in 1387 by William of Wykeham,
whose famous scheme of education embraced this foundation
and that of New College, Oxford. The members on the founda-
tion consisted of a warden, 10 fellows, 3 chaplains, 70 scholars
and 16 choristers. The buildings were completed about
1395. The quadrangles, with the fine chapel, tower, hall
xxvm. 23
and cloister are noteworthy, and there are extensive modern
buildings.
The principal public buildings of the city are the gild-hall,
public library and art school, museum, market house, mechanics'
institution and barracks. The parliamentary borough returns
one member and falls within the Andover division of the county.
The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
councillors. Area, 1931 acres.
History. The history of the earliest Winchester (Winton,
Wynlon) is lost in legend; tradition ascribes its foundation to
Ludor Rous Hudibras and dates it ninety-nine years before the
first building of Rome; earthworks and relics show that the
Itchen valley was occupied by Celts, and it is certain from its
position at the centre of six Roman roads and from the Roman
relics found there that the Caer Gwent (White City) of the Celts
was, under the name of Venla Belgarum, an important Romano-
British country town. Hardly any traces of this survive, but
mosaic pavements, coins, &c., have been discovered on the
south side of High Street. The name of Winchester is indis-
solubly linked with that of King Arthur and his knights, but its
historical greatness begins when, after the conquest of the present
Hampshire by the Gewissas, it became the capital of Wessex.
Its importance was increased by the introduction of Christianity,
although it was not at first the seat of a bishop, because, accord-
ing to the later Winchester chronicler, King Cynegils wished
for time to build a worthy church in the royal city; his son
Cenwalh is said to have built the old minster. When the kings
of Wessex became kings of all England, Winchester became,
in a sense, the capital of England, though it always had a formid-
able rival in London, which was more central in position and
possessed greater commercial advantages. The parallel position
of the two cities in Anglo-Saxon times is illustrated by the law
of Edgar, ordaining that the standard of weights and measures
for the whole kingdom should be " such as is observed at London
and at Winchester." Under Alfred it became a centre of learning
and education, to which distinguished strangers, such as St
Grimbald and Asser the Welshman, resorted. It was the seat of
Canute's government; many of the kings, including Ecgberht,
Alfred, Edward the Elder and Canute, were buried there, and,
in 1043, Edward the Confessor was crowned in the old minster.
The city was sometimes granted as part of the dowry of a queen
consort, and it was the home of Emma, the wife of jEthelred
the Unready and of Canute, and later of Edith, the wife of the
Confessor.
Winchester was very prosperous in the years succeeding the
Conquest, and its omission, together with London, from Domes-
day Book is probably an indication of its peculiar position and
importance; its proximity to the New Forest commended it
to the Norman kings, and Southampton, only 12 m. distant, was
one of the chief ports for the continent. The Conqueror wore
his crown in state at Winchester every Easter, as he wore it
at Westminster at Whitsuntide and at Gloucester at Christmas.
The royal treasure continued to be stored there as it had been
in Anglo-Saxon times, and was there seized by William Rufus,
who, after his father's death, " rode to Winchester and opened
the Treasure House." In the reign of Stephen and again in the
reign of Henry II. the Court of Exchequer was held at Winchester,
and the charter of John promises that the exchequer and the
mint shall ever remain in the city; the mint was an important
one, and when in 1125 all the coiners of England were tried for
false coining those of Winchester alene were acquitted with
honour.
Under the Norman kings Winchester was of great commercial
importance; it was one of the earliest seats of the woollen trade,
which in its different branches was the chief industry of the town,
although the evidence furnished by the Liber Winton (temp.
Henry I. and Stephen) indicates also a varied industrial life.
As early as the reign of Henry I. the gild of weavers is mentioned,
and the millers at the same date render theif account to the
exchequer.
The gild merchant of Winchester claims an Anglo-Saxon
origin, but the first authentic reference to it is in one of the
706
WINCHESTER
charters granted to the city by Henry II. The Liber Winton
speaks of a " cnihts' gild," which certainly existed in the time of
the Confessor. The prosperity of Winchester was increased
by the St Giles's Fair, originally granted by Rufus to Bishop
Walkelin. It was held on St Giles's Hill up to the igth century,
and in the middle ages was one of the chief commercial events
of the year. While it lasted St Giles's Hill was covered by
a busy town, and no trade was permitted to be done outside
the fair within seven leagues, or at Southampton; the juris-
diction of the mayor and bailiffs of the city was in abeyance,
that of the bishop's officials taking its place.
From the time of the Conqueror until their expulsion by
Edward I., Winchester was the home of a large colony of Jews,
whose quarter hi the city is marked to the present day by
Jewry Street; Winchester is called by Richard of Devizes " the
Jerusalem of England " on account of its kind treatment of
its Jews, and there alone no anti-Jewish riots broke out after
the coronation of Richard I. The corporation of Winchester
claims to be one of the oldest in England, but the earliest existing
charters are two given by Henry II., one merely granting to
" my citizens of Winchester, who are of the gild merchant with
their goods, freedom from toll, passage and custom," the other
confirming to them all liberties and customs which they enjoyed
in the time of Henry I.; further charters, amplified and con-
firmed by succeeding sovereigns, were granted by Richard I.
and John. The governing charter till 1835 was that of 1587,
incorporating the city under the title of the " Mayor, Bailiffs
and Commonalty of the City of Winchester "; this is the first
charter which mentions a mayor, but it says that such an officer
had existed " time out of mind," and as early as 897 the town
was governed by a wicgerefa, by name Beornwulf, whose death
is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. There is a doubtful
reference to a mayor in 1194, and the office certainly existed
early in the I3th century. Until 1832 the liberty of the soke
encompassing the city on almost every side was outside the
jurisdiction of the city magistrates, being under the seignioralty
of the bishop of Winchester.
Winchester seems to have reached its zenith of prosperity
at the beginning of the izth century; the first check was given
during the civil wars of Stephen's reign, when the city was
burned. However, the last entry concerning it in the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle says that Henry Plantagenet, after the treaty
of Wallingford, was received with " great worship " in Winchester
and London, thus recognizing the equality of the two cities;
but the latter was rising at Winchester's expense, and at the
second coronation of Richard I. (1294) the citizens of Winchester
had the significant mortification of seeing in their own city the
citizens of London take their place as cupbearers to the king.
The loss of Normandy further favoured the rise of London by
depriving Winchester of the advantages it had enjoyed from its
convenient position with regard to the continent. Moreover,
it suffered severely at the hands of Simon de Montfort the
Younger (1265), although it still continued to be an occasional
royal residence, and the Statute of Winchester (1285) was passed
in a council held there. Meanwhile the woollen trade had drifted
in great measure to the east of England; and an attempt made
to revive the prosperity of Winchester in the i4th century by
making it cne of the staple towns proved unsuccessful. The
wine trade, which had been considerable, was ruined by the
sack of Southampton (1338); a few years later the city was
devastated by the black death, and the charter of Elizabeth
speaks of " our city of Winchester now fallen into great ruin,
decay and poverty." During the Civil War the city suffered
much for its loyalty to Charles I. and lost its ancient castle
founded by William I. After the Restoration a scheme was
started to restore trade by making the Itchen navigable to
Southampton, but neither then nor when revived in the igth
century was it successful. Charles II., intending to make
Winchester again a royal residence, began a palace there, which
being unfinished at his death was used eventually as barracks.
It was burnt down in 1894 and rebuilt in 1901. Northgate and
Southgate were pulled down in 1781, Eastgate ten years later.
Westgate still stands at the top of the High Street. The gua
room was formerly used as a debtors' prison, now as a museut
The two weekly markets, still held in the Corn Exchange
Wednesday and Saturday, were confirmed by Elizabeth's
charter; the latter dates from a grant of Henry VI. abolishir
the Sunday market, which had existed from early times,
same grant established three fairs one on October 13 (the day
of the translation of St Edward, king and confessor), one on the
Monday and Tuesday of the first week in Lent, and another on
St Swithin's day; the former two are still held. Wincheste
sent two members to parliament from 1295 to 1885, when
representation was reduced to one.
WINCHESTER, a town and the county-seat of Clark county,
Kentucky, U.S.A., in the E. part of the Blue Grass region of
the state, about 18 m. E. by S. of Lexington. Pop. (1890) 4519;
(1900) 5964, including 3128 negroes; (1910) 7156. It is served
by the Louisville & Nashville, the Chesapeake & Ohio and the
Lexington & Eastern railways, the last being a short road (fron
Lexington to Jackson) extending into the mineral and timb
region of Eastern Kentucky. The town is the seat of the Ken-
tucky Wesleyan College (co-educational; Methodist Episcopal,
South), opened in 1866, and of the Winchester Trades and
Industrial School (1900). Winchester is in an agricultur
lumbering and stock-raising region, and has various manufactur
It was first incorporated in 1792.
WINCHESTER, a township of Middlesex county, Ma
chusetts, U.S.A., about 8 m. W. of Boston at the head of Upp
Mystic Pond, one of the sources of the Mystic river. Pop. ( 1 900)
7248, of whom 1968 were foreign-bom and 140 were negroes;
(1910) 9309. Area, 6 sq. m. Winchester is served by the
southern division of the Boston & Maine railway, and is connecte
with Boston, Arlington, Medford, Stoneham and Woburn by
electric lines. It is chiefly a residential suburb of Boston.
Through the centre of the township winds the Aberjona river,
which empties into Mystic Pond, in Winchester township, bot
favourite resorts for canoeing, &c. Wedge Pond and Wint
Pond, in the centre of the township, are clear and beautifu
sheets of water. The streets of Winchester are heavily shaded,
the view as presented from the neighbouring hills being that of ;
continuous forest stretching from the beautiful Mystic Valle
parkway (of the Metropolitan park system) , of which more than
one-half (50-2 acres) is in the southern part of the township, to
the Middlesex Fells Reservation (another Metropolitan park),
of which 261-9 acres are in the eastern part; and there are a
large public playground and a common. Horn Pond Mountain
and Indian Hill are about 320 ft. above sea-level. One of the
pleasantest residential districts is Rangely, a restricted private
park. The town-hall and library building is a fine structure;
the library contains about 20,000 volumes, and the museum and
collections of the Winchester Historical and Genealogical Society.
The principal manufactures are leather and felt goods.
Winchester was originally within the limits of Charlestov
In 1638 allotments of land between the Mystic Pond and the
present Woburn were made to various Charlestown settler
including John Harvard and Increase Nowell (1590-1655),
secretary of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1644-1649, and
the new settlement was called Waterfield. Most of this territor
in 1642 was incorporated in Woburn and was called South
Wobum. In 1850 Winchester was separately incorporate
parts of Arlington (then West Cambridge) and Medford goir
to make up its area, and was named in honour of Colonel W. P.
Winchester of Watertown, who left to the township a legacy
for municipal works.
WINCHESTER, an independent city and the county-s
of Frederick county, Virginia, U.S.A., 87 m. by rail W.N.W.
of Washington. Pop. (1890) 5196; (1900) 5161, including 1105
negroes; (1910) 5864. Winchester is served by the Baltimore i
Ohio and the Cumberland Valley railways. It is pleasantly
situated in the fertile Shenandoah Valley about 720 ft. above
sea-level. Fort Loudoun Seminary for girls occupies the site
of old Fort Loudoun, and in the city is the Shenandoah Valley
Academy, a military school for boys. The Handley library
WINCKELMANN
707
(1910), a memorial to John Handley, a part of whose estate
was bequeathed to establish industrial schools for the poor of
Winchester, and an auditorium are owned by the municipality.
The United States National Military Cemetery at Winchester
contains the graves of 4480 Union soldiers, 2382 of them unknown,
and adjoining it is the Confederate Stonewall Cemetery, with
about 8000 graves. The manufacture of gloves is the leading
industry; among the other manufactures are woollen and knit
goods, flour, leather, lumber, paper and bricks. Electricity,
generated at the Shenandoah river, is used for power in many
of the factories.
A settlement was established in this vicinity as early as 1732.
In 1752 the present name was adopted and the town was estab-
lished by act of the colonial legislature. In 1756, during the
Seven Years' War, George Washington, in command of the
provincial troops of Virginia, established his headquarters here
and built Fort Loudoun. The town was incorporated in 1779.
The Virginia Gazette and Winchester Advertiser, the first news-
paper published in the Shenandoah Valley, was established here
in 1787. In the Civil War, Winchester, because of its position
in the lower Shenandoah Valley, played a great part, and was
several times the scene of engagements between the Union
and Confederate forces in 1862, Jackson's actions of Kerns-
town and Winchester; in the Gettysburg campaign, the capture
of a Union garrison by Ewell (14-15 June 1863); and in Sheridan's
campaign of 1864 the battle of Winchester or Opcquon
(Sept. 19, 1864), for all of which see SHENANDOAH VALLEY
CAMPAIGNS. Winchester was chartered as a city in 1852 and in
1906 the corporate limits were enlarged.
See J. E. Norris (ed.), History of the Lower Shenandoah Valley
(Chicago, 1890), and T. K. Cartmell, Shenandoah Valley Pioneers
(Winchester, 1909).
WINCKELMANN, JOHANN JOACHIM (1717-1768), German
archaeologist, was born at Stendal in Brandenburg on the 9th
of December 171 7, the son of a poor shoemaker. He attended
a gymnasium at Berlin and the school at Salzwedel, and in 1738
was induced to go as a student of theology to Halle. But he
was no theologian, and he soon devoted himself with enthusiasm
to Greek art and literature. With the intention of becoming
a physician he attended medical classes at Jena; but means
were insufficient and he was obliged to accept a tutorship near
Magdeburg. From 1743 to 1748 he was associate-rector of a
school at Seehausen in the Altmark. He then went to Nothenitz
near Dresden as librarian to Count Henry von Bunau, for whose
history of the Holy Roman empire he collected materials. The
treasures in the Dresden gallery awakened an intense interest
in art, which was deepened by association with various artists,
and especially with A. F. Oeser, who afterwards exercised so
powerful an influence over Goethe. Winckelmann's study of
ancient literature had inspired him with a desire to visit Rome,
and he became librarian to Cardinal Passionei in 1754. This
compelled him reluctantly to join the Roman Catholic Church.
In 1755, before leaving for Rome, Winckelmann published
his Gedanken ilber die Nackahmung der griechischen Werke in
Malerei und Bildhauerkunst (" Thoughts on the Imitation of
Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture "), followed by a
pretended attack on the work, and a defence of its principles,
nominally by an impartial critic. The Gedanken contains the
first statement of the doctrines he afterwards developed, and
was warmly admired not only for the ideas it contained but for
its style. Augustus III., elector of Saxony and king of Poland,
granted him a pension of 200 thalers, that he might prosecute
his studies in Rome. He arrived in Rome in November 1755,
became librarian to Cardinal Archinto, and received much
kindness from Cardinal Passionei. After their deaths he was
received as librarian and as a friend into the house of Cardinal
Albani, who was forming his magnificent collection at Porta
Salara. In 1763, while retaining this position, Winckelmann
was made prefect of antiquities.
He devoted himself earnestly, at first with the aid of his friend
A. R. Mengs, to the study of Roman antiquities, and gradually
acquired an unrivalled knowledge of ancient art. In 1760
appeared his Description des pierres gravies du feu Baron de
Stosch; in 1762 his Anmerkungen liber die Baukunst der Alien
(" Observations on the Architecture of the Ancients "), including
an account of the temples at Paestum. In 1758 and 1762 he
visited Naples, and from his Sendschreiben von den herculanischen
Entdeckungen (1762) and his Nachricht von den neuesten her-
culanischen Entdcckungen (1764) scholars obtained their first
real information about the treasures excavated at Pompeii and
Herculaneum. Winckelmann again visited Naples in 1765
and 1767, and wrote for the use of the electoral prince and
princess of Saxony his Briefe an Bianconi, which were published,
eleven years after his death, in the Antologia romana. His
masterpiece, the Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthvms (" History
of Ancient Art "), issued in 1764, was soon recognized as a
permanent contribution to European literature. In this work
Winckelmann sets forth both the history of Greek art and the
principles on which it seemed to him to be based. He also
presents a glowing picture of the conditions, political, social and
intellectual, which tended to foster creative activity in ancient
Greece. The fundamental idea of his theory is that the end of
art is beauty, and that this end can be attained only when
individual and characteristic features are strictly subordinated
to the artist's general scheme. The true artist, selecting from
nature the phenomena fitted for his purpose, and combining
them through the imagination, creates an ideal type marked
in action by " noble simplicity and calm greatness " an ideal
type in which normal proportions are maintained, particular
parts, such as muscles and veins, not being permitted to break
the harmony of the general outlines. In the historical portion
he used not only the works of art he himself had studied but the
scattered notices on the subject to be found in ancient writers;
and his wide knowledge and active imagination enabled him to
offer many fruitful suggestions as to periods about which he had
little direct information. Many of his conclusions based on the
inadequate evidence of Roman copies have been modified or
reversed by subsequent research, but the fine enthusiasm of
the work, its strong and yet graceful style, and its vivid descrip-
tions of works of art give it enduring value and interest. It
marked an epoch by indicating the spirit in which the study of
Greek art should be approached, and the methods by which
investigators might hope to attain to solid results. To Winckel-
mann's contemporaries it came as a revelation, and exercised
a profound influence on the best minds of the age. It was read
with intense interest by Lessing, who had found in the earliest
of Winckelmann's works the starting-point for his Laocoon.
Winckelmann contributed various admirable essays to the
Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften; and in 1766 he published
his Versuch einer Allegorie, which, although containing the results
of much thought and reading, is not conceived in a thoroughly
critical spirit. Of far greater importance was the splendid
work entitled Monumenti antichi inediti (1767-1768), prefaced
by a Trattalo preliminare, presenting a general sketch of the
history of art. The plates in this work are representations of
objects which had either been falsely explained or not explained
at all. Winckelmann's explanations were of the highest service
to archaeology, by showing that in the case of many works of
art supposed to be connected with Roman history the ultimate
sources of inspiration were to be found in Homer.
In 1768 Winckelmann went to Vienna, where he was received
with honour by Maria Theresa. At Trieste on his way back he
was murdered in an hotel by a man named Arcangeli to whom
he had shown some coins presented by Maria Theresa (June 8th,
1768). He was buried in the churchyard of the cathedral of
St Giusto at Trieste.
An edition of his works was begun by Fernow in 1808 and com-
pleted by Meyer and Schulze (1808-1820). There are admirable
studies of his character and work in Goethe's Winckelmann und sein
Jahrhundert (1805), to which contributions were made by Meyer and
Wolf, and in Walter Pater's Renaissance (1902). The best biography
of Winckelmann is by Justi, Winckelmann und seine Zeitgtnessen
(2nd ed., 3 vols., Leipzig, 1898). A collection of letters, Briefe an
seine Zuricher Freunde, was published by Blumner (Freiburg, 1882).
(J. Sl.;J. MT.M.)
yo8
WIND WINDHAM
WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vatas, Lat.
ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to
" wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend,"
&c.), a natural motion of the air, a current of air coming from any
particular direction or with any degree of velocity. For the
general account of winds, their causes, &c., see METEOROLOGY.
Winds may be classified according to the strength or velocity
with which they blow, varying from a calm, a breeze to a gale,
storm or hurricane; for the varying scale of velocity per hour
of these see BEAUFORT SCALE, and for the measurement ANEMO-
METER. Another classification divides them into " regular " or
"constant" winds, such as the "trade winds" (<?..), and
" periodic" winds, such as the " monsoon " (q.v.). There are
many special winds, such as the " Fohn," " chinook," " mistral,"
" harmattan," " sirocco," which are treated under their in-
dividual names. For the group of musical instruments known
by the generic name of WIND INSTRUMENTS see that heading.
WINDAU (Russian Vindava, Lettish Wenteptis), a seaport
and sea-bathing resort of western Russia, in the government
of Courland, at the mouth of the Windau, on the Baltic Sea,
no m. by rail N.W. of Riga. Pop. (1897), 7132. It has a castle
built hi 1290. The harbour, 20 and 25 ft. deep, is free from ice
all the year round. Timber, grain and other commodities are
exported to the annual value of two to three millions sterling;
the imports range between three-quarters and one million
sterling.
WIND BRACES, in architecture, diagonal braces to tie the
rafters of a roof together and prevent " racking." In the better
sort of medieval roofs they are arched, and run from the principal
rafters to catch the purlins.
WINDEBANK, SIR FRANCIS (1582-1646), English secretary
of state, was the only son of Sir Thomas Windebank of Hougham,
Lines., who owed his advancement to the Cecil family. Francis
entered St John's College, Oxford, in 1599, coming there under
the influence of Laud. After a few years' continental travel
(1605-1608), he was employed for many years in minor public
offices, and became clerk of the council. In June 1632 he was
appointed by Charles I. secretary of state in succession to Lord
Dorchester, his senior colleague being Sir John Coke, and he
was knighted. His appointment was mainly due to his Spanish
and Roman Catholic sympathies. The first earl of Portland,
Francis, Lord Cottington, and Windebank formed an inner
group in the council, and with their aid the king carried on
various secret negotiations, especially with Spain. In December
1634 Windebank was appointed to discuss with the papal agent
Gregorio Panzani the possibility of a union between the Anglican
and Roman Churches, and expressed the opinion that the Puritan
opposition might be crippled by sending their leaders to the war
in the Netherlands. Windebank's efforts as treasury com-
missioner in 1635 to shield some of those guilty of corruption led
to a breach with Archbishop Laud, and the next year he was
for a time disgraced for issuing an order for the conveyance of
Spanish money to pay the Spanish troops in the Netherlands.
In July 1638 he urged upon the king instant war with the Scots,
and in 1640, when tumults were breaking out in England, he
sent an appeal from the queen to the pope for money and men.
He was elected in March 1640 member of the Short Parliament
for Oxford University, and he entered the Long Parliament in
October as member for Corfe. In December the House learnt that
he had signed letters of grace to recusant priests and Jesuits,
and summoned him to answer the charge, but with the king's
connivance he fled to France. From Calais he wrote to the
first Lord Hatton, defending his integrity, and affirming his belief
that the church of England was the purest and nearest the
primitive Church. He remained in Paris until his death on the
ist of September 1646, shortly after he had been received into
the Roman communion.
WINDERHERE, the largest lake in England, in the south-
eastern part of the Lake District (q.v.). It is in the county of
Westmorland, the boundary with Lancashire running from
the head southward along the western shore, round the foot
and northward along about one-third of the eastern shore.
It forms a narrow trough with a slightly curved axis of
The width at right angles to the axis never reaches i m. The
area is 5-69 sq. m. The shores are generally steep, beautifully
wooded and fretted with numerous little sheltered bays. The
hills immediately surrounding the lake rarely reach 1000 ft.,
but the distant views of the mountains to the north and west
contrast finely with the sylvan beauty of the lake itself. The
middle of the lake, immediately opposite Bowness, is especially
beautiful, for here a group of islands (Belle Isle, Thompson's
Holme, the Lilies and others) divide the lake into two basins,
the water about them seldom exceeding 50 ft. in depth. On the
other hand, the greatest depth sounded in the northern basin is
219 ft., and in the southern 134. The lake receives the Rothay
and Brathay streams at the head; Trout Beck also flows into the
north basin, and Cunsey Beck from Esthwaite into the south.
The lake is drained by the Leven. Steamers belonging to the
Furness Railway Company ply regularly on Windermere, the
chief stations being Lakeside, the terminus of a branch railway,
beautifully situated at the foot, Ferry on the west shore below
the islands, Bowness on the east and Waterhead, at the head,
for Ambleside. The lake contains perch, pike, trout and char;
there are several large hotels at Bowness and elsewhere on its
shores.
The town of WINDERMERE, above the eastern shore adjacent
to Bowness (q.v.), is in the Appleby parliamentary division of
Westmorland, and is the terminus of a branch of the London
and North- Western railway from Oxenholme junction. Numer-
ous mansions and villas have grown up in the vicinity. Here,
from Orrest Head, in the grounds of Elleray, where lived Pro-
fessor Wilson (Christopher North), superb views over the whole
lake and its surroundings are obtained. In 1905 Bowness and
Windermere were united as a single urban district.
WINDHAM, WILLIAM (1750-1810), English politician, came
from an ancient family long resident at Felbrigg, near Cromer in
Norfolk. His father, Colonel William Windham (1717-1761)^5
an adventurous soldier with a taste for languages, both ancient
and modern; his son was born in Golden Square, London, on
the 3rd of May 1750. He went to Eton, which he quitted in 1766
for the university of Glasgow, where he acquired the taste for
mathematics which always distinguished him. In 1767 he
matriculated as gentleman commoner at University College,
Oxford, where he remained until 1771. He never took the degree
of B.A., but qualified as M.A. on the 7th of October 1782, and
received the degree of D.C.L. on the 3rd of July 1793. He made
a tour in Norway in 1773 and visited Switzerland and Italy
between 1778 and 1780. His maiden speech on the political
platform was delivered at Norwich on the 28th of January 1778,
when he vehemently opposed the prosecution of the American
war. His entrance into public life took place in April 1783,
when he went to Ireland as chief secretary to Lord Northington,
the lord-lieutenant in the coalition ministry of Fox and Lord
North. Windham was his own keenest critic, his distrust in
his own powers and his disappointment at his own achievements
being conspicuous on every page of his Diary. Sickness com-
pelled his return to England early in July 1783, and he resigned
his position in August; but change of scene and constant
exercise restored him to health before the end of that year.
In April 1784 he was returned to parliament as member for
Norwich by a majority of 64 votes, thus scoring one of the few
triumphs attained by the adherents of the coalition cabinet.
This seat he retained until 1802, when he was beaten on account
of his hostility to the peace of that year.
Though he strenuously opposed all proposals for parlia-
mentary reform, to which most of the Whigs were deeply com-
mitted, Windham remained in alliance with that party until after
the outbreak of the French Revolution, when he and several
of his chief allies joined Pitt. The place of secretary-at-war was
conferred upon him in July 1794, and he was at the same time
created a privy councillor and admitted to a seat in the cabinet.
Windham discharged the duties of his office with unflagging zeal,
his efforts being particularly directed towards ameliorating the
condition of the inferior grades of the army. In the autumn of
WIND INSTRUMENTS
709
1794 he was despatched to the duke of York's camp in Flanders
with the views of his ministerial colleagues, but their advice
could not counteract the military incapacity of the royal duke.
When Pitt was frustrated in his intention of freeing the Roman
Catholics from their political disabilities, Windham, who in
religious matters always inclined to liberal opinions, was one of
the ministers who retired from office in February 1801. He
\\.is a constant opponent of all negotiations for peace with France,
preferring to prosecute the campaign at whatever cost until
some decisive victory had been gained, and the temporary peace
of Amiens, which was carried through under Addington's
administration, did not meet with his approval. When he was
ousted from the representation of Norwich in June 1802, a seat
for the pocket borough of St Mawes in Cornwall was found for
him. He declined a place in Pitt's new cabinet (May 1804) on
the ground that the exclusion of Fox prevented the formation
of an administration sufficiently strong in parliament and the
country to cope with the dangers which threatened the safety
of the nation, and he offered a general opposition to the measures
which the prime minister proposed. On Pitt's death in January
1806 the ministry of " All the Talents " was formed under the
leadership of Lord Grenville, and Windham accepted the seals
as secretary of state for war and the colonies. Fox's death
necessitated several official changes; and a peerage was proposed
for Windham, but he declined the proffered honour, and re-
mained in office as long as the ministry existed. A general
election took place in November 1806 and Windham was elected
for the county of Norfolk; but the election was declared void
on petition, and he was compelled to sit for the borough of New
Romney, for which he had also been elected. In 1807, when
parliament was dissolved under the influence of the " No
Popery " cry of Spencer Perceval, a seat was found for Windham
at Higham Ferrers. Liberty of religious opinion he uniformly
supported at all periods of his life, and with equal consistency he
opposed all outbreaks of religious fanaticism; hence with these
convictions in his mind few of the domestic measures of the new
ministers met with his approbation. Moreover, he disapproved of
the expedition to the Scheldt, and thought the charges brought
against the Duke of York, as commander-in-chief, required
his retirement from office. At the same time he actively
opposed the bill of Sir Samuel Romilly, his colleague on most
political questions, for reducing the number of offences visited
with the punishment of death. In July 1809 he .received a blow
on the hip whilst rendering assistance at a fire, which he thought
little of at the time; but a tumour subsequently formed on the
spot and an operation became necessary. This brought on a
fever, and Windham rapidly sank. He died on the 4th of June
1810, and was buried in the family vault at Felbrigg.
His speeches were published in three volumes in 1806, with a
memoir by Thomas Amyot, his private secretary while he was in
office in 1806, and his Diary was edited by Mrs Henry Baring in
1866. The passages in the latter work relative to Dr Johnson's
declining days have been of considerable use to the later editors of
Boswell.
WIND INSTRUMENTS (Fr. instruments a vent, Ger. Blas-
inslrumenle, Ital. strumenli dafiato), a numerous and powerful
section of the orchestra, classified according to the acoustic
properties of the instruments and to certain important structural
features. The first great natural subdivision is that of (A)
mouth blown, and (B) mechanically blown, instruments.
Section A falls into the classes of (i) wood wind, (2) brass
wind, with their numerous subdivisions.
I. (a) Wood Wind. Pipes without embouchure or mouthpiece,
such as the ancient Egyptian nay, a long flute with narrow bore
held obliquely, and the syrinx or pan-pipes, both of which are blown
by directing the breath not into the pipe but across the open end, so
that it impinges against the sharp edge of the rim. (ft) Pipes with
embouchure but no mouthpiece, such as the transverse flute, piccolo
and fife; see FLUTE and MOUTHPIECE, (c) Pipes with whistle
mouthpieces, an ancient contrivance, extensively used by primitive
races of all ages, which finds application at the present day in the
flageolet, the whistle, and in organ pipes known as the flue-work.
A large class of medieval instruments, widely diffused but now
obsolete, were known as recorders, beak or fipple-flutes, fl&tes a bee,
flUtes douces, fl&tes anglaists (Fr.), Plock or Blockfloten, Schnabelfloten
(Ger.). (d) Reed instruments, by which are to be understood not reed
pipes but instruments with reed mouthpieces, which subdivide again
into two families owing to the very different acoustic conditions pro-
duced by the combination of a reed mouthpiece with (i) a cylindrical
pipe and(a) a conical pipe. These combinations influence not only the
timbre, but principally the harmonics obtained by overblowing and
used to supplement the fundamental scale given out as the lateral
holes are uncovered one by one; the practical difference to the
performer may be summed up as one of fingering, (di) comprises
pipes with cylindrical bore with either single or double reed mouth-
piece, such as the clarinet family, the obsolete batyphone (?..) and
the family of cromornes (?..). To these we may add theaulosand
tibia of ancient Greece and Rome, which at different times had single
and double reed mouthpieces. These pipes all overblow a twelfth.
(d2) Pipes with conical bore and either single or double reed mouth-
piece. This class comprises the important members of the oboe
family (with double reed) derived from the Schalmey and Pommer of
the middle ages, the Schryari, an instrument which had an ephemeral
existence, at the end of the i6th century and consisted of an inverted
cone with a double reed placed within a pirouette or capsule, which
had the result of restricting the compass of the instrument to the
fundamental scale, for harmonics can only be produced when the
reed is controlled by the lips (see REED INSTRUMENTS). The modern
family of saxophones with single reed mouthpiece, intended to
replace the clarinets in military bands, may be classed with the
wood wind, although actually made of brass for durability. The
same may be said of the sarrusophones, a family of brass oboes with
double reed, invented by M. Sarrus to replace the oboe in military
bands. To these we may add the Cheng (q.v.) or Chinese organ,
consisting of a set of pipes arranged in a hollow gourd and sounded
by means of free-reeds, the air being fed to the pipes in the reservoir
by the mouth through a pipe shaped like the spout of a tea-pot.
The Cheng is important, asembodying the principle of theharmonium.
(e) Wooden tubes of conical bore having lateral holes and sometimes
from one to three keys, played by means of a cup or funnel mouth-
piece, such as the obsolete cornet (q.v.) or Zinke, which enjoyed such
widespread popularity during the i6th and I7th centuries, and
their bass the serpent. The bagpipe and its drones and chaunter
are indirectly mouthblown, with the exception of the Union or Irish
and of the Border bagpipes, and of the French bagpipe known as
musette, in which the bag is fed with air by means of bellows, instead
of through an insufflation pipe.
2. The Brass Wind consists of the following classes : (a) Tubes of
fixed length, such as the natural trumpet and French horn, all
medieval horns and trumpets, including the busine, the tuba, the
oliphant, the hunting horn and the bugle, the classical buccina,
cornu, lituus and tuba. The compass of all these was restricted to
the few notes of the harmonic series obtained by overblowing. (6)
Tubes of which the length is varied by a slide, such as the sackbut
family, the slide trombone and slide trumpet. When the slide is
drawn out the column of air is lengthened and the pitch proportion-
ally lowered. Each position or shift of the slide enables the per-
former to overblow the harmonic series a semitone lower, (c) Tubes
of which the length is varied by lateral holes and keys. To this class
belong the keyed bugle and its bass the ophicleide, the obsolete
keyed trumpet and the bass horns and Russian bassoon, which
immediately preceded the invention of valves. The saxophones
and sarrusophones might also be classed with these (see above, i <fe).
(d) Tubes of which the length is varied by valves or pistons. This
class is the most modern of all, dating from the invention of valves
in 1815, which revolutionized the technique and scoring for brass
instruments. A rational subdivision of valve instruments is made
in Germany into whole and half instruments (see BOMBARDON and
VALVES), according as to whether the whole length of tubing comes
into practical use or only half, or from the performer's point of
view whether the fundamental note of the harmonic series can be
produced, or whether the series begins with the second member, an
octave above the first, in which case it is obvious that half the tubing
is of no practical value. The principal piston instruments are:
the whole instruments contrabass and bass tubas, bombardons or
helicons; the euphonium or tenor tuba; the half instruments
saxhorns, Fliigelhorns, tenor horns, cornets, the valve trombone,
valve trumpet and valve horn (French horn), and the Wagner tubas,
which are really the basses of the French horn and are played with
funnel-shaped mouthpieces. The brass wind is further divided
according to the shape of the mouthpiece used, (a) With funnel-
shaped mouthpiece, such as the French horn, tenor horn and Wagner
tubas; and (6) with cup-shaped mouthpiece, comprising all the
other brass wind instruments except the bugle, of which the mouth-
piece is a hybrid, neither true funnel nor true cup.
Section B: Mechanically Blown Instruments. This section
consists mainly of instruments having the air supply fed by
means of bellows; it comprises the two classes: (i) with
keyboard, (2) without keyboard.
I. This includes all kinds of organs: the ancient hydraulic organ
or hydraulus, differing from the pneumatic only in that water
pressure was used to compress the air supply instead of the bellows
710
WINDISCHGRATZ WINDMILL
being weighted by means of the foot and body of the performer at
first and later by me?ns of weights; the reed organ, consisting of
pipes furnished with beating reeds, known also as the reed work
when incorporated with the large church organ; the medieval
portative and positive organs; the large modern church organ.
To this class also belong the accordion and concertina and
the numerous instruments of the harmonium type which
have free instead of beating reeds, a difference which confers
upon them the power of dynamic expression denied to all organs
fitted with flue pipes or pipes having beating reeds. The com-
plex instruments known as organized pianos also come within this
category.
2. This comprises the bagpipes known as musette, and the Union
or Irish and the Border bagpipes having a wind supply fed by
bellows instead of by the insufflation pipe proper to the bagpipe;
the barrel organ having instead of a keyboard a barrel studded with
nails, which lift the valves admitting air to the flue pipes generally
hidden within the case. (K. S.)
WINDISCHGRATZ, PRINCE ALFRED (1787-1862), Austrian
field-marshal, entered the Austrian army in 1804, participated
in all the wars against Napoleon and fought with distinction
at Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814. In the following years
of peace he held successive commands in Prague, being appointed
head of the army in Bohemia in 1840. Having gained a reputa-
tion as a champion of energetic measures against revolution
he was called upon to suppress the insurrection of March 1848
in Vienna, but finding himself ill-supported by the ministers he
speedily threw up his post. Having returned to Prague he there
showed firmness in quelling an armed outbreak of the Czech
separatists (June 1848). Upon the recrudescence of revolt
in Vienna he was summoned at the head of a large army and
reduced the city by a formal siege (Oct. 20-29). Appointed
to the chief command against the Hungarian rebels he gained
some early successes and reoccupied Budapest (Jan. 1849),
but by his slowness in pursuit he allowed the enemy to rally
in superior numbers and to prevent an effective concentra-
tion of the Austrian forces. In April 1849 he was relieved of
his command and henceforth rarely appeared again in public
life.
See Furst Windischgratz. Eine Lebens-Skizze. Aus den Papieren
tines Zeitgenossen der Sturm-Jahre 1848 und 1849 (2nd ed., Leipzig,
1898).
WINDMILL, a term used, in the widest sense, for a machine
by which the energy of the wind is applied to useful purposes.
Windmills were cer-
tainly used as early
as the i 2th century
and are still largely
employed in Holland
in draining the
polders and grinding
trass. They are some-
what extensively
used in America for
pumping and driving
agricult u ral
machinery. In spite
of the competition
of more powerful and
tractable motors,
they are serviceable,
especially in new
countries, where fuel
is scarce and where
work can be done in-
termittently. An
inquiry was made in
India in 1879 as to
the possibility of
using windmills for
irrigation (Profes-
sional Papers on
Indian Engineering, July 1879), with the result that it was
concluded their usefulness would be very limited.
A windmill is not in any case a very powerful or efficient
FIG. I Windmill near Delft.
motor, and its work is variable and intermittent. In favourabli
positions, it will run on an average for eight hours out of the
twenty-four. For pumping on a small scale, the intermittent
action is least an objection, because there is generally a tank or
storage reservoir regulating the delivery of the water. For
driving dynamos windmills are least suitable, on account
of the variation of speed, though some attempts to
generate electricity by wind power have been made, sp
arrangements being adopted for automatically regulating the
speed.
European Windmills. In all the older windmills a shaft,
called the wind shaft, carried four to six arms or whips on whic
long rectangular narrow sails were spread. The wind shaft was
placed at an inclination of 10 or 15 with the horizontal, to
enable the sails to clear the lower part of the mill. The whip
carrying the sail was often 30 to 40 ft. in length, so that the tip
of the sails described a circle 60 to 80 ft. in diameter. The :
were rectangular, 5 to 6 ft. wide, and occupying five-sixths
the length of the whip. A triangular leading sail was sometimes
added. Sometimes the sails consisted of a sail-cloth sprea
on a framework; at other times narrow boards were used.
The oldest mill was no doubt the post mill, the whole structur
being carried on a post; to bring the sails to face the wind,
the structure was turned round by a long lever. The post mill
was succeeded by the tower, smock or frock mill, in which the
mill itself consisted of a stationary tower, and the wind shaft
and sails were carried in a revolving cap rotating on the top
of the tower. Andrew Meikle introduced in 1750 an auxiliary
rotating fan at right angles to the principal sails, which came
into action whenever the wind was oblique to the axis of the sails,
automatically veering the sails or placing them normal to
wind. For safety, the sails must be reefed in high winds. In
1807, Sir W. Cubitt introduced automatic reefing arrangements.
The sails were made of thin boards held up to the wind by weights.
If the force of the wind exceeded a certain value the boards wer
pressed back and exposed little surface.
American Windmills. These generally have the sails, 18
more hi number, arranged in an annulus or disk. The
consist of narrow boards or slats arranged radially, each bo
having a constant or variable inclination to the wind's direction
An American mill presents a larger surface for a given length <
sail than the older type, and consequently the construction is
lighter. To turn the mill face to the wind a rudder is sometime
used projecting backward in a plane at right angles to the plane
of rotation of the sails. Various arrangements are adopted fo
reefing the sails automatically, (a) In some an action equivalent
to reefing is obtained by turning the sail disk oblique to th
wind. The pressure on a side vane in the plane of rotation,
controlled by a weight, turns the sail disk edgeways to the wind
if the pressure exceeds a safe amount, (b) In centrifugal governor
mills the slats forming the sails are connected in sets of six
eight, each set being fixed to a bar at the middle- of its length
By rotating this bar the slats are brought end on to the wind
the action being analogous to shutting an umbrella. The slat
are held up to the wind by a weight. A centrifugal governo
lifts the weight if the speed becomes excessive and the sails ;
partially or completely furled. Many of the veering and reefi
arrangements are very ingenious and too complicated to
described without detailed drawings. A description of some <
these arrangements will be found in a paper by J. A. Griffith
(Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 119, p. 321) and in a " Report on Trials <
Wind Pumping Engines at Park Royal in 1903" (Journ-7
Agric., Soc., 64, p. 174).
Warner's Annular Sail Windmill. Messrs Warner of London i
a windmill somewhat similar to American mills. The shutters
vanes consist of a frame covered with canvas, and these are pivo
between two angle-iron rings so as to form an annular sail,
vanes are connected with spiral springs, which keep them up to t
best angle of weather for light winds. If the strength of the wi
increases, the vanes give to the wind, forcing back the springs, an
thus the area on which the wind acts diminishes. In addition
there are a striking lever and tackle for setting the vanes edgeway
to the wind when the mill is stopped or a storm is expected. Tb
WINDMILL
711
wheel is kept face to the wind by a rudder in small mills; in large
mills a subsidiary fan and gear are used. Fig. 2 shows a large mill
of this kind, erected in a similar manner to a tower mill. The tower
is a framework of iron, and carries a revolving cap, on which the
wind shaft is fixed. Behind is the subsidiary Tan with its gearing
acting on a toothed
wheeT fixed to the cap.
It is important that
a wind-mill should con-
trol itself so that it
works efficiently in
moderately strong
winds and at the same
time runs in very light
winds, which are much
more prevalent. It
should also, by reefing
or otherwise, secure
safety in storms.
Table I. gives the
mean velocity of the
wind in miles per hour
for an inland station,
Kew, and a very ex-
posed station, Scilly,
for each month during
the period 1890-1899.
The pressure of the
wind on a plane normal
to its direction, com-
posed partly of an
excess front pressure
and negative back
pressure, is given by
the relation
p = 0-003 v 1 ,
where p is in pounds
FIG. 2 i
Sail winamin. wind ; n mile - s ^ hour
It varies a little with the form and size of the surface, but for
the present purpose this variation may be disregarded. (See experi-
ments by Dr Stanton at the National Physical Laboratory, Proc.
Inst. Civ. Eng. 156, p. 78.) For velocities of j 10 and 20 m. per
hour the pressures on a plane normal to the wind would be about
0-075, 0-3 and 1-2 ft per sq. ft. respectively, and these may be
taken to be ordinary working velocities for windmills. In storms
the pressures are much greater, and must be reckoned with in
considering the stability of the mill. A favourable wind velocity
for windmills is ism. per hour.
TABLE I.
Kew
Scilly .
Jan.
Feb.
March.
April.
May.
June.
8-0
2O-6
8-5
19-5
8-5
18-4
7'5
16-1
7-5
14-1
7-0
12-9
Kew
Scilly .
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
7-0
12-4
7-0
13-9
6-0
14-6
6-5
17-2
7-0
19-3
8-0
22 -O
Pressure on Surfaces oblique to the Wind. Let fig. 3 represent a
plane at rest on which a wind current impinges in the direction YY,
making an angle with the normal Oa to the plane. Then the
pressure n normal to the plane is given very approximately by
Duchemin's rule
-5-slb per sq. ft.
where * is the pressure in pounds per square foot on a plane struck
normally by the same wind.
In fig. 3 let AB be part of a windmill sail or vane at rest, XX
being the plane of rotation and YY the direction of the wind. The
angle is termed the
weather of the sail. This
is generally a constant
angle for the sail, but in
some cases varies from a
small angle at the outer
end to a larger angle near y
the axis of rotation. In " ""]
mills of the European type,
9=12 to 18, and the
speed of the tips of the
sails is 2} to 3 times the
velocity of the wind. In
mills of the American
type, 8 = 28 to 40", and
the speed of the tips of the
vanes is J to I time that of the wind. Then if Oa =n be the normal
pressure on the sail or vane per square foot, ba = / is the effective
component of pressure in the direction of rotation and
t=n sin 8 = p
2sinOcosO
l+cos'fl '
When the sail is rotating in a plane at right angles to the wind
direction the conditions are more complicated. In fig. 4 let XX be
the plane of rotation of the vane and YY the direction of the wind.
Let Oa be the normal to the vane, being the weather of the vane.
Let Ov=v be the velocity of the wind, Ou = tt the velocity of the
vane. Completing the parallelogram, Ov,=v r is the velocity and
direction of the wind relatively to the vane.
v r = V (t"*+tt s ) = sec <t>,
tan 4> = u/y,
and the angle between the relative direction of wind and normal to
the vane is 0+<t>. It is clear that 0+<j> cannot be greater than 90,
or the vane would press on the wind instead of the wind on the vane.
Substituting these values in the equations already given, the normal
pressure on the oblique moving vane is
n = .0031* sec*
The component of this pressure in the direction of motion of th
vane is
and the work done in driving the vane is
tu = tv tan <(>
-003 p' sec* * tan
2 sin
cos'(e+<t>)
foot ft per sq. ft. of "vane per sec., where is taken in miles per hour.
For such angles and
velocities as are
usual in windmills
this would give for a
square foot of vane,
near the tip about
0-003 "* ft- H> perT OV
sec. But parts of "
the vane or sail
nearer the axis of ff -**
rotation are less
effective, and there
are mechanical fric-
tion and other " a
causes of ineffici- jtf
ency. An old rule p._
based on experi-
ments by Coulomb on mills of the European type gave for the
average effective work in foot ft per sec. per sq. ft. of sail
W=o-oon
TABLE II. In 150 Working Hours.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Revolutions of wheel ....
208,000
308,000
264,000
322,000
222,000
202,000
Double strokes of pump
40,000
122,000
264,000
160,000
78,000
202,000
Gallons lifted
78,000
40,000
46,000
40,000
36,000
48,000
Average effective horse-power
o-53
0-27
0-31
0-27
0-24
0-32
I. Goold Shapley and Muir, Ontario; wheel 16 ft. diameter, 18 vanes, 131 sq. ft. area (first prize). II. Thomas & Son
(second prize). III. J. W. Titt. IV. R. Warner. V. J. W. Titt. VI. H. Sykes.
712
for
Some data given by Wolff on mills of the American type gave
the same quantity
W = 0-OOO45 3 .
From some of the data of experiments by Griffiths on mills of the
American type used in pumping, the effective work in pumping
when the mill was working in the best conditions amounted to from
o-ooo5 s to 0-0003V 3 ft. Ib per sec. per sq. ft.
In 1903 trials of wind-pumping engines were carried out at Park
Royal by the Royal Agricultural Society (Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc.
Ixiv. 174). The mills were run for two months altogether, pumping
against a head of 200 ft. The final results on six of the best mills are
given in Table II.
A valuable paper by J. A. Griffiths (Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. cxix.
321) contains details of a number of windmills of American type
used for pumping and the results of a series of trials. Table III.
contains an abstract of the results of his observations on six types of
windmills used for pumping:
WINDOW
eastern doorway of the Erechtheum, which formed part of the
original building of 430 B.C., have lately been found; they were
rectangular windows with moulded and enriched architrave, resting
on a sill and crowned with the cymatium moulding. Of later date,
at Ephesus, remains of similar windows have been discovered.
Of Roman windows many examples have been found, those of the
Tabularium being the oldest known. A coin of Tiberius representing
the temple of Concord shows features in the side wings which might
be windows, but as statues are shown in them they are possibly
only niches. Over the door of the Pantheon is an open bronze
grating, which is thought to be the prototype of the windows which
lighted the large halls of the Thermae, as it was absolutely necessary
that these should be closed so as. to retain the heat, the openings in
the gratings being filled with glass. In some cases window openings
were closed with thin slabs of marble, of which there are examples
still existing in the churches of S. Martino and the Quattro Santi
Incoronati at Rome. Similar slabs exist in the upper storey of the
amphitheatre at Pola; it still remains, however, an open questio
TABLE III.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Diameter of wheel, feet
22-3
"5
16-0
14-2
IO-2
9-8
Sail area, square feet
392
104
201
J57
81
80
18 47'
4-1
-?6
30*
28"
<io
inner ends
^/
38 20'
t3
43
IV
O"
30
28
O"
14
Pitch of vanes, outer ends, feet . . .
23-8
33-7
36-5
25-7
17-0
22-4
,, inner ends, feet
20-6
I3-I
13-7
8-2
6-4
7-2
Height of lift, feet
25 ioo
29-2 61-2
39-o
66-3
38-7
30-7
Velocity of wind at maximum efficiency, miles
per hour _ . . _ .
4'3 7'0
5-8 6-5
6-0
7-0
8-5
6-0
Ratio of velocity of tips of vanes to velocity of wind
93 77
92 -82
65
91
87
73
Revolutions of mill, per minute
5-0 6-8
J3-0 13-3
7-5
12-6
20-5
12-5
Actual horse-power . .
0-018 0-098
o-oii 0-025
0-024
0-065
0-028
O-OI2
In 100 average hours in a calm locality
Quantity of water lifted, gallons per hour
495 306
153 135
259
267
"5
H5
In 100 average hours in a windy locality
Quantity of water lifted, gallons per hour
816 629
287 271
525
540
237
270
I. Toowoomba; conical sail wheel with reefing vane. II. Stover; solid sail wheel with rudder; hand control.
III. Perkins; solid wheel, automatic rudder. IV. and V. Althouse; folding sail wheel, rudderless. VI. Carlyle; special type,
automatic rudder.
Table IV. gives the horse-power which may be expected, according
to Wolff, for an average of 8 hours per day for wheels of the American
type.
Diameter of
Wheel in Feet.
Velocity of
Wind in Miles
per Hour.
Horse- power of
Mill.
Revolutions of
Wheel per Minute.
8*
16
0-04
70-75
10
16
0-12
60-65
12
16
0-21
55-60
H
16
0-28
5-55
16
16
0-41
45-50
18
16
0-61
40-45
. 20
16
0-78
35-40
25
16
1-34
30-35
Further information will be found in Rankine, The Steam Engine
and other Prime Movers; Weisbach, The Mechanics of Engineering;
and Wolff, The Windmill as a Prime Mover. (W. C. U.)
WINDOW (properly " wind eye" ), the term applied in archi-
tecture (Ital. fenestra, Fr. fenSlre, Span, ventana, Ger. Fensler)
to an aperture or opening in a wall for the admission of light and
air to the interior of a hall or room.
The earliest windows are those which constituted the clerestory
windows of the Great Hall of Columns at Karnak; they were filled
with vertical slabs of masonry pierced with narrow slits. Other
Egyptian temples were lighted in the same way. In one at Der el
Medinet at Thebes the window was divided by miniature columns
with lotus capitals. Some of the small ivory carvings found at
Nimroud by Layard, now in the British Museum, are evidently of
Egyptian workmanship, as they have lotus columns forming a
balustrade in the lower part of the window; and such features are
shown in the Assyrian bas-reliefs as windows in the towers. Dr
Arthur Evans's discoveries at Cnossus have revealed, in the eastern
portion of the palace, rectangular openings which were certainly
windows, with raised sills and stone benches inside, and the repre-
sentations of the ordinary houses at Cnossus on a series of plaques
show that they were in two or three storeys with openings in the
upper storeys filled with windows framed in timber with transoms
and mullions. It was at one time thought that there were no
windows in Greek temples, and those of the west front of the Erech-
theum are known now to be later reconstructions of the Roman
period, but the remains of two windows placed on either side cf the
as to the lighting of some of the temples in Rome, in which were
placed all the magnificent statues from Greece, so as to enable them
to be seen properly. The Pantheon was lighted by a circular
opening in the dome 30 ft. in diameter; the rain therefore fell in at
times, and consequently the pavement had a convex contour, there
being also holes under the hypaethral opening in connexion with
drains beneath the pavement. There was a window at the south end
of the tepidarium of the Forum baths at Pompeii, said to have been
filled with a bronze frame with glass in it, half an inch thick. Although
no window frames have been found in Pompeii.theopenings in the walls
show that some of the rooms were lighted by windows ; one of them
in the house of Diomede takes the form of a bow window with three
lights in it.
In the later styles the windows assume much greater importance,
and in Gothic cathedrals almost govern the whole design. Already,
however, in the earliest Byzantine church, Sta Sophia at Con-
stantinople, the windows constituted one of the chief features of the
church; the forty windows round the base of the cupola giving an
exceptional lightness to the structure; besides, there are windows in
the larger and smaller apses and in the north and south walls. The
windows in the latter, which are of great size, are subdivided by
marble mullions with pierced lattices between of transparent marbles.
In the later Byzantine churches the windows were of smaller
dimensions, but always filled with marble screens, sometimes
pierced, and the grouping of two or three under a single arch is the
prevailing design.
In the Romanesque styles the windows are universally round-
headed, with infinite variety of design in the mouldings and their
enrichment, greater importance being sometimes given by having
two or more rings of arches, the outer ones carried by small columns;
this is varied in Norman work by dividing them with a shaft into
two or more lights placed in shallow recesses under an arched head.
Circular windows occur occasionally, as in the eastern transept of
Canterbury, at Iffley church, Oxford, Barfreston and Patricksbourne
in Kent. In all these early windows, which are usually small,
greater light is obtained by splaying the jambs inside with a scoinson
arch over them. The coupling together of two or more windows
under a single arch, and the piercing of the tympanum above, led
to the development of plate and rib tracery (see TRACERY); also
to that of the circular or rose windows, which throughout the Roman-
esque and Gothic periods constituted very important features in the
church, being placed high up in the west front over the porch or in
the transepts; sometimes, and more particularly in French churches,
they occupied the whole of the upper portion of the windows,
having vertical lights under them, but the junction was never quite
satisfactory.
WINDOW CORNICE WINDSOR
Although the employment of tracery continued long after the
classic revival, the examples generally are poor in design, and even in
those that are more elaborate (as those of the period of Henry II
in the church at Le Grand Andely) the introduction of classic details
in the ordinary and rose windows was of too capricious a character
to make them worthy of much attention. The early Renaissance
architects in France in some cases, and notably in the apsidal chapels
of St Pierre at Caen (1520), seemed to feel that the stained glass was
too much cut up by the tracery and mullions, and omitted them
altogether, trusting to the iron stanchions and cross-bars to carry
their glass, so that a return was made to the simple semicircular-
headed window of Roman times, retaining only the mouldings of the
late Flamboyant period for the jambs and arch-moulds. Windows
of this description, however, would be out of place in domestic
architecture, so that the mullion window was there retained with
two or three transoms, all moulded and with square heads; in the
Tudor period cusping was introduced in the upper lights and occasion-
ally in those below, and this custom lingered for a long time in the
collegiate buildings of Oxford and Cambridge and in various houses
throughout England. In France, square-headed windows were
almost always employed, owing to the earlier introduction there of
the Renaissance style, when the decoration of the mullions, generally
consisting of classic pilasters, required some kind of architrave,
frieze and cornice, to render the order complete; eventually the
mullion and transom disappear, and in the earlier work of the Louvre
the windows are simple rectangular openings, fitted with wooden
framework, and, like those in Rome, Milan and Genoa, depend for
their architectural effect on the moulded classic jambs, and the lintel,
frieze and small cornice over' and in cases where more importance
was required, with small semicircular columns or pilasters carryinr
the usual entablature, with small pediments sometimes angular an<_
sometimes semicircular, repeating in fact an ancient Roman design,
of which almost the only examples known are the blank windows
and niches which decorated some of the enclosure walls of the Roman
thermae. In Florence and Siena the early windows of the Renais-
sance often had semicircular heads and were coupled together, there
being two lights to the window divided by shafts, thus continuing
the tradition of those of the earlier Tuscan palaces; the same
treatment was followed in Venice, Verona and other towns in the
north-east, where the Gothic influence of the palaces in Venice
created a transition; thus the mouldings of the windows of the
Vendramini and Corner Spinelli palaces follow closely those of the
Ducal Palace, but the arches are semicircular instead of being
either pointed or ogee in form. Another type peculiar to Venice is a
lofty window with semicircular head enclosed in a rectangular panel
and crowned with a small entablature and pediment.
The only new combination of the I6th century in Italy, which was
largely adopted in England by Inigo Jones and his followers in the
1 7th and i8th centuries, is the so-called Venetian or Palladian
window, the finest example of which is that found in the Sala della
Ragione or the basilica at Vicenza; it is true that it was here em-
ployed by Palladio to light an open gallery, but the composition was
so generally approved that it led to its constant adoption for a
window of more importance than the ordinary simple rectangular
form. It consists of a central light with semicircular arch over,
carried on an impost consisting of a small entablature, under which,
and enclosing two other lights, one on each side, are pilasters. In
the library at Venice, Sansovino varied the design by substituting
columns for the two inner pilasters. The Palladian window was
introduced by Inigo Jones in the centre of the garden front at
Wilton, by Lord Burlington in the centres of the wings of the Royal
Academy, and good examples exist in Holkham House, Norfolk, by
Kent, and in Worcester College, Oxford. There do not seem to be
any examples in either Germany, France or Spain. Circular and
oval windows, lighting a mezzanine or the upper part of a hall, are
found in Italy, France and England, sometimes over ordinary
rectangular windows when the main front is decorated with semi-
detached columns as in Hampton Court Palace. (R. P. S.)
WINDOW CORNICE, an ornamental framework of wood or
composition to which window curtains are attached by rods with
rings or hooks. Cornices are often gilded and of elaborate
design, but they are less fashionable in the 2oth century than
before it had been discovered that elaborate draperies harbour
dust and microbes. Like other pieces of furniture, they have
reflected taste as it passed, and many of the carefully constructed
examples of the latter part of the i8th century are still in use
in the rooms for which they were made. Chippendale provided
a famous series still in situ for the gallery at Harewood House,
the valances of which are, like the cornices themselves, of carved
and painted wood.
WINDOW SEAT, a miniature sofa without a back, intended to
ill the recess of a window. In the latter part of the i8th century,
when tall narrow sash windows were almost universal, the window
seat was in high favour, and was no doubt in keeping with the
formalism of Georgian interiors. It differed much in decorative
detail, but little in form. It stood as high from the floor as a
chair; the two ends were identical, with a roll-over curve, more or
less pronounced. The seats and ends were usually upholstered
in rich fabrics which in many cases have remained intact. The
legs followed the fashion in chairs and were square and tapered,
or, somewhat later, round and reeded. Hepplewhite and the
brothers Adam designed many graceful window seats, but they
were produced by all the cabinet-makers of the period.
WINDOW TAX, a tax first levied in England in the year 1697
for the purpose of defraying the expenses and making up the
deficiency arising from clipped and defaced coin in the recoinage
of silver during the reign of William III. It was an assessed tax
on the rental value of the house, levied according to the number
of windows and openings on houses having more than six
windows and worth more than 5 per annum. Owing to the
method of assessment the tax fell with peculiar hardship on the
middle classes, and to this day traces of the endeavours to lighten
its burden may be seen in numerous bricked-up windows.
The revenue derived from the tax in the first year of its levy
amounted to 1,200,000. The tax was increased no fewer than six
times between 1747 and 1808, but was reduced in 1823. There was
a strong agitation in favour of the abolition of the tax during the
winter of 1850-1851, and it was accordingly repealed on the 24th of
July 1851, and a tax on inhabited houses substituted. The tax
contributed 1,856,000 to the imperial revenue the year before its
repeal. There were in England in that year about 6000 houses
having fifty windows and upwards; about 275,000 having ten
windows and upwards, and about 725,000 having seven windows or
less.
In France there is still a tax on doors and windows, and this forms
an appreciable amount of the revenue.
WINDPIPE, the trachea (Gr. rpa.\tia, sc. apnjpta, literally,
rough artery), the air tube which leads from the larynx to the
bronchi and lungs (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM).
WINDSOR, a city and port of entry of Essex county, Ontario,
Canada, on the left bank of the Detroit river, opposite the city
of Detroit. Pop. (1901) 12,153. It is on the Grand Trunk,
Canadian Pacific, Pere Marquette and Michigan Central railways,
which connect at this point with the railways of the United
States by means of large and powerful car-ferries. It is the centre
of an important agricultural and fruit-growing district, in which
tobacco is also produced. Salt works, flour mills, canning
factories, and the manufacture of type-setting machines are
the principal industries. During the season of navigation it is
the centre of a large coasting trade on the Great Lakes.
WINDSOR, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., on the Connecticut and Farmington rivers, adjoining
the city of Hartford on the N. Pop. (1800) 2954; (1900) 3614,
596 being foreign-born; (1910) 4178. Area about 27 sq. m. Itis
served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and
by electric lines to Hartford and to Springfield, Massachusetts.
Among the buildings are the Congregational Church, built in
1794 (the church itself was organized in 1630 in England), the
Protestant Episcopal Church (1864) and the Roger Ludlow
School. In Windsor are the Campbell School (for girls) and a
public library (1888). The Loomis Institute (incorporated 1874
and 1005) for the gratuitous education of persons between 12
and 20 years of age has been heavily endowed by gifts of the
Loomis family. Tobacco and market vegetables are raised in
Windsor, and among its manufactures are paper, canned goods,
init and woollen goods, cigars and electrical supplies. 1
In 1633 Captain William Holmes, of the Plymouth Colony,
established near the mouth of the Farmington river a trading
post, the first settlement by Englishmen in Connecticut; a
nore important and a permanent settlement (until 1637 called
Mew Dorchester) was made in 1635 by immigrants from Dor-
chester, Massachusetts, led by the Rev. John Wareham, Roger
Ludlow and others. In 1639 representatives from Windsor,
with those from Wethersfield and Hartford, organized the Con-
necticut Colony. Among the original land-holders were Matthew
Grant and Thomas Dewey, ancestors respectively of General
1 In the township of Windsor Locks (pop. 1910,3715), immediately
north, cotton yarn and thread, silk, paper, steel and machinery are
manufactured.
WINDSOR
Windsor
Castle.
U. S. Grant and Admiral George Dewey; and Captain John
Mason (1600-1672), the friend of Miles Standish, was one of its
early citizens. It was the birthplace of Roger Wolcott, of the
older Oliver Wolcott (1726-1797), of Oliver Ellsworth (whose
home is now a historical museum), and of Edward Rowland Sill.
Windsor has been called " The Mother of Towns " ; it originally
included the territory now constituting the present township,
and the townships of East Windsor (1768), Elh'ngton (1786),
South Windsor (1845), Simsbury (1670), Granby (1786), East
Granby (1858), Bloomfield (1835) and Windsor Locks (1854).
See H. R. Stiles, Ancient Windsor (2 vols., New York, 1891;
revised edition).
WINDSOR (properly NEW WINDSOR), a municipal borough
of Berkshire, England, and a parliamentary borough extending
into Buckinghamshire. Pop. (1901) 14,130. The town, which
is famous for its royal castle, lies on the west (right) bank of the
Thames, 2if m. W. of London by the Great Western railway,
which serves it with a branch line from Slough. It is also the
terminus of a branch of the London & South- Western railway.
Here the Thames, from an easterly course, sweeps first nearly
northward and then south-eastward.
The castle lies at the north-eastern edge of the town, on a
slight but commanding eminence, while the massive round
tower in the centre, on its artificial mound, is conspicu-
ous from far over the flat land to the east, north and
west. The site of the castle is an irregular parallelo-
gram measuring about 630 yds. by 180. On the west the walls
enclosing the " lower ward," with the Clewer, Garter, Salisbury
and Henry III. towers, overlook Thames Street and High Street,
from which the " hundred steps " give access to the ward on the
north, and the Henry VIII. gateway, opening from Castle Hill,
on the south. This ward contains St George's Chapel in the
centre, with the Albert Memorial Chapel on the east and the
Horseshoe Cloisters on the west. To the north are the deanery
and the canon's residences, for the foundation attached to the
royal chapel has the privileges of a " royal peculiar," the dean
being exempt from episcopal jurisdiction. To the south are the
guard-room and the houses of the military knights, or pensioners.
The round tower occupies the "middle ward" ; on its flag-
turret the Union Jack or the Royal Standard is hoisted accord-
ing as the sovereign is absent or present. The buildings in
the " upper ward," east of this, form three sides of a square;
the state apartments on the north, the private apartments on the
east and the visitors' apartments on the south. Along the
north side of the castle extends the north terrace, commanding,
from its position above a steep slope, splendid views across the
river to Eton on the Buckinghamshire side, and far over the
valley. The east terrace, continuing the north, overlooks the
gardens in front of the private apartments, and the south terrace
continues farther, as far as the George IV. gateway. The Home
Park lies adjacent to the castle on the south, east and north.
The Great Park extends south of Windsor, where the land,
rising gently, is magnificently timbered with the remnant of
the old royal forest. The village of Old Windsor (in distinction
from which the name of New Windsor is given to the borough)
lies by the river, south of the Home Park. To the west of
Windsor itself the village of Clewer has become a suburb of the
town.
As early as the time of the Heptarchy a stronghold of some
importance existed at Windsor, the great mound, which is
moated, circular and about 1 2 5 ft. in diameter, being a remnant of
this period. William the Conqueror was attracted by the forest
as a hunting preserve, and obtained the land by exchange from
Westminster Abbey, to which Edward the Confessor had given
it. Thereafter the castle became what it remains, the chief
residence of the English sovereigns. The Conqueror replaced the
primitive wooden enclosure by a stone circuit-wall, and the first
complete round tower was built by Henry III. about 1272, but
Edward III. wholly reconstructed it on a more massive scale,
about 1344, to form a meeting-place for his newly established
order of Knights of the Garter. He selected this spot because,
according to a legend quoted by the chronicler Froissart, it
was on the summit of the mound that King Arthur used to sit
surrounded by his Knights of the Round Table. The bulk of
the existing round tower is of Edward's time, but its walls were
heightened and the tall flag-turret added by the court architect,
Sir Jeffrey Wyatville, in the reign of George IV. In addition to
the Round Tower, Henry III. had constructed long lines of
circuit -walls, crowned at intervals with smaller towers. He also
built a great hall (the present chapter library) and other apart-
ments, together with a chapel, which was afterwards pulled
down to make room for the chapel of St George. The beautiful
little dean's cloister preserves a portion of Henry's work in the
south wall, a contemporary portrait of the king appearing in dis-
temper on one of the arches. Another chapel was built by him
and dedicated to his favourite saint, Edward the Confessor.
This graceful building, with an eastern apse, is now called the
Albert Memorial Chapel; some of Henry III.'s work still exists
in the lower part of its walls, but the upper part was rebuilt
in 1501-1503 by Henry VII., who intended it as a burial-place
for himself and his line, before he began the chapel which bears
his name and contains his tomb at Westminster Abbey. Some
years later the unfinished chapel was given by Henry VIII. to
Cardinal Wolsey, and for long after it was known as " Wolsey's
tomb-house." Wolsey engaged a Florentine sculptor named
Benedetto, probably a son or nephew of Benedetto da Maiano
(d. 1497), also a Florentine artist, to make him a costly tomb of
marble and gilt bronze, with a recumbent effigy at the top,
no doubt similar in design to Torrigiano's tomb of Henry VII.
at Westminster. The rich bronze work of Wolsey's tomb was
torn off and melted by order of the Commonwealth in 1642,
and the metal was sold for the then large sum of 600. In 1805
the black marble sarcophagus, stripped of its bronze ornaments,
was moved from Windsor and used as a monument over Nelson's
grave in the crypt of St Paul's. Though Wolsey's tomb-house
was roofed in and used for mass by James II., the stone vaulting
was not completed until the whole chapel was fitted by Sir
Gilbert Scott as amemorial to Albert, Prince Consort. Its internal
walls were then lined with rich marbles, and decorated with
reliefs by Baron Triqueti. The cenotaph of the Prince Consort
stands before the altar, with the tombsof Prince Leopold, duke of
Albany, and the duke of Clarence; the last erected by King
Edward VII., who was himself buried here in May 1910. In a
vault beneath the chapel George III. and members of his family
are buried.
The chapel of St George is one of the finest examples of
Perpendicular architecture in England, comparable with two
other royal chapels, that of King's College at Cambridge and that
of Henry VII. at Westminster, which are a little later in date.
The building was begun by Edward IV., who in 1473 pulled down
almost the whole of the earlier chapel, which had been completed
and filled with stained glass by Edward III. in 1363. The nave
of St George's was vaulted about the year 1490, but the choir
groining was not finished till 1507; the hanging pendants from
the fan vaulting of the choir mark a later development of style,
which contrasts strongly with the simpler lines of the earlier nave
vault. In 1516 the lantern and the rood-screen were completed,
but the stalls and other fittings were not finished till after 1519.
The chapel ranks next to Westminster Abbey as a royal mau-
soleum, though no king was buried there before Edward IV.,
who left directions in his will that a splendid tomb was to be
erected with an effigy of himself in silver. Nothing remains of this
except part of the wrought iron grille which surrounded the tomb,
one of the most elaborate and skilfully wrought pieces of iron-
work in the world, said to be the work of Quintin Matsys. The
next sovereign buried here was Henry VIII., who directed that his
body should be laid beside that of Jane Seymour, in a magnificent
bronze and marble tomb. The tomb was never completed, and
what existed of its metal-work was probably melted down by
the Commonwealth. No trace of it remains. Charles I. was
buried here without service in 1649. Above the dark oak st
hang the historic insignia of the Knights of the Garter, thei
swords, helmets and banners. On the stalls themselves ap]
a remarkable series of enamelled brass plates commemorating
knights of the order. Many tombs and memorials are seen in
chantry chapels.
'
WINDTHORST
7*5
The deanery, adjoining the dean's cloister, is dated 1500, but
the Winchester tower to the north-east of it is the work of the
famous prelate and architect William of Wykeham, who was
employed by Edward III. on the greater part of this extension
and alteration of Henry III.'s work. The Horseshoe cloisters
were restored in Tudor style by Sir Gilbert Scott. The Norman
gate on the north side of the round tower was rebuilt by Wyke-
ham.
The site of the upper ward was built upon by Henry II., and,
to a greater extent, by Edward III., but only in the foundations
and lowest storey are remains of so early a period to be found.
The buildings were wanting in homogeneity until their recon-
struction was undertaken by Sir Jeffrey Wyatville under the
direction of George IV., for Charles II. was unable to carry out
a similar intention, perhaps fortunately, as Sir Christopher Wren
proposed drastic alterations. Charles, however, completed the
so-called Star Building, named from the representation of
the star of the Order of the Garter on the north front. Here the
state apartments are situated. They include the throne room,
St George's Hall, where meetings of the Order of the Garter are
held, the audience and presence chambers, and the grand re-
ception room, adorned with Gobelins tapestries, and the guard-
room with armour. All these chambers contain also splendid
pictures and other objects of art; but more notable in this
connexion are the picture gallery, the Rubens room or king's
drawing-room, and the magnificent Vail Dyck room. The
ceilings of several of the chambers were decorated by Antonio
Verrio, under the direction of Charles II. In the royal library,
which is included among the private apartments, is a fine collec-
tion of drawings by the old masters, including three volumes
from the hand of Leonardo da Vinci. Here is also a magnificent
series of eighty-seven portraits by Holbein, highly finished in
sepia and chalk, representing the chief personages of the court of
Henry VIII. There are, moreover, examples by Michelangelo
and Raphael, though the series attributed to these masters are
not accepted as genuine in their entirety.
South of the castle, beside the Home Park, is the Royal Mews.
Within the bounds of the park is Frogmore (q.v.), with the Royal
Mausoleum and that of the duchess of Kent, and the
royal gardens. An oak-tree marks the supposed site of
Herne's Oak, said to be haunted by the ghost of " Herne the
hunter," a forest-ranger who hanged himself here, having fallen
under the displeasure of Queen Elizabeth (Shakespeare, Merry
Wives of Windsor, Act iv. sc. 4). A splendid avenue, the Long
Walk, laid out in the time of Charles II. and William III., leads
from George IV.'s gate on the south side of the castle straight
into the heart of the Great Park, a distance of 3 m. Another
fine and still longer straight avenue is Queen Anne's Ride,
planted in 1707. Among various buildings within the park is
Cumberland Lodge, built by Charles II. and taking name from
the duke of Cumberland, who commanded the victorious royal
troops at the battle of Culloden in 1746, and resided here as
chief ranger. At the southern boundary of the park is a beautiful
artificial lake called Virginia Water, formed by the duke.
Windsor Forest formerly extended far over the south of Berk-
shire, and into the adjacent county of Surrey, and even in 1790
still covered nearly 60,000 acres, It was disafforested by an
act of 1813.
A few old houses remain in the town of Windsor, but the
greater part is modernized. The church of St John the Baptist
Windsor was re ' )u ^ t "* ^22, but contains some fine examples
town. of Grinling Gibbons's wood-carving. There are statues
of Queen Victoria, unveiled in the first Jubilee year,
1887, and of Prince Albert (1890). The town hall was built in
1686 by Sir Christopher Wren, who represented the borough in
parliament. The town was formerly celebrated for the number
of its inns, of which there were seventy in 1650. The most
famous were the "Garter" and the " White Hart," the first of
which was the favourite of Shakespeare's Sir John Falstaff , and
is frequently mentioned in The Merry Wives of Windsor. The
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 2717 acres.
History. Windsor (Wyndeshour, Wyndsore, Windlesore) was
probably the site of a Roman settlement, two Roman tombs
having been discovered at Tyle-Place Farm in 1865, while a
Roman camp and various antiquities were unearthed at St
Leonard's Hill in 1705. The early history of Windsor centres
round the now unimportant village of Old Windsor, which was a
royal residence under Edward the Confessor; and Robert of
Gloucester relates that it was at a fair feast which the king held
there in 1053 that Earl Godwin met with his tragic end. By
the Confessor it was granted to Westminster Abbey, but was
recovered in exchange for two other manors by William I., who
erected the castle about 2 m. north-west of the village and
within the manor of Clewer, round which the later important
town of New Windsor was to grow up. The earliest existing
charter of New Windsor is that from Edward I. in 1 277, which was
confirmed by Edward II. in 1315-1316 and by Edward III.
in 1328. This constituted it a free borough and granted to it a
gild merchant and other privileges. The same king later leased
it as fee farm to the burgesses on condition that they "did justice
to merchants, denizen and alien and to the poor." The town
does not seem to have been prosperous, and the fee-farm rent
was reduced by several succceeding sovereigns. In 1439 extensive
privileges were accorded to the burgesses by Henry VI., and
Edward IV. in 1467 granted a charter of incorporation under
the title of the " mayor, bailiffs and burgesses." Further
confirmations of existing privileges were granted by Edward IV.
in 1477, by Henry VII. in 1499, by Henry VIII. in 1515 and by
Edward VI. in 1549. A fresh charter was granted by James I.
in 1603, and the renewal of this by Charles II. in 1664 incorporat-
ing the town under the title of the " mayor, bailiffs and burgesses
of the borough of New Windsor," remained the governing
charter until 1835. By the charter of Edward I. the county gaol
was fixed at Windsor, but on the petition of the men of Berkshire
it was removed thence to a more central town in the reign of
Edward II. New Windsor sent two members to parliament
from 1302 to 1335 and again from 1446 to 1865, omitting the
parliaments of 1654 and 1656; by the act of 1867 it lost one
member. The market is of ancient date, and in 1273 the abbess
of Burnham is said to hold markets at Burnham and Beaconsfield
to the prejudice of the market at Windsor. Edward IV. in 1467
granted a fair on the feast of St Edward the Confessor, and the
charter of 1603 mentions a Saturday market and three yearly
fairs. No fairs are now held, but the Saturday market is still
maintained. Windsor bridge is mentioned in the reign of
Edward I.; the present structure dates from 1822. The town
has never had an important industry, but has depended almost
entirely upon the castle and court.
The political history of Windsor centres round the castle, at
which the Norman kings held their courts and assembled their
witan. Robert Mowbray was imprisoned in its dungeons in 1095,
and at the Christmas court celebrated at Windsor in 1127
David of Scotland swore allegiance to the empress Maud. In
1175 it was the scene of the ratification of the treaty of Windsor.
The castle was bestowed by Richard I. on Hugh, bishop of
Durham, but in the next year was treacherously seized by
Prince John and only surrendered after a siege. In 1217 Ingel-
ram de Achie with a garrison of sixty men gallantly held the
fortress against a French force under the count de Nevers. It
was a centre of activity in the Barons' War, and the meeting-place
of the parliament summoned by Henry in 1261 in rivalry to that
of the barons at St Albans; two years later, however, it sur-
rendered to Simon de Montfort. The appeal of high treason
against Thomas Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, was heard by
Richard II. in Windsor Castle in 1398. During the Civil War
of the 1 7th century the castle was garrisoned for the parliament,
and in 1648 became the prison of Charles, who spent his last
Christmas within its walls.
See J. E. Tjghe, Annals of Windsor (1858); Victoria County
History: Berkshire.
WINDTHORST, LUDWIG (1812-1891), German politician,
was born on the I7th of January 1812 at Kaldenhof, a country
house near Osnabriick. He sprang from a Roman Catholic
716
WINDWARD ISLANDS WINE
family which for some generations had held important posts in
the Hanoverian civil service. He was educated at the Carolinum,
an endowed school at Osnabruck, and studied at the universities
of Gottingen and Heidelberg. In 1836 he settled down as an
advocate in Osnabruck: his abilities soon procured him a con-
siderable practice, and he was appointed president of the Catholic
Consistorium. In 1848 he received an appointment at the
supreme court of appeal for the kingdom of Hanover, which
sat at Celle. In the next year the revolution opened for him,
as for so many of his contemporaries, the way to public life, and
he was elected as representative for his native district in the
second chamber of the reformed Hanoverian parliament. He
belonged to what was called the Great German party, and
opposed the project of reconstituting Germany under the leader-
ship of Prussia; he defended the government against the liberal
and democratic opposition; at this time he began the struggle
against the secularization of schools, which continued throughout
his life. In 1851 he was elected president of the chamber, and
in the same year minister of justice, being the first Catholic
who had held so high an office in Hanover. As minister he
carried through an important judicial reform which had been
prepared by his predecessor, but had to retire from office be-
cause he was opposed to the reactionary measures for restoring
the influence and privileges of the nobility. Though he was
always an enemy to liberalism, his natural independence of
character prevented him from acquiescing in the reactionary
measures of the king. In 1862 he again was appointed minister,
but with others of his colleagues he resigned when the king
refused his assent to a measure for extending the franchise.
Windthorst took no part in the critical events of 1866; contrary
to the opinion of many of his friends, after the annexation of
Hanover by Prussia he accepted the fait accompli, took the oath
of allegiance, and was elected a member both of the Prussian
parliament and of the North German diet. At Berlin he found
a wider field for his abilities. He acted as representative of his
exiled king in the negotiations with the Prussian government
concerning his private property and opposed the sequestration,
thus for the first time being placed in a position of hostility to
Bismarck. He was recognized as the leader of the Hanoverians
and of all those who opposed the " revolution from above."
He took a leading part in the formation of the party of the
Centre in 1870-1871, but he did not become a member of it,
fearing that his reputation as a follower of the king of Hanover
would injure the party, until he was formally requested to join
them by the leaders.
After the death of Hermann von Mallinckrodt (1821-1874)
in 1874, Windthorst became leader of the party, and maintained
that position till his death. It was chiefly owing to his skill and
courage as a parliamentary debater and his tact as a leader that
the party held its own and constantly increased in numbers
during the great struggle with the Prussian government. He
was especially exposed to the attacks of Bismarck, who attempted
personally to discredit him and to separate him from the rest
of the party. And he was far the ablest and most dangerous
critic of Bismarck's policy. The change of policy in 1879 led to
a great alteration in his position: he was reconciled to Bismarck,
and even sometimes attended receptions at his house. Never,
however, was his position so difficult as during the negotiations
which led to a repeal of the May laws. In 1887 Bismarck
appealed to the pope to use his authority to order the Centre to
support the military proposals of the government. Windthorst
took the responsibility of keeping the papal instructions secret
from the rest of his party and of disobeying them. In a great
meeting at Cologne in March 1887 he defended and justified his
action, and claimed for the Centre full independence of action in
all purely political questions. In the social reform he supported
Bismarck, and as the undisputed leader of the largest party in
the Reichstag he was able to exercise influence over the
action of the government after Bismarck's retirement. His
relations with the emperor William II. became very cordial,
and in 1891 he achieved a great parliamentary triumph by
defeating the School bill and compelling Gossler to resign. A
few days afterwards he died, on the I4th of March 1891 , at Berlin.
He was buried in the Marienkirche in Hanover, which had been
erected from the money subscribed as a testimonial to himself.
His funeral was a most remarkable display of public esteem,
in which nearly all the ruling princes of Germany joined, and
was a striking sign of the position to which, after twenty years
of incessant struggle, he had raised his party. Windthorst was
undoubtedly one of the greatest of German parliamentary
leaders: no one equalled him in his readiness as a debater,
his defective eyesight compelling him to depend entirely upon
his memory. It was his misfortune that nearly all his life was
spent in opposition, and he had no opportunity of showing his
abilities as an administrator. He enjoyed unbounded popularity
and confidence among the German Catholics, but he was in no
way an ecclesiastic: he was at first opposed to the Vatican
decrees of 1870, but quickly accepted them after they had been
proclaimed. He was a very agreeable companion and a thorough
man of the world, singularly free from arrogance and pomposity;
owing to his small stature, he was often known as "die kleine
Excellenz." He married in 1839. Of his three children, two
died before him; his wife survived him only a few months.
Windthorst's Ausgewahlte Reden were published in three volumes
(Osnabruck, 1901-1902). See also J. N. Knopp, Ludwig Windthorst:
ein Lebensbild (Dresden, 1898); and Hiisgen, Ludwig Windthorst
(Cologne, 1907). (J-W.HE.)
WINDWARD ISLANDS, a group and colony in the West
Indies. They consist of the British island of St Lucia, St Vincent
and Grenada, with a chain of small islands, the Grenadines,
between the two latter islands. They are not a single colony,
but a confederation of three separate colonies with a common
governor-in-chief, who resides at St George's, Grenada. Each
island retains its own institutions, and they have neither legis-
lature, laws, revenue nor tariff in common. There is, however,
a common court of appeal for the group as well as for Barbados,
composed of the chief justices of the respective islands, and there
is also a common audit system, while the islands unite in maintain-
ing certain institutions of general utility. The Windward Islands,
which, as a geographical division, properly include Barbados,
derive their name from the fact that they are the most exposed
of the Lesser Antilles to the N.E. Trade, the prevailing wini
throughout the West Indies.
WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. olvos), a term which when used in it:
modern sense without qualification designates the fermented
product of grape juice. The fermented juices of other fruits
or plants, such as the date, ginger, plum, &c., are also termed
wine, but the material from which the wine is derived is in such
cases also added in qualification. The present article deals
solely with wine derived from the grape (see VINE).
Historical. The art of viticulture or wine-making is a very
ancient one. In the East it dates back almost as far as we have
historical records of any kind. In Egypt and in Greece the
introduction of wine was ascribed to gods; in Greece to Dionysus;
in Egypt to Osiris. The Hebrews ascribed the art of wine-making
to Noah. It is probable that the discovery that an intoxicating
and pleasant beverage could be made from grape juice was purely
accidental, and that it arose from observations made in connexion
with crushed or bruised wild^grapes, much as the manufacture
of beer, or in its earliest form, mead, may be traced back to the
accidental fermentation of wild honey. In ancient times the
cultivation of the vine indicated a relatively settled and stable
form of civilization, inasmuch as the vine requires a considerable
maturation period. It is probable, therefore, that viticulture
was introduced subsequent to the raising of cereal crops. The
Nabataeans were forbidden to cultivate the vine, the object
being to prevent any departure from their traditional nomadii
habits. The earliest examples of specific wines of which we havi
any record are the Chalybon wine, produced near Damascus,
in which the Phoenicians traded in the time of Ezekiel (xxvii.
1 8), and which at a later date was much appreciated by the
Persian kings; and the wines from the Greek islands (Chios,
Lesbos, Cos). With regard to the introduction of the vine into
other parts of Europe, it appears that it was brought to S]
:u
:
WINE-MAKING]
WINE
717
by the Phoenicians, and to Italy and southern Gaul from Greece.
In the earliest Roman times the vine was very little cultivated
in Italy, but gradually Rome and Italy generally became a great
wine country. At a later date the republic sought to stimulate
its home industry by prohibiting the importation of wine, and
by restricting its cultivation in the colonies, thus preserving
the latter as a useful market for Italian wines. According to
Pliny, Spanish, Gallic and Greek wines were all consumed in
Rome during the ist century of the Christian era, but in Gaul the
production of wine appears to have been limited to certain
districts on the Rhone and Gironde. The cultivation of the
vine in more northern parts (i.e. on the Seine and Moselle) was
not commenced until after the death of Probus. Owing no doubt
to the difficulties of transportation wine was, in the middle
ages, made in the south of England, and in parts of Germany,
where it is now no longer produced (cf. Hehn, Culturpfianzen, &c.,
and Mommsen, Romische Geschichte, v. 98 et seq.). We know
very little of the ancient methods of cultivating the vine, but
the Romans no doubt owing to the luxuriant ease with which
the vine grows in Italy appear to have trained it on trees,
trellis work, palisades, &c. The dwarf form of cultivation now
common in northern Europe does not appear to have obtained
to any extent. It seems likely that the quality of the wine
produced in ancient times was scarcely comparable to that of
the modern product, inasmuch as the addition of resin, salts
and spices to wine was a common practice. With regard to the
actual making of the wine, this does not appear to have differed
very much in principle from the methods obtaining at the
present day. Plastering appears to have been known at an early
date, and when the juice of the grapes was too thin for the pro-
duction of a good wine, it was occasionally boiled down with a
view to concentration. The first wine receptacles were made of
skins or hides, treated with oil or resin to make them impervious.
Later, earthenware vessels were employed, but the wooden cask
not to mention the glass bottle was not generally known
until a much later period.
Production. The total wine production of the world, which,
of course, fluctuates considerably from year to year, amounts to
roughly 3000 million gallons. France and Italy are the chief
wine-producing countries, the former generally producing rather
more than the latter. During the phylloxera period Italy in
some years had the greater output (e.g. 1886-1888 and 1800-
1892). The average production of the chief wine-producing
countries will be gathered from the following table:
Wine Production. Average Annual Production in Millions of Gallons
for Quinquennial Periods.
Country.
Period.
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1005.
France .
77
674
521
74
"3
49
988
689
412
123
1 20
64
1126
840
390
105
178
74
Italy
Spam
Portugal
Austria-Hungary .
Germany
The United States produces roughly 50, Bulgaria and Rumania
each 40 and Servia 10 million gallons. The United Kingdom
produces no wine, but the Cape and the Australian Common-
wealth each produce some 5 million gallons.
The variation from year to year in the quantity of wine produced
in individual countries is, of course, far greater than that observed
in the case of beer or spirits. Thus, owing to purely climatic vagaries,
the quantity of wine produced in Germany in 1891 was only 16
million gallons, whereas in 1896 it amounted to in millions. Simi-
larly the French production, which was 587 million gallons in 1895,
amounted to no less than 1482 millions in 1900. In the same way
the Italian production has varied between 583 million gallons (1895)
and 793 millions (1901), and the Spanish between 331 million gallons
in 1896 and 656 millions in 1892.
Consumption. It is only natural that the consumption of wine
should be greatest in the countries where it is produced on the
largest scale, but the discrepancy between the consumption of
different countries is little short of astonishing. Thus, at the
present time, the consumption per head in France is practically
a hundred times that of the United Kingdom and twenty times
that of Germany the latter, it must be remembered, being itself
an important wine-producing area.
The following table will give some idea of the relative con-
sumption of wine in different countries:
Average Consumption of Wine per Head of Population.
Country.
Period.
1891-1895.
1896-1900.
1901-1905.
France
Italy
Gallons.
23-0
2O-6
2I-I
II-O
2-9
1-19
0-30
0-37
1-09
Gallons.
28-8
2O-O
16-4
20-3
3-2
1-38
0-32
0-40
I-I2
Gallons.
30-8
25-'
18-5
'/'
3-9
-45
o-43
0-32
1-30
Spain ....
Portugal ...
Austria-Hungary .
Germany ...
United States .
British Empire
United Kingdom
Australia
Cape 1 ...
1 Has varied between I -9 and 3-7.
The whole of the wine consumed in the United Kingdom is
imported. On the average somewhat more than one-third of the
wine imported is derived from France, and about a quarter from
Spain and Portugal respectively.
Wines imported into the United Kingdom in 1906.
From
Nature of Wines.
Quantity.
Value.
(Gallons).
France .
Claret, burgundy.
champagne, &c.
4.'<>5.302
2,221,423
Portugal
Chiefly port
3.707 ,377 '
".099.727
Spain
Sherry, tarra-
gona, &c.
2,808,751
397.840
Germany 1 1
Netherlands j
Hock, Moselle .
1,268,662
729,002
Italy . . .
t >
243.247
42,513
Total for foreign
countries
. .
12,356,425
4,094,672
Australia
622,836
100,161
Total British
possessions .
777.689
123,891
1 The quantity of port received was exceptionally large. The
average quantity is rather under 3 million gallons and the value
about 850,000.
J A considerable proportion of the German wines come to the
United Kingdom via the Netherlands.
Of the wines imported from France, about one-quarter was
Champagne and Saumur. the remainder consisting almost entirely
of still wines, such as claret and burgundy.
VITICULTURE AND WINE-MAKING
General Considerations. Although the wine is cultivated in
practically every part of the world possessing an appropriate
climate and soil, from California in the West to Persia in the East,
and from Germany in the North to the Cape of Good Hope and
some of the South American republics in the South, yet, as is the
case also with the cereal crops and many fruits and vegetables,
the wines produced in countries possessing temperate climates
are-when the vintage is successful finer than those made in
hot or semi-tropical regions. Although, for instance, the wines
of Italy, Greece, the Cape, &c., possess great body and strength,
they cannot compare as regards elegance of flavour and bouquet
with the wines of France and Germany. On the other hand, of
course, the vagaries of the temperate climate of northern Europe
frequently lead to a partial or complete failure of the vintage,
whereas the wines produced in relatively hot countries, although
they undoubtedly vary in quality from year to year, are rarely,
if ever, total failures. The character of a wine depends mainly
(a) on the nature of the soil; (b) on the general type of the
climate; (c) on the variety of vine cultivated. The quality,
as distinct from general character, depends almost entirely on
7 i8
WINE
[CHEMISTRY OF WINE
the vintage, i.e. on the weather conditions preceding and during
the gathering of the grapes and the subsequent fermentation.
Of all these factors, that of the nature of the soil on which the
vine is grown is perhaps the most important. The same vine, ex-
posed to practically identical conditions of climate, will produce
markedly different wines if planted in different soils. On the
other hand, different varieties of the vine, provided they are
otherwise not unsuitable, may, if planted in the same soil, after
a time produce wines which may not differ seriously in character.
Thus the planting of French and German vines in other countries
(e.g. Australia, the Cape) has not led to the production of directly
comparable wines, although there may at first have been some
general resemblance in character. On the other hand, the re-
planting of some of the French vineyards (after the ravages due
to the phylloxera) with American vines, or, as was more generally
the case, the grafting of the old French stock on the hardy
American roots, resulted, after a time, in many cases, in the
production of wines practically indistinguishable from those
formerly made.
Wine-making. The art of wine-making is, compared with the
manufacture of beer or spirits, both in principle and in practice
a relatively simple operation. When the grapes have attained to
maturity they are collected by hand and then transferred in
baskets or carts to the press house. After the stalks have been
removed either by hand or by a simple apparatus the juice is
expressed either as is still the case in many quarters by
trampling under foot or by means of a simple lever or screw
press or by rollers. In the case of red wines the skins are not re-
moved, inasmuch as it is from the latter that the colour of the
wine is derived. The must, as the expressed juice of the grape is
termed, is now exposed to the process of fermentation, which
consists essentially in the conversion of the sugar of the must
into alcohol and various subsidiary products. The fermenting
operations in wine-making differ radically from those obtaining
in the case of beer or of spirits in that (if we except certain special
cases) no yeast is added from without. Fermentation is induced
spontaneously by the yeast cells which are always present in
large numbers in the grape itself. The result is that as com-
pared with beer or spirits the fermentation at first is relatively
slow, but it rapidly increases in intensity and continues until
practically the whole of the sugar is converted. In the case of the
production of certain sweet wines (such as the sweet Sauternes,
Port and Tokay) the fermentation only proceeds up to a certain
extent. It then either stops naturally, owing to the fact that the
yeast cells will not work rapidly in a liquid containing more than
a certain percentage of alcohol, or it is stopped artificially either
by the addition of spirit or by other means which will be referred
to below. As the character of a wine depends to a considerable
extent on the nature of the yeast (see FERMENTATION), many
attempts have been made of late years to improve the character of
inferior wines by adding to the unfermented must a pure culture of
yeast derived from a superior wine. If pure yeast is added in this
manner in relatively large quantities, it will tend to predominate,
inasmuch as the number of yeast cells derived from the grapes is
at the commencement of fermentation relatively small. In this
way, by making pure cultures derived from some of the finest
French and German wines it has been possible to lend something
of their character to the inferior growths of, for instance, Cali-
fornia and Australia. It is not possible, however, by this method
to entirely reproduce the character of the wine from which the
yeast is derived inasmuch as this depends on other factors as
well, particularly the constitution of the grape juice, conditions
of climate, &c. The other micro-organisms naturally present in
the must which is pitched with the pure culture are not without
their influence on the result. If it were possible to sterilize
the must prior to pitching with pure yeast no doubt better
results might be obtained, but this appears to be out of the
question inasmuch as the heating of the must which sterilization
involves is not a practicable operation. After the main fermenta-
tion is finished, the young wine is transferred to casks or vats.
The general method followed is to fill the casks to the bung-hole
and to keep them full by an occasional addition of wine. The
secondary fermentation proceeds slowly and the carbonic acid
formed is allowed to escape by way of the bung-hole, which in
order to prevent undue access of air is kept lightly covered or i&
fitted with a water seal, which permits gas to pass out of the
cask, but prevents any return flow of air. During this secondary
fermentation the wine gradually throws down a deposit which
forms a coherent crust, known as argol or lees. This consists
chiefly of cream of tartar (bitartrate of potash), tartrate of lime,
yeast cells and of albuminous and colouring matters. At the
end of some four to five months this primary deposition is prac-
tically finished and the wine more or less bright. At this stage it
receives its first racking. Racking consists merely in separating
the bright wine from the deposit. The wine is racked into clean
casks, and this operation is repeated at intervals of some months,
in all three to four times. As a general rule, it is not possible by
racking alone to obtain the wine in an absolutely bright condition.
In order to bring this about, a further operation, namely that of
fining, is necessary. This consists, in most cases, in adding to
the wine proteid matter in a finely divided state. For this
purpose isinglass, gelatin or, in the case of high-class red wines,
white of egg is employed. The proteid matter combines with
a part of the tannin in the wine, forming an insoluble tannate,
and this gradually subsides to the bottom of the cask, dragging
with it the mechanically suspended matters which are the main
cause of the wine's turbidity. In some cases purely mechanical
means such as the use of Spanish clay or nitration are employed
for fining purposes. Some wines, particularly those which lack
acid or tannin, are very difficult to fine. The greatest care is
necessary to ensure the cleanliness and asepticity of the casks in
which wine is stored or into which it is racked. The most common
method of ensuring cask cleanliness is the operation known as
" sulphuring." This consists in burning a portion of a sulphur
"match" (i.e. a flat wick which has been steeped in melted
sulphur, or simply a stick of melted sulphur) in the interior of the
cask. The sulphurous acid evolved destroys such micro-organisms
as may be in the cask, and in addition, as it reduces the supply
of oxygen, renders the wine less prone to acidulous fermentation.
Sweet wines, which are liable to fret, are more highly and
frequently sulphured than dry wines. After the wine has been
sufficiently racked and fined, and when it has reached a certain
stage of maturation varying according to the type of wine
from, as a rule, two to four years the wine is ready for bottling.
Certain wines, however, such as some of the varieties of port,
are not bottled, but are kept in the wood, at any rate for a
considerable number of years. Wines so preserved, however,
develop an entirely different character from those placed in bottle.
CHEMISTRY OF WINE
Maturation of the Grape. The processes which take place in the
grape during its growth and maturation are of considerable interest.
E. Mach has made some interesting observations on this point.
At first i.e. at the beginning of July when the berries have attained
to an appreciable size the specific gravity of the juice is very low;
it contains very little sugar, but a good deal of acid, chiefly free
tartaric acid and malic acid. The juice at this period contains an
appreciable amount of tannin. As the berry grows the amount of
sugar gradually increases, and the same up to a certain point applies
to the acidity. The character of the acidity, however, changes, the
free tartaric acid gradually disappearing, forming bitartrate of
potash and being otherwise broken up. On the other hand, the free
malic acid increases and the tannin decreases. When the grape is
ripe, the sugar has attained to a maximum and the acidity is very
much reduced ; the tannin has entirely disappeared.
The following figures obtained by Mach afford an interesting
illustration of these processes:
At first the sugar in the juice consists entirely of dextrose, but
later fructose (laevulose) is formed. The sugar in ripe grape juice
is practically invert sugar, i.e. consists of practically equal parts of
dextrose and fructose. The proportion of sugar present in the juice
of ripe grapes varies considerably according to the type of grape,
the locality and the harvest. In temperate climates it varies as a
rule between 15 and 20%, but in the case of hot climates or where
the grapes are treated in a special manner, it may rise as high as
35 % and more.
Fermentation. The fermentation of grape juice, i.e. the must, is,
as we have seen, a relatively simple operation, consisting as it does
in exposing it to the spontaneous action of the micro-organisms,
contained in it. The main products formed are, as in all cases of
VINE DISEASES]
WINE
719
Constitution of Crape Juice at Various Periods of Maturation.
(E. Mach.)
Date of Analysis of Juice.
6th July.
1 2th Aug.
9th Sept.
1 2th Oct.
Specific gravity .
Sugar ._ . .
Total acid (as
tartaric acid) .
Tartar
Malic acid
Tannin
I -010
Per cent.
0-86
2-66
0-67
I-I6
O-IO6
1-029
Per cent.
2 -O2
3-46
o-55
2-47
O-OI2
1-083
Per cent.
18-52
0-87
o-54
o-55
1-093
Per cent.
23-17
0-71
o-55
0-42
alcoholic fermentation, ethylic alcohol, water and carbonic acid.
At the same time various subsidiary products such as glycerin,
succinic acid, small quantities of higher alcohols, volatile acids and
compound esters are produced. In the case of red wines colouring
matter is dissolved from the skins and a certain amount of mineral
matter and tannin is extracted. It is to these subsidiary matters
that the flavour and bouquet in wine are particularly due, at any rate
in the first stages of maturation, although some of the substances
originally present in the grape, such as ready-formed esters, essential
oils, fat and so on, also play a r&le in this regard. In view of the
fact that fresh grape juice contains innumerable bacteria and moulds,
in addition to the yeast cells which bring about the alcoholic fermen-
tation, and that the means which are adopted by the brewer and
the distiller for checking the action of these undesirable organisms
cannot be employed by the wine-maker, it is no doubt remarkable
that the natural wine yeast so seldom fails to assert a preponderating
action, particularly as the number of yeast cells at the beginning of
fermentation is relatively small. The fact is that the constitution
of average grape juice and the temperatures of fermentation which
generally prevail are particularly well suited to the life action of
wine yeast, and are inimical to the development of the other organ-
isms. When these conditions fail, as is, for instance, the case when
the must is lacking in acidity, or when the weather during the
fermentation period is very hot and means are not at hand to cool
the must, bacterial side fermentations may, and do, often take
place. The most suitable temperature for fermentation varies
according to the type of wine. In the case of Rhine wines it is
between 20 and 25* C. If the temperatures rise above this, the
fermentation is liable to be too rapid, too much alcohol is formed at
a relatively early stage, and the result is that the fermentation
ceases before the whole of the sugar has been transformed. Wines
which have received a check of this description during the main
fermentation are very liable to bacterial troubles and frets. In the
case of wines made in more southerly latitudes temperatures between
25 and 30 are not excessive, but temperatures appreciably over 30
frequently lead to mischief. The young wine immediately after the
cessation of the main fermentation is very differently constituted from
the must from which it was derived. The sugar, as we have seen,
has disappeared, and alcohol, glycerin and other substances have
been formed. At the same time the acidity is markedly reduced.
This reduction of acidity is partly due to the deposition of various
salts of tartaric acid, which are less soluble in a dilute alcoholic
medium than in water, and partly to the action of micro-organisms.
Young wines differ very widely in their composition according to
class and vintage. The alcohol in naturally fermented wines may
vary between 7 and 16%, although these are not the outside limits.
The acidity may vary between 0-3 and I % according to circumstances.
The normal proportion of glycerin varies between 7 and 14 parts for
every loo parts of alcohol in the wine, but even these limits are
frequently not reached or exceeded. The total solid matter or
"extract," as it is called, will vary between 1-5 and 3-5% for dry
wines, and the mineral matter or ash generally amounts to about
one-tenth of the " extract." The tannin in young red wines may
amount to as much as 0-4 or 0-5 %, but in white wines it is much less.
The amount of volatile acid should be very small, and, except in
special cases, a percentage of volatile acid exceeding o-i to 0-15%,
according to the class of wine, will indicate that an abnormal or
undesirable fermentation has taken place. As the wine matures
the most noticeable feature in the first instance is the reduction in
the acidity, which is mainly due to a deposition of tartar, and the
disappearance of tannin and colouring matter, due to fining and the
action of oxygen.
The taste and bouquet of wines in the earlier stages of their
development, or within the first four or five years of the vintage, are
almost entirely dependent upon constituents derived from the must,
either directly or as a result of the main fermentation. In the case
of dry wines, the quality which is known as " body " (palate-fulness)
is mainly dependent on the solid, i.e. non-volatile, constituents.
These comprise gummy and albuminous matters, acid, salts, glycerin
and other^matters of which we have so far little knowledge. The
apparent " body " of the wine, however, is not merely dependent
upon the absolute quantity of solid non-volatile matters it con-
tains, but is influenced also by the relative proportions in which
the various constituents exist. For instance, a wine which under
favourable conditions would seem full and round may appear
harsh or rough, merely owing to the fact that it contains a small
quantity of suspended tartar, the latter causing temporary hyper-
acidity and apparent " greenness." It has been found by experience
also that wines which are normally constituted as regards the relative
proportions of their various constituents, provided that the quantities
of these do not fall below certain limits, are likely to develop well,
whereas wines which, although perfectly sound, show an abnormal
constitution, will rarely turn out successful. The bouquet of young
wines is due principally to the compound esters whicn exist in the
juice or are formed by the primary fermentation. It was at one time
thought that the quality of the bouquet was dependent upon the
absolute quantity of these compound esters present, but the author
and others have plainly shown that this is not the case. Among
the characteristic esters present in wine is the well-known " oenanthic
ether," which consists principally of ethylic pelargonate. It does
not follow that a wine which shows a pretty bouquet in the primary
stages will turn out well. On the contrary, it is frequently the case
that the most successful wines in after years are those which at first
show very little bouquet. The maturation of wine, whether it be in
bottle or in cask, is an exceedingly interesting operation. The
wines which remain for a long period in cask gradually lose alcohol
and water by evaporation, and therefore become in time extremely
concentrated as regards the solid and relatively non-volatile matters
contained in them. As a rule, wines which are kept for many years
in cask become very dry, and the loss of alcohol by evaporation
particularly in the case of light wines has as a result the production
of acidity by oxidation. Although these old wines may contain
absolutely a very large quantity of acid, they may not appear acid
to the palate inasmuch as the other constituents, particularly the
glycerin and gummy matters, will have likewise increased in relative
quantity to such an extent as to hide the acid flavour. In the case
of maturation in bottle the most prominent features are the mellowing
of the somewhat hard taste associated with new wine and the
development of the secondary bouquet. The softening effect of age
is due to the deposition of a part of the tartar together with a part
of the tannin and some of the colouring matter. The mechanism
of the development of the secondary bouquet appears to be dependent
firstly on purely chemical processes, principally that of oxidation,
and secondly on the life activity of certain micro-organisms. L.
Pasteur filled glass tubes entirely with new wine ana then sealed
them up. It was found that wine so treated remained unchanged
in taste and flavour for years. On the other hand, he filled some
other tubes partly with wine, the remaining space being occupied
by air. In this case the wine gradually matured and acquired the
properties which were associated with age. Wortmann examined a
number of old wines and found that in all cases in which the wine
was still in good condition or of fine character a small number of
living organisms (yeast cells, &c.) were still present. He also
found that in the case of old wines which had frankly deteriorated,
the presence of micro-organisms could not be detected. It is, how-
ever, not absolutely clear whether the improvement observed on
maturation is actually due to the action of these micro-organisms.
It may be that the conditions which are favourable to the improve-
ment of the wine are also favourable to the continued existence of
the micro-organisms, and that their disappearance is coincident
with, and not the cause of, a wine's deterioration. It is frequently
assumed that a wine is necessarily good because it is old, and that the
quality of a wine increases indefinitely with age. This is, however,
a very mistaken idea. There is a period in the life history of every
wine at which it attains its maximum of quality. This period as a
rule is short, and it then commences " to go back " or deteriorate.
The age at which a wine is at its best is by no means so great as is
popularly supposed. This age naturally depends upon the character
of the wine and on the vintage. Highly alcoholic wines, such as port
and sherry, will improve and remain good for a much longer period
than relatively light wines, such as claret, champagne or Moselle.
As regards the latter, indeed, it is nowadays held that it is at its best
within a very short period of the vintage, and that when the charac-
teristic slight " prickling " taste due to carbonic acid derived from
the secondary fermentation has disappeared, the wine has lost its
attraction for the modern palate. In the same way champagne
rarely, if ever, improves after twelve to fourteen years. With
regard to claret it may be said that as a general rule the wine will not
improve after twenty-five to thirty years, and that after this time it
will commence to deteriorate. At the same time there are excep-
tional cases in which claret may be found in very fine condition after
a lapse of as much as forty years, but even in such cases it will be
found that for every bottle that is good there may be one which is
distinctly inferior.
DISEASES
Diseases of the Vine. The vine is subject to a number of diseases
some of which are due to micro-organisms (moulds, bacteria), others
to insect life. The most destructive of all these diseases is that of
the phylloxera. The Phylloxera vastatrix is an insect belonging to
the green fly tribe, which destroys the roots and leaves of the growing
plant by forming galls and nodosities. Practically every wine-
growing country has been afflicted with this disease at one time or
720
WINE
[WINES OF FRANCE
another. The great epidemic in the French vineyards in the years
1882 to 1885 led to a reduction of the yield of about 50%. Many
remedies for this disease have been suggested, including total
submersion of the vineyards, the use of carbon bisulphide for spray-
ing, and of copper salts, but there appears to be little doubt that a
really serious epidemic can only be dealt with by systematic destruc-
tion of the vines, followed by replanting with resistant varieties.
This, of course, naturally leads to the production of a wine somewhat
different in character to that produced before the epidemic, but this
difficulty may be overcome to some extent, as it was in the Bordeaux
vineyards, by grafting ancient stock on the roots of new and resistant
vines. Oidium or mildew is only second in importance to the
phylloxera. It is caused by a species of mould which lives on the
green part of the plant. The leaves shrivel, the plant ceases to grow,
and the grapes that are formed also shrivel and die. The most
effective cure, short of destruction and replantation, appears to
be spraying with finely divided sulphur. Another evil, which is
caused by unseasonable weather during and shortly after the
flowering, is known as couture. This causes the flowers, or at a
later period the young fruit, to fall off the growing plant in large
numbers.
Diseases of Wine. These are numerous, and may be derived either
directly from the vine, from an abnormal constitution of the grape
juice, or to subsequent infection. Thus the disease known as tourne
or casse is generally caused by the wine having been made or partly
made from grapes affected by mildew. The micro-organism giving
rise to this disease generally appears in the form of small jointed rods
and tangled masses under the microscope. Wine which is affected
by this disease loses its colour and flavour. The colour in the case
of red wines is first altered from red to brown, and in bad cases
disappears altogether, leaving an almost colourless solution. This
disease is also caused by the wine lacking alcohol, acid and tannin,
and to the presence of an excess of albuminous matters. The most
common disease to which wine is subject by infection is that caused
by a micro-organism termed mycoderma-vini (French fleurs de vin).
This micro-organism, which resembles ordinary yeast cells in appear-
ance, forms a pellicle on the surface of wine, particularly when the
latter is exposed to the air more than it should be, and its develop-
ment is favoured by lack of alcohol. The micro-organism splits up
the alcohol of the wine and some of the other constituents, forming
carbonic acid and water. This process indicates a very intensive
form of oxidation inasmuch as no intermediary acid is formed.
One of the most common diseases, namely that producing acetous
fermentation, differs from the disease caused by M. vini in that the
alcohol is transformed into acetic acid. It is caused by a micro-
organism termed Mycoderma aceti, which occurs in wine in small
groups and chaplets of round cells. It is principally due to a lack of
alcohol in the wine or to lack of acidity in the must. The micro-
organism which causes the disease of bitterness (amer) forms longish
branched filaments in the wine. Hand in hand with the development
of a disagreeable bitter taste there is a precipitation of colouring
matter and the formation of certain disagreeable secondary con-
stituents. This disease is generally caused by infection and is
favoured by a lack of alcohol, acid and tannin. Another disease
which generally occurs only in white wines is that which converts
the wine into a thick stringy liquid. It is the viscous or graisse
disease. As a rule this disease is due to a lack of tannin (hence its
more frequent occurrence in white wines). The mannitic disease,
which is due to high temperatures during fermentation and lack of
acid in the must, is rarely of serious consequence in temperate
countries. The micro-organism splits up the laevulose in the must,
forming mannitol and different acids, particularly volatile acid.
The wine becomes turbid and acquires a peculiarly bitter sweet
taste, and if the disease goes further becomes quite undrinkable.
It would appear from the researches of the author and others that
the mannitol ferment is more generally present in wines than is
supposed to be the case. Thus the author found in some very old
and fine wines very appreciable quantities of mannitol. In these
cases the mannitic fermentation had obviously not developed to
any extent, and small quantities of mannitol appear to exercise no
prejudicial effect on flavour.
Treatment of Diseases. It was found by Pasteur that by heating
wine out of contact with air to about 66 C. the various germs
causing wine maladies could be checked in their action or, destroyed.
The one disadvantage of this method is that unless very carefully
applied the normal development of the wine may be seriously
retarded. In the case of cheap wines or of wines which are already
more or less mature, this is not a matter of any great importance,
but in the case of the finer wines it may be a serious consideration.
Pasteurizing alone, however, will only avail in cases where the disease
has not gone beyond the initial stages, inasmuch as it cannot restore
colour, taste or flavour where those have already been affected.
In such cases, and also in others where pasteurizing is not applicable,
some direct treatment with a view to eliminating or adding con-
stituents which are in excess or lacking is indicated. In this regard
it is somewhat difficult to draw the line between that which is a
rational and scientific method for preventing waste of good material
and sophistication pure and simple. It appears to the author, how-
ever, that where such methods are employed merely with a view to
overcoming a specific malady and there is no intention of increasing
the quantity of the wine for purposes of gain, or of giving it a fictitious
appearance of quality, these operations are perfectly justifiable and
may be compared to the modifications of procedure which are forced
upon the brewer or distiller who has to deal with somewhat abnormal
raw material. It has been found, for instance, that in the case of
the mannitic disease the action of the micro-organism may be
checked, or prevented altogether, by bringing the acidity of the must
up to a certain level by the addition of a small quantity of tartaric
acid. Again, it is well known that in the case of the viscous disease
the difficulty may be overcome by the addition of a small quantity
of tannin. In the same way the disease caused by the mildew
organism may be counteracted by a slight addition of alcohol and
tannin. One method of assisting nature in wine-making, which is,
in the opinion of the author, not justifiable if the resulting product
is sold as wine or in such a manner as to indicate that it is natural
wine, is the process termed " gallisizing," so called from its inventor
H. L. L. Gall, which has been largely practised, particularly on the
Rhine. The process of Gall consists in adding sugar and water in
sufficient quantity to establish the percentages of free acid and sugar
which are characteristic of the best years in the must obtained in
inferior years. Although there is no objection to this product from
a purely hygienic point of view, it is not natural wine, and the
products present in the must other than sugar and acid are by this
process seriously affected. Another method of dealing with inferior
must, due to J. A. C. Chaptal, consists in neutralizing excessive acid
by means of powdered marble, and bringing up the sugar to normal
proportions by adding appropriate amounts of this substance in a
solid form. There is less objection to this process than to the
former, inasmuch as it does not result in a dilution of the wine.
It is scarcely necessary to say that the indiscriminate addition of
alcohol and water, or of either to must or to wine, must be regarded
as a reprehensible operation.
Plastering. In some countries, particularly in Italy, Spain and
Portugal, it has been and still is a common practice to add a small
quantity of gypsum to the fermenting must or to dust it over the
grapes prior to pressing. It is said that wines treated in this manner
mature more quickly, and that they are more stable and of better
colour. It certainly appears to be the case that musts which are
plastered rarely suffer from abnormal fermentation, and that the
wines which result very rarely turn acid. The main result of
plastering is that the soluble tartrates in the wine are decomposed,
forming insoluble tartrate of lime and soluble sulphate of potash.
It is held that an excess of the latter is undesirable in wine, but
unless the quantity appreciably exceeds two grams per litre, no
reasonable objection can be raised.
Basis Wines. Wines which are made not from fresh grape juice
but from raisins or concentrated must, or similar material, are gener-
ally termed basis wines. They are prepared by adding water to the
concentrated saccharine matter and subsequently pitching with
wine yeast at an appropriate temperature. Frequently alcohol,
tannin, glycerin, and similar wine constituents are also added. If
carefully prepared there is no objection to these basis wines from a
hygienic point of view, although they have not the delicate qualities
and stimulating effects of natural wines; unfortunately, however,
these wines have in the past been vended on a large scale in a manner
calculated to deceive the consumer as to their real nature, but
energetic measures, which have of late been taken in most
countries affected by this trade, have done much to mitigate the
evil.
WINES or FRANCE
It may be safely said that there is no other country in which
the general conditions are so favourable for the production of
wine of high quality and on a large scale as is the case in France.
The climate is essentially of a moderate character; the winters
are rarely very cold, and the summers are seldom of the intensely
hot and dry nature which is characteristic of most southerly
wine countries. There are large tracts of gently undulating or
relatively flat country which is, inasmuch as it ensures effective
exposal of the vines to the sun, of a type particularly suited to
viticulture. There is almost everywhere an efficient supply of
water, and lastly the character of the soil is in many parts an ideal
one for the production of wine high in quality and abundant in
quantity. It may here be stated that a rich soil such as is suitable
for the growth of cereal crops or vegetables is not, as a rule, an
ideal one for the production of fine wines. The ideal soil for vine-
growing is that' which possesses a sufficiency, but not an excess, of
nutriment for the plant, and which is so constituted that it will
afford good drainage. The most important qualification, however,
is that it should be so constituted as to preserve and store up
during the relatively cold weather the heat which it has derived
from the atmosphere during the summer. In this respect the
famous Bordeaux or Gironde district is, perhaps, more fortunate
than any other part of the world. The thrifty and methodical
.
WINES OF FRANCE]
WINE
721
habits of the French peasantry, and also the system of small
holdings which prevails in France, have, there is little doubt,
done much to raise the French wine industry to the pre-eminent
position which it holds. There is perhaps no branch of agri-
culture which requires more minute attention or for which a
system of small holdings is more suitable than wine culture.
At the present day, wine is produced in no less than 77 depart-
ments in France, the average total yield during the past ten years
being roughly 1000 million gallons. This is considerably more
than the average produced previous to the phylloxera period
(1882-1887). The highest production on record was in the year
1 875, when roughly 1840 million gallons were produced. Although
France produces such enormous quantities of wine it is a remark-
able fact that more wine is imported into France than is exported
from that country. The average imports are in the neighbour-
hood of 1 20 million gallons, of which rather more than one-half
comes from Algeria. The exports amount to roughly 40 million
gallons. Of recent years (1896-1907) the only vintages which
have been deficient as regards quantity are those of 1897, 1898,
1902 and 1003, but even in the most unfavourable of these years
(1898) the quantity exceeded 700 million gallons. The greatest
yield in this same period was in 1900, when over 1470 million
gallons were produced. The number of different varieties of
wines produced in France is remarkable. The red wines include
the elegant and delicate (though not unstable) wines of the
Gironde, and again the full, though not coarse, wines of the Bur-
gundy district. Among the white wines we have the full sweet
Sauternes, the relatively dry and elegant Graves and Chablis,
and the light white wines which produce champagne and
brandy.
Gironde (Bordeaux) Wines. If France is the wine-growing country ,
par excellence, the Bordeaux district may be regarded as the heart
and centre of the French wine industry. Although other parts of
France produce excellent wines, the Gironde is easily first if high
and stable character, elegance and delicacy, variety and quantity
are considered together. The total area of the departments of the
Gironde is about 2i million acres, and roughly one-fifth of this is
under the vine. It forms a tract of country some 90 m. long by
60 m. broad, in which the chief watersheds are those of the Garonne,
Dordogne, and their confluent the Gironde. The soil varies very
considerably in its character, and it is due to these variations that so
many different types of wine are produced in this district. It gener-
ally consists of limestone, or of mixed limestone and clay, or of sand
and clay, or of gravel, with here and there flint and rolled quartz.
The subsoil is either of clay, of limestone, or mixed sand and clay,
gravel, or of a peculiar kind of pudding stone which exists in a hard
and a soft variety. It is formed of sand or fine gravel cemented by
infiltrated oxide of iron. This stone is known locally under the name
of olios. It is generally found at a depth of about 2 ft. under the
better growths of the Mecloc and Graves. The subsoils of some of the
other districts (C6tes and St Emilion) contain much stone in the
shape of flint and quartz. The finest wines of the M&loc and Graves
are largely grown on a mixture of gravel, quartz and sand with
a subsoil of olios or clay. The Gironde viticultural region is divided
into six main districts, namely, M4doc, Sauternes, Graves, C6tes,
Entre-deux-Mers and Palus. Although properly belonging to the
C6tes, the St Emilion district is sometimes classified separately, as
indeed, having regard to the excellence and variety of its wines, it
has a right to be.
Medoc. The most important subdivision of the Gironde district is
that of the M6doc. It is here that the wine which is known to us as
claret is produced in greatest excellence and variety. The Mdoc
consists of a tongue of land to the north of Bordeaux, bounded by
the Garonne and Gironde on the east, and by the sea on the west and
north. It is, roughly, 59 m. long by 6 to IO m. broad. The soil
varies considerably in nature, but consists mostly of gravel, quartz,
limestone and sand on the surface, and of clay and olios beneath.
The principal vines grown in the Mckloc are the Cabernet-Sauvignon,
which is the most important, the Gros Cabernet, the Merlot, the
Carmen6re, the Malbec, and the Verdpt. All these produce red
wines. Very little white wine is made in the Mckloc proper. The
method of vine cultivation is peculiar and characteristic. The vines
are kept very low, and as a rule only two branches or arms, which are
trained at right angles to the stem, are permitted to form. This
dwarf system of culture gives the Mecloc vineyards at a distance the
appearance of a sea of small bushes, thereby producing an effect
entirely different from, for instance, that seen on the Rhine with its
high basket-shaped plants. The methods of making the wine in
the M<5doc are of the simplest description. The vintage generally
takes place towards the end of September or the beginning of October.
The grapes from which the stalks are partly or wholly (and occasion-
ally not at all) removed are crushed by treading or some other simple
method, but sometimes even this is omitted, the juice being expressed
by the weight of the grapes themselves, or by the pressure caused
by incipient fermentation. Presses are not used in the case of red
wines until after fermentation, when they are employed in order
to separate the wine from the murk. As a rule the fermentation
occupies from 6 to 10 days; by this time the must has practically
lost the whole of its sugar, and the young wine is drawn off and filled
into hogsheads. The secondary fermentation proper is generally
finished at the end of about six weeks to two months, and the first
racking takes place, as a rule in February or March. Subsequent
rackings are made about June and November of the same year,
but in the following years, until bottling, two rackings a year
suffice.
The Mecloc is divided into a number of communes (such as St
Julien, Margaux, Pauillac, &c.), and in these communes are situated
the different vineyards from which the actual name of the wine is
derived. Unlike the products of the different vineyards of most
other districts, which are purchased by the merchants and vatted
to supply a general wine for commerce, the yield of the principal
estates of the Mecloc are kept distinct and reach the consumer as the
products _of a particular growth and of a particular year. This
practice is almost without exception resorted to with what are
known as the " classed growths " and the superior " bourgeois "
wines, whilst in seasons in which the wines are of good quality it is
continued down to the lower grades. This classification of the
M6doc growths became necessary owing to the great variety of
qualities produced and the distinct characteristic excellence of the
individual vintages. There are four main classes or crus (literally
growths, but more correctly types or qualities), namely, the " grands
crus classes " or " classed growths " and the bourgeois, artisan and
peasant growths. The " classed growths," which include all the
most famous wines of the Mecloc, are themselves subdivided into
five sections or growths. This general classification, which was
made by a conference of brokers in 1855 as a result of many years of
observation dating back to the i8th century, is still very fairly
descriptive of the average merit of the wines classified. The following
is a list of the classed red wines of the Mckloc (i.e. claret) together
with the names of the communes in which they are situated.
CLASSED GROWTHS OF THE Mrx>c (CLARET)
First Growths.
Chateau Lafite, Pauillac.
Margaux, Margaux.
Latour, Pauillac.
Second Growths.
Chateau Mouton-Rothschild, Pauillac.
Rauzan-Se>gla, Margaux.
Rauzan-Gassies, Margaux.
L<k>ville-Lascases, St Julien.
Leoville-Poyferre", St Julien.
Ldoville-Barton, St Julien.
Durfort-Vivens, Margaux.
Lascombes, Margaux.
Gruaud-Larose-Sarget, St Julien.
Gruaud Larose, St Julien.
Brane-Cantenac, Cantenac.
Pichon-Longueville, Pauillac.
Pichon-Longueville-Lalande, Pauillac.
Ducru-Beaucaillou, St Julien.
Cos d'Estournel, St Est^phe.
Chateau Montrose, St Estephe.
Third Growths.
Chateau Kirwan, Cantenac.
D'Issan, Cantenac.
Lagrangp, St Julien.
Langoa, St Julien.
Giscours, Labarde.
Malescot, Margaux.
Brown Cantenac, Cantenac.
Palmer, Cantenac.
La Lagune, Ludon.
Desmirail, Margaux.
Calon-Sfcur, St Estdphe.
Ferri&re, Margaux.
Becker, Margaux.
Fourth Growths.
Chateau Saint-Pierre, St Julien.
Branaire-Duluc, St Julien.
Talbot, St Julien.
Duhart-Milon, Pauillac.
Pouiet, Cantenac.
La Tour Carnet, St Laurent.
Rochet, St Estephe.
Beychevelle, St Julien.
Le Prieurt?, Cantenac.
Marquis de Terme, Margaux.
722
WINE
[WINES OF FRANCE
Fifth Growths.
Chateau Pontet-Canet, Pauillac.
Batailley, Pauillac.
Grand-Puy-Lacoste, Pauillac.
Ducasse-Grand-Puy, Pauillac.
Chateau Lynch-Bages, Pauillac.
Lynch- Moussas, Pauillac.
Dauzac, Labarde.
Mouton-d'Armailhacq, Pauillac.
Le Tertre, Arsac.
Haut-Bages, Pauillac.
Pedesclaux, Pauillac.
Belgrave, St Laurent.
Camensac, St Laurent.
Co -Labory, St Estephe.
Chateau Clerc-Milon, Pauillac.
Croizet-Bages, Pauillac.
Cantemerle, Macau.
The quality of the Medoc red wines (and this applies also to some
of the finer growths of the other Bordeaux districts) is radically
different from that of wines similar in type grown in other parts of
the world. The Gironde red wines have sufficient body and alcohol
to ensure stability without being heavy or fiery At the same time,
their acidity is very low and their bouquet characteristically delicate
and elegant. It is to this relatively large amount of body and
absence of an excess of acid and of tannin that the peculiarly soft
effect of the Bordeaux wines on the palate is due. It has been said
that chemistry is of little avail in determining the value of a wine,
and this is undoubtedly true as regards the bouquet and flavour,
but there is no gainsaying the fact that many hundreds of analyses
of the wines of the Gironde have shown that they are, as a class,
distinctly different in the particulars referred to from wines of the
claret type produced, for instance, in Spain, Australia or the Cape.
The quality of the wines naturally varies considerably with the
vintage; but it is almost invariably the case that the wines of
successful vintages will contain practically the same relative propor-
tions of their various constituents, although the absolute amounts
present of these constituents may differ widely. It is the author's
experience also that where a wine displays some abnormality as
regards one or more constituents, that although it may be sound, it
is rarely a wine of the highest class. The tables below will give a
fair idea of the variations which occur in the same wine as a result
of different vintages, and the variations due to differences of
" growth " in the same vintage. These figures are selected from
among a number published by the author in the Journal of the
Institute of Brewing, April 1907.
and at a maximum in 1907, when close on 1000 hogsheads were
obtained. Similarly, the Chateau Margaux, which yielded 1120
hogsheads in 1900, produced 280 hogsheads in 1903. The prices of
the wines also are subject to great fluctuation, but in fair years will
vary, according to class and quality, from 10 to 30 per hogshead
for the better growths.
The principal claret vintages of modern times have been those of
1858, 1864. 1869, 1870, 1874, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1888, 1893, 1896,
1899 and 1900, while it was thought probable that many of the wines
of 1904 to 1907 inclusive would turn out well. From 1882 to 1886
inclusive, the vintages were almost total failures owing to mildew.
In 1887 to 1895 a number of fair wines were produced in each year,
and the first really good vintage of the post-mildew-phylloxera
period was that of 1888.
Most of the wines grown on a purely gravelly soil are termed
" Graves," but there is a specific district of Graves which lies south
of Bordeaux and west of the river, and extends as far as _
Langon. The soil is almost a pure sandy gravel with a
subsoil of varied nature, but principally alias, gravel, clay or sand.
This district produces both red and white wines. The vines, the
methods of viticulture and yinification as regards the red wines of
the Graves district, are similar to those of the M6doc. The wines
are, if anything, slightly fuller in body and more alcoholic than
those of the latter region. They possess a characteristic flavour
which differentiates them somewhat sharply from the Medoc wines.
The Graves contains one vineyard, namely Chateau Haut-Brion,
which ranks in quality together with the three first growths of the
Medoc. The remainder of the red Graves are not classified, but
among the more important wines may be mentioned the following:
in the commune of Pessac, ChSteau La Mission and Chateau Pape-
Clement; in the commune of Villenaye D'Ornon, Chateau La
Ferrade; in Leognan, Chateau Haut-Bailly, Chateau Haut-Brion-
Larrivet and Chateau Branon-Licterie; in Martillac, Chateau
Smith-Haut-Lafite.
The district of Sauternes produces the finest white wines of the
Gironde, one might say of the whole of France. Whereas the
white wines of the Graves are on the whole fairly dry and s aaterae ,
light in character, the white wines of Sauternes are full
and sweet, with a very fine characteristic bouquet. The district of
Sauternes covers the communes of Sauternes, Bommes and a part
of Barsac, Preignac, Fargues and St Pierre-de-Mons. The general
configuration of the country is markedly different from that of the
Medoc, consisting of a series of low hills rising easily from the river.
The soil consists chiefly of mixed clay and gravel, or clay and lime-
stone, and the vines chiefly used are the Sajvignon, the Semillon
and the Muscatelle. The wines are made entirely from white grapes,
and the methods of collecting the latter, and of working them up
Analyses of Chateau Lafite of Different Vintages. 1
Vintage.
Description.
Alcohol
Per Cent.
by Vol.
Total
Acidity.
Extract
(Solid
Matter).
Ash.
Total
Tartaric
Acid.
Glycerin.
Sugar.
1865
1875
1892
1896
1899
1905
Chateau Lafite
11-26
10-31
11-00
11-05
11-47
10-75
4-17
3-67
4-38
3-51
3-49
3-02
26-83
25-92
26-08
27-91
25-34
2-18
2-42
2-68
3-01
2-42
2-28
2-II
I-7I
I- 7 8
2-42
7-99
7-25
4-60
8-64
7-II
7-52
I-IO
1-25
1-69
1-74
2-12
Analyses of Different Clarets of the Same Vintage. 1
Vintage.
Description.
Alcohol
Per Cent,
by Vol.
Total
Acidity.
Extract
(Solid
Matter).
Ash.
Total
Tartaric
Acid.
^Glycerin.
Sugar.
1900
Ch. Margaux
12-14
3-06
26-32
2-58
50
8-76
i'93
Ch. Mouton-Rothschild
11-82
2-97
28-98
2-69
23
7-53
2-56
Ch. Larose
12-06
3-23
29-01
2-29
5
8-02
3-97
Ch. Batailley
12-14
3-15
26-54
2-39
-48
8-45
.2-27
Ch: Palmer (Margaux)
n-73
3-19
28-64
2-72
52
8-23
2-27
Ch. Smith-Haut-Lafite
I3-76
3-10
27-48
2-IO
56
7-48
2-32
Second growth
10-91
3-32
29-44
2-84
75
6-99
1-72
Bourgeois growth
12-71
3-32
29-57
2-16
56
9-01
2-49
Peasant growth
11-47
3-58
20-97
I-7I
2-50
7-18
i -20
'Results -(excepting alcohol) are expressed in grams per litre, i.e. roughly parts per thousand.
The annual output of the Gironde during the last few years has been
roughly 70 to 100 million gallons. In the decade 1876 to 1886 the
average amount was barely 30 million gallons owing to the small
yields of the years 1881 to 1885. In the years 1874 and 1875 the
yield exceeded 100 million gallons. The output of the classed
growths varies considerably according to the vintage, but is on the
average, owing to the great care exercised in the vineyards, greater
than that of the lower-grade areas. Thus within recent years the
output of the Chateau Lafite was at a minimum in 1903 when only
229 hogsheads (the hogshead of claret =46 gallons) were produced,
into wine, are entirely different from those prevalent in the red
wine districts. The grapes are allowed to remain on the vines some
three to four weeks longer than is the case in the Medoc, and the
result is that they shrivel up and become over-ripe, and so contain
relatively little water and a very large quantity of sugar. This
alone, however, does not account for the peculiar character of the
Sauternes, for during the latter period of ripening a specific micro-
organism termed Botrytis cinerea develops on the grape, causing a
peculiar condition termed pourriture noble (German Edelfdule),
which appears to be responsible for the remarkable bouquet observed
WINES OF FRANCE]
WINE
723
in the wines. When the grapes have attained the proper degree of
ripeness, or rather over-ripeness, they are gathered with the greatest
care, tin- berries being frequently cut off from the branches singly,
and sorted according to their appearance. The grapes are then not
crushed, but arc immediately pressed, and the juice alone is subjected
to fermentation. As a rule, three wines are made in the principal
vineyards in three successive periods. The first wine, which is
termed the vin de tile, is generally the sweetest and finest, the next
(called the milieu) being somewhat drier and the last (vin de queue)
being the least valuable. For some markets these wines are shipped
separately, for others they are blended according to the prevalent
taste. The musts from which the Sauternes wines are made are so
concentrated that only a part of the sugar is transformed into
alcohol, an appreciable portion remaining unfermented. These
wines, therefore, require very careful handling in order to prevent
undesirable secondary fermentations taking place at a later period.
They are subjected to frequent racking, the casks into which they are
racked being more highly sulphured than is the case with red wines.
This is necessary, not only to prevent fermentation recommencing,
but also in order to preserve the light golden colour of the wine,
which, if brought into contact with an excess of air, rapidly assumes
an unsightly brown shade.
The Sauternes generally are full-bodied wines, very luscious and
yet delicate ; they possess a special seve, or, in other words, that special
taste which, while it remains in the mouth, leaves the palate perfectly
fresh. The finer growths of the Sauternes are classified in much the
same way as the red wines of the M4doc. There are two main growths,
the wines being as follows :
CLASSIFICATION OF SAUTERNES
Grand First Growth.
Chateau Yquem, Sauternes.
First Growths.
Chateau La Tour Blanche, Bommes.
Peyraguey, Bommes.
Vigneau, Bommes.
Suduiraud, Preignac.
Coutet, Barsac.
,, Climens, Barsac.
Bayle (Guiraud), Sauternes.
Rieussec, Fargues.
Rabaud, Bommes.
Second Growths.
Chateau Mirat, Barsac.
Doisy, Barsac.
Peyxotto, Bommes.
d'Arche, Sauternes.
Filhot, Sauternes.
Broustet-Nerac, Barsac.
Caillou, Barsac.
Suau, Barsac.
Malle, Preignac.
Romer, Preignac.
Lamothe, Sauternes.
The production of the Sauternes vineyards is, as a rule, smaller
than that of the chief red growths, and in consequence of this, and
that the district is a relatively small one, the prices of the finer
growths are often very high.
The C&tes district consists of the slopes rising from the lower marshy
regions to the east of the Garonne and the Dordogne respectively.
<UP m* The * )est f tne COtes wines are grown in the St Emilion
region. This region consists of the commune of St
Emilion, together with the four surrounding communes. It
produces wines of a decidedly bigger type than those of the
M6doc, and is frequently called the Burgundy of the Bordeaux
district. The classification of the St Emilion wines is very compli-
cated, but in principle is similar to that of the Medoc wines. Among
the better known wines of the first growths are the following:
Chateau Ausone, Chateau Belair, Chateau Clos Fourtet, Chateau
Pavie, Chateau Coutet, Chateau Cheval-Blanc, Chateau Figeac.
The Chateau Ausone is of peculiar interest, inasmuch as it is here
that the poet Ausonius possessed a magnificent villa and cultivated
a vineyard (A.D. 300).
Palus and Entre-deux-Mers. The above wines are grown in the
marshy regions in the immediate neighbourhood of the Garonne and
Dordogne. They produce useful but rather rough wines. The
Entre-deux-Mers district forms a peninsula between the Garonne
and Dordogne, comprising the arrondissements of La Reole, the south
of Libourne and the east of Bordeaux. This district produces both
red and white wines, but their character is not comparable to that
of the MAdoc or of the C6tes. They are generally employed for local
consumption and blending.
The sparkling wine known to us as champagne takes its name from
the former province which is now replaced by the departments of
Marne, Haute-Marne, Aube and Ardennes. The best _.
wines, however, are grown almost exclusively in the Marne
district. The cultivation of the vine in the Champagne is "
of very ancient date. It appears that both red and white wines
were produced there in the reign of the Roman emperor, Probus
(in the 3rd century A.D.), and according to yictor Rendu the queue
of wine was already worth 19 livres in the time of Francis II., and
had, in 1694, attained to the value of 1000 livres. It was at about
the latter date that sparkling or effervescent wine was first made,
for, according to M. Perrier, a publication of the year 1718 refers
to the fact that wine of this description had then been known for
some twenty years. The actual discovery of this type of wine is
ascribed to Dom Perignon, a monk who managed the cellars of the
abbey of Haut Villers from 1670 to 1715. It appears also that it
was this same Dom Peiignpn who first used cork as a material for
closing wine bottles. Up till then such primitive means as pads of
hemp or cloth steeped in oil had been employed. It is very likely
that the discovery of the utility of cork for stoppering led to the
invention of effervescent wine, the most plausible explanation being
that Dom PeYignon closed some bottles filled with partially fermented
wine, with the new material, and on opening them later observed
the effects produced by the confined carbonic acid gas. The art of
making the wine was kept secret for some time, and many mysterious
fables were circulated concerning it; inter alia it was believed that
the Evil One had a hand in its manufacture. It does not appear,
however, to have become popular or consumed on a large scale until
the end of the i8th century.
The district producing the finest champagne is divided into two
distinct regions, popularly known as the river and the mountain
respectively. The former consists of the vineyards situated on or in
the neighbourhood of the banks of the Marne. The principal vine-
yards in the valley, on the right bank of the river, are those at Ay,
Dizy, Hautvillers and Mareuil ; on the left bank, on the slopes of
Epernay and parallel with the river, those at Pierry and Moussy;
in the district towards the south-east, on the slopes of Avize, those of
Avize, Cramant, Vertus and Mesnil. The chief vineyards in the
" mountain " district are at Versy, Verzenay, Sillery, Rilly and
Bouzy.
The soil in the champagne district consists on the slopes largely of
chalk and in the plain of alluvial soil. It is interspersed with some
clay and sand. The chief red vines of the champagne district are
the Plant-dor6, Franc- Pineau and the Plant vert dor6. The Plant
gris, or Meunier, yields grapes of a somewhat inferior quality. The
chief white vine is the Pineau, also known as Chardonay. The best
qualities of wine are made almost exclusively from the black grapes.
For this reason it is necessary that the process of collection, separation
and pressing should proceed as quickly as possible at vintage time
in order that the juice may not, through incipient fermentation,
dissolve any of the colouring matter from the skins. For the same
reason the grapes are collected in baskets in order to avoid excessive
pressure, and are transported in these to the press house. As there
is no preliminary crushing, the presses used for extracting the juice
have to be of a powerful character. As a rule, three qualities of
wine are made from one batch of grapes, the first pressing yielding
the best quality, whilst the second and third are relatively inferior.
After the must has been allowed to rest for some hours in order to
effect a partial clearing, it is drawn off into barrels and fermented in
the latter. The first racking and fining takes place about December.
The wine is allowed to rest for a further short period, and if not bright
is again racked and fined. It is then ready for bottling, but previous
to this operation it is necessary to ascertain whether the wine contains
sufficient remanent sugar to develop the " gas " necessary for
effervescence. If this is not the case, sugar is added, generally in
the form of fine cane or candied sugar. The bottles employed have
to be of very fine quality, as the pressure which they have to stand
may be as much as 7 to 8 atmospheres or more. Formerly the loss
through breakage was very great, but the art of making and selecting
these bottles has greatly improved, and the loss now amounts to
little more than 5%, whereas formerly 25% and even 30% was
not an uncommon figure. In the spring-time, shortly after bottling,
the rise in temperature produces a secondary fermentation, and this
converts the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. This fermentation
proceeds throughout the summer months, and in the meantime
a sediment which adheres to the side of the bottle is gradually formed.
The bottles, which up till now have been in a horizontal position,
are then, in order to prepare them for the next process, namely,
that known as disgorging, placed in a slanting position, neck down-
wards, and are daily shaken very slightly, so that by degrees the
sediment works its way on to the cork. This process, which takes
several weeks, is a very delicate one, and requires much skill on the
part of the workman. When the whole of the sediment is on the
cork, the iron clip, with which the latter is kept in position, is removed
for a moment, and the force of the wine ejects the sediment and
cork simultaneously. This operation also requires much skill in
order to avoid an excessive escape of wine. An ingenious modification
has of modern times been introduced, which consists in freezing part
of the contents of the neck of the bottle. The cork may then be
withdrawn and the sediment removed without any wine being lost.
724
WINE
[WINES OF FRANCE
,
After the sediment has been removed the wine is subjected to dosage,
or liqueuring. It is by this process that the degree of sweetness
required to suit the particular class of wine being made is attained.
For wines exported to England very little liqueur is employed ; in
the case of some wines, known as Brut or Nature, none at all is added.
Wines intended for consumption in France receive a moderate
quantity of liqueur, but those for the Russian and South American
markets, where very sweet wines are liked, receive more. This
liqueur is made of fine wine, brandy and candied sugar. The
liqueuring is nowadays generally carried out by means of a machine
which regulates the quantity to a nicety. Champagne is not, as is
the case, for instance, with the classified growths of the Gironde, the
product of a single vineyard. The bulk of the wine is made in vine-
yards belonging to small peasant proprietors, who sell their produce
to the great mercantile houses. The latter blend the wines received
from the various proprietors, and the chief aim in this blending is
to maintain the character of the wine which is sold under a particular
trade mark or brand. Similarly, it has been said that, strictly
speaking, there is no such thing as vintage champagne, for it is almost
invariably the practice, in order to maintain the general character
of a specific brand, to blend the new wines with some old wine or
wines which have been vatted for this particular purpose. These
vattings, and indeed all blendings of any particular batch of wines,
are termed cuvies. The vintage date, therefore, which is borne by
" vintage champagne," refers rather to the date of vintage prior to
bottling than to the age of the wine, although the main bulk of the
wine of a certain " vintage " will actually have been made in the year
indicated. It is not unusual in the case of champagne to add some
sugar to the must in the years in which the latter is deficient in this
regard. No legitimate objection can be raised to this practice
inasmuch as champagne in any case must be regarded in the light
of a manufactured article rather than as a natural product. The
principal centres of the champagne trade are at Reims, Epernay,
Ay and Avize. The total output of the Marne district has for the
past three years averaged about 9 million gallons, but it occasionally
runs as high as 20 million gallons. A great part of this wine, how-
ever, is not suitable for making high-class champagne. As a rule,
the supply considerably exceeds the demand, and the stock in hand
at the present time amounts to roughly four years' consumption of
finished wine, but to this must be added the stock existing in cask,
which is considerable. For the period 1906-1907 the total number
of bottles in stock amounted to over 121 millions, the bottles exported
to over 23 millions, and the bottles required for internal commerce
in France to something over 10 millions. There is, thus, at the
present a total annual consumption of rather over 30 millions of
bottles. The chief trade in champagne is with the United Kingdom,
to which the finest varieties are exported. In the year 1906,
of access and of remarkably even temperature, at a very small cost.
The method of manufacture is similar to that followed in the
Champagne.
In the east of France, not far from the Jura, lies the oldest viti-
cultural district of Europe, namely that of Burgundy. It is still so
called, after the old French provinces, Upper and Lower Burgundy.
It comprises the departments of the Yonne on the north-west,
the C6te d'Or in the centre, and the Saone-et-Loire on the south.
In the Yonne are made chiefly the white wines known to
us as Chablis; in the Sa&ne-et-Loire are made the red Bar a ua <'r-
and white wines of Macon, and there is also, stretching into the
department of the Rh&ne, the district producing the Beaujolais
wines. The most important wines, however, the Burgundy wines
proper, are made in the centre of this region on the range of low hills
running north-east by south-west called the C6te d'Or, or the golden
slope. The soil of the C6te d'Or is chiefly limestone, with a little
clay and sand. The vineyards producing the best wines are situated
about half-way up the slopes, those at the top producing somewhat
inferior, and those at the foot and in the plain ordinary growths.
Practically all the best vineyards (which are grown on flat terraces
on the slopes, and not on the slopes themselves) face south-west and
so get the full benefit of the sun's rays. The most important vine
in fact on the slopes of the C6te d'Or practically the only vine is the
Pineau or Noirien, but in the plain and in the districts of Macon and
Beaujolais the Camay is much cultivated. The influence of the soil
on one and the same vine is interestingly illustrated by the different
character of the vines grown in those districts, the Beaujolais wines
having far greater distinction than those of Macon. The commune
of Beaune must be regarded as the centre of the Burgundy district,
and possesses numerous vineyards of the highest class. To the
north of Beaune lie the famous vineyards of Chambertin, Clos
Vougeot, Romance, Richebourg, Nuits St Georges and Corton; to
the south those of Pommard, Volnay, Monthe'lie and Meursault with
its famous white wines.
The vinification of the Burgundy wines takes place in cuvesof
500 to 2000 gallons capacity, and it has for very many years been
the common practice in vintages in which the must is deficient in
saccharine to ensure the stability of the wine by the addition of
some sugar in the cuve. The first rackings generally take place in
February or March, and the second in July. The practice of sugaring
has ensured greater stability and keeping power to the wines, which
formerly were frequently irregular in character and difficult to
preserve.
There is no official classification of the Burgundy wines, but the
following is a list comprising some of the finest growths in geographical
order, from north to south, together with the localities in or near
which they are situated.
Analyses of Champagne.*
No.
Description of Wine.
Vintage.
Alcohol
per cent,
by vol.
Total
Acid.
Extract.
Ash.
Total
Tartaric
Acid.
Sugar
(as invert
Sugar).
Glycerin.
Carbonic
Acid.
i
2
3
4
Champagne nature
Brut
Dry
Extra sec
Extra dry
Dry
1892
1892
1892
1893
1893
1893
14-01
12-57
13-50
13-53
12-56
14-44
5-22
3-23
5-99
S-oi
5-43
4-80
20-95
19-78
27-07
22-95
23-18
30-33
1-17
2-53
1-16
I-IO
1-13
1-05
2-20
2-76
2-IO
2-18
2-49
2-04
3-36
1-32
9-20
7-84
7-23
13-86
7-55
7-64
9-10
6-50
8-18
9-05
8-27
7-79
9-55
8-12
7-75
Results, excepting alcohol, are in grams per litre.
1,161,339 gallons of champagne, to the value of 1,679,611, were
imported into the United Kingdom. The general composition of
high-class champagnes, as supplied to the English market, will be
gathered from the preceding table, which is taken from a large
number of analyses published by the author and a collaborator in
the Analyst for January 1900.
It will be seen that, compared with the dry, light red wines, the
proportion of sugar, alcohol and acidity is comparatively high in
champagne, and the extract (solid matter) rather low.
The fruitful departments watered by the Loire and its tributaries
produce considerable quantities of wine. The white growths of the
Loire have been known for many centuries, but up to
1 834 were used only as still wines. At that date, however,
it was found that the wines of Saumur (situated in the department
of the Maine-et-Loire) could be successfully converted into sparkling
wines, and since then a considerable trade in this class of wine has
developed. At first it was chiefly used for blending with the wines
of the Champagne when the vintage in this district was insufficient,
but at the present time it is largely sold under its own name. The
imports of sparkling Saumur into the United Kingdom in 1906
amounted to 114,234 gallons, valued at 73.984- Although the
average wholesale value of Saumur is considerably less than that of
champagne, it compares favourably with the lower grades of that
article, and in flavour and character is similar to the latter. The
successful evolution of the Saumur sparkling wine industry is largely
due to the fact that the range of limestone hills, at the foot of which
the town is situated, afford by excavation illimitable cellarage, easy
i. Red Wines.
Locality. Growth.
Fixey . . . Les Arvelets.
Fixin . . . Clos de la Perriere.
Chambertin . Chambertin, Clos de Bize, Clos St Jacques.
Morey. . . Clos de Tart, Les Bonnes Mares, Les Larrets.
Chambolle . Les Musigny.
Vougeot . . Clos de Vougeot. ,
Flagey . . Les Grandes Eschezeaux.
Vosne. . . Romanee-Conti, Les Richebourgs, La Tache
Romance la Tache.
Nuits . . . Les Saint-Georges, Les Vaucrains, Les
Porrets, Les Pruliers, Les Boudots, Les
Thorey.
Aloxe . . . Le Corton, Le Clos-du-Roi-Corton.
Savigny . . Les Vergelesses.
Beaune . . Les Feves, Les Greves, Le Clos de la Mousse.
Pommard . . Les Arvelets, Les Rugiens.
Volnay . . Les Caillerets, Les Champans.
Santenay . . Les Santenots, Le Clos-Tavannes.
2. White Wines.
Meursault . . Les Perrieres, Les Genevriferes.
Puligny . . Montrachet, Les Chevaliers-Montrachet, Le
Batard Montrachet.
:
,es
SPAIN]
WINE
725
An interesting feature of the C6te d'Or is the Hospice de Beaune,
a celebrated charitable institution and hospital, the revenues of
which are principally derived from certain vineyards in Beaune,
Gorton, Volnay and Pommard. The wines of these vineyards are
sold every year by auction early in November, and the prices they
make Serve as standards for the valuation of the other growths.
To the south of Lyons, in the department of the Drdme, are made
in the district of Valence the celebrated Hermitage red and white
Hermltaxf w ' nes - The quality of.some of these, particularly of the
1 ' sweet white wines, is considered very fine. The quantity
produced is very small. The red wines made at the present time are
after the style of Burgundy and possess good keeping qualities.
If we except the wines of Roussillon, produced in the old province
of that name, in the extreme south of France, the above constitute
MUI *^ e principal varieties of French wines known in the
United Kingdom. They form, however, but a small
fraction of the entire production of the country. The most prolific
viticultural district of France is that known as the Midi, comprising
the four departments of the Herault, Aude, Card, and the Pyrenees-
Orientales. Thus in 1901 the department of the Herault alone
produced nearly 300 million gallons of wine, or approximately a
quarter of the whole output of France. The average amount of
wine made in the four departments for the past three years has been
roughly 500 million gallons. These wines formerly were largely
exported as vin de cargaison to South America, the United States,
Australia, &c., and were also much employed for local consumption
in other parts of France. Owing, however, to the fact that viti-
culture has made much progress in South America, in California, in
Australia and particularly in Algeria, and also to the fact that the
quality of these Midi wines has fallen off considerably since the
phylloxera period, the outlet for them has become much reduced.
These and other reasons, notably the manufacture of much fictitious
wine with the aid of sugar (fortunately stopped by the rigid new wine
laws), led to the grave wine crisis, which almost amounted to a
revolution in the Midi in the spring and summer of 1907.
Viticulture has made great strides in Algeria during recent years.
The first impetus to this department was given by the destruction
Alrerla or cr "ppl' n g f many of the French vineyards during
the phylloxera period. The present output amounts to
roughly 150 million gallons, and the acreage under the vine has
increased from 107,048 hectares in 1890 to 167,657 hectares in 190$.
The wines, moreover, of Algeria are on the whole of decidedly fair
quality, possessing body and strength and also stability. In this
regard they are superior to the wines of the Midi.
WINES OF SPAIN
The wines of Spain may be regarded as second in importance
to those of France. Although the quantity produced is not so
large as in Italy, the quality on the whole is decidedly superior
to that of the latter country. There are three main types of
wine with which consumers in the United Kingdom are familiar,
namely Sherry, Tarragona (Spanish Port or Spanish Red) and
wines of a claret type. The trade with the United Kingdom is
of considerable proportions, the total quantity of Spanish wines
imported in 1906 amounting to 1,689,049 gallons of red wine (to
the value of 154,963), and white wines to the extent of 1,119,702
gallons (to the value of 242,877).
The most important wine produced in the province of Andalusia,
which is the chief vine-growing district of Spain, is that known to
s . us as sherry, so called from the town of Jerezde la Frontera,
which is the centre of the industry. Sherry is produced
in a small district bounded by San Lucar in the north-east, Jerez
in the east and Port St Mary on the south. The total viticultural
area amounts to about 20,000 acres. The soil is of very varying
nature, and consists in some districts of the so-called albariza (mainly
chalk with some sand and clay), in others of barros, which is mainly
sand cemented together with chalk and clay, and of arenas, which
consists of nearly pure sand. Most of the vineyards in the Jerez
district are upon albariza soil, those to the north and north-east
are mainly of barros, and those close to the seashore of arenas.
The dominating vine is the Palomino, which produces amontillados
and finos. Other important vines are the Perruno and the Mantua
Castellano. There is also a variety of Pedro-Ximenes, which,
however, is not used for making ordinary wine, but for the purpose
of preparing the so-called dulce, a very sweet must or wine, made
from over-ripe grapes, which, after fortification with spirit, is 1 em-
ployed for sweetening other wines. The process of vinification is
comparatively simple. The grapes are, after gathering, dusted over
with plaster of Paris, and then crushed by treading in a shallow
rectangular vessel termed the laear. The juice, which is so obtained
together with that which results from the pressing of the murk,
is fermented in much the same manner as is customary in other
countries. There are two main types of sherry known in the United
Kingdom, namely, those of the amontillado and those of the manzan-
itta classes. The former are generally sweet and full-bodied, the
latter light and dry. The mansanillas are mostly shipped in the
natural state, except for the addition of a small quantity of spirit.
The amontillados may be again divided into the finos and the olorosos,
the former being the more delicate. These distinctions are not of a
hard and fast character, for they frequently merely represent different
developments of the same wine. Thus, according to Thudicum, the
regular heavy sherry from albariza soil remains immature for a
number of years and then becomes a fino. After five to eight years
it may become an amontillado, and if it is left in cask and allowed to
develop, it will, after it attains an age of nine to fourteen years,
become an oloroso, and still later it may become a secco. In Jerez
itself a different classification, namely that according to quality and
not age, exists, which, however, is only employed locally. Thus the
term palma is applied to fine dry wines when in their second or
third years. These may be amontillados, but according to some
they never become olorosos. Then there are varieties known as
double and treble palma, and single, double and treble polo, the
latter being the finest form of oloroso. Then there is the quality of
wine termed raya. This is dry and sound, and forms a great part of
the sherry exported to the United Kingdom. The sweetness of the
sweet sherries is partly due to an inherent property of the wine
(apart from any sugar they may contain) and partly to natural or
added sugar. In some cases the fermentation of the must is stopped
by the addition of spirit before the whole of the saccharine is con-
verted, 1 and the wines so prepared retain a proportion of the sugar
naturally present in the must. In other cases dry wines are prepared
and sugar is added to them in the form of duke (see above). In
order to prevent refermentation it is then necessary to fortify these
wines with spirit. The standard of colour required for certain
quantities is maintained by the addition of color. The latter is
made by boiling wine down until it attains the consistency of a
liqueur. The great bulk of sherry shipped to the United Kingdom
is blended. The system of blending sherry in some respects recalls
that of the blending of Scotch whiskies. Wines of the same type are
stored in vats or soleras, and the contents of the soleras are kept as
far as possible up to a particular style of colour, flavour and sweet-
ness, yrior to snipment the contents of various soleras are blended
according to the nature of the article required.
In addition to the wines described above.there are others of a similar
nature grown in the vicinity, such as mantilla (made in Cordova)
and moguer (produced on the right bank of the Guadalquivir).
The bulk of the sherry imported into the United Kingdom still
consists of the heavier, fortified wines, varying in strength from
17 to 21 % of absolute alcohol, although the fiscal change introduced
in 1886, whereby wines not exceeding 30 proof (i.e. about 17% of
alcohol) were admitted at a duty of is. 3d., as against 33. for heavier
wines, naturally tended to promote the shipment of the lighter dry
varieties. In this connexion it is interesting to note that the im-
portation of sherry into the United Kingdom on a considerable
scale commenced in the 1 5th century, and that the wine shipped
at that time was of the dry variety. It seems possible that sherry
was the_ first wine known as sack in this country, but it is at least
doubtful whether this word is, as some contend, derived from seek
or sec, i.e. dry. According to Morewood it is more likely to have
come from the Japanese Sakt or Sacki (see SAKfi), derived in its turn
from the name of the city of Osaka.
^Chemically the sweet sherry differs from the natural dry light
wines in that it contains relatively high proportions of alcohol,
extractives, sugar and sulphates, and small quantities of acid and
glycerin. This is well illustrated by the following analysis :
Analysis of Sherry (Fresenius).
Alcohol
per cent
by vol.
Grams per Litre.
Extract.
Total
Acid.
Ash.
Glycerin.
Sugar.
Sulphates.
19-94
48-9
3-3
4-2
4-3
30-2
375
Malaga is a sweet wine (produced in the province of that name)
which is little known in England, but enjoys considerable favour on
the Continent. It is generally, as exported, a blend made M*lm
from vino dulce and vino secco, together with varying
quantities of vino maestro, vino tierno, arope and color. The vino
dulce and vino secco are both made as a rule from the Pedro Jimenez
(white) grape, the former in much the same way as the dulce which
is employed in the sherry industry, the latter by permitting fermenta-
tion to take its normal course. The vino maestro consists of must
which has only fermented to a slight degree and which has been
" killed " by the addition of about 17 % of alcohol. The vino tierno
is made by mashing raisins (6 parts) with water (2 parts) pressing,
and then adding alcohol (i part) to the must. Arope is obtained by
concentrating vino dulce to one-third, and color by concentrating the
arope over a naked fire. Malaga is therefore an interesting example
of a composite wine. Besides the sweet variety, a coarse dry wine
is also made, but this is little known abroad.
Another well-known wine district in the south of Spain is that of
Rota, where a sweet red wine, known in England as tent (tinto),
chiefly used for ecclesiastical purposes, is produced.
Wines of the Centre and North. While the most important Spanish
wines are those grown in the southern province of Andalusia, the
726
WINE
[PORTUGAL
central and northern districts also produce wine in considerable
quantity, and much of this is of very fair quality. Thus in the
central district of Val de Penas and in the Rioja region (situated
between Old Castile and Navarre) in the north-east are produced
red wines which in regard to vinosity, body and in some other respects
resemble the heavier clarets or burgundies of France although not
possessing the delicacy and elegance of the latter. They are shipped
in some quantity to the United Kingdom as Spanish " claret " or
Spanish " burgundy." The most important industry, outside the
southern districts, is, however, that in Catalonia, where, in the
neighbourhood of the town of that name, the wine known as Tarra-
gona or Spanish " port " is produced. The finest Tarragona (which
much resembles port) is made in the Priorato region, about 15 m.
inland.
WINES OF PORTUGAL
In the north-east of Portugal, not far from the town of Oporto
from which it takes its name and whence it is exported
is produced the wine, unique in its full-bodied and generous char-
acter, known as port.
Port is grown in the Alto Douro district, a rugged tract of land
some 30 to 40 m. long by 10 m. wide, which commences at a point
_ on the river Douro some 60 m. above Oporto. The
character of the Alto Douro is extremely mountainous
and rugged. J. L. W. Thudrchum, in his Treatise on Wines, gives a
striking and almost poetical description of it as compared with
Jerez. He says: "The vineyards of Jerez are so beautiful and
productive that they might well be termed the vineyards of Venus.
Undulating hills, easily accessible from all sides, are covered with a
luxurious growth of vines. . . . Very different is the aspect of the
Alto Douro. Here all is rock, gorge, almost inaccessible mountain,
precipice and torrent, while over or along all these rude features of
nature are drawn countless lines of stone walls by which man makes
or supports the soil in which the vines find their subsistence. ... I
thought that if Jerez was the vineyard of Venus, this Alto Douro
vineyard must be termed the vineyard of Hercules." The vine-
yards are, in fact, situated on artificially made terraces, supported
by walls on the mountain sides. If this were not the case the
heavy winter rains would wash away the soil. The climate of the
Alto Douro is very variable. Intense heat in summer is followed by
severe cold in winter. The soil is a peculiar clay-schist, on or
alternating with granite, and it is to the peculiar conditions of
climate and soil that port owes its remarkable qualities of colour,
body and high flavour. There appears to be no predominant and
distinct type of vine, such as is the case in other viticultural districts,
but a number of varieties, mostly yielding grapes of a medium size
are common to the Douro vineyards. The method of cultivation
is generally that of a rational low culture, and in this respect differs
from that employed in other parts of the country, where the vines are
either trained on trees or over trellis-work at some height from the
ground.
Vinification. The process of converting the Alto Douro grapes
into wine differs in some material particulars from those employed
elsewhere. The grapes are cut and then conveyed in baskets by the
Gallegos (as the labourers who come specially from Galicia in Spain
for this purpose are termed) to the winery. Here the stalks are
removed, generally by a machine similar to the French egrappoir,
and the grapes then placed in the lagar. This is a square stone
vessel of considerable size made to hold up to fifteen pipes (the pipe
equals 115 gallons) of wine. It is roughly 2 ft. deep and from 3 to
10 yds. wide. The grapes are first trodden for a periqd varying
from twenty-four hours upwards, and are then allowed to ferment
in the lagar itself. When the fermentation has reached a certain
point it is generally the custom to again tread the must in order
to extract as much colour as possible from the skins. In order to
preserve the sweet quality of the wine, fermentation is not permitted
to continue beyond a certain point. When this is reached the wine
is drawn from the lagar over a strainer or some similar arrangement
into vats yielding from five to thirty pipes. The murk remaining in
the lagar is then pressed by means of a lever or beam press with
which this vessel is fitted. In order to prevent the wine from fer-
menting further and so becoming dry, from 4 to 5 volumes of brandy
are added to every 100 volumes of wine in the vats. The alcohol
employed for this purpose is as a rule of high quality and made
solely from wine. When, after the approach of the cold weather,
the lees have dropped, the wines are racked and a further addition
of brandy is made. The second racking takes place in March or
April, and the wine is now placed in casks and sent to Oporto, where
it is stored in large over-ground buildings termed lodges. A further
addition of brandy is generally added before shipment. The great
bulk of the wine is stored for many years before shipping, but this
does not apply to the commoner varieties, nor to the finest wines,
which, being the produce of a specific year, are shipped unblended
and as a vintage wine. The most famous vintages of recent times
were those of 1847, 1851, 1863, 1868, 1870, 1873, 1878, 1881, 1884
and 1887. A white port is also made in the Alto Douro, and this,
although little known in England, is exported in considerable
quantities to Germany and Russia. The white port is grown in
vineyards which are not quite so favoured as regards position as
the red port growths. White port is made from white grapes, and a
peculiarity of its manufacture is that the must is frequently fermented
in the presence of the skins, which is most unusual in the case of
white wines. This gives a certain stringency to white port, which
is characteristic of the wine.
Diseases. The Alto Douro has from time to time been sadly
ravaged by the oidium and phylloxera. The former first made its
appearance about the middle of the igth century, and reached a
climax in 1856, when only about 15,000 pipes, that is, about one-
sixth of the usual quantity, was vintaged. In consequence of this,
the exportation of port dropped from over 40,000 pipes in 1856 to
about 16,000 pipes m 1858. Since then oidium has reappeared from
time to time, but the remedy of spraying with finely divided sulphur,
which was discovered at the time of the epidemic, has enabled the
wine farmers to keep it under. The phylloxera, which appeared in
Alto Douro in about 1868, also did enormous damage, and at one
time reduced the yield to about one-half of the normal. At one
time the position appeared to be desperate, particularly in view
of the fact that the farmers refused to believe that the trouble was
due to anything other than the continuous drought of successive
dry seasons, but at the present time, after much expenditure of
energy and capital, the condition of affairs is once more fairly
satisfactory.
Port Wine Trade. The port wine trade is of considerable import-
ance to the United Kingdom not only because the chief trade in this
wine is with that country, but also because a very large proportion
of the capital invested in the industry is English. It is probable
that the English capital locked up in the port industry amounts to
some 2 millions sterling. In the period preceding the 'seventies of
the last century practically the whole of the wine exported from
Oporto came to Great Britain. Thus in the year 1864 there were
exported to Great Britain 29,942 pipes and to the rest of the world
5677 pipes. The trade with the rest of the world, however, has
gradually grown since then, the figures being as follows :
Exports of Wine from Oporto.
Year.
To
Great Britain.
To Rest
of the World.
1874
1884
1898
1903
1906
Pipes.
35.753
30,281
4 1 .93
32,832
34,356
Pipes.
20,778
31,741
69,932
65,058
80,934
The growth of the export trade from Oporto with the rest of the
world is principally due to the enormous increase in the quantity of
wine sent to South America, chiefly Brazil, but only a small propor-
tion of this (probably one-eighth) is port wine proper. The bulk of
it consists of wine from the Minho and Beira districts. These facts
also account for the apparent anomaly that the exports from Oporto
are much higher than the total production of wine in the Alto Douro.
At the present time the average production of the Alto Douro is
about 50,000 pipes. During the last decade it was at a maximum in
1904, when 70,000 pipes were produced, and at a minimum in 1903,
when only 18,000 pipes were obtained. The value of the port taken
by the United Kingdom was in the year 1906 over one million sterling,
that is, rather less than half of the total value of all the French wines
imported, but more than double the value of the total of Spanish
wines.
The chemical features of interest in port are the relatively high
proportions of alcohol (the bulk of the wine imported into the United
Kingdom containing some 1 8 to 22% of alcohol), sugar and tannin.
The sugar varies considerably according to the vintage, but as a rule
amounts to from 7 % to 15 %.
Other Portuguese Wines. The wines of the Alto Douro only form
a small proportion of the total quantity of wine produced in Portugal.
The main wine-growing district outside that of Oporto is in the
neighbourhood of Lisbon. The chief varieties are those grown at
Torres Vedras, which are of a coarse claret type; at Collares, where
a wine of a somewhat higher quality is produced; at Carcayellos,
at the mouth of the Tagus; and at Bucellas. In the latter district
is produced a white wine from the Riessling grape, which is commonly
known in the United Kingdom as Bucellas Hock.
As far as the United Kingdom is concerned, the Madeira wine
industry is mainly of interest in that it was largely developed by
and is still chiefly in the hands of British merchants. M a a e ln
The shipments to the United Kingdom, however, which
reached a maximum in 1820, when over half a million gallons were
imported, has fallen off to one-tenth of that amount, and the con-
sumption in these islands was barely 20,000 gallons in 1906. This
falling away in the taste for Madeira is partly ascribable to fashion
and partly to the temporary devastation of the vineyards by the
phylloxera in the middle of last century. The re-establishment of
the vineyards and the consequent development of the industry did
not, however, lead to a renewal of the trade on the former scale with
this country. The output in 1906 amounted to 10,000 pipes (Madeira
GERMANY: ITALY]
WINE
727
pipe = 92 gallons) and the export to 6010 pipes, of which quantity
1951 pipes went to Germany, 1680 pipes to France, 796 pipes tc
Russia and 755 pipes to the United Kingdom. Madeira, like sherry
and port, is a fortified wine. The method of vinification is siniila
to that employed in other parts of Portugal, but the method employe<
for hastening the maturation of the wine is peculiar and character
i~-tu. This consists in subjecting the wine, in buildings specially
designed for this purpose, to a high temperature for a period of some
months. The temperature varies from 100 to 140 F. according
to the quality of the wine, the lower temperature being used for the
better wines. The buildings in which this process is carried out are
built of stone and are divided into compartments heated by means o
hot air derived from a system of stoves and flues. Much of the
characteristic flavour of Madeira is due to this practice, which
hastens the mellowing of the wine and also tends to check secondary
fermentation inasmuch as it is, in effect, a mild kind of pasteurization
WINES OF GERMANY
Although the quantity of wine produced in Germany is com-
paratively small and subject to great variations, the quality of the
finer wines is, in successful years, of a very high order. In fact
Germany is the only country which produces natural (i.e. un-
fortified) wines of so high a class as to be comparable with
although of an entirely different character from the wines
of France. The finer wines possess great breed and distinction,
coupled with a very fine and pronounced bouquet, and in addi-
tion they are endowed with the in the case of lighter wines
rare quality of stability. The great inequalities observed in the
different vintages and the exceptionally fine character of the
wines in good years are, generally, due to the same cause, namely,
to the geographical position of the vineyards. The wines of the
Rhine are grown in the most northerly latitude at which viti-
culture is successful in Europe, and consequently, when the
seasons are not too unpropitious, they display the hardiness and
distinction characteristic of northern products. During the
period 1891-1905 the total production of Germany has averaged
roughly 62 million gallons, attaining a maximum of in million
gallons in 1896 and a minimum of 16 million gallons in 1891.
The trade with the United Kingdom is now a very considerable
one, amounting in 1006 to roughly ij million gallons to the
value of three-quarters of a million sterling.
The wines grown in the Rheingau, Rheinhessen and in parts of the
Palatinate are generally known by the name of Rhine wines, although
Rhine many of these are actually produced on tributaries of
that river. Thus the well-known Hochheimer, from
which the curious generic term " hock " employed in
England for Rhine wines is derived, is made in the vicinity of the
little village of that name situated on the Main, a number of miles
above the junction of the latter with the Rhine. The Rheingau
district proper stretches along the north bank of the Rhine from
Bingen on the west to Mainz on the east. The most important
wines in this region are those of the Johannisberg and of the Stein-
berg. The vineyards of the former are said to nave been planted
originally in the I ith century, but were destroyed during the Thirty
Years' War. They were replanted by the abbot of Fulda in the i8th
century. During the French Revolution the property passed into
the hands of the prince of Orange, but after the battle of Jena,
Napoleon deprived him of it and presented it to Marshal Kellermann.
On the fall of Napoleon, the emperor of Austria took possession of
the vineyard and gave it to Prince Metternich. At the present time
the property still belongs to the descendants of the latter. The
vineyards of Steinberg belong to the state of Prussia. The vineyards
of these two properties are tended with extraordinary care, and the
wines, of which several qualities are made in each case, fetch ex-
ceedingly high prices. The finest wines are produced in a manner
somewhat similar to that employed for making the Sauternes.
The grapes are allowed to become over-ripe and are then selected by
hand. This process produces the so-called Auslese wines, which
frequently fetch as much as 305. or 403. a bottle. The other most
important wines produced in the Rheingau and its extensions are
those of Marcobrunn, Geisenheim, Rudesheim and Hochheim. The
"I 05 ' important wines produced in Rheinhessen (on the left bank of
the Rhine and south of the Rheingau) are those of Liebfraumilch,
Nierstem, Oppenheim, Bodenheim.Laubenheim and Scharlachberg.
In the Palatinate the most important growths are those of Forst,
IJeidesheim and Durkheim.
The wines of the Moselle are of a somewhat different character to
those of the Rhine. Whereas the Rhine wines of the finer descriptions
Mos-llc. are as a ru . le fair 'y ful1 bodied and of marked vinosity, the
Moselle wines are mostly light and of a somewhat delicate
nature. While the Rhine wines generally improve in bottle for a
lengthy period, the Moselles are as a rule at their best when com-
paratively fresh. Indeed, many connoisseurs hold that when a
Moselle ceases to show signs of the somewhat prolonged secondary
fermentation, characterized by the slight prickling sensation produced
on the palate (caused by the presence of bubbles of carbonic acid
gas in the wine), that it has passed its best. The best-known growths
of the Moselle are those of Brauneberg, Bernkastel, Piesport and
Zeltingen. Some of the tributaries of the Moselle also produce
wines which in quality approach those of the parent river. Among
these may be cited the growths of Scharzhofberg, Geisberg and
Bockstein.
Large quantities of wine are produced in Alsace-Lorraine, Baden
and Wurttemberg, but the majority of these have little interest,
inasmuch as they are used only for home consumption. Among the
wines, however, which are well known may be mentioned the
Franconian growths, amongst which the celebrated Stein wine,
which is grown at the foot of the citadel of the town of Wurzburg,
and in the grand duchy of Baden the celebrated growths of Affenthal
(red) and Markgrafler.
Practically all the important wines of Germany are white, although
there are a few red growths of some quality, for instance that of
Assmannshausen in the Rheingau. The latter is produced from the
black Burgundy vine, the Pineau. In the Rheingau the predominant
vine is the Riessling. This plant appears to be indigenous to the
Rhine valley, and the finest wines are made exclusively from its
grapes. In the hope of reproducing the characteristic of the Rhine
wines, the Riessling has been planted in many young wine-producing
countries, such as Australia, California and the Cape, and not entirely
without success. It thrives best on rocky mountain slopes freely
exposed to the sun, and requires a relatively high temperature to
reach perfect maturity. In the lower lands, therefore, it is customary
to plant, in addition to the Riessling, vines such as Osterreieher and
Kleinberger, which mature more readily than the former. Other
vines, such as the Orl&ns and the Trammer, are also found in small
quantities in the Rheingau. On the Moselle the Riessling and the
Kleinberger are the chief growths. The vintage on the Rhine is,
in order to permit the grapes to acquire the " over-ripeness " necessary
to the peculiar character of the wines, generally very late, rarely
taking place before the end of October. The process of vinification
is peculiar in that fermentation takes place in relatively small casks,
the result being that there are frequently marked differences in the
produce of the same growth and vintage.
The very great variations which are shown by the same growths
of different vintages makes it impracticable in the case of the German
white wines to give representative analyses of them. Comparing
the fine wines of the better vintages with, for instance, the red wines
of the Gironde, the main features of interest are the relatively high
proportions of acid and glycerin and the low proportion of tannin
which they contain.
WINES OF ITALY
Italy ranks second to France as regards the quantity of wine
produced, but in respect to quality a comparison is scarcely possible,
nasmuch as the Italian wines are on the whole of a poor character.
They display many of the features characteristic of southern wines,
showing either an excessive vinosity coupled with a somewhat crude
xmquet, or where the alcoholic strength is not high, a decided lack
of stability. The reason for this is to be sought partly in the un-
scientific methods of cultivation, and partly, in many districts, in
the haphazard methods of vinification employed. The vines are to
a great extent still trained on trees or trellis-work, or allowed to
jrow among the rest of the vegetation in the most casual manner.
It must be stated, nevertheless, that of recent years a decided im-
Drovement has set in in some quarters owing to the lively interest
which the Italian government has taken in the subject, principally
owing to the important export trade to America, Switzerlandl and
other countries. The trade with the United States, which in 1887
amounted to little over 120,000 gallons, has risen to considerably
over a million gallons. The exports to the Argentine Republic
amount to roughly 4 million gallons, and to Switzerland from 4 to 8
million gallons. The trade with the United Kingdom is small,
amounting to little over a quarter of a million gallons annually, and
of a value rather less than 50,000. The total exports of Italy are
on the average not far from 40 million gallons. The wines of northern
Italy are on the whole of good colour, but somewhat harsh. Among
:he best-known wines in Piedmont are the Barolos and the wines of
Asti, which are made from a species of muscatel grapes. They are
of an agreeable flavour, and this especially applies to the white de-
scriptions. A considerable quantity of sparkling wine is manu-
actured in this district. Among the best-known wines of Lombardy
are the Passella wines of Valtelina. In central Italy the best growths
.re those of Chianti, Pomino, Montalcino, Carmignano and Monte-
lulciano. Tuscany produces the greater part of these wines, which
_re of good but not excessive alcoholic strength, containing as a rule
some ioj% to ll}% of alcohol. The Montepulciano wines have a
>rilliant colour and high bouquet, and are of a sweet, luscious
flavour. The wines of Chianti, near Siena, are often described
is being of the claret type, but actually they are somewhat similar
o the growths of Beaujolais. The best Italian wines, however, are
Drobably those grown in the Neapolitan district. The best of these
s the celebrated Lacrima Christi, which is grown on the slopes of
WINE
[AUSTRIA: UNITED STATES
Vesuvius from a vine bearing the same name. It has a fine red
colour, and unites delicacy and a high bouquet with a sweet elegant
taste. The white muscat wines of Vesuvius are also of good quality,
and the island of Capri produces some excellent wine. Perhaps the
best known of Italian wines in the United Kingdom is that produced
in the neighbourhood of Marsala in the island of Sicily, which bears
the name of the town from which it is exported. Marsala is a
fortified white wine which is grown and made with considerable care.
It is somewhat similar in character to the wines of Madeira, but its
character also recalls some of the sherry types. It is vatted and
blended in much the same way as sherry, and there is a considerable
trade in this wine with the United Kingdom. In the neighbourhood
of Palermo, Muscat and Malvoisie wines of very fair quality are made.
The islands of Sardinia and Elba produce considerable quantities of
wine, some of which is of fair quality.
WINES OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
In point of quantity Austria-Hungary takes the fourth place among
the wine-producing nations. The average production for the period
1901-1905 was 178 million gallons. Of this quantity Austria is
responsible for roughly three-fifths and Hungary for the remaining
two-fifths. The character of the Hungarian wine is, however, much
higher than that of the Austrian growths. The quality of the bulk
of the Austro-Hungarian wines has been improved of late years,
principally owing to the endeavours of the respective governments to
introduce scientific and modern methods among the wine-farmers.
Since the recovery of the Hungarian vineyards from the phylloxera
considerable efforts have been made to develop an export trade, but
so far the wines of Hungary are not generally known in the United
Kingdom. Nevertheless, Hungary produces at least one class of
wine which may be considered of international importance, namely,
the famous Tokay. This is produced in the mountainous Hegyalia
region in a district which has the town of Tokay for its centre. The
vine from which Tokay is made is the Furmint. The finest varieties
of Tokay are made entirely or mainly from Furmint grapes which
have been allowed to become over-ripe in a manner somewhat
similar to that obtaining in the Sauternes districts. In the case of
Tokay, however, the transformation of the grape into what is
practically a raisin is not brought about by the intervention of any
particular micro-organism. The sun is sufficiently powerful to cause
the evaporation of the water in the grape through the skin without
any preliminary loosening of the latter by the action of the botrytis
cinerea or any other micro-organism. The most precious variety
of Tokay is the so-called essence. This is produced by placing the
finest grapes in casks and drawing off the juice which exudes naturally
as a result of the weight of the material. The Tokay essence is, even
after many years, still a partially fermented wine, rarely containing
more than 7 % to 9 % of alcohol. Indeed, it may be said that the
main fermentation rarely, if ever, reaches a climax. Another variety
of Tokay is the so-called szamorod. This is produced by pressing a
mixture of dried grapes and fully ripe grapes and fermenting the
must so obtained. It contains up to about 14% of alcohol and
relatively little sugar. The most common kind of Tokay is the so-
called Ausbruch wine. This is obtained by extracting dried grapes
with the must of ordinary grapes. According to the amount of
dried grapes (zibebs) employed, the wine is termed I to 5 " buttig."
The Ausbruch wines take from three to four years to ripen, and they
may contain from 12% to 15% of alcohol and a little or a fair
quantity of sugar, these factors varying according to the vintage
and the number of " butts " of zibebs employed. Another variety
of Tokay is the so-called mdslds. The term is applied to different
varieties of wines according to the district, but in the neighbourhood
of Tokay it generally refers to wines obtained by treating szamorod
or Ausbruch residues with dry wine. In the neighbourhood of M6nes
sweet red wines produced by the Ausbruch system are also termed
mdslds. Hungary produces a variety of other wines both strong,
such as those of central Hungary, and relatively light, such as those
of Croatia and Transylvania. The wines produced at Carlowitz (on
the Danube), some 40 m. north-west of Belgrade, are somewhat
stronger. They have a flavour somewhat resembling port, but are
coarser, and lack the fine bouquet of the latter. The other chief
vine-growing countries of the empire are Dalmatia, Lower Austria
and Styria. Some of the Dalmatian wines are of fair quality, and
somewhat resemble Burgundy.
WINES OF THE UNITED STATES
The cultivation of the vine has made very rapid strides in the
United States during the past half-century. Whereas in 1850 the
production amounted to little more than a million gallons, the output
to-day is, in good years, not far short of 50 million gallons. The
result has been that the domestic wines have now very largely
displaced the foreign product for ordinary beverage purposes. At
the same time, there is no reason to believe that the finer European
wines will be entirely displaced, inasmuch as these are characterized
by qualities of delicacy and breed which cannot be reproduced at
will. At the same time, there is no doubt that much of the wine
produced in the United States is of very fair quality, and this is
largely due to the fact that the Americans have been at great pains
to introduce the latest scientific methods in regard to the vine and
wine-making. Thus in parts of California, where high temperatures
are liable to prevail during the vintage, the system first employed
in Algeria of cooling the must during fermentation to the proper
temperature by means of a series of pipes in which iced water circu-
lates is now largely employed. The use of pure culture yeast derived
from many of the most famous European vineyards has also done
much towards improving the quality. In California there are, in
addition to the native growths, vines from almost every European
wine-growing centre, and the produce of these goes by such names as
Riesling, Hermitage, Sauternes, Chianti, &c., in accordance with
the district of origin of the vine. California is the largest wine-
growing state, as the Pacific slope seems particularly suitable to
vine-growing. At the present time there are about 280,000 acres
under the vine in California, and the number of vines is about 90
millions. The annual production is about 30 million gallons, of
which rather more than one-half is dry wine. A good deal of sweet
wine is also made, particularly in the Fresno district, where, however,
a large proportion of the grapes is grown with a view to making
raisins. Following California, New York and Ohio are the most
important wine-producing states. The centre of the wine trade of
Ohio is at Sandusky on the shores of Lake Erie. Here, as well as at
Cleveland, " champagnes " and " clarets " and " sparkling Catawba "
are the chief wines produced. The latter was first made by Nicolas
Longworth of Cincinnati. The Catawba is the chief growth of the
Lake Erie district; the other important vines being the Delaware
and Concord. New York state, in which wine has been grown from
a very early period, produces roughly three-quarters of all the
domestic " champagnes." There are about 75,000 acres under the
vine in this state, and roughly 5 million gallons are produced annually.
The wines grown on the Pacific slope are generally of a mild and
sweet character, resembling in general nature the wines of southern
Europe (Italy, Spain, Portugal). In the eastern and middle states
the wines produced are of a lighter type and of drier flavour, and are
somewhat similar to the growths of Germany and France. At the
present time America exports a considerable quantity of wine, and
there is some trade in the United Kingdom in Calif ornian " claret."
WINES OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE
The production of the British empire is very small, amounting to
roughly 10 million gallons, and this is produced almost entirely in
the Cape of Good Hope and in the Australian Commonwealth. At
present the average vintage of the Cape and of Australia is in each
case roughly 5 to 6 million gallons. In 1905 New South Wales pro-
duced 831,000, Victoria 1,726,000, and South Australia 2,846,000
gallons respectively. The trade of Australia with the United
Kingdom is now considerable, having increased from 168,188 gallons
in 1887 to 622,836 gallons in 1906. It is possible that the trade
would grow much more rapidly than it has done if it were practicable
to ship the lighter varieties of wines. These, which would be suitable
for ordinary beverage purposes, cannot as a rule stand the passage
through the Red Sea, and it is therefore only possible to ship the
heavier or fortified wines. It is doubtful, therefore, whether the
products of the British Empire will ever displace European wines
in the United Kingdom on a really large scale, for they cannot
compete at present as regards quality with the finer wines of Europe,
nor, for the reason stated, with the lighter beverage wines. The
quality of the wine produced in the Cape and in Australia has im-
proved very much of recent years, chiefly owing to the introduction
of scientific methods of wine cultivation and of wine-making in
much the same manner as has been the case in California. The
red wines of Australia, particularly those of South Australia, some-
what resemble French wines, being intermediate between claret and
burgundy as regards their principal characteristics. There are
several types of white wines, some resembling French Sauternes
and Chabhs and others the wines of the Rhine. It has been recog-
nized, however, that it is impossible to actually reproduce the
character of the European wines, and it is now generally held to be
desirable to recognize the fact that Australian and Cape wines repre-
sent distinct types, and to sell them as such without any reference
to the European parent types from which they have been derived.
OTHER COUNTRIES
Considerable quantities of wine are produced in the Balkan states,
but the bulk of this is of a coarse description and only fit for local
consumption. The average yield of Bulgaria and Rumania is prob-
ably some 30 to 40 million gallons for each country, but in some years
it is much larger. Thus in 1896 Rumania produced no less than 101
million gallons and Bulgaria 81 million gallons. The wine industry
in Greece, which in ancient times and during the middle ages was
of great importance, has now become, at any rate in point of quality,
quite insignificant. At the present time a great part of the industry
is devoted to the cultivation of the currant vine (Vitis corinthiaca).
There is a considerable export of currants and raisins and con-
centrated wine must from this country. Many of the islands of
the Mediterranean, from which the ancients drew their supplies of
wine, such as Chios, Cos, Tenedos, Crete and Cyprus, still produce
considerable quantities of wine, but the bulk of this is scarcely to
the modern European taste. In Asia wine is produced, according to
Thudichum, principally in Caucasia and Armenia. In Persia, also,
wines are made, especially in the Shiraz district. Russia also pro-
duces a small quantity of wine, principally in the Crimea. (P.S.)
WINEBRENNER WINGATE
729
WINEBRENNER, JOHN (1797-1860), American clergyman,
founder of the " Church of God," was born in Glade Valley,
Frederick county, Maryland, on the 25th of March 1797. He
studied at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, was ordained
in the German Reformed Church in 1820 and became a pastor
:it I larrisburg, Pennsylvania, where his revival preaching and his
Krvival Hymn-Book (1825) brought about a break between his
followers and the Reformed Church. In 1830 he founded the
Church of God (whose members are commonly called Wine-
brennerians) ; he was speaker of its conference and edited its
organ, The Church Advocate, until his death in Harrisburg on
the 1 2th of September 1860. He wrote Brie} Views of the
Church of God (1840); A Treatise on Regeneration (1844);
Doctrinal and Practical Sermons (1860); and with I. B. Rupp,
The History of all the Religious Denominations in the United
.V/.J/C5 (1844).
The Church of God has three sacraments : baptism (by immersion),
feet washing and the Lord's Supper (administered to Christians
only, in a sitting posture, and in the evening) ; it is generally Ar-
minian and pre-millenarian, and in government has local elders and
deacons, an annual eldership composed of pastors and lay elders, and,
chosen by (and from) the annual elderships, a general eldership
which meets since 1905 once in four years. The denomination in
1906 numbered 518 organizations and 24,356 communicants, in the
following states: Pennsylvania (11,157), Ohio (2980), Indiana
i), Illinois (1555), Maryland (1204), Missouri (1053), Iowa. West
Virginia, Arkansas, Kansas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Michigan, Wash-
ington, Oregon and Minnesota. Under the general eldership are:
Findlay College, Findlay, Ohio; Fort Scott Collegiate Institute, Fort
Scott, Kansas; and an academy at Barkeyville, Pennsylvania.
Some foreign missionary work is done in Bengal.
WINER, GEORG BENEDIKT (1789-1858), German Pro-
testant theologian, was born at Leipzig on the I3th of April
1789. He studied theology at Leipzig, where eventually (1832)
he became professor ordinarius. From 1824 to 1830 he edited
with J. G. V. Engelhardt the Neues kritisches Journal der theo-
logischen Literatur, and alone from 1826 to 1832 the Zeitschrift
fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie. He is well known as the author
of a Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Sprachidioms (1821,
8th ed. revised by P. W. Schmiedel, 1894 ff.), of which several
translations have appeared, the latest being by W. F. Moulton
(1870, 3rd ed. 1882). He died on the i2th of May 1858.
His other works include : Komparative Darstellung des Lehrbegriffes
der verschiedenen christlichen Kirchenparieien (1824; 4th ed. by
P. Ewald, 1882; Eng. trans. 1873), Biblisches Realworterbuch (1820;
3rd ed. 1847-1848, 2 vols.), Grammatik des bibliichen und targumischen
Chaldaismus (1824; 3rd ed. by B. Fischer, Chalddische Grammatik
fur Bibel und Talmud, 1882; Eng. trans. 1845) and a useful Hand-
buck der theologischen Literatur (1820; 3rd ed. 1838-1840, 2 vols.;
supplement, 1842). Cf. W. Schmidt, " Zum Gedachtnis Dr G. B.
Winers," in the Beitrdge zur sdchsischen Kirchengeschichte.
WINE-TABLE, a late iSth-century device for facilitating
after-dinner drinking the cabinetmakers called it a " Gentle-
man's Social Table." It was always narrow and of semicircular
or horseshoe form, and the guests sat round the outer circum-
ference. In the earlier and simpler shapes metal wells for bottles
and ice were sunk in the surface of the table; they were fitted
with brass lids. In later and more elaborate examples the tables
were fitted with a revolving wine-carriage, bottle-holder or tray
working upon a balanced arm which enabled the bottles to be
passed to any guest without shaking. The side opposite the
guests was often fitted with a network bag. It has been con-
jectured that this bag was intended to hold biscuits, but it is
much more likely that its function was to prevent glasses and
bottles which might be upset from falling to the floor. That
the wine-table might be drawn up to the fire in cold weather
without inconvenience from the heat it was fitted with curtains
hung upon a brass frame and running upon rings. Sometimes
the table was accompanied by a circular bottle-stand supported
OH a tripod into which the bottles were deeply sunk to preserve
them from the heat of the fire. Yet another form was circular
with a socket in the centre for the bottle. Wine-tables followed
the fashion of other tables and were often inlaid with wood or
brass. They are now exceedingly scarce.
WINFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Cowley county,
Kansas, U.S.A., in the S. part of the state, on the Walnut river,
about 40 m. S.S.E. of Wichita. Pop. (1800) 5184; (1900)
5554, of whom 203 were foreign born and 282 were negroes;
(1905) 7845; (1910) 6700. Itisserved by the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa Fe, the Missouri Pacific, and the St Louis & San Francisco
railways, and is connected by electric line with Arkansas City,
Arkansas. In the city are St John's Lutheran College (1893),
the South-west Kansas College (Methodist Episcopal, opened in
1886), St Mary's Hospital and Training School (1898), Winfield
Hospital (1900), a Lutheran orphans' home and a State School
for Feeble-minded Youth. Island Park (50 acres) is the meeting-
place of a summer Chautauquk. Winfield is a supply and dis-
tributing point for a rich farming country, in which large
quantities of wheat and alfalfa are raised. Limestone is quarried
near the city, and natural gas is found in the vicinity and piped
in from eastern fields for general use in the city. The munici-
pality owns and operates the waterworks and the electric -lighting
plant. Winfield was settled in 1870 and incorporated in 1871.
WINGATE, SIR FRANCIS REGINALD (1861- ), British
general and administrator in the Sudan, was born at Broadfield,
Renfrewshire, on the 25th of June 1861, being the seventh son
of Andrew Wingate of Glasgow and Elizabeth, daughter of
Richard Turner of Dublin. He was educated at the Royal
Military Academy, Woolwich, and became a lieutenant in the
Royal Artillery in 1880. He served in India and Aden, 1881-
1883, and in the last-named year joined the Egyptian army on
its reorganization by Sir Evelyn Wood, and in the Gordon Relief
Expedition of 1884-1885 was A.D.C. and military secretary to
Sir Evelyn. For his services he received the brevet rank of
major. After holding an appointment in England for a brief
period he rejoined the Egyptian army in 1886. He took part
in the operations on the Sudan frontier in 1889, including the
engagement at Toski and in the further operations in 1891,
being present at the capture of Tokar. In 1894 he was governor
of Suakin. His principal work was in the Intelligence branch
of the service, of which he became director in 1892. A master
of Arabic, his knowledge of the country, the examination of
prisoners, refugees and others from the Sudan, and the study of
documents captured from the Dervishes enabled him to publish
in 1891 Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan, an authoritative
account of the rise of the Mahdi and of subsequent events in
the Sudan up to that date. Largely through his instrumentality
Father Ohrwalder and two nuns escaped from Omdurman in
1891. Wingate also made the arrangements which led to the
escape of Slatin Pasha in 1895. The English versions of Father
Ohrwalder's narrative (Ten Years in the Mahdi' s Camp, 1892)
and of Slatin's book (Fire and Sword in the Sudan, 1896) were
from Wingate's pen, being rewritten from a rough translation
of the original German.
As director of military intelligence he served in the campaigns
of 1896-1898 which resulted in the reconquest of the Sudan,
including the engagement at Firket, the battles of the Atbara
and Omdurman and the expedition to Fashoda. In an interval
(March- June 1897) he went to Abyssinia as second in command
of the Rennell Rodd mission. For his services he was made
colonel, an extra A.D.C. to Queen Victoria, received the thanks
of parliament and was created K.C.M.G. Wingate was in com-
mand of an expeditionary force which in November 1899 defeated
the remnant of the Dervish host at Om Debreikat, Kordofan,
the khalifa being among the slain. For this achievement he
was made K.C.B. In December of the same year, on Lord
Kitchener being summoned to South Africa, Sir Reginald
Wingate succeeded him as governor-general of the Sudan and
sirdar of the Egyptian army. His administration of the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was conspicuously successful, the country,
after the desolation of the Mahdia, rapidly regaining a measure
of prosperity. In 1903 he was raised to the rank of major-general
and in 1908 became lieutenant-general. He was also created a
pasha and in 1905 received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from
Oxford University. In 1909, at the request of the British
government, Wingate undertook a special mission to Somaliland
to report on the military situation in connexion with the proposed
evacuation of the interior of the protectorate.
730
WINGFIELD, E. M. WINKELRIED
WINGFIELD, EDWARD MARIA (c. is6o-c. 1614), English
colonist in America, was born at Stoneley, Huntingdonshire,
about 1560. He served as a soldier both in Ireland and the Low
Countries, was one of the patentees of Virginia in 1606, and in
1607 accompanied the first colonists to Jamestown. He was
elected president of the Council (isth May 1607), but his arbitrary
manners, the fact that he was a Roman Catholic, and the
suspicion that he was friendly toward Spain led to his deposition
in September. He returned to England in April 1608, and
died after 1613.
His amplified diary, entitled " A Discourse of Virginia," was pub-
lished in Archaeologia Americana, vol. iv. (Worcester, 1860), with
introduction and notes by Charles Deane.
WINGFIELD, SIR RICHARD (c. 1460-1525), English diplo-
matist, was one of the twelve or thirteen sons of Sir John Wing-
field (d. 1481) of Letheringham, Suffolk. He became a courtier
during the reign of Henry VII. and was made marshal of Calais
in 1511. With Sir Edward Poynings and others he was sent in
1512 to arrange a holy league between the pope, the English
king and other sovereigns, and in 1514 he went to the Nether-
lands to try and arrange a marriage between the archduke
Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles V., and Henry VIII. 's
daughter Mary. In the intervals between these and similar
errands Wingfield was occupied in discharging his duties at
Calais, but in 1519 he resigned his post there and returned to
England. In 1520 Sir Richard was appointed ambassador to
the French court, and he helped to make the arrangements for
the meeting between Henry VIII. and Francis I. at the Field
of the Cloth of Gold. Twice during 1521 he visited Charles V.,
his object being to deter him from making war on France, and
he was on an errand to Spain when he died at Toledo on the 22nd
of July 1525. In 1524 he had been made chancellor of the duchy
of Lancaster. For his services Wingfield received lands in various
parts of England, including Kimbolton in Huntingdonshire,
where he enlarged the castle.
Sir Richard had two brothers who attained some celebrity:
Sir Robert (c. 1464-1539), a diplomatist, and Sir Humphrey
(d. 1545), speaker of the House of Commons from 1533 to 1536.
An elder brother, Sir John, sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk in 1483,
had a son Sir Anthony (c. 1458-1552), who was present at the
Field of the Cloth of Gold, and became a member of the privy
council and captain of the guard. One of his grandsons, Anthony
Wingfield (c. isso-c. 1615), was public orator in the university
of Cambridge, and another was Sir John Wingfield (d. 1596),
a soldier who was governor of Gertruydenberg from 1587 and
1589. Another of Sir Anthony's descendants, Sir Anthony
Wingfield (d. 1638), was created a baronet in 1627. Another
brother of Sir Richard, Ludovic, had a son, Sir Richard Wingfield,
who was governor of Portsmouth under Queen Elizabeth. He
was the father of another Sir Richard Wingfield (d. 1634), who
served in Ireland and was created Viscount Powerscourt in 1618.
He died without issue, and his Irish estates passed to a cousin,
Sir Edward Wingfield (d. 1638), whose grandson, Folliott Wing-
field (d. 1717), was created Viscount Powerscourt in 1665, but
the title again became extinct when he died. In 1744 his cousin,
Richard Wingfield (1697-1751), was created Viscount Powers-
court, and his descendants have held this title until the present
day. Mervyn Wingfield (1836-1904), the 7th viscount, was
created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Powerscourt
in 1885.
See Lord Powerscourt, Muniments of the Ancient Family of
Wingfield (1894).
WINKELMANN, EDUARD (1838-1896), German historian,
was bom at Danzig on the 25th of June 1838. He studied at
the universities of Berh'n and Gottingen, worked at the Monu-
menla Germaniae historica, and in 1869 became professor of
history at the university of Bern, and four years later at Heidel-
berg. He also spent some time in Russia, teaching at Reval
and at the university of Dorpat. He died at Heidelberg on the
loth of February 1896.
Winkelmann wrote a Geschichte der Angelsachsen bis zum Tode
Konig Mlfreds (Berlin, 1883); and his residence in Russia induced
him to compile a Bibliotheca Livoniae historica (St Petersburg, 1869-
1870, and Berlin, 1878) ; but his chief works deal with the history of
the Empire during the later middle ages. The most important of
these are: Phtiipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von Braunschweig
(Leipzig. 1873-1878). Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II. und seiner
Reiche 1212-1235 (Berlin, 1863) and 1235-1250 (Reval, 1865),
Kaiser Friedrich II. (Leipzig, 1889-1898) and other writings on
Frederick in the Jahrbucher der deutschen Geschichte (Leipzig, 1862
fol.). He edited the Acta imperil inedita (Innsbruck, 1880-1885),
and with J. Ficker, Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter Wilhelm,
Alfons X. und Richard (Innsbruck, 1882, 1901). Among Winkel-
mann's other works are Allgemeine Verfassungsgeschichte (Leipzig,
1901) and the Urkundenbuch der Universitdt Heidelberg (Heidelberg
1886).
WINKELRIED, ARNOLD VON. The incident with which
this name is connected is, after the feat of William Tell, the best
known and most popular in the early history of the Swiss Con-
federation. We are told how, at a critical moment in the great
battle of Sempach, when the Swiss had failed to break the serried
ranks of the Austrian knights, a man of Unterwalden, Arnold
von Winkelried by name, came to the rescue. Commending
his wife and children to the care of his comrades, he rushed
towards the Austrians, gathered a number of their spears to-
gether against his breast, and fell pierced through and through,
having opened a way into the hostile ranks for his fellow-country-
men, though at the price of his own life. But the Tell and Win-
kelried stories stand in a very different position when looked at
in the dry light of history, for, while in the former case imaginary
and impossible men (bearing now and then a real historical
name) do imaginary and impossible deeds at a very uncertain
period, in the latter we have some solid ground to rest on, and
Winkelried's act might very well have been performed, though,
as yet, the amount of genuine and early evidence in support of
it is very far from being sufficient.
The history of the Winkelrieds of Stans from 1248 to 1534
has been minutely worked out from the original documents
by Hermann von Liebenau, in a paper published in 1854, and
reprinted at Aarau in 1862, with much other matter, in his
book, Arnold von Winkelried, seine Zeit und seine That. They
were a knightly family when we first hear of them about 1250,
though towards the end of the I4th century they seem to have
been but simple men without the honours of knighthood, and not
always using their prefix " von." Among its members we find
an Erni Winkelried acting as a witness to a contract of sale on
the ist of May 1367, while the same man, or perhaps another
member of the family, Erni von Winkelried, is plaintiff in a suit
at Stans on the 29th of September 1389, and in 141 7 is the landam-
man (or head man) of Unterwalden, being then called Arnold
Winkelriet. We have, therefore, a real man named Arnold Win-
kelried living at Stans about the time of the battle of Sempach.
The question is thus narrowed to the points, Was he present at
the battle, and did he then perform the deed commonly attri-
buted to him ? This involves a minute investigation of the history'
of that battle, to ascertain if there are any authentic traces of
this incident, or any opportunity for it to have taken place.
1. Evidence of Chronicles. The earliest known mention of the
incident is found in a Zurich chronicle (discovered in 1862 by
G. von Wyss), which is a copy, made in 1476, of a chronicle written
in or at any rate not earlier than 1438, though it is wanting in the
16th-century transcript of another chronicle written in 1466, which
up to 1389 closely agrees with the former. It appears in the well-
known form, but the hero is stated to be ein getruwer man under
den Eidgenozen, no name being given, and it seems clear that his
death did not take place at that time. No other mention has
been found in any of the numerous Swiss or Austrian chronicles
till we come to the book De Helvetiae origine, written in 1538 by
Rudolph Gwalther (Zwingli's son-in-law), when the hero is still
nameless, being compared to Decius or Codrus, but is said to have
been killed by his brave act. Finally, we read the full story in
the original draft of Giles Tschudi's chronicle, where the hero is
described as " a man of Unterwalden, of the Winkelried family,"
this being expanded in the final recension of the chronicle (1564)
into " a man of Unterwalden, Arnold von Winckelried by name, a
brave knight," while he is entered (in the same book, on the authority
of the " Anniversary Book " of Stans, now lost) on the list of those
who fell at Sempach at the head of the Nidwalden (or Stans) men as
" Herr Arnold von Winckelriet, Ritter," this being in the first draft
" Arnold Winckelriet."
2. Ballads. There are several war songs on the battle of Sempach
which have come down to us, but in one only is there mention of
WINNIPEG
731
Winkelried and his deed. This is a long ballad of 67 four-line stanzas,
part of which (including the Winkelried section) is found in the
additions made between 1531 and 1545 to Etterlin's chronicle by
H. Berlinger of Basel, and the whole in Werner Steiner's chronicle
(written 15:52). It is agreed on all sides that the last stanza, attribut-
ing the authorship to Halbsuter of Lucerne, " as he came back from
the battle," is a very late addition. Many authorities regard it as
made up of three distinct songs (one of which refers to the Battle and
Winkelried), possibly put together by the younger Halbsuter (citizen
of Lucerne in 1435, died between 1470 and 1480), though others
contend that the Sempach-Winkelried section bears clear traces of
having been composed after the Reformation began, that is, about
1520 or 1530. Some recent discoveries have proved that certain
statements in the song usually regarded as anachronisms are quite
accurate; but no nearer approach has been made towards fixing its
exact date, or that of any of the three bits into which it has been cut
up. In this song the story appears in its full-blown shape, the name
of Winckelriet being given.
3. Lists of those who fell at Sempach. We find in the " Anni-
versary Book " of Emmetten in Unterwalden (drawn up in 1560)
the name of " der Winkelriedt " at the head of the Nidwalden men;
and in a book by Horolanus, a pastor at Lucerne (about 1563),
that of " Erni Winckelried " occurs some way down the list of
Unterwalden men.
4. Pictures and Drawings. In the MS. of the chronicle of Die-
bold Schilling of Bern (c. 1480) there is in the picture of the battle
of Sempach a warrior pierced with spears falling to the ground,
which may possibly be meant for Winkelried ; while in that of
Diebold Schilling of Lucerne (1511), though in the text no allusion
is made to any such incident, there is a similar picture of a man who
has accomplished Winkelried's feat, but he is dressed in the colours
of Lucerne. Then there is an engraving in Stumpf's chronicle (1548),
and, finally, the celebrated one by Hans Rudolf Manuel (1551),
which follows the chronicle of 1476 rather than the ballad.
The story seems to have been first questioned about 1850 by
Mpritz von Stiirler of Bern, but the public discussion of the subject
originated with a lecture by O. Lorenz on Leopold III. und die
Schweizer Bunde, which he delivered in Vienna on March 21, 1860.
This began the lively paper war humorously called " the second war
of Sempach," in which the Swiss (with but rare exceptions) main-
tained the historical character of the feat against various foreigners
Austrians and others.
Most of the arguments against the genuineness of the story have
been already more or less directly indicated, (i) There is the
total silence of all the old Swiss and Austrian chroniclers until 1538,
with the solitary exception of the Zurich chronicle of 1476 (and this
while they nearly all describe the battle in more or less detail). The
tale, as told in the 1476 chronicle, is clearly an interpolation, for it
comes immediately after a distinct statement that " God had helped
the Confederates, and that with great labour they had defeated the
knights and Duke Leopold," while the passage immediately following
joins on to the former quite naturally if we strike out the episode of
the " true man," who is not even called Winkelried. (2) The date of
the ballad is extremely uncertain, but cannot be placed earlier than
at least 60 or 70 years after the battle, possibly 130 or 140, so that its
claims to be regarded as embodying an oral contemporary tradition
are of the slightest. (3) Similar feats have been frequently recorded,
but in each case they are supported by authentic evidence which is
lacking in this case. Five cases at least are known: a follower of
the count of Hapsburg, in a skirmish with the Bernese in 1271 ;
Stuljnger of Ratisbon (Regensburg) in 1332, in the war of the count
of Kyburg against the men of Bern and Solothurn; Conrad Royt of
Lucerne, at Nancy in 1477 ; Henri Wolleben, at Frastanz in 1499, in
the course of the Swabian War; and a man at the battle of Kappel
in 1531. (4) It is argued that the course of the battle was such that
there was little or no chance of such an act being performed, or, if
performed, of having turned the day. This argument rests on the
careful critical narrative of the fight constructed by Herr Kleissner and
Herr Hartmann from the contemporary accounts which have come
down to us, in which the pride of the knights, their heavy armour,
the heat of the July sun, the panic which befell a sudden part of the
Austrian army, added to the valour of the Swiss, fully explain the
complete rout. Herr Hartmann, too, points out that, even if the
knights (on foot) had been ranged in serried ranks, there must have
been sufficient space left between them to allow them to move their
arms, and therefore that no man, however gigantic he might have
been, could have seized hold of more than half a dozen spears at once.
Herr K. Burkli (Der wahre Winkelried, die Taktik der alien
Urschioeizer, Zurich, 1886) has put forth a theory of the battle
which is, he allows, opposed to all modern accounts, but entirely
agrees, he strongly maintains, with the contemporary authorities.
According to this the fight was not a pitched battle but a surprise,
the Austrians not having had time to form up into ranks. Assuming
this, and rejecting the evidence of the 1476 chronicle as an inter-
polation and full of mistakes, and that of the song as not proved to
have been in existence before 1531, Herr Hiirkli comes to the startling
conclusion that the phalanx formation of the Austrians, as well as the
name and act of Winkelried, have been transferred to Sempach from
the fight of Bicocca, near Milan (April 27, 1522), where a real leader
of the Swiss mercenaries in the pay of France, Arnold Winkelried,
really met his death in very much the way that his namesake
perished according to the story. Herr Burkli confines his criticism
to the first struggle, in which alone mention is made of the driving
back of the Swiss, pointing out also that the chronicle of 1476 and
other later accounts attribute to the Austrians the manner of attack
and the long spears which were the special characteristics of Swiss
warriors, and that if Winkelried were a knight (as is asserted by
Tschudi) he would have been clad in a coat of mail, or at least had a
breastplate, neither of which could have been pierced by hostile
lances.
Whatever may be thought of this daring theory, it seems clear
that, while there is some doubt as to whether such an act as Winkel-
ried's was possible at Sempach, taking into account the known
details of the battle, there can be none as to the utter lack of any
early and trustworthy evidence in support of his having performed
that act in that battle. It is quite conceivable that such evidence
may later come to light ; for the present it is wanting.
AUTHORITIES. See in particular Theodor von Liebenau's Die
Schlacht bei Sempach Gedenkbuch zur funften Sdcularfeter (1886).
published at the expense of the government of Lucerne. This
contains every mention or description of the battle or of anything
relating to it, published or unpublished, in prose or in verse, com-
posed within 300 years after the battle, and is a most marvellous
and invaluable collection of original materials, in which all the
evidence for Winkelried's deed has been brought together in a handy
shape. Besides the works mentioned in the text, and the life of
Winkelried by W. Oechsli in vol. liii. of the Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie, the following are the most noteworthy publications
relating to this controversy. In support of Winkelried's act: G. v.
Wyss, uber eine Zurcher-Chronik aus dem i$ten Jahrhundert (Zilrich,
1862); A. Daguet, "La Question de Winkelried," in the Musee
Neuch&telois for December 1883; G. H. Ochsenbein, " Die Winkel-
riedfrage," in the Sonntagsblatt of the Bund newspaper for January
and February 1879; A. Bernoulli, Winkelrieds That bei Sempach
(Basel, 1886); W. Oechsli, Zur Sempacher Schlachtfeier (Zurich,
1886); E. Secretan, Sempach et Winkelried (Lausanne, 1886); and
the summary in K. Dandliker's larger Geschichte der Schweiz, i. 550-
559 (3rd ed., Zurich, 1893). Against Winkelried's claims we have
the remarkable study of O. Kleissner, Die Quetten zur Sempacher
Schlacht und die Winkelriedsage (Gottingen, 1873) ; O. Hartmann,
Die Schlacht bei Sempach (Frauenfeld. 1886); and the concise sum-
mary of the evidence given by M. v. Stiirler (the first to suspect the
story) in the Anzeigerfur Schweiz. Geschichte (1881), 392-394.
(W. A. B. C.)
WINNIPEG, the capital of Manitoba, and chief city of Western
Canada. It is situated at the junction of the Assiniboine and
Red rivers in the middle of a wide plain. The river valley, being
of exceptional richness, early attracted the traders, and so in the
beginning of the igth century gained the attention of Lord Selkirk,
a benevolent Scottish nobleman who sent out in 1811-1815
several hundreds of Highland settlers. On the site at the junction
of the two rivers where Verandreye, the first white explorer to
visit the Red river, had three-quarters of a century before this
time erected Fort Rouge, and where some ten years earlier in
the century the Nor'-Westers of Montreal had erected Fort
Gibraltar, the Hudson's Bay Company, which at the time Lord
Selkirk and his friends controlled, erected Fort Douglas, bearing
the family name of the colonizer. After bloodshed between the
rival fur companies, and their union in 1821, Fort Garry was
erected, as a trading post and settlers' depot, and with some-
what elaborate structure, with stone walls, bastions and port-
holes. Fort Garry (2) was erected at a considerable cost in 1835.
A short distance north of this fort, about the year 1860, the first
house on the plain was erected, and to the hamlet rising there was
given the name of the lake 45 m. north, Winnipeg (Cree, Win,
murky; nipiy, water). The name referred to the contrast
between its water and that of the transparent lakes to the
east. For ten years the hamlet grew though very slowly, it
being more than four hundred miles from St Paul, the nearest
town in Minnesota, to the south. The fur-traders did not seek
to increase its size. When the transfer of Rupert's Land took
place to Canada in 1870, the governor of Assiniboia had his
residence at Fort Garry, and here was the centre of government
for the settlers over the area surrounding Fort Garry. Its
acquisition by Canada and the influx of settlers from Eastern
Canada led to the greater importance of Winnipeg, as the new
town was now generally called. The establishment of Dominion
government agencies, the formation of a local government,
the machinery required for the government of the province,
the influx of a small army of surveyors who mapped out and
surveyed wide districts of the country, and the taking up of
732
WINNIPEG WINONA
free lands in all directions by Canadian settlers, all tended to build
up the hamlet of Winnipeg into a considerable town.
The following figures of population show the remarkable
increase of Winnipeg: (1870) 215; (1874) > 1869; (1885)
I9,S74; (1898) 39,384; (1901) 42,340; (1905) 79,975; (1906)
90,153; (1907) 100,000 (estimated). The rapid growth of the
city, the character of the soil, and the high prices of material for
street construction have led to a large and expensive civic
organization. The city is governed by a mayor, four controllers,
and twelve aldermen. The city possesses the public utility
of water, but the city street car system, gas, and private electric
lighting are in the hands of a private company. The city
has decided to introduce electric power from Winnipeg river,
at a point some 50 m. distant. The streets are in some cases
macadamized and in other cases block paved, and in still others
asphalted. The Parks Board is a board appointed by the city
council, and has the complete administration of a fixed percentage
of the city taxes. The streets are boulevarded, trees planted on
them, and both of these kept by the Parks Board. A number of
well-kept small parks are found throughout the city, and a large
park the Assiniboine is being prepared and beautified. The
greatest business street is Main Street, on which (north) the
Great Canadian Pacific railway station and Royal Alexandra
Hotel are situated, and (south) the Union station of the Canadian
Northern and Grand Trunk Pacific railways are found. On or
near this street (132 ft. wide) are placed the great financial
institutions of the city, including eighteen chartered banks,
many of which are ornaments to the city, and many loan,
insurance, and real estate buildings and offices. The depart-
mental stores and offices of the Hudson's Bay Company and its
Fort Garry court, which stand on Main Street South, are worthy
of that ancient company. The city hall, with park and volunteers'
monument, are on the same street, while the lofty Union Bank,
Mclntyre, and Bon Accord blocks are here wildernesses of offices
of every description. The second great street, Portage Avenue,
of the same width as Main Street, runs at right angles to Main
Street, and is the mercantile street of the city. On this are the
post office, Free Press office, Y.M.C.A. building, Aikins Block,
T. Eaton & Co.'s enormous departmental shop, and the Ideal
Building, which are worthy of note. The wholesale business
street of the city is Princess, running parallel to Main Street;
and the two most beautiful residential streets are Broadway and
Assiniboine Avenues. All parts of the city are reached by the
Winnipeg electric street railway, which runs north for 25 m.
on the continuation of Main Street to the town of Selkirk, west
along Portage Avenue for 12 m. to St James, Silver Heights,
St Charles and Headingly, and south through Fort Rouge to
River Park. At the north of the city are St John's episcopal
buildings, including St John's College and boys' school. In the
central part of the city are the parliament building, governor's
residence, barracks, law courts, university, Manitoba College
and Wesley College buildings. More than eighty churches,
many of them of architectural value, are found scattered over
the city, while the General Hospital, Women's Home, Children's
Home, Children's Aid Shelter and Deaf and Dumb Institute
speak of the benevolence of the citizens. One of the most
striking features of Winnipeg is seen in the elaborate system of
public schools. The buildings are not exceeded for beauty of
design or for completeness of finish by any Canadian city and by
few American cities.
The geographical position of Winnipeg is unique for the
purposes of trade. Like Chicago it stands on the eastern border
of the prairies. All western trade in Canada of the vast provinces
of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia,
must pass through the narrow belt of 100 m., lying between
the international boundary line and Lake Winnipeg. Midway
in this belt stands Winnipeg. The trade from the wide extent
of three-quarters of a million of square miles of prairie and
woodland, becoming more populous every year, must flow as
through a narrow spout at Winnipeg; every railway must
pass through Winnipeg. In consequence Winnipeg is already a
1 Incorporated in this year as a city.
considerable manufacturing centre. Its lumber and flour mills
are its largest industries, but the following are found: aerated
waters and breweries, tent makers, baking-powder manufactories,
box manufacturers, brick makers, broom, brushes and carriage
makers, cement blocks, manufacturing chemists, chocolate and
cigar manufacturers, confectionery, copper plate, cornice makers,
engine builders, gas fitters, ink manufacturers, jewelry makers,
lime makers, milliners, opticians, paint makers, paper-box
makers, photographers, pickle makers, planing mills, pork
packers, publishers, pump makers, rubber-stamp makers,
sash, door and blind factories, upholsterers, ventilating manu-
factory, vinegar factories, foundries, wire and fence manu-
factories. The area of the city is 1 2,700 acres.
WINNIPEG, a lake and river of Canada. The lake is in
Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Keewatin, and is situated between
50 20' and 53 50' N. and 96 20' and 99 15' W. It covers an
area of 8555 sq. m., is at an altitude of 7 10 ft. above the sea, is 260
m. long, 25 to 60 m. wide, and contains several large islands,
including Reindeer (70 sq. m.) and Big Island (60 sq. m.). It is
shallow, being nowhere more than 70 ft. in depth, and in con-
sequence extremely stormy and dangerous. It abounds in fish,
its white fish being especially celebrated. Its shores are low
and on the south extremely marshy. The principal affluent
rivers are: Red river, from the south; Winnipeg, Bloodvein,
Berens and Poplar from the east; and the Dauphin and Sas-
katchewan from the west. It receives the surplus waters of lakes
Manitoba and Winnipegosis, and discharges by the river Nelson
into Hudson Bay. The river Winnipeg rises near Savanne station
in 48 47' N. and 89 57' W., and flows in a westerly direction
under the names of Savanne, Seine, and Rainy rivers to the
Lake of the Woods; issuing thence as the Winnipeg, it flows
N.W. with an exceedingly tortuous and turbulent course to the
lake of the same name. It is navigable from the foot of the Lake
of the Woods to the head of Rainy lake with a short portage at
Fort Frances falls a distance of 208 m. Its principal tributary
is English river.
WINNIPEGOSIS, a lake of Manitoba and Saskatchewan,
Canada, between 51 34' and 53 u' N. and 99 37' and 101 06'
W. Its greatest length is 122 m.; greatest width 17 m.; shore-
line 570 m.; and area, exclusive of islands, 2000 sq. m. Its
greatest ascertained depth is 38 ft., and mean altitude 828 ft.
above the sea. Mossy river from the south, draining Lake
Dauphin, Swan, and Red Deer rivers are the only considerable
streams that fall into it. It drains by the Waterhen river through
Waterhen lake into Lake Manitoba, and thence by the Little
Saskatchewan into Lake Winnipeg. It was discovered by the
chevalier de la Verendrye in 1739.
WINONA, a city and the county-seat of Winona county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., about 95 m. S.E. of St Paul, on the W. bank
of the Mississippi river, here crossed by three steel bridges.
Pop. (1880) 10,208; (1890) 18,208; (1900) 19,714, of whom
5000 were foreign-born and 30 negroes; (1910 census) 18,583.
There are large German and Polish elements in the population;
and German and Polish journals, besides two dailies in English,
are published here. Winona is served by the Chicago , Burlington
& Quincy, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee
& St Paul, the Green Bay & Western, and the Chicago & North-
Western railways, and by river steamboat lines. It is pictur-
esquely situated on a broad, level terrace, slightly elevated above
the river, and surmounted by steep bluffs rising to 400-500 ft.
At Winona are the Winona General Hospital (1894), to which is
attached a Nurses' Training School; the first State Normal
School (opened in 1860), and Winona Seminary (1894) for girls,
conducted by the Sisters of Saint Francis. The city has a public
library (about 30,000 vols.), with a mural decoration by Kenyon
Cox; a Federal building; a Masonic Temple; and several
parks; and it owns its own water supply (operated by the Holly
system). In 1905 the total value of the factory product was
$7,850,236 (30-5% more than in 1900). The site of the city was
frequently used as a landing place in the old fur-trading days,
but was not permanently settled until about 1853. Winona was
first chartered as a city in 1857. A large part of it was destroyed
WI'NSFORD WINSTED
733
by fire in 1860. The name Winona is said to be a Sioux word
meaning " first-born daughter."
WINSFORD, an urban district in the Northwich parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England, on the river Weaver, 6 m. S. of
Northwich, on the London & North-Western railway and the
Cheshire lines. Pop. (1001) 10,382. In the town, which is only
second to Northwich in this respect, large quantities of salt are
raised and conveyed to Liverpool for exportation ; being shipped
in flats down the Weaver, which has been rendered navigable
by an elaborate system of locks. Rock-salt is procured, as
well as that obtained from the brine-pools. Boat-building is
an important accompanying industry, and more than half a
million tons of salt are shipped annually. Owing to the pumping
of the brine, large tracts of land have been submerged, and
there is thus a constant danger to houses. The iron bridge across
the Weaver, which was built in 1856, had to be raised thrice in
the following twenty-six years. The town has received much
benefit from philanthropists, Sir Joseph Verdin providing a
technical school, and Sir John Brunner a guildhall and other
buildings.
WINSLOW, EDWARD (1595-1655), one of the founders of
the Plymouth colony in America, was born in Droitwich,
Worcestershire, England, on the i8th of October 1595. In
1617 he removed to Leiden, united with John Robinson's church
there, and in 1620 was one of the " pilgrims " who emigrated to
New England on the " Mayflower " and founded the Plymouth
colony. His wife, Elizabeth (Barker) Winslow, whom he had
married in May 1618 at Leiden, having died soon after their
arrival, he married, in May 1621, Mrs Susannah White, the mother
of Peregrine White (1620-1704), the first white child born in
New England. This was the first marriage in the New England
colonies. Winslow was delegated by his associates to treat with
the Indians in the vicinity and succeeded in winning the friend-
ship of their chief, Massasoit (c. 1580-1661). He was one of
the assistants from 1624 to 1647, except in 1633-1634, 1636-
1637 and 1644-1645, when he was governor of the colony.
He was also, in 1643, one of the commissioners of the United
Colonies of New England. On several occasions he was sent to
England to look after the interests of Plymouth and Massa-
chusetts Bay, and defend these colonies from the attacks of such
men as John Lyford, Thomas Morton (q.v.) and Samuel Gorton
(q.v.). He left on his last mission as the agent of Massachusetts
Bay, in October 1646, and spent nine years in England, where
he held a minor office under Cromwell, and in 1654 was made a
member of the commission appointed to determine the value of
certain English ships destroyed by Denmark. In 1655 he was the
chief of the three English commissioners whom Cromwell sent
on his expedition against the West Indies to advise with its leaders
Admiral Venables and Admiral William Penn, but died near
Jamaica on the 8th of May 1655, and was buried at sea. Winslow's
portrait, the only authentic likeness of any of the " Mayflower"
" pilgrims," is in the gallery of the Pilgrim Society at Plymouth,
Mass.
His writings, though fragmentary, are of the greatest value to the
historian of the Plymouth colony. They include: Good Newes from
New England, or a True Relation of Things very Remarkable at the
Plantation of Plimouth in New England (1624) ; Hypocrisie Unmasked;
by a True Relation of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts
against Samuel Gorton, a Notorious Disturber of the Peace (1646), to
which was added a chapter entitled " A Brief Narration of the True
Grounds or Cause of tne First Plantation of New England "; New
England's Salamander (1647) ; and The Glorious Progress of the Gospel
amongst the Indians in New England (1649). With William Bradford
he also is supposed to have prepared a Journal of the Beginning and
Proceeding of the English Plantation settled at Plymouth in New Eng-
land (1622), which is generally known as " Mourt's Relation," owing
to its preface having been signed by " G. Mourt." Some of his
writings may be found reprinted in Alexander Young's Chronicles of
the Pilgrims (Boston, 1841).
SeeJ. B. Moore's Memoirs of A merican Governors (New York, 1846) ;
David P. and Frances K. Holton's Winslow Memorial (New York,
1877) and J. G. Palfrey's History of New England (3 vols., Boston,
1858-1864). Also see a paper by W. C. Winslow, " Governor
Edward Winslow, his Place and Part in Plymouth Colony," in the
Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1895
(Washington, 1896).
His son, JOSIAH WINSLOW (1620-1680), was educated at
Harvard College. He was elected a deputy to the General
Court in 1653, was an " assistant " from 1657 to 1673, and
governor from June 1673 until his death. From 1658 to 1672
he was one of the commissioners of the United Colonies of
New England, and in 1675, during King Philip's War, he was
commander-in-chief of the united forces of New England.
WINSOR, JUSTIN (1831-1897), American writer and librarian,
was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of January 1831.
At the age of nineteen he printed a History of Duxbury, Mass.,
the home of his ancestors. He left Harvard before graduation
to study in Paris and Heidelberg, but not until he had planned
an extended memoir of Garrick and his Contemporaries, the
manuscript of which, in ten folio volumes with a mass of notes,
is in the library of Harvard University. In 1866 Winsor was
appointed a trustee of the Boston public library, and in 1868
its superintendent. In 1877 he became librarian of Harvard
University, a position he retained until his death. He greatly
popularized the use of both these great collections of books.
While at the Boston public library he edited a most useful
catalogue of books in history, biography and travel, and com-
piled the first of a series of separate lists of works of historical
fiction. In 1876 he began a series of monumental pubb'cations.
The first was a Bibliography of the Original Quartos and Folios
of Shakespeare ml ft Particular Reference to Copies in America.
Unfortunately, all except about a hundred copies of this work
were destroyed by fire. A small volume entitled The Reader's
Handbook of the American Revolution (1879) is the model of a
reasonable bibliography. In 1880 he began the editing of the
Memorial History of Boston (4 vols., 4to), with the co-operation
of seventy writers. He so manipulated the contributions and
supplemented them with notes as to give an air of unity to the
whole work, and completed it in twenty-three months. He then
set to work on a still larger co-operative book, The Narrative and
Critical History of America, which was completed (1889) in eight
royal octavo volumes. These great tasks had compelled Winsor
to make a careful and systematic study of historical problems
with the aid of contemporaneous cartography. Among the
early results of this study were the Bibliography of Ptolemy's
Geography (1884), and the Catalogue of the Kohl Collection of
Maps relating to America (1886), published in the Harvard
Library Bulletins. His vast knowledge took the final form of
four volumes entitled Christopher Columbvs (1891), Cartter to
Fronlenac (1894), The Mississippi Basin (1895), and The
Westward Movement (1897). Besides great stores of information
hitherto accessible only to the specialist, these contain many
strong expressions of dissent from currently received views.
Winsor served for many years on the Massachusetts Archives
Commission. His careful Report on the Maps of the Orinoco-
Essequibo Region was prepared at the request of the Venezuela
Boundary Commission. He was one of the founders of both the
American Library Association and the American Historical
Association, and was president of both of the former for ten
years, 1876-1885, and the latter in 1886-1887. He died in
Cambridge on the 22nd of October 1897.
See Horace E. Scudder's " Memoir of Justin Winsor " in the
Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society (2nd series), vol.
xii. Also the Harvard Graduates' Magazine (December i897)- A
bibliography of his writings is in Harvard College Library, Biblio-
graphical Contributions, No. 54.
WINSTED, a borough in the township of Winchester, Litchfield
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on the Mad and Still rivers, in the
N.W. part of the state, about 26 m. N.W. of Hartford. Pop.
of the township (1890) 6183; (1900) 7763: of the borough
(1900) 6804, of whom 1213 were foreign-bom; (1910) 7754.
The borough is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
and the Central New England railways, and by electric railway
to Torrington. Among the public institutions are the William
L. Gilbert Home for friendless children and the Gilbert free high
school, each endowed with more than $600,000 by William L.
Gilbert, a prominent citizen; the Beardsley public library
(1874), the Convent of Saint Margaret of Cortona, a Franciscan
monastery, and the Litchfield County Hospital. In a park in
734
WINSTON-SALEM WINTERFELDT
the central part of the borough there is a tower (60 ft. high) to
the memory of the soldiers of Winsted who fell in the Civil War,
and another park contains a soldiers' monument and a memorial
fountain. Water power is derived from the Mad river and High-
land lake, which is west of the borough and is encircled by the
Wakefield boulevard, a seven-mile drive, along which there are
many summer cottages. The manufactures include cutlery and
edge tools, docks, silk twist, hosiery, leather, &c. Winsted was
settled in 1756 and chartered as a borough in 1858. The name
Winsted was coined from Winchester and Barkhamsted, the
latter being the name of the township immediately east of
Winchester. The township of Winchester was incorporated in
1771.
WINSTON-SALEM, two contiguous cities of Forsyth county,
North Carolina, U.S.A., about 115 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. of
Winston (1880) 2854; (1890) 8018; (1900) 10,008 (5043 negroes);
(1910) 17,167. Pop. of Salem (1890) 2711; (1900) 3642 (488 being
negroes); (1910) 5533. Both cities are served by the Southern
and the Norfolk & Western railways. Since July 1899, when the
post office in Salem was made a sub-station of that of Winston,
the cities (officially two independent municipalities) have been
known by postal and railway authorities as Winston- Salem.
Winston is the county-seat and a manufacturing centre. Salem
is largely a residential and educational city, with many old-
fashioned dwellings, but there are some important manufactories
here also; it is the seat of the Salem Academy and College
(Moravian) for women, opened as a boarding-school in 1802;
and of the Slater Normal and Industrial School (non-sectarian)
for negroes, founded from the Slater Fund in 1892. The surround-
ing country produces tobacco of a very superior quality, and to
the tobacco industry, introduced in 1872, the growth of Winston
is chiefly due; the manufacture of flat plug tobacco here is
especially important. The total value of Winston's factory
products increased from $4,887,649 in 1900 to $11,353,296 in
1905, or 132-3%.
Salem was founded in 1766 by Friedrich Wilhelm von Marschall
(1721-1802), a friend of Zinzendorf, and the financial manager
of the board controlling the Moravian purchase made in North
Carolina in 1753, consisting of 100,000 acres, and called Wachovia.
The town was to be the centre of this colony, where missionary
work and religious liberty were to be promoted, and it remained
the home of the governing board of the Moravian Church in
the South. In 1849 exclusive Moravian control of Salem's
industries and trades was abolished; in 1856 land was first
sold to others than Moravians, and in the same year the town
was incorporated. Winston was founded in 1851 as the county-
seat and was named in honour of Major Joseph Winston (1746-
1815), a famous Indian fighter, a soldier during the War of
Independence and a representative in Congress in 1793-1795
and 1803-1807. The growth of the two cities has been rapid
since 1900.
See J. H. Clewell, History of Wachovia in North Carolina (New
York, 1902).
WINTER, JOHN STRANGE, the pen-name of Henrietta
Eliza Vaughan Stannard (1856- ), English novelist, who was
born on the i3th of January 1856, the daughter of the Rev. H. V.
Palmer, rector of St Margaret's, York. She early began to
write fiction for different magazines, producing sentimental
stories, chiefly of army life. Two of these, Booties' Baby and
Houp-la, which appeared originally in The Graphic in 1885,
established her reputation, and she became a prolific novelist,
producing some sixty other light and amusing books, the best
of which deal with military life. An indefatigable journalist
on matters affecting women, she was the first president of the
Writers' Club (1892), and presided from 1901 to 1903 over the
Society of Women Journalists. She married in 1884 Arthur
Stannard, a civil engineer.
WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825), German dramatic composer,
was born at Mannheim about 1755. 'He received some instruc-
tion from the Abt Vogler, but was practically self-taught.
After playing in the Kapelle of the Elector Karl Theodor, at
Munich, he became in 1776 director of the court theatre. When
Mozart produced his Idomeneo at Munich in 1781, Winter,
annoyed at his success, conceived a violent hatred for him;
yet of more than thirty operas written by Winter between 1778
and 1820 very few were unsuccessful. His most popular work,
Das unterbrochene Opferfest, was produced in 1796 at Vienna,
where in 1797-1798 he composed Die Pyramiden von Babylon
and Das Labyrinth, both written for him by Schickaneder in
continuation of the story of Mozart's Zauberflote. He returned
to Munich in 1798. Five years later he visited London, where
he produced Calypso in 1803, Proserpina in 1804, and Zaira in
i8os, with great success. His last opera, Sanger und Schneider,
was produced in 1820 at Munich, where he died on the i7th of
October 1825. Besides his dramatic works he composed some
effective sacred music, including twenty-six masses.
WINTERFELDT, HANS KARL VON (1707-1757), Prussian
general, was born on the 4th of April 1707 at Vanselow in
Pomerania. His education was imperfect, and in later life he
always regretted his want of familiarity with the French language.
He entered the cuirassier regiment of his uncle, Major-General
von Winterfeldt (now the I2th) in 1720, and was promoted
cornet after two years' service. But he was fortunate enough,
by his stature and soldierly bearing, to attract the notice of
Frederick William I., who transferred him to the so-called giant
regiment of grenadiers as a lieutenant. Before long he became
a personal aide-de-camp to the king, and in 1732 he was sent
with a party of selected non-commissioned officers to assist in
the organization of the Russian army. While the guest of
Marshal Munnich at St Petersburg, Winterfeldt fell in love with
and married his cousin Julie von Maltzahn, who was the marshal's
stepdaughter and a maid-of-honour to the grand-duchess
Elizabeth. On returning to Prussia he became intimate with
the crown prince, afterwards Frederick the Great, whom he
accompanied in the Rhine campaign of 1734. This intimacy,
in view of his personal relations with the king, made Winter-
feldt's position very delicate and difficult, for Frederick William
and his son were so far estranged that, as every one knows,
the prince was sent before a court-martial by his father, on the
charge of attempting to desert, and was condemned to death.
Winterfeldt was the prince's constant friend through all these
troubles, and on Frederick II. 's accession he was promoted
major and appointed aide-de-camp to the new sovereign.
When the first Silesian War broke out Winterfeldt was sent
on a mission to St Petersburg, which, however, failed. He then
commanded a grenadier battalion with great distinction at Moll-
witz, and won further glory in the celebrated minor combat of
Rothschloss, where the Prussian hussars defeated the Austrians
(May 17, 1741). One month from this day Winterfeldt was
made a colonel, as also was Zieten (q.v.), the cavalry leader who
had actually commanded at Rothschloss, though the latter, as
the older in years and service, bitterly resented the rapid pro-
motion of his junior. After this Frederick chiefly employed
Winterfeldt as a confidential staff officer to represent his views
to the generals, a position in which he needed extraordinary
tact and knowledge of men and affairs, and as a matter of course
made many enemies.
In the short peace before the outbreak of the second war he
was constantly in attendance upon the king, who employed him
again, when the war was resumed, in the same capacity as before,
and, after he had been instrumental in winning a series of success-
ful minor engagements, promoted him (1745) major-general,
to date from January 1743.
For his great services at Hohenfriedberg Frederick gave him
the captaincy of Tatiau, which carried with it a salary of 500
thalers a year. At Katholisch-Hennersdorf, where the sudden
and unexpected invasion of the Austro-Saxons was checked by
the vigour of Zieten, Winterfeldt arrived on the field in time to
take a decisive share. Once again the rivals had to share their
laurels, and Zieten actually wrote to the king hi disparagement
of Winterfeldt, receiving in reply a full and generous recognition
of his own worth and services, coupled with the curt remark that
the king intended to employ General von Winterfeldt in anyway
that he thought fit. During the ten years' peace that preceded
WINTERGREEN WINTHER
735
the next great war, Winterfeldt was in constant attendance
upon the king, except when employed on confidential missions
in the provinces or abroad. In 1756 he was made a lieutenant-
general and received the order of the Black Eagle.
In this year he was feverishly active in collecting information
as to the coalition that was secretly preparing to crush Prussia,
and in preparing for the war. He took a leading part in the
discussions which eventuated in Frederick's decision to strike
the first blow. He was at Pirna with the king, and advised him
against absorbing the Saxon prisoners into his own army. He
accompanied Schwerin in the advance on Prague in 1757 and
took a conspicuous part in the battle there. After the defeat of
Kolin, however, Winterfeldt, whom Frederick seems to have
regarded as the only man of character whom he could trust to
conduct the more delicate and difficult operations of the retreat,
found himself obliged to work in close contact with the king's
brother, Prince William, the duke of Brunswick-Severn, Zieten
and others of his enemies. The operations which followed may
be summarized by the phrase "everything went wrong";
after an angry scene with his brother, the prince of Prussia
retired from the army, and when Frederick gave Winterfeldt
renewed marks of his confidence, the general animosity reached
its height. As it chanced, however, Winterfeldt fell a victim
to his own bravery in the skirmish of Moys near Gorlitz on the
yth of September. His wound, the first serious wound he had
ever received, proved fatal and he died on the 8th. The court
enmities provoked by his twenty years' unbroken intimacy
and influence with the king, and the denigration of less gifted
or less fortunate soldiers, followed him beyond death. Prince
William expressed the bitterness of his hatred in almost his last
words, and Prince Henry's memoirs give a wholly incredible
portrait of Winterfeldt's arrogance, dishonesty, immorality
and incapacity. Frederick, however, was not apt to encourage
incompetence in his most trusted officers, and as for the rest,
Winterfeldt stood first amongst the very few to whom the king
gave his friendship and his entire confidence. On hearing of
Winterfeldt's death he said, " Einen Winterfeldt finde ich nie
wieder," and a little later, " Er war ein guter Mensch, ein
Seelenmensch, er war mein Freund." Winterfeldt was buried
at his estate of Barschau, whence, a hundred years later, his body
was transferred to the Invaliden Kirchhof at Berlin. A statue
was erected to his memory, which stands in the Wilhelmsplatz
there, and another forms part of the memorial to Frederick the
Great in Unter den Linden.
See Hans Karl v. Winterfeldt und der Tag von Mays (Gorlitz,
1857); and K. W. v. SchSning, Winterfeldts Beisetzung; cine
biographische Skizze (Berlin, 1857).
WINTERGREEN, known botanically as Gaullheria procumbens,
a member of the heath family (Ericaceae), is a small creeping,
evergreen shrub with numerous short erect branches bearing
in the upper part shortly-stalked oval, thick, smooth shining
leaves with sharp-toothed edge. The flowers are borne singly
in the leaf axels and are pendulous, with a pale pink waxy-
looking um-shaped corolla. The bright crimson-red sub-
globular, berry-like fruit consists of the much-enlarged fleshy
calyx which surrounds the small thin-walled many-seeded capsule.
The plant is a native of shady woods on sandy soil, especially in
mountainous districts, in southern Canada and the northern
United States; it is quite hardy in England. The leaves are
sharply astringent and have a peculiar aromatic smell and taste
due to a volatile oil known as oil of winter green, used in
medicine in the treatment of muscular rheumatism (for the
therapeutic action see SALICYLIC ACID) . An infusion of the leaves
is used, under the name mountain or Salvador tea, in some parts
of North America as a substitute for tea; and the fruits are eaten
under the name of partridge or deer berries. Other names for
the plant are tea-berry, checker-berry, box-berry, jersey tea,
spice-berry and ground holly.
See Bentley and Trimen, Medicinal Plants, t. 164.
WINTER'S BARK, the bark of Drimys Winteri, an evergreen
tree belonging to the Magnolia family. It was formerly officinal
in Europe, and is still held in esteem in Brazil and other parts
of South America as a popular remedy for scurvy and other
diseases. The plant is a native of the mountains and highlands
from Mexico to the Straits of Magellan.
WINTERTHUR, a flourishing industrial town in the Toss
valley, canton of Zurich, Switzerland, and by rail 17 m. N.E. of
Zurich. It is 1450 ft. above sea-level, and has a rapidly increasing
population (in 1870, 9317; in 1880, 13,502; in 1888, 15,805; and
in 1900, 22,335), all German-speaking and nearly all Protestants.
It is the point of junction of seven lines of railway, and is
therefore of considerable commercial importance. Its main in-
dustries are cambric-weaving, cotton-printing, the manufacture of
machinery, and wine-growing, Stadtberg being the best variety
of wine grown in the neighbourhood of the town. It is a modern,
well-built town, with a fine town-hall and well-arranged school
buildings. It suffered severely from the disastrous financial
enterprise of the National Railway of Switzerland which it
promoted. In 1878 it had to sell its property in that line, and
from 1 88 1 to 1885 it was in great difficulties in the matter of a
loan of nine million francs guaranteed in 1874 by the town,
together with three others in Aargau, to that ill-fated railway.
As the three co-guarantor towns were unable to pay their share,
the whole burden fell on Winterthur, which struggled valiantly
to meet its liabilities, and was helped by large loans from the
cantonal and federal governments.
The Roman settlement of Vitudurum [Celtic dur, water] was a
little north-east of the present town, at the place now known
as Ober Winterthur. It was there that in 919 Burkhard II.,
duke of Alamannia, defeated Rudolf II., king of Transjuran
Burgundy. It was refounded in the valley in 1 180 by the counts
of Kyburg (their castle rises on a hill, 4 m. to the south of the
town), who granted it great liberties and privileges, making it
the seat of their district court for the Thurgau. In 1264 the
town passed with the rest of the Kyburg inheritance to the
Habsburgs, who showed very great favour to it, and thus secured
its unswerving loyalty. In 1292 the men of Zurich were beaten
back in an attempt to take the town. For a short time after the
outlawry of Duke Frederick of Austria, it became a free imperial
city (1415-1442); but after the conquest of the Thurgau by the
Swiss Confederates (1460-1461) Winterthur, which had gallantly
stood a nine-weeks' siege, was isolated in the midst of non-
Austrian territory. Hence it was sold by the duke to the town
of Zurich in 1467, its rights and liberties being reserved, and its
history since then has been that of the other lands ruled by Zurich.
In 1717-1726 Zurich tried hard by means of heavy dues to crush
the rival silk and cotton industries at Winterthur, which, how-
ever, on the whole very successfully maintained its ancient
rights and liberties against the encroachments of Zurich.
See H. Glitsch, Beitrdgg z. dltern Winterthurer Verfassungsgesckichte
(Winterthur, 1906); J. C. Troll, Geschichte d. Stadt Winterthur (8
vols., 1840-1850). (W. A. B. C.)
WINTHER, CHRISTIAN (1706-1876), Danish lyrical poet,
was born on the 29th of July 1796 at Fensmark, in the province
of Praesto, where his father was priest. He went to the university
of Copenhagen in 1815, and studied theology, taking his degree
in 1824. He began to publish verses in 1819, but no collected
volume appeared until 1828. Meanwhile, from 1824 to 1830,
Winther was supporting himself as a tutor, and with so much
success that in the latter year he was able to go to Italy on his
savings. In 1835 a second volume of lyrics appeared, and in
1838 a third. In 1841 King Christian VIII. appointed Winther
to travel to Mecklenburg to instruct the princess Caroline, on
the occasion of her betrothal to the Crown Prince of Denmark,
in the Danish language. Further collections of lyrics appeared
in 1842, 1848, 1850, 1853, 1865 and 1872. When he was past
his fiftieth year Winther married. In 1851 he received a pension
from the state as a poet, and for the next quarter of a century he
resided mainly in Paris. Besides the nine or ten volumes of
lyrical verse mentioned above, Winther published The Stag's
Flight, an epical romance in verse (1855); In the Year of Grace,
a novel (1874); and other works in prose. He died in Paris on
the 3oth of December 1876, but the body was brought to Den-
mark, and was buried in the heart of the woods. In the verse of
WINTHROP, J. WINTHROP, R. C.
Christian Winther the scenery of Denmark, its beechwoods, lakes
and meadows, its violet-scented dingles, its hollows perfumed by
wild strawberries, found such a loving and masterly painter as
they are never likely to find again. He is the most spontaneous
of lyrists; his little poems are steeped in the dew and light and
odour of a cool, sunshiny morning in May. His melodies are art-
less, but full of variety and delicate harmony. When he was
forty-seven he fell in love, and at that mature age startled
his admirers by publishing for the first time a cycle of love-
songs. They were what were to be expected from a spirit so
unfaded; they still stand alone for tender homage and simple
sweetness of passion. The technical perfection of Winther's
verse, in its extreme simplicity, makes him the first song-writer
of Denmark. (E. G.)
WINTHROP, JOHN (1588-1649), a Puritan leader and governor
of Massachusetts, was born in Edwardston, Suffolk, on the izth
of January (O.S.) 1588, the son of Adam Winthrop of Groton
Manor, and Anne (Browne) Winthrop. In December 1602 he
matriculated at Trinity College, Cambridge, but he did not
graduate. The years after his brief course at the university
were devoted to the practice of law, in which he achieved con-
siderable success, being appointed, about 1623, an attorney in
the Court of Wards and Liveries, and also being engaged in the
drafting of parliamentary bills. Though his residence was at
Groton Manor, much of his time was spent in London. Mean-
while he passed through the deep spiritual experiences char-
acteristic of Puritanism, and made wide acquaintance among the
leaders of the Puritan party. On the 26th of August 1629 he
joined in the " Cambridge Agreement," by which he, and his
associates, pledged themselves to remove to New England,
provided the government and patent of the Massachusetts colony
should be removed thither. On the aoth of October following he
was chosen governor of the " Governor and Company of the
Massachusetts Bay in New England," and sailed in the " Arbella "
in March 1630, reaching Salem (Mass.) on the i2th of June (O.S.),
accompanied by a large party of Puritan immigrants. After a
brief sojourn in Charlestown, Winthrop and many of his imme-
diate associates settled in Boston in the autumn of 1630. He
shared in the formation of a church at Charlestown (afterwards
the First Church in Boston) on the 3oth of July 1630, of which
he was thenceforth a member. At Boston he erected a large
house, and there he lived till his death on the 26th of March
(O.S.) 1649-
Winthrop's history in New England was very largely that of
the Massachusetts colony, of which he was twelve times chosen
governor by annual election, serving in 1620-1634, 1637-1640,
in 1642-1644, and in 1646-1649, and dying in office. To the
service of the colony he gave not merely unwearied devotion;
but in its interests consumed strength and fortune. His own
temper of mind was conservative and somewhat aristocratic,
but he guided political development, often under circumstances
of great difficulty, with singular fairness and conspicuous
magnanimity. In 1634-1635 he was a leader in putting the
colony in a state of defence against possible coercion by the
English government. He opposed the majority of his fellow-
townsmen in the so-called " Antinomian controversy " of 1636-
1637, taking a strongly conservative attitude towards the ques-
tions in dispute. He was the first president of the Commissioners
of the United Colonies of New England, organized in 1643.
He defended Massachusetts against threatened parliamentary
interference once more in 1645-1646. That the colony success-
fully weathered its early perils was due more to Winthrop's
skill and wisdom than to the services of any other of its citizens.
Winthrop was four times married. His first wife, to whom
he was united on the i6th of April 1605, was Mary Forth,
daughter of John Forth, of Great Stambridge, Essex. She bore
him six children, of whom the eldest was John Winthrop, Jr.
(q.v.). She was buried in Groton on the 26th of June 1615.
On the 6th of December 1615 he married Thomasine Clopton,
daughter of William Clopton of Castleins, near Groton. She
died in childbirth about a year later. He married, on the 29th
of April 1618, Margaret Tyndal, daughter of Sir John Tyndal,
of Great Maplested, Essex. She followed him to New Englar
in 1631, bore him eight children, and died on the i4th of Jur
1647. Late in 1647 or early in 1648 he married Mrs Marti:
Coytmore, widow of Thomas Coytmore, who survived him, an
by whom he had one son.
Winthrop's Journal, an invaluable record of early Massachusett
history, was printed in part in Hartford in 1790; the whole in Boston
edited by James Savage, as The History of New England from 163
to 1640, in 1825-1826, and again in 1853; and in New York, edite
by James K. Hosmer, in 1908. His biography has been written b
Robert C. Winthrop, Life and Letters of John Winthrop (2 vols
Boston, 1864, 1867; new ed. 1869); and by Joseph H. Twichel
John Winthrop (New York, 1891). See also Mrs Alice M. Earh
Margaret Winthrop (New York, 1895). (W. WR.)
WINTHROP, JOHN (1606-1676), generally known as Joh
Winthrop the Younger, son of the preceding, born at Groton,
England, on the I2th of February 1606. He was educated at
the Bury St Edmunds grammar school and at Trinity College,
Dublin, studied law for a short time after 1624 at the Inner
Temple, London, accompanied the ill-fated expedition of the
duke of Buckingham for the relief of the Protestants of La
Rochelle, and then travelled in Italy and the Levant, returning
to England in 1629. In 1631 he followed his father to Massa-
chusetts, and was one of the " assistants " in 1635, 1640 and
1641, and from 1644 to 1649. He was the chief founder of
Agawam (now Ipswich), Mass., in 1633, went to England in
1634, and in the following year returned as governor, for one
year, of Connecticut, under the Saye and Sele patent, sending out
the party which built the fort at Saybrook, at the mouth of the
Connecticut river. He then lived for a time in Massachusetts,
where he devoted himself to the study of science and attempted
to interest the settlers in the development of the colony's mineral
resources. He was again in England in 1641-1643, and on his
return established iron-works at Lynn and Braintree, Mass.
In 1645 he obtained a title to lands in south-eastern Connecticut,
and founded there in 1646 what is now New London, whither he
removed in 1650. He became one of the magistrates of Connecti-
cut in 1651; in 1657-1658 was governor of the colony; and in
1659 again became governor, being annually re-elected until his
death. In 1662 he obtained in England the charter by which
the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven were united. Besides
being governor of Connecticut, he was also in 1675 one of the
commissioners of the United Colonies of New England. While
in England he was elected to membership in the newly organized
Royal Society, to whose Philosophical Transactions he con-
tributed two papers, " Some Natural Curiosities from New
England," and " Description, Culture and Use of Maize." He
died on the sth of April 1676 in Boston, whither he had gone to
attend a meeting of the commissioners of the United Colonies
of New England.
His correspondence with the Royal Society was published in
series I, vol. xvi. of the Massachusetts Historical Society's Proceedings.
See T. F. Waters's Sketch of the Life of John Winthrop the Younger
(Ipswich, Mass., 1899).
Winthrop's son, Fiiz-JoHN WINTHROP (1638-1707), was
educated at Harvard, though he did not take a degree; served
in the parliamentary army in Scotland under Monck, whom he
accompanied on his march to London, and returned to Connecti-
cut in 1663. As major-general he commanded the unsuccessful
expedition of the New York and Connecticut forces against
Canada in 1690; from 1693 to 1697 he was the agent of Con-
necticut in London; and from 1698 until his death he was
governor of Connecticut.
WINTHROP, ROBERT CHARLES (1800-1894), American
orator and statesman, a descendant of Governor John Winthrop
(1588-1649), was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the I2th of
May 1809. He graduated at Harvard in 1828, studied law with
Daniel Webster and in 1831 was admitted to the bar. He was a
member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in
1834-1840 for the last three years as speaker, and in 1840
was elected to the national House of Representatives as a
Whig, serving from December 1840 to 1850 (with a short inter-
mission, April-December 1842). He soon became prominent and
was speaker of the Thirtieth Congress (1847-1849), though his
W1NTHROP WINZET
737
conservatism on slavery and kindred questions displeased ex-
tremists, North and South, who prevented his re-election as
speaker of the Thirty-first Congress. On the resignation of
Daniel Webster to become secretary of state, Winthrop was
appointed to the Senate (July 1850), but was defeated in the
Massachusetts legislature for the short term (Jan. 30, 1851)
and for the long term (April 24, 1851) by a coalition of Democrats
and Free Soilers and served only until February 1851. In the
same year he received a plurality of the votes cast for governor,
but as the constitution required a majority vote, the election was
thrown into the legislature, where he was defeated by the same
coalition. Thereafter, he was never a candidate for political
office. With the breaking up of the Whig party he became an
independent and supported Millard Fillmore in 1856, John Bell
in 1860, and General G. B. McClellan in 1864. He was president
of the Massachusetts Historical Society from 1855^0 1885, and
for the last twenty-seven yeais of his life was president of the
Peabody Trust for the advancement of education in the Southern
States. Among his noteworthy orations of a patriotic character
were those delivered at Boston in 1876, at Yorktown in 1881,
and in Washington on the completion of the Washington Monu-
ment in 1885. He died in Boston on the i6th of November
1894.
Among his publications were Addresses and Speeches (Boston,
1852-1886); Life and Letters of John Winthrop (2 vols., Boston,
1864-1867); and Washington, Bowdoin and Franklin (Boston,
1876). See R. C. Winthrop, Jr., Memoir of R. C. Winthrop
(Boston, 1897).
WINTHROP, a township and a summer resort of Suffolk
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., occupying a peninsula jutting
out into Massachusetts Bay about 5 m. N.E. of Boston and 3 m.
S.E. of Chelsea, and forming part of the north-eastern boundary
of Boston Harbour. Pop. (1900) 6058, of whom 1437 were foreign-
born and 43 were negroes; (1910, U.S. census) 10,132. Between
May and October the population is estimated to be between
14,000 and 16,000. Area, 1-6 sq. m. Winthrop is served by the
Winthrop branch of the Boston, Revere Beach & Lynn railway,
and by electric railway from Orient Heights to Revere, Chelsea,
East Boston, Lynn and Boston. The township contains several
villages connected by a railway loop; there are nine stations in
its 5-3 m. of track. The peninsula has about 8 m. of water front
on the ocean and the harbour. The northern part nearest the
narrow neck connecting with the mainland is a high bluff,
known as Winthrop Highlands, having its north-eastern terminus
in Graver's Cliff, a bold headland which forms the north-eastern-
most point of the peninsula. On Graver's Cliff is Fort Heath, a
battery of three powerful long-range guns. At the western end
of the Highlands is Fort Banks (a part of Boston's harbour
defence), consisting cf a masked battery of sixteen 12 in. mortars,
each able to drop a 600 Ib shell on a ship 6 m. at sea. From
Graver's Cliff a fine sandy beach facing the open ocean leads to
Great Head, the highest elevation on the peninsula. Winthrop
Shore Drive (16-73 acres), one of the reservations of the Metro-
politan park system, is a public parkway along the shore. From
Great Head, a long sandy spit curves away southward, ending
in Point Shirley, a hillock and flat sandy plain, separated by
Shirley Gut, a narrow channel of deep water, from Deer Island,
on which are the Boston House of Correction and City Prison.
At Point Shhley is the Point Shirley Club house; at the western
foot of Great Head, on Crystal Bay, is the Winthrop Yacht Club
house and anchorage; and at Winthrop Center on the west side
are the Town Hall, the High School, the Public Library, the
Masonic Hall, College Park Yacht Club and Ingleside Park.
There are several large summer hotels.
Winthrop, first known as " Pullen Poynt " (Pulling Point)
because the tide made hard pulling here for boatmen, was origin-
ally a part of Boston; it was part of Chelsea from 1739 until 1846,
when with Rumney Marsh it was separately incorporated as North
Chelsea, from which it was set off as a township in 1852 under
its present name, in honour of Deane Winthrop (1623-1704),
who was a son of Governor John Winthrop, the elder, and whose
house is still standing. Point Shirley takes its name from
Governor William Shirley who helped to establish a cod fishery
XXVIII. 24
there in 1753. Before and after the War of Independence
Winthrop was a favourite seaside home for Bostonians, many
prominent families, including the Gibbons, Hancocks, Bartletts,
Emersons, Lorings and Lowells, having country-seats here.
The community was a secluded rural retreat until the construc-
tion of the railway in 1876 converted it into a watering-place.
See C. W. Hall, Historic Winthrop, 1630-1002 (Boston, 1902).
WINWOOD, SIR RALPH (c. 1563-1617), English politician,
was born at Aynhoe in Northamptonshire and educated at St
John's College, Oxford. In 1599 he became secretary to Sir
Henry Neville (c. 1564-1615), the English ambassador in France,
and he succeeded Neville in this position two years later, re-
taining it until 1603. In this year Winwood was sent to The
Hague as agent to the States-General of the United Provinces,
and according to custom he became a member of the Dutch
council of state. His hearty dislike of Spain coloured all his
actions in Holland; he was anxious to see a continuance of the
war between Spain and the United Netherlands, and he expressed
both his own views and those of the English government at the
time when be wrote, " how convenient this war would be for the
good of His Majesty's realms, if it might be maintained without
his charge." In June 1608 Winwood signed the league between
England and the United Provinces, and he was in Holland when
the trouble over the succession to the duchies of Jiilich and Cleves
threatened to cause a European war. In this matter he negotiated
with the Protestant princes of Germany on behalf of James I.
Having returned to England Sir Ralph became secretary of
state in March 1614 and a member of parliament. In the House
of Commons he defended the king's right to levy impositions,
and other events of his secretaryship were the inquiry into
the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury and the release of Raleigh
in 1616. Raleigh was urged by Winwood to attack the Spanish
fleet and the Spanish settlements in South America, and the
secretary's share in this undertaking was the subject of com-
plaints on the part of the representatives of Spain. In the
midst of this he died iu London on the 27th of October 1617.
" It can hardly be doubted," says Gardiner, " that, if he had
lived till the following summer, he would have shared in Raleigh's
ruin." One of Winwood's daughters, Anne (d. 1643), married
Edward Montagu, 2nd Baron Montagu of Bough ton, and their son
was Ralph Montagu, ist duke of Montagu.
Winwood's official correspondence and other papers passed to the
duke of Montagu, and are now in the possession of the duke of
Buccleuch. They are calendared in the Report of the Historical
Manuscripts Commission on the manuscripts of the duke of Buc-
cleuch. See the Introduction to this Report (1899); and also S. R.
Gardiner, History of England, vols. ii. and Hi. (1904-1907).
WINZET, NINIAN (1518-1592), Scottish polemical writer,
was born in Renfrew, and was probably educated at the university
of Glasgow. He was ordained priest in 1540, and in 1552 was
appointed master of the grammar school of Linlithgow, from
which town he was later " expellit and schott out " by the
partisans of Dean Patrick Kinlochy, " preacher " there. He
had also enjoyed the office of Provost of the Collegiate Church
of St Michael in that town. He retired to Edinburgh, where
the return cf Queen Mary had given heart to the Catholics.
There he took part in the pamphlet war which then raged,
and entered into conflict with Knox and other leading reformers.
He appears to have acted for a time as confessor to the queen.
In July 1562, when engaged in the printing of his Last Blast,
he narrowly escaped the vengeance of his opponents, who had by
that time gained the upper hand in the capital, and he fled,
on the 3rd of September, with the nuncio Gouda to Louvain.
He reached Paris in 1565 and became a member of the " German
Nation " of the university. At Queen Mary's request he joined
Bishop Leslie on his embassy to Queen Elizabeth in 1571,
and remained with the bishop after his removal by Elizabeth's
orders to ward at Fenny Staunton, Huntingdonshire. When
further suspicion fell on Leslie and he was committed to the
Tower, Winzet was permitted to return to Paris. There he
continued his studies, and in 1574 left for Douai, where in the
following year he became a licentiate. He was in residence at
Rome from 1575 to 1577, and was then appointed by Pope
738
WIRE
Gregory XIII. abbot of the Benedictine monastery of St James,
Regensburg. There he died on the 2ist of September 1592.
Winzet's works are almost entirely controversial. He justified
his literary activity on the side of Catholicism on the double plea of
conscience and the inability of the bishops and theologians to supply
the necessary arguments (First Tractate, ed. S.T.S., i. p. 10). "We
may nawayis langer contene ys," he writes, " bot expresse on al sydis
as we think, referring our iugement to the haly Catholik Kirk."
In his first work, Certaine Tractates (three in number), printed in
1562, he rates his fellow clergy for negligence and sin, invites replies
from Knox regarding his authority as minister and his share in the
new ecclesiastical constitution, and protests against the interference
with Catholic burgesses by the magistrates of Edinburgh. The Last
Blast, which was interrupted in publication, is an onslaught on
heretics and a falsely ordained clergy. In his Buke of Four Scoir
Thre Questions (1563), addressed to the " Calviniane Precheouris,"
in which he treats of church doctrine, sacraments, priesthood,
obedience to rulers, free-will and other matters, he is dogmatic
rather than polemical. He translated the Commonitorium of
Vincentius Lirinensis (1563), and wrote, in Latin, a Flagettum
sectarionum and a Velitatio in Georgium Buchananum (1582).
Winzet's vernacular writings have been edited by J. Hewison for
the S.T.S. (2 vols., 1888, 1890). The Tractates were printed, with a
preface by David Laing, by the Maitland Club (1835). For Winzet's
career see Zeigelbauer, Historia rei literariae O.S.B. Hi., Mackenzie,
Lives, iii., and the Introduction to S.T.S., edit. u.s.
WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G.
wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from
the root wi, to twist, bind), a thin long rod of metal, generally
round in section. The uses of wire are multifarious and diverse
beyond all enumeration. It forms the raw material of important
manufactures, such as the wire-net industry, wire-cloth making
and wire-rope spinning, in which it occupies a place analogous
to a textile fibre. Wire-cloth of all degrees of strength and
fineness of mesh is used for sifting and screening machinery,
for draining paper pulp, for window screens, and for many other
purposes. Vast quantities of copper and iron wire are employed
for telegraph and telephone wires and cables, and as conductors
in electric lighting. It is in no less demand for fencing, and much
is consumed in the construction of suspension bridges, and
cages, &c. In the manufacture of stringed musical instruments
and philosophical apparatus wire is again largely used. Among
its other sources of consumption it is sufficient to mention pin
and hair-pin making, the needle and fish-hook industries, nail,
peg and rivet making, and carding machinery; indeed there
are few industries into which it does not more or less enter.
The physical properties requisite to make useful wire are
possessed by only a limited number of metals and metallic
alloys. The metals must in the first place be ductile; and,
further, the wire when drawn out must possess a certain amount
of tenacity, the quality on which the utility of wire principally
depends. The metals suitable for wire, possessing almost equal
ductility, are platinum, silver, iron, copper, aluminium and
gold; and it is only from these and certain of their alloys with
other metals, principally brass and bronze, that wire is prepared.
By careful treatment wire of excessive tenuity can be produced.
Diameter.
Strain.
,
In.
ft.
Gold .
0162
5-6i- 5-42
Platinum
0161
6-70- 6-59
Silver .
0157
7-86- 7-78
Copper .
0177
IO-II-IO-2O
Iron
0169
II-I2-IO-89
Copper .
0605
233
Brass
0640
203
Steel .
0600
342
Phosphor Bronze
0630
394
Dr W. H. Wollaston first succeeded in drawing a platinum wire
STri^TO- inch in diameter by encasing a fine platinum wire within
silver to ten times its diameter. The cored wire he then reduced to
8 o*oo inch, and by dissolving away the silver coating the platinum
wire srriinr inch thick only remained. By continued treatment
in this way wires of platinum for spider-lines of telescopes have
been obtained of such extreme tenuity that a mile length of the
wire weighs not more than a grain; and it is said that platinum
wire has been made which measures not more than 20*00 mm.,
equal to less than the fifty-thousandth part of an inch,
accompanying table shows the comparative tenacity of the
of metals and metallic alloys.
Wire was originally made by beating the metal out into plates,
which were then cut into continuous strips, and afterwards rounded
by beating. The art of wire-drawing does not appear to have been
known till the I4th century, and it was not introduced into England
before the second half of the i?th century. Wire is usually drawn
of cylindrical form; but it may be made of any desired section b
varying the outline of the holes in the draw-plate through whic
it is passed in the process of manufacture. The draw-plate or e*
is a piece of hard cast-iron or hard steel, or for fine work it may
a diamond or ruby. The object of utilizing precious stones is
enable the dies to be used for a considerable period without losin
their size, and so producing wire of incorrect diameter. Diamon
dies must be rebored when they have lost their original diameter <
hole, but the metal dies are brought down to size again by hammering
up the hole and then drifting it out to correct diameter with a pur
The form of a die in section is shown by fig. I; the bell-mout
opening receiyes the
wire, and when it is
pulled through the
hole at the end its
diameter becomes re-
duced accordingly.
The action of draw-
ing has the effect of
hardening the wire
and rendering it
brittle, so that an-
nealing must be done FlG. I.
at intervals to soften
it again for further drawing; the annealing is done in cast-iron \_
holding coils of wire which are raised to a red heat and then allowe
to cool. Although the wire is kept air-tight as much as possible, son
amount of scaling occurs, and pickling must be done to remove th
scale before redrawing.
An important point in wire-drawing is that of lubrication
facilitate the operation and to lessen the wear on the dies. Variot
lubricants, such as oil, tallow, soapy water and stale beer, are en
ployed. Another method is to immerse the wire in a sulphate i
copper solution, so that a film of copper is deposited which forms i
kind of lubricant, easing the drawing considerably; in some classe
of wire the copper is left after the final drawing to serve as a preven
tive of rust.
The wire-drawing machines include means for holding the die
accurately in position and for drawing the wire steadily through th
holes. The usual design consists of a cast-iron bench or table bavin
a bracket standing up to hold the die, and a vertical drum whic
rotates and by coiling the wire around its surface pulls it thrqug
the die, the coil of wire being stored upon another drum or " swift '
which lies behind the die and reels off the wire as fast as requir
The wire drum or " block '' is provided with means for rapi<
coupling or uncoupling it to its vertical shaft, so that the motion i
the wire may be stopped or started instantly. The block is als
tapered, so that the coil of wire may be easily slipped off upwarr 1
when finished. Before the wire can be attached to the block,
sufficient length of it must be pulled through the die; this is effecte
by a pair of gripping pincers on the end of a chain which is wourr
around a revolving drum, so drawing the pincers along, and wif
them the wire, until enough is through the die to be coiled two
three times on the block, where the end is secured by a small sen
clamp or vice ready for the drawing operation. Wire has to
pointed or made smaller in diameter at the end before it can
passed through the die; the pointing is done by hammering, filin
rolling or swaging in dies, which effect a reduction in diamete
When the wire is on the block the latter is set in motion and t'
wire is drawn steadily through the die; it is very important tl
the block shall rotate evenly and that it shall run true and pull t
wire in an even manner, otherwise the " snatching " which occur
will break the wire, or at least weaken it in spots.
Continuous wire-drawing machines differ from the single-bio
machines in having a series of dies through which the wire passes i
a continuous manner. The difficulty of feeding between each die
solved by introducing a block between each, so that as the w _
issues it coils around the block and is so helped on to the next dii
The speeds of the blocks are increased successively, so that tl
elongation due to drawing is taken up and slip compensated fo
The operation of threading the wire first through all the dies an
around the blocks is termed " stringing-up." The arrangements
for lubrication include a pump which floods the dies, and in many
cases also the bottom portions of the blocks run in lubricant. The
speeds at which the wire travels vary greatly, according to the material
and the amount of reduction effected ; rates from 100 ft. up to 900
ft. are possible, the higher speeds being those of continuous machines.
Wires and cables for electrical purposes are covered with various
insulating materials, such as cotton, silk, jute and paper, wrapped in
spiral fashion and further protected with substances such as paraffin,
some kind of preservative compound, bitumen or lead sheathing or
WIREWORM
739
teel taping. The stranding or covering machines employed in
this work are designed to carry supplies of material and wind it on
to the wire which is passing through at a rapid rate. Some of the
smallest machines lor cotton covering have a large drum, which
grips the wire and moves it through toothed gears at a definite
speed; the wire passes through the centre of disks mounted above
a long bed, and the disks carry each a number of bobbins varying
from six to twelve or more in different machines. A supply ol
covering material is wound on each bobbin, and the end is led on to
the wire, which occupies a central position relatively to the bobbins;
thu latter being revolved at a suitable speed bodily with their disks,
the cotton is consequently served on to the wire, winding in spiral
fashion so as to overlap. If a large number of strands are required
the disks are duplicated, so that as many as sixty spools may be
carried, the second set of strands being laid over the first. For the
heavier cables, used for electric light and power, and submarine
cables, the machines are somewhat different in construction. The
wire is still carried through a hollow shaft, but the bobbins or spools
of covering material are set with their spindles at right angles to
the axis of the wire, and they lie in a circular cage which rotates on
rollers below. The various strands coming from the spools at various
parts of the circumference of the cage all lead to a disk at the end
of the hollow shaft. This disk has perforations through which each
of the strands pass, thence being immediately wrapped on the cable,
which slides through a bearing at this point. Toothed gears having
certain definite ratios are used to cause the winding drum for the
cable and the cage for the spools to rotate at suitable relative speeds
which do not vary. The cages are multiplied for stranding with a
large number of tapes or strands, so that a machine may have six
bobbins on one cage and twelve on the other. In the case of sub-
marine cables, coverings of jute-served gutta-percha are employed,
upon which a protective covering of steel wires is laid, subsequently
treated with jute yarns or tapes and protected with coatings of
compound. Messrs Johnson & Phillips, Ltd., of Charlton, Kent,
make combination machines which lay the steel wires, apply the
tapes and cover with the preservative compound, in one continuous
operation. The wire is carried on bobbins in two rotating cages,
having twelve bobbins each, and the jute bobbins, seventy-two in
number, are mounted on disks, while the compound is supplied
from steam-heated tanks, through which the cable is passed by
rollers. A machine of this class will turn out as much as 8 m. of
finished cable in a day of twelve hours. When a supply of steel wire
has been used up, the next portions are united by electric welding.
Tapes of paper, rubber or jute are served from bobbins on disks
and also in some designs from independent bobbins, each mounted
on its own pin, set at a suitable angle in a frame, to give the spiral
lead. In some instances seventy-two layers of paper are applied to
high-tension cables. These cables are subsequently put into steam-
heated tanks, hermetically sealed and connected to a vacuum pump,
by which the moisture is drawn off as quickly as possible. VVhen
the cable is thoroughly dry a quantity of compound is admitted
to the tank and so permeates the insulation. Lead is put on the
outside of the paper in a press, which has dies through which the
cable passes, and is covered with a uniform coating or tube of lead,
forced into the dies and around the cable by hydraulic pressure.
Steel tapes are in some cases used to armour cables and protect them
from external injury; the tape is wound in a similar manner to the
other materials already described.
Rubber covering of wires and cables is done by passing them
through grooved rollers simultaneously with rubber strips above
and below, so that the rubber is crushea on to the wires, the latter
emerging as a wide band. The separate wires are parted forcibly,
each retaining its rubber sheathing. ' Vulcanizing is afterwards done
in steam-heated drums.
Many auxiliary machines are necessary in connexion with wire-
and cable-covering, as plant for preparing the rubber and paper, &c.,
cutting it into strips, winding it, measuring lengths, &c.
Wire Gauges. In commerce, the sizes of wire are estimated by
gauges which consist of plates of circular or oblong form having
notches of different widths round their edges to receive wire and
sheet metals of different thicknesses. Each notch is stamped with
a number, and the wire or sheet, which just fits a given notch, is
stated to be of, say, No. 10, n, 12, &c., of the wire gauge. But
it is always necessary to state what particular gauge is used, since,
unfortunately, uniformity is wanting. Holtzapffel investigated the
subject, and published a valuable collection of facts relating thereto
in 1846. A more exhaustive report was published by a committee
of the Society of Telegraph Engineers in 1879 (Journ. Soc. Tel. Eng.
viii. p. 476), a result of which was the sanctioning by the Board of
Trade, in 1884, of the New Imperial Standard Wire Gauge. That
report stated: " The different gauges in use might be counted by
hundreds.^ . . . Every wire-drawer has gauges adjusted to suit
special objects. When competition is keen, wire is commonly drawn
by one gauge and sold by another; half sizes and quarter sizes are
in constant use among the dealers, the wire being sold as whole sizes.
Sometimes four or five different gauge plates have been made by
one maker -some by which the workmen are paid, and others by
which the wire is sold. . . . The whole system is in confusion, and
lends itself to those who desire to use fraudulent practices." Thomas
Hughes (The English Wire Gauge, London, 1879) stated that, " In
the same town some use Stubs, some the Warrington, some the
Lancashire, some the Yorkshire, some the Birmingham, some the
iron wire gauge and some their own made wire gauge, all maintaining
the gauge in their own possession to be the correct one."
Gauges may be broadly divided into two groups, the empirical
and the geometrical. The first include ajl the old ones, notably the
Birmingham (B-W.G.) and the Lancashire or Stubs. The origin of
the B.W.G. is lost in obscurity The numbers of wire were in common
use earlier than 1735. It is believed that they originally were based
on the series of drawn wires No. I being the original rod . and succeed-
ing numbers corresponding with each draw, so that No. 10, for
example, would have passed ten times through the draw plate.
But the Birmingham and the Lancashire gauge, the latter being
based on an averaging of the dimensions collated from a large
number of the tormer in the possession of Peter Stubs of Warrington,
have long held the leading position, and are still retained and used
probably to a greater extent than the more recent geometrical
gauges. There is no need, therefore, to give an account of the other
and less known gauges which have been used by manufacturers.
In no case is there any regular increment of dimensions from which
a regular curve could be drawn.
The first attempt to adopt a geometrical system was made by
Messrs Brown & Sharpe in 1855. They established a regular pro-
gression of thirty-nine steps between the English sizes, No. oooo
(460 mils) and No. 36 (5 mils). Each diameter was multiplied by
0-890522 to give the next lower size. This is now the American
gauge, and is used to a considerable extent in the U.S.A.
The Imperial Standard Wire Gauge, which has been sanctioned
by the British Board of Trade, is one that was formulated by J.
Latimer Clark. Incidentally, one of its recommendations is that
it differs from pre-existing gauges scarcely more than they differ
among themselves, and it is based on a rational system, the basis
being the mil. No. 7/0, the largest size, is 0-50 in. (500 mils) in
diameter, and the smallest, No. 50, is o-ooi in. (i mil) in diameter.
Between these the diameter, or thickness, diminishes by 10-557%,
and the weight diminishes by 20%.
But the fact remains that a large number of gauges are still in
common use, and that gauges of the same name differ and are
therefore not authoritative. Sheet iron wire gauge differs from
Stubs' steel wire gauge. Gauges for wire and plate differ. Accuracy-
can only be secured by specifying precisely the name of the gauge
intended, or, what is generally better, the dimensions in decimals,
which can always be tested with a micrometer. A decimal gauge
has been proposed. Tables of decimal equivalents of the wire
gauges have been prepared, and are helpful.
The circular forms of gauge are the most popular, and are generally
3} in. in diameter, with thirty-six notches; many have the decimal
equivalents of the sizes stamped on the back. Oblong plates are
similarly notched. Rolling mill gauges are also oblong in form.
Many gauges are made with a wedge-like slot into which the wire is
thrust; one edge being graduated, the point at which the movement
of the wire is arrested gives its size. The graduations are those of
standard wire, or in thousandths of an inch. In some cases both
edges are graduated differently to serve for comparison between two
systems of measurement. A few gauges are made with holes into
which the wire has to be thrust. All gauges are hardened and
ground to dimensions.
WIREWORM, a popular name for the slender, hard-skinned
grubs or larvae of the click-beetles or Elateridae, a family of
the Coleoptera (q.v.). These larvae pass a long life (two or three
years) in the soil, feeding on the roots of plants, and they often
cause much damage to farm crops of all kinds, but especially to
cereals. A wirewonn may be known by its broad, quadrate
head and cylindrical or somewhat flattened body, all of whose
segments are protected by a firm, chitinous cuticle. The three
pairs of legs on the thoracic segments are short and the last
abdominal segment is, as is frequently the case in beetle grubs,
directed downwards to serve as a terminal proleg. The hinder
end of the body is acutely pointed in the larvae of the species of
Agriotes (^4. obscurus and A. lineatus) that are the best knows
of the wireworms, but in another common form (the grub of
Athous haemorrhoidalis) the tail is bifid and beset with sharp
processes. The subterranean habits of wireworms make it
hard to exterminate them when they have once begun to attack
a crop, and the most hopeful practice is, by rotation and by
proper treatment of the land, to clear it of the insects before the
seed be sown. Passing easily through the soil on account of their
shape, wireworms travel from plant to plant and thus injure
the roots of a large number in a short time. (See ECONOMIC
ENTOMOLOGY.) Other subterranean creatures such as the
" leather-jacket " grub of crane-flies which have no legs,
and geophilid centipedes, which may have over two hundred,
are often confounded with the six-legged wireworms.
740
WIRKSWORTH WISCONSIN
WIRKSWORTH, a market town in the western parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, 14 m. N.N.W. of Derby, on a
branch of the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
3807. It is picturesquely situated at the head of the valley of
a small tributary of the Derwent, at an elevation exceeding
500 ft., and is almost encircled by sharply rising hills. The
cruciform church of St Mary, with a central tower and short spire,
is in great part Early English, with Perpendicular additions;
but considerable traces of a Norman building were revealed
during a modern restoration. There is a manufacture of tape in
the town, and lead-mining and stone-quarrying are carried on
in the neighbourhood; relics of the Roman working of the lead
mines have been discovered. A large brass vessel used as a
standard measure for the lead ore, and dating from the time
of Henry VIII., is preserved.
WISBECH, a municipal borough, market town, and port
in the Wisbech parliamentary division of Cambridgeshire,
England, 38 m. N. by W. of Cambridge, on the Great Eastern and
the Great Northern and Midland joint railways. It lies in the
flat fen country, on the river Nene (mainly on the east bank),
ii m. from its outlet on the Wash. By the Wisbech canal it
has communication with the Ouse. The church of St Peter
and St Paul has a double nave, with aisles, the north arcade
being Norman; but the rest of the building is mainly Decorated
and Perpendicular. There are remains of a Norman west tower ;
the Perpendicular tower stands on the north side. The museum
contains a valuable library and various collections, including
antiquities and objects of art and natural history. Other in-
stitutions include a grammar school founded in the middle of
the 1 6th century and provided for by a charter of Edward VI.,
the Cambridgeshire hospital, a custom-house, a cattle-market,
and an important corn-exchange, for Wisbech has a large trade
in grain. A Gothic monument commemorates Thomas Clarkson
(1760-1846), a powerful opponent of the slave-trade, and a
native of the town. The shipping trade is carried on both at the
town itself and at Sutton Bridge, 8 m. lower down the river.
The chief imports are coal, timber and iron, and the exports
grain and other agricultural products and salt. Foreign trade is
chiefly with the Russian Baltic ports. In the neighbourhood
large quantities of fruit are grown, including apples, pears,
plums, gooseberries, and strawberries. Potatoes, asparagus,
and other vegetables are also grown for the London market.
The town possesses agricultural implement works, coach-
building works, breweries, ropeworks, planing and sawing mills,
and corn and oil-cake mills. The borough is under a mayor,
6 aldermen, and 18 councillors. Area, 6476 acres.
Wisbech (Wisebec, i.e. Ousebec) is near a Roman embankment
and tumuli. About 940 the manor is said to have been given
to the abbey of Ely by Oswy and Leoflede; the abbot held it
in 1086; and it became attached to the see of Ely with the other
possessions of the monastery. The castle is alleged to have been
built by William I., and was converted from a fortress in the fens
into an episcopal palace between 1471 and 1473. The growth
of Wisbech depended on its position and episcopal patronage.
In 1190 tenants of Wisbech Barton acquired an exemption
from tolls throughout England, confirmed by John, Henry IV.
and Henry V. The Gild of the Holy Trinity is mentioned in
1379, and grew rich and powerful. After its dissolution the
townsmen became, in 1549, a corporation holding of the king,
by a charter which transferred to them the property and duties
of the gild, and was renewed in 1610 and 1669. By the Municipal
Corporations Act of 1835 a mayor, aldermen and a council
replaced the capital burgesses, the older governing body. The
borough returned a member only to the parliament of 1658;
its elected member, Secretary Thurloe, chose then to represent
another constituency. A fair of twenty days from the vigil of
Holy Trinity was granted to the bishop of Ely in 1327. The mart
still occupies by custom the interval between Lynn mart, of
which it is probably an offshoot, and Stamford fair in mid-Lent.
A pleasure fair, called the Statute Fair, takes place shortly
before Michaelmas. Importance attaches to the horse fair,
held in 1827 in the week before Whitsuntide and now on the
second Thursday in May and on July 25, and to the cattle fair
in the beginning of August. Saturday was market day in 1792;
a corn market is now held on Saturday, a cattle market on
Thursday and Saturday. In 1086 eels were prolific in Wisbech
water. The port was noteworthy until a diversion of the Ouse,
before 1292, rendered it hardly accessible. Drainage restored
trade before 1634, and the act of 1773 for making Kinderley's
Cut was the beginning of prosperity. From 1783 to 1825 agricul-
tural produce was exported and coal imported. Hemp and flax
had an importance, lost between 1827 and 1849, but responsible
in 1792 for fairs on Saturday and Monday before Palm Sunday.
See W. Watson, History of Wisbech (Wisbech, 1827); N. Walker
and C. Thomas, History of Wisbech (Wisbech, 1849); History of
Wisbech (Wisbech and London, 1833).
WISCONSIN (known as " the Badger 1 state "), one of the
North Central states of the United States of America. It is
bounded on the E. by Lake Michigan, on the N. by the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan and Lake Superior, on the W. by Min-
nesota and Iowa, and on the S. by Illinois. Its greatest length
from N. to S. (42 30' N. Lat. to 47 3' N. Lat.) is 300 m., and its
greatest breadth (86 49' W. Long, to 92 54' W. Long.) is 250 m.
The greater part of the western boundary separating the state
from Minnesota and Iowa consists of the Mississippi and St
Croix rivers flowing S. and the Saint Louis river flowing into
Lake Superior. The Menominee and Montreal rivers form a
considerable part of the boundary line on the N. and E., separating
it from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. The state's lake
shore boundary is more than 550 m. long. Included in Wis-
consin are the Apostle Islands in Lake Superior, and Washington
Island and a group of smaller islands at the entrance to Green
Bay on the Lake Michigan side. The state occupies a total
area of 56,066 sq. m., 2 810 of which are water surface. Roughly
speaking, it divides the Great Lakes region from the upper valley
of the Mississippi.
Physical Features. Wisconsin forms part of the inner margin of
an ancient coastal plain and the oldland of crystalline rocks about
which the plain sediments were deposited. The plain and the old-
land were well worn down by erosion and then were uplifted; were
dissected by stream valleys, and were glaciated. The surface is
generally rolling and undulating, comprising, with the Upper Penin-
sula of Michigan, a swelling elevation of land between the three
depressions represented by Lakes Michigan and Superior and the
Mississippi and the St Croix rivers. The lowest elevations are in the
southern and central portions of the state, where the altitude
averages between 580 and 600 ft. above sea-level. The highest
points in the state are residual masses of relatively resistant rock
rising above the erosion surface; such are: Rib Hill (1940 ft.) in
Marathon county, in the north-central part, and some of the peaks
of the Penokee Range in the N. part of the state, which are about
1800 ft. high. From the N. highland two heights of land (1200 to
1600 ft.) extend southward well into the central portions of the
state, dividing the greater part of its area into two natural drainage
basins. The westernmost of these elevations separates the valleys
of the Mississippi, and the St Croix from that of the Wisconsin river.
The eastern elevation is a ridge or cuesta formed by an outcropping
hard layer of the ancient coastal plain ; and it separates the Wisconsin
river basin from the Fox River Valley and the streams flowing into
Lake Michigan. Along the Mississippi and the Wisconsin runs a
chain of bluffs varying in height from 200 to 300 ft., and in the E. a
rocky limestone ridge or cuesta some 30 m. back from Lake Michigan
extends from the Door county peninsula, E. of Lake Winnebago and
as far south as the Illinois line. There are no large rivers flowing
into Lake Superior and very little drainage in that direction, as
from a point some 30 m. S. of the lake all the streams flow in a
southerly direction. The Mississippi is the drainage basin for a
greater part of the state. The St Croix river rises in the S.W. part
of the Penokee Range and flows W. and S., forming the western
boundary of the state for 135 m. before it joins the Mississippi 20 m.
below St Paul. Before it is joined by the Wisconsin, the Mississippi
1 The badger is not found in the state, and the name probably
originated as a nickname for those lead miners N. of the Illinois
line who came from the East, who lived in dug-outs like the hillside
burrows of the badger, and who did not go home in winter like the
miners from southern Illinois and farther south, who were called
" suckers," a name borrowed from the migrating fish in the Rock,
Illinois and other rivers flowing south. The name " suckers " was
applied generally to all the people of Illinois, and the name " badgers "
to the people of Wisconsin and " badger state " to the state.
2 Besides the area as given here, the state has jurisdiction over
approximately 7500 sq. m. of Lake Michigan and 2378 sq. m. of
Lake Superior.
MICHIGAN
WISCONSIN
receives several rivers of considerable length, the most important of
which are the Chippewa and the Black. The Wisconsin river rises
on the Upper Michigan border and flows S. and W. for 600 m.,
joining the Mississippi near Prairie du Chien. It is navigable as far
as Portage, some 200 m. from its mouth. The Fox river (more than
a6o m. long) rises in the south central portion of the state, flows N.
and E. by a circuitous route through Lake Winnebago, and thence
N. into Green Bay, and is the longest and most important stream
draining into Lake Michigan. The Wolf river is its most important
tributary, joining it from the N., in its upper course. Besides the
Fox several smaller streams drain into the Lake Michigan basin.
Among these are the Menominee and Oconto, which flow into Green
Bay; an arm of Lake Michigan, and the Sheboygan and Milwaukee
rivers emptying directly into the lake. The southern portion of the
state is drained by several streams flowing across the Illinois boundary
and finding their way eventually through other rivers into the
Mississippi. The largest of these are the Rock, Des Plaines, Fox
(of the Illinois), or Pishtaka, and the Pecatonica rivers. On account
of glacial disturbance of the drainage, Wisconsin's many streams
provide water-powers of great value that have contributed much
to the industrial prosperity of the state. The most valuable of these
are the Fox, the Rock and the upper Wisconsin and its tributaries.
Wisconsin has more than 2500 lakes, mostly in the glaciated N.
and E. parts of the state. Of these the largest is Lake Winnebago,
between Calumet, Outagamie, Fond du Lac and Winnebago counties,
with an extreme length of 30 m. and a breadth of 10 m., and one of
the largest bodies of water lying wholly within any state in the
Union. On its banks are the important manufacturing cities of
Oshkosh, Fond du Lac, Neenah and Menasha, and through it flows
the Fox river. In the S. and E. portions of the state the lakes are
beautiful clear bodies of water with sandy or gravelled shores, and,
as a rule, high banks heavily wooded. Many of them are famous as
summer resorts, notably Lake Geneva, Green Lake, the lakes in
Waukesha county and the famous " lour lakes " near Madison.
Flora and Fauna. Wisconsin was originally the native home of
most of the wild fowl and animals found in the other North Central
states. Deer were found in large numbers in all sections of the state,
bear were common in the central and northern parts, bison were
found in the south-west, wolves, lynx (" wild cats "), and foxes and
other smaller animals particularly of fur-bearing varieties. The
streams abounded in fish. The abundance of game made the region
between the lakes and the Mississippi a favourite hunting ground of
the Indians, and later a productive field for the trapper and fur
trader. Bear, deer and lynx are still to be found in the less settled
forest regions of the N. parts, and the fisheries are still important.
The avi-faunal life of Wisconsin is exceedingly varied; C. B. Cory
(see BIBLIOGRAPHY) enumerates 398 species for Wisconsin and
Illinois, and of these probably not less than 350 occur in Wisconsin.
The more characteristic and useful birds include many species of
the sparrow, such as the song, swamp, Lincoln's chipping and field
sparrow; the bank, barn, cliff, white-bellied and rough-winged
swallow, as well as the purple martin and the chimney swift; ten
or more species of fly-catchers, including the least, arcadian, phoebe,
wood pewee, olive-sided and king bird; about ten species of wood-
peckers, ot which the more common are the downy, hairy, yellow-
bellied and golden-winged (flicker) ; about thirty species of warblers,
including the parula, cerulean, Blackburnian, prothonotary, yellow
Nashville, red-start, worm-eating and chestnut-sided ; and four or five
species of vireos. The song-birds are well represented in the hermit
thrush, wood thrush, Wilson's thrush (or veery), brown thrasher,
robin, blue bird, bobolink, meadow lark, gold finch, &c. Among
the game birds are the ruffed grouse (partridge), quail, prairie hen
and wild turkey. The birds of prey include the red-shouldered, red-
tailed, broad-winged, Cooper's, sharp-shinned and sparrow hawk
and the bald eagle; the great horned, barred, barn, snowy, short-
eared and screech owls. The ducks include the mallard, black
duck, canvas-back and red-head ; the Canadian goose, the snowy
goose and the blue goose also appear during the migrating seasons.
Originally the greater portion of what is now Wisconsin was
covered with forests, although in the S. and W. there were consider-
able tracts of rolling prairie lands. In the S. portion the predominat-
ing trees were hickory, elm, oak and poplar. Along the shore of
Lake Michigan, and extending inland a quarter of the distance across
the state and northward through the Fox River Valley, there was a
heavy belt of oak, maple, birch, ash, hickory, elm and some pine.
From the N. shores of Green Bay there stretched away to the N. and
W. an enormous and unbroken forest of pines, hemlocks and spruce.
Climate. The climate of the whole state is influenced by the
storms which move eastward along the Canadian border and by
those which move northward up the Mississippi Valley, and that of
the eastern and northern sections is moderated by the Great Lakes.
The winters, especially in the central and north-western sections, are
long and severe, and the summers in the central and south-western
sections are very warm ; but the air is so dry that cold and heat are
less felt here than they are in some humid climates with less
extreme temperatures. The mean annual temperature for the
state is 44 F. July, with an average temperature for the state
of 70", is the warmest month, and February, with an average of 15,
is the coldest. Within a period of thirty-eight years, from 1870 to
I98, extremes at Milwaukee ranged from loo to - 25, while at
La Crosse, on the western border and less than 60 m. farther north,
they ranged during the same period from 104 10-43. The greatest
extremes recorded at regular observing stations range from 1 1 1 at
Brodhead, in Green county and near the southern border, on the 2ist
of July IQOI to - 48 at Barron, in Barren county in the north-western
part of the state, on the loth of February 1889. The average annual
precipitation for the state is 31 -5 in. Two-thirds of this comes in the
six growing months from April to September inclusive, and the rain-
fall is well distributed over all sections. There is an annual snowfall
of 53 in. in the northern section, 40 in. in the southern section and
36 in. in the central section, which is quite evenly distributed through
the months of December, January, February and March. In the
northern section the heavy snowfall is caused by the cyclonic storms
along the Canadian border, and in the southern section the snowfall
is increased by the storms which ascend the Mississippi Valley. All
sections of the state are subject to tornadoes. They occur more
frequently in the western portion than in the eastern portion, but
one of the most destructive in the history of the state occurred at
Racine on the l8th of May 1883. This storm killed 25 persons,
injured 100, and destroyed considerable property.
Agriculture. Hay and grain are the most important crops. In
1909 the acreage of hay was 2,369,000 and the value of the crop
$34,800,000. In the production of the hardy cereals, barley, rye and
buckwheat, Wisconsin ranks, high among the states of the Union ;
but oats and Indian corn are the largest cereal crops in the state.
The crop of oats was 79,800,000 bushels (raisedjon 2,280,000 acres and
valued at $31,122,000) in 1909; of Indian com, 50,589,000 bushels
(raised on 1,533,000 acres and valued at $30,353,000); of barley.
24,248,000 bushels (raised on 866,000 acres and valued at $13,579,000
a crop exceeded only by that of California and that of Minnesota) ;
of wheat, 3,484,000 bushels (raised on 179,000 acres and valued at
$3>345>oo);of rye,4,727,ooobushels (raised on2ox>,oooacresand valued
at $3,214,000 a crop exceeded only by that of Pennsylvania and
that of Michigan) ; and of buckwheat ,221 ,000 bushels(grown on 18,000
acres and valued at $172,000). The potato crop is large, 26,724,000
bushels being raised in 1909 on 262,000 acres, a crop exceeded only
in New York. Michigan and Maine. Tobacco also isa valuable crop:
in 1909 37,170,000 ft, valued at $3,419,640, were grown on 31,500
acres. In 1909 14,000 acres of sugar beets were harvested and
34,340,000 Ib of sugar were manufactured in the four beet sugar
factories in the state. In the south-central part of the state there are
valuable cranberry marshes. Orchard fruits, especially apples, are
of increasing importance.
The raising of live-stock, particularly of dairy cows, is an important
industry. In 1910, out of a total of 2,587,000 neat cattle, there were
1,506,000 milch cows. The total number of horses in the state was
669,000 in 1910, when they were valued at $80,949,000. There were
1,034,000 sheep, and 1,651,000 swine.
Manufactures. The growth of manufacturing has been rapid: in
1850 the value of the manufactures was $9,293,068; in 1860,
$27,849,467; in 1870, $77,214,326; in 1880, $128,255,480; in
1890, $248,546,164; and in 1900, $360,818,942. The product
under the factory system, excluding hand trades and neighbourhood
industries, was $326,752,878 in 1900 and $411,139,681 in 1905.
The most important of the state's manufactures in 1900 and in 1905
were lumber and timber products, valued in the latter year at
$44>395>766 (Wisconsin being second in rank to the state of Wash-
ington). About 60% (both in quantity and value) of the lumber
sawed in 1905 was white pine; next in importance were hemlock
(more than one-fourth in quantity), basswood (nearly 4%) and, in
smaller quantities, birch, oak, elm, maple, ash, tamarack, Norway
pine, cedar and spruce. The value of the product of planing mills
was $11,210,205 in 1905; and other important manufactures based
on raw materials from forests were paper and wood pulp ($17,844,174)
and furniture (11,569,591). Second in value in 1905 were cheese,
butter and condensed milk ($29,994,791), in the product of which
Wjsconsin ranked, second to New York in 1900 and 1905. In 1905
Wisconsin ranked first of all the states in the value of butter, second
in the value of cheese and fifth in the value of condensed milk; the
dairy product of Wisconsin in this year was 17-8 % (by value) of that
of the entire country. Foundry and machine-shop products ranked
third in value in 1905, when they were valued at $29,908,001, and
when iron and steel manufactures were valued at $10,453,750.
Among the other important manufactures in 1905 were: malt
liquors ($28,692,340) and malt ($8,740,103, being 1 13-7 % more than
in 1900); flour and grist-mill products ($28,352,237; about 60%
was wheat flour); leather ($25,845,123); wholesale slaughtering and
meat-packing ($16,060,423) ; agricultural implements ($10,076,760) ;
carriages and wagons ($7,511,392); men's clothing ($6,525,276);
boots and shoes ($6,513,563); steam railway cars, constructed and
repaired ($6,511,731); hosiery and knit goods ($4,941,744); cigars
(84,372,139); mattresses and spring beds ($3,527,587); and
electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies ($3,194,132).
In 1 905, out of a total factory product of $411,139,681, $259420,044
was the value of goods made in factories in the twenty-two muni-
cipalities of the state, with a population (1900) of at least Sopo; but
only 36-3 % of the total number of factories were in urban districts.
More than one-third of the value of factory products was that of the
manufactures of Milwaukee ($138,881,545). Racine ranked second
with a factory product valued at $16,458,965. The manufacture of
742
WISCONSIN
furniture in Wisconsin is centralized especially in Sheboygan, where
in 1905 was manufactured about one-third of the furniture made in
the state.
Mines and Quarries. The lead mines of south-western Wisconsin
played an important part in the early development of the state (see
History). When the main deposits had been worked down to the
water level, miningfup to that time principally of lead) stopped and did
not start again until about 1900, when the high price of zinc stimulated
renewed working of these deposits. The principal ores are galena,
sphalerite or zinc blende and smithspnite or zinc carbonate, which
is locally called " dry bone " and which was the first zinc ore mined
in the state. In 1908 the lead product was valued at $347.592
and the zinc product at $1,711,364, Wisconsin ranking fourth among
the zinc-mining states. The production of iron ore in the Gogebic
and Menominee ranges on the upper Michigan border is important.
Red haematite was mined in Dodge county before 1854; in 1877
the deposits in Florence county were first worked, and in 1882
276,017 tons were shipped from that county; and about 1884 began
the development of the Gogebic deposits in Iron and Ashland
counties. The maximum output was in 1890, being 948,965 long
tons; in 1902 it was 783,996 long tons (79% from Iron county);
and in 1908, 733,993 tons. The output is almost entirely haematite.
There are large deposits of stratified clay along the shores of Lake
Michigan, from which is made a cream-coloured brick, so largely used
in Milwaukee that that city has been called the " cream city " ;
the total value of clay products in 1907 was $1,127,819 and in 1908
$958,395. By far the most valuable mineral output is building
stone, which was valued in 1908 at $2,850,920, including granite
($1,529,781), limestone ($1,102,000) and sandstone ($219,130).
In 1907 and 1908 the state ranked fifth among the states of the
country in the value of granite quarried; in 1902 it ranked fifteenth.
The industry began in 1880, when the first quarry (at Granite
Heights, Marathon county) was opened. The principal quarries
are in Dodge, Green Lake (a blackish granite is quarried at Utley
and a pinkish rhyolite at Berlin), Marathon, Marinette, Marquette,
Sauk, Waupaca and Waushara counties. Wisconsin granite is
especially suitable for monumental work. Limestone is found in a
broad belt in the east, south and west; more than 40% of the total
output in 1908, which was valued at $1,102,009, was used for road-
making and more than one-sixth in the manufacture of concrete.
In 1907 and 1908 Wisconsin ranked seventh among the states in the
value of limestone quarried. The first limestone quarries were
opened at Genesee, Waukesha county, in 1848; at Wauwatosa, near
Milwaukee, in 1855; and near Bridgeport in 1856. Freshwater
pearls are found in many of the streams; and in 1907 and 1908
Wisconsin ranked first among the states in the value of mineral
waters sold, with a value of $1,526,703 in 1907 and $1,413,107 in
1908, although in both years the quantity sold in Wisconsin was
less than in Minnesota or in New York. The most famous of these
springs are in Waukesha county, whence White Rock, Bethesda,
Clysmic and other waters are shipped.
Forests. In 1890 and in 1900 (when the wooded area was esti-
mated at 31,750 sq. m., or 58% of the total area of the state) Wis-
consin was the foremost state in the Union in the production of
lumber and timber. In 1905 the value of the lumber and timber
product was exceeded by that of Washington; but as late as 1908
Wisconsin was the chief source of the white pine supply. Next to
white pine (used largely in shipbuilding) in value in 1908 were red or
Norway pine (used in house building), hemlock (used for lumber and
wood pulp) and white spruce, a very valuable lumber tree. In 1908
the area of the state forest reserve lands under a state boarcf of
forestry (chiefly in Oneida, Forest, Iron, Price and Vilas counties)
was 253,573 acres. Forest fires have been numerous and exceedingly
destructive in Wisconsin; the loss of timber and other property
from this cause in 1908 was about $9,000,000.
Fisheries. The fisheries of Wisconsin are of considerable import-
ance; the catch in 1908 was valued at $1,067,170, lake trout and
herring being the most valuable. There is a state board of com-
missioners of fisheries (see below, Government), which distributed
in 1908 149,338,069 eggs, fry and fingerlings, including 112,075,000
wall-eyed pike and about 12,000,000 each of lake trout and whitefish.
There are state hatcheries at Madison (for brook and rainbow trout),
Bayfield (brook, rainbow and lake trout and whitefish), Oshkosh
(lake trout, whitefish and wall-eyed pike), Minocqua (pike, bass and
muskallonge), Delafield (black bass and wall-eyed pike) and Wild
Rose (brook trout).
Transportation and Commerce. Railway building in Wisconsin
began in 1851, when a track was laid from Milwaukee to Waukesha
(20 m.), which was extended westward in 1854 to Madison and in
1857 to the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien. This line was the fore-
runner of the great Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul system, which
now crosses the southern -half of the state with two trunk lines and
with one line parallels the shore of Lake Michigan. The Chicago &
North-Western and the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha,
which it controls, are together known as" The North-Western Line."
The tracks of the Chicago & North-Western (built to Janesville in
1855 and to Fond du Lac in 1858) form a network in the eastern
part of the state, affording direct connexions with Chicago. The
Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha extends into the western
part of the state, where it connects with the trans-Mississippi lines
of the Chicago & North-Western. The Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy (owned by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific
railways) traverses the state along its western boundary and gives
it access to a third great railway system with transcontinental
service. The Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste. Marie, in which has
been absorbed the old Wisconsin Central, crosses the state and
extends into the Canadian North-West, sharing in the heavy grain
traffic of that section, and, like the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic,
which runs along the Lake Superior shore, is a link in the trans-
continental system of the Canadian Pacific, which controls both these
roads. The Northern Pacific enters Wisconsin in its north-western
corner and extends to the Lake Superior country. The Green Bay
& Western railway between Winona and Kewaunee has ferry con-
nexion across Lake Michigan. In 1900 there were 6538 m. of track,
and on the istof January 1909 7512 m. Characteristic of the
commerce of the state is the shipment by the Great Lakes of bulky
freight, chiefly iron ore, grain and flour and lumber. The return
freight movement to the Wisconsin lake ports is made up chiefly
of coal from the Lake Erie shipping points for the coalfields of Penn-
sylvania and West Virginia. Milwaukee is one of the leading lake
ports, and is the only port of entry in the state; its imports were
valued at $796,285 in 1899 and at $4,493,635 in 1909, and its
exports at $2726 in 1899 and at $244,890 in 1909.
To connect the upper Mississippi river and the Great Lakes,
between 1840 and 1850 a canal was begun between the Fox, flowing
into Green Bay, an arm of Lake Michigan and the Wisconsin river,
flowing into the Mississippi, 1 and improvement of navigation on
these rivers was undertaken by the state with the assistance of the
Federal government; in 1853 the work came into the hands of a
private corporation which in 1856 opened the canal. In 1872 it
was taken over by the United States. In 1887 the route through the
Wisconsin river was abandoned, and thereafter only the Fox river
was improved. Up to June 1909 $3,810,421 had been spent by
the Federal government on this improvement. Green Bay has
communication with Lake Michigan, not only by way of its natural
entrance, but by a government ship canal (built 1872-1881 by a
private company; taken over by the Federal government in 1893;
maximum draft in 1909, 20 ft.; projected channel depth, 21 ft.) at
Sturgeon Bay, an arm of Green Bay, which cuts across the Door
county peninsula. In 1908 there passed through this canal 2307
vessels carrying cargoes of an estimated value of $18,261,455-15.
Population. The population of Wisconsin in 1890 was 1,686,880
(exclusive of 6450 persons specially enumerated) ; in 1900 the total
was 2,069,042 an increase of 22-2 % on the basis of the total at
each enumeration; and in 1910 it reached a total of 2,333,860.*
The density of the population in 1910 was 42.2 to the square mile.
Of the total population in 1900, 1,553,071, or 75-1%, were native-
born, the increase in native-born since 1890 having been 32-3%,
while there was a decrease of foreign-born of 0-6 %. The falling off
in foreign immigration in the decade 1890-1900 contrasts strongly
with the increase of 28-1 % in the number of foreign-born in 1880-
1890. Of the native-born population in 1900, 84%, or 1,304,918,
were born within the state. Of the foreign-born 242,777 were
Germans, 61,575 were Norwegians, 26,196 were Swedes, 25,607
were natives of German Poland, 23,860 were English-Canadians
and 23,544 were Irish. Of the total population 1,472,327 persons, or
more than seven-tenths (71-2%), were of foreign parentage i.e.
either one or both parents were foreign-born and 576,746 were of
German, 134,293 of Norwegian, 76,593 of Irish and 70,585 of Polish
parentage, both on the father's and on the mother's side. At the
census of 1840, with the exception of a few thousand French-
Canadians, the population was made up of American-born pioneers
from the Eastern states, and in the southern portion of the terri-
tory of a sprinkling of men from Kentucky, Virginia and farther
south. Before the next census was taken the revolutionary move-
ment of 1848 in Germany led to the emigration of thousands from
that country to Wisconsin, and there was an increase of 886-9%
in the population from 1840 to 1850. Norwegians and other
Scandinavians, Irish, Poles, Dutch, Belgians ana Swiss followed.
Germans and Irish are now scattered throughout the state; but
the German element predominates markedly in Milwaukee.
Norwegians, Danes and Swedes are more numerous in the western
and northern counties. There are Finns in Douglas county and
Icelanders on Washington Island, in Green Bay. Poles are chiefly
in Milwaukee, Manitowoc and Portage counties, Belgians and Dutch
in Brown and Door counties, German Swiss in Green, Fond du Lac,
Winnebago, Buffalo and Pierce counties, and Bohemians in Kewaunee
county, where they form almost 50% of the population. Some
Italians are massed in Vernonand Florence counties, and there are
French-Canadians in the north. There were 8372 Indians, of whom
1657 were not taxed, 2542 negroes, 212 Chinese and 5 Japanese in
the state in 1900'. The Indians include representatives of the
Menominee (1487 in 1909), Stockbridge and Munsee (582) tribes under
the Keshena School, Chippewa under the Lac du Flambeau School
(705) and the La Pointe School (4453), Oneida (2259) under the Oneida
1 The Fox and Wisconsin rivers are separated at Portage by a
distance of only 2 m.
1 At each preceding census the population was as follows: (1840)
30.945, (1850) 305,391, (1860) 775,881, (1870) 1,054,670. By the
state census of 1905 it was 2,228,949.
WISCONSIN
743
School, Winnebago (1094) under the Wittenberg School and Pota-
watomi (440) not under an agent. The civilized Brotherton and
Stockbridge Indians live principally in Calumet county. Among
religious denominations the Roman Catholics, with 505,264 members
in 1906, had 50-5 % of the total communicants or church members
in the state. The Lutheran bodies ranked next with 284,286
members (including 153,690 of the Evangelical church, 49,535 of the
United Norwegian church, 23,927 of the Synod for the Norwegian
Evangelical church, -15,471 of the Evangelical Lutheran Joint Synod
of Ohio, 15,220 of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Iowa and
8695 of the General Council). Only one other state (Pennsylvania)
had a larger percentage of the total membership of this denomination.
There were 57,473 Methodists (chiefly of the Methodist Episcopal
Church), 26,163 Congregationalists and 21,716 Baptists.
Government. The original constitution of the state, adopted
in 1848, and amended in 1869, 1870, 1874, 1877, 1881, 1882,
1902 and 1908, is still in force. An amendment may be proposed
by either house of the legislature, and if passed by two successive
legislatures by a majority of the members elected to each house
must be submitted to the people for ratification by a majority
vote. A constitutional convention may be called on the recom-
mendation of a majority of the Senate and Assembly if this
proposal receives a majority vote at the next election for members
of the legislature. Suffrage was originally granted to every
male 1 twenty-one years of age or upwards resident in the state
for one year preceding any election if he were a white citizen
of the United States, or a white of foreign birth who had declared
his intention to be naturalized, or an Indian declared by Congress
a citizen of the United States, or a civilized person of Indian
descent not a member of any tribe; and the constitution pro-
vided that the legislature might by law give suffrage to 'others
than those enumerated if such an act of legislature were approved
by a majority of the popular vote at a general election. By an
amendment of 1882 the word " white " was omitted and by an
amendment of 1908 it was provided that those foreign-born and
unnaturalized in order to become electors must have declared
their intentions to become citizens before 'the ist of December
1008, and that " the rights hereby granted to such persons
shall cease on the first day of December A.D. 1912." The amend-
ment of 1908 also permits the legislature to provide for the
registration of electors in incorporated cities and villages.
The official ballot is of the blanket type, with names of candi-
dates in party columns, but with no candidate's name repeated
on the ballot and with no emblems to mark the party columns.
In 1909 an act was passed permitting county boards to adopt a
" coupon " ballot.* Since 1905 there has been a direct nomina-
tion system of primaries for all officers except delegates to national
nominating conventions.
Executive power is vested in a governor and a lieutenant-
governor, elected for two years. The governor's salary (since
1869) is $5000 a year and the lieutenant-governor's $1000.
Candidates for either office must be citizens of the United States
and qualified electors of the state. The lieutenant-governor is pre-
sident of the Senate with a casting vote only. A bill vetoed by
the governor becomes a law if it is approved by two-thirds of
the members present in each house; and a bill not returned by
the governor within six days (excepting Sunday; before 1008
the constitutional limit was three days) after its presentation
to him becomes a law unless the return of the bill is prevented
by the adjournment of the legislature. The governor has power
to grant reprieves, commutations and pardons, except for treason
he may suspend execution of sentence for treason until action
is taken by the legislature and in cases of impeachment.
The administrative officers, a secretary of state, a treasurer
and an attorney-general,, are elected for two years and act as
commissioners of public lands. The secretary of state is ex-
officio auditor; and he acts as governor if the regularly elected
1 Excepting persons under guardianship, those weak-minded or
insane, those convicted (without restoration to civil rights) of treason
or felony, and those who have engaged (directly or indirectly) in a
duel.
1 The coupon ballot was proposed for use throughout the state, but
was defeated by popular vote in April 1906. The ticket is made up
of as many coloured sheets as there are party organizations (plus
one for independent nominations), and the name of each candidate
is on a perforated slip, which must be detached if it is to be voted.
governor and lieutenant-governor die, are removed from office
or are absent from the state. A state superintendent of public
instruction is chosen by popular vote for a four-year term.
Other administrative officers are a commissioner of insurance
(from 1867 to 1878 the secretary of the state was commissioner
of insurance; the office became elective in 1881); a commissioner
of labour and industrial statistics; three railroad commissioners,*
who have jurisdiction over all public utilities, including telegraph
and telephone; a commissioner of banking; a dairy and food
commissioner; a state superintendent of public property;
three tax commissioners who act (since 1901) as a state board of
assessment; commissioners of fisheries (established 1874); a
state board of agriculture (1897); and a state board of forestry
(1905, succeeding a department created in 1903).
The legislature consists of a Senate and an Assembly and
meets biennially, and when called in special session by the governor
to transact special business definitely named in the governor's
call. The number of assemblymen cannot be less than 54 or
more than 100, and the number of senators must be not more than
one-third or less than one-fourth the number of members of the
Assembly. In 1910 there were 33 senators and 100 assemblymen.
Elections to the Senate and Assembly are biennial* and the term
of members of the Assembly is two years, but the senatorial
term is four years and only one-half of the members are elected
each two years. A candidate for either house must have resided
in the state at least one year, must be a qualified elector in the
district from which he is chosen, and may not be a member of
Congress or hold any military or civil office under the United
States. Since 1855 a state census has been taken every ten years,
and on the basis of these censuses the legislature re-apportions
the Senate and Assembly districts. Each member of the legis-
lature receives $500 a year and ro cents a mile for mileage.
Any bill may originate in either house, and either house may
amend a bill passed by the other. Special legislation of several
specified kinds is forbidden, especially by amendments of 1871
and 1892; and the constitution as adopted in 1848 prohibited
the legislature's authorizing any lottery or granting any divorce.
The Assembly may impeach civil officers by a majority of all
elected members, and the Senate to try impeachments; for
conviction a two-thirds vote of all members- present is required.
The judicial power of the state is vested: in a supreme
court 6 of seven members (salary $6000 a year; elected for a
term of ten years; the senior justice is chief justice) with
appellate jurisdiction throughout the state, general superintend-
ence over all inferior courts, power to issue, hear and determine
writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction, quo warranto,
certiorari and other original and remedial writs; nineteen (only
five under the constitution of 1848) circuit courts, of one judge
each except in the second circuit (including Milwaukee) in which
there are four judges, elected (at a spring election, and not at
the general state election) by the voters of the circuit district;
probate judges, one elected (for two years) in each county,
except where the legislature confers probate powers on inferior
courts; and in towns, cities and villages, justices of the peace,
elected for two years.
Local Government. Wisconsin has the mixed or township-county
system of local government. Each township (or " town, as it is
commonly called) elects at its annual town meeting on the first
Tuesday in April three supervisors, a clerk, a treasurer, one or more
assessors, two justices of the peace, from one to three constables,
and, if the town has a library, a librarian. Justices of the peace
hold office for two years, other town officers for one year only, except
that in a county having a population of 100,000 or more (Milwaukee
county), town meetings are biennial and all officers are elected for
two years. For other than school purposes rates must not exceed
2 % of the assessed valuation of the taxable property in the town.
The chairmen of the several town boards of supervisors, with the
3 The office of railroad commissioner was created in 1874, became
elective in 1881 and was replaced under an act of 1905 by a com-
mission of three members, which received jurisdiction over other
public service corporations in 1907.
4 Until 1881 elections to the legislature were held annually, and
the term of assemblymen was one year and of senators two years.
1 Not separately organized until 1853; the judges of the circuit
court acted as justices of the supreme court.
744
WISCONSIN
supervisor of each ward of a city and the supervisor of each village
in the county, constitute the county board of supervisors, and each
county elects biennially, at the general election in November, a
clerk, a treasurer, a sheriff, a coroner, a clerk of the circuit court, a
district-attorney, a register of deeds and a surveyor. The county
board represents the county, is entrusted with the care of the county
property and the management of the county business, appoints a
supervisor of assessments and levies the taxes necessary to defray
the county expenses. The county board also elects a county high-
way commissioner for a term of three years, is required to designate
a system of prospective county highways, and may levy a special
tax and borrow money for the development of the system. Cities are
chartered according to population, 1 with a mayor, a single legislative
chamber known as the board of aldermen or city council and the usual
administrative officers and boards. The mayor, aldermen, treasurer,
comptroller, justices of the peace and supervisors must be elected by
the people, but the other offices are filled as the council of each city
directs. An act of 1909 provides for the adoption of government by
commission in any city of the second, third or fourth class which
votes for this form of government at an election called by a petition
signed by 25 % of the voters at the preceding election for mayor.
Miscellaneous Laws. A married woman may manage her separate
property as if she were single. A widow is entitled to a dower in
one-third of her husband's real estate, and a widower is life tenant by
courtesy of all the real estate of which his wife died seized and not dis-
posed of by her last will, unless she leaves issue by a former husband,
to whom the estate might descend, in which case her estate passes
immediately to such issue. If either husband or wife dies intestate
and leaves no issue the surviving spouse is entitled to the entire
estate of the deceased, both real and personal. The causes for an
absolute divorce are adultery, impotency, sentence to imprisonment
for a term of three years or more, wilful desertion for one year,
cruel or inhuman treatment, habitual drunkenness and voluntary
separation for five years. For any other cause than adultery an
action for a divorce cannot be brought unless one of the parties has
been a resident of the state for two years immediately preceding the
suit. Neither party is permitted to marry a third party until one
year after the divorce has been obtained. Adultery is punishable
by imprisonment in the state prison for not. more than three years
nor less than one year, or by a fine not exceeding Siooo nor less than
$200. A husband who wilfully abandons his wife, leaving her
destitute, or who refuses to support her when he is able to do so,
may be punished by imprisonment in the state prison not exceeding
one year or in the county jail or workhouse not more than six months
nor less than fifteen days, and for ten days, in the discretion of the
judge, he may be kept on a bread and water diet. A homestead
owned and occupied by any resident of the state and consisting of
not more than 40 acres of agricultural land outside the limits of a
city or village, or one-fourth of an acre within a city or village,
together with the dwelling-house and other appurtenances, is exempt
from liability for debts other than labourers , mechanics' and pur-
chase-money liens, mortgages and taxes. If the homestead is sold
the proceeds from the sale, to an amount not exceeding $5000, are
likewise exempt for a period of two years, provided they are held
for the purpose of procuring another homestead. If the owner is
a married man his homestead cannot be sold or mortgaged without
his wife's consent. The employment of children under fourteen
years of age in any factory, workshop, mine, bowling alley or beer
garden is forbidden, and their employment at any gainful occupation
is permitted only during the vacation of the public school. A child
between fourteen and sixteen years of age may be employed at a
gainful occupation only upon the recommendation of the school
principal or clerk of the board of education. No child under sixteen
years of age may be employed longer than fifty-five hours in any
one week, more than ten hours in any one day, more than six days
in any one week, or between 6-0 p.m. and 7-0 a.m.
Other radical legislation, especially in regard to railways, has
' included : the Porter Law, regulating rates, which was enacted in
1874 during the " Granger Movement," was modified from time to
time, and was displaced by a law of 1905 (in 1908 declared constitu-
tional so long as stockholders receive a " reasonable compensation "
on investments) creating a state railway commission, and providing for
the physical valuation of railways on an ad valorem basis for taxation ;
a law (1907) making 2 cents a mile the maximum fare; an anti-
tipping law (1905); a law forbidding the sale of cigarettes; an act
(1907) forbidding insurance companies to do both participating and
non-participating business; and an eight-hour labour law in effect
on the 1st of January 1908.
Finance. Revenue for state purposes is derived principally from
taxes on corporations, from an inheritance tax and from departmental
and institutional fees and charges; that for counties, towns, villages
and cities from a general property tax. The general property tax
has long been employed almost wholly for educational purposes only.
The state tax on railways and other public service corporations is
'The first class comprises cities having a population of 150,000
or more (Milwaukee); the second class those having a population
between 40,000 and 150,000; the third class those having a rx>pu-
lation between 10,000 and 40,000; the fourth class those having a
population less than 10,000.
levied on an ad valorem basis; but telephone companies are taxed
by collecting a percentage of the gross receipts. Insurance companies
are taxed on premiums and income. In 1908 the constitution was
amended to permit a graduated tax on incomes, privileges and
occupations. A poll tax is levied for highway purposes in towns and
villages, but the general charter law does not provide for the collec-
tion of poll taxes in cities. The proceeds from corporation taxes in-
creased from $1,711,387 in 1899 to $3,969,771 in 1908. The state
receipts from all sources increased from $4,O7O,3i6fortheyearending
September 30, 1899, to $8,299,982 for the year ending June 30, 1908;
the disbursements in the latter year were $7,762,771 or $537,211
less than the receipts.
As a result of the failure of " wildcat " banks during the Territorial
period, a clause was inserted in the state constitution forbidding the
legislature to charter a bank or pass a general banking law until the
people had voted in favour of banks, and providing further that no
bank charter or general banking law should be of any force until
a majority of the voters at a general election had approved of it.
The people gave their approval to a general banking law in 1852,
and state banks were incorporated under it. Private banks and one
savings bank were also chartered. In 1903 a state banking depart-
ment was created under the management of a commissioner of bank-
ing appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate
for a term of five years. Under this law private banks became
state banks, and all except national banks are examined by the
commissioner, his deputy or some person appointed by the com-
missioner, at least once a year. When satisfied that a bank has
become insolvent, the commissioner may take possession of it and
wind up its affairs. In 1909 there were 470 state banks and 3 savings
banks with total resources amounting to $140,155,455.
To prevent such extravagant expenditures for internal improve-
ments as had brought disaster to Michigan and other states, the
framers of the constitution of Wisconsin inserted a clause limiting
its aggregate indebtedness to $100,000 for all purposes other than
to repel an invasion, to suppress an insurrection or for defence in
time of war, and the state is free from debt with the exception of
that contracted on account of the Civil War. This war debt,
although amounting to $2,251,000, is held by four state educational
funds. A constitutional amendment, adopted in 1874, limits the
indebtedness of each county, city, town, village and school district
to 5 % of the value of its taxable property.
Education. Wisconsin has an excellent free public school
system, which was established in 1848 and which provides a
graded system of instruction in country district and city schools,
high schools and normal schools and the University of Wisconsin
(incorporated 1848; see WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY OF). By a
law of 1907 school attendance (24 weeks per annum in the country
a law of 1903 had required only 20 weeks 32 weeks in cities)
was made compulsory for children between seven and fourteen
years of age who do not live more than 2 m. from school by the
nearest travelled public highway. In 1907-1908 27-2% of
those between seven and fourteen years of age in the state
attended no school. The total public school enrolment in 1909-
1910 was 466,554. In 1901 a law was enacted providing for
state graded schools of two classes, which must be opened for at
least nine months each year; graded schools of the first class
(of three or more departments) receive $300 a year each from
the state, and graded schools of the second class (of two depart-
ments only) receive $200 a year each from the state. About
1906 rural graded schools, outside of villages, were first organized.
There are twenty-two day schools for the deaf. There are a
few township high schools (28 out of 285 in 1909), and these
receive from the state one-half of the total annually paid for
teachers' salaries; for free high schools the first state provision
was made in 1875. There are special kindergarten training
departments in the Milwaukee and Superior schools, depart-
ments for manual training at Oshkosh and Platteville, and a
training department in domestic science at the Stevens Point
school. The first kindergarten officially connected with any
American state normal school was opened at Oshkosh in 1880.
The state normal schools are supported largely from the interest
($89,137 in 1908) of a fund ($1,957,230 in 1908) created in 1865
from the sale of swamp and overflowed lands, and from an
annual state tax ($230,000 in 1908). In addition to the
state university the state maintains at Platteville a school of
mines, opened in 1908. Under state control there is a system
of teachers' and farmers' institutes. A Free Library Commission
of five members created in 1895 maintains about 650 circulating
free public libraries comprising more than 40,000 volumes.
In 1907 there were about 960,00x5 volumes in public township
WISCONSIN
745
libraries for which a law of 1887 had made provision; since
1895 the formation of such libraries has been mandatory, and
books, chosen by the county superintendent, are bought from a
fund of 10 cents for every person of school age in towns, villages
and cities of the fourth class. An act of 1901 permits county
boards to establish county systems of travelling libraries. In
1908 the total expenditure for public education in the state was
$12,547,574; of this sum $10,604,294 was spent for common
schools, high schools and graded schools, $1,091,135 for the
university, and $547,661 for normal schools. The total income
for schools in 1007-1908 was $1,773,659, of which $1,379,410
was from the seven-tenths-of-a-mill tax, $200,000 was from
licence fees and taxes upon corporations (for salaries of rural
school inspectors) and $194,249 the income from the common
school fund which in that year amounted to $3,845,929.
Educational institutions of collegiate rank are Beloit College
(1846; originally Congregational, now undenominational)
at Beloit; Carroll College (1846, Presbyterian), at Waukesha;
Lawrence College (1847; Methodist Episcopal), at Appleton;
Concordia College (1881; Lutheran), Marquette University
(1864, Roman Catholic), and Milwaukee-Downer College (1895;
non-sectarian, for women; an outgrowth of Downer College,
Congregational and Presbyterian, founded at Fox Lake in 1853),
all at Milwaukee; Milton College (1867; Seventh Day Adventist),
at Milton; North-western University (1865; Lutheran) at
Watertown; Ripon College (1851; originally under Presbyterian
and Congregational control, now non -sectarian), at Ripon;
Wayland University (1855; co-educational; Baptist), at Beaver
Dam; and the following Roman Catholic schools: St Clara
Academy (1847; Dominican) at Sinsiniwa, St Francis Seminary
(1853) at St Francis, and St Lawrence College (1861, Capuchin)
at Mt Calvary. There are also many private academies and
trade or technical schools, and six industrial schools for Indians.
Charitable and Penal Institutions. In the number and equipment
of its reformatory, charitable and penal institutions, Wisconsin
stands high. These institutions are under the general direction of a
state board of control (established in 1905) of five members (one a
woman), appointed by the governor for a term of five years. This
board has charge of the following institutions: a State Hospital for
the Insane (1860) at Mendota; the Northern Hospital for the
Insane (1873) at Winnebago, 4 m. N. of Oshkosh; a School for the
Deaf (1852) at Delavan, Walworth county, in which the teaching is
principally oral and which includes a high school; a School for the
Blind (1849; taken over by the state in 1850) at Janesville; an
Industrial School for Boys (opened in 1860, as a House of Refuge) at
Waukesha, with a farm of 404 acres; the State Prison (1853) at
Waupun; State Public School for Dependent and Neglected Children
(1886) at Sparta, with a farm of 234 acres; Wisconsin Home for
Feeble Minded (1896) at Chippewa Falls; Wisconsin State Re-
formatory (1898), near Green Bay; and Wisconsin State Tubercu-
losis Sanatorium (1907) at Wales, Waukesha county. In addition
the board has partial control over the Wisconsin Workshop for the
Blind (1903) at Milwaukee, where there is a willow ware factory,
and the Wisconsin Industrial School for Girls (1875) also at Mil-
waukee. Its powers of inspection extend over 5 semi-state in-
stitutions, 33 county insane asylums, 69 gaols, 48 poor-houses, 50
private benevolent institutions and 206 police stations and lockups.
The board has also power of visitation and inspection over the
Wisconsin Veterans' Home at Waupaca, founded in 1887 by the
state department of the Grand Army of the Republic. In the
state's treatment of the insane, chronic cases are separated and sent
to the county asylums. The labour of convicts in the state prison
is leased; until 1878 the state itself supervised manufacturing in
the prison; then for twenty-five years the convicts were employed
in making shoes for a Chicago firm ; and since 1903 the state has
received 65 cents a day for the labour of each convict, and at least
300 convicts are employed in the manufacture of socks and stockings,
from which in 1906-1908 (two years) the income to the state was
$1^6,890. In 1910 a binding twine factory was established in the
prison. In the state reformatory the labour of some inmates is
leased to tailors, and the others make brooms or bricks, or work
in a cabinet shop or on the farm. Since 1907 a parole la_w has been
in force for prisoners with a good record at the state prison. By a
law of 1909 certain offenders are placed under probation under the
supervision of the State Board of Control.
History. Politically Wisconsin has been under French
domination (from 1634 to 1760); under British domination
(from 1760, formally 1763, to 1783); and under that of the
United States since 1783. But the British influence on the com-
munity was negligible, and British rule was never more than
nominal and was confined to the military posts. When American
troops occupied the posts at Green Bay and Prairie du Chien
in 1816, thirty-three years after it had become a ps.it of the
territory of the United States, the region was still almost ex-
clusively French in manners, customs and population; and so
it remained for nearly two decades.
The region comprised in the present state of Wisconsin, when
first explored by Europeans, was a favourite hunting-ground
for the Indians who constantly crossed this region between the
Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi. The Indian population
of Wisconsin in the first half of the I7th century was probably
larger than that of any region of similar size east of the Mississippi.
Among the many different tribes were the Sioux, Chippewa,
Kickapoo, Menominee, Mascoutin, Potawatomi, Winnebago,
and Sauk and Foxes. In the eastern and southern portions of
the region there are still numerous mounds, the relics of an
earlier Indian civilization. 1 In the lead regions in the S.W., with
the help of Pawnee slaves, the Indians worked the lead diggings
in a rough way. The whole course of the early history of Wis-
consin was profoundly influenced by these racial and geographic
considerations. The French adventurers, bent on finding either
a " North-west passage " or some land route to the Pacific (which
they believed to be no farther west than the Mississippi), naturally
went west by the water routes of Wisconsin; as a fine field for their
bartering and trading with water-courses by which they could con-
vey their pelts and skins back to Montreal, the region attracted the
coureurs de bois and fur traders; and it seemed promising also to
the zealous French Catholic missionaries. The impelling influences
on the French settlement of the region were the love of explora-
tion and adventure, the commercial instinct and religious zeal.
Jean Nicolet, an experienced explorer, was sent west by
Samuel de Champlain, the governor-general of New France,
in the summer of 1634 to investigate mysterious rumours of a
people known as " the men of the sea " who were thought by
some to be Tatars or Chinese. 2 After a long and difficult journey
into a region which he seems to have been the first white man
to enter, Nicolet landed on the soil of Wisconsin at a point on
Green Bay about 10 m. below the present city of Green Bay.
Near what is now known as Red Banks there was a populous
village of Winnebago, which welcomed and entertained him.
He made a treaty with the Indians, went up the Fox river to a
point somewhere near the present city of Berlin (Green Lake
county) where he found another large village, and returned to
Green Bay and thence to his post on Lake Huron.
Twenty years later Pierre Esprit, Sieur de Radisson. and
Medard Chouart, Sieur des Groseilliers, started (1654) from
Quebec, crossed Lakes Huron and Michigan, wintered in Wis-
consin, ascended the Fox, crossed to the Wisconsin and possibly
reached the Mississippi river eighteen years before Jacques
Marquette and Louis Joliet. In 1650-1660 they were again
in the West, but the opposition of the French authorities pre-
vented their further explorations.
The first of the missionary pioneers was the Jesuit, Father
Rene M6nard, who in 1661 lost his life on the upper Wisconsin
river. In 1665 Father Claude Allouez established the first per-
manent mission in Wisconsin on the shores of Chequamegon Bay,
near the first trading post established by Radisson and Groseilliers.
In 1669 he was succeeded by Father Jacques Marquette (q.v.)
and went to the Fox River Valley; there he established the
mission of St Francis Xavier at the first rapids* on the Fox
river near a populous Indian village. About this mission, one
1 One of the most famous of these mounds is the so-called Elephant
Mound, 4 m. S. of Wyalusing, in Grant county in the S.W. corner
of the state, near the Mississippi river; it is an effigy mound, and a
drifting of earth changed its original shape, that of a bear, so that it
roughly resembled an elephant; see pp. 91-93 of the Twelfth Annual
Report (1894), Bureau of American Ethnology.
These " gens de mer " were the Winnebago Indians; the name
" ouinipegou," meaning " men of the fetid water," was interpreted
by the French to apply to salt water, whereas it probably referred
to sulphur springs near Lake Winnipeg, from which the Winnebago
came to Green Bay.
1 It was from these " rapides des peres " (rapids of the fathers)
that De Pere was named
746
WISCONSIN
of the most successful established by the Jesuits in the West,
gathered a group of traders who formed a settlement that for many
years existed as a transient post and store-house for trappers.
Father Marquette, forced in 1671 by Indian wars to abandon
his post on Chequamegon Bay, settled with the Huron at the
Straits of Mackinac, whence in May 1673 accompanied by Louis
Joliet he set out for the Mississippi river. They halted at De
Pere, set off down the Fox-Wisconsin route, followed the Wis-
consin to its mouth and came out upon the Mississippi near the
site of the present city of Prairie du Chien, on July I7th, exactly
two months after they left St Ignace mission on Mackinac Island.
After descending the Mississippi to the mouth of the Arkansas
they returned by way of the Des Plaines portage, paddled along
the western shore of Lake Michigan, and arrived at De Pere.
In September 1679 Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, and Henri
de Tonty entered the mouth of the Fox river in the " Griffon,"
the first ship to sail the Great Lakes. In the same year Daniel
Greysolon Du Luth, a coureur de bois, explored the upper Missis-
sippi and the Wisconsin and Black rivers. In 1680 Father Louis
Hennepin, a Recollet Franciscan who had accompanied La Salle,
followed the Mississippi northward from the mouth of the Illinois
along the western border of Wisconsin to the site of the present
city of St Paul. The same course was followed by the fur-trader,
Pierre Charles Le Sueur, in 1683.
In 1671 Simon Franfois Daumont Saint-Lusson at Sault Ste
Marie had taken formal possession of the region in the name
of the king of France; in 1685 Nicolas Perrot (164.4-0. 1700),
a trader who had first visited the wilds of Wisconsin probably
as early as 1665, was appointed " commandant of the West,"
and this event closes the period of exploration and begins that
of actual occupation. Traders had begun to swarm into the
country in increasing numbers, and to protect them from the
Indians and to control properly the licensed fur-trade a military
force was necessary. Perrot built a chain of forts along the
Mississippi and a post (the present Galena, Illinois) near the
southern boundary of the state, where he discovered and worked
a lead mine. In 1712 the slaughter of a band of Foxes near
Detroit was the signal for hostilities which lasted almost con-
tinuously until 1740,' and in which every tribe in the Wisconsin
country was sooner or later involved either in alliance with the
Foxes or with the French; the Chippewa, always hostile to the
Foxes, the Potawatomi and the Menominee sided with the French.
This war seriously interfered with the French plans of trade
development and exploitation, and by rendering difficult the
maintenance of a chain of settlements which might have con-
nected Canada and Louisiana was a contributing cause of the
final overthrow of French dominion. In this period permanent
military posts were established at Green Bay and Chequamegon
(1718); in 1718 it was reported that traders had settled at Green
Bay and De Pere; in 1727 a post was established on Lake Pepin.
Wisconsin was little disturbed by the Seven Years' War.
Yet the French and Indians of Wisconsin contributed their
quota to the French armies a force of half-breeds and Indians
under a half-breed, Charles Michel de Langlade (1720-1800).
After the fall of Montreal (Sept. 1760) Robert Rogers, who had
been sent to Detroit to occupy the French posts in the West,
dispatched Captain Henry Balfour with a force of British and
Colonial troops to garrison Mackinac and the Wisconsin posts
which had been dismantled and were almost deserted. He
arrived at La Baye (Green Bay) in October 1761, and left there a
garrison under Lieut. James Gorrell of the 6oth (Royal American
Foot) Regiment. The traders who accompanied them were the
nucleus of the first English-speaking colony on Wisconsin soil.
The French fort was rechristened Fort Edward Augustus. The
period of British occupation was brief. On the outbreak of the
conspiracy of Pontiac Lieut. Gorrell was compelled (in July 1763)
to evacuate the fort, and make his way to Montreal. 2 When
_* In that year the Foxes were scattered or forced to surrender by
Pierre Paul le Perriere, sieur Marin, who had been appointed com-
mandant of the West in 1729.
1 It was not until 1814 that a British force again occupied a
Wisconsin post.
the conspiracy was crushed in 1765, Wisconsin was reopened
for traders, and not only French but American merchants and
travellers flocked into the region. Among these were Alexander
Henry (1730-1824), who as early as 1760 had visited the site
of Milwaukee, and who now obtained a monopoly of the Lake
Superior trade, and Jonathan Carver (?..), who in 1766 reached
Green Bay on his way to the Mississippi.
In 1774 was passed the Quebec Act for the government of
the Province of Quebec into which the Wisconsin region was
incorporated by this act, but it had little effect on the French
settlements west of Lake Michigan, which remained thioughout
the entire British period a group of detached and periodically
self-governing communities. Little as they cared for their
British rulers the Wisconsin voyageurs and habitans, influenced
probably by their cupidity and by actual money payments,
for the most part adhered to the British cause during the War
of Independence. De Langlade led his French and Indian
forces against the American frontier communities west of the
Alleghanies. This pro-British spirit, however, did not dominate
the whole Wisconsin region, and while De Langlade was harassing
the Pennsylvania and Virginia frontier, Godefrey de Linctot,
a trader of Prairie du Chien, acting as agent for George Rogers
Clark, detached several western tribes from the British adherence,
and personally led a band of French settlers to his aid. The close
of the war, although it conveyed the region to the sovereignty
of the United States, was not followed by American occupation.
In this period, however, the fur-trade assumed proportions of
greater importance, and trading posts were established by the
North-west Company (Canadian). In 1786 a more systematic
attempt was made to work the lead mines by Julien Dubuque,
who obtained the privilege from the Indians. In 1787 Wisconsin
became part of the North-west Territory, but it was not until
after the ratification of Jay's treaty that in 1796 the western
posts were evacuated by the British. Before the actual military
occupation (1816) by the United States, American traders had
begun to enter into a sharp rivalry for the Indian trade. In
1800 Wisconsin was included in the newly organized Indiana
Territory; and in 1809 on the admission of Indiana as a state
it was attached to Illinois. During the second war with Great
Britain, the Wisconsin Indians and French settlers generally
sided with the British, and in 1814 many of them participated
in Major William McKay's expedition against Fort Shelby at
Prairie du Chien. In 1816 Fort Howard was built at Green Bay,
and Fort Crawford at Prairie du Chien. In the same year was
confirmed the treaty negotiated in 1804 by William Henry
Harrison, by the terms of which the Indian title to the lead
region was extinguished. In 1810 the product of lead had been
about 400,000 Ib, largely mined and smelted by Indians, but
the output was now increased enormously by the American
miners who introduced new machinery and new methods, and
by 1820 there were several thousand miners in the region, in-
cluding negro slaves who had been brought north by Southern
prospectors from Kentucky and Missouri. In 1818 Illinois
was admitted to the Union and Wisconsin was incorporated in
Michigan Territory, and at that time American civil government
in the Wisconsin region was first established on an orderly and
permanent basis. Wisconsin then comprised two counties,
Brown (east) and Crawford (west), with county seats at Green
Bay and Prairie du Chien. Until 1830 the fur-trade, controlled
largely by John Jacob Aster's American Fur Company, con-
tinued to be the predominating interest in the Wisconsin
region, but then the growing lead mining industry began to
overshadow the fur-trade, and in the mining region towns and
smelting furnaces were rapidly built. Indian miners were soon
driven out of business and were nearly crowded out of their
homes. Friction between the settlers and the Indians could not
long be avoided, and in 1827 Red Bird and his band of Winnebago
attacked the whites, but after some bloodshed they were defeated
by Major William Whistler (1780-1863) of Fort Howard. Five
years later occurred a more serious revolt, the Black Hawk War
(see BLACK HAWK), which also grew out of the dispute over the
mineral lands.
WISCONSIN
747
The Black Hawk War not merely settled the Indian question
so far as Wisconsin was concerned, but made the region better
known, and gave an appreciable impetus to its growth. A
series of Indian treaties in 1829, 1831, 1832 and 1833 extinguished
the Indian titles and opened up to settlement a vast area of new
land. The first newspaper, the Green Bay Intelligencer, began
publication in 1833. In 1834 two land offices were opened, and
by 1836, 878,014 acres of land had been sold to settlers and
speculators. A special census showed a population of more than
11,000 in 1836. The new growth started a movement for a
separate Territorial organization for that part of Michigan lying
west of Lake Michigan, but this was not finally accomplished
until 1836, when Michigan entered the Union. The new Territory
of Wisconsin comprised not only the area included in the present
state, but the present Iowa and Minnesota and a considerable
portion of North and South Dakota. 1 Henry Dodge (1782-
1867) was appointed its first governor by President Jackson.
The first Territorial Council met in 1836 at Old Belmont, now
Leslie, Lafayette county, but in December of that year Madison
was selected as the capital, after a contest in which Fond du
Lac, Milwaukee, Racine, Green Bay, Portage and other places
were considered, and in which James Duane Doty, later governor,
owner of the Madison town plat, was charged with bribing
legislators with town lots in Madison. In 1838 the Territory of
Iowa was erected out of all that part of Wisconsin lying west
of the Mississippi. The movement for the admission of Wiscon-
sin to the Union was taken up in earnest soon after 1840, and
after several years' agitation, in which Governor Doty took a
leading part, on the loth of August 1846 an Enabling Act intro-
duced in Congress by Morgan L. Martin, the Territorial delegate,
received the approval of President Polk. Meanwhile the Terri-
torial legislature had passed favourably on the matter, and in
April the act was ratified by a popular vote of 12,334 to 2487.
The first constitution drafted was rejected (sth April 1847)
owing to the articles relating to the rights of married women,
exemptions, the elective judiciary, &c. A second convention,
thought to be more conservative than the first, drafted another
constitution, which on the I3th of March 1848 was adopted by
16,799 ayes and 6394 noes. The constitution was approved by
Congress and signed by the president on the 29th of May 1848;
the first state election had already been Held on the Sth of
May, and Governor Nelson Dewey and other state officers were
sworn into office on the 7th of June. In the same year the free
public school system was established, and the great stream of Ger-
man immigration set in. Railway construction began in 1851.
Wisconsin was a strong anti-slavery state. In 1854 one of the
first steps in the organization of the Republican party (q.v.)
was taken at Ripon. In the same year a fugitive slave named
Glover was seized at Racine and was afterward rescued by an
anti-slavery mob from Milwaukee; the State Supreme Court
rendered a decision which declared the Fugitive Slave Law to
be null and void in Wisconsin.
In 1856 a contested election for the governorship between
Governor William A. Barstow (1813-1865), a candidate for
re-election, and his Republican opponent, Coles Bashford (1816-
1878), threatened to result in civil war. But the courts threw
out " supplementary returns " (possibly forged by the canvassers)
and decided in favour of Bashford, who was the first Republican
to hold an office; with two exceptions Wisconsin has elected
Republican governors ever since. The state gave its electoral
1 Wisconsin, as the last state to be created wholly out of the old
North- West Territory, was the loser inboundary disputes with neigh-
bouring states. As originally planned, Wisconsin would have in-
cluded that part of Illinois west of a line running across the southern
end of Lake Michigan; and the inhabitants of this tract actually
voted to join Wisconsin, but Congress paid no attention to their
demands, and this strip of land, including Chicago, became a part of
Illinois. After the Toledo War (see TOLEDO, OHIO), to recompense
Michigan for her losses to Ohio the northern peninsula, geographically
a part of the Wisconsin region, was given to Michigan. Finally a
larger tract of land E. of the Mississippi, which include St Paul,
part of Minneapolis and Duluth, was cut off from Wisconsin on her
admission to the Union to form with other land farther west the new
Territory of Minnesota. See " The Boundaries of Wisconsin " in
vol. xi. of Wisconsin Historical Collections.
vote for Lincoln in 1860 and supported the administration during
the Civil War. The policy of the state to keep its regiments
full rather than send new regiments to the front made the strength
of a Wisconsin regiment, according to General W. T. Sherman,
frequently equal to a brigade. The whole number of troops
furnished by Wisconsin during the war was 91,379. In January
1874 a Democratic Liberal Reform administration came into
power in the state with William R. Taylor as governor. At the
legislative session which followed, the Potter law, one of the first
attempts to regulate railway rates, was passed. The railways
determined to evade the law, but Taylor promptly brought suit
in the State Supreme Court and an injunction was issued re-
straining the companies from disobedience. In 1876, however,
the Republicans regained control of the state government and
the law was modified. In 1889 the passage of the Bennett law,
providing for the enforcement of the teaching of English in all
public and parochial schools, had a wide political effect. The
Germans, usually Republicans, roused for the defence of their
schools, voted the Democratic state ticket at the next state
election (1890), with the result that George Wilbur Peck, 2 the
Democratic nominee, was chosen governor by 30,000 plurality.
The Bennett law was at once repealed, but not until 1895 did
the Republicans regain control of the administration. It was
accomplished then after a Democratic gerrymander had been
twice overthrown in the courts. Since that time, however,
the Republican party has grown more secure, and it has placed
on the statute books a series of radical and progressive enactments
in regard to railway rate legislation and taxation, publicity of
campaign expenditures and a state-wide direct primary law
(1905). In all these reforms a leading part was taken by
Governor Robert M. LaFollette (b. 1855), who was elected to
the United States Senate in 1005. Opposition to bis political
programme resulted in a serious split in the Republican ranks,
the opposition taking the old name of " Stalwarts " and his
followers came to be known as " Halfbreeds." Governor
LaFollette, however, could draw enough support from the
Democrats to maintain the control of the state by the Republicans.
Wisconsin had several times been visited by disastrous forest
fires. One in the north-eastern counties (Oconto, Brown, Door,
Shawano, Manitowoc and Kewaunee) in 1871 resulted in the
loss of more than a thousand lives. Another serious fire occurred
in the north-west in July 1894.
GOYERNORS OF WISCONSIN
Territorial.
Henry Dodge ..
Democrat 1836-1841
James Duane Doty
Whig 1841-1844
Nathaniel P. Tallmadge
1844-1845
Henry Dodge
Democrat 1845-1848
.5
tale.
Nelson Dewey
Democrat 1848-1852
Leonard I. Farwell
1852-1854
William A. Barstow
1854-1856
Arthur McArthur *
Republican 1856
Coles Bashford
1856-1858
Alex. W. Randall
1858-1862
Louis P. Harvey
1862
Edward Salomon
1862-1864
James T. Lewis
1864-1866
Lucius Fairchild
1866-1872
C. C. Washburn
1872-1874
William R. Taylor
Democrat 1874-1876
Harrison Ludington
Republican 1876-1878
William E. Smith.
1878-1882
Jeremiah M. Rusk
1882-1889
William D. Hoard
1889-1891
George W. Peck .
Democrat 1891-1895
William H. Upham .
Republican 1895-1897
Edward Scofield .
1897-1001
Robert M. LaFollette 1
1901-1906
James O. Davidson 5 .
1906-1911
F. E. McGovern .
1911-
* Peck (b. 1840) was a printer and then a journalist, founded in
1874 at La Crosse the Sun, which in 1878 he removed to Milwaukee,
and was the author of many humorous sketches, notably a series of
volumes of which the hero is " Peck's Bad Boy."
'Lieut.-Governor; succeeded Barstow, who resigned during
a contest with Bashford.
4 Resigned to become a member of the United States Senate.
* Lieut.-Governor: elected governor in 1906 and 1908.
748
WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY OF
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For physical description and natural resources
see the Reports (biennial) and the Bulletins (Madison) of the Wisconsin
Geological and Natural History Survey, especially important for
economic geology, hydrography and agriculture, and the Annual
Reports of the Wisconsin State Board of; Agriculture; the Reports
(biennial) of the State Forester, the Reports of the U.S. Census,
and the Mineral Resources of the United States, published annually
by the U.S. Geological Survey. A good school manual is E. C.
Case's Wisconsin, its Geology and Physical Geography (Milwaukee,
1907). C. B. Cory, The Birds of Illinois and Wisconsin, Field
Museum of Natural History, Publication No. 131 (Chicago, 1909),
and L. Kumlien and N. Hollister, " The Birds of Wisconsin," in vol.
iii., new series, of the Bulletin (Milwaukee) of the Wisconsin Natural
History Society, are valuable. On state government see The Blue
Book of the State of Wisconsin (Madison), published under the direc-
tion of the commissioner of labour and industrial statistics and D. E.
Spencer, Local Government in Wisconsin (Madison, 1888). For a
list of works on the history of the state see D. S. Durrie's " Biblio-
graphy of Wisconsin " in vol. vi., new series, Historical Magazine.
The best short history is R. G. Thwaites, Wisconsin (Boston, 1908),
in the " American Commonwealths " series. The same author's
Story of Wisconsin (Ibid. 1890) in the " Story of the States " series,
and H. E. Legler's Leading Events in Wisconsin History (Milwaukee,
1898), a good brief summary, are other single-volume works covering
the entire period of the state's history. One of the best accounts
of the state's early history is E. H. Neville and D. B. Martin's
Historic Green Bay (Green Bay, 1893). S. S. Hebberd's Wisconsin
under the Dominion of France (Madison, 1890) contains an account
of the earlier period written, however, before much recent material
was brought to light. Much material of value is contained in the
Historical Collections (18 vols., Madison, 1855 sqq.) of the State
Historical Society of Wisconsin (1846; reorganized, 1849), and in
the Bulletins of Information, Proceedings and Draper Series of the
same society are many valuable historical papers and monographs.
See also W. R. Smith's History of Wisconsin (3 vols., Madison, 1854).
The Parkman Society Papers (Milwaukee, 1895-1899) provide a
collection of good articles on special topics of Wisconsin history, and
the Original Narratives and Reprints published by the Wisconsin
History Commission (created by an act of 1905) deal with Wisconsin
in the Civil War. See also Auguste Gosselin, Jean Nicolet 1618-
1642 (1893); B. A. Hinsdale, The Old North-West (New York, 1888);
Charles Moore, The North-West under Three Flags (New York, 1900) ;
R. V. Phelan, Financial History of Wisconsin (Madison, 1908) ;
F. J. Turner, Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wis-
consin, vol. ix. of Johns Hopkins University Studies (Baltimore,
1899); F. Parkman, The Jesuits in North America (Boston, 1870);
and the volumes of the Jesuit Relations, edited by R. G. Thwaites.
WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY OF, a co-educational institution
of higher learning at Madison, Wisconsin, the capital of the state,
established in 1848 under state control, supported largely by the
state, and a part of the state educational system. The university
occupies a picturesque and beautiful site on an irregular tract
(600 acres), including both wooded hills and undulating meadow
lands stretching for i m. along the shores of Lake Mendota.
The main building, University Hall (1859; enlarged 1897-1899.
and 1905-1906), which crowns University Hill, is exactly i m.
from the state capitol. The other buildings include North Hall
(1850), South Hall (1854), Science Hall (1887), the Biology Build-
ing (1911), the Chemical Building (1904-1905), the Hydraulic
Laboratory (1905), the Engineering Building (1900), the Law
School (1894), Chadbourne Hall (1870; remodelled in 1896) for
women, Lathrop Hall (1910) for women, Assembly Hall (1879),
the Chemical Engineering Building (1885), Machine Shops
(1885), the armoury and gymnasium (1894), a group of half
a dozen buildings belonging to the College of Agriculture and
the Washburn Observatory (1878; a gift of Governor C. C.
Washburn). On the lower campus is the building of the
Wisconsin State Historical Society.
The university includes a college of letters and science, with
general courses in liberal arts and special courses in chemistry,
commerce, journalism, music, pharmacy and training of teachers
and library work; a college of engineering, with courses in civil,
mechanical, electrical, chemical and mining engineering, and an
applied electro-chemistry course; a college of agriculture, with a
government experiment station, long, middle and short courses in
agriculture, a department of home economics, a dairy course and
farmers' institutes; a college of law (3 years' course); a college of
medicine, giving the first two years of a medical course ; a graduate
school; and an extension division, including departments of in-
struction by lectures, of correspondence study, of general information
and welfare,_ and of debating and public discussion. There is a
summer session, in which, in addition to courses in all the colleges
and schools, instruction is offered to artisans and apprentices and in
library training. The college of agriculture, one of the largest and
best equipped in the country, provides also briefer courses of practical
training for farmers and farmers' wives. In connexion with the
state department of health, instruction on the prevention and treat-
ment of tuberculosis is provided, exhibits and instructors or demon-
strators being sent to every part of the state. The state hygienic
laboratory is conducted by the university. On the university campus
is the forest products laboratory (1910) of the United States govern-
ment. At Milwaukee there is a university settlement associated
with the social work of the uniyersity.
Admission to the university is on examination or certificate from
accredited high schools or academies. Tuition is free for residents
of the state. Courses in the first two years are largely prescribed,
in the last two years elective " under a definite system." In 1910
there were 395 instructors and 4947 students (3560 men and 1387
women). The uniyersity library proper, of 163,000 volumes and
40,000 pamphlets, is housed in the Historical Society's building, in
which are also the collection of the Historical Society and that of
the Wisconsin Academy of Arts and Sciences a total in 1910 of
404,000 books and 202,000 pamphlets.
The grounds, buildings and equipments of the university are valued
at $2,000,000. The income of the university, including income from
the Federal land grants, from invested productive funds and from
state tax levies, exceeds one million dollars annually. Since 1905
the state legislature has appropriated for the current expenses of
the university a f mill tax. More than $2,000,000 was left to the
university in 1908 for a memorial theatre, research professorships
and graduate fellowships by William Freeman Vilas (1840-1908),
who graduated at the university in 1858 and was postmaster-general
of the United States in 1885-1888, secretary of the interior in 1888-
1889 and U.S. senator from Wisconsin in 1891-1897.
An act for the creation of a university to be supported by the
Territory was passed by the first session of the Territorial legis-
lature in 1836, but except for the naming of a board of trustees
the plan was never put into operation. A similar act for the
establishment of a university at Green Bay had no more result.
In 1838 a university of the Territory of Wisconsin was created
by act of the Territorial legislature and was endowed with two
townships of land. This was the germ of the state university,
provision for which was made in the state constitution adopted
in 1 848. The university was incorporated by act of the legislature
in that year with a board of regents as the governing body,
chosen by the legislature. 1 A preparatory department was
opened in the autumn of that year, and John H. Lathrop (1799-
1866), a graduate of Yale, then president of the university of
Missouri, was chosen as the first chancellor of the new institution.
He was inaugurated in 1850, and in that year North Hall, the
first building, was erected. The first academic class graduated in
1854. In the same year the Federal Congress (which had granted
to the state seventy-two sections of salt-spring lands, and as no
such lands were found in the state, had been petitioned to change
the nature of the grant) granted seventy-two sections to be "sold
in such manner as the legislature may direct for the benefit and
in aid of the university." The Federal land grants, however,
which ought to have supported the university, were sacrificed to
a desire to attract immigrants, and the institution for many
years was compelled to get along on a small margin which rendered
extension difficult; and the university permanent fund was soon
impaired for the construction of buildings. Henry Barnard in
1859 succeeded Lathrop as chancellor, but resigned in 1861.
After the Civil War, the office of chancellor was displaced by that
of president. Paul Ansel Chadbourne (1823-1883), a graduate
(and afterwards president) of Williams College, became presi-
dent hi 1867, and in his presidency (1867-1870) the university
was reorganized, a college of law was founded, co-education
was established and the agricultural college was consolidated
with the university, a radical departure from the plan adopted
in most of the Western states. In 1871-1874 John Hanson
Twombly, a graduate of Wesleyan University and one of the
founders of Boston University, was president, and the legislature
first provided for an annual state tax of $10,000 for the university.
With the coming to the presidency (1874) of John Bascom (b.
1827), another graduate of Williams, the university began a new
period of development; the preparatory department was
1 The university is now governed by regents, of whom two the
president of the university and the state superintendent of public
instruction are ex officio, and the others are appointed by the
governor for a term of three years, two from the state at large and
one from each congressional district.
WISDOM, BOOK OF
749
abolished in 1880, and the finances of the university were put on
a tirm basis by the grant of a state tax of one-tenth of a mill.
Under the presidency (1887-1892) of Thomas Ckrowder Chamber-
lin (b. 1843), a graduate of Beloit College and a member of
the U.S. Geological Survey, the university attendance grew from
500 to 1000 students, and buildings were erected for the college
of law, dairy school and science hall. Under President Charles
Kendall Adams (1835-1902), who wasu graduate of the univer-
sity of Michigan, where as professor of history he had introduced
in 1869-1870 the German method of " seminar " study and
research, and who had just resigned the presidency (1885-1892)
of Cornell University, the enrolment of the university increased
from icoo in 1892 to 2600 in 1901, and the growth of the graduate
school was particularly notable. Under Charles Richard Van-
Hise, 1 who was the first alumnus to become president and who
succeeded President Adams in 1904, the growth of the university
continued, and its activities were constantly enlarged and the
scope of its work was widened.
See S. H. Carpenter, A Historical Sketch of the University of
Wisconsin from 1840 to 1876 (Madison, 1876), and R. G. Thwaites,
The University of Wisconsin, its History and its Alumni (Ibid., 1900).
WISDOM, BOOK OF. or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. 2o<#o
SaXto/icSros; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae), an apocryphal book of
the " Wisdom Literature " (q.v.), the most brilliant production
of pre-Christian Hebrew philosophical thought, remarkable both
for the elevation of its ideas and for the splendour of its diction.
It divides itself naturally, by its contents, into two parts, in one
of which the theme is righteousness and wisdom, in the other the
early fortunes of the Israelite people considered as a righteous
nation beloved by God.
The first part (ch. i.-ix.) falls also into two divisions, the first
(i.-v.) dwelling on the contrast between the righteous and the wicked,
the second (vi.-ix.) setting forth the glories of wisdom. After an
exhortation to the judges of the earth to put away evil counsels and
thus avoid death, the author declares that God has made no kingdom
of death on the earth, but ungodly men have made a covenant with
it : certain sceptics (probably both Gentile and Jewish) holding this
life to be brief and without a future, give themselves up to sensuality
and oppress the poor and the righteous ; but God created man to be
immortal (ii. 23), and there will be compensation and retribution
in the future: the good will rule (on earth), the wicked will be hurled
down to destruction, though they seem now to flourish with long life
and abundance of children (ii.-v.). At this point Solomon is intro-
duced, and from the following section (vi.-ix.) the book seems to have
taken its title. Solomon reminds kings and rulers that they will be
held to strict account by God, and, urging them to learn wisdom
from his words, proceeds to give his own experience: devoting
himself from his youth to the pursuit of wisdom he had found her
to be a treasure that never failed, the source and embodiment of all
that is most excellent and beautiful in the world through her he
looks to obtain influence over men and immortality, and he concludes
with a prayer that God would send her out of his holy heavens to be
his companion and guide.
The second part of the -book (x.-xix.) connects itself formally with
the first by a summary description of the r61e of wisdom in the early
times: she directed and preserved the fathers from Adam to Moses
(x. l-xi. l). From this point, however, nothing is said of wisdom
the rest of the book is a philosophical and imaginative narrative of
Israelite affairs from the Egyptian oppression to the settlement in
Canaan. A brief description of how the Egyptians were punished
through the very things with which they sinned (though the punish-
ment was not fatal, for God loves all things that exist), and how
judgments on the Canaanites were executed gradually (so as to give
them time to repent), is followed by a dissertation on the origin,
various forms, absurdity and results of polytheism and idolatry
(xiii.-xv.) : the worship of natural objects is said to be less blame-
worthy than the worship of images this latter, arising from the
desire to honour dead children and living kings (the Euhemeristic
theory), is inherently absurd, and led to all sorts of moral depravity.
In the four last chapters the author, returning to the history, gives
a detailed account of the provision made for the Israelites in the
wilderness and of the pains and terrors with which the Egyptians
were plagued.
| President VanHise (b. 1857) graduated at the university of
Wisconsin in 1879, became instructor in geology there in 1883, in
1897 became consulting geologist of the Wisconsin Geological and
Natural History Survey, and in 1900 became geologist in charge of
the Division of Pre-Cambrian and Metamorphic Geology, U.S.
Geological Survey. He wrote Correlation Papers Archaean and
Algonkian (1892), Some Principles Controlling the Deposition of Ores
(1901). A Treatise on Metamorphism (1903) and several works with
other authors on the different iron regions of Michigan.
It is not easy to determine whether the book is all from the
same author. On the one band, it may be said that one general
theme the salvation and final prosperity of the righteous is
visible throughout the work, that God is everywhere represented
as the supreme moral governor of the world, and that the con-
ception of immortality is found in both parts; the second part,
though differing in form from the first, may be regarded as the
historical illustration of the principles set forth in the latter.
On the other hand, it must be admitted that the points of view
in the two parts are very different : the philosophical conception
of wisdom and the general Greek colouring, so prominent in
the first part, are quite lacking in the second (x. i-xi. i being
regarded as a transition or connecting section inserted by an
editor). While the first has the form of a treatise, the second is an
address to God; the first, though it has the Jewish people in
mind, does not refer to them by name except incidentally in
Solomon's prayer; the second is wholly devoted to the Jewish
national experiences (this is true even of the section on idolatry).
It is in the second that we have the finer ethical conception of God
as father and saviour of all men, lover of souls, merciful in his
dealings with the wicked in the first part it is his justice that is
emphasized; the hope of immortality is prominent in the first,
but is mentioned only once (in xv. 3) in the second. The two
parts are distinguished by difference of style; the Hebrew
principle of parallelism of clauses is employed far more in the
first than in the second, which has a number of plain prose
passages, and is also rich in uncommon compound terms. In
view of these differences there is ground for holding that the
second part is a separate production which has been united with
the first by an editor, an historical haggadic sketch, a midrash,
full of imaginative additions to the Biblical narrative, and en-
livened by many striking ethical reflections. The question,
however, may be left undecided.
Both parts of the book ignore the Jewish sacrificial cult. Sacrifices
are not mentioned at all; a passing reference to the temple is put
into Solomon's mouth (ix. 8).* Moses is described (xi. i) not as the
great lawgiver, but as the holy prophet through whom the works of
the people were prospered. (It may be noted, as an illustration of
the allusive style of the book, that, though a number of men are
spoken of, not one of them is mentioned by name; in iv. 10-14,
which is an expansion of Gen. v. 24, the reader is left to recognize
Enoch from his knowledge of the Biblical narrative.) In the second
part of the book there is no expression of " messianic " hope; in
the first part the picture of the national future agrees in general
(if its expressions are to be taken literally) with that given in the book
of Daniel: the Jews are to have dominion over the peoples (iii. 8),
and to receive from the Lord's hand the diadem of beauty (v. 16),
but there is no mention of particular nations. The historical review
in the second part is coloured by a bitter hatred of the ancient
Egyptians; whether this springs from resentment of the former
sufferings of the Israelites or is meant as an allusion to the circum-
stances of the author's own time it is hardly possible to say.
The book appears to teach individual ethical immortality, though
its treatment of the subject is somewhat vague. On the basis of
Gen. i.-iii. it is said (ii. 23 f.) that God created man for immortality
(that is, apparently, on earth) and made him an image of his own
being, but through the envy of the devil death came into the world,
yet (iii. 1-4) the souls of the righteous are in the hand of God, and,
though they seem to die, their hope is full of immortality. The
description, however, appears to glide into the conception of national
immortality (iii. 8, v. 16), especially in the fine sorites in vi. 17-20:
the beginning of wisdom is desire for instruction, and devoted regard
to instruction is love, and love is observance of her laws, and obedience
to her laws is assurance of incoiruption, and incorruption brings us
near to God, and therefore desire for wisdom leads to a kingdom
(but the nature of the kingdom is not stated). The individualistic
view is expressed in xv. 3 : the knowledge of God's power (that is,
a righteous life) is the root of immortality. This passage appears
to exclude the wicked, who, however, are said (iv. 20) to be punished
hereafter. The figurative nature of the language respecting the
future makes it difficult to determine precisely the thought of the
book on this point; but it seems to contemplate continued existence
hereafter for both righteous and wicked, and rewards and punishments
allotted on the basis of moral character. Angels are not mentioned ;
but the serpent of Gen. iii. is, for the first time in literature, identified
with the devil (" Diabolos," ii. 24, the Greek translation of the
Hebrew " Satan "); the r61e assigned him (envy) is similar to that
expressed in '' Secrets of Enoch, ' xxxi. 3-6; he is here introduced
to account for the fact of death in the world. In iii. 4_ the writer, in
his polemic against the prosperous ungodly men of his time, denies
that death, snort life ajid lack of children are to be considered
750
WISDOM LITERATURE
misfortunes for the righteous over against these things the possession
of wisdom is declared to be the supreme good. The ethical standard
5f the book is high except in the bitterness displayed towards the
" wicked," that is, the enemies of the Jews. The only occurrence
in old Jewish literature (except in Ecclus. xiv. 2) of a word for
"conscience" is found in xvii. II (awtl&riaa) : wickedness is timorous
under the condemnation of conscience (the same thought in Prov.
xxviii. i). The book is absolutely monotheistic, and the character
ascribed to the deity is ethically pure with the exception mentioned
above.
The style shows that the book was written in Greek, though
naturally it contains Hebraisms. The author of the first part
was in all probability an Alexandrian Jew; nothing further is
known of him; and this is true of the author of the second part,
if that be a separate production. As to the date, the decided
Greek colouring (the conception of wisdom, the list of Stoic
virtues, viii. 7, the idea of pre-existence, viii. 20, and the ethical
conception of the future life) points to a time not earlier than the
ist century B.C., while the fact that the history is not allegorized
suggests priority to Philo; probably the work was composed
late in the ist century B.C. (this date would agree with the social
situation described). Its exclusion from the Jewish Canon of
Scripture resulted naturally from its Alexandrian thought and
from the fact that it was written in Greek. It was used, however,
by New Testament writers (vii. 22 f., Jas. iii. 17, vii. 26; Heb. i.
2 f., ix. 15; 2 Cor. v. 1-4, xi. 23; Acts xvii. 30, xiii. 1-5, xiv.
22-26; Rom. i. 18-32, xvi. 7; i Tim. iv. 10), and is quoted freely
by Patristic and later authors, generally as inspired. It was
recognized as canonical by the council of Trent, but is not so
regarded by Protestants.
LITERATURE. The Greek text is given in O. F. Fritzsche, Lib.
Apocr. Vet. Test. (1871); W. J. Deane, Bk. of Wisd. (1881); H. B.
Swete, Old Test, in Grk. (ist ed., 1891 ; 2nd ed., 1897; Eng. trans, in
Deane, 1881); W. R. Churton, Uncan. and Apocr.- Script. (1884);
C. J. Ball, Variorum Apocr. (1892); Revised Vers. of Apocr. (1895).
Introductions and Comms. : C. L. W. Grimm in Kurzgef. Exeg.
Hdbch. z. d. Apocr. d. A. T. (1860); E. C. Bissell in Lange-Schaff
(i860); W. J. Deane (1881); F. W. Farrar in Wace's Apocr. (1888);
Ed. Reuss, French ed. (1878), Ger. ed. (1894); E. Schurer, Jew.
People (Eng. trans., 1891); C. Siegfried in Kautzsch, Apocr. (1900);
Tony Andre, Les Apocr. (1903). See also the articles in Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyclopadie; Hastings, Diet. Bible; Cheyne and
Black, Encycl. Bibl. (C. H. T.*)
WISDOM LITERATURE, the name applied to the body of
Old Testament and Apocryphal writings that contain the philo-
sophical thought of the later pre-Christian Judaism. Old Semitic
philosophy was a science not of ontology in the modern sense of
the term, but of practical life. For the Greeks " love of wisdom "
involved inquiry into the basis and origin of things; the Hebrew
" wisdom " was the capacity so to order life as to get out of it
the greatest possible good. Though the early Hebrews (of the
time before the th century B.C.) must have reflected on life,
there is no trace of such reflection, of a systematic sort, in their
extant literature. " Wise men " are distrusted and opposed
by the prophets. The latter were concerned only with the
maintenance of the sole worship of Yahweh and of social morality.
This was the task of the early Hebrew thinkers, and to it a large
part of the higher energy of the nation was devoted. The external
law given, as was believed, by the God of Israel, was held to be
the sufficient guide of life, and everything that looked like reliance
on human wisdom was regarded as disloyalty to the Divine
Lawgiver. While the priests developed the sacrificial ritual,
it was the prophets that represented the theocratic element of
the national life they devoted themselves to their task with
noteworthy persistence and ability, and their efforts were crowned
with success; but their virtue of singlemindedness carried with it
the defect of narrowness they despised all peoples and all
countries but their own, and were intolerant of opinions, held by
their fellow-citizens, that were not wholly in accordance with
their own principles.
The reports of the earlier wise men, men of practical sagacity
in political and social affairs, have come to us from unfriendly
sources; it is quite possible that among them were some who
took interest in life for its own sake, and reflected on its human
moral basis. But, if this was so, no record of their reflections
has been preserved. The class of sages to whom we owe the
Wisdom Books did not arise till a change had come over the
national fortunes and life. The firm establishment of the doctrine
of practical monotheism happened to coincide in time with the
destruction of the national political life (in the 6th century B.C.).
At the moment when this doctrine had come to be generally
accepted by the thinking part of the nation, the Jews found
themselves dispersed among foreign communities, and from
that time were a subject people environed by aliens, Babylonian,
Persian and Greek. The prophetic office ceased to exist when
its work was done, and part of the intellectual energy of the
people was thus set free for other tasks than the establishment
of theistic dogma. The ritual law was substantially completed
by the end of the sth century B.C.; it became the object of
study, and thus arose a class of scholars, among whom were
some who, under the influence of the general culture of the time,
native and foreign, pushed their investigations beyond the
limits of the national law and became students and critics of
life. These last came to form a separate class, though without
formal organization. There was a tradition of learning (Job
viii. 8, xv. 10) the results of observation and experience were
handed down orally. In the znd century B.C., about the time
when the synagogue took shape, there were established schools
presided over by eminent sages, in which along with instruction
in the law much was said concerning the general conduct of
life (see PIRKE ABOTH). The social unification produced by
the conquests of Alexander brought the Jews into intimate
relations with Greek thought. It may be inferred from Ben-
Sira's statements (Ecclus. xxxix. i-n) that it was the custom
for scholars to travel abroad and, like the scholars of medieval
Europe, to increase their knowledge by personal association with
wise men throughout the world. Jews seem to have entered
eagerly into the larger intellectual life of the last three centuries
before the beginning of our era. For some the influence of this
association was of a general nature, merely modifying their
conception of the moral life; others adopted to a greater or
less extent some of the peculiar ideas of the current systems of
philosophy. Scholars were held in honour in those days by
princes and people, and Ben-Sira frankly adduces this fact as
one of the great advantages of the pursuit of wisdom. It was
in cities that the study of life and philosophy was best carried oa,
and it is chiefly with city life that Jewish wisdom deals.
The extant writings of the Jewish sages are contained in the
books of Job, Proverbs, PsaJms, Ben-Sira, Tobit, Ecclesiastes,
Wisdom of Solomon, 4th Maccabees, to which may be added the
first chapter of Pirke Aboth (a Talmudic tract giving, probably,
pre-Christian material). Of these Job, Pss. xlix., Ixxiii., xcii.
6-8 (5-7), Eccles., Wisdom, are discussions of the moral govern-
ment of the world; Prov., Pss. xxxvii., cxix., Ben-Sira, Tob. iv.,
xii. 7-11, Pirke, are manuals of conduct, and 4th Maccab.
treats of the autonomy of reason in the moral life; Pss. viii.,
xix. 2-7 (1-6), xxix. 3-10, xc. 1-12, cvii. 17-32, cxxxix., cxliv. 3 f.,
cxlvii. 8 f. are reflections on man and physical nature (cf. the
Yahweh addresses in Job, and Ecclus. xlii. is-xliii. 33).
Sceptical views are expressed in Job, Prov. xxx. 2-4 (Agur),
Eccles.; the rest take the current orthodox position.
Though the intellectual world of the sages is different from that of
the prophetic and legal Hebraism, they do not break with the
fundamental Jewish theistic and ethical creeds. Their monotheism
remains Semitic even in their conception of the cosmogonic and
illuminating function of Wisdom they regard God as standing outside
the world of physical nature and man, and do not grasp or accept the
idea of the identity of the human and the divine; there is thus a
sharp distinction between their general theistic position and that of
Greek philosophy. They retain the old high standard of morals,
and in some instances go beyond it, as in the injunctions to be kind
to enemies (Prov. xxv. 21 f.) and to do to no man what is hateful to
one's self (Tob. iv. 15); in these finer maxims they doubtless repre-
sent the general ethical advance of the time.
They differ from the older writers in practically ignoring the
physical supernatural that is, though they regard the miracles of
the ancient times (referred to particularly in Wisdom xvi. -xix.) as
historical facts, they say nothing of a miraculous element in the life
of their own time. Angels occur only in Job and Tobit, and there in
noteworthy characters: in Job they are beings whom God charges
with folly (iv. 1 8), or they are mediators between God and man
WISE, H. A. WISE, I. M.
(v. I, xxxiii. 23), that is, they are humanized, and the Elohim beings
(including the Satan) in the prologue Welong to a popular story, the
figure of Satan being used by the author to account for Job's
calamities; in Tobit the " affable " Raphael is a clever man of the
world. Except in Wisdom ii. 24 (where the serpent of Gen. iii. is
called " Diabolos "), there is mention of one demon only (Asmodeus,
in Tob. iii. 8, 17), and that a Persian figure. Job alone introduces
the mythical dragons (iii. 8, vii. 12, ix. 13, xxyi. 12) that occur in
late prophetical writings (Amos ix. 3; Isa. xxvii. l); as the earliest
of the Wisdom books, it is the friendliest to supernatural machinery.
Like the prophetical writings before Ezekiel, the Wisdom books,
while they recognize the sacrificial ritual as an existing custom,
attach little importance to it as an element of religious life (the
fullest mention of it is in Ecclus. xxxv. 4 ff., i); the difference
between prophets and sages is that the former do not regard the
ritual as of divine appointment (Jer. vii. 22) and oppose it as non-
moral, while the latter, probably accepting the law as divine, by
laying most stress on the universal side 01 religion, lose sight of its local
and mechanical side (see Ecclus. xxxv. 1-3). Their broad culture
(reinforced, perhaps, by the political conditions of the time) made
them comparatively indifferent to Messianic hopes and to that
conception of a final judgment of the nations that was closely
connected with these hopes: a Messiah is not mentioned in their
writings (not in Prov. xvi. 10-15), ar >d a final judgment only in
Wisdom of Solomon, where it is not of nations but of individuals.
In this regard a comparison between them and Daniel, Enoch and
Psalms of Solomon is instructive. Their interest is in the ethical
training of the individual on earth.
There was nothing in their general position to make them in-
hospitable to ethical conceptions of the future life, as is shown by
the fact that so soon as the Egyptian-Greek idea of immortality
made itself felt in Jewish circles it was adopted by the author of
the Wisdom of Solomon; but prior to the 1st century B.C. it does
not appear in the Wisdom literature, and the nationalistic dogma of
resurrection is not mentioned in it at all. Everywhere, except in
the Wisdom of Solomon, the Underworld is the old Hebrew inane
abode of all the dead, and therefore a negligible quantity for the
moralist. Nor do the sages go beyond the old position in their
ethical theory: they have no philosophical discussion of the basis
of the moral life ; their standard of good conduct is existing law and
custom; their motive for right-doing is individual eudaemonistic,
not the good of society, or loyalty to an ideal of righteousness for its
own sake, but advantage for one's self. They do not attempt a
psychological explanation of the origin of human sin; bad thought
(ye?er ra', Ecclus. xxxvii. 3) is accepted as a fact, or its entrance into
the mind of man is attributed (Wisd. ii. 24 )to the devil (the serpent
of Gen. iii.). In fine, they eschew theories and confine themselves to
visible facts.
It is in keeping with their whole point of view that they claim no
divine inspiration for themselves: they speak with authority, but
their authority is that of reason and conscience. It is this definitely
rational tone that constitutes the differentia of the teaching of the
sages. For the old external law they substitute the internal law :
conscience is recognized as the power that approves or condemns
conduct (ifrvxh, Ecclus. xiv. 2; owtl&riau, Wisd. Sol. xvii. Ii).
Wisdom is represented as the result of human reflection, and thus as
the guide in all the affairs of life. It is also sometimes conceived of
as divine (in Wisd. of Sol. and in parts of Prov. and Ecclus., but not
in Eccles.), in accordance with the Hebrew view, which regards all
human powers as bestowed directly by God ; it is identified with the
fear of God (Job xxviii. 28; Prov. i. 7; Ecclus. xv. I ff.) and even
with the Jewish law (Ecclus. xxiv. 23). But in such passages it
remains fundamentally human; no attempt is made to define the
limits of the human and the divine in its composition it is all human
and all divine. The personification of wisdom reaches almost the
verge of hypostasis: in Job xxviii. it is the most precious of things;
in Prov. viii. it is the companion of God in His creative work, itself
created before the world; in Ecclus. xxiv. the nationalistic con-
ception is set forth: wisdom, created in the beginning, compasses
heaven and earth seeking rest and finds at last its dwelling-place in
Jerusalem (and so substantially 4th Maccabees); the height of
sublimity is reached in Wisd. of Sol. vii., where wisdom, the bright-
ness of the everlasting light, is the source of all that is noblest in
human life.
Greek influence appears clearly in the sages' attitude toward the
phenomena of life. God, they hold, is the sole creator and ruler
of the world ; yet man is free, autonomous God is not responsible
for men's faults (Ecclus. xv. 11-20); divine wisdom js visible in the
works of nature and in beasts and man (Job xxxviii. f. ; Pss. yiii.,
cxxxix.). On the other hand, there is recognition of the inequalities
and miseries of life (Job; Ecclus. xxxiii. n ff., xl. i-n; Eccles.),
and, as a result, scepticism as to a moral government of the world.
In Job, which is probably the earliest of the philosophical books,
the question whether God is just is not definitely answered : the
prologue affirms that the sufferings of good men, suggested by the
sneer of Satan, are intended to demonstrate the reality of human
goodness; elsewhere (v. 17, xxxiii. 17 ff.) they are regarded as
disciplinary; the Yahweh speeches declare man's inability to
understand God's dealings; the prosperity of the wicked is nowhere
explained. The ethical manuals, Prov. (except xxx. 2-4) and Ecclus.,
are not interested in the question and ignore it ; Agur's agnosticism
(Prov. xxx. 2-4) is substantially the position of the Yahweh speeches
in Job directed against the ' unco-wise " of his day. Koheleth's
scepticism (in the original form of Ecclesiastes) is deep-seated and
far-reaching: though he is a theist, he sees no justice in the world,
and looks on human life as meaningless and resultless. For him
death is the end-all, and it is against some such view as this that the
argument in Wisd. of Sol. ii.-v. is directed. With the establishment
of the belief in ethical immortality this phase of scepticism vanished
from the Jewish world, not, however, without leaving behind it
works of enduring value.
In all the Wisdom books virtue is conceived of as conterminous
with knowledge. Salvation is attained not by believing but by the
perception of what is right ; wisdom is resident in the soul and
identical with the thought of man. Yet, with this adoption of the
Greek point of view, the tone and spirit of this literature remain
Hebrew.
The writings of the sages are all anonymous. No single man
appears as creator of the tendency of thought they represent;
they are the product of a period extending over several centuries,
but they form an intellectual unity, and presuppose a great body
of thinkers. The sages may be regarded as the beginners of a
universal religion: they felt the need of permanent principles
of life, and were able to set aside to some extent the local features
of the current creed. That they did not found a universal
religion was due, in part at least, to the fact that the time was
not ripe for such a faith; but they left material that was taken
up into later systems.
LITERATURE. K. Siegfried, Philo von Alexandria (1875); J.
Drummond, Philo Jitdaeus (1888); H. Bois, Orieines d. 1. phtl.
Judeo-Alex. (1890); T. K. Cheyne, Job and Sol. (1887) and Jew.
Relig. Life, &c. (1898). (C. H. T.*)
WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876), American poli-
tician and soldier, was bom at Drummondtown (or Accomac),
Accomack county, Virginia, on the 3rd of December 1806.
He graduated from Washington (now Washington and Jefferson)
College, Pennsylvania, in 1825, and began to practise law in
Nashville, Tennessee, in 1828. He returned to Accomack
county, Va., in 1830, and served in the National House of Repre-
sentatives in 1833-1837 as an anti-nullification Democrat, but
broke with the party on the withdrawal of the deposits from the
United States Bank, and was re-elected to Congress in 1837,
1839 and 1841 as a Whig, and in 1843 as a Tyler Democrat.
From 1844 to 1847 he was minister to Brazil. In 1850-1851
he was a member of the convention to revise the Virginia con-
stitution, and advocated white manhood suffrage, internal
improvements, and the abolition of imprisonment for debt.
In 1855 he was elected governor of the state (1856-1860) as a
Democrat. John Brown's raid occurred during his term, and
Wise refused to reprieve Brown after sentence had been passed.
He strongly opposed secession, but finally voted for the Virginia
ordinance, was commissioned brigadier-general in the Confederate
army and served throughout the war. He died at Richmond,
Va., on the I2th of September 1876. He wrote Seven Decades
of the Union 1700-1860 (1872).
His son, JOHN SERGEANT WISE (b. 1846), United States
attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia in 1881-1883, and
a member of the National House of Representatives in 1883-1885,
wrote The End of an Era (1899) and Recollections of Thirteen
Presidents (1906).
See the Life of H. A. Wise, by his grandson, B. H. Wise (1899).
WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900), American Jewish theo-
logian, was born in Bohemia, but his career is associated with
the organization of the Jewish reform movement in the United
States. From the moment of his arrival in America (1846) his
influence made itself felt. In 1854 he was appointed rabbi at
Cincinnati. Some of his actions roused considerable opposition.
Thus he was instrumental in compiling a new prayer-book,
which he designed as the " American Rite " (Minhag America).
He was opposed to political Zionism, and the Montreal Con-
ference (1897), at his instigation, passed resolutions disapproving
of the attempt to establish a Jewish state, and affirming that the
Jewish Messianic hope pointed to a great universal brotherhood.
In keeping with this denial of a Jewish nationality, Wise believed
in national varieties of Judaism, and strove to harmonize the
synagogue with local circumstances and sympathies. In 1848
752
WISEMAN, CARDINAL
he conceived the idea of a union, and after a campaign lasting
a quarter of a century the Union of American Hebrew Congrega-
tions was founded (1873) in Cincinnati. As a corollary of this
he founded in 1875 the " Hebrew Union College " in the same
city, and this institution has since trained a large number of
the rabbis of America. Wise also organized various general
assemblies of rabbis, and in 1889 established the Central Con-
ference of American Rabbis. He was the first to introduce
family pews in synagogues, and in many other ways " occidental-
ized " Jewish worship.
See D. Philipson, The Reform Movement in Judaism (1907). (I. A.)
WISEMAN, NICHOLAS PATRICK STEPHEN (1802-1865),
English cardinal, was born at Seville on the 2nd of August 1802,
the child of Anglo-Irish parents recently settled in Spain for
business purposes. On his father's death in 1805 he was brought
to Waterford, and in 1810 he was sent to Ushaw College, near
Durham, where he was educated until the age of sixteen, when
he proceeded to the English College hi Rome, reopened in 1818
after having been closed by the Revolution for twenty years.
He graduated doctor of theology with distinction in 1825, and
was ordained priest in the following year. He was apppointed
vice-rector of the English College in 1827, and rector hi 1828
when not yet twenty-six years of age. This office he held until
1840. From the first a devoted student and antiquary, he
devoted much time to the examination of oriental MSS. in the
Vatican library, and a first volume, entitled Horae Syriacae,
published in 1827, gave promise of a great scholar. Leo XII.
apppointed him curator of the Arabic MSS. in the Vatican, and
professor of oriental languages in the Roman university. At
this date he had close relations, personal and by correspondence,
with Mai, Bunsen, Burgess '(bishop of Salisbury), Tholuck and
Kluge. His student life was, however, broken by the pope's
command to preach to the English in Rome; and a course of his
lectures, On the Connexion between Science and Revealed Religion,
deservedly attracted much attention, his general thesis being that
whereas scientific teaching has repeatedly been thought to
disprove Christian doctrine, further investigation has shown
that a reconstruction is possible. He visited England in 1835-
1836, and delivered lectures on the principles and main doctrines
of Roman Catholicism in the Sardinian Chapel, Lincoln's Inn
Fields, and in the church at Moorfields, now pulled down.
Their effect was considerable; and at Pusey's request Newman
reviewed them hi the British Critic (December 1836), treating
them for the most part with sympathy as a triumph over popular
Protestantism. To another critic, who had taken occasion to
point out the resemblance between Catholic and pagan cere-
monies, Wiseman replied, boldly admitting the likeness, and
maintaining that it could be shown equally well to exist between
Christian and heathen doctrines. In 1836 he founded the
Dublin Review, partly to infuse into the lethargic English Cathoh'cs
higher ideals of their own religion and some enthusiasm for the
papacy, and partly to enable him to deal with the progress of the
Oxford Movement, in which he was keenly interested. At this
date he was already distinguished as an accomplished scholar
and critic, able to converse fluently hi half-a-dozen languages,
and well informed on most questions of scientific, artistic or
antiquarian interest. In the winter of 1838 he was visited hi
Rome by Macaulay, Manning and Gladstone. An article by
him on the Donatist schism appearing in the Dublin Review in
July 1839 made a great impression in Oxford, Newman and others
seeing the force of the analogy between Donatists and Anglicans.
Some words he quoted from St Augustine influenced Newman pro-
foundly: " Quapropter securus judicat orbis terrarum bonos
non esse qui se dividunt ab orbe terraruni." And preaching at
the opening of St Mary's church, Derby, in the same year,
he anticipated Newman's argument on religious development,
published six years later. In 1840 he was consecrated bishop,
and sent to England as coadjutor to Bishop Walsh, vicar-apostolic
of the Central district, and was also appointed president of Oscott
College near Birmingham. Oscott, under his presidency, became
a centre for English Catholics, where he was also visited by many
distinguished men, including foreigners and non-Catholics. The
Oxford converts (1845 and^ later) added considerably to Wise-
man's responsibilities, as many of them found themselves wholly
without means, while the old Catholic body looked on the new-
comers with distrust. It was by his advice that Newman and his
companions spent some time in Rome before undertaking clerical
work in England. Shortly after the accession of Pius IX.
Wiseman was appointed temporarily vicar-apostolic of the
London district, the appointment becoming permanent in
February 1849. On his arrival from Rome in 1847 he acted
as informal diplomatic envoy from the pope, to ascertain from
the government what support England was likely to give in
carrying out the liberal policy with which Pius inaugurated his
reign. In response Lord Minto was sent to Rome as " an authentic
organ of the British Government," but the policy in question
proved abortive. Residing in London in Golden Square, Wiseman
threw himself into his new duties with many-sided activity,
working especially for the reclamation of Catholic criminals and
for the restoration of the lapsed poor to the practice of their
religion. He was zealous for the establishment of religious
communities, both of men and women, and for the holding of
retreats and missions. He preached (4th July 1848) at the
opening of St George's, Southwark, an occasion unique in
England since the Reformation, 14 bishops and 240 priests being
present, and six religious orders of men being represented. The
progress of Catholicism was undeniable, but yet Wiseman found
himself steadily opposed by a minority among his own clergy,
who disliked his Ultramontane ideas, his " Romanizing and in-
novating zeal," especially in regard to the introduction of sacred
images into the churches and the use of devotions to the Blessed
Virgin and the Blessed Sacrament, hitherto unknown among
English Catholics. In July 1850 he heard of the pope's intention
to create him a cardinal, and he took this to mean that he was
to be permanently recalled to Rome. But on his arrival there
he ascertained that a part of the pope's plan for restoring a
diocesan hierarchy in England was that he himself should return
to England as cardinal and archbishop of Westminster. The
papal brief establishing the hierarchy was dated 29th September
1850, and on 7th October Wiseman wrote a pastoral, dated
" from out of the Flaminian Gate " a form diplomatically
correct, but of bombastic tone for Protestant ears in which
he spoke enthusiastically, if also a little pompously, of the
" restoration of Catholic England to its orbit in the ecclesiastical
firmament." Wiseman travelled slowly to England, round by
Vienna; and when he reached London (nth November) the
whole country was ablaze with indignation at the " papal
aggression," which was misunderstood to imply a new and
unjustifiable claim to territorial rule. Some indeed feared that
his life was endangered by the violence of popular feeling. But
Wiseman displayed calmness and courage, and immediately
penned an admirable Appeal to the English People (a pamphlet of
over 30 pages), in which he explained the nature of the pope's
action, and argued that the admitted principle of toleration
included leave to establish a diocesan hierarchy; and in his con-
cluding paragraphs he effectively contrasted that dominion
over Westminster, which he was taunted with claiming, with his
duties towards the poor Catholics resident there, with which alone
he was really concerned. A course of lectures at St George's,
Southwark, further moderated the storm. In July 1852 he pre-
sided at Oscott over the first provincial synod of Westminster, at
which Newman preached his sermon on the " Second Spring ";
and at this date Wiseman's dream of the rapid conversion of
England to the ancient faith seemed not incapable of realization.
But many difficulties with his own people shortly beset his path,
due largely to the suspicions aroused by his evident preference
for the ardent Roman zeal of the converts, and especially of
Manning, to the dull and cautious formalism of the old Catholics.
The year 1854 was marked by his presence in Rome at the
definition of the dogma of the immaculate conception of the
Blessed Virgin (8th December), and by the publication of his
historical romance, Fabiola, a tale of the Church of the Cata-
combs, which had a very wide circulation and was translated into
ten languages. In 1855 Wiseman applied for a coadjutor, and
WISH ART WISLICENUS
753
George Errington, bishop of Plymouth, his friend since boyhood,
was appointed, with the title of archbishop of Trebizond. Two
years later Manning was appointed provost of Westminster
and he established in Bayswater his community of the " Oblates
of St Charles." All Wiseman's later years were darkened by
Errington's conscientious but implacable hostility to Manning,
and to himself in so far as he was supposed to be acting under
Manning's influence. The story of the estrangement, which was
largely a matter of temperament, is fully told in Ward's biography.
Ultimately, in July 1860, Errington was deprived by the pope
of his coadjutorship with right of succession, and he retired to
Prior Park, near Bath, where he died in 1886. In the summer
of 1858 Wiseman paid a visit to Ireland, where, as a cardinal of
Irish race, he was received with enthusiasm. His speeches,
sermons and lectures, delivered during his tour, were printed in a
volume of 400 pages, and show an extraordinary power of rising
to the occasion and of speaking with sympathy and tact. Wise-
man was able to use considerable influence with English poli-
ticians, partly because in his day English Catholics were wavering
in their historical allegiance to the Liberal party. As the director
of votes thus doubtful, he was in a position to secure concessions
that bettered the position of Catholics in regard to poor schools,
reformatories and workhouses, and in the status of their army
chaplains. In 1863, addressing the Catholic Congress at Malines,
he stated that since 1830 the number of priests in England had
increased from 434 to 1242, and of convents of women from 16
to 162, while there were 55 religious houses of men in 1863 and
none in 1830. The last two years of his life were troubled by
illness and by controversies in which he found himself, under
Manning's influence, compelled to adopt a policy less liberal than
that which had been his in earlier years. Thus he had to con-
demn the Association for the Promotion of the Unity of Christen-
dom, with which he had shown some sympathy in its inception
in 1857; and to forbid Catholic parents to send their sons to
Oxford or Cambridge, though at an earlier date he had hoped
(with Newman) that at Oxford at least a college or hall might
be assigned to them. But in other respects his last years were
cheered by marks of general regard and admiration, in which
non-Catholics joined; and after his death (i6th February 1865)
there was an extraordinary demonstration of popular respect as
his body was taken from St Mary's, Moorfields, to the cemetery
at Kensal Green, where it was intended that it should rest only
until a more fitting place could be found in a Roman Catholic
cathedral church of Westminster. On the 3Oth of January 1907
the body was removed with great ceremony from Kensal Green
and reburied in the crypt of the new cathedral, where it lies
beneath a Gothic altar tomb, with a recumbent effigy of the
archbishop in full pontificals.
Wiseman was undoubtedly an eminent Englishman, and one of
the most learned men of his time. He was the friend and corre-
spondent of many foreigners of distinction, among whom may be
named Dollinger, Lamennais, Montalembert and Napoleon III. As
a writer he was apt to be turgid and prolix, and there was a some-
what un-English element of ostentation in his manner. But his
accomplishments and ability were such as would have secured for
him influence and prominence in any age of the Church; and
besides being highly gifted intellectually and morally, he was
marked by those specially human qualities which command the
interest of all students of life and character. He combined with
the principles known as Ultramontane no little liberality of view
in matters ecclesiastical. He insisted oh a poetical interpretation
of the Church's liturgy; and while strenuously maintaining her
Divine commission to teach faith and morals, he regarded the
Church as in other respects a learner; and he advocated a policy
of conciliation with the world, and an alliance with the best tendencies
of contemporary thought. It was, in his judgment, quite in accord-
ance with the genius of the Catholic Church that she should con-
tinuously assimilate all that is worthy in the civilization around.
See the biography by Wilfrid Ward, The Life and Times of Cardinal
Wiseman (2 vols.. 1897; fifth and cheaper edition, 1900).
(A. W. Hu.)
WISHART, GEORGE (c. 1513-1546), Scottish reformer, born
about 1513, belonged to a younger branch of the Wisharts of
Pitarrow. His early life has been the subject of many conjectures;
but apparently he graduated M.A., probably at King's College,
Aberdeen, and taught as a schoolmaster at Montrose. Accused
of heresy in 1538, he fled to England, where a similar charge was
brought against him at Bristol in the following year. In 1539
or 1540 he started for Germany and Switzerland, and returning
to England became a member of Corpus Christi College, Cam-
bridge. In 1543 he went to Scotland in the train of a Scottish
embassy which had come to London to consider the treaty of
marriage between Prince Edward and the infant queen of Scots.
There has been much controversy whether he was the Wishart
who in April 1544 approached the English government with a
proposal for getting rid of Cardinal Beaton. Roman Catholic
historians such as Bellesheim, and Anglicans like Canon Dixon,
have accepted the identification, while Froude does not dispute
it and Dr Gairdner avoids committing himself (Letters and Papers
of Henry VIII. vol. xix. pt. i., Introd. pp. xxvii-xrviii). There
was another George Wishart, bailie of Dundee, who allied himself
with Beaton's murderers; and Sir John Wishart (d. 1576),
afterwards a Scottish judge, has also claims to the doubtful
distinction. Sir John was certainly a friend of Creighton, laird
of Branston, who was deeply implicated in the plot, but Creighton
also befriended the reformer during his evangelical labours in
Midlothian. The case against the reformer is not proven and is
not probable.
His career as a preacher began in 1544, and the story has been
told in glowing colours by his disciple John Knox. He went
from place to place in peril of his life denouncing the errors of
Rome and the abuses in the church at Montrose, Dundee, Ayr,
in Kyle, at Perth, Edinburgh, Leith, Haddington and elsewhere.
At Ormiston, in December 1545, he was seized by the earl of
Bothwell, and transferred by order of the privy council to Edin-
burgh castle on January 19, 1546. Thence he was handed over
to Cardinal Beaton, who had him burnt at St Andrews on
March i. Foxe and Knox attribute to him a prophecy of the
death of the Cardinal, who was assassinated on May 29 follow-
ing, partly at any rate in revenge for Wishart's death.
Knox's Hist.; Reg. P.C. Scotland; Foxe's Acts and Monuments;
Hay Fleming's Martyrs and Confessors of St Andrews; Cramond's
Truth about Wishart (1898) ; and Diet, of Nat. Biogr. vol. Ixii. (248-251 ,
253-254)- (A. F. P.)
WISHAW, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 20,873. It occupies the face of a hill a
short distance south of the South Calder and about 2 m. N. of the
Clyde, 15 m. E.S.E. of Glasgow by the Caledonian railway. It
owes its importance to the development of the coal and iron
industry, and was created a police burgh in 1855. It was ex-
tended to include the villages of Cambusnethan and Craigneuk
in 1874. The chief public buildings are the town-hall, Victoria
hail, the public library and the parish hall, and there is also a
public park.
WISLICENUS, JOHANNES (1835-1002), German chemist,
was born on the 24th of June 1835 at Klein-Eichstedt, in Thu-
ringia. In 1853 he entered Halle University, but in a few
months emigrated to America with his father. For a time he
acted as assistant to Professor E. N. Horsford at Harvard, and
in 1855 was appointed lecturer at the Mechanics' Institute in
New York. Returning to Europe in 1856, he continued his studies
at Zurich University, where nine years later he became professor
of chemistry. This post he held till 1872. He then succeeded
A. F. L. Strecker in the chair of chemistry at Wiirzburg, and
in 1885, on the death of A. W. H. Kolbe, was appointed to the
same professorship at Leipzig, where he died on the 6th of
December 1902. As an original investigator he devoted himself
almost exclusively to organic chemistry, and especially to stereo-
chemistry. His work on the lactic acids cleared up many
difficulties concerning the combination of acid and alcoholic
properties in oxy-acids in general, and resulted in the discover)- of
two substances differing in physical properties though possessing
a structure of proved chemical identity. To this phenomenon,
then noticed for the first time, he gave the name of " geometrical
isomerism." So far back as 1869, before the publication of the
doctrine of J. H. van't Hoff and J. A. Le Bel, he expressed the
opinion that the ordinary constitutional formulae did not afford
an adequate explanation of certain carbon compounds, and
754
WISMAR WITCH AND WIZARD
suggested that account must be taken of iheverschiedeneLagerung
ihrer A tome im Raume. Later (see Die raumliche Anordnung
der Atome in organischen Molekiilen, 1887) he extended the
application of the van't Hoff-Le Bel theory, believing that it,
together with the supposition that there are " specially directed
forces, the affinity-energies," which determine the relative
position of atoms in the molecule, afforded a method by which the
spatial arrangement of atoms in particular cases may be ascer-
tained by experiment. Wislicenus is also known for his work
on aceto-acetic ester and its application as a synthetical agent.
He was awarded the Davy medal by the Royal Society in 1898.
WISMAR, a seaport town of Germany, in the grand-duchy
of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, situated on the Bay of Wismar,
one of the best harbours on the Baltic, 20 m. by rail N. of
Schwerin. Pop. (1905) 21,902. The town is well and regularly
built, with broad and straight streets, and contains numerous
handsome and quaint buildings in the northern Gothic style.
The church of St Mary, a Gothic edifice of the i3th and
I4th centuries, with a tower 260 ft. high, and the church of St
Nicholas (1381-1460), with very lofty vaulting, are regarded
as good examples of the influence exercised in these northern
provinces by the large church of St Mary in Liibeck. The
elegant cruciform church of St George dates from the I4th
and isth centuries. The Furstenhof, at one time a ducal
residence, but now occupied by the municipal authorities, is a
richly decorated specimen of the Italian early Renaissance
style. Built in 1552-1565, it was restored in 1877-1879. The
" Old School," dating from about 1300, has been restored, and
is now occupied as a museum. The town hall (rebuilt in 1829)
contains a collection of pictures. Among the manufactures of
Wismar are iron, machinery, paper, roofing-felt and asphalt.
There is a considerable trade, especially by sea, the exports
including grain, oil-seeds and butter, and the imports coal, timber
and iron. The harbour is deep enough to admit vessels of i7-ft.
draught, and permits large steamers to unload along its quays.
Two miles from Wismar lies the watering-place of Wendorf .
Wismar is said to have received civic rights in 1229, and came
into the possession of Mecklenburg in 1301. In the I3th and i4th
centuries it was a flourishing Hanse town, with important woollen
factories. Though a plague carried off 10,000 of the inhabitants
in 1376, the town seems to have remained tolerably prosperous
until the i6th century. By the peace of Westphalia in 1648 it
passed to Sweden, with a lordship to which it gives its name.
In 1803 Sweden pledged both town and lordship to Mecklenburg
for 1,258,000 thalers, reserving, however, the right of redemp-
tion after 100 years. In view of this contingent right of Sweden,
Wismar was not represented in the diet of Mecklenburg until
1897. In 1903 Sweden finally renounced its claims. Wismar
still retains a few relics of its old liberties, including the right to
fly its own flag.
See Burmeister, Beschreibung von Wismar (Wismar, 1857);
Willgeroth, Geschichte der Stadt Wismar, pt. i. (Wismar, 1898); and
Bruno Schmidt, Der Schwedisch-mecklenbureische Pfandvertrag uber
Stadt und Herrschaft Wismar (Leipzig, 1901).
WITAN, or WITENAGEMOT (from O. Eng. wita, pi. witan,
a wise man, and gemdl, a meeting, from O. Eng. metan, to meet),
the national council in England in Anglo-Saxon times. Its
origin is obscure. There is some resemblance between it and the
two assemblies mentioned by Tacitus in the Germania, a larger
and a smaller one, but this analogy must not be pressed too far.
In Anglo-Saxon England in the 7th and 8th centuries it seems
certain that each of the larger kingdoms, Kent, Wessex, Mercia
and Northumbria, had its separate witan, or council, but there
is a difference of opinion as to whether this was identical with,
or distinct from, the folkmoot, in which, theoretically at least,
all freemen had the right to appear. H. R. von Gneist (History
of the English Constitution) agrees that the two assemblies were
identical, and a somewhat similar view is put forward by J. M.
Kemble (Saxons in England) and E. A. Freeman (History of
the Norman Conquest). Freeman advances the theory that the
right of all the freemen to attend the gemdt had for practical
purposes fallen into disuse, and thus the assembly had come to
be confined to the wise men. In other words, the folkmoot had
become the witan. Evidence in support of this view is sought
for in the accounts in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and elsewhere,
where the decisions of the witan were received with loud expres-
sions of approval or of disapproval by an assembled crowd, and
it is argued that this is a survival from an earlier age, when all
the freemen attended the witan. But the attendance of the crowd
can be otherwise explained. The meetings referred to were
probably those of exceptional interest, such as the election or
the coronation of a king, and people from the neighbourhood
were there merely as interested, and sometimes excited,
spectators. The contrary opinion, that the two assemblies
were distinct, is held, although with characteristic caution, by
Stubbs (Const. Hist. vol. i.). He thinks that on the union of
the kingdoms the witans were merged into one another, while
the folkmoot became the shiremoot. As the number of kings
decreased the number of witans decreased, until early in the
9th century there was one king and one witan in all England.
The power of the witan varied according to the personality
of the reigning king, being considerable under a weak ruler,
but inconsiderable under a strong one. Generally speaking,
it diminished as the years went by, and from " necessary
assenters " its members became " merely attesting witnesses."
Its duties are shown by the preamble to the laws of Ine, king of
Wessex, and 200 years later by the preamble to those of Alfred
the Great, while several similar cases could be instanced. Ine
legislates " with the counsel and with the teaching of Cenred
my father and of Hedde my bishop, and of Eorcenwald my
bishop, with all my ealdormen and the most distinguished
witan of my people " (Stubbs, Select Charters), and Alfred
issues his code of laws " with the counsel and consent of his
witan." Thus the members of the witan were primarily
counsellors. With their consent the king promulgated laws,
made grants of land, appointed bishops and ealdormen, and
discharged the other duties of government. The witan was also
a court of justice, Earl Godwine and many other offenders
receiving sentence of outlawry therein. Its members had the
power of electing a new king, although the area of their choice
was strictly limited by custom and also the right of deposing
a king, although this seems to have been infrequently exercised.
Its members signed the charters by which the king conveyed
grants of land to churches and to individuals, and it is from
the extant charters that we mainly derive our knowledge about
the composition of the witan. It consisted, in addition to the
king, his sons and other relatives, of the bishops and later some
abbots, of some under-kings and the ealdormen of the shires
or provinces, and of a number of ministri, or king's thegns.
These ministri were nominees of the king; they included the
important members of his household, and their number gradually
increased until it outstripped that of all the other members.
The witan appears probably to have had no fixed place of meeting,
and to have assembled around the person of the king, wherever
he might be. In the later years of its existence, at least, it
met three times a year, at Easter, Whitsuntide and Christmas.
The number of counsellors attending the meetings of the witan
varied considerably from time to time. " In a witenagemot
held at Luton in November A.D. 931 were the two archbishops,
two Welsh princes, seventeen bishops, fifteen ealdormen, five
abbots and fifty-nine ministri. In another, that of Winchester
of A.D. 934, were present the two archbishops, four Welsh kings,
seventeen bishops, four abbots, twelve ealdormen and fifty-
two ministri. These are perhaps the fullest extant lists. Of
Edgar's witenagemots, the one of A.D. 966 contained the king's
mother, two archbishops, seven bishops, five ealdormen and
fifteen ministri; and this is a fair specimen of the usual pro-
portion " (Stubbs, Const. Hist. ch. vi.). Almost immediately
after the Norman Conquest the word fell into disuse.
See also D. J. Medley, English Constitutional History (1907):
H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (1905); and
the article PARLIAMENT. (A. W. H.*)
WITCH and WIZARD. These two words are now generally
used of an adept of the black art, a sorcerer, magician, female
WITCH BROOMS WITCHCRAFT
755
and male respectively (see MAGIC and WITCHCRAFT). " Witch,"
formerly of common gender, represents O. Eng. wicca (masc.),
wicce (f em.), agent-nouns towiccian, to practise sorcery, probably
a causative verb from O. Eng. wican, to give way (cf. " weak ''),
and therefore signifying to avert (evil), conjure away So
Norweg. vikja means (i) to turn aside, (2) to exorcise. The
participial " wicked " means witch-like. " Wizard " is formed
from " wise," with the slightly contemptuous Anglo-French
suffix -ard, as in drunkard, laggard, sluggard, &c.
WITCH BROOMS, or " Birds' Nests," in botany, peculiar
broom-like growths often seen on the branches of many trees.
They are a dense development of branching twigs formed at
one place on a branch as the result of the irritation set up by the
presence of a mite or a fungus.
WITCHCRAFT, a term often used of magical practices of all
sorts, but here confined to the malevolent (" black ") magic of
women. It should, however, be noted that the male witch
occasionally appears in folklore, while " white witchcraft " is
common; the practices of the witch of Endor are akin rather to I
spiritualism than witchcraft. The German term hexe was not '
originally applied to human beings at all, but to child-devouring
demons, corresponding to the Roman lamia; and it is used in
this sense till the I4th century, it does not appear in literature
in its present sense till some time in the ijth century.
The modern European conception of the witch is perhaps
the result of the fusion of several originally discrete ideas.
In some countries we find the distinction made between con-
jurers, witches and sorcerers; the former were supposed to raise
the devil by means of spells and force him to do their will; the
witch proceeded by way of friendly pact with an evil spirit;
a third class produced strange effects, without the aid of
spirits (see MAGIC), by means of images or forms of words. We
also find a distinction drawn between diviners, mathematici
( astrologers), crystal-gazers, necromancers and others; but it
must be remembered that our knowledge for the earlier period
is rather of learned ideas than of the actual popular beliefs, and
for the later period of the popular belief sophisticated by ecclesi-
astical subtleties. In present-day belief the witch is, like the
savage magician, initiated by another or herself performs
ceremonies believed to give her magical powers. She possesses
a familiar (see LYCANTHROPY; MAGIC), whose form she can
assume; she can ride through the air in some cases and is
equally adept at all kinds of magic. Sir A. C. Lyall maintains
that the witch is a person who works magic by her own powers,
not by the aid and counsel of supernatural beings; but this
view, though it may be true of poisoning and similar features
formerly reckoned a part of witchcraft, does not apply to the
European witch. Witchcraft an<! possession are found in
dose relation in the psychical epidemics of the middle ages, but
are otherwise unrelated.
Witchcraft among Primitive Peoples. Although magical
powers are everywhere attributed to women, witchcraft as here
defined is by no means universal; in Europe alone is the woman
the almost exclusive repository of magical powers; in the Congo
the muntundongo may be either a man or a woman, and in fact the
sexes are said to be engaged in magical pursuits in approximately
equal numbers; in Australia men are much more concerned
with magic than women, but the latter have certain forms
peculiar to themselves in the central area, and, as in medieval
Europe, it is largely concerned with sexual matters. At the
present day the European witch is almost invariably old, but
this is not characteristic of the female magician of primitive
peoples, or not to the same extent; it must be remembered that
the modern idea of witchcraft is largely a learned product
the result of scholastic and inquisitorial ingenuity, mingled to a
greater or less extent with genuine folk beliefs. In India, among
the Agariyas of Bengal, the instruction in witchcraft is given by
the old women; but the pupils are young girls. The Indian
witch is believed to have a cat familiar; there, as in Europe,
many tests are applied to witches; they may be thrown into
water, or their identity discovered by various forms of divination;
or they may be known by the fact that beating them with the
castor oil plant makes them cry out. As a punishment the witch
may be shaved, made to drink dirty water, or otherwise ill-used.
Witchcraft in Classical Times. Our knowledge of witchcraft in
pagan antiquity is slight, but Horace has left us an elaborate
description of the proceedings of two witches in the Esquiline
cemetery. At the new moon they steal into it to gather bones
and noxious herbs, their feet bare, their hair loose and their
robes tucked up. So far from aiming at secrecy, however, they
alarm their neighbours with their cries. Making a hollow in the
ground they rend a black lamb over it to summon the dead.
Then taking two images, one of wool representing a witch, one
of wax representing tue man whose infidelity she wishes to punish ,
a witch performs magical ceremonies; the moon turns red,
hell hounds and snakes glide over the spot. Then they bury
the muzzle of a wolf and bum the waxen image; as it melts, so
fades the life of its prototype. In Greece Thessalian women
had the reputation of being specially powerful witches; their
poisons were famous and they were said to be able to make the
moon descend from the sky.
Medieval Wikhcraft. We know less of early and medieval
witchcraft than of modern 'savage and popular beliefs; our
knowledge of it is drawn partly from secular sources the laws
against, and in later times the trials for the offence partly from
ecclesiastical sources; but in each case the popular creed is
filtered through the mind of a writer who did not necessarily
understand or share the belief. For the earlier period we have
penitentials, decisions of councils, discussions as to the possi-
bility of the various kinds of witchcraft, as to their exact re-
lation to the sin of heresy or as to the mechanism by which the
supposed results were achieved; at a later period the trials of
witches before the Inquisition are of great importance; but the
beliefs of this period must be sharply distinguished from those of
the earlier one. Finally we have a great mass of material in the
secular trials of the i6th and two following centuries.
There are marked differences in the character of the witch-
craft beliefs of different countries, due perhaps in part to the
influence of the Inquisition, which reacted on the popular con-
ceptions, in part to real differences in the original folk beliefs. In
northern countries the witches' Sabbath never seems to assume
any importance; in Germany, in the form of the Brocket!
assembly on May Eve, it is a prominent feature, and in England
we may bring it into relation with the belief that at certain periods
of the year demons and spirits are abroad and have special
powers; ini south Europe the idea of the Sabbath seems to owe
much of its prominence to the association of witchcraft with
heresy and the assemblies of the Waldenses and others. Again,
the " evil eye " (q.v.) is especially associated with the south
of Europe; and the " ligature " (production of impotence by
magical means, often only with reference to a specified individual)
has always played a far larger part in the conception of witch-
craft than it has in the less amorous northern climes, and it is
doubtless due to this in great part that woman in this part of
Europe is so prominent in magic; in the north, on the other hand,
we find the storm-raising woman, hardly yet extinct in the north
of Scotland, already famous in pre-Christian times; we may
perhaps connect the importance of woman in Germany in part
with the conception of the Wild Hunt and the spirits who fly by
night, though doubtless other factors played their part.
Development of Ideas. In the history of European witchcraft
we may distinguish three periods: (i) down to A.D. 1230, in
which the real existence of some or even all kinds of magic is
doubted, and the various species are clearly held asunder in
secular and ecclesiastical writings; (2) from 1230 to 1430,
during which, under the influence of scholasticism, the doubts
as to the possibility and reality of witchcraft gradually vanish,
while side by side with this theoretical development the practice
of the Inquisition instils the new conception into the popular
mind and produces the impression that a great recrudescence of
witchcraft was in progress; (3) from 1430 onwards the previously
disparate conceptions became fused, at any rate in literature,
and we reach the period of witch persecution, which did not come
to an end till the I7th or even the i8th century.
WITCHCRAFT
In the first of these three periods we find (i) the conception
of the malefica, who, in common with her male counterpart,
uses poison, spells and waxen images, produces tempests, works
by means of the evil eye and is regarded as the cause of impotence,
a feature which continually called the attention of theologians
and jurists to the question of magic by the problems raised by
suits for divorce or nullity of marriage. (2) Side by side with
her, we find, this time without a male counterpart, the slriga,
frequently embodying also the ideas of the lamia and larva;
originally she is a female demon, in bird form (and in many parts
of the world female demons are specially malignant), who flies
by night, kills children or even handsome young men, in order
to eat them, assumes animal form, sometimes by means of an
ointment, or has an animal familiar, rides on a besom, a piece of
wood or an animal, and is sometimes brought into connexion
with the souls of the dead. This latter feature arises from the
gradual fusion of the belief in the striga, the Unholde, with the
kindly suite of Frau Holde, the souls for whom the tabulae
fortunae were spread. The flight through the air is so common
a feature in the savage creed that the demon-idea of the striga
in Europe can hardly be a genuine folk-belief; or, if it is, it
must have existed side by side with a similar witch-belief, of
which no traces seem to exist in the earlier literature. The same
remark applies to belief in transformation. Although the develop-
ment of the sexual element is mainly of later date and con-
temporaneous with the evolution of the Sabbath idea, the con-
cubitus daemonum was certainly not unknown to the period
before 800. This intrusion of the incubus in the domain of
witchcraft was probably due to the attitude of the church
towards magic.
Ecclesiastical and Civil Law. For the attitude of the church
to witchcraft there are three factors to be considered: (i) the
Biblical recognition of its reality; (2) the universal belief in
demons and magic; and (3) the identification of these demons
with heathen deities. The orthodox view fluctuates between
the theory that witchcraft is idolatry, a recognition of real powers,
and that it is disobedience, a superstitious following of non-
existent gods. The Biblical conception of a witch is a person
who deals with familiar spirits (Lev. xx. 20), and the express
provision that a witch should not be suffered to live (Ex. xxii.
1 8) could have left no doubt that the crime was a real one in
the Mosaic law. Although the familiar plays but a small part
in this early period, we find that the church early came to the
conclusion that witchcraft depended on a compact with demons;
in the synod of Elvira (A.D. 306) it was pronounced to be one of
the three canonical sins apostasy and punished by the refusal
of communion, even on the death-bed. Augustine lays down
(De doct. chr. n. xx.) that witchcraft depends on a pact with the
devil; at Worms in A.D. 829 the Prankish bishops declared that
the devil aided both sexes to prepare love potions, to cause storms
and to abstract milk, fruits of the field, &c.
It must not, however, be supposed that all kinds of witchcraft
were equally recognized. The inmissores tempestatum and the
poisoners by magical means were commonly recognized as real;
but the striga was usually regarded as a pure superstition. An
Irish synod (c. A.D. 800) pronounces a Christian to be anathema,
who ventures to believe in the possibility of flight through the
air and blood-sucking; Stephen of Hungary (997-1038) like-
wise distinguishes the malefica from the striga; Regino of
Priim (c. 906) concludes that the flight by night with the devil
and the goddess Diana is a delusion, the work of the devil.
Burchard of Worms (d. 1025) prescribes two years' penance
for the belief that the Unholde kill Christians, cook them and eat
their hearts, which they replace by a piece of wood, and then
wake them. Agobard and others even express doubts as to the
reality of weather-making. For those who took this view,
and even for others who, like John of Damascus, accepted the
striga, a mild attitude, in strong contrast to the later persecutions,
was the accepted policy. The Synod of Reisbach (799) demands
penance for witchcraft, but no punishment in this life. John
of Damascus, Agobard, John of Salisbury and Burchard are
equally mild.
For the church witchcraft was a canonical sin, or superstition;
for the civil law it was a violation of the civil rights of others,
so far as real results were produced. Consequently we find the
legal distinction between the malefica and the striga is equally
marked. The Frankish and Alemannish laws of A.D. 500-600
accept the former but regard the latter as mere superstition.
The Lex Salica indeed punished the striga as a murderess, but
only exacted wergeld. Rothar forbade judges to kill the striga,
and Charlemagne even punished the belief in them. The
Alemanni (A.D. 600) forbade private torture of women suspected
of witchcraft or strigism. But although witchcraft was criminal,
and we find occasional laws against sortiariae (Westfranks,
A.D. 873), or expulsions (from Pomerania, 1124, &c.), in this
period the crime is unimportant save where maleficium is com-
bined with treason and the person of the king is aimed at.
Further Development. In the second period (1230-1430)
we have to deal with two factors of fundamental importance:
(i) the elaboration of demonology and allied ideas by the schol-
astics, and (2) the institution of the Inquisition to deal with the
rising flood of heresy. At the beginning of this era the prevalent
view of the striga seems to have been that she really existed;
Caesar of Heisterbach (c. 1225) recognizes the female monster .
who kills children; William of Paris (c. 1230) agrees that
lamiae and strigae eat children, but they are allied to the dominae
nocturnae; that they are real women is a foolish belief. Scholastic
ingenuity, however, soon disposed of rationalistic objections
to human flights through the air; the ride of disembodied
spirits, led by the devil, Diana, Herodias (the Aradia of modern
Italy), &c., became the assemblies of witches to do homage to
the devil. But this fusion was not the work of the scholastics
alone; for the church, witchcraft had long consisted in the
recognition of demons. The new sects, especially the Cathars,
who held that the influenceof the devil had perverted the teachings
of Christianity, were, like the early Christians, the object of
unfounded charges, in this case of worship of the devil; this
naturally led to the belief that they were given to witchcraft.
From the 7th century onwards women and priests figure largely
in the accusations of witchcraft, the latter because their office
made the canonical offence more serious, the former because
love potions, and especially impotentia ex maleficio, are the
weapons of the female sex. With the rise and development of
the belief in the heretics' Sabbath, which first appears early
in the nth century, another sexual element the concubitus
daemonum began to play its part, and soon the predominance
of woman in magic was assured. In 1250 certain bishops
gave to the Dominican Etienne de Bourbon (Stephanus de
Borbone, d. c. 1261) a description of the Sabbath; and twenty-
five years later the Inquisition took cognisance of the first case
of this kind; from the i4th century onwards the idea was
indissolubly connected with witchcraft.
In the first half of this second period, witchcraft was still
superstition for the canon law, a civil wrong for the secular
law; later, although these ideas still persisted, all magic was
held to be heresy; its reality and heretical nature was expressly
maintained by Thomas Aquinas. Already in 1 258 the inquisitors
took cognisance of magic as heresy, and from 1320 onwards
there was a great increase in the number of cases. At first the
witch was handed over to the secular arm for execution, either
as an obstinate heretic or as the worker of evil magic; later
it was found necessary to make provision for the numerous cases
in which the offender abjured; it was decided that repentance
due to fear did not release the witch from the consequences of
her heresy.
Towards the end of the second period the jurisdiction passed
in France from the spiritual to the secular courts by a decision
of the parlement of Paris in 1391. The inquisitors did not,
however, resign their work, but extended their sphere of opera-
tions; the great European persecution from 1434 to 1447 was
ecclesiastical as well as secular. In the third period (1430
onwards) the opening of which is marked by this attempt to
root out witchcraft, we find that the work of the scholastics
and inquisitors has resulted in the complete fusion of originally
WITCHCRAFT
757
distinct ideas and the crystallization of our modern idea of
witch. To the methods of the inquisitors must be ascribed in
great part the spread of these conceptions amongst the people;
for the Malleus Maleficarum or Inquisitor's Manual (1489),
following closely on the important bull Summis desiderantes
a/ectibus (Innocent VIII., 1484), gave them a handbook from
which they plied their tortured victims with questions and
were able to extract such confessions as they desired; by a
strange perversion these admissions, wrung from their victims
by rack or thumb-screw, were described as voluntary.
The subsequent history of witchcraft may be treated in less
.detail. In England the trials were most numerous in the I7th
century; but the absence of judicial torture made the cases
proportionately less numerous than they were on the European
continent. One of the most famous witch-finders was Matthew
Hopkins, himself hanged for witchcraft after a career of some
three years. Many of his methods were not far removed from
actual torture; he pricked the body of the witch to find anaes-
thetic areas; other signs were the inability to shed tears,
or repeat the Lord's Prayer, the practice of walking backwards
or against the sun, throwing the hair loose, intertwining the
fingers, &c. Witches were also weighed against the Bible, or
thrown into water, the thumbs and toes tied crosswise, and
those who did not sink were adjudged guilty; a very common
practice was to shave the witch, perhaps to discover insensible
spots, but more probably because originally the familiar spirit
was supposed to cling to the hair. The last English trial for
witchcraft was in 1712, when Jane Wenham was convicted, but
not executed. Occasional cases of lynching continue to occur,
even at the present day.
In Scotland trials, accompanied by torture, were very frequent
in the i7th century. A famous witch-finder was Kincaid.
The last trial and execution took place in 1722.
In New England there was a remarkable outburst of fanaticism
the famous Salem witchcraft delusion in 1691-1692 ; but many
of the prisoners were not convicted and some of the convicts
received the governor's pardon (see SALEM, MASS.).
On the continent of Europe the beginning of the i6th century
saw the trial of witchcraft cases taken out of the hands of the
Inquisition in France and Germany, and the influence of the
Malleus became predominant in these countries. Among famous
continental trials may be mentioned that of a woman named
Voisin in 1680, who was burnt alive for poisoning, in connexion
with the Marquise de Brinvilliers. Trials and executions did
not finally cease till the end of the i8th century. In Spain a
woman was burnt in 1781 at Seville by the Inquisition; the
secular courts condemned a girl to decapitation in 1782; in
Germany an execution took place in Posen in 1793. In South
America and Mexico witch-burning seems to have lasted till
well on into the second half of the igth century, the latest
instance apparently being in 1888 in Peru.
The total number of victims of the witch persecutions is
variously estimated at from 100,000 to several millions. If
it is true that Benedict Carpzov (1595-1666) passed sentence on
20,000 victims, the former figure is undoubtedly too low.
Rise of the Critical Spirit. It is commonly assumed and has
been asserted by Lecky that the historical evidence for witch-
craft is vast and varied. It is true that a vast amount of authority
for the belief in witchcraft may be quoted; but the testimony
for the occurrence of marvels is small in quantity, if we except
the valueless declaration of the victims of torture; testimony
as to the pathological side of witchcraft is abundant, but affords
no proof of the erroneous inferences drawn from the genuine
phenomena. If this uncritical attitude is found in our own day,
it is not surprising that the rationalistic spirit was long in making
its appearance and slow in gaining the victory over superstition.
From the isth century onwards the old view that transformation
and transportation were not realities but delusions, caused
directly by the devil, began to gather force. Among the import-
ant works may be mentioned Johann Weier's De Praestigiis
Daemonum (1563), Reginald Scott's (c. 1538-1590) Discovery
of Witchcraft (1584) which was ordered to be burnt by King
James I., who had himself replied to it in his Daemonologie
(1597), Balthasar Bekker's Betooverde Wereld (1691), which,
though it went farther in the direction of scepticism, had less
influence than Friedrich v. Spec's Cautio crimiitalis (1631).
In France Jean Uvier defended the rationalistic view, and
Jean Bodin demanded that he should be sent to the stake for
his temerity.
Psychology of Witchcraft. Although at the height of the witch
persecution torture wrung from innocent victims valueless
confessions which are at best evidence that long-continued
agony of body may be instrumental in provoking hallucinations,
there can be no doubt that witches commonly, like the magician
in lower planes of culture, firmly believe in their own powers,
and the causes of this seem to be not merely subjective, (i)
Ignorance of the effects of suggestion leads both the witch and
others to regard as supernormal effects which are really due to
the victim's belief in the possibility of witchcraft. This applies
especially to cases of " ligature. " (2) Telepathy (q.v.) seems in
some cases to play a part in establishing the witch's reputation;
some evidence has been produced that hypnotism at a distance
is possible, and an account of her powers given by a French
witch to Dr Gibotteau suggests that this element cannot be
neglected in appraising the evidence for witchcraft. (3) Whatever
be the real explanation of the belief in poltergeists (q.v.) and
" physical phenomena " (q.v.), the belief in them rests on a very
different basis from that of the belief in lycanthropy; exaggera-
tion and credulity alone will not explain how these phenomena
come to be associated with witchcraft. On the other hand,
subjective causes played their part in causing the witch to believe
in herself. (4) Auto-suggestion may produce hallucinations
and delusions in otherwise sane subjects; and for those who do
not question the reality of witchcraft this must operate power-
fully. (5) The descriptions of witches show that in many cases
their sanity was more than questionable; trance and hysteria
also played their part. (6) It is uncertain to what extent drugs
and salves have helped to cause hallucination ; but that they had
some share seems certain, though modern experimenters have
been led to throw doubt on the alleged effects of some of the
drugs; here too, however, the effects of suggestion must be
reckoned with; we do not associate the use of tobacco with
hallucinations, but it was employed to produce them in Haiti
in the same way as hemp among the Bantu of the present day.
(7) Hallucinations occurring under torture must have tended
to convince bystanders and victims alike, no less than the accept-
ance of suggestions, positive and negative.
As regards the nature of the ideas accepted as a result of
suggestion or auto-suggestion, they were on the one hand derived,
as we have seen, from ecclesiastical and especially scholastic
sources; but beneath these elements is a stratum of popular
belief, derived in the main perhaps from pagan sources, for to
this day in Italy witchcraft is known as la vecchia teligione,
and has been handed down in an unbroken tradition for countless
generations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a short list of general works and a topo-
graphical bibliography, see Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, s.v.
Hexen "; see also W. H. D. Adams, Witch, Warlock, Magician,
PP- 378-428; G. L. Burr in Papers of American Hist. Ass. iv. 237-
266. For classical times see Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire
des antiquites, s.v. " Magia." For Scotland, see C. K. Sharpe,
Historical Account, pp. 255-262; I. Ferguson, Witchcraft Literature,
reprint from publications of Edinburgh Bibliographical Soc. iii.
For New England see Justin Winsor in Proc. Am. Ant. Soc. (Oct. 1895)
and G. H. Moore in do. N.S. v. 245-273. For France, see R. Yve-
Plessis, Essai d'une biUiographie franchise de la sorcellerie. For
Italy, see C. G. 1 -eland, Etrusfan-Roman Remains, Legends of Florence,
and Aradia; G. Cavagnari, // Romanzo dei Settimani; Folklore,
viii. 1-9; Niceforo and Sighele, La Mala Vita a Roma; E. N. Rolfe,
Naples in the Nineties. For Africa, see R. E. Dennett, Seven Years
among the Fjort, Folklore of the Fjort and At the Back of the Black
Man's Mind. For the American negro, see M. A. Owen, Old Rabbit
the' Voodoo. For India, see W. Crooke, Introduction to Popular
Religion and Folklore in N. India. For a survey of European witch-
craft up to the i6th century, see J. Hansen, Zauberwahn (1000) and
Quellen (1901). See also Graf v. Honbrock, Das Papsltum, i.;
O. Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus; Tylor, Primitive Culture.
On salves and magical plants, see E. Gilbert, Les Planies magiques;
758
WITCH-HAZELWITHER
Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte. On witchcraft and insanity,
see Hack-Tuke, History of Insanity; O. Snell, Hexenprocesse und
Geistesstorung. For a discussion of the evidence for the real existence
of witchcraft, see E. Gurney, Phantasms of the Living, vol. i. ; F.
Podmore, Modern Spiritualism, i. 13. (N. W. T.)
WITCH-HAZEL, in botany, the common name for a North
American shrub, Hamamelis virginica, known in gardens. The
clusters oi rich yellow flowers begin to expand in the autumn
before th leaves fall and continue throughout the winter. The
bark and leaves are astringent, and the seeds contain a quantity
of oil and are edible. The name is derived from the use of the
twigs as divining rods, just as hazel twigs were used in England.
Britten and Holland (Dictionary of English Plant Names, p. 247)
quote three British plants under this name: (i) Wych elm (Ulmus
montana), which, according to Parkinson (Theatr. 1403), was called
" Witch hasell," because the leaves are " like unto the leaves of
the Hasell nut " ; (2) Hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus), which, according
to Gerard, was so called in some places from its likeness to the elm or
" wich Hazell tree "; and (3) Mounta'n ash (Pyras Aucuparia).
WITCH OF AGNESI, in geometry, a. cubic curve invented
by Maria Gaetana Agnesi. It is constructed by the following
method: Let AQB be a semicircle of diameter
AB, produce MQ the ordinate of Q to P so that
MQ : MP :: AM : AB. Then the locus of P is the
witch. The cartesian equation, if A be taken as
origin and AB( = 2<z) for the axis of *, is
xy* = 4d*(2a x). The curve consists of one
branch entirely to the left of the line x=2a and
having the axis of y as an asymptote.
WITHAM, an urban district in the Maldon
parliamentary division of Essex, England, 39 m.
N.E. by E. from London by the Great Eastern rail-
way. Pop. (1901) 3454. It lies on the River Brain,
an affluent of the Blackwater, also known as the
Guith, a form connected with the name Witham. The church of
St Nicholas is principally Decorated, but retains earlier portions.
Roman bricks appear in its fabric, and premise a Roman station
in the vicinity. Surrounding the church (which stands in a high-
lying portion of the town known as Chipping Hill) there are
earthworks, possibly the remains of a fortification recorded as
made by order of Edward the Elder in 913, but perhaps of
British origin.
WITHER, GEORGE (1588-1667), English poet and satirist, son
of George Wither, of Hampshire, was born at Bentworth, near
Alton, on the nth of June 1588. He was sent to Magdalen
College, Oxford, at the age of fifteen, and remained at the univer-
sity for two years. His neighbours appear to have had no great
opinion of him, for they advised his father to put him to " some
mechanic trade." He was, however, sent to one of the Inns of
Chancery, eventually obtaining an introduction at court. He
wrote an elegy (1612) on the death of Prince Henry, and a volume
of gratulatory poems (1613) on the marriage of the princess
Elizabeth, but his uncompromising character soon prepared
trouble for him. In 1611 he published Abuses Stript and Whipt,
twenty satires of general application directed against Revenge,
Ambition, Lust and other abstractions. The volume included
a poem called " The Scourge," in which the lord chancellor was
attacked, and a series of epigrams. No copy of this edition is
known, and it was perhaps suppressed, but in 1613 five editions
appeared, and the author was lodged in the Marshalsea prison.
The influence of the Princess Elizabeth, supported by a loyal
" Satyre " to the king, in which he hints that an enemy at court
had fitted personal meanings to his general invective, secured his
release at the end of a few months. He had figured as one of the
interlocutors, " Roget," in his friend William Browne's Shepherd's
Pipe, with which were bound up eclogues by other poets, among
them one by Wither, and during his imprisonment he wrote what
may be regarded as a continuation of Browne's work, The
Shepherd's Hunting (printed 1615), eclogues in which the two
poets appear as " Willie " and " Roget " (in later editions
" Philarete "). The fourth of these eclogues contains a famous
passage in praise of poetry. After his release he was admitted
(1615) to Lincoln's Inn, and in the same year he printed privately
Fidelia, a love elegy, of which there is a unique copy in the
Bodjeian. Other editions of this book, which contained the
lyric " Shall I, wasting in despair," appeared in 1617 and 1619.
In 1621 he returned to the satiric vein with Wither's Motto. Nee
habeo, nee careo, nee euro. Over 30,000 copies of this poem were
sold, according to his own account, within a few months. Like
his earlier invective, it was said to be libellous, and Wither was
again imprisoned, but shortly afterwards released without formal
trial on the plea that the book had been duly licensed. In 1622
appeared his Faire-Virtue, The Mistresse of Phil' Arete, a long
panegyric of a mistress, partly real, partly allegorical, written
chiefly in the seven-syllabled verse of which he was a master.
Wither began as a moderate in politics and religion, but from
this time his Puritan leanings became more and more pronounced,
and his later work consists of religious poetry, and of con-
troversial and political tracts. His Hymnes and Songs of the
Church (16*2-1623) were issued under a patent of King James I.
ordaining that they should be bound up with every copy of the
authorized metrical psalms offered for sale (see HYMNS). This
patent was opposed, as inconsistent with their privilege to print
the " singing-psalms," by the Stationers' Company, to Wither's
great mortification and loss, and a second similar patent was
finally disallowed by the House of Lords. Wither was in London
during the plague of 1625, and in 1628 published Britain's
Remembrancer, a voluminous poem on the subject, interspersed
with denunciations of the wickedness of the times, and prophecies
of the disasters about to fall upon England. He also incidentally
avenged Ben Jonson's satire on him as the " Chronomastix " of
Time Vindicated, by a reference to Ben's " drunken conclave."
This book he was obliged to print with his own hand in con-
sequence of his quarrel with the Stationers' Company. In 1635
he was employed by Henry Taunton, a London publisher, to
write English verses illustrative of the allegorical plates of
Crispin van Passe, originally designed for Gabriel Rollenhagen's
Nucleus emblematum selectissimorum (1610-1613). The book
was published as a Collection of Emblemes, A ncient and Moderne,
of which the only perfect copy known is in the British Museum.
The best of Wither's religious poetry is contained in Heleluiah:
or Britain's Second Remembrancer, which was printed in Holland
in 1641. Many of the poems rise to a high point of excellence.
Besides those properly entitled to the designation of hymns, the
book contains songs of singular beauty, especially the Cradle-
song (" Sleep, baby, sleep, what ails my dear "), the Anniversary
Marriage Song (" Lord, living here are we "), the Perambulation
Song (" Lord, it hath pleased Thee to say "), the Song for Lovers
(" Come, sweet heart, come, let us prove "), the Song for the"
Happily Married (" Since they in singing take delight ") and
that for a Shepherd ("Renowned men their herds to keep")
(Nos. 50 in the first part, 1 7 and 24 in the second, and 20, 2 1 and
41 in the third). There is also in the second part a fine song
(No. 59), full of historical as well as poetical interest, upon the
evil times in which the poet lived, beginning
" Now are the times, these are the days
Which will those men approve
Who take delight in honest ways
And pious courses love ;
Now to the world it will appear
That innocence of heart
Will keep us far more free from fear
Than helmet, shield or dart."
Wither wrote, generally, in a pure nervous English idiom, and
preferred the reputation of " rusticity " (an epithet applied to him
even by Baxter) to the tricks and artifices of poetical style which
were then in favour. It may be partly on that account that he
was better appreciated by posterity than by his contemporaries.
Wither had served as captain of horse in 1639 in the expedition
of Charles I. against the Scottish Covenanters, and his religious
rather than his political convictions must be accepted as the
explanation of the fact that, three years after the Scottish
expedition, at the outbreak of the Great Rebellion, he is found
definitely siding with the parliament. He sold his estate to raise
a troop of horse, and was placed by a parliamentary committee
in command of Farnham Castle. After a few days' occupation
he left the place undefended, and marched to London. His own
I
WITHERITE WITNESS
759
house near Farnham was plundered, and he himself was captured
by a troop of Royalist horse, owing his life to the intervention of
Sir John Denham on the ground that so long as Wither lived
he himself could not be accounted the worst poet in England.
After this episode he was promoted to the rank of major. He
was present at the siege of Gloucester (1643) and at Naseby
(1645). He had been deprived in 1643 of his nominal command,
and of his commission as justice of the peace, in consequence of
an attack upon Sir Richard Onslow, who was, he maintained,
responsible for the Farnham disaster. In the same year parlia-
ment made him a grant of 2000 for the loss of his property,
but he apparently never received the full amount, and complained
from time to time of his embarrassments and of the slight re-
wards he received for his services. An order was made to settle
a yearly income of 150 on Wither, chargeable on Sir John
Denham's sequestrated estate, but there is no evidence that he
ever received it. A small place given him by the Protector was
forfeited " by declaring unto him (Cromwell) those truths which
he was not willing to hear of." At the Restoration he was
arrested, and remained in prison for three years. He died in
London on the 2nd of May 1667.
His extant writings, catalogued in Park's British Bibliographer,
number over a hundred. Sir S. E. Brydges published The Shepherd's
Hunting (1814), Fidelia (1815) and Fair Virtue (1818), and a selection
appeared in Stanford's Works of the British Poets, vol. v. (1819).
Most of Wither's works were edited in twenty volumes for the
Spenser Society (1871-1882); a selection was included by Henry
Morley in his Companion Poets (1891); Fidelia and Fair Virtue ate
included in Edward Arber's English Garner (vol. iv., 1882; vol. vi.
1883), and an excellent edition of The Poetry of George Wither was
edited by F. Sidgwick in 1902. Among A. C. Swinburne's
Miscellanies there is an amusing account of a copy of a selection
from Wither's poems annotated by Lamb, then by Dr Nott, whose
notes were the subject of further ruthless comment from Lamb.
WITHERITE, a mineral consisting of barium carbonate
(BaCOj) , crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. The crystals
are invariably twinnd together in groups of three, giving rise
to pseudo-hexagonal forms somewhat resembling bipyramidal
crystals of quartz, the faces are usually rough and striated
horizontally. The colour is dull white or sometimes greyish,
the hardness is 3! and the specific gravity 4-3. The mineral is
named after W. Withering, who in 1784 recognized it to be
chemically distinct from barytes. It occurs in veins of lead ore
at Hexham in Northumberland, Alston in Cumberland, Angle-
zark, near Chorley in Lancashire, and a few other localities.
Witherite is readily altered to barium sulphate by the action of
water containing calcium sulphate in solution, and crystals are
therefore frequently encrusted with barytes. It is the chief source
of barium salts, and is mined in considerable amounts in North-
umberland. It is used for the preparation of rat poison, in the
manufacture of glass and porcelain, and formerly for refining
sugar. (L. J. S.)
WITHERSPOON, JOHN (1723-1794), Scottish-American divine
and educationalist, was born at Gifford, Yester parish, East
Lothian, Scotland, on the $th of February 1722/1723, the son of
a minister of the Scotch Established Church, James Wither-
spoon (d. 1759), and a descendant on the distaff side from John
Welch and John Knox. He studied at Haddington, and gradu-
ated in 1739 at the university of Edinburgh, where he completed
a divinity course in 1743. He was licensed to preach by the
Haddington presbytery in 1743, and after two years as a pro-
bationer was ordained (1745) minister of the parish of Beith.
His Ecclesiastical Characteristics (1753), Serious Apology (1764),
and History of a Corporation of Servants discovered a few years ago
in the Interior Parts of South America (1765), attacked various
abuses in the church and satirized the " moderate " party. In
1757 he had become pastor at Paisley; and in 1769 he received
the degree of D.D. from Aberdeen. He was sued for libel for
printing a rebuke to some of his parishioners who had travestied
the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; and after several years in
the courts he was ordered to pay damages of i 50, which was
raised by his parishioners. He refused calls to churches in
Dublin and Rotterdam, and in 1766 declined an invitation
brought him by Richard Stockton to go to America as president
of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) ; but he
accepted a second invitation and left Paisley in May 1768. His
close relation with the Scotch Church secured important material
assistance for the college of which he now became president,
and he toured New England to collect contributions. He secured
an excellent set of scientific apparatus and improved the in-
struction in the natural sciences; he introduced courses in
Hebrew and French about 1772; and he did a large part of the
actual teaching, having courses in languages, divinity, moral
philosophy and eloquence. In the American Presbyterian
church he was a prominent figure; he worked for union with the
Congregationalists and with the Dutch Reformed body; and at
the synod of 1786 he was one of the committee which reported in
favour of the formation of a General Assembly and which
drafted " a system of general rules for ... government."
In politics he did much to influence Irish and Scotch-Irish
Presbyterians to support the Whig party. He was a member
of the provincial congress which met at New Brunswick in July
1774; presided over the Somerset county committee of corre-
spondence in 1774-1775; was a member of the New Jersey
constitutional convention in the spring of 1776; and from June
1776 to the autumn of 1779 and in 1780-1783 he was a member
of the Continental Congress, where he urged the adoption of the
Declaration of Independence, being the only clergyman to
sign it. He became a member of the secret committee of corre-
spondence in October 1776, of the Board of War in October
1777, and of the committee on finance in 1778. He opposed
the issue of paper money, supported Robert Morris's plan for a
national bank, and was prominently connected with all Con-
gressional action in regard to the peace with Great Britain.
He had lost the sight of one eye in 1784, and in 1791 became quite
blind. He died on his farm, Tusculum, near Princeton, on the
1 5th of November 1794.
There is a statue of Witherspoon in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia,
and another on the University Library at Princeton. His Essay
on the Connexion between the Doctrine of Justification by the Imputed
Righteousness of Christ and Holiness of Life (1756) was his principal
theological work. He also published several sermons, and Con-
siderations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the
British Parliament (1774), sometimes attributed to Benjamin
Franklin. His collected works, with a memoir by his son-in-law,
Samuel Stanhope Smith (who succeeded him as president of the
college), were edited by Dr Ashbel Green (New York, 1801-1802).
See also David Walker Woods, John Witherspoon (New York, 1906) ;
and M. C. Tyler, Literary History of the American Revolution, vol. ii.
(1897)-
WITNESS (from O. Eng. vritan, to know), in law, a person who
is able from his knowledge or experience to make statements
relevant to matters of fact in dispute in a court of justice. The
relevancy and probative effect of the statements which he makes
belong to the law of evidence (q.v.). In the present article it is
only proposed to deal with matters' concerning the position of the
witness himself. In England, in the earlier stages of the common
law, the jurors seem to have been the witnesses, for they were
originally chosen for their knowledge or presumed knowledge
of the facts in dispute, and they could (and can) be challenged
and excluded from the jury if related to the parties or otherwise
likely to show bias (see JURY). The Scottish jurors' oath con-
tains the words " and no truth conceal," an obvious survival
from the time when a juror was a witness.
Modern views as to the persons competent to give evidence are
very different from those of Roman law and the systems derived
from it. In Roman law the testimony of many persons _
was not admissible without the application of torture, and "*
a large body of possible witnesses was excluded for reasons
which have now ceased to be considered expedient, and witnesses were
subject to rules which have lone become obsolete. Witnesses must
be idonei, or duly qualified, Minors, certain heretics, infamous
persons (such as women convicted of adultery), and those interested
in the result of the trial were inadmissible. Parents and children
could not testify against one another, nor could slaves against their
masters, nor those at enmity with the party against whom their
evidence was offered. Women and slaves could not act as witnesses
to a will. There were also some hard and fast rules as to number.
Seven witnesses were necessary for a will, five for a mancipatio or
manumission, or to determine the question whether a person were
free or a slave. As under the Mosaic law, two witnesses were gener-
ally necessary as a minimum number to prove any fact. Unius
760
WITNESS
responsio testis omnino non audiatw are the words of a constitution
of Constantine. The evidence of a single witness was simply semi-
plena probatio, to be supplemented, in default of a second witness, by
torture or by reference to oath. The canon law followed the Roman
law as to competence, but extended the disabilities to excommuni-
cated persons and to a layman in a criminal charge against a clerk,
unless he were actually the prosecutor. The evidence of a notary
was generally equivalent to that of two ordinary witnesses. The
evidence of the pope and that of a witness who simply proved
baptism or heresy (according to some authorities) are perhaps the
only other cases in which canon law dispensed with confirmatory
evidence. It is probable that the incompetence of Jews as witnesses
in Spain in the I4th and isth centuries was based on what is termed
" want of religion," i.e. heresy or unwillingness to take the Christian
oath on the gospels. But in England until their expulsion they
were in the status of slaves (captivi) of the king. A policy similar
to that of Roman law was followed for centuries in England by
excluding the testimony of parties or persons interested, of witnesses
for a prisoner, and of infamous persons, such as those who had been
attainted or had been vanquished in the trial by battle, or had
stood in the pillory. All these were said vocem non habere. In the
days of trial by battle a party could render a witness against him
incompetent by challenging and defeating him in the judicial combat.
Women were generally regarded as wholly or partially incompetent.
English law had also certain rules as to 'the number of witnesses
necessary. Thus under a statute of 1383 (6 Rich. II. st. 2, c. 5)
the number of compurgators necessary to free an accused person
from complicity in the peasant revolt was fixed at three or four.
Five! was the number necessary under the Liber feudorum for
proving ingratitude to the lord. In one instance in old Scots law
the number of witnesses had the curious effect of determining the
punishment. By the assizes of King William, the ordeal of water
was undergone by the accused on the oaths of three witnesses; if
to them the oaths of three seniores were added, the penalty was
immediate hanging.
In the course of the gradual development of the law of evidence,
which is in a sense peculiar to the English system, the fetters of the
Roman rules as to witnesses were gradually shaken off. In civil
cases all disabilities by interest, relationship, sex or crime have
been swept away. The witness need not be idoneus in the Roman
sense, and objections which in Roman law went to his competence,
in English law go to his credibility. The only general test of compet-
ency is now understanding. It excludes lunatics, idiots, dotards
and children of tender years; a person convicted of perjury is said
to be competent if convicted at common law, but incompetent if
convicted under the act of Elizabeth. No trial ever takes place
now under this act, and on this point the act seems to have been
virtually repealed by Lord Denman's Act (1843; 6 & 7 Viet. c. 85).
The disqualification is not absolute as to lunatics; as to children it
is sometimes made to depend on whether they are able to understand
the nature of the witness's oath. And in certain cases within the
Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 and the Prevention of Cruelty
to Children Act 1904, the unsworn evidence of children of tender
years is admissible but needs corroboration.
Non-judicial witnesses are those who attest an act of unusual
importance, for the due execution of which evidence may afterwards
be required. They are either made necessary by law, as the witnesses
to marriages and wills, or used by general custom, as the witnesses
to deeds. In some cases the attestation has become a mere form,
such as the attestation of the lord chancellor to a writ of summons
(see WRIT).
The rule of English law as to the number of witnesses necessary
is expressed in the phrase testes ponderantur non numerantur. But
there are certain exceptions, all statutory. Two witnesses are
necessary to make a will valid; two are required to be present at a
marriage and to attest the entry in the marriage register; 1 and in
the case of blasphemy, perjury, personation and most forms of
treason, two or more witnesses are necessary to justify conviction.
Witnesses to bills of sale under the Bills of Sale Act 1882, and wit-
nesses on a charge of personation at elections, are required to be
" credible." And in the case of dishonour of a foreign bill of ex-
change the evidence of a notary public is required, probably a survival
from the law merchant or a concession to continental practice. A
warrant of attorney must be attested by a solicitor, and certain
conveyances of property held on charitable uses must be attested
by two solicitors. In certain civil cases the evidence of a single
witness is not sufficient unless corroborated in some material
particular not necessarily by another witness e.g. in actions of
breach of promise of marriage, or affiliation proceedings and matri-
monial causes, or where unsworn evidence of children is admissible.
In practice, but not in strict law, the evidence of an accomplice is
required to be corroborated;
The English common law in theory has never permitted examina-
tion by torture unless certain forms of cross-examination can be
so described. In trials in the court of admiralty the Roman system
was used until 1536 (28 Henry VIII. c. 15). Torture in Scotland was
abolished at the Union.
1 The provisions of the Marriage Act 1823 appear to be directory.
Non-compliance does not invalidate the marriage, but creates diffi-
culty as to its proof in other proceedings, e.g. for bigamy.
s
:to
In criminal cases an accused person could not formerly
sworn as a witness or examined by the court, though he was free
make statements. The origin of this rule is by some traced to the
maxim nemo tenetur prodere seipsum, by others to the theory that
the petty jury were the prisoner's witnesses. Moreover, witnesses
for the defence could not be examined on oath in cases of treason and
felony until 1702 in England, 1711 in Ireland and 1735 in Scotland.
The husband or wife of the accused could not be examined on oath
as a witness either for the prosecution or the defence except in pro-
secutions for treason or for personal injuries done by one spouse to
the other. This exclusion was in accord with the disqualification of
parties to civil causes; but there was a lack of reciprocity, for the
prosecutor was a competent witness because the crown is the nominal
prosecutor. The rule had to a certain extent a beneficial effect for
the defence, in saving the accused from cross-examination, which in
certain periods and in political trials would have led to abuse. On
the abolition of other disqualifications that of the accused was left.
This inconsistency led to much legal discussion and to piecemeal,
and ultimately complete, change in the law. In 1878 the Criminal
Code Commission recommended that prisoners should be allowed to
give evidence on their own behalf on oath. Since 1872 many statutes
nave been passed rendering accused persons and their husbands or
wives competent witnesses on charges of particular offences. Most
of these acts do not make them compellable witnesses.
By the Criminal Evidence Act 1898 (60 and 6 1 yict. c. 36) the
defendant, or the wife or husband of the defendant, is made a com-
petent but not a compellable witness for the defence at every stage
of criminal proceedings, subject to certain conditions, of which the
principal are that a prisoner shall not be called except on his or her
own application, and that the failure of the prisoner or his wife
or her husband to give evidence is not to be the subject of comment
by the prosecution, and that the prisoner may not be cross-examined
as to any previous offence or conviction or as to character, unless
the proof'of a previous offence is admissible evidence in the case,
or unless he or she has given evidence of his or her good character,
or cross-examined with that view, or unless the nature and conduct of
the defence is such as to involve imputations on the character of the
prosecutor or the witnesses for the prosecution. The act applies to
Great Britain but not to Ireland. It has been extended to proceed-
ings before naval and military courts-martial. This statute abrogates
the common law rule making an accused person incompetent, and
in practice supersedes most of the prior particular statutes. . But
it is necessary to observe that as to certain .offences named in the
schedule of the act and in other earlier or later acts, the husband or
wife is competent without the consent of the accused; and that
proceedings by indictment for obstruction or non-repair of public
ways, bridges and rivers are for purposes of evidence treated as civil
proceedings.
Quite apart from statute a husband or wife has always and neces-
sarily been a competent witness in criminal proceedings against the
other spouse in respect of personal injuries.
Even where a witness is competent, his statements, whether of
fact or of expert opinion, are not admissible in evidence unless he has
taken the required oath, 2 or, where he conscientiously objects to
taking an oath or by want of religion would not be bound by the oath,
has made the substituted affirmation or declaration. This question
was settled in 1888 after the entry of Mr Bradlaugh into parliament.
Unless he is duly sworn, &c., there is no enforceable sanction for
false evidence (see PERJURY). English law has gradually accepted
as sufficient any form of oath which the witness is prepared to accept
as binding on him in accordance with his religious beliefs, whether
he be Christian or Jew, Mahommedan, Hindu, Sikh or Buddhist.
At one time peers in certain proceedings testified on their honour
unsworn, but now no distinction is made except as already stated in
the case of young children.
The attestation of documents out of courts of justice is ordinarily
not on oath; but where the documents have to be proved in court
the attesting witnesses are sworn like others, and the only judicial
exception is that of witnesses ordered to produce documents (called
in Scotland " havers ") who are not sworn unless they have to verify
the documents produced. Questions as to competence (including
questions of the right to affirm instead of swearing or as to the proper
form of oath) are settled by examination by the court without oath,
on what is termed the voir dire. The evidence of judicial witnesses
is taken viva voce at the trial, except in interlocutory proceedings and
in certain matters in the chancery division and in bankruptcy courts.
Where the witness cannot attend the court or is abroad his evidence
may be taken in writing by a commissioner delegated by the court,
or by a foreign tribunal under letters of request issued by the court
in which the cause is pending. The depositions are returned by
the delegated authority to the court of trial. Under English law
evidence must be taken viva voce in a criminal trial, with a few
exceptions, e.g. where a witness who has made a deposition before a
magistrate at an earlier stage in the case is dead or unable to travel,
or in certain cases within the Merchant Shipping Acts, or of offences
in India or by crown officials out of England. In Europe commissions
2 The giving of evidence unsworn appears to have been at one
time regarded as a privilege. The men of Ripon, for instance, were
by a charter of /Ethelstan to be believed on their yea and nay in all
disputes.
WITNEY
761
vogatoires are freely used to obtain written depositions for the purpose
of criminal trials, and are allowed to be executed in England. In
England the viva voce examination of witnesses is not conducted by
tin- presiding judge but by the advocates in the cause, and the
witness is called not by the court but by the party. The court,
however, has full power to call witnesses not called by either party,
or to examine witnesses on questions not inquired into by the
advocates of either party.
The examination of a witness by the advocate of the side for which
he is called is termed " examination-in-chief " ; when by the advocate
of the other party it is called " cross-examination. " The judge, and
by his leave the jurors, are free to question the witness. But the
main duty of the judge is not himself to interrogate the witness but
e that neither side asks irrelevant or vexatious questions (see
K.S.I ". 1883, order 36, rule 38).
As a general rule competent witnesses are also compellable, except
the king; i.e. they can be required to attend the court and to take
the oath and to answer all relevant questions. But by
the statutes as to evidence in criminal cases the accused
is not a compellable witness, nor in many specified cases
is the husband or wife of the accused. The attendance of witnesses
is M.-cured in the following manner: In civil actions in the High
Court of Justice by writ of subpoena personally served with tender
of the necessary journey money (see WRIT) ; in civil actions in county
courts by witness summons; in criminal proceedings before the
High Court of Justice or a court of assize or quarter sessions by crown
office subpoena or by recognizance entered into before justices
when the accused was committed for trial. In proceedings before
justices out of quarter sessions the attendance of a witness is secured
by witness summons or if need be by arrest on warrant of a justice.
In criminal cases tender of expenses is not essential. Where a witness
refuses to attend or to be sworn or to answer, he is summarily
punishable for contempt if the court is -one of record, 1 and liable to
imprisonment if the proceedings are before a court of summary
jurisdiction. Various acts of parliament deal with compelling
appearance before committees of parliament, courts martial and
other tribunals of a special nature. The attendance of a witness
who is in custody is obtained by writ of habeas corpus ad testificandum
or by judge's order in certain cases, or by order of the home secretary
under the Prison Act 1898. A witness s expenses in a civil case are
payable by the party calling him and are included in the costs of the
cause. Scales of allowances are scheduled to the Rules of the
Supreme Court and the County Court Rules. Failure of a witness
duly summoned to attend in a civil action exposes him to liability
in respect of pecuniary damage done to the party by his absence.
In criminal cases the witness's expenses fall on the party calling him,
but in prosecutions for felony and many misdemeanours the expenses
are paid out of the local rate in accordance with scales fixed by the
home secretary (see COSTS).
A witness is privileged from arrest on civil process while he is in
attendance on a court of justice or is on his way to or from the court
(rundo, morando et redeundo). The privilege does not exempt from
arrest on a criminal charge. AH witnesses except the defendant in a
criminal case are entitled to object to answer any question put
to them in court on the ground that the answer might tend to
criminate them or to expose them to a penalty or forfeiture, or where
the question is as to the fact of adultery. The defendant in a
criminal case if sworn as a witness is not entitled to refuse to answer
questions tending to prove him guilty <5f the offence for which he is
being tried, and a witness cannot refuse to answer a question on the
ground that the answer might involve admission of a debt or subject
him to a civil action (1806, c. 37).
Witnesses are also privileged from making disclosure of matters
known to them in the following cases: (l) Public officers, as to
matters coming within their official cognizance if they can swear that
it is inconsistent with the public service to disclose them. This
applies to state secrets, and extends to jurors as to what passed among
them, and the public prosecutor; and the police on this ground
refuse to disclose the sources of information leading to prosecutions
for crime. (2) Lawyers, as to communications between themselves
and their clients, unless the communications are in themselves part
of a criminal or unlawful enterprise. English law declines to extend
professional privilege to communications between doctor and patient
or priest and penitent. In most European countries, and in many
British colonies, medical privilege is recognized as to matters com-
municated to the doctor or even discovered by him in attending the
patient. In Catholic countries confessions to a priest are sacred.
In England it is not now the practice to insist on evidence by a
minister of religion as to matters confessed to him as such. (3)
Communications between husband and wife during the marriage
have always been privileged from disclosure, and this privilege is
preserved by modern legislation (1853, c. 83, s. 3.; 1898,0. J6, s. I. d.).
It is correlative to the obligation of a witness to testify that no
action may be brought against him under English law for any
statement however defamatory, however irrelevant, and however
malicious, made by him in the course of his testimony in judicial
proceedings (Seaman v. Netherclift, 1876, I C.P.D. 546; Hddson v.
rare, 1899, i 0.8.455). The only remedy, if the statement is deliber-
ately false, is to prosecute him for perjury.
1 In ecclesiastical courts the punishment was by excommunication.
On charges of treason lists of the witnesses to be called by the
crown must be supplied to the accused. In ordinary indictable
cases there is no such obligation, but the names of the witnesses for
the crown are written on the back of the indictment ; and where the
witnesses have not been examined at the preliminary inquiry it is
now established practice to require notice to the accused of their
names, and a precis of what they will be called to prove. In Scotland
in all indictable cases a list of witnesses must be served on the
accused (the panel) (1887, c. 35), and the same rule is observed in
France. In the United States the same course is adopted where a
capital offence is charged.
Scotland. The rules as to competence of witnesses have been
made substantially the same as in England by modern legislation
(1837, c. 37, s. 9; 1840, c. 59, a. l; 1852, c. 27; 1874, c. 64). Their
attendance is procured by citation. Witnesses to produce documents
are called " havers. "
The evidence of witnesses is taken on oath (in the Scots form)
or affirmation. Their privileges are substantially the same as in
England, but they may be sued for irrelevant defamatory statements
volunteered during their evidence, the law of Scotland on this point
being the same as under the Dutch Roman law (see Nathan, Common
Law of S. Africa, 1593).
British Possessions. In India the law as to witnesses and evidence
is consolidated in the Indian Evidence Act 1872, which contains in
code form the substance of the English law on the subject. The
test of competency is understanding : " all persons shall be competent
to testify unless the court considers that they are prevented from
understanding the questions put to them or from giving rational
answers to these questions by tender years, extreme old age, disease
whether of body or mind, or of any other cause of the same kind.
A lunatic is not incompetent to testify unless he is prevented by his
lunacy from understanding the questions put to him and giving
rational answers to them' (s. 1 1 8). In criminal proceedings the
defendant is not, but the husband or wife of the defendant is, com-
petent (s. 120). Under the Indian Oaths Act (x. of 1873) Hindus or
Mahommedans or persons objecting to make an oath may affirm
(s. 6). The court may accept an oath or solemn affirmation in any
form common amongst or held as binding by persons of the per-
suasion or religion to which the witness belongs, unless it is repugnant
to justice or decency (s. 8). In the rest of the British empire the
law as to witnesses does not differ materially from that of England,
but has in most colonies been incorporated in statutes or codes (e.g.
British Guiana, Ord. No. 20 of 1893). Colonial legislation has
provided for the evidence of accused persons under conditions
similar to but not identical with those prevailing in England. In
colonies with a large native population there is from time to time a
tendency to reject the evidence of coloured witnesses against
Europeans.
United States. The rules of the United States as to witnesses have
a common origin with those of England and are on the same lines,
but in most states depend on the particular provisions of state codes.
The number of witnesses necessary for the attestation of a marriage
or will is not uniform in all the states. While slavery was lawful,
the evidence of slaves (and in some states that of free persons of
colour) was not received for or against whites. These rules appear
not to have been absolutely overridden by the I4th amendment to
the Federal Constitution, and the laws of Delaware and Nebraska
discriminate against free persons of colour. Incompetency by con-
viction of perjury or subornation is retained in federal Jaws (Rev.
Stat. 5392) and in those of a few states (see Wigmore, p.
654 n).
European Countries. In the law of most European states the
Roman law as to the competency and examination of witnesses is
more closely followed than in countries whose law is based on that
of England. In criminal cases the prisoner is not only competent
but necessary, and the whole system of procedure is inquisitorial,
beginning with interrogation of the accused, not by the state prose-
cutor, but by the president of the court. In view of this system it is
not surprising that the English conception of the rules of proof
and relevancy, known as the law of evidence, is not accepted ; since
under the continental system the person who puts the questions is
the person who has to determine their relevancy. In France con-
sanguinity and affinity to the parties disqualify a witness in civil
cases, and he is also asked whether he is employ^ or servant of the
parties (Code Civil, Proc. 262, 268). In criminal cases a like inquiry
is made. Consanguinity and affinity in the case of lineals may be
made ground of disqualification if the objection is taken, as may
pecuniary interest in the penalty (Code d'instr. Crim. 75, 322).
Husband and wife cannot testify for or against each other even after
divorce (i.). In France disability to be a witness may be inflicted
as part of the punishment on conviction for certain crimes (Code
Penal, art. 42). (W. F. C.)
WITNEY, a market town in the Woodstock parliamentary
division of Oxfordshire, England, on the river Windrush, a
tributary of the Thames, 75$ m. W.N.W. of London on the East
Gloucestershire branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 3574. The urban district was extended in
1898 to include portions of the scattered villages of Hailey and
762
WITOWT WITTE
Curbridge. Witney is the seat of an old-established industry
in blanket-making, and gloves and other woollen goods are also
made. The broad main street contains several picturesque
houses of the iyth century and later, and in it stands the Butter
Cross, supported on columns and dating from 1683. The grammar
school was founded in 1 683, and a Blue Coat Schoolin 1723. The
great church of St Mary is one of the finest in the county. It is
cruciform with a lofty central tower and spire, the latter con-
sidered to be a direct development of the early spire of the
cathedral at Oxford. The tower is Early English, but the church
exhibits the other styles, including a remarkable Norman porch.
At Coggs, in the water-meadows bordering the river immediately
below Witney, a priory was attached to the Benedictine Priory
of Fecamp, and of this there are Early English remains in the
vicarage, while the church is mainly Decorated. The foundation,
however, dates from the nth century.
The manor of Witney (Wyttineye, Wytnay, Wytney) was held
by the see of Winchester before the Conquest. It was sold in
1649, but was given back to the bishopric at the Restoration.
In the middle of the i8th century it was leased by the bishop of
Winchester to the duke of Marlborough. Witney was a borough
by prescription at least as early as 1278, and sent representatives
to parliament with more or less regularity from 1304 to 1330.
The government was by the steward and bailiffs of the bishop
of Winchester, assisted by constables, wardmen and other
officers. A woollen industry was probably established at an early
date, for there is reference to a fulling mill in a charter of King
Edgar dated 909. In 1641 the blanket-makers petitioned the
crown against vexatious trade regulations; in 1673 the town
is described as " driving a good trade for blankets and rugs."
In 1711 the blanket-makers obtained a charter making them into
a company, consisting of a master, assistants, two wardens
and a commonalty. In 1231 the bishop of Winchester received
a grant of a five days' fair at Witney at the feast of St Leonard.
In 1278 the bishop was declared to have at Witney a weekly
market on Thursday and two fairs on the day of Ascension and on
St Leonard's day. A further grant of two yearly fairs was made
in 1414 to the bishop of Winchester at his manor of Witney,
namely, on the vigil and day of St Clement the Pope, and at the
feast of St Barnabas.
See J. A. Giles, History of Witney (London, 1852) ; Victoria County
History, Oxon; W. J. Monk, History of Witney (1894).
WITOWT, or WITOLD (1350-1430), grand-duke of Lithuania,
son of Kiejstut, prince of Samogitia, first appears prominently
in 1382, when the Teutonic Order set him up as a candidate for
the throne of Lithuania in opposition to his cousin Jagiello
(see WLADISLAUS), who had treacherously murdered Witowt's
father and seized his estates. Witowt, however, convinced him-
self that the German knights were far more dangerous than his
Lithuanian rival; he accepted pacific overtures from Jagiello
and became his ally. When Jagiello ascended the throne of
Poland as Wladislaus II. in 1386, Witowt was at first content
with the principality of Grodno; but jealousy of Skirgiello,
one of Jagiello's brothers, to whom Jagiello committed the
government of Lithuania, induced Witowt to ally himself once
more with the Teutonic Order (treaty of Konigsberg, 24th of
May 1390). He strengthened his position by giving his daughter
Sophia in marriage to Vasily, grand-duke of Muscovy; but he
never felt secure beneath the wing of the Teutonic Order, and
when Jagiello removed Skirgiello from the government of
Lithuania and offered it to Witowt, the compact of Ostrow
(Sth of August 1392) settled all differences between them.
Nevertheless, subsequent attempts on the part of Poland to
subordinate Lithuania drove Witowt for the third time into
the arms of the Order, and by the treaty of Salin in 1398, Witowt,
who now styled himself Supremus Dux Lilhuaniae, even went
so far as to cede his ancestral province of Samogitia to the knights,
and to form an alliance with them for the conquest and partition
of Pskov and Great Novgorod. His ambition and self-confidence
at this period knew no bounds. He nourished the grandiose
idea of driving out the hordes of Tamerlane, freeing all Russia
from the Tatar yoke, and proclaiming himself emperor of the
North and East. This dream of empire was dissipated by his
terrible defeat on the Lower Dnieper by the Tatars on the i2th
of August 1399. He was now convinced that the true policy
of Lithuania was the closest possible alliance with Poland.
A union between the two countries was effected at Vilna on the
i8th of January 1401, and was confirmed and extended by
subsequent treaties. Witowt was to reign over Lithuania as
an independent grand-duke, but the two states were feo be in-
dissolubly united by a common policy. The result was a whole
series of wars with the Teutonic Order, which now acknowledged
Swidrygiello, another brother of Jagiello, as grand-duke of
Lithuania; and though Swidrygiello was defeated and driven
out by Witowt, the Order retained possession of Samogitia,
and their barbarous methods of " converting " the wretched
inhabitants finally induced Witowt to rescue his fellow-country-
men at any cost from the tender mercies of the knights. In the
beginning of 1409 he concluded a treaty with Jagiello at Novo-
grudok for the purpose, and on the gth cf July 1410 the combined
Polish-Lithuanian forces, reinforced by Hussite auxiliaries,
crossed the Prussian border. The rival forces encountered at
Grunewald, or Tannenberg, and there on the I4th or isth
July 1410 was fought one of the decisive battles of the world,
for the Teutonic Knights suffered a crushing blow from which
they never recovered. After this battle Poland-Lithuania
began to be regarded in the west as a great power, and Witowt
stood in high favour with the Roman curia. In 1429, instigated
by the emperor Sigismund, whom he magnificently entertained
at his court at Lutsk, Witowt revived his claim to a kingly
crown, and Jagiello reluctantly consented to his cousin's corona-
tion; but before it could be accomplished Witowt died at Troki,
on the 27th of October 1430. He was certainly the most imposing
personality of his day in eastern Europe, and his martial valour
was combined with statesmanlike foresight.
See Jozef Ignacz Kraszewski, Lithuania under Witowt (Pol.)
(Wilna, 1850); Augustin Theiner, Vetera Monumenta Poloniae
(Rome, 1860-1864) ; Karol Szajnocha, Jadwga and Jagiello (Pol.)
(Lemberg, 1850-1856); Teodor Narbutt, History of the Lithuanian
Nation (Pol.) (Wilna, 1835-1836); Codex epistolaris Witoldi Magni
(ed. Prochaska, Cracow, 1882). (R. N. B.)
WITSIUS, HERMANN (1636-1708), Dutch theologian, was
bora at Enkhuysen, North Holland, and studied at Groningen,
Leiden and Utrecht. He was ordained to the ministry, becoming
pastor at Westwoud in 1656 and afterwards at Wormeren,
Goesen and Leeuwaarden, and became professor of divinity
successively at Franeker (1675) and at Utrecht (1680). In
1698 he went to Leiden as the successor of Friedrich Spanheim
the younger (1632-1701). He died at Leiden on the 22nd of
October 1708.
Witsius tried to mediate between the orthodox theology and the
" federal " system of Johannes Cocceius, but did not succeed in
pleasing either party. The more important of his works are:
Judaeus christianizans circa principia fidei et SS. Trinitatem
(Utrecht, 1661); De oeconomia foederum Dei cum hominibus (1677,
still regarded as one of the clearest and most suggestive expositions
of the so-called " federal " theology) ; Diatribe de septem epistolarum
apocalypticarum sensu historico ac prophetico (Franeker, 1678);
Exercitationes sacrae in symbolum quod apostolorum dicitur et in
orationem Dominican (Franeker, 1681); Miscellanea sacra (Utrecht,
1692-1700, 2 vols.).
WITTE, SERGE JULIEVICH, COUNT (1849- ), Russian
statesman, was born at Tiflis, where his father (of Dutch extrac-
tion) was a member of the Viceregal Council of the Caucasus.
His mother was a lady of the Fadeyev family, by whom he was
brought up as a member of the Eastern Orthodox Church and
thoroughly imbued with nationalist feeling in the Russian
sense of the term. After completing his studies at Odessa
University, in the faculty of mathematics and physical science,
and devoting some time to journalism in close relations with the
Slavophils and M. Katkov, he entered in 1877 the service of the
Odessa State railway, and so distinguished himself in the trans-
port operations necessitated by the Turkish campaign of 1877-
1878, that he was soon afterwards appointed general traffic
manager of the South- Western railway of Russia and member
of an Imperial commission which had to study the whole
question of railway construction and management throughout
WITTELSBACH (FAMILY)
763
the empire. His speciality was an intimate acquaintance with
the problem of railway rates in connexion with the general
economic development of the country, and in 1884 he published
a work on the subject which attracted some attention in the
official world. Among those who had discovered his exceptional
ability in matters of that kind was M. Vishnegradski, minister
of finance, who appointed him head of the railway department
in the finance ministry. In 1892 he was promoted to be minister
of ways of communication, and in the following year, on the
retirement of Vishnegradski, he succeeded him as minister of
finance. In this important post he displayed extraordinary
activity. He was an ardent disciple of Friedrich List and sought
to develop home industries by means of moderate protection
and the introduction of foreign capital for industrial purposes.
At the same time he succeeded by drastic measures in putting
a stop to the great fluctuations in the value of the paper currency
and in resuming specie payments. The rapid extension of
the railway system was also largely due to his energy and
financial ingenuity, and he embarked on a crusade against the
evils of drunkenness by organizing a government monopoly for
the sale of alcohol. In the region of foreign policy he greatly
contributed to the extension of Russian influence in northern
China and Persia. Naturally of a combative temperament,
and endowed with a persevering tenacity rare among his country-
men, he struggled for what he considered the liberation of his
country from the economic bondage of foreign nations. Germany
was, in his opinion, the neighbour whose aggressive tendencies
had to be specially resisted. He was therefore not at all persona
grata in Berlin, but the German imperial authorities learned by
experience that he was an opponent to be respected, who under-
stood thoroughly the interests of his country, _ and was quite
capable of adopting if necessary a vigorous policy of reprisals.
During his ten years' tenure of the finance ministry he nearly
doubled the revenues of the empire, but at the same time he
made for himself, by his policy and his personal characteristics,
a host of enemies. He was transferred, therefore, in 1903 from
the influential post of finance minister to the ornamental position
of president of the committee of ministers. The object was to
deprive him of any real political influence, but circumstances
brought about a different result. The disasters of the war with
Japan, and the rising tide of revolutionary agitation, compelled
the government to think of appeasing popular discontent by
granting administrative reforms, and the reform projects were
revised and amended by the body over which M. Witte presided.
Naturally the influence of a strong man made itself felt, and the
president became virtually prime minister; but, before he had
advanced far in this legislative work, he was suddenly trans-
formed into a diplomatist and sent to Portsmouth, N. H., U.S.A.,
in August 1005, to negotiate terms of peace with the Japanese
delegates. In these negotiations he showed great energy and
decision, and contributed largely to bringing about the peace.
On his return to St Petersburg he had to deal, as president of
the first ministry under the new constitutional regime, with a
very difficult political situation (see RUSSIA: History); he was
no longer able to obtain support, and early in 1906 he retired
into private life.
WITTELSBACH, the name of an important German family,
taken from the castle of Wittelsbach, which formerly stood near
Aichach on the Paar in Bavaria. In 1124, Otto V., count of
Scheyern (d. 1 1 5 5) , removed the residence of his family to Wittels-
bach, and called himself by this name. Otto was descended from
Luitpold, duke of Bavaria and margrave of Carinthia, who was
killed in 907 fighting the Hungarians. His son, Arnulf I.,
called the Bad, drove back the Hungarians, and was elected
duke of Bavaria in 913. Arnulf, who was a candidate for the
German crown in 919, claimed to be independent, and openly
defied the German king, Conrad I. In 921, however, he recog-
nized the authority of Henry I. the Fowler, in return for the
right to dispense justice, to coin money and to appoint the
bishops in Bavaria. He died at Regensburg in 937, and his elder
son, Eberhard, fought in vain to retain the duchy. In 938 it was
given by the German king, Otto I., the Great, to Arnulf's brother,
Bertold I., with greatly reduced privileges. Amulf's younger son,
Arnulf II., continued the struggle against Otto I., and some-
time before his death in 954 was made count palatine in Bavaria.
This office did not become hereditary, however, and his descend-
ants bore simply the title of counts of Scheyern until about 1116,
when the emperor Henry V. recognized Count Otto V. as count
palatine in Bavaria. His son, Count Otto VI., who succeeded
his father in 1155, accompanied the German king, Frederick I.,
to Italy in 1154, where he distinguished himself by his courage,
and later rendered valuable assistance to Frederick in Germany.
When Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, was placed
under the imperial ban in 1180, Otto's services were rewarded
by the investiture of the dukedom of Bavaria at Altenburg.
Since the time of Otto I. Bavaria has been ruled by the
Wittelsbachs.
Otto died at Pfullendorf in 1183, and was succeeded in the
duchy by his son, Louis I. (1174-1231), but the dignity of count
palatine in Bavaria passed to his brother Otto, whose son Otto,
succeeding in 1 189, murdered the German king Philip at Bam berg
on the 2 1 st of June 1208. He was placed under the ban by the
emperor Otto IV., and was killed at Oberndorf, near Regensburg,
by Henry of Kalden, marshal of the empire, in March 1 209. His
lands passed to his son Louis, then only nine years old, who began
his rule in 1192. In 1208 he destroyed the ancestral castle of
Wittelsbach, the site of which is now marked by a church and an
obelisk.
At first Louis supported Otto IV. in his struggle with
Frederick of Hohenstaufen (the emperor Frederick II.), but
deserted his cause when Frederick invested his son, Otto, with
the Palatinate of the Rhine in 1214. Louis appears to have been
previously promised this succession, and to strengthen his claim
married his son, Otto, to Agnes, the sister of Henry, the count
palatine, who died without heirs in 1214. Louis accompanied
the Crusaders to Damietta in 1221, and governed Germany as
regent from 1225 until 1228, when he deserted Frederick II.
at the instigation of Pope Gregory IX. He was murdered at the
bridge of Kelheim on the i sth of September 1231, and the emperor
was generally suspected of complicity in the deed. Louis' son,
Otto the Illustrious (1206-1253), undertook the government
of the Palatinate in 1228, and became duke of Bavaria in 1231.
He was attached to the Hohenstaufen by the marriage of his
daughter, Elizabeth, with Conrad, son of Frederick II. in 1246.
He supported Frederick in his struggle with the anti-kings,
Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, and William II., count of
Holland, and was put under the papal ban by Pope Innocent IV.,
Bavaria being laid under an interdict. When King Conrad IV.
went to Italy in 1251, Otto remained as his representative in
Germany, until his death on the zgth of November 1253. He
left two sons, Louis and Henry, who reigned jointly until 1255,
when a division of the lands was made, by which Louis II.
(1228-1294) received upper Bavaria and the Palatinate of the
Rhine, and Henry I. (d. 1 290) lower Bavaria. Louis, who soon
became the most powerful prince in southern Germany, was
called " the Stern," because in a fit of jealousy he caused his first
wife.Mariaof Brabant, to beexecutedin 1256. He was theuncle
and guardian of Conradin of Hohenstaufen, whom he assisted
to make his journey to Italy in 1267, and accompanied as far as
Verona. When Conradin was executed in 1 268 Louis inherited
his lands in Germany, sharing them with his brother Henry.
In 1273 he was a candidate for the German crown, but was in-
duced to support Rudolph, count of Habsburg, whose eldest
daughter, Matilda, he married in this year. He was a great source
of strength to the Habsburgs until his death in 1294. Lower
Bavaria was ruled by the descendants of Henry I. until the
death of his great-grandson, John I., in 1340, when it was again
united with upper Bavaria. The sons of Louis, Rudolph I.
(d. 1319) and Louis, who became German king as Louis IV. in
1314, ruled their lands in common, but after some trouble be-
tween them Rudolph abdicated in 1317.
In 1329 the most important division of the Wittelsbach lands
took place. By the treaty of Pavia in this year, Louis granted
the Palatinate of the Rhine and the upper Palatinate of Bavaria
764
WITTEN WITTGENSTEIN
to his brother's sons, Rudolph II. (d. 1353) and Rupert I. Rupert,
who from 1353 to 1390 was sole ruler, gained the electoral dignity
for the Palatinate of the Rhine in 1356 by a grant of some lands
in upper Bavaria to the emperor Charles IV. It had been exer-
cised from the division of 1329 by both branches in turn. The
descendants of Louis IV. retained the rest of Bavaria, but made
several divisions of their territory, the most important of which
was in 1392, when the branches of Ingoldstadt, Munich and
Landshut were founded. These were reunited under Albert IV.,
duke of Bavaria-Munich (1447-1508) and the upper Palatinate
was added to them in 1628. Albert's descendants ruled over a
united Bavaria, until the death of Duke Maximilian III. in
1777, when it passed to the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore.
The Palatinate of the Rhine, after the death of Rupert I. in
1390, passed to his nephew, Rupert II., and in 1398 to his son,
Rupert III., who was German king from 1400 to 1410. On his
death it was divided into four branches. Three of these had died
out by 1559, and their possessions were inherited by the fourth
or Simmern line, among whom the Palatinate was again divided
(see PALATINATE).
In 1742, after the extinction of the two senior lines of this
family, the Sulzbach branch became the senior line, and its head,
the elector Charles Theodore, inherited Bavaria in 1777. He
died in 1799, and Maximilian Joseph, the head of the Zweibriicken
branch, inherited Bavaria and the Palatinate. He took the title
of king as Maximilian I.
In 1623, when the elector Frederick V. (the " Winter King ")
was driven from his dominions, the electoral privilege was trans-
ferred to Bavaria, and in 1648, by the Peace of Westphalia, an
eighth electorate was created for the Wittelsbachs of the
Palatinate, and was exercised by the senior branch of the
family.
The Wittelsbachs gave three kings to Germany, Louis IV.,
Rupert and Charles VII. Members of the family were also
margraves of Brandenburg from 1323 to 1373, and kings of
Sweden from 1654 to 1718.
See J. Dollinger, Das Haus Wittelsbach und seine Bedeutung in der
deutschen Gesckichte (Munich, 1880); I. F. Bohmer, Wittelsbachische
Regesten bis 1340 (Stuttgart, 1854); F. M, Wittmann, Monumenta
Wittelsbacensia (Urkundenbuch, Munich, 1857-1861); K. T.
Heigel, Die Wiltelsbacher (Munich, 1880) ; F. Leitschuh, Die Wittels-
bacher in Bayern (Bamberg,' 1894).
WITTEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, favourably situated among the coal-fields of the
Ruhr, 14 m. E. of Essen and 15 m. N.E. of Elberfeld by rail.
Pop. (1905) 35,841. It is an important seat of the steel industry.
Other industries are the making of soap, chemicals and beer.
Witten was made a town in 1825.
See Hassel, Wiltener Ortskunde und Ortsgesetze (Witten, 1903).
WITTENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, situated on the Elbe, 59 m. by rail S.W. of Berlin,
on the main line to Halle and at the junction of railways to
Falkenberg, Torgau and Rosslau. Pop. (1905) 20,332. The three
suburbs which adjoin the town are not older than 1817. Witten-
berg is interesting chiefly on account of its close connexion
with Luther and the dawn of the Reformation; and several of
its buildings are associated with the events of that time. Part
of the Augustinian monastery in which Luther dwelt, at first
as a monk and in later life as owner with his wife and family,
is still preserved, and has been fitted up as a Luther museum.
It contains numerous relics of Luther and portraits and other
paintings by the Cranachs. The Augusteum, built in 1564-
1583 on the site of the monastery, is now a theological seminary.
The Schlosskirche, to the doors of which Luther nailed his famous
ninety-five theses in 1517, dates from 1430-1499; it was,
however, seriously damaged by fire during the bombardment of
1760, was practically rebuilt, and has since (1885-1892) been
restored. The old wooden doors, burnt in 1760, were replaced
in 1858 by bronze doors, bearing the Latin text of the theses.
In the interior of the church are the tombs of Luther and
Melanchthon, and of the electors Frederick the Wise, by Peter
Vischer the elder (1527), and John the Constant, by Hans Vischer;
also portraits of the reformers by Lucas Cranach the younger.
The parish church, in which Luther often preached, was built
in the i4th century, but has been much altCTed since Luther's
time. It contains a magnificent painting by Lucas Cranach the
elder, representing the Lord's Supper, Baptism and Confession,
also a font by Hermann Vischer (1457). The present infantry
barracks were at one time occupied by the university of Witten-
berg, founded in 1502, but merged in the university of Halle
in 1815. Luther was appointed professor of philosophy here
in 1508; and the new university rapidly acquired a considerable
reputation from its connexion with the early Reformers. In
opposition to the strict Lutheran orthodoxy of Jean it repre-
sented the more moderate doctrines of Melanchthon. In the
Wittenberg Concord (1536) the reformers agreed to a settlement
of the eucharistic controversy. Shakespeare makes Hamlet
and Horatio study at Wittenberg. The ancient electoral
palace is another of the buildings that suffered severely in 1760;
it now contains archives. Melanchthon's house and the house
of Lucas Cranach the elder (1472-1553), who was burgomaster
of Wittenberg, are also pointed out. Statues of Luther (by
Schadow), Melanchthon and Bugenhagen embellish the town.
The spot, outside the Elster Gate, where Luther publicly burned
the papal bull in 1520, is marked by an oak tree. Floriculture,
iron-founding, distilling and brewing are carried on. The
formerly considerable manufacture of the heavier kinds of
cloth has died out.
Wittenberg is mentioned as early as 1180. It was the capital
of the little duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, the rulers of which after-
wards became electors of Saxony; and it continued to be a
Saxon residence under the Ernestine electors. The Capitulation
of Wittenberg (1547) is the name given to the treaty by which
John Frederick the Magnanimous was compelled to resign the
electoral dignity and most of his territory to the Albertine
branch of the Saxon family. In 1760 the town was bombarded
by the Austrians. It was occupied by the French in 1806,
and refortified in 1813 by command of Napoleon; but hi 1814
it was stormed by the Prussians under Tauentzien, who received
the title of " von Wittenberg " as a reward. Wittenberg
continued to be a fortress of the third class until the reorganiza-
tion of the German defences after 'the foundation of the new
empire led to its being dismantled in 1873.
See Meynert, Geschicbte der Stadt Wittenberg (Dessau, 1845);
Stier, Die Schlosskirche zu Wittenberg (Wittenberg, 1860); Zitzlaff,
Die Begrabnissstatten Wittenbergs und ihre Denkmaler (Wittenberg,
1897); and Gurlitt, " Die Lutherstadt Wittenberg," in Muther's
Die Kunst (Berlin, 1902).
WITTENBERGE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on the Elbe, near the influx of the Stepenitz
into that river, 77 m. N.W. from Berlin by the main line of rail-
way to Hamburg, and at the junction of railways to Stendal,
Liineburg and Perleberg. Pop. (1905) 18,501. The magnificent
bridge here spanning the Elbe, one mile in length, was built
in 1851 at a cost of 237,500. The chief industries are the
manufacture of railway plant, cloth, wool, soap, shoddy, furniture,
bricks and cement.
WITTGENSTEIN, LUDWIG ADOLF PETER, COUNT, prince
of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Ludwigsburg (1769-1843), Russian soldier,
was descended from a family of formerly independent counts
in Westphalia. His father had settled in Russia, and he entered
the army, distinguishing himself in the Polish War of 1794-
95, and ithen serving in the Caucasus. In 1805 he fought
at Austerlitz, in 1806 against the Turks and in 1807 against
Napoleon at Friedland and against the Swedes in Finland.
In the war of 1812 he commanded the right wing army of the
Russians. In the campaign of 1813 in January he took over
the command of the Russian army after Kutuzov's death.
But after the defeats of the Spring campaign he laid down this
command and led an army corps during the Dresden and Leipzig
campaigns, and at Bar-sur-Aube in the 1814 campaign he was
severely wounded. In 1823 he was promoted field-marshal,
and in 1828 he was appointed to command the Russian army in
the war against Turkey. But ill health soon obliged him to
retire. In 1834 the king of Prussia gave him the title of prince.
He died on the nth of June 1843.
WITTINGAU WLADISLAUS
765
WITTINGAU (Czech, TfeboA), a town of Bohemia, 95 m. S.
of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 5467, mostly Czech. The parish
church is a Gothic edifice of the I4th century, with fine cloisters;
and the LuSnic chateau, once belonging to the family of Rosen-
berg, and now to Prince Schwarzenberg, dating from the i$th
century, is reputed to contain the most extensive and valuable
archives in Bohemia. The artificial cultivation of fish, now
chiefly carp, in the numerous ponds that surround the town
dates from the i4th century.
WITU, or VITU, a sultanate of East Africa included in the
Tanaland province of the British East Africa protectorate.
It extends along the coast from the town of Kipini at the mouth
of the Ozi river (2 30' S.) to the northern limit of Manda Bay
(2 S.); area 1200 sq. m. The chief town, Witu, is 16 m. N.
of Kipini. The state was founded by Ahmed-bin-Fumo Luti,
the last Nabhan sultan of Patta (an island off the coast) , who was
conquered by Seyyid Majid of Zanzibar. Ahmed, about 1860,
took refuge in the forest district, and made himself an indepen-
dent chief, acquiring the title of Simba or the Lion. In 1885
Ahmed was induced to place his country under German protec-
tion, and in 1887 the limits of Witu were fixed by international
agreement. In 1800 Germany transferred her protectorate to
Great Britain. In the September of that year a British naval
force under Admiral Sir E. Fremantle was sent against the sultan
Bakari, who had succeeded Ahmed in 1887 and by whose orders
nine German traders and settlers had been murdered. Disorders
continued until 1894, and in the following year Omar-bin-Hamed
of the Nabhan dynasty an ancient race of Asiatic origin was
recognized as sultan. The sultan is guided by a British resident,
and the state since the accession of Sultan Omar has been both
peaceful and prosperous. The population of the sultanate is
over 15,000; of the town of Witu 6000, chiefly Swahilis. The
port of Witu is Mkonumbi (pop. 1000).
WIVELISCOMBE (pronounced Wilscomb), a market town in
the western parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England,
9i m. W. of Taunton by the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 2246. It stands on a picturesque sloping site in a hilly
district, and has some agricultural trade and a brewing industry,
while in the neighbourhood are slate quarries.
Traces of a large Roman camp may still be seen to the south-
east of Wiveliscombe (Wettescombe, Wilscombe, Wiviscombe),
which is near the line of a Roman road, and hoards of Roman
coins have been discovered in the neighbourhood. The town
probably owed its origin to the suitability of its position for
defence, and it was the site of a Danish fort, later replaced by a
Saxon settlement. The overlords were the bishops of Bath and
Wells, who had a palace and park here. They obtained a grant
of freewarren in 1257. No charter granting self-government
to Wiveliscombe has been found, and the only evidence for the
traditional existence of a borough is that part of the town is called
" the borough," and that until the middle of the igth century
a bailiff and a portreeve were annually chosen by the court leet.
A weekly market on Tuesdays, granted to the bishop of Bath
and Wells in 1284, is still held. During the i7th and i8th
centuries the town was a centre of the woollen manufacture.
WLADISLAUS (WLADISLAW), the name of four kings of Poland
and two Polish kings of Hungary. 1
WLADISLAUS I. (1260-1333), king of Poland, called Lokietek,
or " Span-long," from his diminutive stature, was the re-creator
of the Polish realm, which in consequence of internal quarrels
had at the end of the I3th century split up into fourteen in-
dependent principalities, and become an easy prey to her neigh-
bours, Bohemia, Lithuania, and, most dangerous of all, the
Teutonic Order. In 1296 the gentry of Great Poland elected
Wladislaus, then prince of Cujavia, to reign over them; but
1 In Hungarian history the Polish Wladislaus (Mag. Ulaszl6) is
distinguished from the Hungarian Ladislaus (Laszlo). They are
reckoned separately for purposes of numbering. Besides the
Wladislaus kings of Poland, there were three earlier dukes of this
name: Wladislaus I. (d. 1102), Wladislaus II. (of Cracow, d. 1163)
and Wladislaus III., duke of Great Poland and Cracow (d. 1231).
By some historians these are included in the numbering of the Polish
sovereigns, King Wladislaus I. being thus IV. and so on.
distrusting the capacity cf the taciturn little man, they changed
their minds and placed themselves under the protection of the
powerful Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, who was crowned at
Gnesen in 1300. Wladislaus thereupon went to Rome, where
Pope Boniface VIII., jealous of the growing influence of Bohemia,
adopted his cause; and on the death of Wenceslaus in 1305
Wladislaus succeeded in uniting beneath his sway the princi-
palities of Little and Great Poland. From the first he was
beset with great difficulties. The towns, mostly of German
origin, and the prelates headed by Muskata, bishop of Cracow,
were against him because he endeavoured to make use of their
riches for the defence of the sorely pressed state. The rebellious
magistrates of Cracow he succeeded in suppressing, but he had
to invoke the aid of the Teutonic Order to save Danzig from the
margraves of Brandenburg, thus saddling Poland with a far more
dangerous enemy; for the Order not only proceeded to treat
Danzig as a conquered city, but claimed possession of the whole
of Pomerania. Wladislaus thereupon (1317) appealed to Pope
John XXII., and a tribunal of local prelates appointed by
the holy see ultimately (Feb. 9, 1321) pronounced judgment in
favour of Wladislaus, and condemned the Order not only to
restore Pomerania but also to pay heavy damages. But the
knights appealed to Rome; the pope reversed the judgment of
his own tribunal; and the only result of these negotiations
was a long and bloody six years' war (1327-1333) between Poland
and the Order, in which all the princes of Central Europe took
part, Hungary and Lithuania siding with Wladislaus, and
Bohemia, Masovia and Silesia with the Order. It was not till
the last year but one of his life that Wladislaus succeeded
with the aid of his Hungarian allies in inflicting upon the knights
their first serious reverse at Plowce (27th of September 1332).
In March 1333 he died. He had laid the foundations of a strong
Polish monarchy, and with the consent of the pope revived the
royal dignity, being solemnly crowned king of Poland at Cracow
on the 2Oth of January 1320. His reign is remarkable for the
development of the Polish constitution, the gentry and prelates
being admitted to some share in the government of the country.
See Max Perlbach, Preussisch-polnische Studien zur Geschichte des
Mittelalters (Halle, 1886); Julius A. G. von Pflugk-Harttung, Der
deutsche Orden im Kampfe Ludwigs des Bayern mil der Kurie (Leipzig,
1900).
WLADISLAUS II., JAGIELLO (1350-1434), king of Poland,
was one of the twelve sons of Olgierd, grand-duke of Lithuania,
whom he succeeded in 1377. From the very beginning of his
reign Jagiello was involved hi disputes with the Teutonic Order,
and with his uncle, the valiant Kiejstut, who ruled Samogitia
independently. By the treaty of Dawidyszek (June i, 1380)
he contracted an alliance with the knights, and two years later,
acting on the advice of his evil counsellor, Wojdyllo, enticed
Kiejstut and his consort to Krewo and there treacherously
murdered them (Aug. 15, 1382). This foul deed naturally drove
Witowt (?..), the son of Kiejstut, into the arms of the Order;
but both princes speedily recognized that the knights were the
real enemies of Lithuania, and prudently composing their differ-
ences invaded Prussian territory. This was the beginning of the
fifty years' struggle with the Teutonic Order which was to make
the reign of Jagiello so memorable. He looked about him
betimes for allies against the common enemy of the Slavonic races,
and fortune singularly favoured him. The Poles had brought
their young queen Jadwiga home from Hungary, and in 1384
Jagiello sent a magnificent embassy to Cracow offering her his
hand on condition that they shared the Polish crown. Jadwiga
had long been betrothed to William of Austria; but she sacrificed
her predilections for her country's good. On the i sth of February
1386 Jagiello, who had previously been elected king of Poland
under the title of Wladislaus II., accepted the Roman faith in
the cathedral of Cracow, and on the i8th his espousals with
Queen Jadwiga were solemnized.
Jagiello's first political act after his coronation was the
conversion of Lithuania to the true religion. This solemn act was
accomplished at Yilr>a. the Lithuanian capital, on the i/th of
February 1387, when a stately concourse of nobles and prelates.
;66
WLADISLAUS
headed by the king, proceeded to the grove of secular oaks
beneath which stood the statue of Perkunos and other idols,
and in the presence of an immense multitude hewed down the
oaks, destroyed the idols, extinguished the sacred fire and elevated
the cross on the desecrated heathen altars, 30,000 Lithuanians
receiving Christian baptism. A Catholic hierarchy was imme-
diately set up. A Polish Franciscan, Andrew Wassilo, was con-
secrated as the first Catholic bishop of Vilna, and Lithuania
was divided ecclesiastically into seven dioceses. Mainly on the
initiative of Queen Jadwiga, Red Russia with its capital the great
trading city of Lemberg was persuaded to acknowledge the
dominion of Poland; and there on the 27th of September 1387
the hospodars of Walachia and Moldavia for the first time
voluntarily enrolled themselves among the vassals of Poland.
With savage Lithuania converted and in close alliance with
Catholic Poland, the Teutonic Order was seriously threatened.
The knights endeavoured to re-establish their position by sowing
dissensions between Poland and Lithuania. In this for a time
they succeeded (see WITOWT); but in 1401 Jagiello recognized
Witowt as independent grand-duke of Lithuania (union of Vilna,
January 18, 1401), and their union was cemented in the battle
of Griinewald, which shook the whole fabric of the Teutonic
Order to its very foundations. Henceforth a remarkable change
in the whole policy of the Order was apparent. The struggle was
no longer for dominion but for existence. Fortunate for them,
in Jagiello they possessed an equally cautious and pacific opponent.
Wladislaus II., in sharp contrast to Witowt, was of anything
but a martial temperament. He never swerved from his main
object, to unite Poland and Lithuania against the dangerous
denationalizing German influences which environed him. But
he would take no risks and always preferred craft to violence.
Hence his leaning upon the holy see in all his disputes with his
neighbours. Hence, too, his moderation at the peace of Thorn
(ist of February 1411), when the knights skilfully extricated
themselves from their difficulties by renouncing their pretensions
to Samogitia, restoring Dobrzyn and paying a war indemnity;
Jagiello was content to discredit them rather than provoke them
to a war & outrance. Equally skilful was Jagiello's long diplo-
matic duel with the emperor Sigismund, then the disturbing
element of Central Europe, who aimed at the remodelling of
the whole continent and was responsible for the first projected
partition of Poland.
Jagiello was married four times. At the dying request of the
childless Jadwiga he espoused a Styrian lady, Maria Cillei, who
bore him a daughter, also called Jadwiga. His third wife,
Elizabeth Grabowska, died without issue, and the question of
the succession then became so serious that Jagiello's advisers
counselled him to betroth his daughter to Frederick of Hohen-
zollern, who was to be educated in Poland as the heir to the throne.
But in 1422 Jagiello himself solved the difficulty by wedding
Sonia, princess of Vyazma, a Russian lady rechristened Sophia,
who bore him two sons, Wladislaus and Casimir, both of whom
ultimately succeeded him. Jagiello died at Grodko near Lemberg
in 1434. During his reign of half a century Poland had risen to
the rank of a great power, a position she was to retain for nearly
two hundred years under the dynasty which Jagiello had
founded.
See August Sokolowski, History of Poland, vol. i. (Pol.) (Vienna,
1903); Carl Edward Napierski, Russo-Lithuanian Acts (Rus.) (St
Petersburg, 1868); Monumenta Medii Aeri (Cracow, 1882); Karol
Szajnocha, Jadwiga and Jagiello (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1855-1856)
WLADISLAUS III. (1424-1444), king of Poland and Hungary,
the eldest son of Wladislaus II. Jagiello, by his fourth wife,
Sophia of Vyazma, was born at Cracow on the 3ist of October
1424, succeeding to the throne in his tenth year. The domestic
troubles which occurred during his minority had an important
influence upon the development of the Polish constitution;
but under the wise administration of Zbigniew Olesnicki Poland
suffered far less from her rebels than might have been anticipated,
and Wladislaus gave the first proof of his manhood by defeating
the arch-traitor Spytek of Melztyn in his camp at Grotnik on
the 4th of May 1439. On the sudden death of the emperor Albert,
who was also king of Bohemia and Hungary, the Hungarians
elected Wladislaus as their king, despite the opposition of the
widowed empress Elizabeth, already big with the child who
subsequently ascended the Hungarian throne as Wladislaus V.
But Wladislaus III., who was solemnly crowned king of Hungary
at Buda by the Magyar primate in July 1440, had to fight against
the partisans of the empress for three years till Pope Eugenius
IV. mediated between them so as to enable Wladislaus to lead
a crusade against the Turks. War was proclaimed against
Sultan Murad II. at the diet of Buda on Palm Sunday 1443,
and with an army of 40,000 men, mostly Magyars, the young
monarch, with Hunyadi commanding under him, crossed the
Danube, took Nish and Sofia, and advancing to the slope of
the Balkans, returned to Hungary covered with glory. Europe
resounded with the praises of the youthful hero, and the Venetians,
the Genoese, the duke of Burgundy and the pope encouraged
Wladislaus to continue the war by offering him every assistance.
But at this juncture the sultan offered terms to Wladislaus
through George Brankovic, despot of Servia, and, by the peace
of Szeged (July i, 1444), Murad engaged to surrender Servia,
Albania and whatever territory the Ottomans had ever con-
quered from Hungary, including 24 fortresses, besides paying
an indemnity of 100,000 florins in gold. Unfortunately, Wladis-
laus listened to the representations of the papal legate, Cardinal
Julian Cesarini, who urged him in the name of religion to break
the peace of Szeged and resume the war. Despite the repre-
sentations of the Poles and of the majority of the Magyars,
the king, only two days after solemnly swearing to observe the
terms of the treaty, crossed the Danube a second time to co-
operate with a fleet from the West which was to join hands with
the land army at Gallipoli, whither also the Greeks and the
Balkan Slavs were to direct their auxiliaries. But the Walachians
were the sole allies of Hungary who kept faith with her, and on
the bloody field of Varna, November the loth, 1444, Wladislaus
lost his life'and more than a fourth of his army.
See Julian Bartoszewicz, View of the Relations of Poland with the
Turks and Tatars (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1860); August Sokolowski,
History of Poland, vol. ii. (Pol.) (Vienna, 1904) ; Ign&cz Acsady,
History of the Hungarian Realm, vol. i. (Hung.) (Budapest, 1905).
WLADISLAUS IV. (1595-1648), king of Poland, son of Sigismund
III., king of Poland, and Anne of Austria, succeeded his father
on the throne in 1632. From his early youth he gave promise
of great military talent, and served his apprenticeship in the
science of war under Zolkiewski in the Muscovite campaigns
of 1610-1612, and under Chodkiewicz in 1617-1618. Wladislaus's
first official act was to march against the Muscovites, who had
declared war against Poland immediately after the death of
Sigismund, and were besieging Smolensk, the key of Poland's
eastern frontier. After a series of bloody engagements (Aug.
7-22, 1632) Wladislaus compelled the tsar's general to abandon
the siege, and eventually to surrender (March i, 1634) with his
whole army. Meanwhile the Turks were threatening in the south,
and Wladislaus found it expedient to secure his Muscovite
conquests. Peace was concluded at the river Polyankova on
the 28th of May 1634, the Poles conceding the title of tsar to
Michael Romanov, who renounced all his claims upon Livonia,
Esthonia and Courland, besides paying a war indemnity of
200,000 rubles. These tidings profoundly impressed Sultan
Murad, and when the victorious Wladislaus appeared at Lemberg,
the usual starting-point for Turkish expeditions, the Porte
offered terms which were accepted in October, each power
engaging to keep their borderers, the Cossacks and Tatars, in
order, and divide between them the suzerainty of Moldavia
and Walachia, the sultan binding himself always to place
philo-Polish hospodars on those slippery thrones. In the follow-
ing year the long-pending differences with Sweden were settled,
very much to the advantage of Poland, by the truce of Stumdorf,
which was to last for twenty-six years from the 1 2th September
1635. Thus externally Poland was everywhere triumphant.
Internally, however, things were in their usually deplorable
state owing to the suspicion, jealousy and parsimony of the
estates of the realm. They had double reason to be grateful to
Wladislaus for defeating the enemies of the republic, for he had
also paid for the expenses of his campaigns out of his own pocket,
WOAD WODEN
767
yet he could not obtain payment of the debt due to him from the
state till 1643. He was bound by the pacta cowienta which he
signed on his accession to maintain a fleet on the Baltic. He
proposed to do so by levying tolls on all imports and exports
passing through the Prussian ports which had been regained
by the truce of Stumdorf . Sweden during her temporary occupa-
tion of these ports had derived from them an annual income of
3,600,000 gulden. But when Wladislaus, their lawful possessor,
imposed similar tolls in the interests of the republic, Danzig pro-
tested and appealed to the Scandinavian powers. Wladislaus's
little fleet attempted to blockade the port of the rebellious city,
whereupon a Danish admiral broke the blockade and practically
destroyed the Polish flotilla. Yet the sejm, so sensitive to its
own privileges, allowed the insult to the king and the injury to
the state to pass unnoticed, conniving at the destruction of the
national navy and the depletion of the treasury, " lest warships
should make the crown too powerful." For some years after
this humiliation, Wladislaus became indifferent to affairs and
sank into a sort of apathy; but the birth of his son Sigismund
(by his first wife, Cecilia Renata of Austria, in 1640) gave him
fresh hopes, and he began with renewed energy to labour for
the dynasty as well as for the nation. He saw that Poland,
with her existing constitution, could not hope for a long future,
and he determined to bring about a royalist reaction and a
reform along with it by every means in his power. He began
by founding the Order of the Immaculate Conception, consisting
of 72 young noblemen who swore a special oath of allegiance
to the crown, and were to form the nucleus of a patriotic move-
ment antagonistic to the constant usurpations of the diet, but
the sejm promptly intervened and quashed the attempt. Then
he conceived the idea of using the Cossacks, who were deeply
attached to him, as a means of chastising the sdachta, and at the
same time forcing a war with Turkey, which would make his
military genius indispensable to the republic, and enable him
if successful to carry out domestic reforms by force of arms.
His chief confidant in this still mysterious affair was the veteran
grand hetman of the crown, Stanislaw Koniecpolski, who under-
stood the Cossacks better than any man then living, but differed
from the king in preferring the conquest of the Crimea to an open
war with Turkey. Simultaneously Wladislaus contracted an
offensive and defensive alliance with Venice against the Porte,
a treaty directly contrary indeed to the pacta conventa he had
sworn to observe, but excusable in the desperate circumstances.
The whole enterprise fell through, owing partly to the death
of Koniecpolski before it was matured, partly to the hastiness
with which the king published his intentions, and partly to the
careful avoidance by the Porte of the slightest occasion of a
rupture. Frustrated in all his plans, broken-hearted by the death
of his son (by his second wife, Marie Ludwika of Angoule'me,
Wladislaus had no issue), the king, worn out and disillusioned,
died at Merecz on the zoth of May 1648, in his $2nd year.
After his cousin Gustavus Adolphus, -whom in many respects
he strikingly resembled, he was indubitably the most amiable
and brilliant of all the princes of the House of Vasa.
See Wiktor Czermak, The Plans of the Turkish Wars of Wladislaus
IV. (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895); V. V. Volk-Karachevsky, The Struggle
of Poland with the Cossacks (Rus.) (Kiev, 1899); Letters and other
Writings of Wladislaus IV. (Pol.) (Cracow. 1845). (R. N. B.)
WOAD," a herbaceous plant, known botanically as I sails
tinctoria (natural order Cruciferae), which occurs sporadically
in England in fields, on banks and chalk-pits. The erect branched
stem, i to 3 ft. in height, bears sessile leaves and terminal clusters
of small yellow flowers; the brown pendulous pods are J in.
long. The ancient Britons stained themselves with this plant.
It is still cultivated in Lincolnshire.
WOBURN, a market town in the northern parliamentary
division of Bedfordshire, England, with a station (Woburn Sands),
on a branch of the London & North- Western railway, 2 m. from
the town and 51 m. N.W. by N. from London. Pop. (1901)
1 1 29. It lies in a hollow of a northern spur of the Chiltern Hills,
in a finely wooded locality. There is some agricultural trade, and
a little straw-plaiting and lace-making are carried on . To the west
of the town lies Woburn Park, the demesne of Woburn Abbey,
the seat of the dukes of Bedford. The abbey was a Cistercian
foundation of 1 145, but only scanty remains of the buildings are
seen in the mansion which rose on its site. This, with most
of the abbey lands, was granted by Henry VIII. to John, Lord
Russell, in 1547, who was created earl of Bedford in 1550 (the
dukedom dating from 1694). The mansion was begun in 1744;
it contains a magnificent collection of paintings and other
objects of art.
WOBURN, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
10 m. W. by N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1800) 13,499; (1900)
14,254, of whom 3840 were foreign-born and 261 were negroes;
(1910, U.S. census) 15,308. Area, 12-6 sq. m. Woburn is
served by the southern division of the Boston & Maine railway,
and is connected with Burlington, Lexington, Reading, Stoneham ,
Wilmington, Winchester, Arlington, Boston and Lowell by
electric railways. In the city area are several villages, including
Woburn proper, known as " the Centre," North Woburn,
Woburn Highlands, Curnmingsville (in the western part), Mis-
hawum (in the north-east), Montvale (in the east) and Walnut
Hill (also in the east). There are two ancient burying-grounds;
the oldest, on Park Street, dates from about 1642 and contains
the graves of ancestors of four presidents Cleveland, Benjamin
Harrison, Franklin Pierce and Garfield and a granite obelisk
to the memory of Loammi Baldwin (1744-1807). On Academy
Hill is the Warren Academy building used by a Free Industrial
School. Forest Park (53 acres) is a fine stretch of natural woods,
and there are several small parks and squares; on Woburn Com-
mon is the Public Library, by H. H. Richardson, the gift of
Charles Winn. The building houses an art gallery and historical
museum, and a library of about 50,000 volumes especially rich
in Americana. Among colonial bouses still standing are the
birthplace of Count Rumford (in North Woburn), built about
1714, and now preserved by the Rumfcrd Historical Association
as a depository for the Rumford Library and historical memorials,
and the Baldwin mansion (built partly in 1661 and later enlarged),
the home of Loammi Baldwin (1780-1838), known as " the father
of civil engineering in America." Woburn's manufactories are
concentrated within a small area. The city is the most important
leather manufacturing centre of New England: in 1905 the value
of the leather product was $2,851,554, being 61-3% of the
value of all factory products ($4,654,067); other manufactures
are chemicals, leather-working machinery, boots and shoes, glue
and cotton goods. Market gardening is an important industry.
Woburn, first settled about 1638-1640, was incorporated as
a township under its present name in 1642, and was the first
township set off from Charlestown. It then included a large
part of the present Winchester and the greater part of the
present Wilmington and Burlington, separately organized in
1730 and 1799 respectively. It was named after Woburn in
Bedfordshire by its chief founder, Edward Johnson (1590-1672),
whose work, The Wonder-Working Providence of Zion's Saviour
(1654; latest ed. 1910), was one of the earliest historical accounts
of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The leather industry was
established by David Cummings at Curnmingsville shortly before
the War of Independence. Woburn's industrial growth dates
from the construction through the township of the old Middlesex
Canal. The city was chartered in 1888.
See P. L. Converse, Legends of Woburn, 1642-1892 (2 vols., Woburn,
1892-1896) ; Samuel Sewall, History of Woburn, 1640 to 1860 (Boston,
1868); F. E. Wetherell, Two Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of
Woburn (Woburn, 1892); and G. M. Champney in S. A. Drake's
History of Middlesex County (2 vols., Boston, 1880).
WOCHUA (ACKUA), a pygmy people of Africa, living in the
forests of the Mabode district, south of the Welle. They were
discovered (1880-1883) by Dr W. Junker, who described them
as " well proportioned, though the oval-shaped head seemed
somewhat too large for the size of the body." Some are of light
complexion, like the Akka and Batwa, but as a general rule they
belong to the darker, crisper-haired, more genuine negro stock.
WODEN, a deity of the Anglo-Saxons, the name being the
Anglo-Saxon counterpart of the Scandinavian Odin (?..).
In German the same god was called Wodan or Wuotan. Owing
768
WODROW WOHLER
to the very small amount of information which has come down
to us regarding the gods of ancient England and Germany, it
cannot be determined how far the character and adventures
attributed to Odin in Scandinavian mythology were known to
other Teutonic peoples. It is clear, however, that the god was
credited with special skill in magic, both in England and
Germany, while the story of the Langobardic migration (see
LOMBARDS) represents him as the dispenser of victory. From
Woden also most of the anglo-Saxon royal families traced their
descent. By the Romans he was identified at an early date with
Mercurius, whence our name " Wednesday " (Woden's day)
as a translation of dies Mercurii. Tacitus states that the ancient
Germans worshipped Mercurius more than any other god, and
that they offered him human sacrifices. Many scholars connect
the origin of the deity with the popular German and Swedish
belief in a raging host (in Germany called das ivutende Heer or
Wutes Heer, but in Sweden Odens Jagt) , which passes through the
forests on stormy nights. There is evidence, however, that
deities similar to Woden were known to some of the ancient
peoples of central Europe, e.g. the Gauls and Thracians. See
TEUTONIC PEOPLES, ad fin. (H. M. C.)
WODROW, ROBERT (1670-1734), Scottish historian, was
born at Glasgow, being a son of James Wodrow, professor of
divinity. He was educated at the university and was librarian
from 1697 to 1701. From 1703 till his death, on the 2ist of
March 1734, he was parish minister at Eastwood, near Glasgow.
He had sixteen children, his son Patrick being the " auld
Wodrow " of Burns's poem " Twa Herds." His great work,
The History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland front the
Restoration to the Revolution, was published in two volumes in
1721-1722 (new ed. with a life of Wodrow by Robert Bums,
D.D., 1807-1808). Wodrow also wrote a Life (1828) of his father.
He left two other works in MS. Memoirs of Reformers and
Ministers of the Church of Scotland, and Analecta: or Materials for
a History of Remarkable Providences, mostly relating to Scotch
Ministers and Christians. Of the former, two volumes were
published by the Maitland Club hi 1834-1845 and one volume by
the New Spalding Club hi 1890; the latter was published in
four volumes by the Maitland Club in 1842-1843.
Wodrow left a great mass of correspondence, three volumes of
which, edited by T. M'Crie, appeared in 1843-1844. The Wodrow
Society, founded in Edinburgh to perpetuate his memory, was in
existence from 1841 to 1847, several works being published under its
auspices.
WOELFL, JOSEPH (1772-1812), Austrian pianist and com-
poser, was born in 1772 at Salzburg, where he studied music
under Leopold Mozart and Michael Haydn. After a short
residence at Warsaw he produced his first opera, Der Hollenberg,
with some success at Vienna, where it was soon followed by Das
schone Milchmadchen and some other dramatic pieces. His fame
now rests upon his compositions for the pianoforte, and the skill
with which he is said to have met their formidable demands
upon his power as an executant. The perfection of his technique
was immeasurably enhanced by the enormous stretch of his
fingers (his hand could strike a thirteenth with ease) ; and to his
wide grasp of the keyboard he owed a facility of execution which
he turned to excellent account, especially in his extempore
performances. His technique was superior even to that of the
young Beethoven, who played in company with him at the
house of Count Wetzlar, and hi memory of this exhibition of
good-humoured rivalry he dedicated to Beethoven his " Three
Sonatas," Op. 6. Quitting Vienna in 1798, he exhibited his
skill in most of the great European capitals, and, after spending
some years in Paris, made his first appearance in London on
the 27th of May 1805. Here he enjoyed a long term of popularity,
crowned about 1808 by the publication of his sonata, Op. 41,
containing some variations on " Life let us cherish." This,
on account of its technical difficulty, he entitled Non Plus
Ultra; and, in reply to the challenge, Dussek's London pub-
lishers reprinted a sonata by that composer, originally called
Le Retour d, Paris, with the title Plus Ultra, and an ironical
dedication to Non Plus Ultra. Woelfl died in Great Marylebone
Street, London, on the 2ist of May 1812.
WOFFINGTON, MARGARET [PEG] (c. 1714-1760), English
actress, was born at Dublin, of poor parents. As a child of ten
she played Polly Peachum in a lilliputian presentation of The
Beggar's Opera, and danced and acted at various Dublin theatres
until 1 740, when her success as Sir Harry Wildair in The Constant
Couple secured her a London engagement. In this, and as
Sylvia in The Recruiting Officer, she had a pronounced success;
and at Drury Lane and Covent Garden, as well as in Dublin,
she appeared in all the plays of the day to ever growing popularity.
Among Ijer best impersonations were the elegant women of
fashion, like Lady Betty Modish and Lady Townley, and in
" breeches parts " she was unapproachable. She lived openly
with Garrick, and her other love affairs were numerous and
notorious, but her generosity and kindness of heart were equally
well known. She educated her sister Mary, and cared for and
pensioned her mother. She built and endowed by will some
almshouses at Teddington, where she lived quietly after her
retirement in 1757.
See Austin Dobson's introduction to Charles Reade's novel Peg
Woffington (London, 1899), and Augustin Daly's Woffington: a Tribute
to the Actress and the Woman (1888).
WOHLER, FRIEDRICH (1800-1882), German chemist, was
born at Eschersheim, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, on the 3131
of July 1800. In 1814 he began to attend the gymnasium at
Frankfort, where he carried out experiments with his friend
Dr J. J. C. Buch. In 1820 he entered Marburg University,
and next year removed to Heidelberg, where he worked in
Leopold Gmelin's laboratory. Intending to practise as a
physician, he took his degree in medicine and surgery (1823),
but was persuaded by Gmelin to devote himself to chemistry.
He studied in Berzelius's laboratory at Stockholm, and there began
a lifelong friendship with the Swedish chemist. On his return
he had proposed to settle as a Privatdozent at Heidelberg,
but accepted the post of teacher of chemistry in the newly
established technical school (Gewerbeschule) in Berlin (1825),
where he remained till 1831. Private affairs then called him to
Cassel, where he soon became professor at the higher technical
school. In 1836 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry
in the medical faculty at Gottingen, holding also the office of
inspector-general of pharmacies in the kingdom of Hanover.
This professorship he held until his death on the 23rd of
September 1882.
Wohjer had made the acquaintance of Liebig, his junior by three
years, in 1825, and the two men remained close friends and allies
for the rest of their lives. Together they carried out a number of
joint researches. One of the earliest, if not the earliest, was the
investigation, published in 1830, which proved the polymerism of
cyanic and cyanuric acid, but the most famous were those on the
oil of bitter almonds (benzaldehyde) and the radicle benzoyl (1832),
and on uric acid (1837), which are of fundamental importance in
the history of organic chemistry. But it was the achievement
of Wohler alone, in 1828, to break down the barrier held to exist
between organic and inorganic chemistry by artificially preparing
urea, one of those substances which up to that time it had been
thought could only be produced through the agency of " vital force."
Most of his work, however, lay in the domain of inorganic chemistry.
The isolation of the elementary bodies and the investigation of their
properties was one of his favourite pursuits. In 1827 he obtained
metallic aluminium as a fine powder, and in 1845 improved methods
enabled him to get it in fully metallic globules. Nine years after-
wards H. E. Samte-Claire Deville, ignorant of what he had done,
adopted the same methods in his efforts to prepare the metal on an
industrial scale; the result of Wohler 's claim of priority was that
the two became good friends and joined in a research, published
in 1856-1857, which yielded " adamantine boron." By the same
method as had succeeded with aluminium (reduction of the chloride
by potassium) Wohler in 1828 obtained metallic beryllium and
yttrium. Later, in 1849, titanium engaged his attention, and,
proving that what had up to that time passed as the metal was
really a cyanonitride, he showed how the true metal was to be ob-
tained. He also worked at the nitrides, and in 1857 with H. Buff
carried out an inquiry on the compounds of silicon in which they
prepared the previously unknown gas, silicon hydride or silicuretted
hydrogen. A problem to which he returned repeatedly was that of
separating nickel and cobalt from their ores and freeing them from
arsenic; and in the course of his long laboratory practice he worked
out numerous processes for the preparation of pure chemicals and
methods of exact analysis.
The Royal Society's Catalogue enumerates 276 separate memoirs
written by him, apart from 43 in which he collaborated with others.
WOHLGEMUTH WOLCOT
769
In 1831 he published Grundriss der anorganischen Chemie, and in
1840 Grundriss der organischen Chemie, both of which went through
many editions. Still more valuable for teaching purposes was his
Mineralanalyse in Bcispielen (1861), which first appeared in 1853 as
1'raktische Ubungen in der chemischen Analyse. Chemists also had
to thank him for translating three editions olthe Lehrbuch of Berzelius
and all the successive volumes of the Jahresbericht into German from
the original Swedish. He assisted Liebig and Poggendorff in the
Handworterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie, and was joint-
editor with Liebig of the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacic.
A memoir by Hofmann appeared in the Ber. deut. chem. Geselisch.
(1882), reprinted in Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde
(1888).
WOHLGEMUTH, MICHAEL (1434-1519), German painter,
was born at Nuremberg in 1434. Little is known of his private
life beyond the fact that in 1472 he married the widow of the
painter Hans Pleydenwurff, whose son Wilhelm worked as an
assistant to his stepfather. The importance of Wohlgemuth as
an artist rests, not only on his own individual paintings, but also
on the fact that he was the head of a large workshop, in which
many different branches of the fine arts were carried on by a
great number of pupil-assistants, including Albert Diirer. In this
atelier not only large altar-pieces and other sacred paintings
were executed, but also elaborate retables in carved wood, con-
sisting of crowded subjects in high relief, richly decorated with
gold and colour, such as pleased the rather doubtful Teutonic
taste of that time. Wood-engraving was also carried on in the
same workshop, the blocks being cut from Wohlgemuth's
designs, many of which are remarkable for their vigour and
clever adaptation to the special necessities of the technique
of woodcutting. Two large and copiously illustrated books
have woodcuts supplied by Wohlgemuth and his stepson
Wilhelm Pleydenwurff. The first is the Schatzkammer der
wahren Reichthumer des Heils, printed by Koburger in 1491;
the other is the Hisloria mundi, by Schedel, 1493-1494, usually
known as the Nuremberg Chronicle, which is highly valued, not
for the text, but for its remarkable collection of spirited
engravings.
The earliest known work by Wohlgemuth is a retable con-
sisting of four panels, dated 1465, now in the Munich gallery,
a decorative work of much beauty. In 1479 he painted the
retable of the high altar in the church of St Mary at Zwickau,
which still exists, receiving for it the large sum of 1400 gulden.
One of his finest and largest works is the great retable painted
for the church of the Austin friars at Nuremberg, now moved
into the museum; it consists of a great many panels, with figures
of those saints whose worship was specially popular at Nuremberg.
In 1501 Wohlgemuth was employed to decorate the town hall
at Goslar with a large series of paintings; some on the ceiling
are on panel, and others on the walls are painted thinly in tempera
on canvas. As a portrait-painter he enjoyed much repute,
and some of his works of this class are very admirable for their
realistic vigour and minute finish. Outside Germany Wohl-
gemuth's paintings are scarce: the Royal Institution at Liverpool
possesses two good examples " Pilate washing his Hands," and
" The Deposition from the Cross," parts probably of a large altar-
piece. During the last ten years of his life Wohlgemuth appears
to have produced little by his own hand. One of his latest
paintings is the retable at Schwabach, executed in 1508, the
contract for which still exists. He died at Nuremberg in
1519-
See the reproductions in Die Gemdlde von Diirer und Wohlgemuth,
by Riehl and Thode (Nuremberg, 1889-1895).
WOKING, a market town in the Chertsey parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 24 m. S.W. of London by the
London and South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1891) 9786; (1901) 16,244. The river Wey and the Basing-
stoke canal pass through the parish. St Peter's church dates
from the I3th century. Modern structures include a public
hall, and an Oriental institute (in the building erected for the
Royal Dramatic College, including a museum of Eastern anti-
quities, a mosque, and residences for Orientals). In the vicinity
are the Surrey county asylum and a female convict prison.
Near Woking is Brookwood cemetery, belonging to the London
Necropolis Company, with a crematorium.
XXVHI. 25
WOKINGHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the
Wokingham parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 36 m.
W. by S. of London by the South-Western railway, served also
by the South.-Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. (1001) 3551.
It lies on a slight eminence above a valley tributary to that of the
river Loddon, in a well-wooded district on the outskirts of the
former royal forest of Windsor. The church of St Laurence is
Perpendicular, greatly altered by restoration. Two miles west of
the town is the village of Bearwood. The trade of Wokingham
is principally agricultural. The borough is under a mayor, 4
aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 557 acres.
Wokingham (Wokyngham, Oakingham, Ockingham), which was
within the limits of Windsor Forest, was formerly situated partly in
Berkshire and partly in a detached piece of Wiltshire, which is now
annexed to Berkshire; the Berkshire portion of the town was in the
manor of Sonning, which was held by the bishops of Salisbury from
before the Conquest until the reign of Elizabeth. The earliest
existing charter to Wokingham is that of Elizabeth (1583), which
recites and confirms some ancient customary privileges respecting
the election of an alderman and other corporate officers. The
governing charter for more than 250 years was that of James I.
(1612), incorporating it as a free town under the title of the " Alder-
man and Burgesses of the Town of Wokingham in the Counties of
Berks and Wilts." Under the provisions ofthe Municipal Corpora-
tions Act of 1882 a new charter of incorporation was granted, in-
stituting a municipal body to consist of a mayor, 4 aldermen and
12 councillors. Wokingham was assessed at 50 for ship-money,
Reading being assessed at 220. It had at this time a manufacture
of silk stockings, which flourished as early as 1625, and survived up
to the igth century. The town shared in the benefactions of Laud,
whose father was born there. The Tuesday market, which is still
held and which, during the first half of the iQth century, was famous
for poultry, was granted to the bishop of Salisbury by Henry III.
(1219), who also granted (1258) two annual fairs to be held on the
vigil, day and morrow of St Barnabas and All Saints respectively;
the latter is still kept up, the former appears in the list of fairs held
in 1792.
WOLCOT, JOHN (1738-1819), English satirist and poet,
known under the pseudonym of PETER PINDAR, was the son of
Alexander Wolcot, surgeon at Dodbrooke, adjoining Kingsbridge,
in Devonshire, and was baptized there on the 9th of May 1738.
He was educated at Kingsbridge free school, at the Bodmin
and Liskeard grammar schools, and in France. For seven years
he was apprenticed to his uncle, John Wolcot, a surgeon at
Fowey, and he took his degree of M.D. at Aberdeen in 1767. In
1769 he was ordained, and went to Jamaica with his uncle's
patient, Sir William Trelawny, the new governor. In 1772 he
became incumbent of Vere, Jamaica, but on the death of his
patron (nth of December 1772) he returned to England, and
settled as a physician at Truro. In 1 781 Wolcot went to London,
and took with him the young Cornish artist, John Opie, whose
talents in painting he had been the first to recognize. Before
they left Cornwall Opie apparently made a rash engagement to
share his profits with Wolcot, but a breach between them
occurred soon after they settled in London. Wolcot had already
achieved some success in a Supplicating Epistle to the Reviewers
(1778), and after his settlement in London he threw off with
marvellous rapidity a succession of pungent satires. Geogre III.
was his favourite subject of ridicule, and his peculiarities were
described or distorted in The Lousiad (1785), Peeps at St James's
(1787) and The Royal Visit to Exeter. Two of Wolcot's happiest
satires on the " farmer king " depicted the royal survey of
Whitbread's brewery, and the king's naive wonder how the
apples got into the apple dumplings. In his Expostulatory Odes
(1789) he eulogized the prince of Wales. BosweU's biography of
Johnson was ridiculed in An Epistle to James Harwell (1786),
and in the same year followed another piece, called Bozzy and
Pioszi. Other subjects were found in Sir Joseph Banks and
the Emperor of Morocco (1790), and a Complimentary Epistle
to James Bruce (1790). Among his early satires were Lyric Odes
to the Academicians (1782), and another series on the same subject
Farewell Odes (1786). He specially attacked Benjamin West,
but expressed great admiration for the landscapes of Gains-
borough and Richard Wilson. Wolcot was himself no mean
artist, and in 1797 appeared Six Picturesque Views from Paintings
by Peter Pindar, engraved by Alken. In 1793 he disposed of
his works to the booksellers for an annuity of 250. His
yyo
WOLCOTT WOLF, F. A.
various pieces were published in 1796 in four octavo volumes
and often reprinted. Wolcot cared little whether he hit above
or below the belt, and the gross vituperation he indulged in
spoils much of his work for present-day readers; but he had a
broad sense of humour, a keen eye for the ridiculous, and great
felicity of imagery and expression. Some of his serious pieces
his rendering of Thomas Warton's epigram on Sleep and his Lord
Gregory, for example reveal an unexpected fund of genuine
tenderness. In William Gifford, who attacked him in the
Epistle to P. Pindar, he for once met with more than his match.
Wolcot made a personal assault on his enemy in Wright's shop
in Piccadilly, but Gifford was too quick for him, and Wolcot was
soundly thrashed. He died at Latham Place, Somers Town,
London, on the I4th of January 1819, and seven days later was
buried, as he had desired, near Samuel Butler, the author of
Hudibras, in St Paul's, Covent Garden.
Polwhele, the Cornish historian, was well acquainted with Wolcot
in his early life, and the best account of his residence in the west
is found in vol. i. of Polwhele's Traditions and in Polwhele's
Biographical Sketches, vol. ii. Cyrus Redding was a frequent
visitor at the old man's house, and has described Wolcot's later
days in his Past Celebrities, vol. i., and his Fifty Years' Recollections,
vols. i. and ii.
WOLCOTT, ROGER (1670-1767), American administrator,
was born in Windsor, Connecticut, on the 4th of January 1679,
the son of Simon Wolcott (d. 1687). He was a grandson of Henry
Wolcott (1578-1655) of Galdon Manor, Tolland, Somerset,
who emigrated to New England in 1628, assisted John Mason
and others to found Windsor, Conn., in 1635, and was a member
of the first General Assembly of Connecticut in 1637 and of the
House of Magistrates from 1643 to his death. 1 Roger Wolcott
was early apprenticed to a weaver and throve at this trade; he
was a member of the Connecticut General Assembly in 1709, one
of the Bench of Justices in 1710, commissary of the Connecticut
forces in the expedition of 1711 against Canada, a member of the
Council in 1714, judge of the county court in 1721 and of the
superior court in 1732, and deputy-governor and chief-justice
of the superior court in 1741. He was second in command to Sir
William Pepperrell, with rank of major-general in the expedition
(1745) against Louisbourg, and was governor of Connecticut in
1751-1754. He died in what is now East Windsor, on the
I7th of May 1767.
He wrote Poetical Meditations (1725), an epic on The Agency of
the Honourable John Winthrop in the Court of King Charles the Second
(printed in pp. 262-298 of vol. iv., series i, Collections of Massachusetts
Historical Society), and a pamphlet to prove that " the New England
Congregational churches are and always have been consociated
churches." His Journal at the Siege of Louisbourg is printed in
pp. 131-161 of vol. i. (1860) of the Collections of the Connecticut
Historical Society.
His son, ERASTUS WOLCOTT (1722-1793) was a member of
the Connecticut General Assembly and its speaker; he was a
brigadier-general of Connecticut militia in the War of Inde-
pendence, and afterwards a judge of the Superior Court of
Connecticut.
Another son, OLIVER WOLCOTT (1726-1797), graduated at
Yale in 1747 and studied medicine with his brother Alexander
(1712-1795). In 1751 he was made sheriff of the newly estab-
lished Litchfield county and settled in Litchfield, where he
practised law. He was a member of the Council in 1774-1786
and of the Continental Congress in 1775-1776, 1778 and 1780-
1784. Congress made him a commissioner of Indian affairs for
the Northern Department in 1775, and during the early years
of the War of Independence he was active in raising militia in
Connecticut. He was one of the signers of the Declaration of
Independence; commanded Connecticut militia that helped to
defend New York City in August 1776; in 1777 organized more
Connecticut volunteers and took part in the last few days of
the campaign against General John Burgoyne; and in 1779
commanded the militia during the British invasion of Con-
necticut. In 1784, as one of the commissioners of Indian affairs
for the Northern Department, he negotiated the treaty of Fort
Stanwix (22nd Oct.) settling the boundaries of the Six Nations.
1 Henry Wolcott the younger (d. 1680) was one of the patentees
of Connecticut under the charter of 1662.
In 1786-1796 he was lieutenant-governor of Connecticut,
in November 1787 was a member of the Connecticut Convention
which ratified the Federal Constitution ; he became governor in
1796 upon the death (i5th Jan.) of Samuel Huntington, and
served until his death on the ist of December 1797.
See the sketch by his son Oliver in Sanderson's Biography of i...
Signers of the Declaration of Independence (Philadelphia, 1820-1827).
Oliver's son, OLIVER WOLCOTT, jun. (1760-1833), graduated
at Yale in 1778, studied law in Litchfield under Judge Tapping
Reeve, and was admitted to the bar in 1781. With Oliver
Ellsworth he was appointed (May 1784) a commissioner to adjust
the claims of Connecticut against the United States. In 1788
he was made comptroller of public accounts of Connecticut;
in the next year was appointed auditor of the Federal Treasury;
in June 1791 became comptroller of the Treasury, and in February
1795 succeeded Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury.
At the end of 1800 he resigned after a bitter attack by the
Democratic-Republican press, against which he defended himself
in an Address to the People of the United States. In 1801-1802
he was judge of the Circuit Court of the Second District (Connecti-
cut, Vermont and New York), and then entered business in New
York City, where he was president of the short-lived Merchants'
Bank (1803) and president (1812-1814) of the Bank of North
America. With a brother he then founded factories at Wolcott-
ville (near Litchfield). He re-entered politics as a leader of the
" Toleration Republicans," attempting to oust the Congregational
clergy from power by adopting a more liberal constitution in
place of the charter; he was defeated for governor in 1815,
but in 1817 presided over the state convention which adopted
a new constitution, and in the same year was elected governor,
serving until 1827. He died hi New York City on the ist of
June 1833.
His grandson, George Gibbs (1815-1873), in 1846 edited Memoirs
of the Administration of Washington and John Adams . . . from the
Papers of Oliver Wolcott, Secretary of the Treasury. Wolcott wrote
British Influence on the Affairs of the United States Proved and Ex-
plained (1804).
A grandson of the second Oliver's brother Frederick was
ROGER WOLCOTT (1847-1901), who graduated at Harvard in
1870, and was admitted to the Suffolk bar in 1874. He practised
law in Boston, and served in the Massachusetts House of Repre-
sentatives in 1882-1884 as a Republican. In 1892 he was elected
lieutenant-governor (re-elected 1893 and 1895), and in 1896
became acting-governor upon the death (sth March) of Governor
Frederick T. Greenhalge. He was elected governor in 1896
and served until 1900. He died on the 2ist of December 1901.
EDWARD OLIVER W T OLCOTT (1848-1005), a member of the same
family ,went to Colorado, became interested in silver mining there,
was a U.S. Senator in 1889-1901, and was a prominent Republican
bimetallist.
See William Lawrence, Roger Wolcott [1847-1901] (Boston, 1902),
and for all the family, Samuel Wolcott, Memorial of Henry Wolcott,
one of the first Settlers of Windsor, Connecticut, arid of some of his
Descendants (New York, 1881).
WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1750-1824), German philo
legist and critic, was born on the isth of February 1759 at
Hainrode, a little village not far from Nordhausen, in the provinc
of Hanover. His father was the village schoolmaster and organist.
In time the family removed to Nordhausen, and there young
Wolf went to the grammar school, where he soon acquired all
the Latin and Greek that the masters could teach him, beside
learning French, Italian, Spanish and music. The precocity
of his attainments was only equalled by the force of will and
confidence in his own powers which characterized him throughout
life. After two years of solitary study, at the age of eighteen,
Wolf went (1777) to the university of Gottingen. His first act
there was a prophecy one of those prophecies which spring
from the conscious power to bring about their fulfilment. He
had to choose his " faculty," and chose one which then existed
only in his own mind, the faculty of " philology." What is even
more remarkable, the omen was accepted. He carried his point,
and was enrolled as he desired. C. G. Heyne was then the chief
ornament of Gottingen, and Wolf and he were not on good terms.
Heyne excluded him from his lectures, and brusquely condemned
WOLF, H.
771
Wolf's views on Homer. Wolf, however, pursued his studies
in the university library, from which he borrowed with his old
avidity. During 1779-1783 Wolf was a schoolmaster, first at
Ilfeld, then at Osterode. His success as a teacher was striking,
and he found time to publish an edition of the Symposium of
Plato, which excited notice, and led to his promotion (1783)
to a chair in the Prussian university of Halle. The moment
was a critical one in the history of education. The literary
impulse of the Renaissance was almost spent; scholarship had
become dry and trivial. A new school, that of Locke and
Rousseau, sought to make teaching more modern and more
human, but at the sacrifice of mental discipline and scientific
aim. Wolf was eager to throw himself into the contest on the
side of antiquity. In Halle (1783-1807), by the force of his will
and the enlightened aid of the ministers of Frederick the Great,
he was able to carry out his long-cherished ideas and found the
science of philology. Wolf defined philology broadly as " know-
ledge of human nature as exhibited in antiquity." The matter
of such a science, he held, must be sought in the history and
education of some highly cultivated nation, to be studied in
written remains, works of art, and whatever else bears the stamp
of national thought or skill. It has therefore to do with both
history and language, but primarily as a science of interpretation,
in which historical facts and linguistic facts take their place in
an organic whole. Such was the ideal which Wolf had in his
mind when he established the philological seminarium at Halle.
Wolf's writings make little show in a library, and were always
subordinate to his teaching. During his time at Halle he pub-
lished his commentary on the Leptines of Demosthenes (1789)
which suggested to his pupil, Aug. Boeckh, the Public Economy
of Athens and a little later the celebrated Prolegomena to Homer
(1795). This book, the work with which his name is chiefly
associated, was thrown off in comparative haste to meet an
immediate need. It has all the merits of a great piece of oral
teaching command of method, suggestiveness, breadth of view.
The reader does not feel that he has to do with a theory, but with
great ideas, which are left to bear fruit in his mind (see HOMER).
The publication led to an unpleasant polemic with Heyne,
who absurdly accused him of reproducing what he had heard
from him at Gottingen.
The Halle professorship ended tragically, and with it the happy
and productive period of Wolf's life. He was swept away, and
his university with him, by the deluge of the French invasion.
A painful gloom oppressed his remaining years (1807-1824),
which he spent at Berlin. He became so fractious and intolerant
as to alienate some of his warmest friends. He gained a place
in the department of education, through the exertions of W.
von Humboldt. When this became unendurable, he once more
took a professorship. But he no longer taught with his old
success; and he wrote very little. His most finished work,
the Darslellung der Allerlhumswissenschaft, though published
at Berlin (1807), belongs essentially to the Halle time. At
length his health gave way. He was advised to try the south
of France. He got as far as Marseilles, and, dying there on the
8th of August 1824, was laid in the classic soil of that ancient
Hellenic city.
Mark Pattison wrote an admirable sketch of Wolf's life and work
in the North British Review of June 1865, reproduced in his Essays
(1889); see also J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. iii. (1008),
pp. 51-60. Wolf's Kleine Schriften were edited by G. Bernhardy
(Halle, 1869). Works not included are the Prolegomena, the Letters
to Heyne (Berlin, 1797), the commentary on the Leptines (Halle,
1789) and a translation of the Clouds of Aristophanes (Berlin, 1811).
To these must be added the Vorlesungen on Iliad i.-iv., taken from
the notes of a pupil and edited by Usteri (Bern, 1830). (D. B. M.)
WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903), German composer, was born on
the I3th of March 1860 at Windischgraz in Styria. His father,
who was in the leather trade, was a keen musician. From him
Hugo learned the rudiments of the piano and the violin. After
an unhappy school life, in which he showed little aptitude for
anything but music, he went in 1875 to the Conservatoire. He
appears to have learned very little there, and was dismissed in
1877 because of a practical joke in the form of a threatening
letter to the director, for which he was perhaps unjustly held
responsible. From the age of seventeen he had to depend upon
himself for his musical training. By giving lessons on the piano
and with occasional small help from his father he managed to
live for several years in Vienna, but it was a life of extreme
hardship and privation, for which his delicate constitution and
his proud, sensitive and nervous temperament were particularly
ill-suited. In 1884 he became musical critic to the Salonblatt,
a Viennese society paper, and contrived by his uncompromisingly
trenchant and sarcastic style to win a notoriety which was not
helpful to his future prospects. His ardent discipleship of
Wagner was unfortunately linked with a bitter opposition to
Brahms, for whose works he always retained an ineradicable
dislike. The publication at the end of 1887 of twelve of his songs
seems to have definitely decided the course of his genius, for
about this time he retired from the Salonblatt, and resolved to
devote his whole energies to song-composition. The nine years
which followed practically represent his life as a composer. They
were marked by periods of feverish creative activity, alternating
with periods of mental and physical exhaustion, during which he
was sometimes unable even to bear the sound of music. By the
end of 1891 he had composed the bulk of his works, on which his
fame chiefly rests, 43 Morike Lieder, 20 Eichendorff Lieder,
51 Goethe Lieder, 44 Lieder from Geibel and Heyse's Spanisches
Liederspiel, and 22 from Heyse's Italienisches Liederbuch, a
second part consisting of 24 songs being added in 1896. Besides
these were 13 settings of lyrics by different authors, incidental
music to Ibsen's Fest auf Solhaug, a few choral and instrumental
works, an opera in four acts, Der Corregidor, successfully produced
at Mannheim in June 1896, and finally settings of three sonnets
by Michelangelo in March 1897. In September of this year the
malady which had long threatened descended upon him; he
was placed in an asylum, released in the following January, only
to be immured again some months later by his own wish, after
an attempt to drown himself in the Traunsee. Four painful years
elapsed before his death on the 22nd of February 1003. Apart
from his works and the tragedy of his last years there is little
in Wolf's life to distinguish it from that of other struggling and
unsuccessful musicians. His touchy and difficult temperament
perpetually stood in the way of worldly success. What little hp
obtained was due to the persevering efforts of a small band of
friends, critics and singers, to make his songs known, to the
support of the Vienna Wagner- Verein, and to the formation in
1895 of the Hugo- Wolf- Verein in Berlin. No doubt it was also
a good thing for his reputation that the firm of Schott undertook
in 1891 the publication of his songs, but the financial result after
five years amounted to 85 marks 35 pfennigs (about 4, IDS.).
He lived in cheap lodgings till in 1896 the generosity of his friends
provided him with a house of his own, which he enjoyed for one
year.
Among the song composers who have adopted the modern
standpoint, according to which accepted canons of beauty and
of form must yield if they interfere with a closer or more vivid
realization of dramatic or emotional expression, Wolf holds a
place in which he has no rival, not because of the daring origin-
ality of his methods and the remarkable idiosyncrasies of his
style, but because these are the direct outcome of rare poetical
insight and imaginative power. He has that gift of vision which
makes the difference between genius and talent. His frequent
adoption of a type of song built upon a single phrase or leit-motiv
in the accompaniment has led to the misleading statement that
his work represents merely the transference of Wagnerian
principles to song. In reality the forms of Wolf's songs vary as
widely as those of the poems which he set. No less remarkable
is the immense range of style at his command. But with Wolf
methods of form and style are so inseparably linked with the
poetical conceptions which they embody, that they can hardly
be considered apart. His place among the greatest song-writers
is due to the essential truth and originality of his creations, and
to the vivid intensity with which he has presented them. These
results depend not merely on musical gifts that are exceptional,
but also upon a critical grasp of poetry of the highest order.
772
No other composer has exhibited so scrupulous a reverence for
the poems which he set. To displace an accent was for him as
heinous an act of sacrilege as to misinterpret a conception or to
ignore an essential suggestion. Fineness of declamation has
never reached a higher point than in Wolf's songs. Emphasis
should also be kid upon the objective and dramatic attitude of
his mind. He preferred to make himself the mouthpiece of the
poetry rather than to use his art for purposes of self-revelation,
avoiding for his songs the works of those whom with healthy
scorn he termed the Ich-Poeten. Hence the men and women
characterized in his songs are living realities, forming a veritable
portrait gallery, of which the figures, though unmistakably, the
work of a single hand, yet maintain their own separate identity.
These statements can be verified as well by a reference to the
simpler and more melodious of his songs, as to those which are
of extreme elaboration and difficulty. Among the former may
be named Das verlassene Magdlein in der Friihe and Der Gartner
(Morike), Verschwiegene Liebe and Der Musikant (Eichendorfi),
Anakreons Grab (Goethe), Alle gingen, Herz, zur Ruh' and Herz,
wasfragst (Spanisches Lieder spiel) , Nos. i and 4 of the Italienisches
Liederbuck, and among the latter Aeolsharfe and Der Feuerreiler
(Morike) , Ganymed and Prometheus (Goethe) . (W. A. J. F.)
WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899), Anglo-German artist, the son
of a German farmer, was born in 1820 at Miinstermaifeld, on the
river Moselle, in the Rhine Province. In his boyhood he was an
assiduous student cf bird and animal life, and showed a remark-
able capacity as a draughtsman of natural history subjects. His
powers were first recognized by Professor Schlegel of the Leiden
museum, who gave him employment as an illustrator. In 1848
he settled in London, where he remained till his death on the
20th of April 1899. He made many drawings for the Zoological
Society, and a very large number of illustrations for books on
natural history and on travel in various countries; but he also
won a considerable success as a painter.
See A. H. Palmer, The Life of Joseph Wolf (London, 1895).
WOLF (Canis lupus), the common English name for any wild
member of the typical section of the genus Canis (see CARNIVORA) .
Excluding some varieties of domestic dogs, wolves are the largest
members of the genus, and have a wide geographical range,
extending over nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, and North
America from Greenland to Mexico, but are not found in South
America or Africa, where they are replaced by other members
of the family. They present great diversities of size, length
and thickness of fur, and coloration, although resembling each
other in all important structural characters. These differences
have given rise to a supposed multiplicity of species, expressed
by the names C. lycaon (Central Europe), C. laniger and C. niger
(Tibet), the C. occidentalis, C. nubttus, C. mexicanus, &c., of
North America, and the great blackish-brown Alaskan C.
pambasileus, the largest of them all. But it is doubtful whether
these should be regarded as more than local varieties. In North
America there is a second distinct smaller species, called the
coyote or prairie-wolf (Canis latrans), and perhaps the Japanese
wolf (C. hodophylax) may be distinct, although, except for its
smaller size and shorter legs, it is scarcely distinguishable from
the common species. The wolf enters the N.W. corner of India,
but in the peninsula is replaced by the more jackal-like C. pallipes,
which is probably a member of the jackal group, and not a wolf
at all.
The ordinary colour of the wolf is yellowish or fulvous grey,
but almost pure white and entirely black wolves are known.
In northern countries the fur is longer and thicker, and the animal
generally larger and more powerful than in the southern portion
of its range. Its habits are similar everywhere and it is still,
and has been from time immemorial, especially known to man
in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of sheep flocks.
Wolves do not catch their prey by lying in ambush, or stealing up
close and making a sudden spring, but by fairly running it down
in open chase, which their speed and remarkable endurance
enable them to do. Except during summer when the young
families of cubs are being separately provided for by their parents,
they assemble in troops or packs, often in relays, and by their
WOLF, J. WOLFDIETRICH
combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower and '.
deer, antelopes and wounded animals of all sizes. It is sin
that such closely allied species as the domestic dog and
Arctic fox are among the favourite prey of wolves, and, as
well known, children and even full-grown people are not ii
frequently the objects of their attack when pressed by hunger
Notwithstanding the proverbial ferocity of the wolf in a wild
state, many instances are recorded of animals taken when quit
young becoming tame and attached to the person who
brought them up, when they exhibit many of the ways of a <
They can, however, rarely be trusted by strangers.
The history of the wolf in the British Isles, and its gradual extir-
pation, has been thoroughly investigated by Mr J. E. Harting in his
work on Extinct British Animals, from which the following account
is abridged. To judge by the osteological remains which the re
searches of geologists have brought to light, there was perhaj
scarcely a county in England or Wales in which, at one time o.
another, wolves did not abound, while in Scotland and Ireland they
must have been still more numerous. The fossil remains which
have been discovered in Britain are not larger than, nor in an
way to be distinguished from, the corresponding bones and teeth L
European wolves of the present day. Wolf-hunting was a favourit
pursuit of the ancient Britons as well as of the Anglo-Saxons. Ii
Athelstan's reign these animals abounded to such an extent in York-
shire that a retreat was built by one Acehorn, at Flixton, near Filey,
wherein travellers might seek refuge if attacked by them. As is well
known, great efforts were made by King Edgar to reduce the number
of wolves in the country, but, notwithstanding the annual tribute of
300 skins paid to him during several years by the king of Wales, he
was not altogether so successful as has been commonly imagined.
In the reign of Henry III. wolves were sufficiently numerous in some
parts of the country to induce the king to make grants of land to
various individuals upon the express condition of their taking
measures to destroy these animals wherever they could be found!
In Edward II. 's time, the king's forest of the Peak, in Derbyshire,
is especially mentioned as infested with wolves, and it was not
until the reign of Henry VII. (1485-1509) that wolves appear to
have become finally extinct in England. This, however, is rather
a matter of inference from the cessation of all mention of them in
locaj records than from any definite evidence of their extirpation.
Their last retreat was probably in the desolate wolds of Yorkshire.
In Scotland, as might be supposed from the nature of the country,
the wolf maintained its hold for a much longer period. There is a
well-known story of the last of the race being killed by Sir Ewen
Cameron of Lochiel in 1680, but there is evidence of wolves having
survived in Sutherlandshire and other parts into the following
century (perhaps as late as 1743), though the date of their final
extinction cannot be accurately fixed. In Ireland, in Cromwell's
time, wolves were particularly troublesome, and said to be increas-
ing in numbers, so that special measures were taken for their destruc-
tion, such as the offering of large rewards for their heads, and the
prohibition (in 1652) of the exportation of " wolf-dogs," the large
dogs used for hunting the wolves. The active measures taken
then and later reduced their numbers greatly, so that towards the
end of the century they became scarce, but, as in the case of the
sister island, the date of their final disappearance cannot now be
ascertained. It has been placed, upon the evidence of somewhat
doubtful traditions, as late as 1766.
It is owing to their position that the British Islands have been
able to clear themselves of these formidable and destructive animals,
for France, with no natural barriers to prevent their incursions from
the continent to the east, is liable every winter to visits from numbers
of these animals. (W.H.F.; R.L.*)
WOLFDIETRICH, German hero of romance. The tale of
Wolf dietrich is connected with the Merovingian princes, Theodoric
and Theodebert, son and grandson of Clovis; but in the Middle
High German poems of Ortnit and Wolfdietrich in the Heldenbuch
(q.v.) Wolfdietrich is the son of Hugdietrich, emperor of Con-
stantinople. Repudiated and exposed by his father, the child
was spared by the wolves of the forest, and was educated by the
faithful Berchtung of Meran. The account of his parents and
their wooing, however, differs in various texts. After the
emperor's death Wolfdietrich was driven from his inheritance
by his brothers at the instigation of the traitor Sabene. Berch-
tung and his sixteen sons stood by Wolfdietrich. Six of these
were slain and the other ten imprisoned. It was only after long
exile in Lombardy at the court of King Ortnit that the hero
returned to deliver the captives and regain his kingdom. Wolfdie-
trich's exile and return suggested a parallel with the history of
Dietrich of Bern, with whom he was often actually identified;
and the Mentors of the two heroes, Hildebrand and Berch-
tung, are cast in the same mould. Presently features of the
WOLFE, C. WOLFF, C. F.
773
Wolfdietrich legend were transferred to the Dietrich cycle, and in
the Anhang to the Heldenbuch it is stated in despite of all his-
torical considerations that Wolfdietrich was the grandfather of
the Veronese hero. Among the exploits of Wolfdietrich was the
slaughter of the dragon which had slain Ortnit (?..) He thus
took the place of Hardheri, one of the mythical Hartung brothers,
the original hero of this feat. The myth attached itself to the
family of Clovis, around which epic tradition rapidly gathered.
Hugdietrich is generally considered to be the epic counterpart
of Theodoric (Dietrich), eldest son of Clovis. The prefix was the
barbarian equivalent of Frank, 1 and was employed to distinguish
him from Theodoric the Goth. After his father's death he
divided the kingdom with his brothers. Wolfdietrich represents
his son Theodebert (d. 548), whose succession was disputed by
his uncles, but was secured by the loyalty of the Prankish nobles.
But father and son are merged by a process of epic fusion in
Wolfdietrich. The rape of Sydrat, daughter of the heathen
Walgunt of Salnecke, by Hugdietrich disguised as a woman,
is typical of the tales of the wooing of heathen princesses made
fashionable by the Crusades, and was probably extraneous to
the original legend. It may, however, also be put on a semi-
historical basis by adopting the suggestion of C. Voretzsch
(Epische Studien I. Die Comp. des Huon von Bordeaux, Halle
1000), that Wolfdietrich is far more closely connected with
Theodoric than Theodebert, and that Hugdietrich, therefore,
stands for Clovis, the hero, in the Merovingian historians, of a
well-known Brautfahrtsaga.
Ortnit and Wolfdietrich nave been edited by Dr J. L. Edlen von
Lindhausen (Tubingen, 1906). G. Sarrazin, in Zeitschr. fur deutsche
Phil. (1896), compared the legend of Wolfdietrich with the history of
Gundovald, as given by Gregory of Tours in books vi. and vii. of his
Hist. Francorum.
WOLFE, CHARLES (1791-1823), Irish poet, son of Theobald
Wolfe of Blackball, Co. Kildare, was born on the i4th of
December 1791. He was educated at English schools and at
Trinity College, Dublin, where he matriculated in 1809 and
graduated in 1814. He was ordained priest in 1817, and obtained
the curacy of Ballyclog, Co. Tyrone, which he shortly exchanged
for that of Donoughmore in the same county. He died at Cork
on the zist of February 1823 in his thirty-second year. Wolfe
was well known as a poet in Trinity College circles. He is
remembered, however, solely by his stirring stanzas on the
" Burial of Sir John Moore," written in 1816 in the rooms of
Samuel O'Sullivan, a college friend, and printed in the Newry
Telegraph.
See John Russell, Remains of the Rev. Charles Wolfe (2 vols., 1825;
4th ed., 1829), and a correspondence in Notes and Queries, 8th .series,
vol. viii. pp. 145, 178, 235, 253, 331 and 418.
WOLFE, JAMES (1727-1759), British general, the hero of
Quebec, was born at Westerham in Kent on the 2nd of January
1727. At an early age he accompanied his father, Colonel
(afterwards Lieutenant-General) Edward Wolfe, one of Marl-
borough's veterans, to the Carthagena expedition, and in 1741
his ardent desire for a military career was gratified by his appoint-
ment to an ensigncy. At the age of fifteen he proceeded with
the 1 2th Foot (now Suffolk Regiment) to the Rhine Campaign,
and at Dettingen he distinguished himself so much as acting
adjutant that he was made lieutenant. In 1744 he received a
company in Barrel's regiment (now the 4th King's Own). In
the Scottish rising of the " Forty-five " he was employed as a
brigade-major. He was present at Hawley's defeat at Falkirk,
and at Culloden. With his old regiment, the I2th, Wolfe
served in the Flanders campaigns of the duke of Cumberland,
and at Val (Lauffeld) won by his valour the commendation of
the duke. Promotion followed in 1749 to a majority, and in
1750 to the lieutenant-colonelcy of the zoth, with which he served
in Scotland. Some years later he spent six months in Paris.
When war broke out afresh in 1757 he served as a staff officer in
the unfortunate Rochefort expedition, but his prospects were
not affected by the failure, for had his advice been taken the
result might well have been different. Next year he was sent to
" Hugo Theodoricus iste dicitur, id est Francus, quia olim omnes
Franci Hugones vocabantur . . ., " Annalts Quedlinburg. (Pertz
Script, ui. 420.)
N. America as a brigadier-general in the Louisburg expedition
under Amherst and Boscawen. The landing was effected in
the face of strenuous opposition, Wolfe leading the foremost
troops. On the 27th of July the place surrendered after an
obstinate defence; during the siege Wolfe had had charge of
a most important section of the attack, and on his lines the
fiercest fighting took place. Soon afterwards he returned to
England to recruit his shattered health, but on learning that
Pitt desired him to continue in America he at once offered to
return. It was now that the famous expedition against Quebec
was decided upon, Wolfe to be in command, with the local rank
of major-general. In a brief holiday before his departure he met
at Bath Miss Lowther, to whom he became engaged. Very shortly
afterwards he sailed, and on the ist of June 1759 the Quebec
expedition sailed from Louisburg (see QUEBEC) . After wearisome
and disheartening failures, embittered by the pain of an internal
disease, Wolfe crowned his work by the decisive victory on the
Plains of Abraham (i3th of September 1759) by which the French
permanently lost Quebec. Twice wounded earlier in the fight,
he had refused to leave the field, and a third bullet passing through
his lungs inflicted a mortal injury. While he was lying in a swoon
some one near him exclaimed, " They run; see how they run!"
" Who run? " demanded Wolfe, as one roused from sleep. " The
enemy," was the answer; " they give way everywhere." Wolfe
rallied for a moment, gave a last order for cutting off the retreat,
and murmuring, " Now God be praised, I will die in peace,"
breathed his last. On the battle-ground a tall column bears the
words, " Here died Wolfe victorious on the i3th of September
1759." In the governor's garden, in Quebec, there is also a
monument to the memory of Wolfe and his gallant opponent
Montcalm, who survived him only a few hours, with the inscrip-
tion " Wolfe and Montcalm. Mortem virtus communem, famam
historia, monumentum posteritas dedil." In Westminster Abbey
a public memorial to Wolfe was unveiled on the 4th of October
1773-
See R. Wright, Life of Major-Central James Wolfe (London, 1864) ;
F. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe (London, 1884); Twelve Brittsh
Soldiers (London, 1899); General Wolfe's Instructions to Young
Officers (1768-1780) ; Beckles Willson, The Life and Letters of James
Wolfe (1909); and A. G. Bradley, Wolfe (1895).
WOLFENBiiTTEL, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Brunswick, situated on both banks of the Oker, 7 m. S. of
Brunswick on the railway to Hamburg. Pop. (1905) 19,083.
Lessing was ducal librarian here, and the old library building,
designed in 1723 in imitation of the Pantheon at Rome, contains
a marble statue of him. The library, including 300,000 printed
books and 10,000 MSS., was, however, transferred to a large
and new Renaissance edifice in 1887. It is especially rich in
Bibles, incunabula and books of the early Reformation period,
and contains some fragments of the Gothic bible of Ulfilas.
Opposite the old library is the palace, now occupied by a seminary.
The ducal burial-vault is in the church of St Mary.
A castle is said to have been founded on the site of Wolfen-
buttel by a margrave of Meissen about 1046. When this began
in 1267 to be the residence of the early Brunswick or Wolfen-
biittel line of counts, a town gradually grew up around it. In
1542 it was taken by the Saxons and Hessians, who, however,
evacuated it five years later after the battle of Muhlberg. In
the Thirty Years' War, in June 1641, the Swedes, under Wrangel
and Konigsmark, defeated the Austrians under the archduke
Leopold at Wolfenbtlttel. The town passed wholly into the
possession of the Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel family in 1671, and
for nearly one hundred years enjoyed the distinction of being
the ducal capital. In 1754, however, Duke Charles transferred
the ducal residence to Brunswick.
See Voges'Erzdhlungen aus der Geschichte der Stadt Wolfenbuttel
(Wolfenbuttel, 1882); von Heinemann, Die hersogliche Bibliothek
tu Wolfenbuttel (2nd ed., Wolfenbuttel, 1894). For the " Wolfen-
buttel fragments " see LESSING and REIMARUS.
WOLFF, CASPAR FRIEDRICH (1733-1794), German anato-
mist and physiologist, justly reckoned the founder of modern
embryology, was born in 1733 at Berlin, where he studied
anatomy and physiology under the elder J. F. Meckel. He
774
WOLFF, C. WOLFF, J.
graduated in medicine at Halle in 1759, his thesis being his famous
Theorla generationis. After serving as a surgeon in the Seven
Years' War, he wished to lecture on anatomy and physiology
in Berlin, but being refused permission he accepted a call from
the empress Catharine to become professor of those subjects at
the academy of St Petersburg, and acted in this capacity until
his death there in 1 794.
While the theory of " evolution " in the crude sense i.e. a simple
growth in size and unfolding of organs all previously existent in the
g erm was i n possession of the field, his researches on the develop-
ment of the alimentary canal in the chick first clearly established
the converse view, that of epigenesis, i.e. of progressive formation
and differentiation of organs from a germ primitively homogeneous.
He also largely anticipated the modern conception of embryonic
layers, and is said even to have foreshadowed the cell theory.
WOLFF (less correctly WOLF), CHRISTIAN (1679-1754),
German philosopher and mathematician, the son of a tanner,
was born at Breslau on the 24th of January 1679. At the
university of Jena he studied first mathematics and physics,
to which he soon added philosophy. In 1703 he qualified as
Privaldozent in the university of Leipzig, where he lectured
till 1706, when he was called as professor of mathematics and
natural philosophy to Halle. Before this time he had made the
acquaintance of Leibnitz, of whose philosophy his own system
is a modification. In Halle Wolff limited himself at first to
mathematics, but on the departure of a colleague he added
physics, and presently included all the main philosophical
disciplines. But the claims which Wolff advanced on behalf
of the philosophic reason (see RATIONALISM) appeared impious to
his theological colleagues. Halle was the headquarters of Pietism ,
which, after a long struggle against Lutheran dogmatism, had
itself assumed the characteristics of a new orthodoxy. Wolff's
professed ideal was to base theological truths on evidence of
mathematical certitude, and strife with the Pietists broke out
openly in 1721, when Wolff, on the occasion of laying down the
office of pro-rector, delivered an oration " On the Practical
Philosophy of the Chinese " (Eng. tr. 1750), in which he praised
the purity of the moral precepts of Confucius, pointing to them
as an evidence of the power of human reason to attain by its
own efforts to moral truth. For ten years Wolff was subjected
to attack, until in a fit of exasperation he appealed to the court
for protection. His enemies, however, gained the ear of the king
Frederick William I. and represented to him that, if Wolff's
determinism were recognized, no soldier who deserted could be
punished, since he would only have acted as it was necessarily
predetermined that he should. This so enraged the king that
he at once deprived Wolff of his office, and commanded him to
leave Prussian territory within forty-eight hours on pain of a
halter. The same day Wolff passed into Saxony, and presently
proceeded to Marburg, to which university he had received a call
before this crisis. The landgrave of Hesse received him with
every mark of distinction, and the circumstances of his expulsion
drew universal attention to his philosophy. It was everywhere
discussed, and over two hundred books and pamphlets appeared
for or against it before 1 73 7 , not reckoning the systematic treatises
of Wolff and his followers. In 1740 Frederick William, who had
already made overtures to Wolff to return, died suddenly, and
one of the first acts of his successor, Frederick the Great, was to
recall him to Halle. His entry into the town on the 6th of
December 1740 partook of the nature of a triumphal procession.
In 1743 he became chancellor of the university, and in 1745 he
received the title of Freiherr from the elector of Bavaria. But
his matter was no longer fresh, he had outlived his power of
attracting students, and his class-rooms remained empty. He
died on the gth of April 1754.
The Wolffian philosophy held almost undisputed sway in Germany
till it was displaced by the Kantian revolution. It is essentially a
common-sense adaptation or watering-down of the Leibnitzian
system; or, as we can hardly speak of a system in connexion with
Leibnitz, Wolff may be said to have methodized and reduced to
dogmatic form the thoughts of his great predecessor, which often,
however, lose the greater part of their suggestiveness in the process.
Since his philosophy disappeared before the influx of new ideas and
the appearance of more speculative minds, it has been customary to
dwell almost exclusively on its defects the want of depth or fresh-
ness of insight, and the aridity of its neo-scholastic formalism, which
tends to relapse into verbose platitudes. But this is to do injustice
to Wolff's real merits. These are mainly his comprehensive view of
philosophy, as embracing in its survey the whole field of human
knowledge, his insistence everywhere on clear and methodic ex-
position, and his confidence in the power of reason to reduce all
subjects to this form. To these must be added that he was practically
the first to "teach philosophy to speak German." The Wolffian
system retains the determinism and optimism of Leibnitz, but the
monadology recedes into the background, the monads falling asunder
into souls or conscious beings on the one hand and mere atoms on
the other. The doctrine of the pre-established harmony also loses its
metaphysical significance, and the principle of sufficient reason
introduced by Leibnitz is once more discarded in favour of the
principle of contradiction which Wolff seeks to make the funda-
mental principle of philosophy. Philosophy is defined by him as the
science of the possible, and divided, according to the two faculties
of the human individual, into a theoretical and a practical part.
Logic, sometimes called phUosophia rationalis, forms the introduc-
tion or propaedeutic to both. Theoretical philosophy has for its
parts ontology or phUosophia prima, cosmology, rational psycho-
logy and natural theology; ontology treats of the existent in
general, psychology of the soul as a simple non-extended substance,
cosmology of the world as a whole, and rational theology of the
existence and attributes of God. These are best known to philo-
sophical students by Kant's treatment of them in the Critique of
Pure Reason. Practical philosophy is subdivided into ethics,
economics and politics. Wolff's moral principle is the realization
of human perfection.
Wolff's most important works are as follows: Anfangsgrunde aller
mathematischen Wissenschaften (1710; in Latin, Elementa matheseos
universae, 1713-1715); Verntinftige Gedanken von den Kraften des
menschlichen Verstandes (1712; Eng. trans. 1770); Vern. Ged. von
Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen (1719); Vern. Ged. von der
Menschen Thun und Lassen (1720); Vern. Ged. von dem gesellschaft-
lichen Leben der Menschen (1721); Vern. Ged. von den Wirkungen der
Natur (1723); Vern. Ged. von den Absichten der naturlichen Dinge
(1724); Vern. Ged. von dem Gebrauche der Theile in Menschen,
Thieren und Pflanzen (1725) ; the last seven may briefly be described
as treatises on logic, metaphysics, moral philosophy, political
philosophy, theoretical physics, teleology, physiology: PhUosophia
rationalis, sive logica (1728); PhUosophia prima, sive Ontologia
(1729); Cosmologia generalis (1731); Psychologia empirica (1732);
Psychologia rationalis (1734); Theologia naturalis (1736-1737);
PhUosophia practica universalis (1738-1739); Jus naturae and Jus
Gentium (1740-1749); PhUosophia moralis (1750-1753).
Kleine phUnsophische Schriften have been collected and edited by
G. F. Hagen (1736-1740). In addition to Wolff's autobiography
(Eigene Lebensbeschreibung, ed. H. Wuttke, 1841) and the usual
histories of philosophy, see W. Schrader in Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie, xliv. ; C. G. Ludovici, Ausfuhrlicher Entwurf einer voll-
stdndigen Historie der Wolfschen Philosophic (1736-1738); J.
Deschamps, Cours abrege de la philosophic wolffienne (1743); F. W.
Kluge, Christian von Wolff der Philosoph (1831); W. Arnsperger,
Christian Wolfs Verhdltnis zu Leibniz (1897). (A. S. P.-P. ; X.)
WOLFF, JOSEPH (1795-1862), Jewish Christian missionary,
was born at Weilersbach, near Bamberg, Germany, in 1795.
His father became rabbi at Wiirttemberg in 1806, and sent his son
to the Protestant lyceum at Stuttgart. He was converted to
Christianity through reading the books of Johann Michael von
Sailer, bishop of Regensburg, and was baptized in 1812 by the
Benedictine abbot of Emaus, near Prague. Wolff was a keen
Oriental scholar and pursued his studies at Tubingen and at
Rome, where he was expelled from the Collegio di Propaganda in
iSiS.for attacking the doctrine of infallibility and criticizing his
tutors. After a short stay in the monastery of the Redemptorists
at Val Sainte near Fribourg, he went to London, entered the
Anglican Church, and resumed his Oriental and theological
studies at Cambridge. In 1821 he began his missionary wander-
ings in the East by visiting Egypt, the Sinaitic peninsula,
Jerusalem, Aleppo, Mesopotamia, Persia, Tiflis and the Crimea,
returning to England in 1826, when Edward Irving introduced
him to Lady Georgina Walpole, 6th daughter of Horatio Walpole,
earl of Orford, whom he married in February 1827. In 1828
Wolff set out to search for the ten tribes, travelling through
Anatolia, Armenia, Turkestan and Afghanistan to Simla and
Calcutta, suffering many hardships but preaching with en-
thusiasm. He visited Madras, Pondicherry, Tinnevelly, Goa and
Bombay, travelling home by Egypt and Malta. In 1836 he
found Samuel Gobat in Abyssinia, took him to Jiddah, and him-
self visited Yemen and Bombay, going on to the United States,
where he was ordained deacon in 1837, and priest in 1838
WOLFRAMITE WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH
775
In the same year he was given the rectory of Linthwaite in
Yorkshire. In 1843 he went to Bokhara to seek two British
officers, Lieut.-Colonel C. Stoddart and Captain A. Conolly,
and narrowly escaped the death that had overtaken them; his
Narrative of this mission went through seven editions between
1845 and 1852. In 1845 he was presented to the vicarage of
He Brewers, Somerset, and was planning another great missionary
tour when he died on the 2nd of May 1862.
He published several Journals of his expeditions, especially
Travels and Adventures of Joseph Wolff (2 vols., London, 1860).
His son, SIR HENRY DRUMMOND WOLFF (1830-1908), was a
well-known English diplomatist and Conservative politician,
who started as a clerk in the foreign office and was created
K.C.M.G. in 1862 for various services abroad. In 1874-1880 he
sat in parliament for Christchurch, and in 1880-1885 for Ports-
mouth, being one of the group known as the " Fourth Party."
In 1885 he went on a special mission to Constantinople in con-
nexion with the Egyptian question, and as the result various
awkward difficulties, hinging on the sultan's suzerainty, were
got over. In 1888 he was sent as minister to Teheran, and from
1892 to 1900 was ambassador at Madrid. He died on the nth
of October 1908. Sir Henry was a notable raconteur, and he did
good service to the Conservative party by helping to found the
Primrose League. He was created G.C.M.G. in 1878 and G.C.B.
in 1889.
WOLFRAMITE, or WOLFRAM, a mineral consisting of iron-
manganese tungstate, (Fe, MnJWO^ The name is of doubtful
origin, but it has been assumed that it is derived from the
German Wolf and Rakm (froth), corresponding with the spuma
lupi of old writers, a term hardly appropriate, however, to the
mineral in question. Wolframite crystallizes in the monoclinic
system, with approximation to an orthorhombic type; and the
crystals offer perfect pinacoidal cleavage. The colour of wol-
framite is generally dark brownish-black, the lustre metallic or
adamantine, the hardness 5 to 5-5, and the specific gravity 7-1
to 7-5. Wolframite may be regarded as an isomorphous mixture,
in variable ratio, of iron and manganese tuugstates, sometimes
with a small proportion of niobic and tantalic acids. It was in
wolframite that the metal tungsten was first recognized in 1785
by two brothers, J. J. and F. d'Elhuyar. At the present time
the mineral is used in the manufacture of tungsten-steel and in
the preparation of certain tungstates.
Wolframite is commonly associated with tin-ores, as in many parts
of Cornwall, Saxony and Bohemia. In consequence of the two
minerals, cassiterite and wolframite, having nearly the same density,
their separation becomes difficult by the ordinary processes of ore-
dressing, but may be effected by means of magnetic separators, the
wolframite being attracted by powerful magnets. A process intro-
duced many years ago by R. Oxland consisted in roasting the mixed
ore with carbonate of soda, when the wolfram was converted into
sodium tungstate, which was easily removed as a soluble salt.
Wolframite occurs at many localities in the United States, notably
at Trumbull, Conn., where it has been mined, and at Monroe, Conn.,
where it accompanies bismuth ores. Other localities are in Mecklen-
burg county, N.C., and in the Mammoth mining district, Nevada.
Wolframite has in some cases resulted from the alteration of scheelite
({..), though on the contrary pseudomorphs are known in which
scheelite has taken the form ol wolframite. By oxidation wolframite
may become encrusted with tungstic ochre, or tungstite, sometimes
known as wolframine, a name to be carefully distinguished from
wolframite.
As the relative proportions of iron and manganese vary in wolfram-
ite, the composition tends towards that of other minerals. Thus
there is a manganous tungstate (MnWO) known as hubnerite, a
name given by E. N. Riotte, in 1865, in compliment to Adolph
Httbner, a Saxon mineralogist. There is also a mineral which
contains little more than ferrous tungstate (FeWOO, and is known
as ferberite, having been named by A. Breithaupt in 1863 after
Rudolph Ferber. The original hubnerite came from the Mammoth
district, Nevada, and the ferberite from the Sierra Almagrera in
Spain. It is possible that such minerals may represent the extreme
terms in the series formed by the varieties of wolframite.
(F. W. R.*)
WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH, the most important and
individual poet of medieval Germany, flourished during the end
of the 1 2th and beginning of the I3th century. He was one of
the brilliant group of Minnesingers whom the Landgrave
Herrmann of Thuringia gathered round him at the historic
castle of the Wartburg. We know by his own statement that he
was a Bavarian, and came of a knightly race, counting his achieve-
ments with spear and shield far above his poetical gifts. The
Eschenbach from which he derived his name was most prob-
ably Ober-Eschenbach, not far from Pleinfeld and Nuremberg;
there is no doubt that this was the place of his burial, and so late
as the 1 7th century his tomb was to be seen in the church of
Ober-Eschenbach, which was then the burial place of the Teutonic
knights. Wolfram probably belonged to the small nobility,
for he alludes to men of importance, such as the counts of
Abenberg, and of Wertheim, as if he had been in their service.
Certainly he was a poor man, for he makes frequent and jesting
allusions to his poverty. Bartsch concludes that he was a
younger son, and that while the family seat was at Eschenbach,
Wolfram's home was the insignificant estate of Wildenburg (to
which he alludes), now the village of Wehlenberg. Wolfram
seems to have disdained all literary accomplishments, and in
fact insists on his unlettered condition both in Parzival and in
Willehalm. But this is somewhat perplexing, for these poems are
beyond all doubt renderings of French originals. Were the poems
read to him, and did he dictate his translation to a scribe? The
date of Wolfram's death is uncertain. We know that he was alive
in 1216, as in Willehalm he laments the death of the Landgrave
Herrmann, which took place in that year, but how long he
survived his friend and patron we do not know.
Wolfram von Eschenbach lives in, and is revealed by, his
work, which shows him to have been a man of remarkable force
and personality. He has left two long epic poems, Parzival
and Willehalm (the latter a translation of the French chan-
son de geste Aliscans), certain fragments, Titurel (apparently
intended as an introduction to the Parzival), and a group of
lyrical poems, Wachter-Lieder. These last derive their name from
the fact that they record the feelings of lovers who, having passed
the night in each other's company, are called to separate by the
cry of the watchman, heralding the dawn. These Tage Lieder,
or Wachter Lieder, are a feature of Old German folk-poetry, of
which Wagner has preserved the tradition in the warning cry
of Brangaene in the second act of Tristan. But the principal
interest of Wolfram's work lies in his Parzival, immeasurably
the finest and most spiritual rendering of the Perceval-Grail
story.
The problem of the source of the Parzival is the crux of medieval
literary criticism (see PERCEVAL). These are the leading points.
The poem is divided into sixteen books. From iii. to xii., in-
clusive, the story marches pari passu with the Perceval of
Chr6tien de Troyes, at one moment agreeing almost literally
with the French text, at the next introducing details quite un-
known to it. Books i. and ii., unrepresented in Chr6tien, relate
the fortunes of the hero's father, and connect the story closely
with the house of Anjou; the four concluding books agree with
the commencement, and further connect the Grail story with
that of the Swan Knight, for the first time identifying that
hero with Parzival's son, a version followed by the later German
romance of Lohengrin. At the conclusion Wolfram definitely
blames Chr6tien for having mist old the tale, while a certain Kiot,
the Provencal (whom he has before named as his source), had
told it aright from beginning to end. Other peculiarities of this
version are the representation of the Grail itself as a stone,
and of the inhabitants of the castle as an ordered knighthood,
Templeisen; the numerous allusions to, and evident familiarity
with, Oriental learning in its various branches; and above all,
the connecting thread of ethical interpretation which runs
through the whole poem. The Parzival is a soul-drama; the
conflict between light and darkness, faith and doubt, is its
theme, and the evolution of the hero's character is steadily and
consistently worked out. The teaching is of a character strangely
at variance with the other romances of the cycle. Instead of an
asceticism, based upon a fundamentally low and degrading view
of women, Wolfram upholds a sane and healthy morality;
chastity, rather than celibacy, is his ideal, and a loyal observance
of the marriage bond is in his eyes the highest virtue. Not
retirement from the world, but fulfilment of duty in the world,
776
WOLGAST WOLLASTONITE
is the goal he marks out for attainment. Whether views so large,
so sane and so wholesome, are to be placed to the credit of the
German poet, or of his French source (and modern criticism is
leaning more and more to a belief in the existence of Kiot),
the Parzival is the work of a remarkable personality, and, given
the age and the environment, a unique literary achievement.
Wolfram has moments of the highest poetical inspiration,
but his meaning, even for his compatriots, is often obscure.
He is in no sense a master of language, as was Gottfried von
Strassbourg. This latter, in a very interesting passage of the
Tristan, passes in review the poets of the day, awarding to the
majority praise for the excellence of their style, but one he does
not name, only blaming him as being so obscure and involved
that none can tell what his meaning may be; this un-named poet
has always been understood to be Wolfram von Eschenbach, and
in a passage of Willehalm the author refers to the unfavourable
criticisms passed on Parzival. Wolfram and Gottfried were
both true poets, but of widely differing style. Wolfram was,
above all, a man of deeply religious character (witness his intro-
duction to Willehalm) , and it seems to have been this which
specially impressed the mind of his compatriots; in the 13th-
century poem ot Der Wartburg-Krieg it is Wolfram who is
chosen as the representative of Christianity, to oppose the
enchanter Klingsor von Ungerland. (J. L. W.)
WOLGAST, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Pomerania, situated on the river Peene, which
separates it from the island of Usedom, 30 m. by rail E. of
Greifswald. Pop. (1905) 8346. There are various manufactures.
Wolgast became a town in 1247, and after being the residence of
the duke of Pomerania-Wolgast, it was ceded to Sweden in
1648. It was captured four times during the Thirty Years' War,
and in 1675 by Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg. It
was restored to Germany in 1815.
See B. Heberlein, Beitrage zur Geschichte der Burg und Stadt Wolgast
(Wolgast, 1892).
WOLLASTON, WILLIAM (1650-1724), English philosophical
writer, was born at Coton-Clanford in Staffordshire, on the 26th
of March 1659. On leaving Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in
1681, he became an assistant master at the Birmingham grammar-
school, and took holy orders. In 1688 an uncle left him a fortune.
He then moved to London, married a kdy of wealth, and devoted
himself to learning and philosophy. He embodied his views in
the one book by which he is remembered, The Religion of Nature
Delineated (ist ed. 1722; 2nd ed. 1724). He died in October
1724.
Wollaston's Religion of Nature, which falls between Clarke's
Discourse of the Unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion and
Butler's Sermons, was one of the popular philosophical boolcs of its
day. To the 8th edition (1750) was added a life of the author.
The book was designed to be an answer to two questions: Is there
such a thing as natural religion? and, If there is, what is it? Wol-
laston starts with the assumption that religion and morality are
identical, and labours to show that religion is " the pursuit of happi-
ness by the practice of truth and reason." He claims originality
for his theory that the moral evil is the practical denial of a true
proposition and moral good the affirmation of it (see ETHICS). Wol-
laston also published anonymously a small book, On the Design of the
Book of Ecclesiastes, or the_ Unreasonableness of Men's Restless Con-
tention for the Present Enjoyments, represented in an English Poem
(London, i6gi).
See John Clarke, Examination of the Notion of Moral Good and Evil
advanced in a late book entitled The Religion of Nature Delineated
(London, 1725); Drechsler, Uber Wollaston's Moral-Philosophie
(Erlangen, 1802) ; Sir Leslie Stephen's History of English Thought
in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1876), ch. ih. and ch. ix. ; H.
Sidgwick's History of Ethics (1902), pp. 198 sq.
WOLLASTON, WILLIAM HYDE (1766-1828), English chemist
and natural philosopher, was born at East t)ereham, Norfolk,
on the 6th of April 1766, the second of seventeen children.
His father, the Rev. Francis Wollaston (1731-1815), rector of
Chislehurst, grandson of the William Wollaston noticed above,
was an enthusiastic astronomer. Wollaston was educated at
Charterhouse, and afterwards at Caius College, Cambridge, of
which he became a fellow. He took the degrees of M.B. (1787)
and M.D. (1793), starting to practise medicine in 1789 at Bury
St Edmunds, whence he soon removed to London. But he made
little way, and failed to obtain a vacant physicianship at StGeorge's
hospital; the result was that he abandoned medicine and took
to original research. He devoted much attention to the affairs
of the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1793
and made secretary in 1806. He was elected interim president
in June 1820, on the death of Sir Joseph Banks; but he did not
care to enter into competition with Sir Humphry Davy, and
the latter was elected president at the anniversary meeting in
November 1820. Wollaston became a member of the Geological
Society of London in 1812, and served frequently on the Council
and for some time as a vice-president. Beyond appearing at the
meetings of learned societies he took little part in public affairs;
he lived alone, conducting his investigations in a deliberate and
exhaustive manner, but in the most rigid seclusion, no person
being admitted to his laboratory on any pretext. Towards the
close of 1828 he felt the approach of a fatal malady a tumour in
the brain and devoted his last days to a careful revisal of his
unpublished researches and industrial processes, dictating several
papers on these subjects, which were afterwards published in
the Philosophical Transactions. He died ih London on the 22nd
of December 1828.
Most of Wollaston's original work] deals more or less directly with
chemical subjects, but diverges on all sides into optics, acoustics,
mineralogy, astronomy, physiology, botany and even art. In
chemistry he made a speciality of the platinum metals. Platinum
itself he discovered how to work on a practical scale, and he is said
to have made a fortune from the secret, which, however, he disclosed
in a posthumous paper (1820); and he was the first to detect the
metals palladium (1804) and rhodium (1805) in crude platinum.
In regard to palladium his conduct was open to criticism. He
anonymously offered a quantity of the metal for sale at an instru-
ment-maker s shop, issuing an advertisement in which some of its
main properties were described. Richard Chevenix (1774-1830), a
chemist, having bought some of the substance, decided after ex-
periment that it was not a simple body as claimed, but an alloy of
mercury with platinum, and in 1803 presented a paper to the Royal
Society setting forth this view. As secretary, Wollaston saw this
paper when it was sent in, and is said to have tried to persuade the
author to withdraw it. But having failed, he allowed the paper,
and also a second by Chevenix of the same tenor in 1805, to be read
without avowing that it was he himself who had originally detected
the metal, although he had an excellent opportunity of stating the
fact in 1804 when he discussed the substance in the paper which
announced the discovery of rhodium. In 1809 he proved the ele-
mentary character of columbium (niobium) and titanium. In
optics he was the first, in 1802, to observe the dark lines in the solar
spectrum. Of the seven lines he saw, he regarded the five most
prominent as the natural boundaries or dividing lines of the pure
simple colours of the prismatic spectrum, which he supposed to nave
four primary divisions. He_ described the reflecting goniometer in
1809 and the camera lucida in 1812, provided microscopists with the
" Wollaston doublet," and applied concavo-convex lenses to _the
purposes of the oculist. His cryophorus was described in 1813, in a
paper " On a method of freezing at a distance." In 1821, after
H. C. Oersted (1777-1851) had shown that a magnetic needle is
deflected by an electric current, he attempted, in the laboratory f
the Royal Institution in the presence of Humphry Davy, to convert
that deflection into a continuous rotation, and also to obtain the
reciprocal effect of a current rotating round a magnet. He failed in
both respects, and when Michael Faraday, who overheard a portion
of his conversation with Davy on the subject, was subsequently
more successful, he was inclined to assert the merit of priority, to
which Faraday did not admit his claim. Among his other papers
may be mentioned those dealing with the formation of fairy rings
(1807), a synoptic scale of chemical equivalents (1814), sounds in-
audible to ordinary ears (1820), the physiology of vision (1824), the
apparent direction of the eyes in a portrait ( 1 824) and the comparison
of the light of the sun with that of the moon and fixed stars ( 1 829) .
In geological circles Wollaston is famous for the medal which
bears his name, and which (together with a donation fund) is annually
awarded by the council of the Geological Society of London, being
the result of the interest on 1000 bequeathed by Wollaston for
" promoting researches concerning the mineral structure of the earth.
The first award was made in 1831. The medal is the highest honour
bestowed by the society: it was originally made of palladium, but
is now made of gold. .
An appreciative essay on Wollaston will be found in George
Wilson's Religio Chemici (1862).
WOLLASTONITE, a rock-forming mineral consisting of calcium
metasilicate, CaSiO 3 , crystallizing in the monoclinic system and
belonging to the pyroxene (?.t>.) group. It differs, however,
from other members of this group in having cleavages, not parallel
to the prism-faces, but in two directions perpendicular to the
WOLLIN WOLSELEY, VISCOUNT
777
plane of symmetry. Crystals are usually elongated parallel to the
axis of symmetry and flattened parallel to the ortho-pinacoid,
hence the early name " tabular spar "; the name wollastonite
is after W. H. Wollaston. The mineral usually occurs in white
cleavage masses. The hardness is 5, and the specific gravity
2-85. It is a characteristic product of contact-metamorphism,
occurring especially, with garnet, diopside, &c., in crystalline
limestones. Crystals are found in the cavities of the ejected
limestone blocks of Monte Somma, Vesuvius. At Santa Fe in
the State of Chiapas, Mexico, a large rock-mass of wollastonite
carries ores of gold and copper: here are found large pink crystals
which are often partially or wholly altered to opal. (L. J. S.)
WOLLIN, an island of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, the more easterly of the islands at the mouth of the
Oder which separate the Stettiner Haff from the Baltic Sea.
It is divided from the mainland on the E. by the Dievenow
Channel, and from Usedom on the W. by the Swine. It is roughly
triangular in shape, and has an area of 95 sq. m. Heath and sand
alternate with swamps, lakes and forest on its surface, which is
flat, except towards the south-west, where the low hills of Lebbin
rise. Cattle-rearing and fishing are the chief resources of the
inhabitants, who number about 14,000. Misdroy, on the N.W.
coast, is a favourite sea-bathing resort, and some of the other
villages, as Ostswine, opposite Swinemiinde, Fritter, famous for
its eels, and Lebbin, are also visited in summer. Wollin, the only
town, is situated on the Dievenow, and is connected with the
mainland by three bridges. It carries on the industries of a small
seaport and fishing-town. Pop. (1900) 4679.
Near the modern town once stood the ancient and opulent
Wendish city of Wolin or Jumne, called Julin by the Danes,
and Winetha or Vineta (i.e. Wendish town) by the Germans.
In the loth and nth centuries it was the centre of an active and
extensive trade. Adam of Bremen (d. 1076) extols its size and
wealth, and mentions that Greeks and other foreigners frequented
it, and that Saxons were permitted to settle there on equal terms
with the Wends, so long as they did not obtrude the fact of their
Christianity. The Northmen made a settlement here about 970,
and built a fortress on the " silver hill," called Jomsburg, which
is often mentioned in the sagas. Its foundation was attributed
to a legendary Viking exiled from Denmark, called Palnotoke
or Palnatoki. The stronghold of Jomsburg was destroyed in
1098 by King Magnus Barfod of Norway. This is probably
the origin of the legend that Vineta was overthrown by a storm
or earthquake and overwhelmed by the sea. Some submarine
granite rocks near Damerow in Usedom are still popularly
regarded as its ruins. The town of Wollin became in 1140 the
seat of the Pomeranian bishopric, which was transferred to
Kammin about 1170. Wollin was burnt by Canute VI. of Den-
mark in 1183, and was taken by the Swedes in 1630 and 1759
and by the Brandenburgers in 1659 and 1675.
See Khull, Die Gesckickte Palnatokis und der Jomsburgtr (Graz,
1892); Koch, Vineta in Prosa und Poesie (Stettin, 1905); W. von
Raumer, Die Insel Wollin (Berlin, 1851); Haas, Sagen und Erzah-
lungen von den Inseln Usedom und Wollin (Stettin, 1904).
WOLLONGONG, a seaport of Camden county, New South
Wales, Australia, 49 m. by rail S. of Sydney, the third port and
chief harbour on the S. coast of the colony. Pop. (1901) 3545.
Its harbour, known as Belmont Basin, is excavated out of the
rock, having an area of 3 acres, and a depth of 18 ft. at low water.
A breakwater protects its mouth; it has a lighthouse, and is
defended by a fort OB Signal Hill. It is the port for the Osborne-
Wallsend and Mount Pleasant collieries, which are connected
with it by rail. It lies at the foot of Mount Keira, amid fine
mountain and coast scenery.
WOLOF (WOLOFF, JOLOF), a Negroid people of Senegal, French
West Africa. They occupy the seaboard between St Louis and
Cape Verde and the south bank of the Senegal from its mouth
to Dagana. Farther inland the districts of the Walo, Cayor
Baol and Jolof (the last, the name of a chief division of the nation,
being sometimes used as the national name) are almost exclu-
sively peopled by Wolof. The cities of St Louis and Dakar are
both in the Wolof country, and throughout the French Sudan
no military station is without a Wolof colony, preserving national
speech and usages. The name is variously explained as meaning
speaker " or " black." The Wolof justify both meanings, for
they are at once far the blackest and among the most garrulous
of all African peoples. They are a very tall race, with splendidly
proportioned busts but weak and undeveloped legs and flat feet.
The Wolof language is spoken throughout Senegambia, and
numerous grammars, dictionaries and vocabularies have appeared
since 1825. There is, however, no written literature. The Wolof
preserve their national songs, legends and proverbs by memory, but
have little knowledge of letters beyond the Arabic characters on
their paper spells and amulets. Wolof, a typical agglutinating
language, differs from all other African forms of speech. The roots,
almost all monosyllables ending in consonants, are determined by
means of suffixes, and coalesce while remaining invariable in their
various meanings. By these suffixes the meaning of the words is
endlessly modified.
Most Wolof are nominally Mahommedans, and some near the
Christian missions profess Christianity, but many pagan rites are
still observed. Animal worship is prevalent. The capture of a
shark is hailed with delight, and family genii have offerings made to
them, the most popular of these household deities, the lizard, having
in many houses a bowl of milk set aside for it daily. The Wolof
have three hereditary castes, the nobles, the tradesmen and musicians
(who are despised), and the slaves. These latter are kindly treated.
Polygyny is customary.
The old kingdom of Cayor, the largest of Wolof states, has been
preserved by the French. The king is elected, but always from the
ruling family, and the electors, themselves unable to succeed, only
number four. When elected the king receives a vase said to contain
the seeds of all plants growing in Cayor, and he is thus made lord of
the land. In earlier days there was the Bur or " Great Wolof," to
whom all petty chiefs owed allegiance. The Wolof are very loyal
to the French, and have constantly proved themselves courageous
soldiers.
WOLOWSKI, LOUIS FRANCOIS MICHEL RAYMOND (1810-
1876), French economist and politician, was born in Warsaw
and educated in Paris, but returned to Warsaw and took part in
the revolution of 1830. Sent to Paris as secretary to the legation
by the provisional government, he settled there on the suppression
of the Polish rebellion and was naturalized in 1834. In 1833 he
founded the Revue de Kgislation et de jurisprudence, and wrote
voluminously on economic and financial subjects. He estab-
lished the first Cr6dit Foncier in France in 1852, and in 1864
became professor of political economy at the Conservatoire in
succession to J. A. Blanqui. He was a member of the national
assembly from 1848 to 1851, and again from 1871 till his election
as a senator in 1876. He was a strong free-trader and an ardent
bimetallist.
Of his works the following are the more important: Mobilisation
du credit fancier (1839); De I' organisation industrieUe de la France
avant Colbert (1842) ; Les Finances de la Russie (1864) ; La Question des
banques (1864) ; LaLibertA commerciale (1869) ;L' Oret Vargenl (1870).
WOLSELEY, GARNET JOSEPH WOLSELEY, VISCOUNT
( l8 33~ ). British field marshal, eldest son of Major Garnet
Joseph Wolseley of the King's Own Borderers (2 sth Foot), was
born at Golden Bridge, Co. Dublin, on the 4th of June 1833.
Educated at Dublin, he obtained a commission as ensign in the
izth Foot in March 1852, and was transferred to the 8oth Foot,
with which he served in the second Burmese War. He was
severely wounded on the igth of March 1853 in the attack of
Donabyu, was mentioned in despatches, and received the war
medal. Promoted to be lieutenant and invalided home, he
exchanged into the ooth Light Infantry, then in Dublin. He
accompanied the regiment to the Crimea, and landed at Balaklava
in December 1834. He was selected to be an assistant engineer,
and did duty with the Royal Engineers in the trenches before
Sevastopol. He was promoted to be captain in January 1855,
after less than three years' service, and served throughout the
siege, was wounded at the Quarries on the 7th of June, and again
in the trenches on the 3oth of August. After the fall of Sevastopol
Wolseley was employed on the quartermaster-general's staff,
assisted in the embarkation of the troops and stores, and was one
of the last to leave the Crimea in July 1856. For his services
he was twice mentioned in despatches, was noted for a brevet
majority, received the war medal with clasp, the sth class of the
French Legion of Honour, the sth class of the Turkish Mejidic
and the Turkish medal. After six months' duty with the ootb
77 8
WOLSELEY, VISCOUNT
Foot at Aldershot, he went with it again, in March 1857, to join
the expedition to China under Major-General the Hon. T.
Ashburnham. Wolseley embarked in command of three com-
panies in the transport " Transit," which was wrecked in the
Strait of Banka. The troops were all saved, but with only their
arms and a few rounds of ammunition, and were taken to Singa-
pore, whence, on account of the Indian Mutiny, they were
despatched with all haste to Calcutta. Wolseley distinguished
himself at the relief of Lucknow under Sir Colin Campbell in
November, and in the defence of the Alambagh position under
Outram, taking part in the actions of the 2znd of December 1857,
the 1 2th and i6th of January 1858, and the repulse of the grand
attack of the aist of February. In March he served at the final
siege and capture of Lucknow. He was then appointed deputy-
assistant quartermaster-general on the staff of Sir Hope Grant's
Oudh division, and was engaged in all the operations of the
campaign, including the actions of Bari, Sarsi, Nawabganj, the
capture of Faizabad, the passage of the Gumti and the action of
Sultanpur. In the autumn and winter of 1858 he took part in
the Baiswara, trans-Gogra and trans-Rapti campaigns, ending
with the complete suppression of the rebellion. For his services
he was frequently mentioned in despatches, and, having received
his Crimean majority in March 1858, was in April 1859 promoted
to be lieutenant-colonel, and received the Mutiny medal and clasp.
Wolseley continued to serve on Sir Hope Grant's staff in Oudh,
and when Grant was nominated to the command of the British
troops hi the Anglo-French expedition to China in 1860, accom-
panied him as deputy-assistant quartermaster-general. He was
present at the action at Sin-ho, the capture of Tang-ku, the
storming of the Taku Forts, the occupation of Tientsin, the
battle of Pa-le-cheau and the entry into Peking. He assisted
in the re-embarkation of the troops before the winter set in.
He was mentioned in despatches, and for his services received
the medal and two clasps. On his return home he published the
Narrative of the War with China in 1860.
In November 1861 Wolseley was one of the special service
officers sent to Canada to make arrangements for the reception
of troops in case of war with the United States in connexion
with the mail steamer " Trent " incident, and when the matter
was amicably settled he remained on the headquarters staff in
Canada as assistant quartermaster-general. In 1865 he became
a brevet colonel, was actively employed the following year in
connexion with the Fenian raids from the United States, and in
1867 was appointed deputy quartermaster-general in Canada.
In 1869 his Soldiers' Pocket Book for Field Service was published,
and has since run through many editions. In 1870 he success-
fully commanded the Red river expedition to put down a rising
under Louis Riel at Fort Garry, now the city of Winnipeg,
the capital of Manitoba, then an outpost in the Wilderness,
which could only be reached through a network of rivers and
lakes extending for 600 m. from Lake Superior, traversed only
by Indians, and where no supplies were obtainable. The admir-
able arrangements made and the careful organization of the
transport reflected great credit on the commander, who on his
return home was made K.C.M.G. and C.B.
Appointed assistant adjutant-general at the war office in
1871 he worked hard in furthering the Cardwell schemes of army
reform, was a member of the localization committee, and a keen
advocate of short service, territorial regiments and linked
battalions. From this time till he became commander-in-
chief Wolseley was the prime mover and the deciding influence
in practically all the steps taken at the war office for promoting
the efficiency of the army under the altered conditions of the
day. In 1873 he commanded the expedition to Ashanti, and,
having made all his arrangements at the Gold Coast before
the arrival of the white troops in January 1874, was able to com-
plete the campaign in two months, and re-embark them for home
before the unhealthy season began. This was the campaign
which made his name a household word in England. He fought
the battle of Amoaful on the 3ist of January, and, after five
days' fighting, ending with the battle of Ordahsu, entered Kumasi,
which he burned. He received the thanks of both Houses of
Parliament and a grant of 25,000, was promoted to be major-
general for distinguished service in the field, received the medal
and clasp and was made G.C.M.G. and K.C.B. The freedom
of the city of London was conferred upon him with a sword of
honour, and he was made honorary D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D.
of Cambridge universities. On his return home he was appointed
inspector-general of auxiliary forces, but had not held the post
for a year when, in consequence of the native unrest in Natal,
he was sent to that colony as governor and general commanding.
In November 1876 he accepted a seat on the council of India,
from which in 1878, having been promoted lieutenant-general,
he went as high-commissioner to the newly acquired possession
of Cyprus, and in the following year to South Africa to supersede
Lord Chelmsford in command of the forces in the Zulu War,
and as governor of Natal and the Transvaal and high com-
missioner of South-East Africa. But on his arrival at Durban
in July he found that the war in Zululand was practically over,
and after effecting a temporary settlement he went to the
Transvaal. Having reorganized the administration there and
reduced the powerful chief Sikukuni to submission, he returned
home in May 1880 and was appointed quartermaster-general to
the forces. For his services in South Africa he received the Zulu
medal with clasp, and was made G.C.B.
In 1882 he was appointed adjutant-general to the forces,
and in August of that year was given the command of the British
forces in Egypt to suppress the rebellion of Arabi Pasha (see
EGYPT: Military Operations). Having seized the Suez Canal,
he disembarked his troops at Ismailia, and after a very short
and brilliant campaign completely defeated Arabi Pasha at
Tel-el-Kebir, and suppressed the rebellion. For his services
he received the thanks of parliament, the medal with clasp,
the bronze star, was promoted general for distinguished service
in the field, raised to the peerage as Baron Wolseley of Cairo
and Wolseley, and received from the Khedive the ist class of
the order of the Osmanieh. In 1884 he was again called away
from his duties as adjutant-general to command the Nile expedi-
tion for the relief of General Gordon and the besieged garrison
of Khartum. The expedition arrived too late: Khartum had
fallen, and Gordon was dead; and in the spring of 1885 com-
plications with Russia over the Penjdeh incident occurred, and
the withdrawal of the expedition followed. For his services he
received two clasps to his Egyptian medal, the thanks of parlia-
ment, and was created a viscount and a knight of St Patrick.
He continued at the war office as adjutant-general to the forces
until 1890, when he was given the command in Ireland. He
was promoted to be field marshal in 1894, and was nominated
colonel of the Royal Horse Guards in 1895, in which year he
was appointed by the Unionist government to succeed the duke
of Cambridge as commander-in-chief of the forces. This was
the position to which his great experience in the field and his
previous signal success at the war office itself had fully entitled
him. His powers were, however, limited by a new order in
council, and after holding the appointment for over five years,
he handed over the command-in-chief to Earl Roberts at the
commencement of 1901. The fact that the unexpectedly large
force required for South Africa was mainly furnished by means
of the system of reserves which Lord Wolseley had originated
was in itself a high tribute to his foresight and sagacity; but
the new conditions at the war office had never been to his liking,
and on being released from responsibility he brought the whole
subject before the House of Lords in a speech which resulted
in some remarkable disclosures.
Lord Wolseley had been appointed colonel-in-chief of the
Royal Irish Regiment in 1898, and in 1901 was made gold-
stick in waiting. He married in 1867 Louisa, daughter of Mr
A. Erskine, his only child, Frances, being heiress to the viscountcy
under special remainder. A frequent contributor to periodicals,
he also published The Decline and Fall of Napoleon (1895),
The Life of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, to the Accession
of Queen Anne (1894), and The Story of a Soldier's Life (1903),
giving in the last-named work an account of his career down to
the close of the Ashanti War.
WOLSEY
779
WOLSEY, THOMAS (c. 1475-1530), English cardinal and
statesman, born at Ipswich about 1475, was son f Robert Wolsey
(or Wuley, as his name was always spelt) by his wife Joan. His
father is generally described as a butcher, but he sold other things
than meat; and although a man of some property and a church-
warden of St Nicholas, Ipswich, his character seems to have borne
a striking resemblance to that of Thomas Cromwell's father.
He was continually being fined for allowing his pigs to stray in
the street, selling bad meat, letting his house to doubtful char-
acters for illegal purposes, and generally infringing the by-laws
respecting weights and measures (extracts from the Ipswich
records, printed in the Athenaeum, 1900, i. 400). He died in
September 1496, and his will, which has been preserved, was
proved a few days later.
Thomas was educated ja.t Magdalen College, Oxford; but the
details of his university ca'reer are doubtful owing to the defective-
ness of the'university and college registers. He is said to have
graduated B.A. at the age of fifteen (i.e. about 1490); but his
earliest definite appearance in the records is as junior bursar
of Magdalen College in i498-i49O", and senior bursar in 1499-
1500, an office he was compelled to resign for applying funds
to the completion of the great tower without sufficient authority
(W. D. Macray, Reg. of Magdalen College, i. 29-30, 133-134).
He must have been elected fellow of Magdalen some years before ;
and as master of Magdalen College school he had under his
charge three sons of Thomas Grey, first marquess of Dorset.
Dorset's beneficent intentions for his sons' pedagogue probably
suggested Wolsey's ordination as priest at Marlborough on
March 10, 1498, and on October 10, 1500, he was instituted,
on Dorset's presentation, to the rectory of Limington in Somerset.
His connexion with Magdalen had perhaps terminated with his
resignation of the bursarship, though he supplicated for the
degrees of B.D. and D.D. in 1510; and the college appears to
have derived no advantage from Wolsey's subsequent greatness.
At Limington he came into conflict with law and order as
represented by the sheriff, Sir Amias Paulet, who is said by
Cavendish to have placed Wolsey in the stocks; Wolsey retali-
ated long afterwards by confining Paulet to his chambers in
the Temple for five or six years. Dorset died in 1 501 , but Wolsey
found other patrons in his pursuit of wealth and fame. Before
the end of that year he obtained from the pope a dispensation
to hold two livings in conjunction with Limington, and Arch-
bishop Deane of Canterbury also appointed him his domestic
chaplain. Deane, however, died in 1503, and Wolsey became
chaplain to Sir Richard Nanfan, deputy of Calais, who apparently
recommended him to Henry VII. Nanfan died in 1507, but the
king made Wolsey his chaplain and employed him in diplomatic
work. In 1508 he was sent to James IV. of Scotland, and in
the same year he pleased Henry by the extraordinary expedition
with which he crossed and recrossed the Channel on an errand
connected with the king's proposal of marriage to Margaret of
Savoy. His ecclesiastical preferments, of which he received
several in 1506-1509, culminated in his appointment by Henry
to the deanery of Lincoln on February 2, 1 509.
Henry VIII. made Wolsey his almoner immediately on his
accession, and the receipt of some half-dozen further ecclesiastical
preferments in the first two years of the reign marks his growth
in royal favour. But it was not till towards the end of 1511 that
Wolsey became a privy councillor and secured a controlling voice
in the government. His influence then made itself felt on English
policy. The young king took little pains with the government,
and the control of affairs was shared between the clerical and
peace party led by Richard Fox (q.v.) and Archbishop Warham,
and the secular and war party led by Surrey. Hitherto pacific
counsels had on the whole prevailed; but Wolsey, who was nothing
if not turbulent, turned the balance in favour of war, and his
marvellous administrative energy first found full scope in the
preparations for the English expedition to Biscay in 1512, and
for the campaign in northern France in 1513. He brought about
the peace with France and marriage between Mary Tudor and
Louis XII. in 1514, and reaped his reward in the bishoprics of
Lincoln and Tournai, the archbishopric of York, which was
conferred on him by papal bull in September, and the cardinal-
ate which he had sent Polydore Vergil to beg from Leo X. in
May 1514, but did not receive till the following year. Neverthe-
less, when Francis I. in 1515 succeeded Louis XII. and won the
battle of Marignano, Wolsey took the lead in assisting the
emperor Maximilian to oppose him; and this revival of warlike
designs was resented by Fox and Warham, who retired from
the government, leaving Wolsey supreme. Maximilian proved
a broken reed, and in 1518 Wolsey brought about a general
pacification, securing at the same time his appointment as
legate A latere in England. He thus superseded Warham, who
was legatus nalus, in ecclesiastical authority; and though legates
a latere were supposed to exercise only special and temporary
powers, Wolsey secured the practical permanence of his office.
The election of Charles V. as emperor in 1519 brought the
rivalry between him and Francis I. to a head, and Wolsey was
mainly responsible for the attitude adopted by the English
government. Both monarchs were eager for England's alliance,
and their suit enabled Wolsey to appear for the moment as the
arbiter of Europe. England's commercial relations with Charles
V.'s subjects in the Netherlands put war with the emperor almost
out of the question; and cool observers thought that England's
obvious policy was to stand by while the two rivals enfeebled
each other, and then make her own profit out of their weakness.
But, although a gorgeous show of friendship with France was
kept up at the Field of Cloth of Gold in 1520, it had been deter-
mined before the conference of Calais in 1521, at which Wolsey
pretended to adjudicate on the merits of the dispute, to side
actively with Charles V. Wolsey had vested interests in.such a
policy. Parliament had in 1513-1515 showed signs of strong
anti-clerical feeling; Wolsey had in the latter year urged its
speedy dissolution, and had not called another; and he prob-
ably hoped to distract attention from the church by a spirited
foreign policy, as Henry V. had done a century before. He had,
moreover, received assurances from the emperor that he would
further Wolsey's candidature for the papacy; and although he
protested to Henry VIII. that he would rather continue in his
service than be ten popes, that did not prevent him from secretly
instructing his agents at Rome to press his claims to the utmost.
Charles, however, paid Wolsey the sincere compliment of thinking
that he would not be sufficiently subservient on the papal throne;
while he wrote letters in Wolsey's favour, he took care that they
should not reach their destination in time; and Wolsey failed
to secure election both in 1521 and 1524. This ambition dis-
tinguishes his foreign policy from that of Henry VII., to which it
has been likened. Henry VII. cared only for England; Wolsey's
object was to play a great part on the European stage. The aim
of the one was national, that of the other was oecumenicaL
In any case the decision taken in 1521 was a blunder. Wolsey's
assistance helped Charles V. to that position of predominance
which was strikingly illustrated by the defeat and capture of
Francis I. at Pavia in 1525; and the balance of power upon
which England's influence rested was destroyed. Her efforts
to restore it in 1526-1528 were ineffectual; her prestige had
depended upon her reputation for wealth derived from the fact
that she had acted in recent years as the paymaster of Europe.
But Henry VII. 's accumulations had disappeared; parliament
resisted in 1523 the imposition of new taxation; and the attempts
to raise forced loans and benevolences in 1526-1528 created a
storm of opposition. Still more unpopular was the brief war with
Charles V. in which Wolsey involved England in 1528. The sack
of Rome in 1527 and the defeat of the French before Naples
in 1528 confirmed Charles V.'s supremacy. Peace was made in
1529 between the two rivals without England being consulted,
and her influence at Wolsey's fall was less than it had been at
his accession to power.
This failure reacted upon Wolsey's position at home. His
domestic was sounder than his foreign policy: by his develop-
ment of the star chamber, by his firm administration of justice
and maintenance of order, and by his repression of feudal
jurisdiction, he rendered great services to the monarchy. But
the inevitable opposition of the nobility to this policy was not
y8o
WOLTER
mitigated by the fact that it was carried out by a churchman;
the result was to embitter the antagonism of the secular party
to the church and to concentrate it upon Wolsey's head. The
control of the papacy by Charles V., moreover, made it impossible
for Wolsey to succeed in his efforts to obtain from Clement VII.
the divorce which Henry VIII. was seeking from Charles V.'s
aunt, Catherine of Aragon. An inscription on a contemporary
portrait of Wolsey at Arras calls him the author of the divorce,
and Roman Catholic historians from Sanders downwards have
generally adopted the view that Wolsey advocated this measure
merely as a means to break England's alliance with Spain and
confirm its alliance with France. This view is unhistorical,
and it ignores the various personal and national motives which
lay behind that movement. There is no evidence that Wolsey
first suggested the divorce, though when he found that Henry
was bent upon it, he pressed for two points: (i.) that an applica-
tion should be made to Rome, instead of deciding the matter in
England, and (ii.) that Henry, when divorced, should marry a
French princess.
The appeal to Rome was a natural course to be advocated by
Wolsey, whose despotism over the English church depended upon
an authority derived from Rome; but it was probably a mistake.
It ran counter to the ideas suggested in 1527 on the captivity of
Clement VII., that England and France should set up indepen-
dent patriarchates; and its success depended upon the problem-
atical destruction of Charles V.'s power in Italy. At first this
seemed not improbable; French armies marched south on
Naples, and the pope sent Campeggio with full powers to pro-
nounce the divorce in England. But he had hardly started when
the French were defeated in 1528; their ruin was completed
in 1529, and Clement VII. was obliged to come to terms with
Charles V., which included Campeggio 's recall in August 1529.
Wolsey clearly foresaw his own fall, the consequent attack
on the church and the triumph of the secular party. Parlia-
ment, which he had kept at arm's length, was hostile; he was
hated by the nobility, and his general unpopularity is reflected
in Skelton's satires and in Hall's Chronicle. Even churchmen
had been alienated by his suppression of monasteries and by his
monopoly of ecclesiastical power; and his only support was the
king, who had now developed a determination to rule himself.
He surrendered all his offices and all his preferments except the
archbishopric of York, receiving in return a pension of 1000
marks (equal to six or seven thousand pounds a year in modern
currency) from the bishopric of Winchester, and retired to his see,
which he had never before visited. A bill of attainder, passed by
the Lords, was rejected at Cromwell's instigation and probably
with Henry's goodwill by the Commons. The last few months
of his life were spent in the exemplary discharge of his archi-
episcopal duties; but a not altogether unfounded suspicion that
he had invoked the assistance of Francis I., if not of Charles V.
and the pope, to prevent his fall involved him in a charge of
treason. He was summoned to London, but died on his way at
Leicester abbey on November 30, and was buried there on the
following day.
The completeness of Wolsey's fall enhanced his former appear-
ance of greatness, and, indeed, he is one of the outstanding figures
in English history. His qualities and his defects were alike
exhibited on a generous scale; and if his greed and arrogance
were colossal, so were his administrative capacity and his appetite
for work. " He is," wrote the Venetian ambassador Giustiniani,
" very handsome, learned, extremely eloquent, of vast ability
and indefatigable. He alone transacts the business which
occupies all the magistrates and councils of Venice, both civil
and criminal; and all state affairs are managed by him, let their
nature be what it may. He is grave, and has the reputation of
being extremely just; he favours the people exceedingly, and
especially the poor, hearing their suits and seeking to despatch
them instantly." As a diplomatist he has had few rivals and
perhaps no superiors. But his pride was equal to his abilities.
The familiar charge, repeated in Shakespeare, of having written
Ego et meus rex, while true in fact, is false in intention, because
no Latin scholar could put the words in any other order; but
it reflects faithfully enough Wolsey's mental attitude. Gius-
tiniani explains that he had to make proposals to the cardinal
before he broached them to Henry, lest Wolsey " should resent
the precedence conceded to the king." " He is," wrote another
diplomatist, " the proudest prelate that ever breathed." He
arrogated to himself the privileges of royalty, made servants
attend him upon their knees, compelled bishops to tie his shoe-
latchets and dukes to hold the basin while he washed his hands,
and considered it condescension when he allowed ambassadors
to kiss his fingers; he paid little heed to their sacrosanct char-
acter, and himself laid violent hands on a papal nuncio. His
egotism equalled Henry VIII. 's; his jealousy and ill-treatment
of Richard Pace, dean of St Paul's, referred to by Shakespeare
but vehemently denied by Dr Brewer, has been proved by the
publication of the Spanish state papers; and Polydore Vergil,
the historian, and Sir R. Sheffield, speaker of the House of
Commons, were both sent to the Tower for complaining of his
conduct. His morals were of the laxest description, and he
had as many illegitimate children as Henry VIII. himself. For
his son, before he was eighteen years old, he procured a deanery,
four archdeaconries, five prebends and a chancellorship, and he
sought to thrust him into the bishopric of Durham. For himself
he obtained, in addition to his archbishopric and lord chancellor-
ship, the abbey of St Albans, reputed to be the richest in England,
and the bishopric first of Bath and Wells, then of Durham, and
finally that of Winchester. He also used his power to extort
enormous pensions from Charles V. and Francis I. and lavish
gifts from English suitors. His New Year's presents were
reckoned by Giustiniani at 15,000 ducats, and the emperor paid
or owed him 18,000 livres a year. His palaces outshone
those of his king, and few monarchs could afford such a display
of plate as commonly graced the cardinal's table. His founda-
tions at Oxford and Ipswich were, nevertheless, not made out of
his superabundant revenues, but out of the proceeds of the
dissolution of monasteries, not all of which were devoted to those
laudable objects.
That such a man would ever have used the unparalleled powers
of ecclesiastical jurisdiction with which he had been entrusted
for a genuine reformation of the church is only a pious opinion
cherished by those who regret that the Reformation was left for
the secular arm to achieve; and it is useless to plead lack of
opportunity on behalf of a man who for sixteen years had enjoyed
an authority never before or since wielded by an English subject.
Wolsey must be judged by his deeds and not by doubtful in-
tentions. During the first half of his government he materially
strengthened the Tudor monarchy by the vigorous administration
of justice at home and by the brilliance of his foreign policy
abroad. But the prestige he secured by 1521 was delusive;
its decline was as rapid as its growth, and the expense of the
policy involved taxation which seriously weakened the loyalty
of the people. The concentration of civil and ecclesiastical power
by Wolsey in the hands of a churchman provided a precedent for
its concentration by Henry VIII. in the hands of the crown;
and the personal example of lavish ostentation and loose morals
which the cardinal-archbishop exhibited cannot have been
without influence on the king, who grew to maturity under
Wolsey's guidance.
The Letters and Papers of Henry VIII., vols. j.-iv., supplemented
by the Spanish and Venetian Calendars, contain almost all that is
known of Wolsey's public career, though additional light on the
divorce has been thrown by Stephen Ehses' Romische Dokumente
(1893). Cavendish's brief Life, which is almost contemporary, has
been often edited. Fiddes's huge tome (1724) is fairly exhaustive.
Brewer, in his elaborate prefaces to the Letters and Papers (reissued
as his History of the Reign of Henry VIII.), originated modern ad-
miration for Wolsey; and his views are reflected in Creighton's
Wolsey in the " Twelve English Statesmen " series, and in Dr
Gairdner's careful articles in the Diet. Nat. Biog. and Cambridge
Modern History. A less enthusiastic view is adopted in H. A. L.
Fisher's volume (v.) in Longmans' Political History (1906) and in
A. F. Pollard's Henry VIII. (1902 and 1905). (A. F. P.)
WOLTER, CHARLOTTE (1834-1897), Austrian actress, was
born at Cologne on the ist of March 1834, and began her artistic
career at Budapest in 1857. She played minor parts at the Karl
WOLVERHAMPTON, VISCOUNT- -WOMBAT
781
theatre in Vienna, and soon obtained an engagement at the
Victoria theatre in Berlin, where she remained until 1861. Her
performance of Hermione in the Winter's Tale took the playgoing
world by storm, and she was given in 1862 an appointment at the
Vienna Hofburg theatre, to which she remained faithful until
her death on the I4th of June 1897. According to her wish, she
was buried in the costume of Iphigenia, in which role she had
achieved her most brilliant success. Charlotte Wolter was one
of the great tragic actresses of modern times. Her repertory
included Medea, Sappho, Lady Macbeth, Mary Stuart, Preciosa,
Phedre, Adrienne Lecouvreur, Jane Eyre and Messalina, in
which character she was immortalized by the painter Hans
Makart. She was also an inimitable exponent of the heroines in
plays by Grillparzer, Hebbel, Dumas and Sardou.
See Ehrenfeld, Charlotte Wolter (Vienna, 1887); Hirschfeld,
Charlotte Wolter, ein Erinnerungsblatt (1897).
WOLVERHAMPTON, HENRY HARTLEY FOWLER, VIS-
COUNT (1830-. ), English statesman, was born at Durham on
the i6th of May 1830. He became a prosperous solicitor in
Wolverhampton, and coming of a Liberal nonconformist family
took a prominent part in politics. In 1880 he was elected Liberal
member of parliament for Wolverhampton, and was re-elected
for the east division at successive contests. In 1884-1885 he
was under-secretary for the Home Office, and in 1886 financial
secretary to the treasury. In Mr Gladstone's 1892-1894 ministry
he was president of the local government board, and in Lord
Rosebery's cabinet, 1894-1895, secretary of state for India.
In these and the succeeding years of opposition he was recognized
as a sound economist and a sober administrator, as well as a
universally respected representative of nonconformist views.
In Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet, 1905-1908, he was
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and he retained this office
in Mr Asquith's ministry, but was transferred to the House of
Lords with a viscountcy (April 1908). He retired in 1910. His
daughter, Ellen Thorneycroft Fowler, who married Mr A. L.
Felkin in 1903, became well known as a novelist with her Con-
cerning Isabel Carnaby (1898) and other books.
WOLVERHAMPTON, a market town, and municipal, county
and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, England, 125 m.
N.W. from London by the London & North-Western railway,
served also by the northern line of the Great Western and by
a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1891) 82,622; (1901)
94,187. It lies at the north-western edge of the group of great
manufacturing towns extending S.E. to Birmingham, but there
are pleasant residential suburbs to the west, .where the country is
rich and well wooded. The situation is elevated and healthy.
The church of St Peter is a fine cruciform building, with S.
porch and central tower. The lower part of the tower and the
S. transept date from the I3th century; the nave, clerestory,
upper part of the tower and N. transept from the isth; the
chancel was rebuilt in the restoration, completed in 1865, with an
apsidal termination. The chief public buildings are the town
hall (1871), exchange, agricultural hall, free library and theatres.
A large free grammar school, founded in 1515 by Sir Stephen
Jermyns, a native of the town and alderman of London, occupies
modern buildings (1876). There are a Blue Coat school (1710)
and a school of art. The benevolent institutions include a
general hospital, the eye infirmary, orphan asylum, nursing
institution and institute of the society for outdoor blind. In
Queen Square is an equestrian statue of Albert, Prince Consort,
unveiled by Queen Victoria in 1866, and on Snow Hill a statue
(1879) of Charles Pelham Villiers. There are parks on the east
and west of the town, and a new racecourse (1887) replaces that
formerly on the site of the west park. In the district S. and E.
of Wolverhampton (the Black Country) coal and ironstone are
mined. Ironmongery and steel goods of all kinds, especially
locks, machinery, tools and cycles, are produced; there are
also tin and zinc works. Large agricultural markets are supplied
from the districts W. and N. of the town. An annual fair is held
at Whitsuntide. In 1902 an industrial and art exhibition was
held. The parliamentary borough of Wolverhampton has three
divisions, each returning one member. The town is governed
by a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 3525
acres. WEDNESFIELD (pop. 4883), HEATH TOWN or Wednesfield
Heath (9441) and WILLENHALL (18,515) are neighbouring urban
districts, with populations employed in the manufacture of locks,
keys and small iron goods, in iron and brass foundries, varnish
works, &c.
The town of Wolverhampton (Handone, Wolvernehamptone,
Wollernehampton) seems to have grown up round the church of
St Mary, afterwards the royal free chapel of Wolverhampton,
probably founded in 996 by Wulfruna, widow of the earl of
Northampton, who in that year endowed it with extensive lands.
The estates of the clerks of Handone are enumerated in Domes-
day. In 1 204 John granted the manor of Wolverhampton to the
church, and at the Reformation it was held by the dean of the
collegiate body; in 1553 Edward VI. granted the college and
manor to Dudley, duke of Northumberland, but Mary, at the
beginning of her reign, refounded the college and restored to it its
property, and this arrangement was confirmed by Elizabeth.
Henry III. (1258) granted the Wednesday market, which is still
held, and a fair for eight days, beginning on the eve of the feast
of SS. Peter and Paul (June 29). During the Great Rebellion
the sympathies of Wolverhampton were royalist. In 1645 it
was for a time the headquarters of Prince Rupert, while Charles I.
lay at Bushbury to the north. At the end of the i7th century
the market was esteemed the second market in the county. An
account of Wolverhampton published in 1751 stated that the
chief manufacture was locks, " here being the most ingenious
locksmiths in England," and attributed the slow growth of the
town to the fact that most of the land was church property.
Wolverhampton was incorporated in 1848 as a municipal borough.
It was not represented in parliament until after the passing of the
Reform Bill (1832), under which it returned two members until
in 1885 the representation was increased to three. The county
borough dates from 1888.
WOLVERTON, a town in the Buckingham parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, near the river Ouse,
52$ m. N.W. by N. of London by the London & North-Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 5323. Its modern growth and importance
are the result of the establishment of carriage works by the
railway company. There are also printing works. A steam
tramway connects the town with the old market town of Stony
Stratford on the Ouse, 2 m. W.
WOMBAT, the title of the typical representatives of the
marsupial family Phascolomyidae (see MAXSUPIAUA). They have
the dental formula: i\, c. ft, p. $, m. |; = 24. All the teeth are
Tasmanian Wombat (Phascolomys ursinus).
of continuous growth, having persistent pulps. The incisors
are large and chisel-like, much as in rodents. The body is broad
and depressed, the neck short, the head large and flat, the eyes
small and the tail rudimentary and hidden in the fur. The
WOMBWELL WOMEN
limbs are equal, stout and short. The feet have broad, naked,
tuberculated soles; the forefeet with five distinct toes, each
furnished with a long, strong and slightly curved nail, the first
and fifth considerably shorter than the other three. The hind-
feet have a very short nailless first toe; the second, third and
fourth toes partially united by integument, of nearly equal
length; the fifth distinct and rather shorter; these four are
provided with long and curved nails. In the typical group of
the genus Phascolomys we find the following characters: Fur
rough and coarse; ears short and rounded; muzzle naked;
postorbital process of the frontal bone obsolete; ribs fifteen
pairs. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 4, S. 4, Ca. 10-12. The
wombat of Tasmania and the islands of Bass's Straits (P. ursinus),
and the closely similar but larger P. platyrhinus of the southern
portion of the mainland of Australia, belong to this group. On
the other hand, in the hairy-nosed wombat (P. latifrons) of
Southern Australia, the fur is smooth and silky; the ears are
large and more pointed; the muzzle is hairy; the frontal region
of the skull is broader than in the other section, with well-marked
postorbital processes; and there are thirteen ribs. Vertebrae:
C.7,D.i3,L.6,S. 4 ,Ca. 15-16.
In general form and action wombats resemble small bears,
having a somewhat similar shuffling manner of walking, but they
are still shorter in the legs, and have a broader and flatter back.
They live entirely on the ground, or in burrows or holes among
rocks, and feed on grass, roots and other vegetable substances.
They sleep during the day, but wander forth at night in search
of food, and are shy and gentle, though they can bite strongly
when provoked. The only noise the Tasmanian wombat makes
is a low hissing, but the hairy-nosed wombat is said to emit a
short quick grunt when annoyed. The prevailing colour of
the last-named species, as well as P. ursinus of Tasmania, is
brownish grey. The large wombat of the mainland is variable
in colour, some individuals being pale yellowish brown, others
dark grey and some black. The length of the head and body
is about 3 ft. Fossil remains of wombats, some of larger size
than any now existing, have been found hi caves and Pleistocene
deposits in Australia. (R. L.*)
WOMBWELL, an urban district in the Barnsley parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 4 m. S.E.
of Barnsley, on the Great Central and Midland railways. The
inhabitants are chiefly employed in the extensive collieries.
Pop. (1901) 13,252.
WOMEN. The very word " woman " (O. Eng. ivifmann),
etymologically meaning a wife (or the wife division of the human
race, the female of the species Homo), sums up a long history of
dependence and subordination, from which the women of to-day
have only gradually emancipated themselves in such parts of
the world as come under " Western civilization." Though
married life and its duties necessarily form a predominant element
in the woman's sphere, they are not necessarily the whole of it;
and the " woman's movement " is essentially a struggle for the
recognition of equality of opportunity with men, and for equal
rights irrespective of sex, even if special relations and conditions
are willingly incurred under the form of partnership involved
in marriage. The difficulties of obtaining this recognition are
obviously due to historical causes combined with the habits and
customs which history has produced.
The dependent position of women in e?irly law is proved by
the evidence of most ancient systems which have in whole or
BaH law in part d escen( kd to us. 1 In the Mosaic law divorce
was a privilege of the husband only, 2 the vow of a
woman might be disallowed by her father or husband, 3 and
daughters could inherit only in the absence of sons, and then
they must marry in their tribe. 4 The guilt or innocence of a
wife accused of adultery might be tried by the ordeal of the
bitter water. 5 Besides these instances, which illustrate the
1 But in the earliest extant code, however, that of Khammurabi,
the position of women was free and dignified. See BABYLONIAN
LAW.
* Deut. xxiv. i. * Numb. xxx. 3.
4 Numb, xxvii., xxxvi. ' Numb. v. II.
subordination of women, there was much legislation dealing with,
inter alia, offences against chastity, and marriage of a man with
a captive heathen woman or with a purchased slave. So far
from second marriages being restrained, as they were by Christian
legislation, it was the duty of a childless widow to marry her
deceased husband's brother. In India subjection was a cardinal
principle. " Day and night must women be held by their pro-
tectors in a state of dependence," says Manu. 6 The rule of in-
heritance was agnatic, that is, descent traced through males
to the exclusion of females. 7 The gradual growth of stridhana,
or property of a woman given by the husband before or after
marriage, or by the wife's family, may have led to the suttee,
for both the family of the widow and the Brahmans had an
interest in getting the lite estate of a woman out of the way. &
Women in Hindu law had only limited rights of inheritance,
and were disqualified as witnesses.
In Roman law a woman was even in historic times completely
dependent. If married she and her property passed into the
power of her husband; if unmarried she was (unless a vestal
virgin) under the perpetual tutelage of her father during his life,
and after his death of her agnates, that is, those of her kinsmen
by blood or adoption who would have been under the power of
the common ancestor had he lived. Failing agnates, the tutelage
protfably passed to the gens. The wife was the purchased
property of her husband, and, like a slave, acquired only for
his benefit. A woman could not exercise any civil or public
office. In the words of Ulpian, " feminae ab omnibus officiis.
civilibus vel publicis remotae sunt." 9 A woman could not
continue a family, for she was "caput et finis familiae suae," 1 *
could not be a witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could not
adopt or be adopted, or make a will or contract. She could not
succeed ab intestate as an agnate, if further removed than a sister.
A daughter might be disinherited by a general clause, a son
only by name. On the other hand, a woman was privileged
in some matters, but rather from a feeling of pity for her bodily
weakness and presumed mental incapacity u than for any more
worthy reason. Thus she could plead ignorance of law as a
ground for dissolving an obligation, which a man could not as a
rule do; she could accuse only in cases of treason and witchcraft;,
and she was in certain cases exempt from torture. In succession
ab intestato to immovable property Roman law did not, as does-
English, recognize any privilege of males over females.
Legal disabilities were gradually mitigated by the influence of
fictions, the praetorian equity and legislation. An example
of the first was the mode by which a woman freed herself from
the authority of her tutor by fictitious cession into the authority
of a tutor nominated by herself, or by sale of herself into the-
power of a nominal husband on the understanding that he was
at once to emancipate her to another person, who then manu-
mitted her. The action of equity is illustrated by the recognition
by the praetor of cognatic or natural as distinguished from
agnatic or artificial relationship, and of a widow's claim to succeed
on the death of her husband intestate and without relations.
Legislation, beginning as early as the Twelve Tables, which for-
bade excessive mourning for the dead by female mourners,
did not progress uniformly towards enfranchisement of women.
For instance, the Lex Voconia (about 169 B.C.), called by St
Augustine the most unjust of all laws, provided that a woman
could not be instituted heir to a man who was registered as owner
of a fortune of 100,000 asses. 12 A constitution of Valentinian I.
forbade bequests by women to ecclesiastics. But the tendency
Ch. ix. 2 (Sir W. Jones's translation).
7 Whether this was the Oldest rule of inheritance has been much
debated. That birth of a child gave the mother certain legal rights
in a primitive stage of society is the view of many writers. See
especially Das Mutterrecht of J. J. Bachofen (Stuttgart, 1861).
8 Maine, Early History of Institutions, lect. xi.
Dig. i. 16, 195. !0 Ibid.
11 Imbecillitas is the term used more than once in the texts of
Roman law.
11 The way in which this law was evaded was by non-enrolment of
the testator in the census (see Montesquieu, Esprit des his, bk.
xxvii.). Another way was by leaving her the inheritance byfideicom-
missum (see TRUST).
WOMEN
783
of legislation was undoubtedly in the direction indicated.
Adoption of women was allowed by Diocletian and Maximian
in 291. The tutelage of women of full age was removed by
Claudius, and, though afterwards in part revived, has disappeared
by the time of Justinian. This implied full testamentary and
contractual liberty. In regard to the separate property of the
married woman, the period of dos had by the time of Justinian
long superseded the period of manus. The result was that, in
spite of a few remaining disabilities, such as the general incapacity
to be surety or witness to a will or contract, of a wife to make
a gift to her husband, of a widow to marry within a year of
her husband's death, the position of women had become, in the
words of Sir H. Maine, " one of great personal and proprietary
independence." 1 For this improvement in their position they
were largely indebted to the legislation of the Christian emperors,
especially of Justinian, who prided himself on being a protector
of women.
The following are a few of the matters in which Christianity appears
to have made alterations, generally but perhaps not always improve-
ments, in the law. As a rule the influence of the church was exercised
in favour of the abolition of the disabilities imposed by the older law
upon celibacy and childlessness, of increased facilities for entering
a professed religious life, 2 and of due provision for the wife. The
church also supported the political power of those who were her best
friends. The government of Pulcheria or Irene would hardly have
been endured in the days of the pagan empire. Other cases in which
Christianity probably exercised influence may be briefly stated. (l)
All differences in the law of succession ab intestato of males and females
were abolished by Justinian. (2) The appointment of mothers and
grandmothers as tutors was sanctioned by the same emperor. (3)
He extended to all cases the principle established by the Senatus
Consultum Tertullianum (158), enabling the mother of three (if a
freed woman four) children to succeed to the property of her children
who died intestate, and gave increased rights of succession to a widow.
(4) The restrictions on the marriage of senators and other men of high
rank with women of low rank were extended by Constantine, but
almost entirely removed by Justinian. (5) Second marriages were
discouraged (especially by making it legal to impose a condition that
a widow s right to property should cease on re-marriage), and the
Leonine Constitutions at the end of the 9th century made third
marriages punishable. (6) The same constitutions made the bene-
diction of a priest a necessary part of the ceremony of marriage.*
The criminal law in its relation to women presents some points of
interest. Adultery was punished with death by Constantine, but
the penalty was reduced by Justinian to relegation to a convent.
A woman condemned for adultery could not re-marry . A marriage
between a Christian and a Jew rendered the parties guilty of adultery.
Severe laws were enacted against offences of unchastity, especially
procurement and incest. It was a capital crime to carry off or offer
violence to a nun. A wife could not commit furtum of her husband's
goods, but he had a special action rerum amotarum against her.
By several sumptuary constituticns, contained in the Code, bk. xi.,
women as well as men were subject to penalties for wearing dress or
ornaments (except rings) imitating those reserved for the emperor
and his family. Actresses and women of bad fame were not to wear
the dress of virgins dedicated to Heaven. If a consul had a wife or
mother living with him, he was allowed to incur greater expense than
if he lived alone. The interests of working women were protected
by enactments for the regulation of the gynoecia, or workshops for
spinning, dyeing, &c.
The canon law, looking with disfavour on the female inde-
pendence prevailing in the later Roman law, tended rather in
the opposite direction. The Decretum specially inculcated
subjection of the wife to the husband, and obedience to his will
in all things. 4 The chief differences between canon and Roman
law were in The law of marriage, especially in the introduction
of publicity and of the formalities of the ring and the kiss. The
benediction of a priest was made a necessary part of the ceremony,
as indeed it had been made by the civil power, as has been already
stated, in the post-Justinian period of Roman law. But in
practice this rule appears to have fallen into disuse until it was
again revived by the council of Trent. It was, however, the
1 Ancient Law, ch. v. Hence the necessity of such laws as the Lex
Oppia (see SUMPTUARY LAWS).
J A remarkable example of this tendency was the provision that
an actress might leave the stage and break her contract of service
with impunity in order to become a nun. Even under the pagan
emperors a constitution of Diocletian and Maximian in 285 had
enacted that no one was to be compelled to marry (Cod. v. 4. 14).
* See R. T. Troplong, De I' influence du christianisme sur It droit
civil.
4 Pt. ii. caus. xxxiii. qu. v. ch. 16.
rule of the English common law after the Reformation. The
ceremony was not to be performed during Lent. The woman
was to be veiled during the ceremony. A promise of marriage
was so sacred that it made a subsequent marriage with another
person void. Spiritual cognation was a bar to marriage. The
sentence of the church was made necessary for divorce. As to
women in general the law does not say very much. Women, even
relatives, were not to live with priests unless in case of necessity.
They were not to approach the altar or fill any public office of
the church; nor might they lend money on usury. Baptism
might be valid although administered by a woman. Women
who had professed religion could not be forced to give evidence
as witnesses. In some cases the evidence of women was not
receivable.'
The early law of the northern parts of Europe is interesting
from the different ways in which it treated women. In the words
of Sir H. Maine* " The position of women in these barbarous
systems of inheritance varies very greatly. Sometimes they
inherit, either as individuals or as classes, only when males of
the same generation have failed. Sometimes they do not in-
herit, but transmit a right of inheritance to their male issue.
Sometimes they succeed to one kind of property, for the most
part movable property, which they probably took a great share
in producing by their household labour; for example, in the
real Salic law (not in the imaginary code) there is a set of rules
of succession which, in my opinion, clearly admit women and
their descendants to a share in the inheritance of movable
property, but confine land exclusively to males and the descend-
ants of males. . . . The idea is that the proper mode of providing
for a woman is by giving her a marriage portion; but, when she
is once married into a separate community consisting of strangers
in blood, neither she nor her children are deemed to have any
further claim on the parent group." Among the Scandinavian
races women were under perpetual tutelage, whether married or
unmarried. The first to obtain freedom were the widows. 7
As late as the code of Christian V., at the end of the iyth century,
it was enacted that if a woman married without the consent of
her tutor he might have, if he wished, administration and usufruct
of her goods during her life. 8 The provision made by the
Scandinavian laws under the name of morning-gift was perhaps
the parent of the modern settled property.' The Brehon law
of Ireland excepted women from the ordinary course of the
law. They could distrain or contract only in certain named
cases, and distress upon their property was regulated by special
rules. In the pre-Conquest codes in England severe laws were
denounced against unchastity, and by a law of Canute a woman
was to lose nose and ears for adultery. The laws of Athelstan
contained the peculiarly brutal provision for the punishment
of a female slave convicted of theft by her being burned
alive by eighty other female slaves. Other laws were directed
against the practice of witchcraft (q.v.) by women. Monogamy
was enforced both by the civil and ecclesiastical law; and second
and third marriages involved penance. A glimpse of cruelty
in the household is afforded by the provision, occurring no less
than three times in the ecclesiastical legislation, that if a woman
scourged her female slave to death she must do penance. Traces
of wife-purchase are seen in the law of Ethelbert, enacting that
if a man carry off a freeman's wife he must at his own expense
procure the husband another wife. The codes contain few
provisions as to the property of married women, but those few
appear to prove that she was in a better position than at a later
5 On this branch of the subject see Manssen's Het Christendom en
de Vrouw (Leiden, 1877).
Early Law and Custom, ch. v.
7 See Stiernhook, De jure Svronum (Stockholm, 1672), bk. ii. ch. i.;
Messenius, Leges Svecorum (Stockholm, 1714).
8 Bk. iii. ch. xvi. 8 1,2.
The development of the bride-price no doubt was in the same
direction. Its original meaning was, however, different. It was the
sum paid by the husband to the wife's family for the purchase of part
of the family property, while the morning-gift was paid as prrlium
virginitatis to the bride herself. In its English form morning-gift
occurs in the laws of Canute ; in its Latinized form of morgangiva it
occurs in the Leges Henrici Primi.
7 8 4
WOMEN
period. The laws of Ine gave her a third of her husband's property
the laws of Edmund as to betrothal allowed this to be increasei
to half by antenuptial contract, to the whole if she had children
and did not re-marry after her husband's death. No doub
the dower ad oslium ecclesiae favoured by the church generallj
superseded the legal rights where the property was large (in
fact this is specially provided by Magna Carta, c. 7). " Provisio
hominis tollit provisionem legis." The legal rights of a marrie<
woman apart from contract were gradually limited, until by
the time of Glanvill her person and property had become durinj
her husband's lifetime entirely at his disposal, and after his death
limited to her dower and her pars rationabilis.
A few of the more interesting matters in which the old common
and statute law of England placed women in a special position
may be noticed. A woman was exempt from legal duties more
particularly attaching to men and not performable by deputy
She could apparently originally not hold a proper feud, i.e. one
of which the tenure was by military service. 1 The same principle
appears in the rule that she could not be endowed of a castle
maintained for the defence of the realm and not for the private
use of the owner. She could receive homage, but not render it
in the form used by men, and she was privileged from suit and
service at the sheriff's tourn. She was not sworn to the law
by the oath of allegiance in the leet or tourn, and so could not be
outlawed, but was said to be waived. She could be constable,
either of a castle or a vill, but not sheriff, unless in the one case
of Westmorland, an hereditary office, exercised in person in the
1 7th century by the famous Anne, countess of Dorset, Pembroke
and Montgomery. In certain cases a woman could transmit
rights which she could not enjoy. On such a power of trans-
mission, as Sir H. Maine shows, 2 rested the claim of Edward III.
to the crown of France. The claim through a woman was not a
breach of the French constitutional law, which rejected the claim
of a woman. The jealousy of a woman's political influence is
strikingly shown by the case of Alice Ferrers, the mistress of
Edward III. She was accused of breaking an ordinance by
which women had been forbidden to do business for hire and by
way of maintenance in the king's court.?
By Magna Carta a woman could not accuse a man of murder
except of that of her husband. This disability no doubt arose from
the fact that in trial by battle she naturally did not appear in person
but by a champion. She was not admitted as a witness to prove the
status of a man on the question arising whether he were free or a
villein. She could not appoint a testamentary guardian, and could
only be a guardian even of her own children to a limited extent.
Her will was revoked by marriage, that of a man only by marriage
and the subsequent birth of a child. By 31 Hen. VI. c. p the king's
writ out of chancery was granted to a woman alleging that she had
become bound by an obligation through force or fraud. By 39
Hen. VI. c. 2 a woman might have livery of land as heiress at fourteen.
Benefit of clergy was first allowed to women partially by 21 Jac. I.
c. 6, fully by 3 Will. & M. c. 9 and 4 and 5 Will. & M. c. 24. Public
whipping was not abolished until 57 Geo. III. c. 75, whipping in
all cases until I Geo. IV. c. 57. Burning was the punishment specially
appropriated to women convicted of treason or witchcraft. A case
of sentence to execution by burning for petit treason occurred as
lately as 1784. In some old statutes very curious sumptuary regula-
tions as to women's dress occur. By the sumptuary laws of Edward
III. in 1363 (37Edw. III.cc. 8-14) women were in general to be dressed
according to the position of their fathers or husbands. Wives and
daughters of servants were not to wear veils above twelvepence in
value. Handicraftsmen's and yeomen's wives were not to wear silk
yeils. The use of fur was confined to the ladies of knights with a
rental above 200 marks a year. Careful observance of difference
of rank in the dress was also inculcated by 3 Edw. IV. c. 5. The wife
or daughter of a knight was not to wear cloth of gold or sable fur,
of a knight-bachelor not velvet, of an esquire or gentleman not
velvet, satin or ermine, of a labourer not clothes beyond a certain price
or a girdle garnished with silver. By 22 Edw. IV. c. I, cloth of gold
and purple silk were confined to women of the royal family, ft is
worthy of _notice that at the times of passing these sumptuary laws
the trade interests of women were protected by the legislature. By
37 Edw. III. c. 6, handicraftsmen were to use only one mystery, but
women might work as they had been accustomed. 3 Edw. IV. c. 3
1 It is remarkable that the great fiefs of France, except the Isle of
France, the special apanage of the crown, all became in time female
fiefs. This is shown by the table at the end of Laboulaye's Rechcrches.
1 Early Law and Custom, ch. v.
* Rot. Part., vol. iii. p. 12.
forbade importation of silk and lace by Lombards and other alien
strangers, imagining to destroy the craft of the silk spinsters and all
such virtuous occupations for women. In some cases the wives and
daughters of tradesmen were allowed to assist in the trades of their
husbands and fathers; see, for instance, the act concerning tanners
i Jac. I. c. 22. Some trading corporations, such as the East India
Company, recognized no distinction of sex in their members. The
disabilities imposed on women by substantive law are sometimes
traceable in the early law of procedure. For instance, by the Statute
of Essoins (12 Edw. II. st. 2), essoin de servitio regis did not lie where
the party was a woman; that is, a woman (with a few exceptions)
could not excuse her absence from court by alleging that she was on
public duty. The influence of the church is very clearly traceable in
some of the earlier criminal legislation. Thus by 13 Edw. I. st. I, c.
34, it was punishable with three years' imprisonment to carry away
a nun, even with her consent. The Six Articles, 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14,
forbade marriage and concubinage of priests and sanctioned vows
of chastity by women.
In Scotland, as early as Regiam Majestatem (i2th century) women
were the object of special legal regulation. In that work the mercheta
mul^ens (probably a tax paid to the lord on the marriage of his
tenant s daughter) was fixed at a sum differing according to the rank
of the woman. Numerous ancient laws dealt with trade and sumptu-
ary matters. By the Leges Quatuor Burgorum female brewsters mak-
ing bad ale were to forfeit eightpence and be put on the cucking-stool,
and were to set an ale-wand outside their houses under a penalty
of fourpence. The same laws also provided that a married woman
committing a trespass without her husband's knowledge might be
chastised like a child under age. The Statuta Gtide of the 1 3th century
enacted that a married woman might not buy wool in the streets or
buy more than a limited amount of oats. The same code also ensured
a provision for the daughter of one of the gild-brethren unable to
provide for herself through poverty, either by marrying her or
putting her in a convent. By the act 1429, c. 9, wives were to be
arrayed after the estate of their husbands. By 1457, c. 13, no woman
was to go to church with her face covered so that she could not
be known. 1581, c. 18, was conceived in a more liberal spirit, and
allowed women to wear any head-dress to which they had been
accustomed. 1621, c. 25, permitted servants to wear their mistress's
cast-off clothes. 1681, c. 80, contained the remarkable provision
that not more than two changes of raiment were to be made by a bride
at her wedding. In its more modern aspect the law is in most respects
similar to that of England. (J. \V.)
In separate legal articles attention is drawn, on various sub-
jects, to any special provisions or disabilities affecting
women; see, for instance, EVIDENCE, DIVORCE,
MARRIAGE, CHILDREN (Law relating to), INFANT,
HUSBAND AND WIFE. The movement for removing
the older disabilities has progressed at such different
rates in various countries that it is impossible to do
more than note here the chief distinctions remaining under
English law in 1910.
_ Civil Rights. The age at which a girl can contract a valid marriage,
n English law, is, following the Roman law, twelve ; she is thus two
years in advance of a boy, who must be fourteen. Under the Infants
Settlement Act 1855, a valid settlement could be made by a woman
it seventeen with the approval of the court, the age for a man being
twenty; by the Married Women's Property Act 1907 any settle-
ment by a husband of his wife's property is not valid unless executed
jy her if she is of full age, or confirmed by her after she attains full
age. An unmarried woman is liable for the support of illegitimate
children till they attain the age of sixteen. She is generally assisted,
n the absence of agreement, by an affiliation order granted by magis-
:rates. A married woman having separate property is, under the
Married Women's Property Acts 1882 and 1908, liable for the support
of her parents, husband, children and grandchildren becoming
chargeable to any union or parish. At common law the father was
entitled as against the mother to the custody of a legitimate child
up to the age of sixteen, and could only forfeit such right by mis-
conduct. But the Court of Chancery, wherever there was trust
property and the infant could be made a ward of court, took a less
rigid vie.w of the paternal rights and looked more to the interest of
he child, and consequently in some cases to the extension of the
mother's rights at common law. Legislation has tended in the same
lirection. By the Infants' Custody Act 1873, the Court of Chancery
was empowered to enforce a provision in a separation deed, giving up
he custody or control of a child to the mother. The Judicature Act
8 73. | 25 (10), enacted that in questions relating to the custody
and education of infants the rules of equity should prevail. The
juardianship of Infants Act 1886 largely extended the mother's
sowers of appointing and acting as a guardian, and gave the court
discretion to regard the mother's wishes as to the custody of the
hildren. The Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act 1895
nabled a court of summary jurisdiction, to whom a married woman
as made application, to commit to the applicant the custody of any
hildren of the marriage between the applicant and her husband,
rule under the age of sixteen years.
Modern
English
law
specially
affecting
women.
WOMEN
785
The most remarkable disabilities under which women were still
placed in 1910 were (i) the exclusion of female heirs from intestate
succession to real estate, unless in the absence of a male heir (see
INHERITANCE ; SUCCESSION); and (2) the fact that a husband could
obtain a divorce for the adultery of his wife, while a wife could only
obtain it for her husband's adultery if coupled with some other cause,
such as cruelty or desertion.
Suits in which either necessarily or practically only women are
plaintiffs are: breach of promise, affiliation (g.f.) and (though not
nominally) seduction (g.v.).
The action for breach of promise l may indeed be brought by a
man, but this is very rare, and its only real interest is as a protection
for women. It may be brought by but not against an infant, and not
against an adurt if he or she has merely ratified a promise made
during infancy; it may be brought against but not by a married
man or woman (in spite of the inherent incapacity of such a person
to have married the plaintiff), and neither by nor against the personal
representatives of a deceased party to the promise (unless where
special damage has accrued to the personal estate of the deceased).
The promise need not be in writing. The parties to an action are
by 32 and 33 Viet. c. 68 competent witnesses; the plaintiff cannot,
however, recover a verdict ' without his or her testimony being
corroborated by other material evidence. The measure of damages
is to a greater extent than in most actions at the discretion of the
jury ; they may take into consideration the injury to the plaintiff's
feelings, especially if the breach of promise be aggravated by seduc-
tion. Either party has a right to tnal by jury under the rules of the
Supreme Court, 1883. The action cannot be tried in a county court,
unless by consent, or unless remitted for trial there by the High
Court. Unchastity of the plaintiff unknown to the defendant when
the promise was made and dissolution of the contract by mutual
consent are the principal defences which are usually raised to the
action. Bodily infirmity of the defendant is no defence to the
action, though it may justify the other party in refusing to marry
the person thus affected. Where the betrothed are within prohibited
degrees of consanguinity or affinity, there can be no valid promise at
all, and so no action for its breach.
Criminal Law. There are some offences which can be committed
only by women, others which can be committed only against them.
Among the former are concealment of birth (in ninety-nine cases
out of a hundred), the now obsolete offence of being a common
scold, and prostitution (q.v.) and kindred offences. Where a married
woman commits a crime in company with her husband, she is
generally presumed to have acted by his coercion, and so to be
entitled to acquittal. This presumption, however, was never made
in witchcraft cases, and is not now made in cases of treason, murder
and other grave crimes, or in crimes in which the principal part is
most usually taken by the wife, such as keeping a brothel. In fact,
the exceptions to the old presumption are now perhaps more numerous
1 The action for breach of promise of marriage is in some of its
incidents peculiar to English law. In Roman law, betrothal (spon-
salia) imposed a duty on the betrothed to become husband and wife
within a reasonable time, subject to the termination of the obligation
by death, repudiation by the words conditione tua non utor, or lapse
of time, the time fixed being two years. No action lay for breach of
promise to marry unless arrhae sponsalitiae had been given, i.e.
earnest of the bargain, to be forfeited by the party refusing to carry
it out. The arrka might also be given by a parent, and was equally
liable to forfeiture. A provincial governor, or one of his relations or
household, could not recover any arrha that might have been given,
it being supposed that he was in a position of authority and able to
exercise influence in forcing consent to a betrothal. In the canon
law breach of the promise made by the sponsalia, whether de praesenti
or de future, a division unknown to Roman law, does not without
more appear to have sufficed to found an action for its breach,
except so far as it fell under ecclesiastical cognizance as laesio fidei,
but it had the more serious legal effect of avoiding as a canonical
disability the subsequent marriage, while the original sponsalia
continued, of a betrothed person to any other than the one to whom
he or she was originally betrothed. The sponsalia became inoperative,
either by mutual consent or by certain supervening impediments,
such as ordination or a vow of chastity. The canonical disability
of pre-contract was removed in England by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 38,
re-established in the reign of Edward VI., and finally abolished in
1/53. In England the duty of the parties is the same as in Roman
law, viz. to carry out the contract within a reasonable time, if no
time be specially fixed. Formerly a contract to marry could be
specifically enforced by the ecclesiastical court compelling a cele-
bration of the marriage in facie ecdesiae. The last instance of a
suit for this purpose was in 1752, and the right to bring it was
abolished in 1753 by_ Lord Hardwicke's Act (26 Geo. II. c. 33).
In Scotland a promise in the nature of sponsalia de future not followed
by consummation may be resiled from, subject to the liability of
the party in fault to an action for the breach, which by 6 Geo. IV. c.
120, s. 28, is a proper cause for trial by jury. If, however, the
sponsalia be de praesenti, and, according to the more probable
opinion, if they be de futuro followed by consummation, a pre-
contract is constituted, giving a right to a decree of declarator of
marriage and equivalent to marriage, unless declared void during
the lifetime of the parties.
***""*
than those falling within it. The doctrine of coercion and the
practice of separate acknowledgment of deeds by married women
(necessary before the Married Women's Property Act) seem to be
vestiges of the period when women, besides being chattels, were
treated as chattels. Formerly a wife could not steal her husband's
property, but since the Married Women's Property Act this has
become possible. Adultery is no crime, England being almost the
only country where such is the case. It was punished by fine in the
ecclesiastical courts up to the I7th century, and was made criminal
for a short time by an ordinance of the Long Parliament. The
offences which can be committed only against women are chiefly
those against decency, such as rape, procurement and similar
crimes, in which a considerable change in the law in the direction
of increased protection to women was made by the Criminal Law
Amendment Act 1885. In regard to the protection given to a wife
against her husband modern legislation has considerably strengthened
the wife's position by means of judicial separation and maintenance
in case of desertion (see DIVORCE). The whipping of female offenders
was abolished in 1820. Chastisement of a wife by a husband,
possibly at one time lawful to a reasonable extent, would now
certainly constitute an assault. The husband's rights are limited
to restraining the wife's liberty in case of her misconduct.
In Scotland the criminal law differs slightly from that of England.
At one time drowning was a punishment specially reserved for
women. Incest (q.v.), or an attempt to commit incest, has always
been punishable as a crime. Adultery and fornication are still
nominally crimes, but criminal proceedings in these cases have fallen
into desuetude. The age of testamentary capacity is still twelve,
not twenty-one, as in England.
The whole idea of women's position in social life, and their
ability to take their place, independently of any question of
sex, in the work of the world, was radically changed Higher
in the English-speaking countries, and also in the more education
progressive nations beyond their bounds, during the
ipth century. This is due primarily to the movement
for women's higher education and its results. To deal in detail
with this movement in various countries would here be too
intricate a matter; but in the English-speaking countries at
all events the change is so complete that the only curious thing
now is, not what spheres women may not enter, more or less
equally with men, but the few from which they are still excluded.
Before the accession of Queen Victoria, there was no systematic
education for English women, but as the first half of the igth
century drew to a close, broader views began to be held on the
subject, while the humanitarian movement, as well as the rapidly
increasing number of women, helped to put their education on
a sounder basis. It became more thorough; its methods were
better calculated to stimulate intellectual power; and the con-
viction that it was neither good, nor politic, for women to remain
intellectually in their former state of ignorance, was gradually
accepted by every one. The movement owed much to Frederick
Denison Maurice. He was its pioneer; and Queen's College
(1848), which he founded, was the first to give a wider scope to
the training of its scholars. Out of its teaching, and that of
its professors (including Charles Kingsley), grew nearly all the
educational advantages which women enjoy to-day; and to
the women who were trained at Queen's College we owe some
of the best teaching in England. Bedford College, Cheltenham
College, the North London Collegiate School for Girls, the Girls'
Public Day School Company's schools, are some of those which
sprang into life in different parts of England, and were filled,
as rapidly as they were opened, by the girls of the middle and
professional classes. From their teaching came the final stage
which gave women the same academic advantages as men.
Somerville College and Lady Margaret Hall at Oxford, Girton
and Newnham Colleges at Cambridge, Westfield College in
London, St Hilda's College, St Hugh's Hall, Holloway College,
Owens College, the Manchester and Birmingham and Victoria
Universities, and other colleges for women in all parts of the
United Kingdom, are some of the later but equally successful
results of the movement. . The necessity for testing the quality
of the education of women, however, soon began to be felt. The
University of Cambridge was the first to institute a special
examination for women over eighteen, and its example was
followed by Oxford; but while London, Dublin (Trinity College),
Belfast (Queen's), Victoria, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St Andrews
universities now grant degrees, Oxford and Cambridge still denied
them in 1910. In the act of 1908 establishing the new Roman
y86
WOMEN
Catholic university in Ireland, it was provided th'at two members
of the senate should be women; and Queen's University, Belfast,
had three women in 1910 in its senate. Women may point with
justifiable pride to the fact that within a very few years of their
admission to university examinations,they provided at Cambridge
both a senior classic and a senior wrangler. In America (see
CO-EDUCATION) the movement has gone much farther than in
Great Britain.
The temperate, calm, earnest demeanour of women, both in
the schools and in university life, awakened admiration and
respect from all; and the movement brought into existence a
vast number of women, as well-educated as men, hard-working,
persevering and capable, who invaded many professions, and
could hold their ground where a sound education was the found-
ation of success. The pioneers of female education spent their
energies in developing their higher and more intellectual ideals,
but later years opened up other positions which better education
has enabled women to fill. In the literary field they soon invaded
journalism (see NEWSPAPERS), and took an important place on
the staffs of libraries and museums. They form an important
(and in America, the predominating) section of the teaching
profession in the state schools, and in all research work play an
increasingly valuable part. It is not possible for every woman
to be a scholar, a doctor (see below), a lawyer, 1 or possibly to
attain the highest position in professions where competition
with men is keen, but the development of women's work has
opened many other outlets for their energies. As members of
school boards, factory inspectors, poor law guardians, sanitary
inspectors, they have had ample scope for gratifying their ambition
and energy. The progress made in philanthropy and religious
activity 2 is largely due to their devotion, under the auspices
of countless new societies. And increasing provision has been
made, in the arts and crafts, for the furtherance of their careers.
There are successful women architects now working in England,
and in 1905 a woman won the silver medal of the Royal Society
of British Architects; a large number of women travel for business
firms; in decorative work, as silversmiths, dentists, law copyists,
proof-readers, and in plan tracing women work with success;
wood-carving has become almost as recognized a career for them
as that of typewriting and shorthand, in which an increasing
1 Women have long practised law in the United States, and in
1896 the benchers of the Ontario Law Society decided to admit
them to the bar. In France in December 1900 an act was passed
enabling women to practise as barristers, and Madame Petit was
sworn in Paris, while a woman was briefed for the defence in a murder
case in Toulouse in 1903, this being the first case of a woman pleading
in a European criminal court. In Finland and Norway women have
long practised as barristers, and in Denmark since 1908 they have
been admitted as assistants to lawyers. By the law of the Nether-
lands they are admitted as notaries. In England a special tribunal
of the House of Lords presided over by the Lord Chancellor decided
in 1903 not to admit women to the English bar, on the grounds that
there was no precedent and that they were not desirous of creating
one; but numbers of women take degrees in law in British universi-
ties, and several have become solicitors.
* In the olden times before the Reformation in England various
religious communities absorbed a large number of the surplus
female population, and in High Church and Roman Catholic circles
many ladies still enter various sisterhoods and devote their lives to
teaching the young, visiting the poor and nursing the sick. In the
Church of England the only office which remained open to women
was the modest one of churchwarden, and this office is not infre-
quently filled by women. The Convocation of Canterbury in 1908
refused by a majority of two to admit women to parochial church
councils, though qualified persons of the female sex may vote for
parochial lay representatives on the church council. In the Inde-
pendent Churches there are fewer restrictions. Among the Con-
gregationalists women have equal votes on all questions and may
become deacons or even ministers; Miss Jane Brown has been
recognized as pastor of Brotherton Congregational Church, York-
shire, and Miss L. Smith as pastor of that in Cardiff, and in the
Methodist Church women frequently act as local preachers. The
same equality and share in religious work is accorded to women by
the Baptists, the Society of Friends and the Salvation Army, the
success of which is largely due to them. In Unitarian congregations
in the United States and Australia many women have been ap-
pointed ministers, and in England the Rev. Gertrude von Petzold
held in 1910 the post of minister of the Narborough Road Free
Christian Church, Leicester.
number are finding employment. Agriculture and gardening
have opened up a new field of work, and, with it, kindred occupa-
tions.
Women have always found a peculiarly fitting sphere as
nurses, though it is only in recent years that nursing (q.v.) has
been professionalized by means of proper education.
But their admission to the medical profession itself
was one of the earliest triumphs of the 19th-century movement.
It began in America, but was quickly followed up in England.
After having been refused admission to instruction by numerous
American medical schools, Miss Elizabeth Black well was allowed
to enter as a student by the Geneva Medical College, N.Y.,
in 1847, from which she graduated in 1849. Hers was the first
woman's name to be placed on the Medical Register of the
United Kingdom (1859). In Great Britain the struggle to obtain
admission to the teaching schools and to the examinations for
medical degrees and diplomas was, long and bitter. Though
the Society of the Apothecaries admitted Mrs Garrett Anderson
(g.i.) to their diploma in 1865, it was only after a series of rebuffs
and failures that women were admitted to the degree examina-
tions of the various universities. In August 1876 an " enabling "
act was passed, empowering the nineteen British medical
examining bodies to confer their degrees or diplomas without
distinction of sex. In 1908 the Royal College of Physicians
and Surgeons decided to admit women to their diplomas and
fellowships. In the meantime women doctors had become a
common phenomenon.
Women in England may fill some of the highest positions in
the state. A woman may be a queen, or a regent, and as queen
regnant has, by i Mary, sess. 3, c. i, as full rights
as a king. Among the public offices a woman may
hold are those of county, borough, parish and rural or
urban district councillor, overseer, guardian of the poor, church-
warden and sexton. In 1908 Mrs Garrett Anderson was elected
mayor of Aldeburgh, the first case of a woman holding that
position. Women have also been nominated as members of
Royal Commissions (e.g. those on the Poor Law and Divorce).
A woman cannot serve on a jury, but may, if married, be one of
a " jury of matrons " empanelled to determine the condition of
a female prisoner on a writ de venire inspiciendo. She can vote
(if unmarried or a widow) in county council, municipal, poor
law and other local elections. The granting of the parliamentary
franchise to women was, however, still withheld in 1910. The
history of the movement for women's suffrage is told below.
It may be remarked that, with or without the possession of a
vote on their own account, politics in England have in modern
times been very considerably influenced by the work of women
as speakers, canvassers and organizers. The great Conservative
auxiliary political organization, the Primrose League, owes its
main success to women, and the Women's Liberal Federation,
on the opposite side, has done much for the Liberal party.
The Women's Liberal Unionist Association, which came into
being in 1886 at the time of the Irish Home Rule Bill, also played
an active part in defence of the Unionist cause.
The movement for the abolition of the sex distinction in respect
of the right conferred upon certain citizens to share in the
election of parliamentary representatives dates for
practical purposes from the middle of the igth century.
The governmental systems of the ancient world were
based without exception on the view that women could take
no part in state politics, except in oriental countries as monarchs.
Exceptional women such as Cleopatra, Semiramis, Arsinoe,
might in the absence of men of the royal house, and by reason
of royal descent or personal prestige, occupy the throne, and an
Aspasia might be recognized as the able head of a political salon,
but women in general derived thence no political status. Though
Christianity and a broadening of men's theories of life tended to
raise the moral and social status of women, yet Paul definitely
assigns subservience as the proper function of women, and
many of the fathers looked upon them mainly as inheriting the
temptress function of Eve. This view generally obtained through-
out the middle ages, though here and there glimmerings of a new
WOMEN
787
idea are seen; many of the great English abbesses discharged
their territorial duties as landowners, and women as custodians
of castles voted for knights of the shire. In the lyth and i8th
centuries in England and America, under the influence of advanc-
ing political theory, and in France in the i8th century, this idea
began to take shape. In England the writings of Mary Astell
(Serious Proposal to Ladies, 1607) and others led to the gradual
revision of the inherited idea of the education and the true sphere
of women, while in 1790 Mary Wollstonecraft published her
Vindication of the Rights of Women. In America the dawning of
a political consciousness is evidenced by the claim made in 1647
by Margaret Brent to sit in the Assembly of Maryland as the
executor of Lord Baltimore, and by the requests made by
Abigail Adams (wife of John Adams), Mercy Otis Warren and
Hannah Lee Corbin, that women taxpayers should enjoy direct
representation. In France the movement towards democracy
did not in the hands of Rousseau include the enfranchisement
of women, and Comte taught that women were politically inferior
to men; Condorcet, however, demanded equal rights for both
sexes. Although, through an oversight, women could vote under
the first constitution of New Jersey from 1776 to 1807, there is no
doubt that women's suffrage had made practically no progress in
any country till comparatively late in the ipth century. There
has been considerable discussion as to whether women had
constitutionally a right to vote in England prior to the Reform
Act of 1832 (see Mrs C. C. Slopes, British Freewoman). The
discussion, however, is one of purely antiquarian interest, and
the Reform Act made quite clear what had certainly been
the recognized custom before, by introducing specifically the
word " male " in the new franchise law (2 and 3 Will. IV., cap.
45, sections 19 and 20).
The earliest known handbill representing the modern " women's
suffrage" movement in England dates from about 1847, and in
1857 the first society was formed in Sheffield, the "Sheffield
Female Political Association," due largely to the work of a
Quaker lady, Anne Kent of Chelmsford. In July of the same year
Mrs John Stuart Mill published an article in the Westminster
Review. 1 The earliest outstanding figure, however, is Lydia
Ernestine Becker (1827-1890), descended on the mother's side
from an old Lancashire family, her father being the son of a
German who settled in England in early youth. She became a
well-known botanist, and an intimate friend of Charles Darwin.
In 1858 the Englishwoman's Journal was started, and by this
time there was a vigorous agitation for the alteration of the
law relating to the property and earnings of married women.
Among the leaders of that movement were Barbara Leigh Smith
(Mrs Bodichon) and Bessie R'ayner Parkes (Madame Belloc).
At the same time a famous group of women, Emily Davies,
Miss Beale and Miss Buss(founders respectively of the Cheltenham
Ladies' College and the North London Collegiate School) and
Miss Garrett (Dr Garrett Anderson), Miss Helen Taylor (John
Stuart Mill's stepdaughter) and Miss Wolstenholme (afterwards
Mrs Elmy), discussed women's suffrage at the " Kensington
Society."
A new era began with the election in 1865, as member for West-
minster, of John Stuart Mill, who placed women's suffrage in
his election address. From that time the subject became more
or less prominent in each successive parliament. Mill presented
the first petition in May 1867. In 1868 the case of Chorlton r.
Lings was decided against women applicants for the vote by the
Court of Common Pleas, and a similar decision was given by
the Supreme Court of Appeal in Scotland. From this time
the efforts of the various local committees (in London, Manchester,
Bristol, Edinburgh and Birmingham) were directed to promoting
a bill in parliament, and to forwarding petitions (an average
of 200,000 signatures a year was maintained from 1870 to 1880).
The Women's Suffrage Journal was founded in 1870, and in the
same year Jacob Bright moved the second reading of the Women's
Disabilities Bill which was carried by a majority of 33 votes. Mr
Gladstone then threw his opposition into the scale, and the bill
1 This article was written in reference to the Women's Rights
Convention held in Worcester, Mass., U.S.A., in October 1850.
was rejected in committee by 220 to 94. In 1871 the same
bill was again lost by 220 to 151, in spite of a memorial headed
by Florence Nightingale, Mary Carpenter, Augusta Webster,
Harriet Martineau, Frances Power Cobbe and Anna Louisa
Chisholm (Mrs H. W. Chisholm). G. O. Trevelyan's Household
Franchise Bill in 1873 raised the hopes of the women's suffragist,
and Mr Joseph Chamberlain at a great Liberal meeting in
Birmingham carried a resolution in favour of the proposed change.
From 1874 to 1876 the bill was in charge of a conservative,
Mr Forsyth, and, despite the opposition of John Bright and the
efforts of a parliamentary committee for " maintaining the
integrity of the franchise," the number of supporters was well
maintained. The work proceeded uneventfully from 1876 to
1884, huge meetings being held in all the chief towns. In 1880
the franchise was conferred upon women owners in the Isle of
Man, subsequently upon women occupiers also. In 1883 a great
Liberal conference at Leeds voted in favour of women's suffrage
under the leadership of Dr Crosskey and Walter S. B. M'Laren.
The next notable event in the movement was the defeat of W.
Woodall's amendment to the Reform Bill (1884), providing that
words importing the masculine gender should include women,
by 271 votes to 135, Mr Gladstone again making a powerful
appeal to his party to withdra.w the support which they had given
in the past. 104 Liberal members crossed over in answer to
this appeal. Numerous bills and resolutions followed year
by year in the names of W. Woodall, L. H. Courtney (Lord
Courtney, whose bill was read a second time without a division,
1886), W. S. B. M'Laren, Baron Dimsdale, Caleb Wright, Sir
Albert K. Rollit, F. Faithfull Begg (1897; second reading
majority 71). Up to 1906 all those attempts had failed, in most
cases owing to time being taken for government business.
The period 1906 to 1910 witnessed entirely new developments.
The suffragists of the existing societies still carried on their
constitutional propaganda, and various bills were introduced.
In 1907 Mr W. H. Dickinson's bill was talked out, and in 1008
Mr H. Y. Stanger's bill was carried on its second reading by a
majority of 179, but the government refused facilities for its
progress. Prior to this, however, a number of suffragists had
come to the conclusion that the failure of the various bills was
due primarily to government hostility. Furthermore the advent
of a Liberal government in 1906 had aroused hopes among them
that the question would be officially taken up. Questions were
therefore put by women to Liberal cabinet ministers at party
meetings, and disturbances occurred, with the result that Miss
Christabel Pankhurst and Miss Annie Kenney were fined in
Manchester in 1906. A certain section of suffragists thereafter
decided upon comprehensive opposition to the government of
the day, until such time as one or other party should officially
adopt a measure for the enfranchisement of women. This
opposition took two forms, one that of conducting campaigns
against government nominees (whether friendly or not) at bye-
elections, and the other that of committing breaches of the law
with a view to drawing the widest possible attention to their
cause and so forcing the authorities to fine or imprison them.
Large numbers of women assembled while parliament was sitting,
in contravention of the regulations, and on several occasions
many arrests were made. Fines were imposed, but practically
all refused to pay them and suffered imprisonment. At a later
stage some of the prisoners adopted the further course of refusing
food and were forcibly fed in the gaols.
The failure of all the bills previously drafted on the basis of
exact equality between the sexes, and the fact that both Unionists
and Liberals refused to make the matter a party question,
coupled with a general feeling of discomfort at the relations
between the so-called " militant " suffragists and the authorities,
led in the spring of 1910 to the formation of a committee (called
the Conciliation Committee) of members of parliament under
the presidency of the earl of Lytton. This committee, consisting
of some 55 members belonging to all parties, succeeded in agree-
ing upon a new bill based upon the occupier franchise established
by the Municipal Franchise Act of 1884. It was urged on behalf
of this bill that it would establish the principle on a sufficiently
788
WOOD, ANTHONY A
representative basis without altering the numerical balance of
parties in the country. It was calculated that slightly over
1,000,000 women would be enfranchised. After considerable
pressure both inside the house and outside, Mr Asquith consented
to give two days of government time for the debate, and the
second reading, moved by the Labour member, Mr D. J. Shackle-
ton, was carried by a majority of no votes. A further attempt
to commit the bill to a Grand Committee failed by 175 votes;
the bill was therefore sent to a committee of the whole house,
and Mr Asquith announced that he would not give further
facilities. It was noteworthy that, though the bill was opposed
as undemocratic by Mr Lloyd-George and other Liberals, it was
supported by 32 out of 40 of the Labour members, and evidence
was given that a large proportion of the new voters would have
been working women.
The leading women's suffrage societies may here be mentioned.
All these societies have advocated precisely the same view, namely
that women should have the same electoral privileges as men,
whatever franchise system be adopted.
1. The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies is the oldest
organization. It began about 1867 as a number of separate local
committees, and after various reorganizations a great amalgamation
of all local societies was framed in 1896 under the present title.
This union had 200 .branches in 1910, All the early suffragists
belonged to this body, and in lattertyears the chief name is that
of Mrs Henry Fawcett. The union pursued continuously the
" constitutional " policy and stood apart altogether from the
" militant " societies. Its official organ, The Common Cause, was
founded in 1908.
2. The National Women's Social and Political Union, associated
chiefly with the name of Mrs Emmeline Pankhurst and Miss Christa-
bel Pankhurst, formed in 1906, originated the more " militant "
policy. Its income in 1909-1910 reached the figure of 60,000, and
up to September 1910 some 500 of its members had undergone
imprisonment. It undertook a widespread campaign of meetings,
and though at first its speakers were subjected to an opposition of
a violent character, there was no doubt that the movement received
from its activities a wholly new stimulus. Its official organ, Votes
for Women, obtained a large circulation.
Societies of various kinds multiplied. In 1907 were formed (3) the
Women's Freedom League (chiefly associated with the name of Mrs
C. Despard, a prominent supporter of the Labour party), whose
members objected to the internal administration of the Social and
Political Union, but agreed in adopting its policy in a modified
form; and (4) the Men's League for Women's Suffrage, a society
which included men of all parties, and in September 1910 adopted
the anti-government election policy. Numerous other party 1 and
non-party societies were formed, and resolutions supporting the
principle, either in the abstract or as a part of adult suffrage, were
passed by various Conservative, Liberal and Labour conferences
and associations.
The remarkable prominence of the movement and the fact that
successive parliaments contained a majority of pledged suffragists
led to the formation of opposition societies. In 1908 was formed
the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League, of men and women,
which drew into its ranks prominent persons such as Lord Cromer,
Lord Curzon, Lady Jersey and Mrs Humphry Ward; and about
the same time the Men's League for Opposing Women's Suffrage
came into existence. These two leagues amalgamated in December
1910, as the National League for Opposing Women's Suffrage, with
Lord Cromer as president. The Anti-Suffrage Review was founded
in 1909.
In New Zealand a measure for the enfranchisement of women,
introduced by Richard Seddon, was carried in September 1893
(in the upper house by a majority of 2). In Australia the vote
has been extended to all adult women both in the states (the first
being South Australia, 1894, the last Victoria, 1908) and for the
Commonwealth parliament. They have, moreover, the right
to sit in the representative assemblies.
The movement assumed an organized form in the United
States somewhat earlier than in the United Kingdom. It arose
out of the interest taken by women in the temperance and anti-
slavery agitations, and was fostered by the discussion on women's
property rights. In 1840 the question was raised in a more
acute form by the exclusion of women delegates from the World's
Convention, and in 1848 the first women's suffrage convention
was held at Seneca Falls, the leading spirits being Mrs Elizabeth
Cady Stanton, Martha C. Wright and Lucretia Mott. Later
conventions at Salem and Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1850,
1 E.g. the Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise Associa-
tion, of which the countess of Selborne became president in 1910.
were the predecessors of annual meetings, but the extravagant
dress adopted by some of the women brought ridicule upon the
movement, which was further thrown into the background by
the Civil War. In 1869 were formed: (i) in New York, the
National Women's Suffrage Association, and (2) in Cleveland,
the American Woman's Suffrage Association. In 1890 these two
societies amalgamated as the National American Woman's
Suffrage Association, of which in 1900 Mrs Carrie Chapman
Catt became president. The question was considered by a
select committee in the 48th Congress, and 200 petitions, repre-
senting millions of individuals, were presented in 1900. The
Labour and Socialist parties in general supported the women's
claim, but there was considerable opposition in other parties.
In 5 states (Wyoming since 1869; Colorado, 1893; Utah, 1896;
Idaho, 1896; and Washington, 1910) women are electors, and in
25 states they have exercised the school suffrage. In Louisiana
they obtained the suffrage in connexion with tax levies in 1898.
Anti-suffrage societies have also been formed in Brooklyn (1894),
Massachusetts (1895), Illinois (1897), Oregon (1899).
In Finland all adult men and women over the age of 24,
excluding paupers, received the right to vote for members of
the Diet in 1906, in which year nineteen women became members
of the Diet. In Norway, where there is male suffrage for men
over 25 years of age, women were entitled to vote by a law of
1907, provided they or, if married, their husbands (i.e. where
property is jointly owned) had paid income tax on an annual
income of 400 kroner (22) in the towns, or 300 kroner (16, 103.)
in country districts. In Sweden a suffrage bill was carried in
the lower but rejected in the upper house in 1909. In all the
chief countries there are suffrage societies of greater or less
strength. In Russia the question was placed in the forefront of
the demands made by the Duma in 1906, and in 1907 propertied
women received the right to confer votes on their sons who would
otherwise be unenfranchised. In France a feminist congress met
at Lyons in 1909.
The International Woman Suffrage Alliance originated in the
United States in 1888. Its membership increased steadily, and at
the Convention held in London in 1909 delegates were present from
twenty-two countries. In the United Kingdom this Alliance is
represented by the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies.
A social and propagandist club was founded in London in 1909
with an international membership. An international journal
under the title Jus Suffragii (Brussels) was founded in 1907.
AUTHORITIES. It is impossible to dp more than mention a few
works out of many dealing with various phases of the modern
" women's movement. " See Alice Zimmern s Renaissance of Girls'
Education in England (1898); A. R. Cleveland, Women under
English Lain (1896); j. L. de Lanessan, L'Education de la femme
moderne (1908); M. Ostrogorski, Femme au point de vue du droit
public (1892); Mrs C. P. Oilman, Women and Economics (1899);
Miss C. E. Collet, Report on Changes in the Employment of Women
(1898; Parl. papers, C. 8794); B. and M. Van Vorst, Woman in
industry (1908); A. Loria, Le Feminisme au point de vue sociologique
(1907) ; Helen Blackburn, Record of Women's Suffrage, in the United
Kingdom (1902); Susan B. Anthony, History of Woman's Suffrage,
in the United States (4 vols., 1881-1902); C. C. Slopes, British
Free Women (1894); W. Lyon Blease, The Emancipation of Women
(1910). The classical exposition of the arguments on behalf of
women's suffrage is J. S. Mill's Subjection of Women; the most
important statement in opposition is perhaps that of Professor
A. V. Dicey in the Quarterly Review (Oct. 1908). (X.)
WOOD, ANTHONY A 2 (1632-1695), English antiquary, was
the fourth son of Thomas Wood (1580-1643), B.C.L. of Oxford,
where Anthony was born on the I7th of December 1632. He
was sent to New College school in 1641, and at the age of twelve
was removed to the free grammar school at Thame, where his
studies were interrupted by civil war skirmishes. He was then
placed under the tuition of his brother Edward (1627-1655),
of Trinity College; and, as he tells us, " while he continued
in this condition his mother would alwaies be soliciting him to
be an apprentice which he could never endure to heare of."
He was entered at Merton College in 1647, and made postmaster.
In 1652 he amused himself with ploughing and bell-ringing,
s In the Life he speaks of himself and his family as Wood or
4 Wood, the last form being a pedantic return to old usage adopted
by himself. A pedigree is given in Clark's edition.
WOOD, MRS HENRY- -WOOD, SIR H. EVELYN
789
and " having had from his most tender years an extraordinary
ravishing delight in music," began to teach himself the violin,
and was examined for the degree of B.A. He engaged a music-
master, and obtained permission to use the Bodleian, " which
he took to be the happiness of his life." He was admitted M.A.
in 1655, and in the following year published a volume of sermons
by his late brother Edward. He began systematically to copy
monumental inscriptions and to search for antiquities in the
and neighbourhood. He went through the Christ Church
sters, " at this time being resolved to set himself to the
udy of antiquities." Dr John Wallis, the keeper, allowed him
access to the university registers in 1660; " here he layd
he foundation of that book which was fourteen years afterwards
published, viz. Hist, et Antiq. Univ. Oxon." He also came to
now the Oxford collections of Brian Twyne to which he was
really indebted. He steadily investigated the muniments of
the colleges, and in 1667 made his first journey to London,
vhere he visited Dugdale, who introduced him into the Cottonian
library, and Prynne showed him the same civility for the Tower
ords. On October 22, 1669, he was sent for by the delegates
the press, " that whereas he had taken a great deal of paines
writing the Hist, and Antiq. of the Universitie of Oxon, they
would for his paines give him an 100 li. for hiscopie, conditionally,
it he would suffer the book to be translated into Latine."
He accepted the offer and set to work to prepare his English
MS. for the translators, Richard Peers and Richard Reeve,
both appointed by Dr Fell, dean of Christ Church, who under-
took the expense of printing. In 1674 appeared Historia et
antiquitates Universitatis Oxoniensis, handsomely reprinted " e
Theatre Sheldoniano," in two folio volumes, the first devoted
to the university in general and the second to the colleges. Copies
were widely distributed, and university and author received
much praise. On the other hand, Bishop Barlow told a corre-
spondent that " not only the Latine but the history itself is in
many things ridiculously false" (Genuine Remains, 1693, p.iSa).
In 1678 the university registers which had been in his custody
for eighteen years were removed, as it was feared that he would
be implicated in the Popish plot. To relieve himself from
suspicion he took the oaths of supremacy and allegiance. During
this time he had been gradually completing his great work,
which was produced by a London publisher in 1691-1692,
2 vols. folio, Athenae Oxonienses: an Exact History of all the
Writers and Bishops who have had their Education in the University
of Oxford from 1500 to 1690, to which are added the Fasti, or Annals
for the said time. On the 29th of July 1693 he was condemned
in the vice-chancellor's court for certain libels against the late
earl of Clarendon, fined, banished from the university until he
recanted, and the offending pages burnt. The proceedings were
printed in a volume of Miscellanies published by Curll in 1714.
Wood was attacked by Bishop Burnet in a Letter to the Bishop
of Lichfield and Coventry (1693, 4to), and defended by his nephew
Dr Thomas Wood, in a Vindication of the Historiographer, to
which is added the Historiographer's Answer (1693), 4to, reproduced
in the subsequent editions of the Athenae. The nephew also
defended his uncle in An Appendix to the Life of Bishop Seth
Ward, 1697, 8vo. After a short illness he died on the z8th of
November 1695, and was buried in the outer chapel of St John
Baptist (Merton College), in Oxford, where he superintended the
digging of his own grave but a few days before.
He is described as " a very strong lusty man, " of uncouth manners
and appearance, not so deaf as he pretended, of reserved and temper-
ate habits, not avaricious and a despiser of honours. He received
neither office nor reward from the university which owed so much to
his labours. He never married, and led a life of self-denial, entirely
devoted to antiquarian research. Bell-ringing and music were his
chief relaxations. His literary style is poor, and his taste and judg-
ment are frequently warped by prejudice, but his two great works
and unpublished collections form a priceless source of information on
Oxford and her worthies. He was always suspected of being a Roman
Catholic, and invariably treated Jacobites and Papists better than
Dissenters in the Athenae, but he died in communion with the Church
of England.
Wood's original manuscript (purchased by the Bodleian in 1846)
was first ublished by John Gutch as The History and Antiquities
Halls
of the Colleges and
in the University of Oxford, with a con-
tinuation (1786-1790, 2 vols. 410), and The History and Antiquities
of the University of Oxford (1792-1796, 3 vols. 410), with portrait of
Wood. To these should be added The Antient and Present State
of the City of Oxford, chiefly collected by A. a Wood, with additions
by the Rev. Sir J. PeshaU (1773, 410; the text is garbled and the
editing very imperfect). An admirable edition of the Survey of the
A ntiquities of the City of Oxford, composed in 1661-66 by A nthony Wood,
edited by Andrew Clark, was issued by the Oxford Historical Society
(1889-1899, 3 vols. 8vo). Modius Salium, a Collection of Pieces
of Humour, chiefly ill-natured personal stories, was published at
Oxford in 1751, I2mo. Some letters between Aubrey and Wood were
given in the Gentleman's Magazine (3rd ser., ix. x. xi.). Wood
consulted Dr Hudson about getting a third volume of the Athenae
printed in Holland, saying, " When thjs volume comes out I'll make
you laugh again " (Reliq. Hearnianae, i. 59). This was included in a
second edition of the Athenae published by R. Knaplock and J.
Tonson in 1721 (2 vols. folio), " very much corrected and enlarged,
with the addition of above 500 new lives." The third appeared as " a
new edition, with additions, and a continuation by Philip Bliss"
(1813-1820, 4 vols. 410). The Ecclesiastical History Society proposed
to bnng out a fourth edition, which stopped at the Life, ed. by Bliss
(1848, 8vo; see Cent. Mag., N.S., xxix. 135, 268). Dr Bliss's inter-
leaved copy is in the Bodleian, and Dr Griffiths announced in 1859
that a new edition was contemplated by the Press, and asked for
additional matter (see Notes and Queries, 2nd ser., vii. 514, and 6th
ser., vi. 5, 51}. Wood bequeathed his library (127 MSS. and 970
printed books) to the Ashmolean Museum, and the keeper, William
Huddesford, printed a catalogue of the MSS. in 1761. In 1858
the whole collection was transferred to the Bodleian, where 25
volumes of Wood's MSS. had been since 1690. Many of the original
papers from which the Athenae was written, as well as several large
volumes of Wood's correspondence and all his diaries, are in the
Bodleian.
We are intimately acquainted with the most minute particulars
of Wood's life from his Diaries (1657-1695) and autobiography;
all earlier editions are now superseded by the elaborate work of
Andrew Clark, The Life and Times of Anthony Wood, Antiquary,
of Oxford, 1632-1695, described by himself (Oxford Historical
Society, 1891-1900, 5 vols. 8vo). See also Reliquiae Hearnianae,
ed. Bliss (2nd ed., 1869, 3 vols. I2mo) ; Hearne's Remarks
and Collections (Oxford Historical Society, 1885-1907), vols.
i.-yiii.; Macray's Annals of the Bodleian Library (2nd ed., 1890);
Nichols's Literary Anecdotes, i. iv. v. viii. ; Noble's Bioer. History
of England, i. (H. R. T.)
WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814-1887), English novelist,
was born at Worcester on the I7th of January 1814. Her
maiden name was Price; her father was a glove manufacturer
in Worcester. She married Henry Wood in 1836, and after
her marriage lived for the most part in France, her husband,
who died in 1866, being at the head of a large shipping and
banking firm. In 1860 she wrote a temperance tale, Danesbury
House, which gained a prize of 100 offered by the Scottish
Temperance League; but before this she had regularly contri-
buted anonymous stories to periodicals. Her first great success
was made with East Lynne (1861), which obtained enormous
popularity. It was translated into several languages, and a
number of dramatic versions were made. The Channings and
Mrs Halliburton' s Troubles, followed in 1862; Verner's Pride
and The Shadow of Ashlydyat in 1863; Lord Oakburn's Daughters,
Oswald Cray and Trevlyn Hold in 1864. She became proprietor
and editor of the Argosy magazine in 1867, and the Johnny Ludlow
tales, published anonymously there, are the most artistic of
her works. Among the thirty-five novels' Mrs Henry Wood
produced, the best of those not hitherto mentioned were
Roland Yorke (1869); Within the Maze (1872) and Edina (1876).
She continued to edit the Argosy, with the assistance of her son,
Mr C. W. Wood, till her death, which occurred on the icth of
February 1887.
Memorials of Mrs Henry Wood, by her son, were published in 1894.
WOOD, SIR HENRY EVELYN (1838- ), British field
marshal, was born at Braintree, Essex, on the 9th of February
1838, the youngest son of Sir John Page Wood, Bart. Educated
at Marlborough, he entered the Royal Navy in 1852, and served
as a midshipman in the Russian war, being employed on shore
with the naval brigade in the siege operations before Sevastopol,
mentioned in despatches, and severely wounded at the assault on
the Redan on June 18, 1855. Immediately afterwards he left
the navy for the army, becoming a cornet in the I3th Light
Dragoons. Promoted lieutenant in 1856, he exchanged into
the i?th Lancers in 1857, and served in the Indian Mutiny with
distinction as brigade-major of a flying column, winning the
790
Victoria Cross. In 1861 he became captain, in 1862 brevet-
major, exchanging about the same time into the 73rd Highlanders
(Black Watch), but returned to the cavalry three years later.
Having meantime served as an aide-de-camp at Dublin, he was
next employed on the staff at Aldershot until 1871, when he was
appointed to the goth (now and Scottish Rifles) as a regimental
major. In 1867 he had married the Hon. Mary Pauline South-
well, sister of the 4th Lord Southwell. In 1873 he was promoted
brevet lieutenant-colonel, and in 1874 served in the Ashanti War
(brevet-colonel); in 1874-1878 he was again on the staff at
Aldershot, and in November 1878 he became regimental lieu-
tenant-colonel, the poth being at that time in South Africa
engaged in the Kaffir War. In January 1879 he was in command
of the left column of the army that crossed the Zulu frontier,
and shortly afterwards he received the local rank of brigadier-
general. Under him served Colonel Redvers Buller and also
the Boer leader, Piet Uys, who fell at Inhlobana, but the re-
pulse at that place was more than counterbalanced by the
successful battle of Kambula. At the close of the war Sir
Evelyn Wood, who received the K.C.B. for his services, was
appointed to command the Chatham district. But in January
1 88 1 he was again in South Africa with the local rank of major-
general, and after Sir G. P. Colley's death at Majuba it fell to
his lot to negotiate the armistice with General Joubert. Re-
maining in Natal until February 1882, he then returned to the
Chatham command, having meantime been promoted sub-
stantive major-general. In 1882 he was made a G.C.M.G.
and commanded a brigade in the Egyptian expedition. He
remained in Egypt for six years. From 1883 to 1885 he was
Sirdar of the Egyptian army, which he reorganized and in fact
created. During the Nile operations of 1884-85 he commanded
the forces on the line of communication of Lord Wolseley's army.
In 1886 he returned to an English command, and two years later
(January 1889), with the local rank of lieutenant-general, he
was appointed to the Aldershot command. He became lieu-
tenant-general in 1891, and was given the G.C.B. at the close of
his tenure of the command, when he went to the War Office
as quartermaster-general. Four years afterwards he became
adjutant-general. He was promoted full general in 1895. He
commanded the II. Army Corps and Southern Command from
1901 to 1904, being promoted field marshal on the 8th of April
1903. In 1907 he became colonel of the Royal Horse Guards.
After retiring from active service he took a leading part, as chair-
man of the Association for the City of London, in the organization
of the Territorial Force. Sir Evelyn Wood published several
works, perhaps the best known of which to the soldier are
Achievements of Cavalry (1897) and Cavalry in Ike Waterloo
Campaign (1896). He also wrote The Crimea in 1854 and in 1894;
an autobiography, From Midshipman to Field Marshal; and
The Revolt in Hindostan.
WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827-1889), English writer and
lecturer on natural' history, was born in London on the 2ist of
July 1827. He was educated at Ashbourne grammar school
and at Merton College, Oxford; and after he had taken his
degree in 1848 he worked for two years in the anatomical museum
at Christ Church under Sir Henry Acland. In 1852 he was
ordained a deacon of the Church of England, became curate of the
parish of St Thomas the Martyr, Oxford, and also took up the
post of chaplain to the Boatmen's Floating Chapel at Oxford.
He was ordained priest in 1854, and in that year gave up his
curacy to devote himself for a time to literary work. In 1858
he accepted a readership at Christ Church, Newgate Street, and
he was assistant-chaplain to St Bartholomew's Hospital, London,
from 1856 until 1862. Between 1868 and 1876 he held the office
of precentor to the Canterbury Diocesan Choral Union. After
1876 he devoted himself to the production of books and to
delivering in all parts of the country lectures on zoology, which
he illustrated by drawing on a black-board or on large sheets
of white paper with coloured crayons. These " sketch lectures,"
as he called them, were very popular, and made his name widely
known both in Great Britain and in the United States. In 1883-
1884 he delivered the Lowell lectures at Boston. Wood was
WOOD, J. G. WOODBURY
for a time editor of the Boy's Own Magazine. His most
important work was a Natural History in three volumes, but he
was better known by the series of books which began with
Common Objects of the Sea-Shore, and which included popular
monographs on shells, moths, beetles, the microscope and Com-
mon Objects of the Country. Our Garden Friends and Foes was
another book which found hosts of appreciative readers. He
died at Coventry on the 3rd of March 1889.
WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798-1880), English palaeon-
tologist, was born on the I4th of February 1798. He went to sea
in 1811 as a midshipman in the East India Company's service,
which he left, however, in 1826. He then settled at Hasketon
near Woodbridge, Suffolk. He devoted himself to a study of the
mollusca of the Newer Tertiary (Crag) of Suffolk and Norfolk,
and the Older Tertiary (Eocene) of the Hampshire basin. On
the latter subject he published A Monograph of the Eocene
Bivalves of England (1861-1871), issued by the Palaeonto-
graphical Society. His chief work was A Monograph of the Crag
Mollusca (1848-1856), published by the same society, for which
he was awarded the Wollaston medal in 1860 by the Geological
Society of London; a supplement was issued by him in 1872-
1874, a second in 1879, and a third (edited by his son) in 1882.
He died at Martlesham, near Woodbridge, on the 26th of October
1880. His son, Searles Valentine Wood (1830-1884), was for
some years a solicitor at Woodbridge, but gave up the pro-
fession and devoted his energies to geology, studying especially
the structure of the deposits of the Crag and glacial drifts.
WOODBRIDGE, a market town in the Woodbridge parlia-
mentary division of Suffolk, England; 79 m. N.E. by E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 4640. It is prettily situated near the head of the Deben
estuary, which enters the North Sea 10 m. S. by E. The church
of St Mary the Virgin is a beautiful Perpendicular structure,
with a massive and lofty tower of flint work. The large estate
left by Thomas Seekford of Sekforde (1578) endows the grammar
school and hospital. Woodbridge Abbey, built by Seekford,
occupies the site of an Augustinian foundation of the i2th
century. There is a large agricultural trade, and general fairs
and horse fairs are held.
WOODBURY, CHARLES HERBERT (1864- ), American
marine painter, was born at Lynn, Massachusetts, on the i4th
of July 1864. He graduated at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Boston, in 1886, was a pupil of the Academic
Julien, Paris. He was president of the Boston Water Color
Club, and became associate of the National Academy of Design,
New York. His wife, Marcia Oakes Woodbury, born in 1865 at
South Berwick, also became known as a painter.
WOODBURY, LEVI (1789-1851), American political leader,
was born at Francestown, New Hampshire, on the 22nd of
December 1789. He graduated from Dartmouth College in
1809, was admitted to the bar in 1812, and was a judge of the
superior court from 1816 to 1823. In 1823-1824 he was governor
of the state, in 1825 was a member and speaker of the state
House of Representatives, and in 1825-1831 and again in 1841-
1845 was a member of the U.S. Senate. He was secretary of the
navy in 1831-1834, secretary of the treasury in 1834-1841,
and associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1846 until
his death, at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 4th of
September 1851. From about 1825 to 1845 Woodbury was the
undisputed leader of the Jacksonian Democracy in New England.
See his Writings, Political, Judicial and Literary (3 vols., Boston,
1852), edited by Nahum Capen; and an article in the New England
Magazine, new series, xxxvii. p. 658 (February 1908).
WOODBURY, a city and the county-seat of Gloucester county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., in the western part of the state, 9 m. .S.
of Philadelphia. Pop. (1900) 4087, including 246 foreign-born
and 517 negroes; (1910) 4642. It is served by the West Jersey &
Seashore Railroad. Among its public institutions is the Dept-
ford Institute Free Library. There are various manufactures.
Woodbury is said to have been settled about 1684; it became
the county-seat in 1787. It was chartered as a borough in 1854
and as a city in 1870.
WOOD-CARVING
791
WOOD-CARVING, the process whereby wood is ornamented
with design by means of sharp cutting tools held in the hand.
The term includes anything within the limit of sculpture in the
round up to hand-worked mouldings such as help to compose the
tracery of screens, &c.
Material. The texture of wood limits the scope of the carver
in that the substance consists of bundles of fibres (called grain)
growing in a vertical direction without much lateral cohesive
strength. It is therefore essential to arrange the more delicate
parts of a design " with the grain " instead of across it, and the
more slender stalks or leaf-points should not be too much separ-
ated from their adjacent surroundings. The failure to appreciate
these primary rules may constantly be seen in damaged work,
when it will be noticed that, whereas tendrils, tips of birds'
beaks, &c., arranged across the grain have been broken away,
similar details designed more in harmony with the growth of the
wood and not too deeply undercut remain intact. Oak is the
most suitable wood for carving, on account of its durability and
toughness without being too hard. Chestnut (very like oak),
American walnut, mahogany and teak are also very good
woods; while for fine work Italian walnut, lime, sycamore,
apple, pear or plum, are generally chosen. Decoration that is
to be painted and of not too delicate a nature is as a rule
carved in pine.
Tools. The carver requires but few kinds of tools: (i) the
gouge a tool with a curved cutting edge used in a variety of
forms and sizes for carving hollows, rounds and sweeping curves;
(2) the chisel, large and small, whose straight cutting edge is
used for lines and cleaning up flat surfaces; (3) the " V" tool
used for veining, and in certain classes of flat work for emphasizing
lines. A special screw for fixing work to the bench, and a mallet,
complete the carver's kit, though other tools, more or less
legitimate, are often used, such as a router for bringing grounds
to a uniform level, bent gouges and bent chisels for cutting
hollows too deep for the ordinary tool.
Method. The process for relief carving is usually as follows.
The carver first fixes the wood to his bench by means of the screw
already referred to. He then (a) sketches on the main lines
of his idea, indicating the flowers, foliage, &c.; or (6) should the
design be very intricate or of a geometrical character, he traces
the whole design from a pattern first prepared on paper; or
(c) he may combine the first two methods. Next he grounds
out the spaces between the lines with a gouge to a more or less
uniform depth. Then he " bests " the upstanding pattern that
remains, i.e. he models and shapes the details of his design,
carefully balancing the lights and shadows; and finally, after
having obtained the result he desires, he cleans up the whole.
The quicker he works, the fewer times he goes over the same
part, the more sketchy the subsidiary portions, the less high
finish he puts into the detail, the better the result. Incised
work, chip-carving, &c., are generally finished at once and not
in stages. Much carved work, that of savage nations for instance,
is of course carved without the assistance of a bench. Many
small articles, too, are carved in the hand. Little models of
antelopes or bears, so familiar in Switzerland, are carved in this
way with a tool somewhat like a half-open knife but with the
blade fixed.
Style. From the remotest ages the decoration of wood has
been a foremost art. The tendency of human nature has always
been to ornament every article in use. Just as a child of to-day
instinctively cuts patterns on the bark of his switch freshly
taken from the hedgerow, so the primitive man, to say nothing
of his more civilized successor, has from the earliest times cut
designs on every wooden article he is accustomed to handle.
The North American Indian carves his wooden fish-hook or his
pipe stem just as the Polynesian works patterns on his paddle.
The native of British Guiana decorates his cavassa grater with
a well-conceived scheme of incised scrolls, while the savage of
Loango Bay distorts his spoon with a hopelessly unsuitable
design of perhaps figures standing up in full relief carrying a
hammock.
Figure-work seems to have been universal. The craving to
Colour.
represent one's god in a tangible form finds expression in number-
less ways. The early carver, and, for that matter, the native
of the present day, has always found a difficulty in
giving expression to the eye, and at all times has evaded Jot*.
it by inlaying this feature with coloured material.
Obsidian, for example, is used by the modern Easter Islander
in common with the Egyptian craftsman of the earlier dynasties.
To carve a figure in wood is not only more difficult but is less
satisfactory than marble (for which see SCULPTURE), owing to the
tendency of wood to crack, to be injured by insects, or to suffer
from changes in the atmosphere. The texture of the material,
too, often proves fatal to the expression of the features, especially
in the classic type of youthful face. On the other hand, magni-
ficent examples exist of the more rugged features of age: the
beetling brows, the furrows and lines neutralizing the defects
of the grain of the wood. However, in ancient work the surface
was not of such consequence, for figures as a rule were painted.
It is not always realized at the present day to what extent colour
has even from the most ancient times been used to enhance
the effect of wood-carving and sculpture. The modern
prejudice against gold and other tints is perhaps due to
the fact that painted work has been vulgarized. One associates
coloured carvings too readily with theatre galleries and the
triumphal car of the circus procession. The " restored " work too
of some church screens does anything but encourage the revival
of this time-honoured custom. The arrangement of a proper
and harmonious scheme of colour is not the work of the house-
painter, but of the specially trained artist. Witness the old
coloured screens of Norfolk, the harmonious greens and reds,
the proper proportion of gold, the panels adorned with saints
on backgrounds of delicate diaper work, and compare these
triumphs of decoration with the rougher blues and reds of the
average restored screen, and one ceases to wonder why we now
prefer the wood plain.
Of late years carving has gone out of fashion; a change has
come about. The work is necessarily slow, thus causing charges
to appear high. Other and cheaper methods of decoration have
driven carving from its former place. Machine work has much
to answer for, and the endeavour to popularize the craft by means
of the village class has not always achieved its own end. The
gradual disappearance of the individual artist, elbowed out as
he has been by the contractor, is fatal to the continuance of an
art which can never flourish when done at so much a yard.
So long as the carver is expected to work to some one else's
pattern so long as he is, in detail at least, not his own designer
this art, which attained its zenith in the glories of the i sth-century
cathedral and in the continental domestic work of the hundred
years to follow, can never hope to live again.
Ancient Work before the Christian Era. The extreme dryness of
the climate of Egypt accounts for the existence of a number of wood-
carvings from this remote period (see EGYPT: Art and Emu.
Archaeology). Some wood panels from the tomb of Hosut
at Sakkarah are of the III. dynasty (over 4000 B.C.). The carving
consists of hieroglyphs and figures in low relief, and the style is ex-
tremely delicate and fine. A stool shown on one of the panels has
the legs shaped like the fore and hind limbs of an animal, a form
common in Egypt for thousands of years.
In the Cairo museum may be seen the statue of a man of 50
years of age, of the period of the great pyramid, possibly 4000 B.C.
The expression of the face and the realism of the carriage _
have never been surpassed by any Egyptian sculptor of
this or any other period. The figure is carved out of a
solid block of sycamore, and in accordance with the Egyptian
custom the arms are joined on. The eyes are inlaid with pieces of
opaque white quartz, with a line of bronze surrounding to imitate the
lid; a small disk of transparent rock crystal forms the iris, while a
tiny bit of polished ebony fixed behind the crystal imparts to it a
lifelike sparkle. " The IV., V. and VI. dynasties cover the finest
period of Egyptian sculpture. The statues found in the tombs show
a freedom of treatment which was never reached in later times.
They are all portraits, which the artist strove his utmost to render
exactly like his model. For these are not, like more modern statues,
simply works of art, but had primarily a religious signification "
(Maspero). As the spirits of the deceased might inhabit these
" Ka " statues, the features and proportions were closely copied.
There are to be found in the principal museums of Europe many
Egyptian examples of the utmost interest mummy cases of human
792
WOOD-CARVING
beings with the face alone carved, animal mummy cases, some-
times boxes, with the figure of a lizard, perhaps, carved in full
M mmr re " e ^ standing on the lid. Sometimes the animal, a
* cat, sitting on its haunches, for 'example, or a jackal,
crouching on all fours, would be carved in the round and its
hollowed body used as the case itself.
Of furniture, folding seats like the modern campstool, and chairs
with legs terminating in the heads of beasts or the feet of animals,
P - still exist. Beds supported by lions' paws (XI. and XII.
"*' dynasties, from Gebelein, now in the Cairo Museum), head-
rests, 6 or 8 in. high, shaped like a crutch on a foot, very like
those used by the native of New Guinea to-day, are carved with
scenes, &c., in outline. In the British Museum may be seen a tiny
little coffer, 4 in. by 2$ in., with very delicate figures carved in low
relief. This little box stands on cabriole legs f of an inch long with
claw feet, quite Louis Quinze in character. There are incense ladles,
the handle representing a bouquet of lotus flowers, the bowl formed
like the leaf of an aquatic plant with serrated edges (from Gurnah,
XVIII. dynasty); mirror handles, representing a little pillar, or a
lotus stalk, sometimes surmounted by a head of Hathor (the
Egyptian Venus) or of BSsu (god of the toilet) ; pin-cushions, in the
shape of a small round tortoise with holes in the back for toilet pins,
which were also of wood with dog-head ends (XI. dynasty, Cairo
Museum) ; and perfume boxes such as a fish, the two halves forming
the bottom and top the perfume or pomatum was removed by
little wooden spoons, one shaped in the form of a cartouche emerging
from a full-blown lotus, another shaped like the neck of a goose, a
third consisting of a dog running with a fish in its mouth, the fish
forming the bowl. The fist might be prolonged, but enough has been
said to show to what a pitch of refinement the art of wood-carving
had reached thousands of years before the birth of Christ.
Of the work of Assyria, Greece and Rome, little is actually known
except from history or inference. It may be safely assumed that the
Assyria crait k e pt pace with the varying taste and refinement of
Greece and a " tne ' er . civilizations. Important pieces of wood
Home sculpture which once existed in Greece and other ancient
countries are only known to us from the descriptions of
Pausanias and other classic writers. Many examples of the wooden
images of the gods (|6ai<a) were preserved down to late historic times.
The Palladium, or sacred figure of Pallas, which was guarded by the
Vestal Virgins in Rome and was fabled to have been brought by
Aeneas from the burning Troy, was one of these wooden fcSai'a.
First Eleven Centuries after Christ. Wood-carving examples of
this period are extremely rare. The carved panels of the main doors
of St Sabina on the Aventine Hill, Rome, are very interesting speci-
mens of early Christian relief sculpture in wood, dating, as the dresses
show, from the 5th century. The doors are made up of a large number
of small square panels, each minutely carved with a scene from the
Old or New Testament. The whole feeling of these reliefs is
thoroughly classic, though of course in a very debased form. A very
fine fragment of Byzantine art (nth-i2th centuries) is preserved
in a monastery at Mount Athos in Macedonia. It consists of two
panels (one above the other) of relief sculpture, surmounted by a
semicircular arch of conventional foliage springing from columns
ornamented with animals in foliage of spiral form. The capitals and
bases are square, each face being carved with a figure. It is a
wonderfully fine piece of work, conceived in the best decorative spirit.
In Scandinavian countries we find some very early work of ex-
cellent design. In the Christiania Museum there are some fine chairs
Scaadlaa- * r ^ e 9 1 * 1 or Iotn cent uries carved with that particular
rlaa work. ^ at an< ^ broad treatment of scroll and strapwork so
eminently suited to soft wood. In the Copenhagen
Museum there are panels from Iceland in the same style. The cele-
brated wooden doorways of Aal (A.D. 1200) (Plate II. fig. 3), Sauland,
Flaa, Soloer and other Norwegian churches (Christiania Museum) are
only an elaboration of the same treatment of dragons and intricate
scroll work, a style which we still see carried on in the door-posts of the
I5th century in the Nordiska Museum, Stockholm, and in the Ice-
landic work of quite modern times. In these early days the leaf was
not much developed in design. The carver depended almost entirely
on the stalk, a style of work which has its counterpart in Burmese
work of the I7th century.
Gothic Period (zzth-isth Centuries). It was towards the end of this
epoch that wood-carving reached its culminating point. The choir
stalls, rood-screens, roofs, retables, of England, France and the
Teutonic countries of Europe, have in execution, balance and pro-
portion, never at any time been approached. In small designs, in
detail, in minuteness, in mechanical accuracy, the carver of this time
has had his rivals, but for greatness of architectural conception, for
a just appreciation of decorative treatment, the designer of the I5th
century stands alone.
It should always be borne in mind that colour was the keynote of
this scheme. Tne custom was practically universal, and enough
traces remain to show how splendid was the effect of these old Gothic
churches and cathedrals in their perfection. The priests in their
gorgeous vestments, the lights, the crucifix, the banners and incense,
the frescoed or diapered walls, and that crowning glory of Gothic art,
the stained glass, were all in harmony with these beautiful schemes
of coloured carved work. Red, blue, green, white and gilding were
the tints as a rule used. Not only were the screens painted in
colours, but the parts painted white were often further decorated wit
delicate lines and sprigs of foliage in conventional pattern. The
plain surfaces of the panels were also adorned with saints, often on
a background of delicate gesso diaper, coloured or gilded (Southwold).
Nothing could exceed the beauty of the triptychs or retables of
Germany, Flanders (Plate I. fig. i) or France; carved with scenes
from the New Testament in high relief arranged under a delicate lace-
work of canopies and clustered pinnacles glistening with gold and
brilliant colours. In Germany the effect was further enhanced by em-
phasizing parts of the gilding by means of a transparent varnish tinted
with red or green, thus giving a special tone to the metallic lustre.
The style of design used during this great period owes much of its
interest to the now obsolete custom of employing direct the crafts-
man and his men, instead of the present-day habit of giving the work
to a contractor. It is easy to trace how those bands of carvers
travelled about from church to church. In one district the designer
would employ a particular form and arrangement of vine leaf, while
in another adjoining quite a different style repeatedly appears.
Judging by results, this system produced the best class of work both
in design and execution. The general scheme was of course planned
by one master mind, but the carrying out of each section, each part,
each detail, was left to the individual workman. Hence that variety
of treatment, that endless diversity, which gives a charm and interest
to Gothic art, unknown in more symmetrical epochs. The Gothic
craftsman appreciated the cardinal fact that in design beautiful
detail does not necessarily insure a beautiful composition, and sub-
ordinated the individual part to the general effect. He also often
carved in situ, a practice seldom if ever followed in the present day.
Here and there one comes across the work of long years ago still
unfinished. A half-completed bench-end, a fragment of screen left
plain, clearly show that sometimes at least the church was the
workshop.
Gothic and Renaissance: a Comparison. Gothic design roughl>
divides itself into two classes: (i) the geometrical, i.e. tracery and
diaper patterns, and (2) the foliage designs, where the mechanical
scroll of the Renaissance is as a rule absent. The lines of foliage
treatment, so common in the bands of the 15th-century rood-
screens and the panel work especially of Germany, serve to illustrate
the widely different motives of the craftsmen of these two great
epochs. Again, while the Renaissance designer as a rule made the
two sides of the panel alike, the Gothic carver seldom repeated a
single detail. While his main lines and grouping corresponded, his
detail differed. Of numberless examples a 15th-century chest
(Plate III. fig. 6) in the Kunsteewerbe Museum, Berlin, may be re-
ferred to. The arrangements of foliage, &c., on top, back and front,
are typical of Gothic at its best.
End of the 12th century-ijoo. As this section treats of wood-
carving in Europe generally, and not of any one country alone, the
dates just named must be of necessity only approximate. The I3th
century was marked not only by great skill both in design and treat-
ment, but also much devotional feeling. The craftsman seems to
have not merely carved, but to have carved to the glory of God. At
no time was work more delicately conceived or more beautifully cut.
This early Gothic style certainly lent itself to fine finish, and in this
respect was more suited to stone treatment than to wood. But the
loving care bestowed on each detail seems to point to a religious
devotion which is sometimes absent from later work. Very good
examples of capitals (now, alas, divided down the centre) are to be
seen in Peterborough cathedral. Scrolls and foliage spring from
groups of columns of four. Some Italian columns of the same date
(Victoria and Albert Museum) should be compared, much to the
advantage of the former. Exeter cathedral boasts misereres un-
surpassed for skilful workmanship; mermaids, dragons, elephants,
masks, knights and other subjects introduced into foliage, form the
designs. Salisbury cathedral is noted for its stall elbows, and the
reredos in the south transept of Addisham, Kent, is another fine
example testifying to the great skill of the 13th-century wood-
carvers. A very interestingset of stalls, the early history of which is
unknown, was placed in Banning church, Kent, about the year
1868. The book rest ends are carved with two scrolls and an animal
standing between, and the ends of the stalls with figure sculpture:
Christ rescuing souls from Hell, Samson slaying the lion, St George
and the dragon, &c. The work of these stalls is that of an artist who
knew what effect he wanted to produce and got it. There is in the
Berlin Museum a very fine example of a 13th-century prayer desk
from Johanniskirche in Herford. The front is carved in three
panels under arches, two with vine leaves and grapes and the other
with an oak tree conventionally treated. Along the arches is carved
in Latin " this three-divisioned desk has John with the help of
Thomas carved. Who will not praise this work may he then be
removed," a somewhat drastic method of obtaining favourable
criticism.
1300-1380. During this period foliage forms, though still conven-
tional, more closely followed nature. The canopy work of the choir
of Winchester contains exquisite carvings 6f oak and other leaves.
The choir stalls of Ely and Chichester and the tomb of Edward III.
in Westminster Abbey are all fine examples of this period. Exeter
boasts a throne that of Bishop Stapledon (A.D. 1308-1326) stand-
ing 57 ft. high which remains unequalled for perfection of pro-
portion and delicacy of detail (Plate IV. fig. 8). In France the stalls
WOODCARVING
PLATE I.
Pkolo, F. A. Craltan.
FIG. i. CENTRE PANEL OF RETABLE IN DIJON MUSEUM. FLEMISH, 1301 A.D.
XXVIII. 79 J.
PLATE II.
WOODCARVING
WOOD-CARVING
793
The rood
of St Benoit-sur-Loire, Lisieux, and Evreux are good 14th-century
examples. But little Gothic work is now to be seen in tn% churches
of this country. It is to the museums we have to look for traces of
the old Gothic carvers. The two retables in Dijon Museum, the work
of Jacques de Baerze (1301), a sculptor of Flanders, who carved for
Philippe le Hardi, duke of Burgundy, are masterpieces of design and
workmanship. The tracery is of the very finest, chiefly gilt on back-
grounds of diapered gesso (Plate I. fig. i).
1380-1520. Towards the end of the I4th century carvers gave up
natural foliage treatment to a great extent, and took to more con-
ventional forms (Plate III. fig. 4). The oak and the maple no
longer inspired the designer, but the vine was constantly employed.
A very large amount of 15th-century work remains to us, but the
briefest reference only can be made to some of the more beautiful
examples that help to make this period so great.
The rood screen, that wonderful feature of the medieval church,
was now universal. It consisted of a tall screen of usually about
1 1 ft. high, on the top of which rested a loft, i.e. a platform
about 6 ft. in width guarded on either side by a gallery
and either on the top or in front of that, facing the nave,
was placed the rood, i.e. a large crucifix with figures of St Mary and
St John on either side. This rood screen sometimes spanned the
church in one continuous length (Leeds, Kent), but often filled in the
aisle and chancel arches in three separate divisions (Church Hand-
borough, Oxon.). The loft was as a rule approached by a winding
stair built in the thickness of the aisle wall. The lower part of the
screen itself was solid panelled to a height of about 3 ft. 6 in. and the
upper part of this panelling was filled in with tracery (Carbrook,
Norfolk), while the remaining flat surfaces of the panels were often
pictured with saints on a background of delicate gesso diaper (South-
wold, Suffolk). Towards the end of this period the employment of
figures became less common as a means of decoration, and the panels
were sometimes filled entirely with carved foliage (Swimbridge,
Devon). The upper part of the rood screen consisted of open arches
with the heads filled in with pierced tracery, often enriched with
crockets (Seaming, Norfolk), embattled transoms (Castle Hedingham,
Essex), or floriated cusps (Eye, Suffolk). The mullions were con-
stantly carved with foliage (Cheddar, Somerset), pinnacles (Causton,
Norfolk), angels (Pilton, Devon), or decorated with canopy work in
gesso (Southwold). But the feature of these beautiful screens was
the loft with its gallery and vaulting. The loft floor rested on the top
of the rood screen and was usually balanced and kept in position by
means of a groined vaulting (Harberton, Devon) or a cove (Eddington,
Somerset). The finest examples of vaulting are to be seen in Devon
(Plate IV. fig. 10). The bosses at the intersections of the ribs and the
carved tracery of the screen at Honiton stand unrivalled. Many
screens still possess the beam which formed the edge of the loft floor
and on which the gallery rested. It was here that the medieval rood-
screen carver gave most play to his fancy, and carved the finest
designs in foliage to be seen throughout the whole Gothic period.
Although these massed moulds, crests and bands have the appearance
of being carved out of one log, they were in practice invariably built
up in parts, much of the foliage, &c., being pierced and placed in hollow
moulds in order to increase the shadow. As a rule the arrangement
consisted of a crest running along the top, with a smaller one de-
pending from the lower edge, and three bands of foliage and vine
between them (Feniton, Devon). The designs of vine leaves at
Kenton (Plate IV. fig. 10), Bow and Dartmouth, all in Devon,
illustrate three very beautiful treatments of this plant. At Swim-
bridge, Devon, there is a very elaborate combination; the usual
plain beads which separate the bands are carved with twisted foliage
also. At Abbots Kerswell and other places in the district round
Totnes the carvers introduced birds in the foliage with the best effect.
The variety of cresting used is very great. That at Winchcomb,
Gloucester, consists of dragons combined with vine leaves and
foliage. It illustrates how Gothic carvers sometimes repeated their
patterns in as mechanical a way as the worst workmen ol the present
time. Little can be said of the galleries, so few remain to us. They
were nearly all pulled down when the order to destroy the roods was
issued in 1548. That they were decorated with carved saints under
niches (Llananno, Wales), or painted figures (Strencham, Worcester),
is certain from the examples that have survived the Reformation.
At Atherington, Devon, the gallery front is decorated with the royal
coat of arms, other heraldic devices, and with prayers. The Breton
screen at St Fiacre-le-Faouet is a wonderful example of French work
of this time, but does not compare with the best English examples.
Its flamboyant lines and its small tracery never obtained any foot-
hold in England, though screens carved in this way (Colebrook,
Devon) are sometimes to be found.
The rood was sometimes of such dimensions as to require some
support in addition to the gallery on which it rested. A carved
beam was used from which a chain connected the rood itself. At
Cullompton, Devon, such a beam still exists, and is carved with
foliage; an open cresting ornaments the under side and two angels
support the ends. This particular rood stood on a base of rocks,
skulls and bones, carved out of two solid logs averaging 18 in. wide
and 21 in. high, and together measuring 15 ft. 6 in. long; there are
round holes along the top which were probably used for lights.
No country in Europe possesses roofs to equal those of England in
the isth century. The great roof of Westminster Hall (see ROOF)
remains to the present day without an equal. In Norfolk and
Suffolk roofs abound of the hammer-beam class; that at Woolpit,
Suffolk, is of the first rank. Each bracket is carved with _ ft
strongly designed foliage, the end of every beam termin-
ates in an angel carrying a shield, and the purlins are crested, while
each truss is supported by a canopied niche (containing a figure)
resting on an angel corbel. Here, too, as at Ipswich and many other
churches, there is a row of angels with outspread wings under the
wall-plate. This idea of angels in the roof is a very beautiful one,
and the effect was of course much enhanced by the colouring. The
roof at St Nicholas, King's Lynn, is a magnificent example of tie-
beam construction. The trusses are filled in with tracery at the sides
and the centres more or less open, and the beams, which are crested
and embattled, contain a row of angels on either side. In Devon,
Cullompton possesses a very fine semicircular ceiling supported at
intervals by ribs pierced with carving. Each compartment is divided
up into small square panels, crossed by diagonal ribs of cresting,
while every joint is ornamented with a boss carved in the decorative
way peculiar to the Gothic craftsman. The nave roof of Manchester
cathedral is nearly flat, and is also divided up into small compart-
ments and bossed; the beams are supported by carved brackets
resting on corbels with angels at each base.
In the 1 5th century, choir stalls with their canopies continued to
increase in magnificence. Manchester cathedral (middle of 15th
century) and Henry VII. 's chapel in Westminster Abbey _.
(early i6th) are good examples of the fashion of massing
pinnacles and canopies; a custom which hardly com-
pares with the more simple beauty of the 14th-century work of Ely
cathedral. The stalls of Amiens cathedral were perhaps the finest
in the world at the beginning of the i6th century. The cresting
employed, though common on the Continent, is of a kind hardly
known in England, consisting as it does of arches springing from
arches, and decorated with crockets and finials. The tabernacle
work over the end seats, with its pinnacles and flying buttresses,
stretches up towards the roof in tapering lines of the utmost delicacy.
The choir stalls (the work of Jorg Syrlin, 1468) in Ulm cathedral are
among the finest produced by the German carver (Plate III. fig. 4).
The front panels are carved with foliage of splendid decorative bold-
ness, strength and character; the stall ends were carved with foliage
and sculpture along the top edge, as was sometimes the case in
Bavaria and France as well as Germany.
In early times the choir alone possessed seats, the nave being left
bare. Gradually benches were introduced, and during the 15th
century became universal. The " poppy-head " form of
ornament now reached perfection and was constantly used
for seats other than those of the choir. The name refers
to the carved finial which is so often used to complete the top of the
bench end and is peculiarly English in character. In Devon and
Cornwall it is rarely met with (Ilsington, Devon). In Somerset it is
more common, while in the eastern counties thousands of examples
remain. The quite simple fleur-de-lys form of poppy-head, suitable
for- the village, is seen in perfection at Trunch, Norfolk, and the very
elaborate form when the poppy-head springs from a crocketed circle
filled in with sculpture, at St Nicholas, King's Lynn. Often the
foliage contained a face (Cley, Norfolk), or the poppy-head consisted
of figures or birds only (Thurston, Suffolk) or a figure standing on a
dragon (Great Brincton, Northampton) ; occasionally the traditional
form was departed from and the finial carved like a lemon in outline
(Bury St Edmunds) or a diamond (Tirley, Glos.). In Denmark an
ornament in the form of a large circle sometimes takes the place of
the English poppy-head. In the Copenhagen Museum there is a
set of bench ends of the 15th century with such a decoration carved
with coats of arms, interlacing strap-work, &c. But the old 15th-
century bench end did not depend entirely on the poppy-head for its
embellishment. The side was constantly enriched with elaborate
tracery (Dennington, Norfolk) or with tracery and domestic scenes
(North Cadbury, Somerset), or would consist of a mass of sculpture in
perspective, with canopy work, buttresses and sculptured niches,
while the top of the bench end would be crowned with figures carved
in the round, of the finest craftsmanship. Such work at Amiens
cathedral is a marvel alike of conception, design and execution. In
the Kunstgewerbe Museum, Berlin, some beautiful stall ends are to
be seen. Out of a dragon's mouth grows a conventional tree arranged
and balanced in excellent proportion. On another stall end a tree is
carved growing out of the mouth of a fool. This custom of making
foliage grow out of the mouth or eyes is hardly defensible, and was
by no means confined to any country or time. We have plenty of
Renaissance examples of the same treatment.
Before the I5th century preaching had not become a regular
institution in England, ana pulpits were not so common. However,
the value of the sermon began to be appreciated from the
use to which the Lollards and other sects put this method
of teaching doctrine, and pulpits became a necessity. A very
beautiful one exists at Kenton, Devon. It is, as is generally the case,
octagonal, and stands on a foot. Each angle is carved with an
upright column of foliage between pinnacles, and the panels, which
are painted with saints, are enriched with carved canopies and
foliage ; it is, however, much restored. The puipit at Trull, Somerset,
.is noted for its fine figure carving. A large figure standing under a
canopy fills each of the panelled sides, while many other smaller
794
WOOD-CARVING
figures help to enrich the general effect. Examples of Gothic sound-
ing boards are very rare ; that, together with the pulpit, in the choir
of Winchester is of the time of Prior Silkstede (1520), and is carved
with his rebus, a skein of twisted silk.
The usual form of font cover during the hundred years before the
Reformation was pyramidal, the ribs of the salient angles being
straight and cusped (Frindsbury, Kent)or of curved outline
and cusped (St Mildred, Canterbury). There is a very
charming one of this form at Colebrook, Devon. It is
quite plain but for a little angel kneeling on the top, with its hands
clasped in prayer. But the most beautiful form is the massed
collection of pinnacles and canopy work, of which there is such a fine
example at Sudbury, Suffolk. It was not uncommon to carve a dove
on the topmost pinnacle (Castleacre, Norfolk), in allusion to the
descent of the Holy Spirit. The finest font in England is un-
doubtedly that of Ufford, Suffolk. It rises some 20 ft. in height, and
when the panels were painted with saints and the exquisite taber-
nacle work coloured and gilded, must have been a masterpiece of
Gothic craftsmanship. A cord connecting the tops of these covers
with the roof or with a carved beam standing out from the wall,
something like a crane (Salle, Norfolk), was used to remove the cover
on the occasion of baptism.
Many lecterns of the Gothic period do not exist to-day. They
usually had a double sloping desk which revolved' round a central
. . moulded post. The lectern at Swanscombe, Kent, has a
circle of good foliage ornamenting each face of the book
rest, and some tracery work at either end. The box form is more
common in France than in England, the pedestal of such a lectern
being surrounded by a casing of three or more sides. A good ex-
ample with six sides is in the church of Vance (France), and one of
triangular form in the Musee of Bourges, while a four-sided box
lectern is still in use in the church of Lenham, Kent. The Gothic
prayer desk, used for private devotional purposes, is hardly known
in England, but is not uncommon on the Continent. There is a
beautiful specimen in the Musee, Bourges; the front and sides of the
part for kneeling are carved with that small tracery of flowing char-
acter so common in France and Belgium during the latter part of the
15th century, and the back, which rises to a height of 6 ft., contains a
little crucifix with traceried decoration above and below.
A word should be said about the ciboria, so often found on the
db H continent of Europe. In tapering arrangement of taber-
nacle work they rival the English font covers in delicacy
of outline (Musee, Rouen).
Numbers of doors are to be met with not only in churches but also
in private houses. Lavenham, Suffolk, is rich in work of this latter
-^ class. In England the general custom was to carve the
head of the door only with tracery (East Brent, Somerset),
but in the Tudor period doors were sometimes covered entirely with
" linenfold " panelling (St Albans Abbey). This form of decoration
was exceedingly common on the Continent as well as in England. In
France the doors towards the latter part of the isth century were
often square-headed, or perhaps had the corners rounded. These
doors were usually divided into some six or eight oblong panels of
more or less equal size. One of the doors of Bourges Cathedral is
treated thus, the panels being filled in with very good tracery en-
riched with crockets and coats of arms. But a more restrained form
of treatment is constantly employed, as at the church of St Godard,
Rouen, where the upper panels only are carved with tracery and coats
of arms and the lower adorned with simple linenfold design.
To Spain and the Teutonic countries of Europe we look for the most
important object of church decoration, the retable ; the Reformation
accounting for the absence in England of any work of this
kind. The magnificent altar-piece in Schleswig cathedral
was carved by Hans Bruggerman, and consists, like many
others, of a number of panels filled with figures standing some four
or five deep. The figures in the foremost rows are carved entirely
separate, and stand out by themselves, while the background is
composed of figure work and architecture, &c., in diminishing per-
spective. The panels are grouped together under canopy work
forming one harmonious whole. The genius of this great carver
shows itself in the large variety of the facial expression of those
wonderful figures all instinct with life and movement. In France
few retables exist outside the museums. In the little church of
Marissel, not far from Beauvais, there is a retable consisting of eleven
panels, the crucifixion being, of course, the principal subject. And
there is a beautiful example from Antwerp in the Musee Cluny,
Paris; the pierced tracery work which decorates the upper part being
a good example of the style composed of interlacing segments of
circles so common on the Continent during late Gothic times and but
seldom practised in England. In Spain the cathedral of Valladolid
was famous for its retable, and Alonso Cano and other sculptors
frequently used wood for large statuary, which was painted in a
very realistic way with the most startlingly lifelike effect. Denmark
also possessed a school of able wood-carvers who imitated the great
altar-pieces of Germany. A very large and well-carved example still
exists in the cathedral of Roskilde. But besides these great altar-
pieces tiny little models were carved on a scale the minuteness of
which staggers the beholder. Triptychs and shrines, &c., measuring
but a few inches were filled in with tracery and figures that excite
the utmost wonder. In the British Museum there is such a triptych
Altar-
(Flemish, 1511); the centre panel, measuring an inch or two square, is
crowded with figures in full relief and in diminishing perspective, after
the custom of this period. This rests on a semicircular base which is
carved with the Lord's Supper, and is further ornamented with
figures and animals. The whole thing inclusive measures about 9 in.
high, and, with the triptych wings open, 5 in. wide. The extra-
ordinary delicacy and minuteness of detail of this microscopic work
baffle description. There is another such a piece, also Flemish, in
the Wallace collection, which rivals that just referred to in mis-
applied talent. For, marvellous as these works of art are, they fail to
satisfy. They make one's eyes ache, they worry one as to how the
result could ever have been obtained, and after the first astonish-
ment one must ever feel that the same work of art on a scale large
enough for a cathedral could have been carved with haif the labour.
With regard to panelling generally, there were, during the last
fifty years of the period now under review, three styles of design
followed by most European carvers, each of which at-
tained great notoriety. Firstly, a developed form of small '
tracery which was very common in France and the Netherlands.
A square-headed panel would be filled in with small detail of flam-
boyant character, the perpendicular line or mullion being always
subordinate, as in the German chasse (Musee Cluny), and in some
cases absent, as the screen work of Evreux cathedral shows us.
Secondly, the " linenfold " design. The great majority of examples
are of a very conventional form, but at Bere Regis, Dorsetshire, the
designs with tassels, and at St Sauveur, Caen, those with fringe work,
readily justify the universal title applied to this very decorative
treatment of large surfaces. At the beginning of the i6th century
yet another pattern became the fashion. The main lines of the design
consisted of flat hollow mouldings sometimes in the form of inter-
lacing circles (Gatton, Surrey), at other times chiefly straight
(Rochester cathedral), and the intervening spaces would be filled in
with cusps or sprigs of foliage. It marks the last struggle of this
great school of design to withstand the oncoming flood of the new
art the great Renaissance. From this time onward Gothic work,
in spite of various attempts, has never again taken a place in domestic
decoration. The lines of the tracery style, the pinnacle, and the
crocket unequalled as they have always been in devotional ex-
pression are universally considered unsuited for decoration in the
ordinary dwelling-house.
But little reference an be made to the domestic side of the period
which ended with the dawn of the i6th century, because so few
remains exist. On the Continent we have a certain pro- Domestic
portion of timbered houses, the feature of which is the wor
sculpture. At Bayeux, Bourges, Reims and pre-eminently
Rouen, we see by the figures of saints, bishops or virgins, how much
the religious feeling of the middle ages entered into the domestic life.
In England the carved corner post (which generally carried a bracket
at the top to support the overhanging storey) calls for comment.
In Ipswich there are several such posts. On one house near the
river, that celebrated subject, the fox preaching to geese, is carved in
graphic allusion to the dissemination of false doctrine.
Of mantelpieces there is a good example in the Rouen Museum.
The overhanging corners are supported by dragons and the plain
mouldings have little bunches of foliage carved at either end, a
custom as common in France during the I5th century as it was in
England a century earlier; the screen beam at Eastbourne parish
church, for example.
As a rule, cabinets of the isth century were rectangular in plan.
In Germany and Austria the lower part was often enclosed, as well
as the upper; the top, middle and lower rails being carved with
geometrical design or with bands of foliage (Museum, Vienna).
But it was also the custom to make these cupboards with the corners
cut off, thus giving five sides to the piece of furniture. A very pretty
instance, which is greatly enhanced by the metal work of the lock
plates and hinges, is in the Musee Cluny, and there are other good
specimens with the lower part open in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, South Kensington.
The chest was a very important piece of furniture, and is often to
be met with covered with the most elaborate carving (Orleans
Museum). There is a splendid chest (l4th century) in the Cluny
Museum; the front is carved with twelve knights in armour standing
under as many arches, and the spandrels are filled in with faces,
dragons and so on. But it is to the isth century that we look for the
best work of this class; there is no finer example than that ia the
Kunstgewerbe Museum, Berlin (Plate III. fig. 6). The frcnt is a
very animated hunting scene most decoratively arranged in a scheme
of foliage, and the top bears two coats of arms with helms, crests and
mantling. But the more general custom in chest decoration was to
employ tracery with or without figure work; Avignon Museum
contains some typical examples of the latter class.
A certain number of seats used for domestic purposes are of great
interest. A good example of the long bench placed against the wall,
with lofty panelled back and canopy over, is in the Musee Cluny,
Paris. In the Museum at Rouen is a long seat of a movable kind with
a low panelled back of pierced tracery, and in the Dijon Museum
there is a good example of the typical chair of the period, with arms
and high panelled and traceried back. There was a style of design
admirably suited to the decoration of furniture when made of softwood
such as pine. It somewhat resembled the excellent Scandinavian
WOODCARVING
PLATE III
FIG. 4. PANEL FROM FRONT OF STALLS,
ULM CATHEDRAL. 1468-1474.
FIG. 5 ARABIAN PANEL.
I3th century.
From Le sting's flolifckitit^reifn, by permisti*,* of Ernst Watmutk.
FIG. 6 GERMAN CHEST. Late 1 5th century.
XXVIII. 70J.
PLATE IV.
WOODCARVING
FIG. 7. JAPANESE PANEL.
Photo, F. A. CraUan.
FIG. 8. DETAIL OF BISHOP STAPLEDON'S FIG. 9. FLEMISH PANEL.
THRONE, 1308-1326 A.D. RENAISSANCE,
EXETER CATHEDRAL. r6th century
PhotoJ'.A.CraUa*
FIG. io. DETAIL OF ROOD-SCREEN
VAULTING. Late isth century.
KENTON, DEVON.
FIG. ii. FRONT OF WALNUT COFFER, i6th century. RENAISSANCE. ITALIAN.
WOOD-CARVING
795
treatment of the loth-l2th centuries already referred to. A
pattern of Gothic foliage, often of beautiful outline, would be simply
grounded out to a shallow depth. The shadows, curves and twists
only being emphasized by a few well-disposed cuts with a " V "
tool; and of course the whole effect greatly improved by colour.
A Swiss door of the I5th century in the Berlin Museum, and some
German, Swiss and Tirolese work in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
offer patterns that might well be imitated to-day by those who
require simple decoration while avoiding the hackneyed" Elizabethan
forms.
It is hard to compare the figure work of England with that on the
Continent owing to the disastrous effect of the Reformation. But
when we examine the roofs of the Eastern counties, the
bench ends of Somerset, or the misereres in many parts of
the country, we can appreciate how largely wood sculpture
was used for purposes of decoration. If as a rule the figure work was
not of a very high order, we have conspicuous exceptions in the stall
elbows of Sherborne, and the pulpit of Trull, Somerset. Perhaps the
oldest instance is the much-mutilated and much-restored effigy of
Robert, duke of Normandy, in Gloucester Cathedral (i2th century),
and carved, as was generally the case in England, in oak. At Clifton
Reynes, Buckingham, there are two figures of the I3th century.
They are both hollowed out from the back in order to facilitate
seasoning the wood and to prevent cracking. During the I3th, I4th
and 1 5th centuries there are numberless instances of figure carving of
the most graphic description afforded in the misereres in many of our
churches and cathedrals. But of figures carved in the round apart
from their surroundings hardly an instance remains. At the little
chapel of Cartme! Fell, in the wilds of Westmorland, there is a figure
of Our Lord from a crucifix, some 2 ft. 6 in. in length. The cross is
gone, the arms are broken away, and the feet have been burned off.
A second figure of Our Lord (originally in the church of Keynes
Inferior) is in the museum of Caerleon, and a third, from a church
in Lincolnshire, is now in a private collection. On the conti-
nent some of the finest figure work is to be found in the retables,
some of which are in the Victoria and Albert Museum. A Tirolese
panel of the isth century carved in high relief, representing St John
seated with his back to the onlooker, is a masterpiece of perspective
and foreshortening, and the drapery folds are perfect. The same
may be said of a small statue of the Virigin, carved in lime by a Swiss
hand, and some work of the great Tylman Reimenschneider of
Wurzburg (1468-1531) shows that stone sculptors of medieval times
were not ashamed of wood.
Renaissance Period (i6th-Z7th Centuries). With the beginning of
the i6th century the great Renaissance began to elbow its way in to
the exclusion of Gothic design. But the process was not sudden, and
much transition work has great merit. The rood screen at Hurst,
Berkshire, the stall work of Cartmel Priory, Westmorland, and the
bench ends of many of the churches in Somerset, give good illustra-
tions. But the new style was unequal to the old in devotional feeling,
except in classic buildings like St Paul's cathedral, where the stalls
of Grinling Gibbons better suit their own surroundings. The rest of
this article will therefore be devoted in the main to domestic work,
and the exact location of examples can only be given when not the
property of private owners or where the public have access.
During the 1 6th century the best work is undoubtedly to be found
on the Continent. France, Germany and the Netherlands producing
numberless examples not only of house decoration but of furniture as
well. The wealth of the newly discovered American continent was
only one factor which assisted in the civilizing influence of this time,
and hand in hand with the spread of commerce came the desire for
refinement. The custom of building houses chiefly in wood wherever
timber was plentiful continued. Pilasters took the place of pinnacles,
and vases or dolphins assisted the acanthus leaf to oust the older
forms of design. House fronts of wood gave ample scope to the
carver. That of Sir Paul Finder (1600), formerly in Bishopsgate, but
now preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a good example
of decorative treatment without overloading. The brackets carved in
the shape of monsters which support the projecting upper storey are
typical of hundreds of dwellings, as for instance St Peter's Hospital,
Bristol. The panels, too, of Sir Paul Finder's house should be noted
as good examples of that Jacobean form of medallion surrounded by
scroll work which is at once as decorative as it is simple.
In England that familiar style known as Elizabethan and Jacobean
prevailed throughout the i6th and I7th centuries. At the present
time hardly a home in the land has not its old oak chest carved with
the familiar half circle or scroll border along the top rail, or the arch
pattern on the panels. The court cupboards, with their solid or open
under parts and upper cornice supported by turned balusters of
extravagant thickness, are to be seen wherever one goes. And chairs,
real as well as spurious, with solid backs carved in the usual flat
relief, are bought up with an avidity inseparable from fashion.
Four-post bedsteads are harder to come by. The back is usually
broken up into small panels and carved, the best effect being seen in
those examples where the panelling or the framework only is decorated.
The dining-hall tables often had six legs of great substance, which
were turned somewhat after the shape of a covered cup, and were
carved with foliage tearing a distant resemblance to the acanthus.
Rooms were generally panelled with oak, sometimes divided at
intervals by flat pilasters and the upper frieze carved with scroll
work or dolphins. But the feature which distinguished the period
was the fire mantel. It always must be the principal object in a room,
and the Elizabethan carver fully appreciated this fact. By carving the
chimney breast as a rule to the ceiling and covering the surrounding
walls with more or less plain panelling, the designer, by thus concen-
trating the attention on one point, often produced results of a high
order. Caryatid figures, pilasters and friezes were among the custom-
ary details employed to produce good effects. No finer example exists
than that jateiy removed from the old palace at Bromley-by-Bow to
the Victoria and Albert Museum. The mantelshelf is 6 ft. from the
ground and consists of a deep quadrant mould decorated with flat
scroll work of good design. The supporting pilasters on either side
are shaped and moulded in the customary Jacobean manner and are
crowned by busts with Ionic capitals on the heads. Above the shelf
the large centre panel is deeply carved with the royal coat of arms
with supporters and mantling, and on either side a semicircular
arched niche contains a figure in classic dress. The Elizabethan
carver often produced splendid staircases, sometimes carving the
newel posts with heraldic figures bearing coats of arms, &c. The newels
of a staircase at Highgate support different types of Cromwellian
soldiers, carved with great vivacity and life. But in spite of ex-
cellent work, as for example the beautiful gallery at Hatfield, the
carving of this period did not, so far as England was concerned,
compare with other epochs, or with contemporary work in other
parts of Europe. Much of the work is badly drawn and badly exe-
cuted. It is true that good decorative effects were constantly ob-
tained at the very minimum of cost, but it is difficult to discover
much merit in work which really looks best when badly cut.
In France this flat and simple treatment was to a certain extent
used. Doors were most suitably adorned in this way, and the split
baluster so characteristic of Jacobean work is often to be met with.
There are some very good cabinets in the museum at Lyngby,
Denmark, illustrating these two methods of treatment in com-
bination. But the Swiss and Austrians elaborated this style, greatly
improving the effect by the addition of colour. However, the best
Continental designs adopted the typical acanthus foliage of Italy,
while still retaining a certain amount of Gothic feeling in the strength
of the lines and the " cut " of the detail (Plate IV. fig. 9). Panelling
often long and narrow was commonly used for all sorts of domestic
purposes, a feature being a medallion in the centre with a simple
arrangement of vase, dolphins, dragons, or birds and foliage filling
in the spaces above and below.
The cabinets of Holland and Belgium are excellent models of
design. These pieces of furniture were usually arranged in two
storeys with a fine moulded and carved cornice, mid division and
plinth. The pilasters at the sides, and small raised panels carved
only on the projecting part, would compose a very harmonious
whole. A proportion of the French cabinets are decorated with
caryatids not carved in the best taste, and, like other French wood-
work of this period, are sometimes overloaded with sculpture.
The doors of St Maclou, Rouen, fine as they are, would hardly to-day
be held up as models for imitation. A noteworthy set of doors
belong to the H6tel de Ville, Oudenarde. The central door contains
twelve and that on either side eight panels, each of which is carved
with Renaissance foliage surrounding an unobtrusive figure. In the
Palais de Justice we see that great scheme of decoration which takes
up the whole of the fireplace end of the hall. Five large figures
carved in -the round are surrounded by small ones and with foliage
and coats of arms.
In Italy, the birthplace of the Renaissance, there is much fine
work of the i6th century. A very important school of design was
promoted by Raphael, whose patterns were used or adapted by a
large number of craftsmen. The shutters of " Raphael's Stanze "
in the Vatican, and the choir stalls in the church of St Pietro de'
Cassinesi at Perugia, are among the most beautiful examples of this
style of carving. The work is in slight relief, and carved in walnut
with those graceful patterns which Raphael developed out of the
newly discovered remains of ancient Roman wall painting from the
palace of Nero and other places. In the Victoria and Albert Museum
are many examples of Italian work (Plate IV. fig. 1 1) : the door from
a convent near Parma, with its three prominent masks and heavy
gadroon moulds; a picture frame with a charming acanthus border
and egg and tongue moulds on either side ; and various marriage
chests in walnut covered with very elaborate schemes of carving. It
is sometimes difficult to distinguish Spanish, or for that matter
South of France work, from Italian, so much alike is the character.
The Spaniards yield to none in good workmanship. Some Spanish
panels of typical Italian design are in the Victoria and Albert
Museum as well as cabinets of the purest Renaissance order. There
is a wonderful Portuguese coffer (i/th century) in this section. The
top is deeply carved in little compartments with scenes from the life
of Our Lord.
I7tk-l8th Centuries. In England the great school of Grinling
Gibbons arose. Although he carved many beautiful mouldings of
conventional form (Hampton Court Palace, Chatsworth, &c.), his
name is usually associated with a very heavy form of decoration
which was copied direct from nature. Great swags of drapery and
foliage with fruit and dead birds, &c., would be carved in lime a foot
thick. For technical skill these examples are unsurpassed; each
grape would be undercut, the finer stalks and birds' legs stand out quite
796
WOOD-CARVING
separate, and as a consequence soon succumb to the energy of the
housemaid's broom. Good work of this class is to be found at
Petworth; Trinity College, Oxford; Trinity College, Cambridge;
St Paul's cathedral; St James', Piccadilly; and many other
London churches.
During the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV. the principal merit of
carved design, i.e. its appropriateness and suitability, gradually
disappeared. Furniture was often carved in a way hardly legitimate.
The legs, the rails of tables and chairs, the frames ot cabinets, of
looking-glasses, instead of being first made fcr construction and
strength, and then decorated, were first designed to carry cherubs'
heads and " rococo " (i.e. rock and shell ornament), quite regardless
of utility or convenience. A wealth of such mistaken design was also
applied to state carriages, to say nothing of bedsteads and other
furniture. However, the wall panelling of the mansions of the rich,
and sometimes the panelling of furniture, was decorated with rococo
design in its least illegitimate form. The main part of the wood
surface would be left plain, while the centre would be carved with
a medallion surrounded by foliage, vases or trophies of torches and
musical instruments, &c., or perhaps the upper part of the panel
would be thus treated. France led the fashion, which was more or
less followed all over Europe. In England gilt chairs in the style of
Louis XV. were made in some quantities. But Thomas Chippen-
dale, Ince and Mayhew, Sheraton, Johnson, Heppelwhite and other
cabinet-makers did not as a rule use much carving in their designs.
Scrolls, shells, ribbon, ears of corn, &c., in very fine relief, were, how-
ever, used in the embellishment of chairs, &c., and the claw and ball
foot was employed as a termination to the cabriole legs of cabinets
and other furniture.
The mantelpieces of the 1 8th century were as a rule carved in pine
and painted white. Usually the shelves were narrow and supported
by pilasters often of flat elliptic plan, sometimes by caryatids, and
the frieze would consist of a raised centre panel carved with a classic
scene in relief, or with a mask alone, and on either side a swag of
flowers, fruit and foliage.
Interior doorways were often decorated with a broken pediment
more or less ornate, and a swag of foliage commonly depended from
either side over a background of scroll work. The outside porches
so often seen in Queen Anne houses were of a character peculiar to
the i8th century. A small platform or curved roof was supported
by two large and heavy brackets carved with acanthus scroll work.
The staircases were as a rule exceedingly good. Carved and pierced
brackets were fixed to the " open strings " (i.e. the sides of the steps),
giving a very pretty effect to the graceful balustrade of turned and
twisted columns.
Renaissance figure work calls for little comment. During the
l6th century many good examples were produced those priestly
statues in the museum of Sens for example. But the figure work
used in the decoration of cabinets, &c., seldom rose above the ordinary
level. In the i8th century cherubs' heads were fashionable and
statuettes were sometimes carved in boxwood as ornaments, but as a
means of decorating houses wood sculpture ceased to be. The Swiss,
however, have kept up their reputation for animal sculpture to the
present day, and still turn out cleverly carved chamois and bears,
&c. ; as a rule the more sketchily cut the better the merit. Their
more ambitious works, their groups of cows, &c., sometimes reach a
high level of excellence.
Of the work of the igth century little can be said in praise. Out-
side and beyond the present-day fashion for collecting old oak there
seems to be no demand for carved decoration. In church work a
certain number of carvers find occupation, as also for repairs or the
production of imitations. But the carving one is accustomed to see
in hotels or on board the modern ocean palace is in the main the work
of the machine. There is no objection to the machine in itself, as it
only grounds out and roughly models the design which is finished by
hand. Its fatal drawback is that it is of commercial value only when
a large number of panels of the same pattern are turned out at the
same time. It is this repetition which takes away_ the life of good
work, which places that gulf between the contract job and the indi-
vidual effort of the artist. The price of all labour has so greatly in-
creased, to build a house is so much more expensive than it was before
the days of the trades union that none but the very rich can afford
to beautify their home in the way to which our forefathers were
accustomed.
Coptic. In the early medieval period, screens and other fittings
were produced for the Coptic churches of Egypt by native Christian
workmen. In the British Museum there is a set of ten small cedar
panels from the church door of Sitt Miriam, Cairo (i3th century).
The six sculptured figure panels arc carved in very low relief and the
four foliage panels are quite Oriental in character, intricate and fine
both in detail and finish. In the Cairo Museum there is much work
treated _after the familiar Arab style, while other designs are quite
Byzantine in character. The figure work is not of a very high order.
Mohammedan Work. Nothing can exceed the skill with which the
Moslem wood-carvers of Persia, Syria, Egypt and Spain designed
and executed the richest panelling and other decorations for wall
linings, ceilings, pulpits and all kinds of fittings and furniture. The
mosques and private houses of Cairo, Damascus and other Oriental
cities are full of the most elaborate and minutely delicate wood-
work. A favourite style of ornament was to cover the surface with
very intricate interlacing patterns, formed by finely moulded ribs ;
the various geometrical spaces between the ribs were then filled in
with small pieces of wood carved with foliage in slight relief. The
use of different woods such as ebony or box, inlaid so as to emphasize
the design, combined with the ingenious richness of the patterns,
give this class of woodwork an almost unrivalled splendour of effect.
Carved ivory is also often used for 'the filling in of the spaces. The
Arabs are past masters in the art of carving flat surfaces in this way.
A gate in the mosque of the sultan Bargoug (Cairo, I4th century)
well illustrates this appreciation of lines and surfaces. 1 he pulpit or
mimbar (isth century) from a Cairo mosque, now in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, is also a good example in the same style, the small
spaces in this case being filled in with ivory carved in flat relief.
Screens made up of labyrinths of complicated joinery, consisting of
multitudes of tiny balusters connecting hexagons, squares or other
forms, with the flat surfaces constantly enriched with small carvings,
are familiar to every one. In Cairo we also have examples in the
mosque of Qous (i2th century) of that finely arranged geometrical
interlacing of curves with foliage terminations which distinguishes
the Saracenic designer. Six panels in the Victoria and Albert
Museum (yth century; Plate II. fig. 5), and work on the tomb of
the sultan El Ghpury (i6th century), show how deeply this form of
decoration was ingrained in the Arab nature. Figure work and
animals were sometimes introduced, in medieval fashion, as in the
six panels just referred to, and at the h6pital du Moristan (i3th
century) and the mosque of El Nesfy Qeygoun (i4th century).
There _is a magnificent panel on the door of Beyt-el-Emyr. This
exquisite design is composed of vine leaves and grapes of conven-
tional treatment in low relief. The Arab designer was fond of
breaking up his panelling in a way reminding one of a similar
Jacobean custom. The main panel would be divided into a number
of hexagonal, triangular or other shapes, and each small space filled
in ifcith conventional scroll work. Much of this simple flat design
reminds one of that Byzantine method from which the Elizabethan
carvers were inspired.
Persia. The Persian carvers closely followed Arab design. A
pair of doors of the I4th century from Samarkand (Victoria and
Albert Museum) are typical. Boxes, spoons and other small articles
were often fretted with interlacing lines of Saracenic character, the
delicacy and minuteness of the work requiring the utmost patience
and skill. Many of the patterns remind one of the sandalwood work
of Madras, with the difference that the Persians were satisfied with
a much lower relief. Sometimes a very beautiful result was obtained
by the sparing use of fretted lattice pattern among foliage. A fine
panel of the 1 4th century in the Victoria and Albert Museum shows
how active was Arab influence even as far as Bokhara.
India and Burma. Throughout the great Indian peninsula wood-
carving of the most luxurious kind has been continuously produced
for many centuries. The ancient Hindu temples were decorated with
doors, ceilings and various fittings carved in teak and other woods
with patterns of extreme richness and minute elaboration. 'We have
architectural remains from Kashmir Smats (Punjab) dating from
the 3rd or 4th century, the patterns employed being of a bold and
decorative character strongly resembling the best Elizabethan
design. The doors of the temple of Somnath, on the north-west
coast, were famed for their magnificence and were highly valued as
sacred relics. In 1024 they were carried off to Ghazni by the Moslem
conqueror, Sultan Mahmud, and are now lying at the fort at Agra.
The gates which now exist are very fine specimens of ancient wood-
carving, but are probably only copies of the original very early
doors. The Asiatic carver, like certain of his European brethren, is
apt to be carried away by his own enthusiasm and to overcrowd his
surfaces. Ma_ny a door, column, gallery or even a whole house-front
is covered with the most intricate design bewildering to behold
(Bhera, Shahpur). But this is not always the case, and the Oriental
is at times more restrained in his methods. Architectural detail is
to be seen with only a simple enrichment carved round the framing,
producing the happiest result. The Hindu treatment of the circle is
often exceedingly good, and might perhaps less rarely inspire western
design. Sometimes native work strongly resembles Scandinavian of
the I2th century. The scrolls are designed on the same lines, and
foliage and flowers (beyond elementary buds) are not employed
(Burma, lyth century, Victoria and Albert Museum). The pierced
work of Bombay calls for note. Foliage, fruit and flowers are con-
stantly adapted to a scheme of fret-cut decoration for doors or
windows as well as the frames of chairs and the edges of tables. A
reference should also be made to those wonderful sandalwood tables,
cabinets and boxes to be seen in Southern India, always covered with
design, often with scores of figures and monsters with every space
filled in with the minutest decoration. Many of the gong stands of
Burma show the highest skill; the arrangement of two figures
bearing a pole from which a gong hangs is familiar. The Burmese are
sculptors of proved merit.
China and Japan. In these countries the carver is unrivalled for
deftness of hand. Grotesque and imitative work of the utmost
perfection is produced, and many of the carvings of these countries,
Japan in particular, are beautiful works of art, especially when the
carver copies the lotus, lily or other aquatic plant. A favourite form
of decoration consists of breaking up the architectural surfaces,
such as ceilings, friezes, &c., into framed squares and filling up each
WOODCHUCK WOODCOCK
797
panel with a circle, or diamond of conventional treatment with a
spandrel in each corner (door of T'ai-h6 Hall, Pekin). A very Chinese
feature is the finial of the newel post, so constantly left more or less
straight in profile and deeply carved with monsters and scrolls. A
heavily enriched moulding bearing a strong resemblance to the
gadroon pattern is commonly used to give emphasis to edges, and
the dragon arranged in curves imitative of nature is frequently
employed over a closely designed and subordinated background.
The general rule that in every country designers use much the
same means whereby a pattern is obtained holds good in China.
There arc forms of band decoration here which closely resemble those
of Gothic Europe, and a chair from Turkestan (3rd century) might
almost be Elizabethan, so like are the details. Screens of grill form,
so familiar in Mahommedan countries, are common, and the deeply
grounded, closely arranged patterns of Bombay also have their
counterparts. The imperial dais in the Ch'ien-Ch'ing Hall, Pekin, is
a masterpiece of intricate design. The back consists of one central
panel of considerable height, with two of lesser degree on either side
luxuriously carved. The whole is crowned with a very heavy crest
of dragons and scroll work; the throne also is a wonderful example
of carved treatment, and the doors of a cabinet in the same building
show how rich an effect of foliage can be produced without the em-
ployment of stalk or scroll. The Chinaman, who is unequalled as a
microscopic worker, does not limit himself to ivory or metal. One
might almost say, he wastes his talent on such an ungrateful material
as wood. In this material fans and other trifles are carved with a
delicacy that courts disaster.
In Japan much of the Chinese type is apparent. The native carver
is fond of massing foliage without the stalk to lead him. He appears
to put in his foliage, fruit and flowers first and then to indicate a
stalk here and there, thus reversing the order of the Western method.
Such a treatment, especially when birds and beasts are introduced,
has the highest decorative effect. But, as such close treatment is
bound to do, it depends for success to some extent upon its scheme of
colour. A long panel in the Victoria and Albert Museum, depicting
merchants with their packhorse (Plate IV. fig. 7), strongly resembles
in its grouping and treatment Gothic work of the I5th century, as
for example the panel of St Hubert in the museum at Chalons.
The strength and character of Japanese figure work is quite equal to
the best Gothic sculpture of the isth century.
Savage Races. There is a general similarity running through the
carved design of most races of primitive culture, the ' chip ' form
of ornament being almost universally employed. Decorated sur-
faces depending almost entirely upon the incised line also obtain all
over the uncivilized world, and may no doubt be accounted for by
the extensive use of stonecutting tools. The savage carver shows
the same tendency to over-exalt his art by crowding on too much
design as the more civilized craftsman of other lands, while he also
on occasion exercises a good deal of restraint by a harmonious balance
of decoration and plain space. So far as his chip designs and those
patterns more or less depending on the line are concerned, his work
as a rule is good and suitable, but when he takes to figure work his
attempts do not usually meet with success. Primitive carving,
generally, shows that very similar stages of artistic development are
passed through by men of every age and race.
A very favourite style of " chip " pattern is that formed by small
triangles and squares entirely covering a surface (Hervey Islanders),
the monotony being sometimes varied by a band of different arrange-
ment in the middle of the article or at the top or bottom. This form
of art is hardly of a kind calculated to enlarge the imagination, though
so far as the cultivation of patience and accuracy is concerned, has no
equal. But many natives, as for example the Fiji Islanders, employ
chip designs rivalling those of Europe in variety. Upon occasion the
savage appreciates the way in which plain surfaces contrast and
emphasize decorated parts, and judiciously restricts his skill to
bands of decoration or to special points (Marquesa Islands). The
lios of the lower Niger design their paddles in a masterly way, and
snow a fine sense of proportion between the plain and the decorated
surface. Their designs, though slightly in relief, are of the chip
nature. The method of decorating a subject with groups of incised
lines, straight or curved, though often very effective and in every
way suitable, is not a very advanced form of art and has decided
limits. The native of the Congo does good work of this kind.
Carving in relief is common enough, idols being produced in many
forms, but savage relief work seldom calls for praise. The Kafir
carves the handle of his spoon perhaps in the form of a giraffe, and in
the round, with each leg cut separately and the four hoofs meeting
at the bowl, hardly a comfortable form of handle to hold. The North
American Indian shows a wider invention than some nations, the
twist in various shapes being a favourite treatment say of pipe stems.
The Papuan has quite a style of his own; he uses a scroll of the
form familiar in Indian shawls, and in some cases the scroll entwines
in a way which faintly suggests the guilloche. The native of New
Guinea also employs the scroll for a motive, the flat treatment of
which reminds one of a similar method in use in Scandinavian
countries. The work of the New Zealander is greatly in advance of
the average primitive type; he uses a very good scheme of scroll
work for decorative purposes, the lines of the scrolls often being en-
riched with a small pattern in a way reminding one of the familiar
Norman treatment, as for example the prows of his canoes. The
Maori sometimes carves not only the " bargeboards " of his house
but the gables also, snakes and grotesque figures being as a rule
introduced; the main posts and rafters, too, of the inside receive
attention. Unlike the Hindu he has a good idea of decorative pro-
portion, and does not plan his scheme of design on too small a scale.
AUTHORITIES. Marshall, Specimens of Antique Carved Furniture
and Woodwork (1888); Frankfyn Crallan, Details of Gothic Wood-
carving (1896); Spring Gardens Sketch-book; Sanders, Examples
of Carved Oak Woodwork of the i6th and 17th Centuries (1883);
Colling, Medieval Foliage and Decoration (1874); Bond, Screens and
Galleries (1908) ; Paukert, Die Zimmergothick (1904) ; J. Lessing, Holz-
schnitzereien (Berlin, 1882) ; Rouyer, La Renaissance; Rowe, Practical
Wood-carving (1907). (F.A.C.)
WOODCHUCK, the vernacular name of the common North
American representative of the marmots (see MARMOT) , scientific-
ally known as Arctomys monax. The typical race of this species
ranges from New York to Georgia and westward to the Dakotas,
but it is represented by a second and darker race in Labrador,
and by a third in Canada; while several other North American
species have been named. The ordinary woodchuck measures
about 1 8 in. in length, of which the tail forms a third. In colour
it is usually brownish black above, with the nose, chin, cheeks
and throat tending to whitish, and the under parts brownish
chestnut; while the feet and tail are black and blackish. Like
other marmots it is a burrower.
WOODCOCK (O. Eng. wude-cocc, wudu-coc, and vmdu-snite),
the Scolopax rusticula * of ornithology, a game-bird which is
prized both by the sportsman and for its excellence for the table.
It has a long bill, short legs and large eyes suggestive of its
nocturnal or crepuscular habits with mottled plumage of black,
chestnut- and umber-brown, ashy-grey, buff and shining white
the last being confined to the tip of the lower side of the tail-
quills, but the rest intermixed for the most part in beautiful
combination. Setting aside the many extreme aberrations
from the normal colouring which examples of this species
occasionally present (and some of them are extremely curious,
not to say beautiful), there is much variation to be almost
constantly observed in the plumage of individuals, in some of
which the richer tints prevail while others exhibit a greyer
coloration. This variation is often, but not always, accompanied
by a variation in size or at least in weight. 1 The paler birds
are generally the larger, but the difference, whether in bulk
or tint, cannot be attributed to age, sex, season or, so far as
can be ascertained, to locality. It is, notwithstanding, a very
common belief among sportsmen that there are two " species "
of woodcock, and many persons of experience will have it that,
beside the differences just named, the " little red woodcock "
invariably flies more sharply than the other. However, a sluggish
behaviour is not really associated with colour, though it may
possibly be correlated with weight for it is quite conceivable
that a fat bird will rise more slowly, when flushed, than one
which is in poor condition. Ornithologists are practically
unanimous in declaring against the existence of two " species "
or even " races," and, moreover, in agreeing that the sex of the
bird cannot be determined from its plumage, though there are a
few who believe that the young of the year can be discriminated
from the adults by having the outer web of the first quill-feather
in the wing marked with angular notches of a light colour, while
the old birds have no trace of this " vandyke "ornament.
Careful dissections, weighings and measurings seem to show
that the male varies most in size; on an average he is slightly
heavier than the female, yet some of the lightest birds have proved
to be cocks. 3
Though there are probably few if any counties in the United
Kingdom in which the woodcock does not almost yearly breed,
especially since a " close time " has been afforded by the legislature
for the protection of the species, there can be no doubt that by far the
greater number of those shot in the British Islands have come from
1 By Linnaeus, and many others after him, misspelt rusticola.
The correct form of Pliny and the older writers seems to have been
first restored in 1816 by Oken (Zoologie, ii. p. 589).
1 The difference in weight is very great, though this seems to have
been exaggerated by some writers. A friend who has had much
experience tells us that the heaviest bird he ever knew weighed i6J
oz., and the lightest 9 oz. and a fraction.
1 Cf. Dr Hoffmann's monograph Die Waldschnepfe, ed. 2, p. 35,
published at Stuttgart in 1887.
79 8
WOOD ENGRAVING
abroad, mostly, it is presumed, from Scandinavia. These arrive
on the east coast in autumn generally about the middle of October
often in an exhausted and impoverished state. If unmolested,
they are soon rested, pass inland, and, as would appear, in a marvel-
lously short time recover their condition. Their future destination
seems to be greatly influenced by the state of the weather. If cold or
frost stop their supply of food on the eastern side of Great Britain
they press onward and, letting alone Ireland, into which the im-
migrant stream is pretty constant, often crowd into the extreme
south-west, as Devonshire and Cornwall, and to the Isles of Scilly,
while not a few betake themselves to the unknown ocean, finding
there doubtless a watery grave, though instances are on record of
examples having successfully crossed the Atlantic and reaching
Newfoundland, New Jersey and Virginia.
With regard to the woodcock which breed in Britain, pairing
takes place very early in February and the eggs are laid often before
the middle of March. These are four in number, of a yellowish
cream-colour blotched and spotted with reddish brown, and seldom
take the pyriform shape so common among those of Limicoline birds.
The nest always made on the ground amid trees or underwood, and
usually near water or at least in a damp locality is at first little
more than a slight hollow in the soil, but as incubation proceeds dead
leaves are collected around its margin until a considerable mass is
accumulated. During this season the male woodcock performs at
twilight flights of a remarkable kind, repeating evening after evening
(and it is believed at dawn also) precisely tlie same course, which
generally describes a triangle, the sides of which may be a quarter
of a mile or more long. On these occasions the bird's appearance on
the wing is quite unlike that which it presents when hurriedly flying
after being flushed, and though its speed is great the beats of the
wings are steady and slow. At intervals an extraordinary sound is
produced, whether from the throat of the bird, as is commonly
averred, or from the plumage is uncertain. This characteristic flight
is in some parts of England called " reading," and the track taken by
the bird a "cock-road." 1 In England in former times advantage
was taken of this habit to catch the simple performer in nets called
" cock-shutts," which were hung between trees across the open glades
or rides of a wood. A still more interesting matter in relation to the
breeding of woodcocks is the fact, finally established on good evi-
dence, that the old birds transport their newly hatched offspring,
presumably to places where food is more accessible. The young are
clasped between the thighs of the parent, whose legs hang down
during the operation, while the bill is to some extent, possible only at
starting, brought into operation to assist in adjusting the load if not
in bearing it through the air. 2
Woodcock inhabit suitable localities across the northern part
of the Old World, from Ireland to Japan, migrating southward
towards autumn. As a species they are said to be resident in the
Azores and other Atlantic Islands; but they are not known to
penetrate very far into Africa during the winter, though in many
parts of India they are abundant during the cold weather, and reach
even Ceylon and Tenasserim. The popular belief that woodcock live
" by suction " is perhaps hardly yet exploded; but those who have
observed them in confinement know that they have an almost
insatiable appetite for earthworms, which the birds seek by probing
soft ground with their highly sensitive and flexible bill.* This
fact seems to have been first placed on record by Bowles, 4 who
noticed it in the royal aviary at San Ildefonso in Spain, and it has
been corroborated by other observers, and especially by Montagu,
who discovered that bread and milk made an excellent substitute
for their ordinary food. They also do well on chopped raw meat.
The eastern part of North America possesses a woodcock, much
smaller than, though generally (and especially in habits) similar to,
that of the Old continent. It ii the Scolopax minor of most authors;
but, chiefly on account of its having the outer three primaries re-
markably attenuated, it has been placed in a separate genus, Philohela.
In Java is found a distinct and curiously coloured species, described
and! figured by Horsfield (Trans. Linn. Society, xiii. p. 191, and
Zoolog. Researches, pi.) as 5. saturate. To this H. Seebohm (Geo-
S-aphical Distribution of the Family Charadriidae, p. 506) referred the
. rosenbtrgi of Schlegel (Nederl. Tijds. v. d. Dierkunde, iv. p. 54) from
New Guinea. Another species is 5. rochusseni from the Moluccas ; this
has, like the snipe, the lower part of the tibia bare of feathers. (A. N.)
1 The etymology and consequently the correct spelling of these ex-
pressions seem to be very uncertain. Some would derive the word
from the French roder, to rove or wander, but others connect it with
the Scandinavian rods, an open space in a wood (see Notes and Queries,
ser. 5, ix. p. 214, and ser. 6, viii. pp. 523, 524). Looking to the
regular routine followed by the bird, the natural supposition would be
that it is simply an application of the English word road.
1 Cf. J. E. Harting, Zoologist (1879), pp. 433-440, and Mr Wolf's
excellent illustration. Sir R. Payne-Gallwey, in the " Badminton
Library " (Shooting, ii. p. 118, note), states that he himself has
witnessed the performance.
8 The pair of muscles said by Loche (Expl. Scient. de I'Algerie, ii.
p. 293) to exist in the maxilla, and presumably to direct the move-
ment of the bill, do not seem to have been precisely described.
* Introduction a la historia natural y a la geografia fiscia de
Espana, pp. 454, 455 (Madrid, 1775).
WOOD ENGRAVING, the art of engraving (q.v.) on wood,
by lines so cut that the design stands in relief. This method
of engraving was historically the earliest, done for the purpose
of taking impressions upon paper or other material. It is natural
that wood engraving should have occurred first to the primitive
mind, because the manner in which woodcuts are printed is
the most obvious of all the kinds of printing. If a block of wood
is inked with a greasy ink and then pressed on a piece of paper,
the ink from the block will be transferred at once to the paper,
on which we shall have a black patch exactly the size and shape
of the inked surface. Now, suppose that the simple Chinese
who first discovered this was ingenious enough to go a step
further, it would evidently occur to him that if one of the
elaborate signs, each of which in his own language stood for a
word, were drawn upon the block of wood, in reverse, and then
the whole of the white wood sufficiently cut away to leave the
sign in relief, an image of it might be taken on the paper much
more quickly than the sign could be copied with a camel-hair
brush and Indian ink. No sooner had this experiment been
tried and found to answer than block-printing was discovered,
and from the printing of signs to the printing of rude images
of things, exactly in the same manner, the step was so easy that
it must have been made insensibly. Wood engraving, then, is
really nothing but that primitive block-cutting which prepared
for the printer the letters in relief now replaced by movable
types, and the only difference between a delicate modern woodcut
and the rude letters in the first printed books is a difference of
artistic skill and knowledge. In Chinese and Japanese woodcuts
we can still recognize traditions of treatment which come from
the designing of their written characters. The main elements
of a Chinese or a Japanese woodcut, uninfluenced by European
example, are dashing or delicate outlines and markings of various
thickness, exactly such as a clever writer with the brush would
make with his Indian ink or vermilion. Often we get a perfectly
black blot, exquisitely shaped and full of careful purpose, and
these broad vigorous blacks are quite in harmony with the kind
of printing for which wood engraving is intended.
It has not hitherto been satisfactorily ascertained whether
wood engraving came to Europe from the East or was re-
discovered by some European artificer. The precise date of
the first European woodcut is also a matter- of doubt, but here
we have certain data which at least set limits to the possibility
of error. European wood engraving dates certainly from the
first quarter of the isth century. It used to be believed that a
cut of St Christopher (now in the Rylands library, Manchester),
rudely executed and dated 1423, was the Adam of all our wood-
cuts, but since 1844 investigations have somewhat shaken this
theory. There is a cut in the Brussels library, of the " Virgin
and Child " surrounded by four saints, which is dated 1418,
but the composition is so elegant and the drawing so refined and
beautiful, that one has a difficulty in accepting the date, though
it is received by many as authentic, while it is repudiated by
others in the belief that the letters have been tampered with.
The " Virgin and Child " of the Paris library is without date,
but is supposed, apparently with reason, to be earlier than either
of the two mentioned; and Delaborde proved that two cuts
were printed in 1406. The " Virgin and Child " at Paris may
be taken as a good representative specimen of very early
European wood engraving. It is simple art, but not bad art.
The forms arc drawn in bold thick lines, and the black blot is
used with much effect in the hollows and recesses of the design.
Beyond this there is no shading. Rude as the work is, the artist
has expressed exquisite maternal tenderness in the chief details
of the design. The Virgin is crowned, and stands against a
niche-like decoration with pinnacles as often seen in illuminated
manuscripts. In the woodcut this architectural decoration is
boldly but effectively drawn. Here, then, we have real art
already, art in which appeared both vigour of style and tenderness
of feeling.
The earliest wood engraving consisted of outlines and white
spaces with smaller black spaces, cut with a knife, not with a
graver, and shading lines are rare or absent. Before passing
WOOD ENGRAVING
799
to shaded woodcuts we may mention a kind of wood engraving
practised in the middle of the isth century by a French engraver
(often called Bernard Milnet, though his name is a matter of
doubt) and by other engravers nearer the beginning of that
century. This method is called the criblt, a word for which
there is no convenient translation in English, unless we call it
drilled. It means riddled with small holes, as a target may be
riddled with small shot. The effect of light and dark is produced
in this kind of engraving by sinking a great number of round
holes of diffeYent diameters in the substance of the wood, which,
of course, all come white in the printing; it is, in effect, a sort
of stippling in white. When a more advanced kind of wood
engraving had become prevalent the cribU was no longer used
for general purposes, but it was retained for the grounds of
decorative wood engraving, being used occasionally in borders
for pages, in printers' marks and other designs, which were
survivals in black and white of the ancient art of illuminating.
Curiously enough, this kind of wood engraving, though long
disused for purposes of art, was in recent times revived with
excellent effect for scientific purposes, mainly as a method of
illustration for astronomical books. The black given by the
untouched wooden block represents the night sky, and the holes,
smaller or larger, represent in white the stars and planets of
lesser or greater magnitude. The process was perfectly adapted
to this purpose, being cheap, rapid and simple. It has also been
used in a spasmodic and experimental manner by one or two
modern engravers.
The earlier workmen turned their attention to woodcut in
simple black lines, including outline and shading. In early work
the outline is firm and very distinct, being thicker in line than
the shading, and in the shading the lines are simple, without
cross-hatchings, as the workmen found it easier and more
natural to take out a white line-like space between two parallel
or nearly parallel black lines than to cut out the twenty or
thirty small white lozenges into which the same space would
have been divided by cross-hatchings. The early work would
also sometimes retain the simple' black patch which we find in
Japanese woodcuts, for example, in the " Christmas Dancers,"
of Wohlgemuth, all the shoes are black patches, though there
is no discrimination of local colour in anything else. A precise
parallel to this treatment is to be found in a Japanese woodcut
of the " Wild Boar and Hare," given by Aime Humbert in his
book on Japan, in which the boar has a cap which is a perfectly
black patch though all other local colour is omitted. The
similarity of method between Wohlgemuth and the Japanese
artist is close: they both take pleasure in drawing thin black
lines at a little distance from the patch and following its shape
like a border. In course of time, as wood engravers became
more expert, they were not so careful to spare themselves
trouble and pains, and then cross-hatchings were introduced,
but at first more as a variety to relieve the eye than as a common
method of shading. In the i6th century a simple kind of wood
engraving reached such a high degree of perfection that the best
work of that time has never been surpassed in its own way.
Wood engraving in the 1 6th century was much more conventional
than it became in more recent times, and this very conventionalism
enabled it to express what it had to express with greater decision and
power. The wood engraver in those days was free from many difficult
conditions which hampered his modern successor. He did not care in
the least about aerial perspective, and nobody expected him to care
about it ; he did not trouble his mind about local colour, but gener-
ally omitted it, sometimes, however, giving it here and there, but
only when it suited his fancy. As for light-and-shade, he shaded only
when he wanted to give relief, but never worked out anything like a
studied and balanced effect of light-and-shade, nor did he feel any
responsibility about the matter. What he really cared for, and
generally attained, was a firm, clear, simple kind of drawing, con-
ventional in its indifference to the mystery of nature and to the
poetic sentiment which comes to us from that mystery, but by no
means indifferent to fact of a decided and tangible kind. The wood
engraving of the l6th century was a singularly positive art, as
positive as carving; indeed, most of the famous woodcuts of that
time might be translated into carved panels without much loss of
character. Their complete independence of pictorial conditions
might be illustrated by many examples. In Diirer's " Salutation "
the dark blue of the sky above the Alpine mountains is translated by
dark shading, but so far is this piece of local colour from being carried
out in the rest of the composition that the important foreground
figures, with their draperies, are shaded as if they were white statues.
Again, the sky itself is false in its shading, for it is without gradation,
but the shading upon it has a purpose, which is to prevent the upper
part of the composition from looking too empty, and the convention-
alism of wood engraving was so accepted in those days that the artist
could have recourse to this expedient in defiance alike of pictorial
harmony and of natural truth. In Holbein's admirable series of
small well-filled compositions, the " Dance of Death," the firm and
matter-of-fact drawing is accompanied by a sort of light-and-shade
adopted simply for convenience, with as little reference to natural
truth as might be expected in a stained-glass window. There is
a most interesting series of little woodcuts drawn and engraved in
the i6th century by J. Amman as illustrations of the different
handicrafts and trades, and entitled " The Baker," " The Miller,"
" The Butcher," and so on. Nothing is more striking in this valuable
series than the remarkable closeness with which the artist observed
everything in the nature of a hard fact, such as the shape of a hatchet
or a spade ; but he sees no mystery anywhere he can draw leaves
but not foliage, feathers but not plumage, locks but not hair, a hill
but not a landscape. In the " Witches' Kitchen," a woodcut by
Hans Baldung (Grun) of Strassburg, dated 1510, the steam rising
from the pot is so hard that it has the appearance of two trunks of
trees denuded of their bark, and makes a pendant in the composition
to a real tree on the opposite side which does not look more sub-
stantial. Nor was this a personal deficiency in Grun. It was Diirer's
own way of engraving clouds and vapour, and all the engravers of
that time followed it. Their conceptions were much more those of a
carver than those of a painter. Durer actually did carve in high
relief, and Griin's " Witches' Kitchen " might be carved in the same
manner without loss. When the engravers were rather draughtsmen
than carvers, their drawing was of a decorative character. For
example, in the magnificent portrait of Christian III. of Denmark by
Jacob Binck, one of the very finest examples of old wood engraving,
the face and beard are drawn with few lines and very powerfully, but
the costume is treated strictly as decoration, the lines of the patterns
being all given, with as little shading as possible, and what shading
there is is simple, without cross-hatching.
The perfection of simple wood engraving having been attained
so early as the i6th century by the use of the graver, the art
became extremely productive. During the I7th and i8tb
centuries it still remained a comparatively severe and con-
ventional form of art, because the workmen shaded as much as
possible either with straight lines or simple curves, so that there
was never much appearance of freedom. Modern wood engraving
is quite a distinct art, being based on different principles, but
between the two stands the work of an original genius, Thomas
Bewick (1753-1828). Although apprenticed to an engraver
in 1767, he was never taught to draw, and got into ways and
habits of his own which add to the originality of his work,
though his defective training is always evident. His work is
the more genuine from his frequent habit of engraving his own
designs, which left him perfect freedom of interpretation; but
the genuineness of it is not only of the kind which comes from
independence of spirit, it is due also to his fidelity to the technical
nature of the process, a fidelity very rare in the art.
The reader will remember that in wood engraving every cutting
prints white, and every space left untouched prints black. Simple
black lines are obtained by cutting out white lines or spaces between
them, and crossed black lines have to be obtained by laboriously
cutting out all the white lozenges between them. In Bewick's cuts
white lines, which had appeared before him in the Fables of 1772, are
abundant and are often crossed, but black lines are never crossed;
he is also quite willing to utilize the black space, as the Japanese
wood-engravers and piirer's master Wohlgemuth used to do. The
side of the frying-pan in the vignette of " The Cat and the Mouse " is
treated precisely on their principles, so precisely indeed that we have
the line at the edge for a border. In the vignette of " The Fisher-
man," at the end of the twentieth chapter of the Memoir, the space
of dark shade under the bushes is left quite black, whilst the leaves
and twigs, and the rod and line too, are ail drawn in pure white lines.
Bewick, indeed, was more careful in his adherence to the technical
conditions of the art than any of the primitive woodcutters except
those who worked in crible and who used white lines as well as their
dots. Such a thing as a fishing-net is an excellent test of this dis-
position. In the interesting series by J. Amman already mentioned
there is a cut of a man fishing in a river, from a small punt, with a
net. The net comes dark against the light surface of the river, and
Amman took the trouble to cut a white lozenge for every mesh.
Bewick, in one of his vignettes, represents a fisherman mending his
nets by the side of a stream. A long net is hung to dry on four up-
right sticks, but to avoid the trouble of cutting out the lozenges.
Bewick artfully contrives his arrangement of light and shade so that
the net shall be in light against a space of black shade under some
8oo
WOOD ENGRAVING
bushes. This permits him to cut every string of the net by a simple
white line, according to his practice of using the white line whenever
he could. He used it with great ability in the scales of his fish, but
this was simply from a regard to technical convenience, for when he
engraved on metal he marked the scales of his fish by black lines.
These may seem very trifling considerations to persons unacquainted
with the fine arts, who may think that it can matter little whether a
fishing-net is drawn in black lines or in white, but the fact is that the
entire destiny of wood engraving depended on preserving or rejecting
the white line. Had it been generally accepted as it was by Bewick,
original artists might have followed his example in engraving their
own inventions, because then wood engraving would have been a
natural and comparatively rapid art; but when the black line was
preferred the art became a handicraft, because original artists have
not time to cut out thousands of little white spaces. The reader may
at once realize for himself the tediousness of the process by compar-
ing the ease with which one writes a page of manuscript with the
labour which would be involved in cutting away, with perfect
accuracy, every space, however minute, which the pen had not
blackened with ink.
Wood engraving in the first three quarters of the ipth century
had no special character of its own, nothing like Bewick's work,
which had a character derived from the nature of the process;
but on the other hand, the modern art is set to imitate every kind
of engraving and every kind of drawing. Thus we have woodcuts
that imitate line engraving, others that copy etching and even
mezzotint, whilst others try to imitate the crumbling touch of
charcoal or of chalk, or the wash of water-colour, the greyness
of pencil, or even the wash and the pen-line together. The art has
been put to all sorts of purposes; and though it is not and cannot
be free, it is made to pretend to a freedom which the old masters
would have rejected as an affectation. Rapid sketches are made
on the block with the pen, and the modern wood-engraver set
himself patiently to cut out all the spaces of white, in which
case the engraver is in reality less free than his predecessor in
the 1 6th century, though the result has a false appearance
of liberty. The woodcut is like a polyglot who has learned to
speak many other languages at the risk of forgetting his own.
And, wonderful as may be its powers of imitation, it can only
approximate to the arts which it imitates; it can never rival each
of them on its own ground. It can convey the idea of etching or
water-colour, but not their quality; it can imitate the manner
of a line engraver on steel, but it cannot give the delicacy of his
lines. In its most modern development it has practically
succeeded in imitating the grey tonalities of the photograph.
Whatever be the art which the wood engraver imitates, a
practised eye sees at the first glance that the result is nothing but
a woodcut. Therefore, although we may admire the supple-
ness of an art which can assume so many transformations,
it is certain that these transformations give little satisfaction
to severe judges. At the same time, as the ultimate object was
not only reproduction, but reduplication by the printing-press,
the drawbacks mentioned are far outweighed by the practical
advantages. In manual skill and in variety of resource modern
wood engravers far excel their predecessors. A Belgian wood
engraver, St6phane Pannemaker, exhibited at the Salon of 1876
a woodcut entitled " La Baigneuse," which astonished the art-
world by the amazing perfection of its method, all the delicate
modelling of a nude figure being rendered by simple modula-
tions of unbroken line. Both English and French publications
have abounded in striking proofs of skill. The modern art, as
exhibited in these publications, may be broadly divided into two
sections, one depending upon line, in which case the black line
of a pen or pencil sketch is carefully preserved, and the other
depending upon tone, when the tones of a sketch with the brush
are translated by the wood engraver into shades obtained in his
own way by the burin. The first of these methods requires
extreme care, skill and patience, but makes little demand upon
the intelligence of the artist; the second leaves him more free to
interpret, but he cannot do this rightly without understanding
both tone and texture.
The woodcuts in Dora's Don Quixote are done by each method
alternately, many of the designs having been sketched with a pen
upon the block, whilst others are shaded with a brush in Indian ink
and white, the latter being engraved by interpreting the shades of the
brush. In the pen drawings the lines are Dora's, in the brush draw-
ings the lines are the engraver's. In the night scenes Pisan usually
adopted Bewick's system of white lines, the block being left untouched
in its blackness wherever the effect permitted. English wood
engraving showed to great advantage in such newspapers as the
Illustrated London News and the Graphic of that day, and also in
vignettes for book illustration. A certain standard of vignette
engraving was reached by Edmund Evans in Birket Foster's edition
of Cowper's Task, not likely to be surpassed in its own way, either
for delicacy of tone or for careful preservation of the drawing.
An important extension of wood engraving was due to the
invention of compound blocks by Charles Wells about the year
1860. Formerly a woodcut was limited in size to the dimensions
of a block of boxwood cut across the grain, except in the primitive
condition of the art, when commoner woods were used in the
direction of the grain; but by this invention many small blocks
were fitted together so as to form a single large one, sometimes
of great size. They could be separated or joined together again
at will, and it was this facility which rendered possible the
rapid production of large cuts for the newspapers, many
cutters working on the same subject at once, each taking his
own section.
The process employed for wood engraving may be briefly
described as follows. The surface of the block is lightly whitened
with Chinese white so as to produce a light yellowish-grey tint,
and on this the artist draws, either with a pen if the work is
intended to be in line, or with a hard-pointed pencil and a brush
if it is intended to be in shade. If it is to be a line woodcut the
cutter simply digs out the whites with a sharp graver or scalpel
(he has these tools of various shapes and sizes), and that is
all he has to do; but if the drawing on the wood is shaded with
a brush, then the cutter has to work upon the tones in such a
manner that they will come relatively true in the printing.
This is by no means easy, and the result is often a disappoint-
ment, besides which the artist's drawing is destroyed in the
process. It therefore became customary to have the block
photographed before the engraver touches it, when the drawing
is specially worth preserving. This was done for Leighton's
illustrations to Romola. By a later development the drawing,
made upon paper, was by photography printed on the block,
and the drawing remained untouched as a witness for or against
the engraver.
In recent years the position - of wood engraving in Great
Britain has wholly changed. Up to 1880 and for a little while
longer it was the chief means of book and newspaper illustration,
and a frequent method of fine-art reproduction; but by the
beginning of the 2oth century it had been all but driven out
of the field by " process " work of various kinds. It still flourishes
in its commoner style for commercial and mechanical work ; it is
still occasionally maintained in its finest form by a sympathetic
publisher here and there, who deplores and would arrest its
decay. But the photograph and its facsimile reproduction have
captivated the public, who want " illustration " and who do
not want " art." The great body of the wood engravers have
therefore found their occupation entirely gone, while the minority
have found themselves forced to devote their skill to " re-
touching " the process-block sometimes carrying their work so
far that the print from the finished block is a close imitation of
a wood engraving. This system has been carried farthest in
America; it is rarely seen elsewhere.
It is not only to considerations of economy that is due the
supersession of engraving by " process." The apparent supe-
riority of truthfulness claimed by the photograph over the artist's
drawing is a factor in the case the public forgetting that a
photographic print shows us what a thing or a scene looks like
to the undiscriminating lens, rather than what it looks like to the
two eyes of the spectator, who unconsciously selects that part
of the scene which he Specially wishes to see. The rank and file
of the engravers even those who can " engrave " after a picture
as well as "cut" a "special artist's" sketch succumbed not
only to the public, but to the artists themselves, who frequently
insisted upon the process-block for the translation of their work.
They preferred the greater truth of outline (though not necessarily
of tone) which is yielded by " process," to all the inherent charm
of the beautiful (and expensive) art of xylography.
WOODFALL WOOD GREEN
801
In Great Britain a few engravers of high rank and ability still
followed the art which was raised to so high a pitch by W. J. Linton
(d. 1898). Such were Mr Charles Roberts, Mr Biscombe Gardner,
Mr Comfort, Mr Ulrich and a few more the first two the better
engravers for being also practising artists. But there is every reason
to fear that if wood engraving as a craft, for ordinary purposes, ceases
to exist, wood engraving as a fine art must disappear as well as
there would be nothing to support the young craftsman during the
I years of apprenticeship and practice required to make an " artist "
of him, and nothing to compensate him if he fail to attain at once the
highest accomplishment.
Another circumstance which has contributed to the overthrow of
wood engraving in England is the rapture begotten of the extra-
ordinary executive perfection to which the art had been brought in
America. These engravings, published in magazines and Ibooks
having wide circulation in England, awakened not an intelligent
but a foolish appreciation among the public. Just as the over-
refinement of engraving on steel of Finden and his school killed his
art by stripping it of all interest, so the unsurpassable perfection of
the American wood engraver, by the law of paradox, effectually
stifled xylography in England, as it has since done to an almost equal
degree in America. The reason is simple. With the object of " dis-
individualizing " himself, as he called it, the engraver sought to
suppress his own recognizable manner of craftsmanship when trans-
lating the work of the artist for the public; and the more he suc-
ceeded in effacing himself, and the more he refined and elaborated
his technique and imitated textures, and the more he developed
extreme minuteness and excessive dexterity (so as to secure faithful-
ness and smoothness), the more closely did the result approximate to
a photograph and nothing more. The result, in fact, became the
reductio ad absurdum of the passion for the minute and the perfection
of mere technique. The result was amazing in its completeness, but
curiously grey and monotonous; and matter-of-fact publishers and
public alike preferred the photograph, which in their eyes did not
differ so very much (except in being a little greyer and more
monotonous) reproduced by the half-tone block, while the cost of
the latter was but a fraction of that of the former. The extreme
elaboration, satisfying a craving of an acrobatic kind, defeated its
own end. The public were pleased for a time, and the result has been
disastrous for the art.
In England, in spite of the International Society of Wood En-
gravers, of which little is now heard, there are no signs of a general
revival, and it seems as if the art must be born again, so long as the
public interest in photographs continues. Charles Ricketts and Miss
Housman have gone back to a Diireresque, or Florentine, manner of
the Early Renaissance woodcut, while others are striving to begin
engraving where Bewick began it. If the true art is ever restored,
the revival will rather be based on a revolt against the greyness of the
process-block, and the offensively shiny surface of the chalk-coated
paper on which it is printed, than on anyaestheticdelight in intelligent
wood engraving, its expressive line, its delicate, pearly tones, and its
rich, fat blacks.
In America, where the power of resuscitation is great, the miracu-
lous technical perfection brought about by Timothy Cole and
Frederick Juengling, as leaders of the school, has promptly given way
to a greater feeling for art and a lesser worship of mechanical achieve-
ment, and, within strict limits, wood engraving is saved. Curi-
ously enough, Cole (an Englishman by birth) was equally a leader in
recognizing the danger which his own brilliant proficiency had
helped to bring about. The' " decadent " de luxe who had over-
whelmed his art in the refinements which threatened to destroy it,
and who had been seconded by the splendid printing-presses of
America (which might without exaggeration be called instruments
of precision), gave up what may be termed hyper-engraving, and,
surrendering his wonderful power of imitating surfaces and textures,
changed his manner. He became broader in handling; his example
was followed by others, and wood engraving in a very few hands still
prospers in the United States.
In France, where the art has reached the highest perfection and
the most consummate and logical development, it flourishes up to
a certain point on the true artistic instinct of the engraver, on the
taste of an intelligent and appreciative public, and on official recogni-
tion and encouragement. Nevertheless, it was found necessary to
establish a " Society of Wood Engravers " (with a magazine of its
own) to protect it against the inroad of the process-block. The art
doubtless produces more engravers of skill than it can provide work
for; but that is evidence rather of vitality than of decay. Lepere,
Baude, Jonnard and Florian have been among the leaders who, in
different styles of wood engraving, have sustained the extraordinarily
high level which has been attained in France, and which is fairly well
maintained by virtue of the encouragement on which it has thriven
heretofore. Florian, who died in 1900, was a man who successfully
sought to obtain effects of tone rather than line, leaving masses of
unengraved surface to enhance the delicate beauty of his pearly greys.
But in rebelling against the mechanical style formerly so much in
vogue in Germany, of indicating roundness of form by curved lines
carried as far as possible at right angles to the convexity, and in
substituting more or less longitudinal lines of shading, he sacrificed
a good deal of the logic of form-rendering, and started a method that
has not been entirely successful.
XXVIII. 26
In Germany the artistic standard is lower than in France. It is
true that few outside Germany could model a head as finely as M.
Klinkicht in his own style of a judicious mingling of the black line
and the white line; but, as a rule, German engraving is far more
precise, more mechanical, more according to formula, and heavier
and more old-fashioned than that of either France or America. The
art has been injured by the great " studios " or factories designed to
flourish on strictly business principles, workshops which, in the edu-
cation of the craftsman, to some extent annihilated the artist. A
few there are, however, of great ability and taste. The attempt to
print wood engravings in colours has done little to improve the status
of the art. In other countries, however, " original " work helped to
raise the standard. Thus the work of Elbridge Kingsley, who would!
sit down in the woods and engrave the scene before him directly on
to the block, exercised no little influence in America. The similar
ability of Lepere to engrave directly from nature, whether from the
trees of Fontainebleau Forest or the palace of Westminster, has in
its time been much appreciated in his own country and in England.
The efforts at block-printing by Charpentier and others, not only with
colour, but by reinforcing it with blocks that print neither lines nor
colour but " blind " pattern, raised or depressed upon the paper, are
evidence of the movement by which new methods have been sought
to interest the public. The immediate results have not been very
serious, yet the fact shows the existence of a vitality that gives some
hope for the future. But while the practice of dry-printing upon
" surface paper " is maintained, it is hopeless to expect in the im-
mediate future, in Great Britain at least, any permanently good
results from orthodox wood engraving.
See the works cited under ENGRAVING; and also J. Jackson,
Treatise on Wood-Engraving (1839); Didot's Essai sur I'histoire de la
gravure sur bois (1863); W. S. Baker, American Engravers and their
Work (Philadelphia, 1875) ; J. Jackson and W. A. Chatto, Treatise on
Wood-Engraving (Chatto, 1881); P. G. Hamerton, The Graphic Arts
(Seeley, 1882); W. J. Linton, History of Wood-Engraving in America
(Chatto, 1882); G. E. Woodberry, History of Wood- Engraving
(S. Low, 1883); Sir W. M. Conway, The Wood-cutters of the Nether-
lands in the ijth century (Cambridge Press, 1884); W. J. Linton,
Wood-Engraving (G. Bell & Sons, London, 1884); Dr F. Lippmann,
Wood-Engraving in Italy in the ifth century (Quaritch, 1888); John
Ruskin, Ariadne Florentina (Allen, 1890); W. J. Linton, The
Masters of Wood-Engraving: folio, issued to subscribers only
(London, Stevens, Charing Cross, 1889 and 1892); P. G. Hamerton,
Drawing and Engraving (A. & C. Black, 1892), an extended reprint
of the article on " Engraving " in the 9th edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica', Louis Fagan, History of Engraving in England
(text and three portfolios of plates) (Low, 1893-1894); George and
Edward Dalziel, The Dalziet Brothers: a record of 50 years work,
1848-1800 (Methuen, 1901). (P. G. H.; M. H. S.)
WOODFALL, HENRY SAMPSON (1739-1805), English printer
and journalist, was born in London on the 2ist of June 1739.
His father, Henry Woodfall, was the printer of the newspaper
the Public Advertiser, and the author of the ballad Darby and
Joan, for which his son's employer, John Darby, and his wife,
were the originals. H. S. Woodfall was apprenticed to his father,
and at the age of nineteen took over the control of the Public
Advertiser. In it appeared the famous letters of " Junius."
Woodfall sold his interest in the Public Advertiser in 1793. He
died on the izth of December 1805. His younger brother,
William Woodfall (1746-1803), also a journalist, established
in 1789 a daily paper called the Diary, in which, for the first time,
reports of the parliamentary debates were published on the
morning after they had taken place.
WOODFORD, an urban district in the Walthamstow (S.W.)
parliamentary division of Essex, England, 9 m. N.E. from
Liverpool Street station, London, by a branch of the Great
Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 13,798. Its proximity to the
southern outskirts of Epping Forest has brought it into favour
both with residents and with holiday visitors from London.
A converted mansion, Woodford Hall, forms a convalescent
home. On high ground to the N. is the ecclesiastical parish
(one of three) of Woodford Wells, where there is a mineral
spring.
WOOD GREEN, an urban district in the Tottenham parlia-
mentary division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London,
7 m. N. of St Paul's Cathedral, on the Great Northern railway.
Pop. (1891) 25,831, (1001) 34,233. The name covers a""populous
residential district lying north of Hornsey and west of Tottenham.
To the west lies Muswell Hill, with the grounds and building
of the Alexandra Palace, an establishment somewhat similar
to the Crystal Palace. It was opened in 1873, destroyed by
fire almost immediately, and reopened in 1875. Muswell Hill
802
WOOD-LOUSEWOODPECKER
took name from a holy well, of high repute for curative powers,
over which an oratory was erected early in the lath century,
attached to the priory of St John of Jerusalem in Clerkenwell.
WOOD-LOUSE, a name commonly applied to certain terres-
trial Crustacea of the order Isopoda (see MALACOSTRACA), which
are found in damp places, under stones or dead leaves, or among
decaying wood. They form the tribe Oniscoidea and are distin-
guished from all other Isopoda by their habit of living on land
and breathing air, and by a number of structural characters,
such as the small size of the antennules and the absence of the
mandibular pulp. As in most Isopods, the body is flattened,
and consists of a head, seven thoracic segments which are always
free, and six abdominal segments which may be free or fused.
The " telson " is not separated from the last abdominal segment.
The head bears a pair of sessile compound eyes as well as the
minute antennules and the longer antennae. Each of the seven
thoracic segments carries a pair of walking legs. The appendages
of the abdomen (with the exception of the last pair) are flat
membranous plates and serve as organs of respiration. In
many cases their outer branches have small cavities opening
to the outside by slit-like apertures, and giving rise internally
to a system of ramifying tubules filled with air. From their
similarity to the air tubes or tracheae of insects and other
air-breathing Arthropods these tubules are known as " pseudo-
tracheae."
The female wood-louse carries her eggs, after they are extruded
from the body, in a pouch or " marsupium " which covers the
under surface of the thorax and is formed by overlapping plates
attached to the bases of the first five pairs of legs. The young,
on leaving this pouch, are like miniature adults except that they
are without the last pair of legs. Like all Arthropoda, they cast
their skin frequently during growth. As a rule the skin of the
hinder half of the body is moulted some days before that of the
front half, so that individuals in process of moulting have a
very peculiar appearance.
Some twenty-four species of wood-lice occur in the British Islands.
Some, like the very common slaty-blue Porcettio scaber, are practically
cosmopolitan in their distribution, having
been transported, probably by the uncon-
scious agency of man, to nearly all parts of
the globe. Equally common is the brown,
yellow-spotted Oniscus asellus. Armadillidium
vulgare belongs to a group which have the
power of rolling themselves up into a ball
when touched and resembles the millipede
Glomeris. It was formerly employed in
popular medicine as a ready-made pill. The
largest British species is Ligia oceanica, which
frequents the sea-shore, just above high-
water mark. In many points of structure,
Common Wood-louse, f or instance in the long, many-jointed
Oniscus asellus. antennae, it is intermediate, as it is in
habits, between the truly terrestrial forms
and their marine allies. Finally, one of the most interesting species
is the little, blind, and colourless Platyarthrus hoffmannseggi, which
lives as a guesF or commensal in the nests of ants. (W. T. CA.)
WOODPECKER, a bird that pecks or picks holes in wood,
and from this habit is commonly reputed to have its name;
but it is in some parts of England also known as " Woodspeight "
(erroneously written " Woodspite ") the latter syllable being
cognate with Ger. Specht and Fr. peiche, possibly with Lat.
Picus. 1 More than 300 species have been described, and they
have been very variously grouped by systematists; but all
admit that they form a very natural family Picidae of Coraciiform
1 The number of English names, ancient and modern, by which
these birds are known is very great, and even a bare list of them could
not be here given. The Anglo-Saxon was higora or higere, and to
this may plausibly be traced " hickwall," nowadays used in some
parts of the country, and the older " hickway," corrupted first into
' highhaw," and, after its original meaning was lost, into " hewhole,"
which in North America has been still further corrupted into " high-
hole " and more recently into " high-holder." Another set of names
includes " whetile " and " woodwale," which, different as they look,
have a common derivation perceptible in the intermediate form
" witwale." _ The Mid. Ertg. wodehake ( = woodhack) is another name
apparently identical in meaning with that commonly applied to
woodpecker.
birds, their nearest allies being the toucans. They are generally
of bright particoloured plumage, in which black, white, brown,
olive, green, yellow, orange or scarlet the last commonly
visible on some part of the head mingled in varying proportions,
and most often strongly contrasted with one another, appear;
while the less conspicuous markings take the form of bars,
spangles, tear-drops, arrow-heads or scales. Woodpeckers
inhabit most parts of the world, with the exception of Madagascar
and the Australian Region, save Celebes and Flores; but it
may be worth stating that no member of the group is known
to have occurred in Egypt.
Of the three British species, the green woodpecker, Gecinus
or Picus viridis, though almost unknown in Scotland or Ireland,
is the commonest, frequenting wooded districts, and more often
heard than seen, its laughing cry (whence the name " Yaffil " or
" Yaffle," by which it is in many parts known), and undulating
flight afford equally good means of recognition, even when it is
not near enough for its colours to be discerned. About the size
of a jay. its scarlet crown and bright yellow rump, added to its
prevailing grass-green plumage, make it a sightly bird, and
hence it often suffers at the hands of those who wish to keep
its stuffed skin as an ornament. Besides the scarlet crown,
the cock bird has a patch of the same colour running backward
from the base of the lower mandible, a patch that in the hen is
black. 2 Woodpeckers in general are very shy birds, and to
observe the habits of the species is not easy. Its ways, however,
are well worth watching, since the ease with which it mounts,
almost always spirally, the vertical trunks and oblique arms
of trees as it searches the interstices of the bark for its food,
flying off when it reaches the smaller or upper branches either
to return to the base of the same tree and renew its course
on a fresh line, or to begin upon another tree near by and the
care it shows in its close examination, will repay a patient
observer. The nest almost always consists of a hole chiselled
by the bird's strong beak, impelled by very powerful muscles,
in the upright trunk or arm of a tree, the opening being quite
circular, and continued as a horizontal passage that reaches
to the core, whence it is pierced downward for nearly a foot.
There a chamber is hollowed out in which the eggs, often to the
number of six, white, translucent and glossy, are laid with no
bedding but a few chips that may have not been thrown out.*
The young are not only hatched entirely naked, but seem to
become fledged without any of the downy growth common to
most birds. Their first plumage is dull in colour, and much
marked beneath with bars, crescents and arrowheads.
Of generally similar habits are the two other woodpeckers
which inhabit Britain the pied or greater spotted and the
barred or lesser spotted woodpecker Dendrocopus major and
D. minor each of great beauty, from the contrasted white,
blue-black and scarlet that enter into its plumage. Both of
these birds have an extraordinary habit of causing by quickly-
repeated blows of their beak on a branch, or even on a small
bough, a vibrating noise, louder than that of a watchman's
rattle, and enough to excite the attention of the most incurious.
Though the pied woodpecker is a resident in Britain, its numbers
receive a considerable accession nearly every autumn.
2 A patch of conspicuous colour, generally red, on this part is
characteristic of very many woodpeckers, and careless writers often
call it " mystacial," or some more barbarously " moustachial."
Considering that moustaches spring from above the mouth, and have
nothing to do with the mandible or lower jaw, no term could be more
misleading.
3 It often happens that, just as the woodpecker's labours are over,
a pair of starlings will take possession of the newly-bored hole, and,
by conveying intq it some nesting furniture, render it unfit for the
rightful tenants, who thereby suffer ejectment, and have to begin
all their trouble again. It has been stated of this and other wood-
peckers that the chips made in cutting the hole are carefully removed
by the birds to guard against their leading to the discovery of the
nest. The present writer, however, had ample opportunity of ob-
serving the contrary as regards this species and, to some extent, the
pied woodpecker next to be mentioned. Indeed there is no surer way
of finding the nest of the green woodpecker than by scanning the
ground in the presumed locality, for the tree which holds the nest is
always recognizable by the chips scattered at its foot.
WOODS, SIR A. WOODSTOCK
803
The three species just mentioned are the only woodpeckers
that inhabit Britain, though several others are mistakenly
recorded as occurring in the country and especially the great
black woodpecker, the Picus
martins of Linnaeus, which
must be regarded as the type
of that genus. 1 This fine
species considerably exceeds
the green woodpecker in size,
and except for its red cap is
wholly black. It is chiefly an
inhabitant of the fir forests of
the Old World, from Lapland
to Galicia and across Siberia
to Japan. In North America
this species is replaced by
Picus pUeatus, there generally
known as the logcock, an
equally fine species, but varie-
gated with white; and farther
to the southward occur two
that are finer still, P. princi-
From Cambridge Natural History, vol.
be., "Birds," by permission of Macmillan &
Co., Ltd.
Lesser Spotted Woodpecker.
Palis, the ivory-billed woodpecker and P. imperialis. The Picinae
indeed flourish in the New World, nearly one-half of the described
species being American, but of the large number that inhabit
Canada and the United States we can mention only a few.
First of these is the Californian woodpecker, Melanerpes for-
micivorus, which has been said to display an amount of providence
beyond almost any other bird in the number of acorns it fixes tightly
in holes which it makes in the bark of trees, and thus " a large
pine forty or fifty feet high will present the appearance of being
closely studded with brass nails, the heads only being visible." This
is not done to furnish food in winter, for the species migrates, and
only returns in spring to the forests where its supplies are laid
up. It has been asserted that the acorns thus stored are always
those which contain a maggot, and, being fitted into the sockets pre-
pared for them cup-end foremost, the enclosed insects are unable to
escape, as they otherwise would, and are thus ready for consump-
tion by the birds on their return from the south. But this state-
ment has again been contradicted, and, moreover, it is alleged that
these woodpeckers follow their instinct so blindly that " they do not
distinguish between an acorn and a pebble," so that they " fill up
the holes they have drilled with so much labor, not only with acorns
but occasionally with stones " (cf. Baird, Brewer and Ridgway,
North American Birds, ii. pp. 569-571).
The next North-American form deserving notice is the genus
Colaptes, represented in the north and east by C. auratus, the golden-
winged woodpecker or flicker, in most parts of the country a familiar
bird, but in the south and west replaced by the allied C. mexicanus,
easily distinguishable among other characteristics by having the
shafts of its quills red instead of yellow. It is curious, however, that,
in the valleys of the upper Missouri and Yellowstone rivers, where
the range of the two kinds overlaps, birds are found presenting an
extraordinary mixture of the otherwise distinctive features of each.
Other North American forms are the downy and hairy wood-
peckers, small birds with spotted black and white plumage, which are
very valuable as destroyers of harmful grubs and borers; the red-
headed woodpecker, a very handsome form with strongly contrasted
red, black and white plumage, common west of the Alleghany
Mountains; and the yellow-bellied woodpecker (" sapsucker ).
Some other woodpeckers deserve especial notice-^-the Colaptes or
Soroplex campestris, which inhabits the treeless plains of Paraguay
and La Plata; also the South-African woodpecker Geocolaptes
olivaceus, which lives almost entirely on the ground or rocks, and picks
a hole for its nest in the bank of a stream (Zoologist, 1882, p. 208).
The woodpeckers, together with the wrynecks (?..), form a very
natural division of scansorial birds with zygodactylous feet, and were
regarded by T. H. Huxley as forming a distinct division of birds to
which he gave the name Celeomorphae, whilst W. K. Parker separated
them from all other birds as Saurognaihae. (A. N.)
WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1004), English herald, son of Sir
William Woods, Garter king-of-arms from 1838 to his death in
1842, was born on the i6th of April 1816. In 1838 he became
a member of the chapter of the Heralds' College, of which he
was appointed registrar in 1866. In i86g he was knighted and
became Garter king-of-arms. In this capacity he was entrusted
1 The expression Picus martius was by old writers used in a very
general sense for all birds that climbed trees, not only woodpeckers,
out for the nuthatch and tree-creeper (qq.v.) as well. The adjective
martius loses all its significance if it be removed from Picus, as some
even respectable authorities have separated it.
with many missions to convey the order to foreign sovereigns;
he was also registrar from 1878 of the orders of the Star of India
and of the Indian Empire; and from 1869 was king-of-arms
of the order of St Michael and St George. He officiated at the
coronations both of Queen Victoria and of King Edward VII.,
and his authority on questions of precedence was unique. His
later distinctions were K.C.B. (1897), K.C.M.G. (1899) and
G.C.V.O. (1903). He died on the 7th of January 1904.
WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854), American theologian, was
born at Princeton, Massachusetts, on the igth of June 1774. He
graduated at Harvard in 1796, and in 1798 was ordained pastor
of the Congregational Church at West Newbury. He was
prominent among the founders of Andover Theological Seminary,
and was its first professor, occupying the chair of Christian theo-
logy from 1808 to 1846, and being professor emeritus until hi?
death in Andover on the 24th of August 1854. He helped to
establish the American Tract Society, the American Education
Society, the Temperance Society and the American Board, of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions. He was an orthodox
Cab/mist and an able dialectician. His principal works (5 vols.,
Andover, 1849-50) were Lectures on the Inspiration of the Scriptures
(1829), Memoirs of American Missionaries (1833), Examination
of the Doctrine of Perfection (1841), Lectures on Church Government
(1843), and Lectures on Swedenborgianism (1846); he also wrote
a History of Andover Seminary (1848), completed by his son.
His son, LEONARD WOODS (1807-1878), was born in West
Newbury, Mass., on the 24th of November 1807, and gradu-
ated at Union College in 1827 and at Andover Theological
Seminary in 1830. His translation of Georg Christian Knapp's
Christian Theology (1831-1833) was long used as a text-book in
American theological seminaries. He was assistant Hebrew
instructor (1832-1833) at Andover, and having been licensed to
preach by the Londonderry Presbytery in 1830 was ordained
as an evangelist by the Third Presbytery of New York in 1833.
In 1834-1837 he edited the newly-established Literary and
Theological Review, in which he opposed the " New Haven "
theology. After being professor of sacred literature in the
Bangor Theological Seminary for three years, he was president
of Bowdoin College from 1839 to 1866, and introduced there
many important reforms. From June 1867 to September 1868
Dr Woods worked in London and Paris for the Maine Historical
Society, collecting materials for the early history of Maine; he
induced J. G. Kohl of Bremen to prepare the first volume (1868)
of the Historical Society's Documentary History, and he dis-
covered a MS. of Hakluyt's Discourse on Western Planting,
which was edited, partly with Woods's notes, by Charles Dean
in 1877. He died in Boston on the 24th of December 1878.
He was a remarkable linguist, conversationalist and orator,
notable for his uncompromising independence, his opinion
that the German reformation was a misfortune and that the
reformation should have been within the church.
See E. A. Park, Life and Character of Leonard Woods, Jr. (Andover,
1880).
ALVA WOODS (1794-1887), a nephew of the elder Leonard and
the son of Abel Woods (1765-1850), a Baptist preacher, graduated
at Harvard in 1817 and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821,
and was ordained as a Baptist minister. In 1824-1828 he was
professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Brown
University, acting as president in 1826-1827; in 1828-1831
was president of Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky;
and in 1831-1837 was president of the University of Alabama
at Tuscaloosa, where he organized the Alabama Female
Athenaeum. After 1839 he lived in Providence, R.I.
WOODSTOCK, a town and port of entry of Oxford county,
Ontario, Canada, 80 m. S.W. of Toronto by rail, on Cedar
creek, the Thames river and the Grand Trunk and Canadian
Pacific railways. Pop. (1901) 8833. It is in one of the best
agricultural sections of the province, and has a large export
trade in cheese, butter and farm produce. Organs, pianos and
agricultural implements are manufactured. It contains a resi-
dential school, under the control of the Baptist church, affiliated
with McMaster University, Toronto.
8 04
WOODSTOCK WOODWARD, S.
WOODSTOCK, a market town and municipal borough in the
Woodstock parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England,
72$ m. W.N.W. of London, the terminus (Blenheim and Wood-
stock) of a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901)
1684. The little river Glyme, in a steep and picturesque valley,
divides the town into New and Old Woodstock. The church of
St Mary Magdalene, in New Woodstock, is of Norman date,
but has additions in the later styles, and a west tower built in
1785. The town-hall was erected in 1766 after the designs of Sir
William Chambers. The picturesque almshouses were erected
in 1798 by Caroline, duchess of Marlborough. The town is
dependent chiefly on agriculture, but a manufacture of leather
gloves (dating from the i6th century) is carried on. Wood-
stock is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors.
Area, 156 acres.
After the battle of Blenheim the manor of Woodstock was
by Act 3 and 4 of Queen Anne, chap. 4, bestowed in perpetuity
on John, duke of Marlborough. In 1723 it was destroyed, being
already ruinous, and the site levelled after the erection of
Blenheim House, a princely mansion erected by Parliament for
the duke of Marlborough in consideration of his military services,
and especially his decisive victory at Blenheim. The sum of
500,000 was voted for the purchase of the manor and the
erection of the building, a huge pile built by Sir John Vanbrugh
(<?..), in a heavy Italo-Corinthian style. The greater part of the
art treasures and curios were sold in 1886, and the great library
collected by Charles Spencer, earl of Sunderland, the son-in-law
of the first duke of Marlborough, in 1881. The magnificent park
contains Fair Rosamund's well, near which stood her bower.
On the summit of a hill stands a column commemorating the
duke. Blenheim Park forms a separate parish.
Domesday describes Woodstock (Wodestock, Wodestok', Wode-
stok) as a royal forest; it was a royal seat from early times and
./Ethelred is said to have held a council there, and Henry I. to
have kept a menagerie in the park. Woodstock was the scene
of Henry II. 's courtship of Rosamund Clifford (" Fair Rosa-
mund "). It was a favourite royal residence until the Civil War,
when the manor house was " almost totally destroyed."
In the Hundred Rolls of 1279 Woodstock is described as a vill, but
a burgess is alluded to in the same document, and it returned two
members to parliament as a borough in 1302 and 1305. A mayor of
Woodstock was witness to a deed in 1398, but the earliest known
charter of incorporation was that from Henry VI. in 1453, establish-
ing the vill of New Woodstock a free borough, with a merchant gild
and the same liberties and customs as New Windsor; and incorporat-
ing the burgesses under the title of the " Mayor and Commonalty of the
Vill of New Woodstock." The mayor and a serjeant-at-mace were
to be elected by the commonalty, and an independent borough court
was established for the trial of all civil actions and criminal offences.
The borough was also exempted from the burden of sending repre-
sentatives to parliament, but it again returned two members in 1553
and then regularly from 1570 until 1881, when the representation
was reduced to one member. In 1885 the borough was dis-
franchised. The charter of Henry VI. was confirmed by Henry VII.,
Edward VI. and Elizabeth, but before 1580, when an ordinance was
drawn up for the government of the borough, the corporation had
considerably developed, including a high steward, recorder, mayor,
6 aldermen, 20 common councillors, a town clerk and a crier of the
court; and the new charter granted by Charles II. in 1665 did little
more than confirm this corporation. The hamlet of Old Woodstock
is said to have been founded by Henry I., and was never included
within the borough. The existing Tuesday market is stated in the
Hundred Rolls of 1279 to have been granted by Henry II. and the
St Matthew's fair by John. The latter was confirmed in 1453, with
the addition of a fair at the feast of St Mary Magdalen. Queen
Elizabeth in 1565 granted to the mayor and commonalty a market on
Friday, and two fairs of four days each at the feast of St Nicholas and
Lady Day.
See Rev. E. Marshall, Early History of Woodstock Manor (Oxford,
1873); Adolphus Ballard, Chronicles of Royal Borough of Wood-
stock ; Victoria County History, Oxfordshire.
WOODWARD, JOHN (1665-1728), English naturalist and
geologist, was born in Derbyshire on the ist of May 1665. At
the age of sixteen he went to London, where he studied with
Dr Peter Barwick, physician to Charles II. In 1692 he was
appointed professor of physic in Gresham college. In 1693 he
was elected F.R.S., in 1695 was made M.D. by Archbishop
Tenison and also by Cambridge, and in 1702 became F.R.C.P.
While still a student he became interested in botany and natural
history, and during visits to Gloucestershire his attention was
attracted by the fossils that are abundant in many parts of that
county; and he began to form the great collection with which
his name is associated. His views were set forth in An Essay
toward a Natural History of the Earth and Terrestrial Bodies,
especially Minerals, &c. (1695; 2nd ed. 1702, 3rd ed. 1723).
This was followed by Brief Instructions for making Observations
in all Parts of the World (1696). He was author also of An Attempt
towards a Natural History of the Fossils of England (2 vols., 1728
and 1729). In these works he showed that the stony surface of
the earth was divided into strata, and that the enclosed shells
were originally generated at sea; but his views of the method of
formation of the rocks were entirely erroneous. In his elaborate
Catalogue he described his rocks, minerals and fossils in a manner
far in advance of the age. He died on the 25th of April 1728,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
By his will he directed that his personal estate and effects were
to be sold, and that land of the yearly value of one hundred and
fifty pounds was to be puchased and conveyed to the University
of Cambridge. A lecturer was to be chosen, and paid 100 a year
to read at least four lectures every year, on some one or other of
the subjects treated of in his Natural History of the Earth. Hence
arose the Woodwardian professorship of geology. To the same
university he bequeathed his collection of English fossils, to be
under the care of the lecturer, and these formed the nucleus of
the Woodwardian museum at Cambridge. The specimens have
since been removed to the new Sedgwick museum.
A full account of Woodward's life and views and a portrait of him
are given in the Life and Letters of the Rev. Adam Sedgwick, by J. W.
Clark and T. McK. Hughes, where it is mentioned that his paper, read
before the Royal Society in 1699, entitled Some Thoughts and Experi-
ments concerning Vegetation, " shows that the author should be
ranked as a founder of experimental plant-physiology, for he was one
of the first to employ the method of water-culture, and to make
refined experiments for the investigation of plant-life."
See also The Lives of the Professors of Gresham College, by John
Ward (1740).
WOODWARD, SAMUEL (1790-1838), English geologist and
antiquary, was born at Norwich on the 3rd of October 1790.
He was for the most part self-educated. Apprenticed in 1804
to a manufacturer of camlets and bombazines, a taste for serious
study was stimulated by his master, Alderman John Herring
and by Joseph John Gurney. Becoming interested in geology and
archaeology, he began to form the collection which after his death
was purchased for the Norwich museum. In 1820 he obtained a
clerkship in Gurney's (afterwards Barclay's) bank at Norwich,
and Hudson Gurney and Dawson Turner (of Yarmouth), both
fellows of the Royal Society, encouraged his scientific work.
He communicated to the Archaeologia articles on the round church
towers of Norfolk, the Roman remains of the country, &c., and
other papers on natural history and geology to the Mag. Nat.
Hist, and Phil. Mag. He died at Norwich on the I4th of January
1838. He was author of A Synoptical Table of British Organic
Remains (1830), the first work of its kind in Britain; An Outline
of the Geology of Norfolk (1833); and of two works issued post-
humously, The Norfolk Topographer's Manual (1842) and The
History and Antiquities of Norwich Castle (1847).
His eldest son, Bernard Bolingbroke Woodward (1816-1869),
was librarian and keeper of the prints and drawings at Windsor
Castle from 1860 until his death. The second son, Samuel
Pickworth Woodward (1821-1865), became in 1845 professor of
geology and natural history in the Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester, and in 1848 was appointed assistant in the depart-
ment of geology and mineralogy in the British Museum. He was
author of A Manual of the Mollusca (in three parts, 1851, 1853
and 1856).
S. P. Woodward's son, Horace Bolingbroke Woodward (b.
1848), became in 1863 an assistant in the library of the Geological
Society, and joined the Geological Survey in 1867, rising to be
assistant-director. In 1893-1894 he was president of the
Geologists' Association, and he published many important works
on geology. Samuel Woodward's youngest son, Henry Woodward
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES 805
(b. 1832) became assistant in the geological department of the
British Museum in 1858, and in 1880 keeper of that depart-
ment. He became F.R.S. in 1873, LL.D. (St Andrews) in 1878,
president of the Geological Society of London (1894-1896),
and was awarded the Wollaston medal of that society in
1906. He published a Monograph of the British Fossil
Crustacea, Order Merostomata (Palaeontograph. Soc. 1866-
1878); A Monograph of Carboniferous Trilobites (Pal. Soc.
1883-1884), and many articles in scientific journals. He was
editor of the Geological Magazine from its commencement in
1864.
See Memoir of S. Woodward (with bibliography) in Trans. Norfolk
Nat. Soc. (1879), and of S. P. Woodward (with portrait and biblio-
graphy), Ibid. (1882), by H. B. Woodward.
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES.
Wool is a modified form of hair, distinguished by its slender,
soft and wavy or curly structure, and, as seen under the micro-
scope, by its highly imbricated or serrated surface. At what
point an animal fibre ceases to be hair and becomes wool it is
impossible to determine, because the one by imperceptible
gradations merges into the other, so that a continuous chain can
be formed from the finest and softest merino to the rigid bristles
of the wild boar. Thus the fine soft wool of the Australian
merino merges into the cross-bred of New Zealand; the cross-
bred of New Zealand merges into the long English and lustre wool,
which in turn merges into alpaca and mohair-materials with
clearly marked but undeveloped scale structure. Again, such
animals as the camel and the Cashmere goat yield fibres, which
it would perhaps be difficult to class rigidly as either wool
or hair.
Wool is one of the most important of the textile fibres. Owing
to the ease with which it may be spun into thread, and the com-
fort derived from clothing made of wool, it would
naturally be one of the first textiles used by mankind
for clothing. Ancient records prove the high antiquity
of wool textures and the early importance of the sheep. The
different kinds of wool and the cloth made from them in antiquity
are described by Pliny and referred to by other writers, and among
the arts which the British Isles owe to the Romans not the
least important is the spinning and weaving of wool. The sheep
certainly was a domestic animal in Britain long before the period
of the Roman occupation; and it is probable that some use was
made of sheep skins and of wool. But the Romans established a
wool factory whence the occupying army was supplied with cloth-
ing, and the value of the manufacture was soon recognized by the
Britons, of whom Tacitus remarks, " Inde etiam habitus nostri
honor et frequens toga " (Agric. c. 21). The product of the
Winchester looms soon established a reputation abroad, it being
remarked that " the wool of Britain is often spun so fine that it is
in a manner comparable to the spider's thread." This reputation
was maintained throughout the middle ages, and the fibre was
in great demand in the Low Countries and other continental
centres. There are many allusions to woollen manufactures in
England in early times; but the native industry could not rival
the products of the continent, although the troubles in various
industrial centres, from time to time, caused skilled workers in
wool to seek an asylum in England. In the time of William
the Conqueror Flemish weavers settled under the protection of
the queen at Carlisle, but subsequently they were removed to
Pembrokeshire. At various subsequent periods there were
further immigrations of skilled Flemish weavers, who were
planted at different places throughout the country. The doth
fair in the church yard of the priory of St Bartholomew was
instituted by Henry II.; gilds of weavers were established; and
the exclusive privilege of exporting woollen cloth was granted
to the city of London. Edward III. made special efforts to
encourage wool industries. He brought weavers, dyers and
fullers from Flanders; he himself wore British cloth; but to
stimulate native industry he prohibited, under pain of life and
limb, the exportation of English wool. Previous to this time
English wool had been in large demand on the continent, where
it had a reputation exceeded only by the wool of Spain. The
customs duties levied on the export of wool were an important
source of the royal revenue. Edward III.'s prohibitory law
was, however, found to be unworkable, and the utmost that both
he and his successors were able to effect was to hamper the export
trade by vexatious restrictions and to encourage much smuggling
of wool. Thus while Edward III. limited the right of exporting
to merchant strangers, Edward IV. decreed that no alien should
export wool and that denizens should export it only to Calais.
Legislation of this kind prevailed till the reign of Elizabeth, when
the free exportation of English wool was permitted; and Smith,
in his Memoirs of Wool, points out that it was during this reign
that the manufacture made the most rapid progress. In 1660
the absolute prohibition of the export of wool was again decreed,
and it was not till 1825 that this law was finally repealed. The
results of the prohibitory law were exceedingly detrimental; the
production of wool far exceeded the consumption; the price of
the raw material fell; wool-" running " or smuggling became
an organized traffic; and the whole industry became disorganized.
Extraordinary expedients were resorted to for stimulating the
demand for woollen manufactures, among which was an act
passed in the reign of Charles II. decreeing that all dead bodies
should be buried in woollen shrouds an enactment which
remained in the Statute Book, if not in force, for a period of 120
years. On the opening up of the colonies, every effort was made
to encourage the use of English cloth, and the manufacture was
discouraged and even prohibited in Ireland.
It was not without reason that the attention of monarchs and
legislators was so frequently directed to the wool industries.
Wool was indeed " the flower and strength and revenue and
blood of England," and till the development of the cotton trade,
towards the end of the i8th century, the wool industries were,
beyond comparison, the most important sources of wealth in the
country. Towards the close of the iyth century the wool
produced in England was estimated to be worth 2,000,000
yearly, furnishing 8,000,000 worth of manufactured goods, of
which there was exported about 2,000,000 in value. In 1700
the official value of woollen goods exported was about 3,000,000,
and in the third quarter of the century the exports had increased
in value by about soo,oooonly. In 1774 Dr Campbell (Political
Survey of Great Britain) estimated the number of sheep in
England at 10,000,000 or 12,000,000, the value of the wool
produced yearly at 3,000,000, the manufactured products at
12,000,000, and the exports at 3,000,000 to 4,000,000. He
also reckoned that the industry then gave employment to
1,000,000 persons. These figures, in the light of the dimensions
of present-day industries, may appear small, but they bore a
predominant relationship to the other great sources of employ-
ment and trade of the period. In 1800 the native crop of wool
was estimated to amount to 96,000,000 Ib; and, import duty
not being imposed till 1802, the quantity brought from abroad
was 8,600,000 Ib, 6,000,000 Ib of which came from Spain. In
1825 the importation of colonial wool became free, the duty
leviable having been for several previous years as high as 6d.
per Ib, and in 1844 the duty was finally remitted on foreign wool
also.
Sheep were introduced at Jamestown in Virginia in 1609, and
in 1633 the animals were first brought to Boston. Ten years
later a fulling mill was erected at Rowley, Mass.,
" by Mr Rowley's people, who were the first that set America
upon making cloth in this western world." The
factory woollen industry was, however, not established till the
close of the i8th century, and it is recorded that the first
carding machine put in operation in the United States was
constructed in 1794 under the supervision of John and Arthur
Schofield.
For centuries the finer wools used for cloth-making throughout
Europe had been obtained from Spain the home of the famous
merino breed developed from races of sheep originally
introduced into the Peninsula by the Moors. Till
early in the i9th century the superiority of Spanish
merinos remained unchallenged, but the Peninsular War and its
attendant evils produced a depreciation of quality concurrently
806 WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
with the introduction of Saxon and Silesian wools, which suddenly
supplanted the product of Spain. The Spanish merino sheep
had been introduced into Saxony by the elector in 1765, and by
judicious crossing with the best native race developed the famous
electoral breed. Merinos were carried to Hungary in 1 7 7 5 , and to
France in 1776, and in 1786 Daubenton brought them to Ram-
bouillet, whence a famous race developed. In 1802 the first
merinos known to have left pure descendants were taken to the
United States, and in 1809-1810 an importation (4000) of merino
sheep was made.
The introduction of the merino sheep into the United States
was an important move, but its results are not to be compared
with the results of the introduction of the merino sheep
['f? into Australasia about the end of the i8th century and
as/a. mto South America a little later. It is probable that
the marked improvement in the appearance of the first
sheep taken out by the early colonists suggested the possibilities
of Australia as a wool-growing country. As has been noted
above, marked endeavours were being made at this time to extend
the merino breed of sheep, so that it was but natural that this
breed should be given the first chance. That marked
Australia, success did not attend the first endeavours is shown
by the fact that the London Colonial Wool Sales
originated in the necessity of selling Australian wools just for
what they would bring under the hammer, as distinct from the
private treaty method of selling and buying the more highly
priced continental merinos. It should here be noted that the
Australian fine wools were first shipped from Botany Bay, hence
the now universal term " botany " for fine wools. The colonists
were not to be repressed however, and eventually, through the
endeavours of Captain' MacArthur, Sir J. Banks, the Rev.
Samuel Marsden and others, the merino breed became established
on a firm basis, and in a comparatively short time Australian
wools were no longer a drug on the market. The evolution was
not to stop, however, with the development of merino flocks and
the exporting of merino wool. No doubt early in the igth century
the possibilities of raising larger sheep on the better coastal
pasturage was naturally 'suggested. Until about 1885 this
tendency was largely repressed owing to the demand for merino
as distinct from cross-bred wool. In other words wool was the
dominating factor. But with the possibilities and the develop-
ment of the frozen meat trade from 1880 to 1890 this condition
was changed, and the tendency to breed a large sheep with a
valuable carcass and mediocre wool grew apace. New Zealand
was specially adapted for this development; thus New Zealand
frozen mutton completely dominated New Zealand wool. In
this manner it came about that cross-bred wool supplanted merino
wool to a very considerable extent throughout Australasia.
This change would have been serious for the wool comber and
spinner had not the Bradford combers, spinners and manu-
facturers put their shoulder to the wheel and developed a world-
wide renown for their cross-bred tops, yarns and fabrics. Again
the change was not altogether for the bad so far as the Australian
sheep was concerned. Sheep-breeding developed into a real
science, and remarkable results were obtained with such crosses
as Merino-Lincoln, Merino-Leicester, Merino-Shropshire; all
probably originating in the first place in the desire to produce
a large-bodied early-fattening sheep, but later developing into a
strenuous endeavour to develop more useful types of wools.
Thus the wool produced from the first cross Merino-Lincoln
might be very defective judged from a pure merino stand-
point, but by breeding back to the merino practically none of
the useful merino characteristics were sacrificed, while length
of staple was added and the weight of the fleece perhaps
doubled.
A somewhat different evolution has taken place in later years
with reference to the interior sheep stations. The merino sheep
will thrive where a larger sheep would starve, hence its value
for the stations where salt-bush dominates all vegetation. But
the merino sheep is a " wool " sheep, not a " frozen mutton "
sheep, hence all crossing here was carried out with the idea of
simply developing the weight of fleece and if possible retaining
the merino wool characteristics. The most marked develop-
ment in this direction was effected by the introduction of the
United States merino or Vermont breed. Opinions differ as to
the wisdom of this introduction. The weight of fleece carried per
sheep has been remarkably increased, and the fact that up to the
present weight multiplied by price per Ib paid in London or
elsewhere has been entirely in favour of first and second cross
Vermonts, has undoubtedly influenced breeders in its favour.
Against this must be placed the fact that the Australian- Vermont
merino cross produces a sheep of unstable physique, naturally
unable to withstand drought, and worst of all so far as London
is concerned producing a fleece very difficult to judge for yield
of pure scoured wool. Again, the Australian- Vermont first cross
is very liable to produce a very strong botany wool, while what
is required is a long but fine wool technically termed a long and
shafty 6o's to 64/5 quality.
Hardly second in importance to Australia as a wool-growing
country comes South America, or more correctly Argentina along
with Patagonia, Punta Arenas and the Falkland
Islands. In most years Australia has produced the ^"j^'"
greater bulk, but just occasionally S. America has come America.
out top and is likely to do so more frequently in the
future owing to the remarkable developments there taking place.
The history of the introduction of the merino sheep into S.
America may be briefly summed up as follows. In 1842 Henri
Solanet, a Frenchman, began to shear the comparatively few
sheep round Buenos Aires. His example was soon followed by
Edouardo Olivera and Jose Planer. The idea almost at once
came to these pioneers of importing well-bred rams, and as S.
America is essentially a Latin country it was but natural that the
French flocks of Rambouillet should be first drawn upon. With
the development of the meat trade just as in the case of Australia
and New Zealand a larger carcass was then sought after.
This led to the introduction of the Lincoln ram and the develop-
ment of cross-bred flocks about the year 1885. Perhaps this
cross was favoured owing to the skill of the Bradford spinners,
who made excellent use of the cross-bred wool produced. Flocks
of sheep were first introduced into the Falkland Islands in 1867.
The pasturage here being limited, the flocks have probably
attained their limit, but from the Falkland Islands flocks have
been passed on to Punta Arenas, where there is practically un-
limited pasturage. The chief centres from which wool from S.
America comes to Europe are Buenos Aires, which exports chiefly
long and cross-bred wools, Montevideo, which exports chiefly
merino wools, and the Falkland Islands and Punta Arenas, which
export mostly wools of the finer type. The industry is largely in
the hands of Englishmen. Unfortunately, however, the British
manufacturer early took a dislike to the Buenos Aires, &c., wools,
and consequently these wools go largely to the continent of
Europe. To-day they by no means merit their previous bad
name, and the Bradford comber and spinner are endeavouring
to make up for lost opportunities.
Prior to the introduction of the merino sheep into Australia it
had been introduced into S. Africa by the Dutch. There the
climate was not so helpful as was that of Australia.
The newly acclimatized sheep appears to have cast its
wool at about the fifth generation and to have generally Africa.
deteriorated, necessitating the reintroduction of fresh
blood form Europe. In this manner have been developed the
Cape flocks and the considerable Cape wool trade largely
centred at Port Elizabeth, East London, Cape Town, Mossel
Bay and Port Natal. The country is evidently specially adapted
for the rearing of the merino type of sheep, as cross-bred Cape
wool is practically unknown. The term snow-white Cape wool, on
the other hand, betokens a quality of whiteness no doubt due
to the atmospheric and pasturage conditions. Cape wools are
also known as non-felting wools, and consequently are largely
employed in the manufacture of flannels. In 1907 most marked
endeavours were being made to develop the Cape flocks by the
introduction of some thousands of Australian merino sheep.
The opinion of wool experts was that the Cape had a great future
before it as a wool-producing country.
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES 807
Large quantities of wool also come from the East and from
Russia, while even Iceland contributes its quota. It is interesting
to note that, notwithstanding all the developments in-
stanced, Europe still maintains its supremacy as the
countries, chief wool-producing continent, though, as the wool
is largely manufactured locally, one hears little of
European wools.
The following statistics give an idea of the development of the
colonial and foreign wool trade as gauged by the London
wool sales:
1814
1824
1834
1840
1850
Bales.
I 65
1,620
16,926
44,502
158,558
Bales.
1870 . . . 673,314
1890 . . . 1,509,666
1901 . . . 1,602,726
1903 . . . 1,319,365
It must not be forgotten, however, that 4 large quantity of S.
American, W. Indian, Russian, &c., wools, along with mohair and
alpaca, come through Liverpool, and consequently are not taken
into account here.
With reference to wools grown in the United Kingdom the
truth seems to be that a fine short wool has never been produced.
British English wool is known the world over as being of a long
wools. an d lustrous type, which was doubtless that so much in
demand in the middle ages. That it was as long and
lustrous as the typical Leicester or Lincoln of to-day is doubtful,
as the new Leicester breed of sheep was only fully developed
by Mr Bakewell after the year 1747, and the latter day Lincoln
was even a later development of a similar character. What the
exact type of English wool or wools was prior to the i8th century
will probably never be decided, but from the closing years of
that century there is no difficulty in being fairly precise. As
already remarked, the long and lustrous wools are the typical
English, being grown in Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, Nottingham-
shire, Devonshire, &c., in fact in all those districts where the
pasturage is rich and specially fitted for carrying a heavy sheep.
It is claimed that the lustre upon the wool is a direct result of
the environment, and that to take a Lincoln sheep into Norfolk
means the loss of the lustre. This is partially true, but it is
perhaps better to take a larger view and remember that the
two influencing factors are race and environment: which is
the more potent it is impossible to say. Attempts were made in
the 1 8th century to develop a fine wool breed in England,
George IV. importing a number of merino sheep from Spain.
The discovery was soon made that it was impossible to maintain
a breed of pure merinos in Great Britain, but the final outcome
was by no means unsatisfactory. By crossing with the in-
digenous sheep a race of fairly fine woolled sheep was developed,
of which the present day representative is the Southdown
a sheep which feeds naturally on the Downs of Sussex, &c.,
forming a marked contrast to the artificially turnip-fed Lincoln,
Leicester, &c., sheep. Following the short, curly Southdown^ but
rather longer, come such as the Sussex, Oxford and Hampshire
Down sheep; these are followed by such as the Shropshires and
Shropshire crosses, Kent and Romney Marsh, until at last the
chain from the Southdown to the Lincoln is completed. Of
course there are several British wools not included in this chain.
Scotch or black-face wool is long and rough, but well adapted
for being spun into carpet yarns. Welsh wool has the peculiarity
of early attaining its limit of shrinkage when washed, and
hence is specially chosen for flannels. Shetland wool is of a soft
nature specially suited for knitting yarns, while Cheviot wool
said to be a cross between merino sheep saved from the wreck of
the Great Armada and the native Cheviot sheep has made the
reputation of the Scottish manufacturers for tweeds. North
wool wool from an animal of the Border" Leicester and Cheviot
breed Ripon, Wensleydale and Teasdale wools are also specially
noted as lustre wools, Ripon and Wensleydale wools being, by
many judges, considered superior so far as lustre is concerned to
Lincoln and Leicester.
Such remarkable advances have been made in the weights of
fleeces carried by sheep of particular breeds that it is difficult to
say if finality has been reached. The following list gives average
weights :
Breed.
Weight of
Average Fleece.
Merino (Australian) 6 Ib
Merino (South
American) . . 6J Ib
Merino-Lincoln . 8-10 lt>
Breed.
Southdown
Lincoln .
Shetland
Cashmere
Weight of
Average Fleece.
61b
12 It)
4 lb
4OZ.
In 1885 the average weight of wool per sheep per year was about
5 Ib, while 7 to 8 Ib is now the average weight. Roughly speaking
the weights of Australian fleeces are to-day about double as compared
with 1885.
The prevailing colour of sheep's wool is white, but there are
races with black, brown, fawn, yellow and grey shades of wool.
For manufacturing purposes generally white wool is, pt, yt tcal
of course, most valuable, but for the homespuns, which character-
in earlier times absorbed the bulk of wool, natural *'*='
colours were in many cases used with good effect. In wooL
domestic spinning, knitting, and weaving, natural colours are
still largely taken advantage of, as in the cases of rough yams,
Shetland knitted shawls, Highland tweeds, &c.
As has already been indicated, the distinction between wool
and hair lies chiefly in the great fineness, softness, and waved
delicacy of woollen fibre, combined with a highly serrated surface.
These peculiarities are precisely the characters which give wool its
distinctive value as a textile fibre, the mcst distinctive character-
istic of all being the serrated structure which specially belongs to
wool and markedly aids the important property of felting, upon
which many of its applications depend. The serrations of wool and
the wavy structure it assumes are closely connected, those wools
which have the greatest number of serrations being usually
most finely waved in structure. The appearance presented by
wool under thfe microscope is shown in figs. 1-6 (Plate). Under
the influence of moisture and pressure, aided by alkalis or acids,
masses of wool thoroughly mat together, by the mutual inter-
locking of the fibres. It is thus that the shrinking and thickening
of woollen textures under washing is accounted for, the capacity
of wool cloth for felting or fulling being due to this condition of
the fibre, possibly along with a certain shrinkage of the true fibre
mass. The serrations are most numerous, acute, pointed and
distinct in fine merino wools, as many as 2800 per in. being
counted in specimens of the finest Saxony wools. In the Leicester
wool of England, on the other hand, which is a long bright staple,
the serratures are not only much fewer in number, counting about
1800, but they are also less pronounced in character, so that the
fibre presents a smoother, less waved character. In some inferior
wools the serrations are not so many as 500 per in. A similar
difference may be noted in the fineness of the fibres. The finest
wool has a diameter of from ; 'oo to TsW i n -, whilst coarse
Algerian wools may rise to a maximum diameter of about -^g in.
Other distinguishing qualities of good wool consist in uni-
formity and strength of fibre with freedom from tender or weak
portions in its length, a condition which not unfrequently arises
from ill health in the sheep, or is due to violent climatic changes.
In ill-bred wool there may also be found intermingled " kemps "
or dead hairs straight, coarse, dull fibres which show con-
spicuously among the wool, and become even more prominent
in the manufactured and dyed goods, as they will not take dye.
Wool also possesses a softness of touch and an elasticity both in
the raw and manufactured condition which distinguish it from
all other fibres. In length of staple it varies very much , attaining
in combing wools to a length of as much as 1 5 to 20 in.
In dealing with wool from a practical point of view it must
be recognized that it is by no means a simple body, but has a
somewhat complex physical structure. Its composi- chemical
tion in the raw state may be said to be threefold, character-
Thus there is the wool-yolk what may be termed a ^**^ a/
natural impurity; the wool-fat, which is not only
present in the yolk but also permeates the fibre and seems to
give it its plastic and soft handle; and the cell structure proper
of the fibre. The natural impurity or wool-yolk is truly a skin
product and is a protector of the wool-fibre rather than part of the
true fibre substance. The wool-fat also may be regarded as
So8 WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
independent of the true fibrous substance, but it is well to
recognize that if the wool-fibre be entirely freed from the wool-fat
it loses its plastic and elastic nature and is considerably damaged.
In cleansing wool the true fibre mass may be disturbed and
partially destroyed not only by dry but also by " wet " heat,
and may be entirely disintegrated by means of alkalies, &c.,
with heat. The wool-fibre will almost free itself from the natural
impurities the yolk in the presence of tepid water. This is
taken advantage of in the various steeping machines placed on
the market, which partially scour the wool by means of its own
yolk principally through the potash salts present.
According to Hummel the composition of the average wool-yolk
is as follows :
Moisture
Yolk
4 to 24%
12 47%
Dirt . .
Wool-fibre .
3 to 24%
15 -. 72%
The potash salts are usually recovered from the wash-water
products and a marked economy thereby effected.
The natural wool-fat popularly known as " fanoline " may be
partially got rid of in the steeping process, but it is almost invariably
necessary to free the wool still further from it by actually scouring
the wool on either the " emulsion " or " solvent ' method, in either
case the action being largely physical. As previously pointed out,
however, all the wool-fat must not be taken away from the fibre, or
the fibre will lose its " nature." According to Dr Bowman, the
chemical composition of the cell structure of the average wool-fibre
is:
Carbon 50-8
Hydrogen 7-2
Nitrogen . . . . . 18-5
Oxygen 21-2
Sulphur 2-3
It is said to be a most complex body of which the prdbable formula
Lamb,
Hogg and
Wether
wool.
If wool is burnt, it largely resolves itself into ammonia gas whence
it derives its characteristic odour and carbon "beads" or "re
mains," which serve to distinguish wool from cotton, which, upon
being burnt, does not smoulder but burns with a flash and leaves no
beads For further particulars on the organic nature of the wool-
fibre see FIBRES.
The bulk of the wool of commerce comes into the market in the
form of fleece wool, the product of a single year's growth, cut from
the body of the living animal. The first and finest clip,
called lambs' wool, may be taken from the young sheep at
about the age of eight months. When the animal is not
shorn till it attains the age of twelve or fourteen months
the wool is known as hogg or hogget, and, like lambs'
wool, is fine and tapers to a point. All subsequently cut fleeces are
known as wether wool, and possess relatively somewhat less value
than the first clip. Fleece wool as it comes into the market is " in
the grease," that is, unwashed, and with all the dirt which gathers to
the surface of the greasy wool present ; or it is received as " washed "
wool, the washing being done as a preliminary to the sheep-shearing,
or, in some few cases, it is scoured and is consequently stated as
"scoured." Skin wool is that which is obtained from sheep which
either die or are killed. Typical skin wool is that which has been
removed by a sweating process. The worst type of skin wool
technically known as " slipe " is removed from the skins by lime,
which naturally affects the handle of the woo) and renders it difficult
to bring into a workable condition later. Mazamet in France is the
great continental centre for skin wools.
Where there is abundance of water and other conveniences it is
the practice to wash or half-wash sheep previous to shearing, and
such wool comes into the market as washed or half-
hl washed fleece. The surface of a fleece has usually a thick
*" coating of dirt, and in the case of merino breeds the fleece
surface is firmly caked together into solid masses, from the adhesion
of dirt to the wool constantly moist with the exudation from the skin
of the greasy yolk or " suint," so that in an unwashed very greasy
fleece 30 % of weight may represent dirt, and about 40 % the greasy
suint which lubricates the wool, while the pure wool is not more than
one-third part of the whole. Where running streams exist, the sheep
are penned by the side of the water, and taken one by one and held in
the stream while they are washed, one man holding and the other
washing. The operation is objectionable in many ways, as it pollutes
the stream, and it dissipates no mean amount of potabh salts, valuable
for manure or for other chemical purposes Sheep washing appliances
are now largely employed, the arrangement consisting of a pen into
which the sheep are driven and subjected to a strong spray of water
either hot or cold, which soaks the fleece and softens the dirt. This
done, they are caused to swim along a tank which narrows towards
the exit, and just as they pass out of the pen they are caught and
subjected to a strong douche of pure water. They should then be kept
on grass land free from straw, sand, &c., so that the wool may be
sheared free from vegetable matter, &c. After a few days the wool
of a washed sheep is sufficiently dry for shearing or clipping.
The relative advantages of shipping wool in the greasy or washed
state have been fiercely debated. Although there are naturally
exceptions, the superiority of greasy wool is now generally recognized.
This is not only because the wool more fully retains its nature, but
because it is more readily judged for " yield " and its spinning
qualities are, perhaps, more readily estimated.
The following list gives an idea of the yield in clean wool of the
chief commercial varieties, from which it will be noted that roughly
merino greasy wool yields about 50% clean wool and English about
75 % clean wool.
Type of Wool. Yield per cent of
Clean Wool.
Australian Merino 50%
Cape 48%
South American Merino 45 %
New Zealand Cross-bred 75%
South American Cross-bred 75%
English Southdown So%
Shropshire 80%
,, Lincoln 75%
Mohair 85%
Alpaca . . 85%
A skilful shearer will clip the fleece from a sheep in one unbroken
continuous sheet, retaining the form and relative positions of the
mass almost as if the creature had been skinned. In this
unbroken condition each fleece is rolled up by itself and
tied with its own wool, which greatly facilitates the sorting
or stapling which all wool undergoes for the separation of the several
qualities which make up the fleece. Mechanical shears have almost
revolutionized the shearing industry, a good shearer shearing from
100 to 200 sheep per day.
On the great Australian sheep stations wool classing is one of the
most important operations, largely taking the place of sorting in the
English wool trade. This is no doubt due to the wonderful , .
success which has attended the efforts of the Australian classia
sheep breeders to breed a sheep of uniform staple through-
out. Thus the fleeces as taken from the sheep are skirted and
trimmed on one table and then passed on to the classer, who places
them in the 56's, 6o's, 64*5, 7o's, 80 s or go's class according to their fine-
ness, these numbers approximately indicating the worsted counts to
which it is supposed they will spin. The shorter Australian wools not
coming under any of these heads are classed as super-clothing, ordin-
ary clothing, &c., being more suitable for the woollen industry.
The art of sheep shearing, skirting, classing, packing and trans-
porting has been brought up to a wonderful state of perfection in
Australia, and the " get up ' of the wool is usually much superior to
the " get up " of the " home-clip." Of late there has been an outcry
against the prevalence of vegetable matter in colonial wools, but it
seems probable that with the adoption of a suitable woolpack, and
the exercising of a little more care in sorting at the home end, this
difficulty will be satisfactorily surmounted.
Sorting or stapling was formerly a distinct industry, and to some
extent it is so still, though frequently the work is done on the
premises of the comber or spinner. Carding wools are
separated and classed differently from combing wools, and
in dealing with fleeces from different breeds, the classifica-
tion of the sorter varies. In the woollen trade short-staple wool is
separated into qualities, known, in descending series from the finest
to the most worthless, as picklock, prime, choice, super, head,
seconds, abb and breech, and the proportions in which the higher and
lower qualities are present are determined by the " class " of the
fleece. In the worsted trade the classification goes, also in descending
series, from fine, blue, neat, brown, breech, downright, seconds, to
abb for English wools. The last three are short and not commonly
used in the worsted trade. The greater proportion of good English
long wool will be classified as blue, neat and brown; it is only in
exceptional cases that more than from 5 to 8 % is " fine " on the one
hand, or of lower quality than breech on the other. Generally
s'peaking, the best portion of a fleece is from the shoulders and side
of the animal. The quality decreases towards the tail end of the
sheep, the " britch " being frequently long, strong and irregular.
The belly wool is short, worn and dirty, as is also the front of the
throat, while on the head and shins the product is short, stiff and
straight, more like hair than wool and is liable to contain grey hairs.
The colonial wools come " classed," and consequently are only as a
rule sorted into three or four qualities. Thus a 6o's fleece may be
sorted into 56's, ordinary 6o's, super 6o's and skirtings.
The sorter works at a table or frame covered with wire netting
through which dust and dirt fall as he handles the wool. Fleeces
which have been hard packed in bales, especially if unwashed, go into
dense hard masses, which may be heated till the softening of the yolk
and the swelling of the fibres make them pliable and easily opened up.
When the fleece is spread out the stapler first divides it into two equal
sides; then he picks away all straws, large burrs, and tarry frag-
ments which are visible; and then with marvellous precision and
certainty he picks out his separate qualities, throwing each lot into
WOOL, WORSTED, AND WOOLLENS
PLATE.
FIG. i. MOHAIR (X32O).
I
FIG. 2. LEICESTER WOOL (X32O).
FIG. 4. ALPACA WOOL HAIR (X32O).
FIG. 5. DOWN WOOL (X32O).
FIG. 3. NEW ZEALAND CROSS-BRED WOOL (X32o). FIG. 6. AUSTRALIAN MERINO WOOL (X32O).
Photomicrographs of the most representative hairs and wools used in the textile industries.
XXVIII. 808.
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES 8og
its allotted receptacle. Sorting is very far removed from being a mere
mechanical process of selecting and separating the wool from certair
parts of the fleece, because in each individual fleece qualities and
proportions differ, and it is only by long experience that a stapler is
enabled, almost as it were by instinct, rightly to divide up his lots,
so as to produce even qualities of raw material. Cleanliness is most
essential if the wool sorter is to keep his health and not succumb tc
the dread disease known as " anthrax " or " wool-sorters' disease."
Certain wools such as Persian, Van mohair, &c., are known to be very
liable to carry the anthrax bacilli, and must be sorted under the con-
ditions imposed by government for " dangerous wools." Ordinary or
non-dangerous wools are perfectly harmless from this point of view.
The washing which a fleece may have received on the live sheep
is not sufficient for the ordinary purposes of the manufacturer.
On the careful and complete manner in which scouring is
Scouring, effected much depends. The qualities of the fibre may be
seriously injured by injudicious treatment, while, if the
wool is imperfectly cleansed, it will dye unevenly, and the manufactur-
ing operations will be more or less unsatisfactory. The water used
for scouring should be soft and pure, both to save soap and still more
because the insoluble lime
soap formed in dissolving
soap in hard water is de-
posited on the wool fibres
and becomes so fixed that its
removal is a matter of ex-
treme difficulty. In former
times stale urine was a
favourite medium in which
to scour wool; but that is
now a thing of the past, and
a specially prepared potash
soap is the detergent prin-
cipally relied on. Excess of
alkali has to be guarded
against, since uncpmbined
caustic acts energetically on
the wool fibre especially in
the presence of heat and is
indeed a solvent of it. A
soap solution of too great
strength leaves the wool
harsh and brittle, and the
same detrimental result
arises when the soapy solu-
tion is applied too hot.
FIG. 7. Qualities of Wool in a Ir ? former days, when the
Lincoln Fleece. method of hand-scouring
-,. .... i- c prevailed, the wool to be
The numbers indicate the quality of washed was placed with hot
wool taken from the respective sections g^p..^ m alarge scouring
of the fleece. Thus the finest quality < ^owl " or vat and two
-44's is found on the shoulders, while men with , ' les k t
the coarsest bntch is found on the stirri it gen tly about till
hind-quarters of the sheep. the dete rgent loosened and
separated the dirt and dis-
sociated the grease. The wool was then lifted out and drained, after
which it was rinsed in a current of clean water to remove the " scour "
and then dried. These operations are now performed in scouring
machines. Many firms now steep the wool previous to the true
scouring operation, the object being to scour the wool with its own
potash salts, to obtain wash-waters so fully charged with the potash
salts that these salts, &c., may be readily extracted and put to some
good use, and'Jastly to save the artificial scouring agent employed in
the true scouring operation. The scouring of wool has passed through
many vicissitudes during the past fifty years, but to-day the principle
upon which all scouring machines are based is that wool naturally
opens out in water. The mechanical arrangements of the machines
are such as to ensure the passage of the wool without undue lifting
and " stringing," to obviate the mixing of wool grease, sand, dirt,
&c., once taken out of the wool with that wool again, to give time for
the thorough action of the scouring agents, so that neither too strong
a solution nor too great a heat be employed, and to allow of the ready
cleansing of the machines so that there is no unnecessary waste of
time. In England the recognized type of merino wool-washing
machine is the fork-frame bowl. Three to five of these machines are
employed. The " scour " is strongest and hottest in the first bowl
(unless this is used as a " steeper ' ) as the wool at first is protected
from the caustic by the wool-fat, &c., present. The last bowl is
simply a rinsing bowl. With modern " nip rollers " botany wool is
sufficiently dry to be passed on directly say by pneumatic conveyers
: to the carding. This the worsted spinner does, thereby saving
time and money. The woollen spinner, however, may require the
wool for blending, and so may require it dry and in a fit state for
oiling. He, therefore, will employ one or other of the drying pro-
cesses to be immediately described. For English and cross-bred
wools more agitation in the scouring bath may be desirable. If so,
the eccentric fork action machine is employed, in which the agitation
of the bath is satisfactorily controlled by the setting of the forks
which propel the wool forward. An average wool will be in the
scouring liquor about eight minutes, the temperature will vary from
120" F. to 1 10 F., and the length of bath through which it will have
passed will be from 48 to 60 ft.
It is interesting to note that the " emulsion " method of wool
scouring as described above is practically universal in England. In
the United States of America the " solvent " method is largely in
use, for the two points aimed at are quantity of production and
cheapness. Quality is sacrificed to quantity and cheapness results
from the ease with which the agent employed say carbon disulphide
is recovered by volatilizing and condensing, thus being used over
and over again.
Botany wools should leave the wool-washing machine in a fit
condition to be fed immediately on to the carder, provided that the
first cylinders are clothed with galvanized wire. Cross-bred and
English wool, however, require artificially drying.
The _ more gently and uniformly the drying can be effected the
better is the result attained ; over-drying of wool has to be specially
guarded against. By some manufacturers the wool from wool
the squeezing rollers is whizzed in a hydro-extractor, drying.
which drives out so much of the moisture that the further
drying is easily effected. The commonest way, however, of drying is
to spread the wool as uniformly as possible over a framework of wire
netting, under or over which is a range of steam-heated pipes. A
fan blast blows air over these hot pipes, and the heated air passes up
and is forced upwards through the layer of wool which rests on the
netting or downwards, as the case may be. In this case, unless the
wool is spread with great evenness, it gets unequally dried, and at
points where the hot air escapes freely it may be much over-dried.
A more rapid and uniform result may be obtained by the use of the
mechanical wool drier, a close chamber divided into horizontal com-
partments, the floors of which have alternate fixed and movable bars.
Under the chamber is a tubular heating apparatus, and a fan by
which a powerful current of heated air is blown up the side of the
chamber, and through all the shelves or compartments successively,
either following or opposing the wool in its passage through the
machine. The wool is introduced by a continuous feed at one side
of the chamber; the strength of the blast carries it up and deposits it
on the upper shelf, and by the action of the movable bars, which are
worked by cranks, it is carried forward to the opposite end, whence
it drops to the next lower shelf, and so on it travels till at the ex-
tremity of the lower shelf it passes out by the delivery lattice well
and equally dried. Another drying machine in extensive use is
what is known as the " Jumbo Dryer." This consists of a large
revolving cylinder or churn which turns over the wool as a churn
turns butter and owing to its inclination passes it from one end to
the other. A hot air blast follows the wool through the machine.
In this and in all drying machines it is more important to get the
moisture laden air away from the wool than to develop a great heat.
The dried wool may be in a partially matted condition. If so, it
must be opened out and the whole material brought into a uniformly
free and loose condition. This is effected in the Willey, Te**tar
which consists of a large drum and three small cylinders
mounted in an enclosed frame. The drum is armed with ranges of
powerful hooked teeth or spikes, and is geared to rotate with great
rapidity, making about 500 revolutions per minute. The smaller
cylinders, called workers, are also provided with strong spikes ; they
are mounted over the drum and revolve more slowly in a direction
contrary to the drum, the spikes of which just clear those of the
workers. The wool is fed into the drum, which carries it round with
great velocity; but, as it passes on, the locks are caught by the spikes
of the workers, and in the contest for possessing the wool the matted
locks are torn asunder till the whole wool is delivered in a light, free
and disentangled condition. It is a debatable point as to whether
willowing should precede scouring. Some scourers always willow
prior to scouring, while others never subject the wool to this opera-
tion, which is advantageous in some cases and not in others.
For certain classes of wool, notably Buenos Aires, still another
preparing operation is essential at this stage that is, the removal
of burrs or small persistently adherent seeds and other Burriat
fragments of vegetable matter which remain in the wool.
Two methods of effecting this one chemical, the other mechanical-
may be pursued. The chemical treatment consists in steeping the
wool in a dilute solution of sulphuric acid (or other carbonizing
agent), draining off the dilute acid by means of the hydro extractor,
and then heat-drying in a temperature of about 250* F. The acid
leaves the wool practically uninjured, but is concentrated on the
more absorbent vegetable matter, and the high heat causes it to act
so that the vegetable matter becomes completely carbonized. The
burrs are then crushed and the wool washed in water rendered
sufficiently alkaline to neutralize any free acid which may remain,
and dried. The same burr-removing effect is obtained by the use of a
solution of chloride of aluminium, a method said to be safer for the
wool and less hurtful to the attendant workmen than is the sulphuric
acjd process. For mechanical removing of burrs, a machine some-
Lhing like the Willey in appearance is employed. The main feature of
this apparatus is a large drum or swift armed with fine short spikes
:urved slightly in the direction in which it rotates. By a series of
aeaters and circular brushes the wool is carried to and fed on these
short spikes, and in its rotation the burrs, owing to their weight,
lang out from the swift. The swift as it travels round is met by a
8 io WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
series of three burring rollers rotating in an opposite direction, the
projecting rails of which knock the burrs off the wool. The burrs
fall on a grating and are ejected, with a certain amount of wool ad-
hering to them, by another rotating cylinder. With wools not too
burry the worsted spinner largely depends upon burring rollers
placed upon the first cylinder of the " carder," and possibly to one
or other of the patent pulverizing processes applied further on in the
card. In the latter process a complete pulverizing of the burrs is
aimed at, this being effected by the introduction of specially con-
structed pulverizing rollers between the first doffer and the last swift
of the carding engine.
The processes hitherto described are common to merino, cross-bred
or botany wools be they intended for woollen or worsted yarns.
From this point, however, differentiation starts. Wool
may now be manipulated with the idea of converting it
worsteds mto f e ^ fa v -)> woollen or worsted fabrics. In a general
way it may be said that woollen yarns are those made from
short wools possessed of high felting qualities, which are prepared by
the process of carding; whereby the fibres are as far as possible
crossed and interlaced with each other, and that the carded-slivers,
though perhaps hard spun on the mule frame, form a light fluffy
yarn, which suits the conditions when woven into cloth for being
brought into the semi-felted condition by milling which is the dis-
tinguishing characteristic of woollen cloth. On the other hand,
worsted yarns are generally made from the long lustrous varieties of
wool ; the fibres are so combed as to bring them as far as possible
parallel to each other; the spinning is usually effected on the frame,
and the yarn is spun into a compact, smooth and level thread, which,
when woven into cloth, is not necessarily milled or felted. At all
points, however, woollen and worsted yarns as thus defined overlap
each other, some woollens being made from
longer wool than certain worsteds, and
some worsteds made from short staple
wool, carded as well as combed. Worsted
yarn is now largely spun on the mule frame,
while milling or felting is a process done in
all degrees woollen being sometimes not
at all milled, while to some worsteds a
certain milled finish is given. The fun-
damental distinction between the two rests
in the crossing and interlacing of the
fibres in preparing woollen yarn an
operation confined to this alone among all
textiles, while for worsted yarn the fibres
are treated, as in the case of all other
textile materials, by processes designed to
bring them into a smooth parallel relation-
ship to each other.
To obtain a sliver which can be satis-
factorily spun into a typical woollen thread
the following operations are
necessary: willowing, oiling and
blending, teasing, carding (two
or three operations), condensing and roving. Spinning
upon the woollen mule completes the series of operations
all of which are designed to lead up to the desired result. Of
the foregoing operations the carding is perhaps the most important
as it is certainly one of the most interesting. At the same time it must
be fully realized that deficiencies in any one of these operations will
result in bad work at every subsequent process. For example, let an
unsatisfactory combination of materials be blended together and
there will be trouble in both carding and spinning. The roving opera-
tion included above is not always necessary. In the old days, if a
really fine thread were required, roving was absolutely necessary, as
the carder could not turn off a sliver fine enough to be spun at one
operation. To-day, however, with the " tape " condensers, such fine
slivers can be turned off the condenser that there is no difficulty in
spinning directly to the required count. In some few cases, however,
it may be cheaper to rove than to condense fine; again, certain
physical characteristics appertain to the roved thread, as distinct
from the condensed thread, which may occasionally be of use to the
cloth constructor.
At the beginning of the I9th century woollen cloths were made of
wool some of them of the very finest wool obtainable. To-day
woollen cloths are made from any and every kind of
< ^ v material, of which the following are the most important :
noils (botany, cross-bred, English, alpaca and mohair),
mungo, shoddy, extract, flocks, fud (short mill waste),
cotton sweeping, silk waste, &c., &c. ; in fact it is said that anything
which has two ends to it can be incorporated into a woollen thread
and cloth. It does not follow, however, that all woollen cloth is
cheap and nasty. On the contrary the west of England still pro-
duces the finest woollen fabrics of really marvellous texture and
beauty, and Batley, Dewsbury, &c., produce many fabrics which are
certainly cheap and yet anything but nasty. The first essential for
Wending is that the materials to be blended should be fairly finely
divided. This is effected by passing each material, if necessary,
through the willow or through the " fearnaught " a machine coming
between the willow and card prior to beginning the "blend-stack."
Sometimes it may be that a blending of different colours of wools to
obtain a definite " colour mixture " is necessary, more often it will
be a blending of various materials, such as noils, mungp, cotton, &c.,
to obtain a cheap blend which may be spun into a satisfactory warp
or weft yarn. The blender proceeds as follows : first a layer of No. I
material say wpol-^-is spread over the required area on the floor; it
is then lightly oiled. A layer of No. 2 material say noils is now
added to the first layer ; then another layer of wool with rather more
piling; then No. 2, then No. I with still more oil until all the material
is built up into layers in the stack. The stack is now beaten down
sideways with sticks, and then the more or less mixed mass is passed
through the willow and fearnaught still further to mix it prior to
carding, where the true and really fine mixing takes place. After
passing through the fearnaught the material is sheeted and left to
I' mellow," this no doubt consisting in the oil applied distributing
itself throughout the material. If wool and cotton are blended
together the wool must be oiled first, or the blend will not work to the
greatest advantage. The oil may be best Gallipoli olive oil which
should not turn rancid but there are many good oils and un-
fortunately many bad oils placed on the market at a reasonable
rate which the really skilled judge may use to advantage. The per-
centage of oil varies from 2 % to io % this remark applies both to
the woollen and worsted trades and there is no guide as to the
amount required, saving and excepting experience, observation and
common sense. Automatic oiling arrangements have been applied
in the woollen trade with only a moderate amount of success, the
sprinkling of the oil by means of a watering-can on the stack, made
as described above, still being most in favour. The oil serves to
lubricate the fibres, and to render them more plastic and consequently
more workable, and to bind the fibrous mass together and thus pre-
vent " fly " during the passage through the cards.
Carding was originally effected by hand, two flat boards with con-
Woollen
yam
manu-
facture.
FIG. 8. Sectional View of Carder; illustrating the principles of carding.
venient handles, covered with teeth or card clothing, serving as a
means of teasing out lock by lock, fibre by fibre, reversing root to tip
and tip to root, so that a perfect mixing of the fibres re- cardlax
suited. It was but natural that, when an attempt was made
to render the carding operation more mechanical, the operation should
be converted into a continuous one through the adoption of rollers
in place of flats. Flats combined with rollers still maintain their
position in cotton carding, but in wool carding the pure roller card is
employed. The factors of carding are size of rollers, speeds of
rollers, inclination of teeth and density of card clothing. Probably
no operation in the textile industries is so little understood as carding.
Thus the long wool carder would think a man an idiot who suggested
the running of the teeth of the various cylinders actually into one
another, while the short mungp carder regularly carries out this idea,
and so on. The underlying principle of carding, however, is shown in
fig. 8, in which a sectional drawing of part of a card is given. The
wool is carried into the machine on a travelling lattice and de-
livered to the feed rollers A, A', A* of which A and A* in turn are
stripped by the licker-in B working at a greater speed point to smooth
side. This in turn is stripped by the angle stripper C again working
at a greater speed point to smooth side, which in its turn is stripped
by the swift D the " carrying-forward " and swiftest carding
cylinder in the machine. The swift carries the wool forward past
the stripper E which as a matter of fact is stripped by the swift
still working point to smooth side into the slowly retreating
teeth of the first worker F, which, being set a fair distance from
the swift, just allows well laid-down wool to pass, but catches
any projecting and uncarded staples. The worker in its turn is
stripped by the stripper E', which in turn is stripped by the swift as
already described. The_ passage of the wool forward through the
machine depends upon its being carried past each worker in turn.
Thus from beginning to end of a machine the workers are set closer
and closer to the swift, so that the last worker only allows com-
pletely carded wool to pass it. Immediately on passing the last
worker F' the wool is brushed up on the surface of the swift by the
" fancy " G as a rule the only cylinder whose teeth actually work
into the teeth of the swift and the only cylinder with a greater
surface speed than the swift. The swift then throws its brushed-up
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES 811
coating of wool into the slowly retreating teeth of the doffer H,
which carries it forward until angle stripper C' strips the doffer, to be
inits turnstripped by swift D'andsoon. Thespeeds of the cylinders
are in the first place obviously dependent upon the principle of
carding adopted, the greater speed always stripping (save in the case
of the fancy). As to whether the speed shall be obtained by actual
revolutions or by a larger diameter of cylinder depends upon the
nature of the wool to be carded (long or snort), the part which each
cylinder has to play in the card, and upon the question of wear
of clothing and power consumed. As a rule the strippers are all
driven from a smaller circumference of the swift to obtain conveni-
ently the necessary reduction in speed, and the slowly revolving
workers are chain driven from the doffer, which indirectly receives
its motion from the swift. The principles involved in the relative
inclinations of teeth are very apparent, bu_ the principles involved
in the relative densities of teeth on the respective cylinders are again
much involved and little understood.
A complete scribbler or first card engine consists of a breast, or
small swift, and two swifts with the accompanying workers, strippers,
fancies, doffers, &c. The wool is stripped from this card as a thin
film by means of the doffing comb. This is usually weighed on to the
next machine^ whether intermediate or condenser a given weight
giving a definite count of condensed sliver. Should an intermediate
be employed, there must be an automatic feed, taking the wool, as
stripped from the last doffer of the intermediate, and feeding it
perfectly evenly on to the feed sheet of the condenser. The con-
denser is usually a one-swifted card, the only difference in principle
being that, whereas the sliver comes out of the scribbler or inter-
mediate in one broad film, it is broken up into a number of small
continuous slivers or films, each one of which will ultimately be
drafted or drawn out and twisted into a more or less perfect thread.
These slivers -which are delicate and pith-like in substance are
wound on to light bobbins, and these bobbins are placed on the mule
for the finaj roving and spinning operations. There are many forms
of condensing mechanisms such as the single-doffer, the double-
doffer and the tape-condensers, but their construction is too complex
to.be described here. Whatever the type may be, the result is that
noted above, but it should be noted that the tape enables a much
finer sliver to be taken from the card than is possible with either the
single- or double-doffer condenser.
The principles involved in mule spinning are comparatively simple,
but the necessary machinery is very complex; indeed it is question-
able if a more ingenious machine than the mule exists.
. The pith-like slivers received from the card-loom must be
s ' attenuated until the correct count of yarn is obtained;
they must be twisted while this attenuation or drafting is in process,
otherwise they would at once break; and after being attenuated to
the required fineness the requisite number of turns must be inserted.
Great stress must be laid on the effects of what is termed the " draft-
ing-twist " noted above; it is probably this simultaneous drafting
and twisting which develops the most pronounced characteristics
of the woollen yarn and cloth, and differentiates it entirely from the
FIG. 9. Sectional View of the Woollen Mule.
worsted yarn and cloth. The mule (see fig. 9) consists of the de-
livery cylinders A, upon which the sliver bobbins B from the con-
el. 'user are placed, which deliver the slivers as required to the front
delivery rollers C (these rollers controlling perfectly the delivery
of sliver for each stretch of the carriage), and the carriage EE
carrying the spindles which may be run close up to the front de-
livery rollers and about two yards away from them to effect the
" spin, " which is of an intermittent character. The spindles D are
turned by bands passing round a tin drum K in the carriage, but
this motion, and every other motion in the mule, is controlled
perfectly from the hcadstock. In brief, the operation of spinning is
as follows: as the carriage begins to recede from the delivery rollers
these rollers deliver condensed sliver at about the same rate as the
carriage moves out, the spindles putting in a little twist. When the
carriage has perhaps completed half its traverse (say 36') away from
the front rollers these suddenly stop delivering the condensed sliver,
the carriage goes more and more slowly outwards until it completes
its traverse, drafting the sliver out to perhaps double the length.
This drafting could not be effected but for the " drafting-twist, "
which, running into the thin parts of the yarn during drafting,
strengthens them and thus from beginning to end equalizes the
thread. Upon the completion of drafting the spindles are thrown on
to " double speed " to complete the twisting of the 72* of yarn just
spun as rapidly as possible, the carriage being allowed to run inwards
for a few inches, to allow for the take-up due to twisting. The mule
now stops dead, backs-off the turns of yarn from the bottom of the
spindle to the top, the faller H wire falls into position to guide the
thread on to the spindle to form the required cop G, and the counter-
faller I wire rises to maintain a nice tension on the yarn. The carriage
now runs in, the spindles being revolved to wind up the yarn, and, in
conjunction with the guiding on of the faller wire, builds up a firm
cop or spool, as the case may be.
Woollen mules are made with several hundred spindles and of
varying pitch to suit particular requirements. Thus if the mules are
to follow a set of say three carders with a tape condenser, and are
required to spin fine counts, the pitch of the spindles may be much
finer than ordinary, but a greater number will be required to work
up the sliver delivered by the set of machines. There are many other
details which require careful consideration; the inclination of the
spindles, for example, must be suited to the material to be spun.
And when all the mechanical arrangements are perfect there is still
the necessity of correct judgment as to the qualities of the blend in
hand, for in this case perhaps more than in any other the machine
must be adjusted to the material and not the material to the machine.
FIG. 10. Plan and Section of a Preparing Box (Sheeter).
A is the back-shaft receiving its motion from the driving shaft
upon which are the pulleys. This back-shaft A drives the back-
rollers B at a slow speed by the reducing train of wheels C ; also the
front rollers D at a much quicker speed through the train of wheels E,
and the fallers F at an intermediary speed by means of the levels and
screws G. G. The wool is " made up " on the feed sheet and on
emerging from the front rollers is built up layer by layer into the lap
H, which is finally broken across and feeds up at the next machine.
The yarn as delivered by the mule is " single " and will serve as
warp or weft for the great bulk of woollen cloths, warp being as a
rule twisted harder than weft. Sometimes for strength, sometimes
for colour, however, it will be necessary to twist two or more of these
single strands together. This is best effected on a twisting frame of
the ring type, which consists of delivery rollers, to deliver a specified
length of yarn in relationship to the turns of the spindles, and the
spindles, which serve to put in twist and to wind the yarn upon the
bobbin or tube, which they carry by reason of the retarding action
of the traveller. Fancy twists such as knops, loops, slubs, &c., may
also be produced if the frame is fitted up with two pairs of delivery
rollers and two or three special but simple appliances.
The essential feature of a worsted yarn is straightness of fibre.
Prior to the introduction of automatic machinery there was little
difficulty in attaining this characteristic, as long wool was
invariably employed and the sliver was made up by hand orstea
and then twisted. With the introduction of Arkwright's yara
" water frame " or " throstle " the necessity for prepared ?*'
slivers became apparent, and with the later introduction
of cap and mule spinning the necessity for perfectly prepared slivers
has been so accentuated that the preparatory machinery has quite
8 12 WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
exceeded the actual spinning machine in extent and complexity. I scour the slivers again, this being effected in what is termed a back-
To-day there are three distinct methods of producing worsted yarn. | washing machine. This machine as shown in fig. 1 1 usually consists
FIG. ii. Sectional View of Back-washer.
A are the delivering rollers, B, B are the immersing rollers in the first tank, C, Care the press rollers to squeeze out superfluous liquors,
D is the immersing roller in the second tank, and C', C' are the press rollers for the second tank. Drying cylinders E to E" may be
arranged as " live-heat " cylinders, as secondary heated cylinders or as air drying cylinders. The roller F directs the slivers into the
back rollers G of the gill-box, which in turn delivers up the slivers to the fallers H, which in turn delivers the wool to the front rollers I.
Firstly, there is the preparing and spinning of the true worsted I of two scouring tanks with immersing rollers, drying cylinders, a
thread, this being made from long English and colonial wool. In ' gill-box and oiling motion. The slivers on emerging from this machine
this class should also be included mohair and
alpaca. Secondly, there is the preparing and
spinning of what are known as cross-bred and
botany yarns, these being made from cross-bred
and botany wools. Thirdly, there is the preparing
and spinning of short botany wools on the French
system. There is a fourth class of worsted yarns,
principally carpet and knitting yarns, which are
treated in a much readier manner than any of the
foregoing, but as the treatment is analogous with
the elimination of certain processes to the second
of the foregoing, it is not necessary to refer specially
to it.
To obtain a sliver or " roving " which can be
satisfactorily spun into a typical worsted thread the
following operations are necessary : preparing (five
or six operations), back- washing, straightening,
combing, straightening and drawing (say six opera-
tions), and finally spinning on the flyer frame.
After long wool has been scoured and dried it is
necessarily considerably entangled, and if it were to
Pre arlnr ^ comDe d straight away a large propor-
*' tion of the long fibres would be broken
and combed out as " noil " or short fibre. To
obviate this the wool is fed as straight as pos-
sible into a sheeter gill-box; after this it passes
through other two sheeter gill-boxes, then through
say three can gill-boxes. As shown in fig. 10 the
main features of a preparing or gill-box are the
following: the feed sheet upon which the wool is
" made up," the back rollers B which take hold of
the wool and deliver it to the fallers F which, work-
ing away from the back rollers more quickly than
the wool is delivered, comb it out. The fallers in
turn deliver the wool to the front rollers D, which,
taking in the wool more quickly than the fallers
delivering it, again draft and comb it, but with a
reversing of the former combing operation. The wool
emerges from the front rollers as thin attenuated
continuous fibre about 12 in. wide, which is wound
upon an endless leather sheet H from which the box
takes its name. When a sliver of sufficient thickness
has been wound upon the sheet, it is broken across
and fed up at the next gill-box. The fourth gill-
box delivers into cans instead of on to a sheet. A
number of cans are then placed behind the fifth box
and the slivers from these fed up into the back rollers,
and similarly with the sixth. The primary object of ^
" preparing " or gilling is to straighten and parallelize
the fibres in the sliver. This is effected by means ^~SLJ I
of the combining or doubling and drafting to which ^j I
the slivers are subjected. In addition to this, how- IJ;
ever, a level sliver suitable for combing is formed by A, A is the large comb circle and B, B' the two small comb circles. The slivers are
the combined action of the drafting and doubling delivered by the mechanism C to the feed boxes D, being thrown across the pins of
which has taken place at each box. the large and small circles at position E. A stroke at F suitably directs the fringes of
Oil will have been added to the wool at the first fibre as the circles separate and the combed fibres are taken hold of by drawing-off
preparing-box to cause the fibres to work well, rollers G and G' and combined to form the " top." The brushes H, H and the noil
Back- Were this all> . there would perhaps not knives I clear the small circles of the " noil." The feed knife J in conjunction with
washing ^ ^ necessity for back-washing. But the inclined planes at K are instrumental in feeding a previously directed length of
the slivers during their passage through sliver over the two circles as they practically touch one another at the point E, and so
the preparing-boxes become sullied naturally, and the process is continued.
in addition, owing to the opening out of the
locks of wool, dirt which was not " got at " in the scouring now works I should be clean, fairly straight and in good condition for combing,
out and further sullies the slivers. It is consequently necessary to I Their condition may be further improved by passing them through
FIG. 12. Plan and Section of the Noble Comb.
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES 813
one or two more (rill-boxes, prior to combing, to ensure straightness
of fibre and even distribution of the lubricant.
Prior to the mechanical era wool was combed immediately after
scouring; there was no preparatory process. As a matter of fact
the first combing process took the place of the processes
g ' just described and was termed "straightening," the
" combing proper " following. Prior to the invention of a really
satisfactory mechanical comb, between 1850 and 1860, the combing
operation was the limitation of the worsted trade. English wools
could be satisfactorily combed by hand, and perhaps the results of
combing botany or fine wools by hand were satisfactory so far as
quality of result was concerned, but the cost was largely prohibitive.
The history of the colonial wool trade is inextricably bound up with
the combing industry. How eventually botany wools were combed
by machinery and how the wool industry was thereby revolutionized
can only be briefly referred to here. About 1779 Dr Edmund Cart-
wright invented two distinct types of combs, the vertical and the
horizontal circular. The former type was developed on the conti-
nent by Heilmann and others, and has only within the last five years
taken its rightful place as a successful short wool comb in this
country. The latter type was worked upon by Donisthorpe, Noble,
Lister, the Holdens and others, and largely through the driving "
force of Lister (later Lord Masham) was made a truly practical
success about the year 1850. Latter-day combs of this type may
be readily grouped under three heads. The Lister or " nip ' comb
is specially suitable for long wools and mohair and alpaca. The
Holden or square-motion comb is specially suited for short and very
good quality wools. The last type, the Noble, is the most popular of
all and, by a change of large and small circles, may be adapted to the
combing of long, medium or short wools. As the great bulk of cross-
bred and a considerable proportion of botany wool is combed upon
the Noble comb a brief description is here called for. The object of
all wool combing is to straighten the long fibres and to comb out from
the slivers treated all the fibres under a certain length, leaving the
long fibres or " top " to form the sliver which is eventually spun into
the worsted yarn. The Noble comb, which so effectually accom-
plishes this, consists in the main of a large revolving circle A inside
which revolve two smaller circles B, B' as shown in fig. 12, each of
which touches the larger comb circle at one point only. At this
point the slivers of wool to be carded are firmly dabbed into the pins
of both the large and small circles. As the circles continue to revolve
FIG. 13. Section of Wool Drawing Rollers.
A, A' are the back-rollers in a drawing box of which A is positively
driven and A' driven by friction which may be varied at will.
Carriers B, B', B' simply control the fibres of which the sliver is
composed during drafting. The front rollers C, C' of which C is
positively driven and C driven by friction running at a greater
speed than A, A' draft or elongate the slivers as required. The
carriers B, B', B* should be speeded to run at a suitable rate to assist
the drafting operation, more by support than by direct aid. Rollers
A, A' must hold the sliver, hence they are fluted. Rollers C, C' must
pull the sliver somewhat severely, hence roller C' is covered with
leather. The yarn delivered by the front rollers is slightly twisted
and wound into a double-headed bobbin of convenient size on the
" flyer-system."
they naturally begin to separate, combing the wool fibres between
them, the short fibres or " noil " being retained in the teeth of both
small and large circles, the long fibres hanging on the inside of the
large circle and on the outside of the small circle. A stroker or air
blast at F now directs these long fibres into the vertical rollers, G
and G', shown herein plan, which draw them out, thus separating them
from the short fibres. There are at least four pairs of drawing-off
rollers in a comb, and the fibres drawn off by each be it noted
continuously are united to form a sliver which is passed through a
FIG. 14. Two-Spindle Drawing-Box.
revolving funnel into a can. The short fibres, or " noil," are lifted
out of the pins of the small circle by "noil knives." The continuous
slivers, the ends of which remain in the pins of the large circle after
the drawing-off rollers have been passed, are now lifted up until
these ends are above the pins, at the same time an additional length
of sliver being drawn into the comb, so that, as they reach the second
small circle, they are ready to be again dabbed into the pins of both
circles and the combing operation repeated. Thus the combing on a
Noble comb is absolutely continuous. All the movements of this
machine with the exception of the dabbing-brush motion are
circular, so that mechanically it is an almost perfect machine. As
illustrating the extent of the combing industry, it is interesting to
note that even the making of dabbing-brushes is a separate and by
no means unimportant trade.
After combing it is usual to pass the " top " through two gill-boxes
termed " finishers." The last of these boxes, and often the first,
delivers the " top " in the form of a ball, thus it is often spoken of as
a " balling gill-box." This stage marks one of the great divisions of
the worsted trade, the comber taking the wool up to this point, but
now handing it forward in the shape of top to the ' worstea spinner,"
who draws and spins the slivers into the most desirable worsted yarns.
English tops are usually prepared for spinning by seven or eight
operations. Three of these operations are effected in gill-boxes of a
somewhat similar type to the preparing-box, only lighter Drawing
in build. The remaining four are drawing-boxes, i.e. as
shown in figs. 13 and 14, they consist of back and front rollers with
small carrying-rollers not gills to support the wool in between.
Thus an English set of drawing usually consists of a single-can gill-
box, a double-can gill-box, a two-spindle gill-box, a four-spindle
drawing-box, a four-spindle weigh-box, a six-spindle drawing-box,
two six-spindle finishers and three thirty-spindle rovers. About
fifteen flyer frames of 160 spindles each will be required to follow this
set, although the balance varies partly in accordance with the counts
spun to, in this case 1/32*8 English being the standard.
The object of drawing is to obtain firstly a level sliver from which
an even thread may be spun, and secondly to reduce the compara-
tively thick top down to a relatively thin roving from which the
required count of yarn may be spun. Of course parallelism of fibres
must be retained throughout, so far as possible. To accomplish
these objects doubling and drafting is resorted to. Thus the ends
put up at the back of the above boxes will be 6, 6, 4, 4, 3, 3, 2 re-
spectively, while the drafts may be 5, 6, 8, 8, 6, 9, 9 approximately.
8 14 WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
As the drafts markedly preponderate over the doublings, so in
exactly this proportion will the sliver be reduced in thickness.
The flyer spinning frame is very similar to the drawing frame,
consisting of back rollers, carriers and front rollers, with the necessary
S In I spindle and flyer to put twist into the yarn and to wind it
' upon the bobbin. From the two-spindle gill-box to the
spinning frame the spindle, bobbin and flyer combination is em-
ployed with the object just mentioned. From fig. 15 the action of
this combination will be clearly understood. Drafting takes place as
usual between the back and front rollers, the carriers controlling the
yarn between the two. On emerging
from the front rollers the yarn usually
passes through an eyelet, to centre it
over the centre of the spindle; it then
takes a turn or two round the flyer leg,
through the twizzle or eyelet on the flyer
and on to the bobbin F. The flyer may
be freely rotated by means of the wharl
J and through the spindle G upon the
top of which it is screwed. The bobbin
fits loosely over the spindle and rests
upon the lifter plate I ; this latter, being
controlled by the lifter mechanism,
slowly raises and lowers the bobbin
during the " spin " past the fixed plane
of delivery of the yarn, i.e. the eyelet of
the revolving flyer. Now, if for one
moment it be considered that the bobbin
may not revolve on the spindle but may be
the operation of carding. On first thought it might be imagined
that carding would result in broken fibres and a poor yield of
top. That this is not so is evident from the fact that there
is a tendency to card wools from 7 to 10 in. long, this
tendency being due to the relative cheapness of carding "
as compared with preparing. If long wools were fed directly '
on to a swift, no doubt serious breakage of fibre would f ? r
occur, but it is customary to place before the first swift yarns
of a worsted card a series of four opening rollers and
dividers with their accompanying " burring rollers " to open out
the wool gradually, so that when it eventually reaches the first swift it
is so opened out that further opening out instead of breakage occurs.
| Some carders use a breast or small swift in place of those opening
: rollers mostly on account of economy. The swift is usually sur-
I mounted with four workers and strippers and is very similar to the
woollen carder, save that the workers and doffer are larger, thereby
effecting more of a combing action and working economically by
reason of the greater wearing surface brought into play. As botany
wool is usually brought directly from the wash bowl to the feed sheet
of the card, it is usual to clothe the first cylinders with galvanized wire
clothing.
After the carding the wool is back-washed and gilled on similar
lines to English wool and then is ready for combing. The largest
combers of botany wools, Messrs Isaac Holden & Co.,
employ the square-motion comb, in fact this comb is
known in the trade as the Holden comb. Other combers,
however, almost without exception employ the Noble
comb with a fine " set over," i.e. fine spinning of the comb
circles. After combing, the tops are " finished " by being passed
Combing
medium
and fine
wools.
FIG. 15. Section of
Flyer Spindle.
C, C'are the front rollers
of a drawing or spinning
frame, delivering the sliver
to a centring board D, con-
taining an eye for each
sliver, from which the
sliver passes to the flyer E
and finally to the bobbin
F, which rests on the
lifter-plate I and is tra-
versed up and down by this
plate according to the
lengthof bobbinemployed.
The flyer E is screwed on
to the spindle G which-
is suitably held by the
sheath, bolster, &c., shown
at H, and in the footstep at
K. The spindle is turned
by a tape passing round
the wharl J and thence to
an ordinary tin-drum.
FIG. 16. Spindle Cone Drawing-Box.
slid up and down by the lifter motion, then, if the front rollers deliver
the necessary yarn, the flyer will wrap it in successive layers upon
the bobbin but no twist will be inserted. On the other hand, if the
bobbin is perfectly free upon the spindle and the front rollers cease
delivering yarn, -then the flyer, by means of the yarn, will pull the
bobbin round at the same speed as it goes itself, and the yarn will be
twisted but not wound upon the bobbin. By obtaining an action in
between these two extremes both twisting and winding on to the
bobbin is effected. The speed of the bobbin is suitably retarded by
washers placed between it and the lifter plate, so that it just drags
sufficiently to wind up the yarn " paid out " by the front rollers.
The turns per inch are in proportion to the yarn delivered and the
revolutions of the flyer. Thus if, while I in. of yarn is delivered, the
flyer revolves twelve times the turns per inch will be approximately
twelve. This in brief is the theory of the spindle, flyer and bobbin
action.
Wools not more than 7 in. long are usually prepared for combing by
through two finisher-boxes, the last of which " balls " the tops ready
for marketing.
Short wools are drawn and spun on very similar lines to the longer
wools, save that the boxes are more in number and are in some cases
lighter in build. The boxes usually employed in a botany
set are as follows: two double-head can gill-boxes, two '
two-spindle gill-boxes, a four-spindle drawing-box, a six- a
spindle weigh-box, an eight-spindle drawing-box.twoeight- sp
spindle finishing-boxes, two twenty-four-spindle second finishers,
three thirty-two-spindle dandy reducers, ten thirty-two-spindle dandy
rovers, with ten two-hundred-spindle cap spinners to follow.
The doublings as a rule are about 7, 6, 6, 6, 5, 5, 5, 4, 4, 2 and the
drafts 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 at the respective boxes, an endeavour as a
rule being made to obtain a roving of which 40 yds. =2 drams, as this
is the most convenient size for being spun into fine botany count of
yarn.
Following the lead of the cotton trade endeavours have been made
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES 815
to positively control the driving and speed of both flyer and bobbin
in all the drawing frames of such sets as that described above.
Such control is usually effected by a pair of cones, from which this
system has taken its name, viz. " cone " drawing. In fig. 16 a usual
type of cone drawing-box is illustrated. The chief advantages of this
system seem to be the possibilities of employing larger bobbins, and
thus obtaining greater production, the consumption of relatiyely
!<-; power, and more particularly the production of a softer sliver
with less twist, partaking more of the character of a French roving.
Spinning is usually effected upon the cap frame (see fig. 17) a
frame in which the bobbin, resting upon a fixed spindle, is itself
driven at say 5000 revolutions per minute
to put in the twist, while the friction of
the yarn on the cap which covers the
bobbin enables the bobbin to wind up
upon itself the yarn as delivered by the
front rollers. The weakness and the
strength of the cap frame is that to
make reasonably hard bobbins the
bobbins must be driven at a high speed.
The French are noted for a special
system of worsted spinning, which, pro-
Freach ' Cueing soft botany yarns of a
drawing marked type, I s worthy of
and more than passing comment.
spinning. The preparation is very
similar to the preparation of
botany yarns for the English system
save that as a rule the order of the
operations are carding, gilling, combing,
back-washing and finishing. The char-
acteristic features of the method lie in
the subsequent drawing and spinning.
The drawing-box as shown in fig. 1 8 con-
sists of back rollers, porcupine or re-
volving gill, front rollers, rubbers and
winding-up arrangement. Thus there is
no twist inserted, the slivers being treated
softly and openly right away through the
processes. A set of this type usually con-
sists of two gill-boxes preparing for
combing, comb, back-wasning machine
and two finishing gill-boxes, first draw-
ing frame, second drawing frame, the
slubbing frame, the roving frame and the
self-acting mule. After leaving the last
box as a fine soft pith-like sliver, spin-
ning is effected upon the worsted mule.
The main differences between the worsted
and the woollen mule are firstly, the
worsted mule is fitted with preliminary
drafting rollers, and secondly, there is
little or no spindle draft. As the mule is
an intermittent worker it is natural to
contrast it with the cap frame, which
runs continuously. What the real advan-
FIG. 17. Section of Cap tage is it is difficult to say, but the mule-
Spindle, spun worsted yarn trade is becoming
C.C' are the front rollers yearly of more importance, and it is
of a cap spinning frame de- pleasing to note that English spinners
livering the yarn through are at last doing a fair share of this
the centring board D under business.
the edge of the cap E to Upon whichever system the yarns have
the bobbin F, which rests been spun it will frequently be necessary
upon the tube and wharlG, Douft/tajr *? tw f'd them and some-
which in turn rest upon the twlstlnr' times to three- and fourfold
lifter- rail I, which effects e tc. them. Again the fashion some-
the necessary traversing. times runs upon fancy twists,
The spindle H is simply and then it is necessary to be able to
screwed into the frame- produce the various styles of cloud, loop,
work, and does not re- curl, knop, &c., yarns. Twpfolding is
volve, but simply acts as done upon the flyer, cap and ring frames.
a support for the cap and The main difference between the cap
as a centre of motion for and the ring frame is that in the latter
the tube and bobbin. a small bent piece of wire, termed a
traveller, revolved round a ring by the
pull of the spindle through the yarn, serves as the retarder to enable
the bobbin to wind the yarn, delivered by the front rollers on to
itself (see fig. 19). Fancy twisters are almost universally on the
ring system.
S'.irns are placed on the market in eight forms, viz. in hank, on
spools, on paper tubes, on bobbins, on cops, in cheeses, in the warp
Yarns. ball f rm a d dressed upon the loom beam. Thus the
manufacturer can order the yarn which he requires in
the form best suited to his purpose.
Although in some few cases special means must be employed for
the weaving of woollens, worsteds and stuff goods, still the main
Weaving, principles are the same for all classes of goods (see WEAV-
ING). Attention may here be concentrated on the char-
acteristic principles of woollen and worsted manufacture.
The characteristic feature of wool and of wool yarns and cloths is
the quality of " felting." This quality has always been made use of
in woollen cloths, but in worsted cloths, until compara- finishing
lively recently, it has been largely ignored. To-day, procefaet.
however, cloths are made, ranging from the truest woollen
to the typical worsted, of which it would be impossible to
indicate the type of yarn employed without very careful analysis.
As it is obviously impossible to give here every variety of finish
EJerUon r _M
6
FIG. 1 8. Section of French Drawing- Box.
A, A', delivery rollers which control the slivers during the drafting
operation. B is the porcupine (or circular gill) and C are the front
drafting rollers. D is the funnel through which the slivers pass to
the consolidating rubbers E, E, F is a second funnel and G is the
condensed sliver wound up at a uniform rate on the roller H.
employed, the two typical styles for woollen and worsted cloths are
dealt with in detail, and further to elucidate the matter the finishing
of a Bradford " stuff " or " lustre " piece is also given in outline.
The fabric on leaving the loom is first mended and then scoured.
The operation of scouring is effected in a " dolly," and must
thoroughly clear the piece so that it is free to take the Woottea
desired finish. The piece is now soaped and " milled," i.e. ^^^
felted. Milling may be effected either in the stocks or in finishing.
the milling machine. The stocks, the main features of which
are huge hammers which are caused to fall or are driven positively
into the cloth, exert a
bursting action eliminat-
ing the thread structure.
The milling machine acts
more by compression,
arrangements being
made to compress the
cloth in length or breadth
at will. After milling
scouring follows to clear
the cloth thoroughly of
the milling agents
previous to the finishing
proper. The cloth is now
taken in a damp state to
the tentering machine
and, being hooked upon
a frame running into a
heated chamber, is
stretched in width and
dried in this condition.
Raising follows, this
being effected by sub-
jecting the surface of the
fabric to the action of
" teazles " fixed on a
large revolving cylinder,
the whole machine being
termed a " gig." After
raising the fabric is
" cropped " by being
passed over a blade near
which revolving knives
work; on the principle
of a lawn-mower, shear-
ing and levelling the
piece. Sometimes fab-
rics are raised wet,
especially if a velvet
finish is required. Brush- FIG. 19. Section of Ring Spindle,
ing follows to clear the A ; s the sp j n( n e su itably shaped to re.
p-ece of all stray fibres. ceive the bobbin at B, with a wharl for
The fabric is now ready turning at C, running in the specially
for crabbing, which designed receptacle D, which may be
consists in winding it screwed fi rm ] y i, lto tne spindle rail. The
tightly on to a perforated trave ller E is drawn round the ring F by
roller through which the sp j nd i e acting through the yarn as
steam may be blown or shown in the lan The sp{n ^ e is a
upon which the piece fixture and the ring-rail is traversed to
may be boiled. The distribute the yarn on the bobbin,
pieces are then rewound
and the operation repeated at least once, to obtain even distribution
of finish. Being now ready for pressing, the fabric is cuttled, usually
with press papers between each cuttle, and placed in the hydraulic
8i6 WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
press either hot or cold. After pressing dry steaming is frequently
necessary to take away cakiness and a certain false lustre which some-
times develops. Final cuttling completes the finishing operations.
Worsted cloth finishing is very similar to woollen cloth finishing
save that some of the operations are less severe. Mending, scouring,
, . . milling and tentering are similar. The raising as a rule is
effected by brushing, although it is by no means un-
Hnlshlnv common to ra ' se worsteds on the gig. Cropping, crabbing,
' pressing and steaming are the same as for woollen fabrics.
Of course the real difference between the woollen and the worsted
cloth is due to the selection of the right material, to correct roving,
spinning and fabric structure: finishing simply comes as a "de-
veloper " in the case of the woollen fabric, while in the case of the
typical worsted fabric it simply serves as a "clearer," the cloth really
being made in the loom. A woollen cloth as it leaves the loom is
unsightly and in a sense may be said to be made in the finishing,
although it is truer to say " developed " in the finishing: in the case
of the worsted cloth it is altogether otherwise.
A cotton warp, lustre weft style, is treated altogether differently
from either of the foregoing. It is first crabbed, then steamed, then
Lustre scoured and dried, then singed by being passed over a
finishing red-hot copper plate or through gas jets, then scoured
again, and if necessary dyed. It is then washed, dried,
then tentered and finally pressed. Of course these operations are
applied with discrimination to the varied styles of goods made in the
Bradford district. Thus,f or instance, the finishing of an " Italian " may
be considerably varied from the foregoing, being more complex, while
other styles, such as plain all-wool goods, are treated very simply.
It will be gathered from the foregoing remarks that the varieties of
wool textures are many and very different in character. This is
perhaps realized best by contrasting a heavy melton cloth
varieties we jghing say 24-30 oz. per yard with a fine mohair texture
weighing say 2-3 oz. per yard. None the less remarkable
, . is the difference in appearance of varieties of wool textures.
A rough Harris tweed, for example, contrasts strangely
with a smooth fine wool Italian. Of course these differences are not
created in any one process or merely by the selection of the raw
material or yarn. Every process of manufacture must be directed to
attain the desired end, and it is well to realize that huge businesses
have been built up upon what, by the outsider, would only be
regarded as unimportant details.
The principal styles of woollen cloth are tweeds, meltons, Venetians,
beavers, doeskins, buckskins, cassimeres and diagonals. The largest
class is the tweed, as this ranges from very expensive coatings and
trouserings to the cheap styles made of the re-manufactured
materials. Tweeds for ladies' wear also form a large class.
The principal styles of worsted cloths are coatings and trouserings,
delaines, voiles, merinos, cashmeres, lastings, crpe-de-chines,
amazons, Orleans, lustres of various types (plain and figured),
alpacas, Italians, moreens, &c., &c. Many of these are made entirely
of worsted yarns, but others are compound so far as material or yarn
is concerned. Thus amazons are made from mule-spun worsted
warp and a woollen weft. Lustres are made from fine hard spun
cotton warp and English or mohair weft, and so on. Perhaps the"
most interesting point to note is the skill developed by English de-
signers during recent years. Fifty years ago the continental designer
ruled the market. To-day the English designer can at least claim
an equality with and in some respects is already considered as
superior to his continental rival.
Prior to the development of native ingenuity and skill England
was remarkable as a wool-growing country, most of the wool being
shipped to the continent, so that it may be said that the wool of
England met the skill of southern Europe in Flanders,which _,,
thus became the great textile centre so far as wool was
concerned. With the development of native skill under
the fostering care of several of the English monarchs
notably Edward III. and James I. it was but natural to expect that
endeavours would be made to manufacture English wool at home
and export the woven cloth. With the remarkable colonial develop-
ments of the I7th, i8th and I9th centuries, in conjunction with the
invention of the spinning frame and power-loom, this expectation
was most fully realized, at least so far as ordinary wearing fabrics
were concerned. Latterly, however, with the development of skill
in newly developed countries, the tendency has been to partially
revert to the old conditions. Thus in 1850 Bradford's chief export
was cloth, in 1875 the yarn trade had markedly developed, in 1900
the top trade was well established, and to-day Bradford has a large
wool export trade. Fabrics are made for the home and general
export trade; yarns are exported mostly to the continent; tops
and wool mostly to the United States of America.
The following tables give a useful idea of (a) the sources of supply
of the raw material, wool, also of the changes which have taken
place in the trade since 1800; (6) the changes in monetary statistics
value of the chief sorts of wool during recent years ; (c) '
the number of factories and of persons employed in the textile
industries during the past half-century; (d) growth of the export
trade in woollens and worsteds of the United Kingdom during the
past century. For further details see Hooper's admirable tables
now issued by the Bradford Chamber of Commerce.
Prior to the development of the factory system and the remarkable
development in textile appliances at the end of the 1 8th and beginning
of the 1 9th centuries, the textile industries were scattered
all over the country, only in some few cases more or less
Centres of
Industry.
accidental centralizing occurring. To-day it may be said
that the wool industry is centralized where the coal supply of
south Yorkshire meets the wool supply of north Yorkshire, i.e. in the
Bradford and Leeds districts, though much of the wool dealt with in
this district is imported and consequently can only be said to follow
the trend already established. Of course there are wool manu-
facturing districts other than those mentioned. Scotland is noted
for its Scotch tweeds manufactured in the Hawick and Galashiels
district, the West of England still makes some magnificent all-wool
cloths; Norwich guards a remnant of its once flourishing worsted
industry and Leicester has developed a remarkable hosiery trade.
Again, firms whose existence is due to individual enterprise are still
studded up and down the country, and manage to compete fairly
well with the main manufacturing districts. Since about 1856,
however, there can be no doubt that the English wool trade has
been centring more and more round Bradford, while the remanu-
factured materials and the blanket trade is centred round Batley
and Dewsbury. Wales retains only a fragment of its once large
flannel trade, this trade now being located in Yorkshire, with the
exception of one or two individual firms elsewhere. The carpet trade
is centred in Halifax, Kidderminster and Glasgow. Whether further
centralization may be looked for is questionable. Specialization
undoubtedly favours Bradford, as there the wool, top, yarn and
fabric branches of the industry are individually developed to
great advantage; but the development of means of communication
and some such factor as electric or water power may radically disturb
the present balance of the industry. (A. F. B.)
Imports of Wool into the United Kingdom from the Principal Countries, Foreign and Colonial.
Country.
1800.
1820.
1840.
1860.
1880.
1900.
1905-
1907.
New South Wales ) . . Bales
J 248,408
240,922
308,628
Queensland ) .
.658
213
25,820
46,092
224,777
( 124,401
148,059
130,128
Victorian
78,186
306,817
255,131
261,724
330,326
Tasmanian
1 80
11,721
16,731
23,653
18,225
13,770
22,147
South Australian ....
3,484
23-554
109,917
50,720
76,469
89,637
West Australian ....
1,992
9,211
26,317
44,623
41,467
New Zealand
17,870
189,441
395,693
394,390
442,973
Cape and Natal
29
3-477
55,7"
190,614
102,268
192,210
259,691
Total Colonial . . Bales
658
422
44,502
240,136
1,054,430
1,221,163
1,327,167
',624,997
East Indian and Persian .
7,611
62,226
112,716
142,518
153,841
159,818
Chinese . ....
119
1,672
4,i5i
7,284
15,060
German . ....
1,170
14,609
63,278
19,681
28,119
9,126
6,636
",533
Spanish . ....
30,318
17,681
5-273
4,199
14-603
896
1,732
4,077
Portuguese ....
9,622
475
1,569
24-503
H,356
5-242
11,018
10,214
Russian . ....
25
150
11,776
22,150
45,417
28,018
7,44
15,889
Turkish, Egyptian and North African
76
380
5,492
17,545
49,853
39,io8
43,104
51,725
Peruvian and Chilean
Buenos Aires and Montevidean
25
40,004
69,068
5,058
52,876
9,852
70,423
22,077
55,163
52,839
53,493
70,348
Falkland Islands and Punta Arenas
. .
4,700
28,784
34,903
53-249
Italian and Trieste ....
84
334
4,055
7'9
2,565
2,768
3,889
2,761
Sundry
487
1,479
2,519
15,172
35,973
37,150
46,485
43,176
Goat's Wool
",915
57,449
69,445
101,712
109,077
Total Bales
42,440
35,555
186.079
492,491
1,484,581
1,680,869
1,853,177
2,225,417
WOOLLETT WOOLNER
Prices per Ib in each Year of some Colonial, Foreign and English Wools, also of Alpaca and Mohair.
8i 7
Material.
1874.'
1880.
1885.
1890.
1895-
1900.
1901.*
1902.*
1905-
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
d.
Port Philip Greasy
Adelaide Greasy .
14
IO
IO
6i
IO;
7:
M
si
7i
n
13
I3i
9,
Cape Greasy
Buenos Aires Greasy .
British Wool .
16
7
22
12
.1
9
9i
9i
1
10
7,
4f
9i
9
JL
9 i
Si
6
101
6|
ii
Alpaca ....
33-35
13-15
22-14*
i4i-27
16-13
15^-19}
I5J-I7J
Mohair ....
35-45
27-35-21
14-19
.18-13}
H-30
20J-I7
19-17
15
I3i-i6
1 Year of the highest values of wools ever reached within recent times.
1 Years of the lowest values of wools ever reached within recent times.
Summary of Woollen and Worsted Factories and of Persons employed in the same in the United Kingdom.
1867.
1874.
1885.
1889.
1901.
1904.
Factories
2,649
2,617
2,75t
2,5'7
2,382
Rag grinding machines .
. .
900
Woollen carding sets
. t
. ,
6,700
Worsted combing machines .
1,038
1,276
2,924
Spinning spindles
6,455-879
5,449,495
5,375-102
5.604,535
5,625477
Doubling spindles
519-629
558,914
769.492
969,812
1.059.049
Power looms ....
118,875
140,274
139,902
131.506
104,514
Children (half timers)
33-054
38,416
24,636
22,940
7.475
Persons working full time
Males
94,838
106,005
"2,935
120,441
102,876
Females
134.368
135,712
145,684
J58,i75
149,558
Summary of Exports of Wool, Wool Waste, Noils, Tops, Yarns and Fabrics from the United Kingdom.
1840.
1882.
1890.
1900.
1907.
tt>
ft
Ib
ft
Ib
British Wool
5,ooc
ooo
13,800,000
19,500,000
24,900,000
34,500,000
Foreign and Colonial
2.0OC
000
264,100,000
342,200,000
197,500,000
314,200,000
Waste .
2,397,600
1,593.100
8,937,100
Noils .
10,234,700
7,897,400
12,689,700
Tops .
9,016,000
28,031,200
35,580,000
Worsted Yarn
29,840,300
39,510,100
56,075,900
55,521,700
Mohair, &c., Yar
n
8,752,200
12,959,600
10,397,700
17,782,800
Woollen Yarn
1,992,400
1,572,700
1,088,300
2,576,100
Cloths .
18,768,634
20,418,482
15,682,154
22,153,680
Apparel
1,380,000
1,700,000
1,700,000
2,550,546
WOOLLETT, WILLIAM (1735-1785), English engraver, was
born at Maidstone, of a family which came originally from
Holland, on the isth of August 1735. He was apprenticed to
John Tinney, an engraver in Fleet Street, London, and studied
in the St Martin's Lane academy. His first important plate
was from the " Niobe " of Richard Wilson, published by Boydell
hi 1761, which was followed in 1763 by a companion engraving
from the " Phaethon " of the same painter. After West he
engraved his fine plate of the "Battle of La Hogue "(1781),
and the "Death of General Wolfe" (1776), which is usually
considered Woollett's masterpiece. In 1775 he was appointed
engraver-in-ordinary to George III.; and he was a member of
the Incorporated Society of Artists, of which for several years
he acted as secretary. He died in London on the 23rd of May
1785-
In his plates, which unite work with the etching-needle, the
dry-point and the graver, Woollett shows the greatest richness
and variety of execution. In his landscapes the rendering of
water is particularly excellent. In his portraits and historical
subjects the rendering of flesh is characterized by great softness
and delicacy. His works rank among the great productions of
the English school of engraving. Louis Pagan, in his Catalogue
Raisonne of the Engraved Works of William Woollett (1885), has
enumerated 123 plates by this engraver.
WOOLMAN, JOHN (1720-1772), American Quaker preacher,
was born in Northampton, Burlington county, New Jersey, in
August 1720. When he was twenty-one he went to Mount Holly,
where he was a clerk in a store, opened a school for poor children
and became a tailor. After 1743 he spent most of his time as an
itinerant preacher, visiting meetings of the Friends 'in various
parts of the colonies. In 1 7 7 2 he sailed for London to visit Friends
in the north of England, especially Yorkshire, and died in York of
smallpox on the 7th of October. He spoke and wrote against
slavery, refused to draw up wills transferring slaves, induced
many of the Friends to set their negroes free, and in 1760 at
Newport, Rhode Island, memorialized the Legislature to forbid
the slave trade. In 1763 at Wehaloosing (now Wyalusing),
on the Susquehanna, he preached to the Indians; and he always
urged the whites to pay the Indians for their lands and to forbid
the sale of liquor to them.
Woolman wrote Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes
(1754; part ii., 1762); Considerations on Pure Wisdom and Human
Policy, on Labor, on Schools, and on the Right Use of the Lord's
Outward Gifts (1768) ; Considerations on the True Harmony of Man-
kind, and How it is to be Maintained (1770); and A Word of Re-
membrance and Caution to the Rich (1793) ; and the most important of
his writings, The Journal of John Woolman 's Life and Travels in the
Service of the Gospel (1775), which was begun in his thirty-sixth year
and was continued until the year of his death. The best-known
edition is that prepared, with an introduction, by John G. Whittier
in 1871. The Works of John Woolman appeared in two pans at
Philadelphia, in 1774-1775, and have often been republished; a
German version was printed in 1852.
WOOLNER, THOMAS (1825-1892), British sculptor and poet,
was born at Hadleigh, Suffolk, on the i7th of December 1825.
When a boy he showed talent for modelling, and when barely
thirteen years old was taken as an assistant into the studio of
William Behnes, and trained during four years. In December
1842 Woolner was admitted a student in the Royal Academy,
and in 1843 exhibited his " Eleanor sucking Poison from the
Wound of Prince Edward." In 1844, among the competitive
works for decorating the Houses of Parliament was his life-size
group of " The Death of Boadicea." In 1846 he had at the
Royal Academy a graceful bas-relief of Shelley's " Alastor."
Then came (1847) " Feeding the Hungry," a bas-relief, at the
Academy; and at the British Institution a brilliant statuette
8i8
WOOLSACK WOOLSTON
of " Puck " perched upon a toadstool and with his toe rousing a
frog. " Eros and Euphrosyne " and " The Rainbow " were seen
at the Academy in 1848.
Woolner became, in the autumn of 1848, one of the seven
Pre-Raphaelite Brethren, and took a leading part in The Germ
(1850), the opening poem in which, called " My Beautiful Lady,"
was written by him. He had already modelled and exhibited
portraits of Carlyle, Browning and Tennyson. Unable to make
his way in art as he wished, Woolner in 1852 tried his luck as a
gold-digger in Australia. Failing in this, he returned to England
in 1857, where during his absence his reputation had been in-
creased by means of a statue of " Love " as a damsel lost in a day-
dream. Then came his second portraits of Carlyle, Tennyson
and Browning, the figures of Moses, David, St John the Baptist
and St Paul for the pulpit of Llandaff cathedral, the medallion
portrait of Wordsworth in Grasmere church, the likenesses of Sir
Thomas Fairbairn, Rajah Brooke of Sarawak, Mrs Tennyson,
Sir W. Hooker and Sir F. Palgrave. The fine statue of Bacon in
the New Museum at Oxford was succeeded by full-size statues of
Prince Albert for Oxford, Macaulay for Cambridge, William III.
for the Houses of Parliament, London, and Sir Bartle Frere for
Bombay; busts of Tennyson, for Trinity College, Cambridge,
Dr Whewell, and Archdeacon Hare; statues of Lord Lawrence
for Calcutta, Queen Victoria for Birmingham, Field for the Law
Courts, London, Palmerston for Palace Yard, the noble colossal
standing figure of Captain Cook that overlooks the harbour of
Sydney, New South Wales, which is Woolner's masterpiece in that
class; the recumbent effigy of Lord F. Cavendish (murdered in
Dublin) in Cartmel church, the seated Lord Chief Justice White-
side for the Four Courts, Dublin, and John Stuart Mill for the
Thames Embankment, London; Landseer, and 'Bishop Jackson
for St Paul's, Bishop Fraser for Manchester, and Sir Stamford
Raffles for Singapore. Among Woolner's busts are those of
Newman, Darwin, Sedgwick, Huxley, Cobden, Professor Lush-
ington, Dickens, Kingsley, and Sir William Gull, besides the
repetition, with variations, of Gladstone for the Bodleian,
Oxford, and Mansion House, London, and Tennyson. The last
was acquired for Adelaide, South Australia. Woolner's poetic
and imaginative sculptures include " Elaine with the Shield of
Lancelot," three fine panels for the pedestal of the Gladstone bust
at Cambridge, the noble and original " Moses " which was
commissioned in 1861 and is on the apex of the gable of the
Manchester Assize Courts, and two other works in the same
building; "Ophelia," a statue (1869); "In Memoriam ";
" Virgilia sees in a vision Coriolanus routing the Volsces ";
" Guinevere "; " Mercury teaching a shepherd to sing," for the
Royal College of Music; " Ophelia," a bust (1878); " Godiva,"
and " The Water Lily."
In 1864 he married Alice Gertrude Waugh, by whom he had
two sons and four daughters. He was elected an associate of the
Royal Academy in 1871, and a full member in 1874. Woolner
wrote and published two amended versions of " My Beautiful
Lady " from The Germ, as well as " Pygmalion " (1881),
"Silenus" (1884), " Tiresias " (1886), and "Poems" (1887)
comprising " Nelly Dale " (1886) and " Children." Having been
elected professor of sculpture in the Royal Academy, Woolner
began to prepare lectures, but they were never delivered, for he
resigned the office in 1879. He died suddenly on the 7th of
October 1892, and was buried in the churchyard of St Mary's,
Hendon.
WOOLSACK, i.e. a sack or cushion stuffed with wool, a name
more particularly given to the seat of the lord chancellor in the
House of Lords. It is a large square cushion of wool, without
back or arms, covered with red cloth. It is stated to have been
placed in the House of Lords in the reign of Edward III. to re-
mind the peers of the importance of the wool trade of England.
The earliest legislative mention, however, is in an act of Henry
VIII. (c. 10 s. 8) : " The lord chancellor, lord treasurer and all
other officers who shall be under the degree of a baron of a parlia-
ment shall sit and be placed at the uppermost part of the sacks
in the midst of the said parliament chamber, either there to sit
upon one form or upon the uppermost sack." The woolsack is
technically outside the precincts of the house, and the lord
chancellor, wishing to speak in a debate, has to advance to his
place as a peer.
WOOLSEY, THEODORE DWIGHT (1801-1889), American
educationalist, was born in New York City on the 3ist of October
1801. He was the son of a New York merchant, a nephew of
Timothy Dwight, president of Yale, and a descendant of Jonathan
Edwards. He graduated at Yale in 1820; was a tutor at Yale
in 1823-1825; studied Greek at Leipzig, Berlin and Bonn in
1827-1830; became professor of Greek language and literature
at Yale in 1831; and was elected president of the college and
entered the Congregational ministry in 1846. He resigned the
presidency in 1871, and died on the ist of July 1889 in New
Haven. During his administration the college grew rapidly,
the scientific school and the school of fine arts were established,
and the scholarly tone of the college was greatly improved.
Much of his attention in his last years was devoted to the
American commission for the revision of th authorized version
of the New Testament, of which he was chairman (1871-1881).
He prepared excellent editions of Alcestis (1834), Antigone (1835),
Prometheus (1837) and Gorgias (1843). He published several
volumes of sermons and wrote for the New Englander, of which
he was a founder, for the North American Review, for the Prince-
ion Review and for the Century, and his Introduction to the Study
of International Law, designed as an Aid in Teaching and in
Historical Studies (1860) and his Divorce and Divorce Legislation
(1882) went through many editions. He also wrote Political
Science, or the State Theoretically and Practically Considered (1877),
and Communism and Socialism, in their History and Theory ( 1 880) .
His son, THEODORE SALISBURY WOOLSEY (b. 1852), became pro-
fessor of international law at Yale in 1878. He was one of the
founders of the Yale Review (1892, a continuation of the New
Englander), and is the author of America's Foreign Policy (1892).
WOOLSTON, THOMAS (1669-1731), English deist, born at
Northampton in 1669, the son of a " reputable tradesman,"
entered Sidney College, Cambridge, in 1685, studied theology,
took orders and was made a fellow of his college. After a time,
by the study of Origen, he became possessed with the notion of
the importance of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture,
and advocated its use in the defence of Christianity both in his
sermons and in his first book, The Old Apology for the Truth
of the Christian Religion against the Jews and Gentiles Revived
(1705). For jnany years he published nothing, but in 1 7 20-1 721
the publication of letters and pamphlets in advocacy of his
notions, with open challenges to the clergy to refute them, brought
him into trouble. It was reported that his mind was disordered,
and he lost his fellowship. From 1721 he lived for the most part
in London, on an allowance of 30 a year from his brother and
other presents. His influence on the course of the deistical con-
troversy began with his book, The Moderator between an Infidel
and an Apostate (1725, 3rd ed. 1729). The " infidel " intended
was Anthony Collins (q.v.), who had maintained in his book
alluded to that the New Testament is based on the Old, and that
not the literal but only the allegorical sense of the prophecies can
be quoted in proof of the Messiahship of Jesus; the " apostate "
was the clergy who had forsaken the allegorical method of the
fathers. Woolston denied absolutely the proof from miracles,
called in question the fact of the resurrection of Christ and other
miracles of the New Testament, and maintained that they must
be interpreted allegorically, or as types of spiritual things. Two
years later he began a series of Discourses on the same subject,
in which he applied the principles of his Moderator to the miracles
of the Gospels in detail. The Discourses, 30,000 copies of which
were said to have been sold, were six in number, the first appear-
ing in 1727, the next five 1728-1729, with two Defences in 1720-
1730. For these publications he was tried before Chief Justice
Raymond in 1729 and sentenced (November 28) to pay a fine
of 25 for each of the first four Discourses, with imprisonment
till paid, and also to a year's imprisonment and to give security
for his good behaviour during life. He failed to find this security,
and remained in confinement until his death on the 2ist of
January 1731.
WOOLWICH WOONSOCKET
819
Upwards of sixty more or less weighty pamphlets appeared in
repiy to his Moderator and Discourses. Amongst the abler and most
popular of them may be mentioned Z. Pearce's The Miracles of Jesus
Vindicated (1729); T. Sherlock's The Tryal of the Witnesses of the
Resurrection of Jesus (1729, I3th ed. 1/55); and N. Lardner's
Vindication of Three of Our Saviour's Miracles (1729), Lardner being
one of those who did not approve of the prosecution of Woolston (see
Lardner's Life by Kippis, in Lardner's Works, vol. i.).
See Life of Woolston prefixed to his Works in five volumes (London,
1733); Memoirs of Life and Writings of William Whiston (London,
1749, pp. 231-235); Appendix to A Vindication of the Miracles of
our Saviour, &c., by I. Ray (2nd ed., 1731) ; J. Cairns, Unbelief in the
Eighteenth Century (1880); Sayous, Les Dtistes anglais (1882); and
the article DEISM, with its bibliography.
WOOLWICH, a S.E. metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded W. by Greenwich and Lewisham, and ex-
tending N., E. and S., to the boundary of the county of London.
Pop. (1901) 117,178. Area, 8276-6 acres. Its N. boundary is in
part the river Thames, but it includes two separate small areas
on the N. bank, embracing a portion of the district called N.
Woolwich. The area is second to that of Wandsworth among
the metropolitan boroughs, but is not wholly built over. The
most populous part is that lying between Shooter's Hill Road
(the Roman Watling Street) and the river, the site falling from an
elevation of 418 ft. at Shooter's Hill to the river level. To the E.
lies Plumstead, with the Plumstead marshes bordering the river
to the N., and in the S. of the borough is Eltham. A large working
population is employed in the Royal Arsenal, which occupies
a large area on the river-bank, and includes the Royal Gun
Factory, Royal Carriage Department, Royal Laboratory and
Building Works Department. The former Royal Dockyard was
made over to the War Office in 1872 and converted into stores,
wharves for the loading of troopships, &c. The Royal Artillery
Barracks, facing Woolwich Common, originally erected in 1775,
has been greatly extended at different times, and consists of six
ranges of brick building, including a church in the Italian Gothic
style erected in 1863, a theatre, and a library in connexion with
the officers' mess-room. Opposite the barracks is the memorial
to the officers and men of the Royal Artillery who fell in the
Crimean War, a bronze figure of Victory cast out of cannon
captured in the Crimea. Near the barracks is the Royal Artillery
Institution, with a fine museum and a lecture hall. On the W.
of the barrack field is the Royal Military Repository, within
the enclosure of which is the Rotunda, originally erected in St
James's Park for the reception of the allied sovereigns in 1814,
and shortly afterwards transferred to its present site. It contains
models of the principal dockyards and fortifications of the
British empire, naval models of all dates, and numerous specimens
of weapons of war from the remotest times to the present day.
On the Common is the Royal Military Academy, a castellated
building erected from the design of Sir J. Wyatville in 1801,
where cadets are trained for the artillery and engineer services.
There are a number of other barracks. At the S.E. extremity
of the Common is the Herbert Military Hospital. Among several
military memorials, one in the Academy grounds was erected
to the Prince Imperial of France, for two years a student in the
Academy. Other institutions include the Woolwich polytechnic
and the Brook fever hospital, Shooter's Hill. The parish church
of St Mary Magdalene was rebuilt, in 1726-1729, near the site of
the old one dating from before the I2th century. Woolwich
Common (142 acres) is partly within this borough, but mainly
in Greenwich. South of it is Eltham Common (37 acres), and
in the E. of the borough are Plumstead Common (103 acres)
and Bostall Heath (134 acres). Behind the Royal Military
Academy is a mineral well, the " Shooter's Hill waters " men-
tioned by Evelyn. Near Woolwich Common there are 'brick and
tile kilns and sand and chalk pits, and there are extensive market-
gardens in the locality. The parliamentary borough of Woolwich
returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor,
6 aldermen, and 60 councillors. It was only by the London
Government Act 1899 that Woolwich was brought into line with
other London districts, for in 1855, as it had previously become
a local government district under a local board, it was left
untouched by the Metropolis Management Act.
Woolwich (Wulewich) is mentioned in a grant of land by King
Edward in 964 to the abbey of St Peter at Ghent. In Domesday
the manor is mentioned as consisting of 63 acres of land. The Roman
Watling Street crossed Shooter's Hill, and a Roman cemetery is
supposed to have occupied the site of the Royal Arsenal, numerous
Roman urns and fragments of Roman pottery having been dug up in
the neighbourhood. Woolwich seems to have been a small fishing
village until in the beginning of the l6th century it rose into pro-
minence as a dockyard and naval station. There is evidence that
ships were built at Woolwich in the reign of Henry VII., but it was
with the purchase by Henry VIII. of two parcels of land in the manor
of Woolwich, called Boughton's Docks, that the foundation of the
town's prosperity was laid, the launching of the " Harry Grace de
Dieu," of looo tons burden, making an epoch in its history. Wool-
wich remained the chief dockyard of the English navy until the
introduction of iron ship building, but the dockyard was closed in
1869. The town became the headquarters of the Royal Artillery on
the establishment of a separate branch of this service in the reign of
George I. Land was probably acquired for a military post and store
depot at Woolwich in 1667, in order to erect batteries against the
invading Dutch fleet, although in 1664 mention is made of store-
houses and sheds for repairing ship carriages. In 1668 guns, carriages
and stores were concentrated at Woolwich, and in 1695 the laboratory
was moved hither from Greenwich. Before 1716 ordnance was
obtained from private manufacturers and proved by the Board of
Ordnance. In 1716 an explosion took place at <he Moorfields
Foundry, and it was decided to build a royal brass foundry at the
" Tower Place," as the establishment at Woolwich was called until
1805. Founders were advertised for, and records show that Andrew
Schalch of Douai was selected. In 1741 a school of instruction for
the military branch of the ordnance was established here. It was
not until 1805, however, that the collection of establishments at
Woolwich became the Royal Arsenal.
See C. H. Grinling, T. A. Ingram and B. C. Polkinghorne, Survey
and Record of Woolwich and West Kent (Woolwich, 1909).
WOOLWICH-AND-READING BEDS, in geology, a series of
argillaceous and sandy deposits of lower Eocene age found in the
London and Hampshire basins. By the earlier geologists this
formation was known as the " Plastic Clay " so called by T.
Webster in 1816 after the Argile plastique of G. C. F. D. Cuvier
and A. Brongniart. It was called the " Mottled Clay " by
J. Prestwich in 1846, but in 1853 he proposed the name " Wool-
wich-and-Reading Beds " because the other terms were not
applicable to the different local aspects of the series.
Three distinct types of this formation are recognized: (i) The
Reading type, a series of lenticular mottled clays and sands, here and
there with pebbly beds and masses of fine sand converted into
quartzite. These beds are generally unfossiliferous. They are found
in the N. and W. portions of the London Basin and in the Hampshire
Basin. (2) The Woolwich type, grey clays and pale sands, often full
of estuarine shells and in places with a well-marked oyster bed. At
the base of the shell-bearing clays in S.E. London there are pebble
beds and lignitic layers. The Woolwich beds occur in W. Kent, the
E. borders of Surrey, the borders of E. Kent, in S. Essex and at
Newhaven in Sussex. (3) A third type consisting of light-coloured
false-bedded sands with marine fossils occurs in E. Kent. Where
it rests on the Thanet beds it is an argillaceous greensand with
rounded flint pebbles; where it rests on the Chalk it is more clayey
and the flints are less rounded and are green-coated. Except in the
Hampshire basin the Woolwich-and-Reading beds usually rest on
the Thanet beds, but they are found on toe Chalk near Bromley,
Charlton, Hungerford, Hertford, Reading, &c. In Dorsetshire the
Reading beds appear on the coast at Studland Bay and at other
points inland. The " Hertfordshire Pudding Stone " is a well-known
rock from near the base of the formation; it is a flint pebble con-
glomerate in a siliceous matrix. The fossils, estuarine, freshwater and
marine, include Corbicula cuneiformis, C. tellinclla, Ostreabellovacina,
Vivaparus lentus, Planorbis hemistoma, Melanin (Melanatria) in-
quinata, Neritina globulus, and the remains of turtles, crocodiles,
sharks, birds (Castornis) and the mammal Coryphodon. Bricks, tiles
and coarse pottery and occasionally firebricks have been made from
the clay beds in this formation.
See EOCENE; also J. Prestwich, Q.J.G.S. (1854), x.; W. Whitaker,
" Geology of London," Mem. Ceol. Survey, i. and ii. (1889) and Sheet
Memoir, No. 268.
WOONSOCKET, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island,
U.S.A., on both banks K)f the Blackstone river, about 16 m. N.
by W. of Providence. Pop. (1900) 28,204; (1905, state census)
32,196 (13,734 foreign-born, including 8939 French Canadians and
1369 Irish); (1910) 38,125. Woonsocket is served by the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by an interurban
electric line. Among its institutions are the Sacred Heart College
and the Harris Institute Public Library, founded (1863) by
Edward Harris, a local manufacturer. Woonsocket has ample
820
WOOSTER WORCESTER, EARL OF
water power from the Blackstone river and its tributaries, the
Mill and the Peters rivers. The value of its factory products in
1905 was $19,260,537. Worsted and woollen yarns are manu-
factured in Woonsocket by the French and Belgian processes.
Other manufactures are cotton goods and yarns, rubber goods,
clothes wringers, silks,bobbins and shuttles, and foundry products.
The first settlement in the vicinity was made apparently about
1666 by Richard Arnold, who at about that time built a saw-mill on
the bank of the Blackstone river. Woonsocket was set off from
Cumberland and was incorporated as a township in 1867; was en-
larged by the addition of a part of Smithfield in 1871, and was
chartered as a city in 1888.
WOOSTER, a city and the county-seat of Wayne county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on Killbuck Creek, about 50 m. S. by W. of
Cleveland. Fop. (1900) 6063 (407 foreign-born); (1910) 6136.
Wooster is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Penn-
sylvania' railways. It is the seat of the university of Wooster
(co-educational; Presbyterian; founded in 1866 and opened in
1870), which in 1909 had 37 instructors and 1547 students.
The Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station is in the city, which
also has various manufactures. Wooster was laid out in 1808,
was incorporated as a town in 1817, and became a city of the
second class in 1869. It was named in honour of General David
Wooster (1710-1777), who was killed in the War of Independence.
WOOTTON BASSETT, a market town in the N. parliamentary
division of Wiltshire, England, 83 m. W. of London by the Great
Western- railway. Pop. (1901) 2200. It is the junction of the
direct railway (1903) between London and the Severn tunnel
with the main line of the Great Western system. The town
has large cattle markets and an agricultural trade.
Wootton Bassett (Wodeton, Walton) was held in the reign of
Edward the Confessor by one Levenod, and after the Norman
Conquest was included in the fief of Miles Crispin. About a
century later the manor was acquired by the Basset family.
The town received its first charter from Henry VI., and returned
members to parliament from 1446-1447 until the passing of the
Reform Act of 1832. In 1571 Elizabeth granted to the town a
market on. Tuesday and two fairs each to last two days, at the
feasts of St George the Martyr and the Conception of the Virgin.
In 1679 the town received a charter from Charles II., and the
corporation consisted of a mayor, two aldermen and 12 capital
burgesses, until abolished by the Municipal Corporations Act of
1886, under which the property is now vested in seven trustees,
one of whom is appointed by the lord of the manor, and there are
also two aldermen and four elected members. In 1836 fairs were
instituted on the Tuesday before the 6th of April and on the
Tuesday before the nth of October, which are still maintained,
and a large cattle market is held on the first Wednesday of every
month. The manufacture of broadcloth was formerly carried on,
but is now entirely decayed.
WORCESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. Urso de
Abitot, constable of Worcester castle and sheriff of Worcester-
shire, is erroneously said to have been created earl of Worcester
in 1076. Waleran de Beaumont (1104-1166), count of Meulan
in France, a partisan of King Stephen in his war with the empress
Matilda, was probably earl of Worcester from 1136 to 1145. He
was deprived of his earldom, became a crusader and died a monk.
From 1397 to 1403 the earldom was held by Sir Thomas Percy
(c. 1343-1403), a brother of Henry Percy, ist earl of Northumber-
land. Percy served with distinction in France during the reign
of Edward III.; he also held an official position on the Scottish
borders, and under Richard II. he was the admiral of a fleet.
He deserted Richard II. in 1399, and was employed and trusted by
Henry IV., but in 1403 he joined the other Percies in their revolt;
he was taken prisoner at Shrewsbury, and subsequently beheaded,
the earldom becoming extinct. The title of earl of Worcester
was revived in 1421 in favour of Richard Beauchamp, Lord
Abergavenny, but lapsed on his death in 1422. The next earl
was John Tiptoft, or Tibetot, a noted Yorkist leader during the
wars of the Roses, who was executed in 1470 (see below). On
the death of his son, Edward, in 1485 the earldom reverted to the
crown.
. In February 1514 the earldom was bestowed by Henry VIII.
on CHARLES SOMERSET (c. 1460-1526), a bastard son of Henry
Beaufort, duke of Somerset. Having married Elizabeth,
daughter of William Herbert, earl of Huntingdon, he was styled
Baron Herbert in right of his wife, and in 1506 he was created
Baron Herbert of Ragland, Chepstow and Gower. He was
chamberlain of the household to Henry VIII. His son Henry,
2nd earl (c. 1495-1548), obtained Tintern Abbey after the
dissolution of the monasteries. The title descended in direct line
to Henry, the sth earl (1577-1646), who advanced large sums
of money to Charles I. at the outbreak of the Great Rebellion,
and was created marquess of Worcester in 1643.
EDWARD SOMERSET, and marquess of Worcester (1601-1667),
is better known by the title of earl of Glamorgan, this earldom
having been conferred upon him, although somewhat irregularly,
by Charles I. in 1644. He became very prominent in 1644 and
1645 in connexion with Charles's scheme for obtaining military
help from Ireland and abroad, and in 1645 he signed at Kilkenny,
on behalf of Charles, a treaty with the Irish Roman Catholics;
but the king was obliged by the opposition of Ormonde and the
Irish loyalists to repudiate his action. Under the Common-
wealth he was formally banished from England and his estates
were seized. At the Restoration his estates were restored, and
he claimed the dukedom of Somerset promised to him by Charles
I., hut he did not obtain this, nor was his earldom of Glamorgan
recognized. He was greatly interested in mechanical experi-
ments, and his name is intimately connected with the early
history of the steam-engine (?..). His Century of the Names
and Scantlings of such Inventions as at present I can call to mind to
have tried and perfected (1663) has often been reprinted. He
died on the 3rd of April 1667.
See Henry Dircks, Life, Times and Scientific Labours of the 2nd
Marquess of Worcester (1865); Sir J. T. Gilbert, History of the Irish
Confederation and the War in Ireland (Dublin, 1882-1891).
His only son HENRY (1629-1700), the 3rd marquess, abandoned
the Roman Catholic religion and was a member of one of Crom-
well's parliaments. But he was quietly loyal to Charles II., who
in 1682 created him duke of Beaufort. As the defender of Bristol,
the duke took a considerable part in checking the progress of the
duke of Monmouth in 1685, but in 1688 he surrendered the city
to William of Orange. He inherited Badminton, still the resi-
dence of the dukes of Beaufort, and died there on the 2ist of
January 1700. The Worcester title was henceforth merged in
that of Beaufort (<?.fl.). Henry, the 7th duke (1792-1853), was
one of the greatest sportsmen of his day, and the Badminton
hunt owed much to him and his successors, the Sth duke (1824-
1899) and 9th duke (b. 1847).
WORCESTER, JOHN TIPTOFT, EARL OF (1427-1470), was son
of John Tiptoft (1375-1443), who was Speaker of the House of
Commons in 1406, much employed in diplomacy by Henry V.,
a member of the council during the minority of Henry VI., and
created Baron Tiptoft in 1426. The younger Tiptoft was
educated at Oxford, where John Rous says that he was one of his
fellow-students; he is stated to have been a member of Balliol
College. He married Cicely, daughter of Richard Neville,
earl of Salisbury, and widow of Henry Beauchamp (d. 1445),
duke of Warwick. In 1449 he was created earl of Worcester.
His wife died in 1450, but he continued the association with the
Yorkist party. During York's protectorate he was treasurer of
the exchequer, and in 1456-1457 deputy of Ireland. In 1457
and again in 1459 he was sent on embassies to the pope. He
was abroad three years, during which he made a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem; the rest of the time he spent in Italy, at Padua,
where he studied law and Latin; at Ferrara, where he made the
acquaintance of Guarino of Verona; and at Florence, where he
heard the lectures of John Argyropoulos, the teacher of Greek.
He returned to England early in the reign of Edward IV., and
on the 7th of February 1462 was made constable of England.
In this office he had at once to try the earl of Oxford, and judged
him by " lawe padoue " (sc. of Padua; Warkworth, 5). In 1463
he commanded at sea, without success. In the following year as
constable he tried and condemned Sir Ralph Grey and other
Lancastrians. In 1467 he was again appointed deputy of Ireland.
WORCESTER, W. WORCESTER
821
During a year's office there he had the earl of Desmond attainted,
and cruelly put to death the earl's two infant sons. In 1470,
as constable, he condemned twenty of Warwick's adherents,
and had them impaled, " for which ever afterwards the earl was
greatly hated among the people, for their disordinate death that
used contrary to the law of the land "_ (Warkworth, 9).
the Lancastrian restoration Worcester 'fled into hiding,
but was discovered and tried before the earl of Oxford, son of
he man whom he had condemned in 1462. He was executed
, Tower Hill on the i8th of October 1470.
Worcester was detested for his brutality and abuse of the
iw, and was called " the butcher of England " (Fabyan, 659).
lore than any of his contemporaries in this country he represents
he combination of culture and cruelty that was distinctive of the
Italians of the Renaissance. Apart from his moral character he
vas an accomplished scholar, and a great purchaser of books in
Italy, many of which he presented to the university of Oxford.
le translated Cicero's De amicitia and Buonaccorso's Declara-
i of Nobleness, which were printed by Caxton in 1481. Caxton
L his epilogue eulogized Worcester as superior to all the temporal
ards of the kingdom in moral virtue as well as in science.
Worcester is also credited with a translation of Caesar's Com-
entaries printed in 1530. His "ordinances for justes and
riumphes," made as constable in 1466, are printed in Harring-
ton's Nugae antiquae. Worcester was a patron of the early
English humanist John Free, and his Italian friends included,
besides those already mentioned, Lodovico Carbo of Ferrara,
and the famous Florentine bookseller Vespasiano da Bisticci.
AUTHORITIES. For Worcester's English career see especially the
contemporary accounts in Three Fifteenth Century Chronicles,
Collections of a London Citizen (Gregory's Chronicle), and Wark-
worth's Chronicle all three published by the Camden Society.
Vespasiano da Bisticci gave an account of him in his Vile di uomini
illustri, i. 322-326, ap. Opere inedite o rare nella provincia dell' Emilia,.
See also Blades' Life of Caxton, i. 79, ii. 73. (C. L. K.)
WORCESTER, WILLIAM (c. 1415-0. 1482), English chronicler,
was a son of William of Worcester, a Bristol citizen, and is some-
times called William Botoner, his mother being a daughter of
Thomas Botoner. He was educated at Oxford and became
secretary to Sir John Fastolf. When the knight died in 1459,
Worcester, although one of his executors, found that nothing
had been bequeathed to him, and with one of his colleagues, Sir
William Yelverton, he disputed the validity of the will. How-
ever, an amicable arrangement was made and Worcester obtained
some lands near Norwich and in Southwark. He died about
1482. Worcester made several journeys through England, and
his Itinerarium contains much information. The survey of
Bristol is of the highest value to antiquaries. Portions of the
work were printed by James Nasmith in 1778, and the part
relating to Bristol is in James Dallaway's Antiquities of Bristowe
(Bristol, 1834).
Worcester also wrote Annales rerum Anglicarum, a work of some
value for the history of England under Henry VI. This was published
by T. Hearne in 1728, and by Joseph Stevenson for the " Rolls " series
with his Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the English in
France during the Reign oj Henry VI. (1864). Stevenson also printed
here collections of papers made by Worcester respecting the wars of
the English in France and Normandy. Worcester's other writings
include the last Acta domini Johannis Fastolf. See the Paston
Letters edited by J. Gairdner (1904); and F. A, Gasquet, An Old
English Bible and other Essays (1897).
WORCESTER, a town of the Cape province, S. Africa, 109 m.
by rail (58 in a direct line) N.E. of Cape Town, and the starting
point of the railway to Mossel Bay and Port Elizabeth. Pop.
(1904) 7885. It lies in the Little Karroo, about 800 ft. above
the sea at the foot of the Hex River mountains. Tanning and
wagon-building are among the industries, but the surrounding
country is one of the largest wine and brandy producing districts
in the province. At Brandvlei, 9 m. S., near the Breede river are
thermal springs with a temperature of 145 F.
WORCESTER, an episcopal city and county of a city, muni-
cipal, parliamentary, and county borough, and county town of
Worcestershire, England, on the river Severn, 120$ m. W.N.W.
of London. Pop. (1901) 46,624. It is served by the Great
Western railway and by the Bristol-Birmingham line of the
Midland railway. Branches of the Great Western diverge to
Malvern and Hereford, and to Leominster. Worcester lies
mainly upon the left (E.) bank of the Severn, which is here a
broad and placid river, the main part of the city lying on a
ridge parallel with its banks. The city is governed by a mayor,
12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area 3242 acres.
The cathedral church of Our Lord and the Blessed Virgin
Mary is beautifully placed close to the river. The see was founded
by the advice of Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury about 679
or 680, though, owing to the opposition of the bishop of Lichfield
it was not finally established till 780. In its formation the tribal
division was followed, and it contained the people of the Hwiccas.
The bishop's church of St Peter's, with its secular canons, was
absorbed by Bishop Oswald into the monastery of St Mary.
The canons became monks, and in 983 Oswald finished the
building of a new monastic cathedral. After the Norman
Conquest the saintly bishop of Worcester, Wulfstan, was the
only English prelate who was left in possession of his see, and
it was he who first undertook the building of a great church
of stone according to the Norman pattern. Of the work of Wulf-
stan, the outer walls of the nave, aisles, a part of the walls of
the transepts, some shafts and the crypt remain. The crypt
(1084) is one of the four apsidal crypts in England, the others
being those in Winchester, Gloucester and Canterbury cathedrals.
Wulfstan's building seems to have extended no farther than
the transepts, but the nave was continued, though much of it
was destroyed by the fall of the central tower in 1175. The two
W. bays of the nave date from about n6o. In 1203 Wulfstan,
who had died in 1095, was canonized, and on the completion
and dedication of the cathedral in 1218, his body was placed in
a shrine, which became a place of pilgrimage, and thereby brought
wealth to the monks. They devoted this to the building of a
lady chapel at the E. end, extending the building by 50 ft.;
and in 1224 was begun the rebuilding of the choir, in its present
splendid Early English style. The nave was remodelled in the
i4th century, and, excepting the W. bays, shows partly Decorated
but principally early Perpendicular work. The building is
cruciform, and is without aisles in the transepts, but has secondary
choir-transepts. A Jesus chapel (an uncommon feature) opens
from the N. nave aisle, from which it is separated by a very
beautiful modern screen of stone, in the Perpendicular style.
Without, the cathedral is severely plain, with the exception of
the ornate tower, which dates from 1374, and is 196 ft. in height.
The principal dimensions of the cathedral are extreme length
425 ft. (nave 170 ft., choir 180 ft.), extreme width 145 ft. (choir
78 ft.), height of nave 68 ft. The monastic remains lie to the S.
The cloisters are of Perpendicular work engrafted upon Norman
walls, being entered from the S. through a fine Norman doorway.
In them the effect of the warm red sandstone is particularly
beautiful. An interesting Norman chapter house adjoins
them on the E., its Perpendicular roof supported on a central
column, while on the S. lies the Refectory, a fine Decorated
room (1372) now devoted to the uses of the Cathedral SchooL
There are also picturesque ruins of the Guesten Hall (1320).
A very extensive restoration was begun in 1857, upwards of
100,000 being spent. Among the monuments in the cathedral,
that of King John, in the choir, is the earliest sepulchral effigy
of an English king in the country. There is an altar tomb, in
a very fine late Perpendicular chantry chapel, of Arthur, Prince
of Wales, son of Henry VII., who died in 1502. There are also
monuments of John Gauden, the bishop who wrote Icon basilike,
often attributed to Charles I., of Bishop Hough by Roubillac,
and of Mrs Digby by Chantrey.
Of the eleven parish churches, St Alban's has considerable
Norman remains, St Peter's contains portions of all Gothic
styles, St Helen's, with a fine peal of bells commemorating the
victories of Marlborough, has also Gothic portions, but the
majority were either rebuilt in the i8th century, or are modem.
St Andrews has a beautiful spire, erected in 1751, 155 ft. 6 in.
in height. Holy Trinity preserves the ancient roof of the Guesten
Hall. St John's in Bedwardine was made a parish church in
822
WORCESTER
There are no remains of the old castle of Worcester; it adjoined
the monastery so closely that King John gave its yard to the
monks, and after that time it ceased to be a stronghold. The
Commandery, founded by St Wulfstan in 1085, was a hospital,
and its name appears to lack authority. It was rebuilt in Tudor
times, and there remains a beautiful hall, with music gallery,
canopied dais, and a fine bay window, together with other
parts. The wood-carving is exquisite. There are many old
half-timbered houses. The guild-hall (1723) is an admirable
building in the Italian style; it contains a portrait of George III.,
by Sir Joshua Reynolds, presented by the king to commemorate
his visit to the city at the triennial musical festival in 1 788. This,
the Festival of the Three Choirs, is maintained here alternately
with Gloucester and Hereford. The corporation possesses
some interesting old charters and manuscripts, and good muni-
cipal regalia. Public buildings include the shire-hall (1835),
Corn Exchange and market-house. Fairs are held thrice
annually. The Victoria Institute includes a library, museum
and art gallery. The cathedral school was founded by Henry
VIII. in 1541, Queen Elizabeth's, in a modern building, in 1563;
there are also a choir school, and municipal art, science and
technical schools. In the vicinity of the city there is a large
Benedictine convent, at Stanbrook Hall, with a beautiful
modern chapel. The Clothiers' Company possesses a charter
granted by Queen Elizabeth; but the great industries are now
the manufacture of gloves and of porcelain. A company of
glovers was incorporated in 1661. The manufacture of porcelain
is famous. The materials employed are china clay and china
stone from Cornwall, felspar from Sweden, fire-clay from Stour-
bridge and Broseley, marl, flint and calcined bones. The Royal
Porcelain works cover 5 acres. Among Worcester's other trades
are those of iron, iron goods and engineering works, carriage
making, rope spinning, boat building, tanning and the produc-
tion of chemical manures and of cider and perry. There is a
considerable carrying trade on the Severn.
The charities are numerous, and include St Oswald's hospital,
Nash's almshouses, Wyatt's almshouses. the Berkeley hospital,
Goulding hospital, Shewring's hospital, Inglethorpe's aims-
houses, Waldgrave's almshouses, Moore's blue-coat school,
Queen Elizabeth's charity, and others.
Traces of British and Roman occupation have been discovered
at Worcester (Wigeran Ceaster, Wigornia), but its history begins
with the foundation of the episcopal see. Being the chief city
on the borders of Wales, Worcester was frequently visited by
the kings of England. In 1139 it was taken by the Empress
Maud and retaken and burnt by Stephen in 1 149. It surrendered
to Simon de Montfort in 1263. In 1642, during the Great
Rebellion, a handful of cavaliers was besieged here, and in spite
of an attempted relief by Prince Rupert, the city was pillaged,
as it was again in 1646. In 1651 Charles II. with the Scottish
army marched into Worcester, where he was welcomed by the
citizens. Cromwell took up his position on the Red Hill just
outside the city gates. Lambert succeeded in passing the Severn
at Upton, and drove back the Royalist troops towards Worcester.
Charles, seeking an advantage of this division of the enemy
on opposite sides of the river, attacked Cromwell's camp. At
first he was successful, but Cromwell was reinforced by Lambert's
troops in time to drive back Charles's foot, who were not supported
by the Scottish horse, and the rout of the King's force was complete.
In the reign of King Alfred, ^Ethelred and ^Ethelflead, ealdor-
man and lady of the Mercians, at the request of the bishop
" built a burgh at Worcester " and granted to him half of their
rights and privileges there " both in market and street within
the borough and without." Richard I. in 1 189 granted the town
to the burgesses at a fee-farm of 24, and Henry III. in 1227
granted a gild merchant and exemption from toll, and raised
the farm to 30. The first incorporation charter was granted
by Philip and Mary in 1554 under the title of bailiffs, aldermen,
chamberlains and citizens, but James I. in 1622 made the city
a separate county and granted a corporation of a mayor, 6
aldermen, and a common council consisting of one body of
24 citizens, including the mayor and aldermen, and another
body of 48, who elected the mayor from among the 24. By the
Municipal Reform Act of 1835 the government was again altered.
The burgesses returned two members to parliament from 1295
to 1885, when the number was reduced to one. As early as 1203
the men of the town paid loos, for licence to buy and sell cloth
as they had done in the' time of Henry III., and in 1590 the
weavers, walkers and clothiers received an incorporation charter,
but the trade had already begun to decline and by 1789 had
ceased to exist. Its place was taken by the manufacture of
porcelain, introduced in 1751 by Dr Wall, and by the increasing
manufacture of gloves, a trade in which is known to have been
carried on in the isth century.
See Victoria County History, Worcester; John Noake, Worcester
in Olden Times (1849) ; Valentine Green, The History and Antiquities
of the City and Suburbs of Worcester (1796).
WORCESTER, a city and the county-seat of Worcester
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 44 m. W. of Boston on
the Blackstone river, a branch of the Providence river. Pop.
(1900) 118,421 (37,652 foreign-born); (1905, state census) 128,135;
(1910) 145,986. Area, 39 sq. m. Worcester is served by the
Boston & Albany, the New York, New Haven & Hartford and
the Boston & Maine railways, and is connected with Springfield
and Boston by interurban electric lines. The park system of
the city comprises about twenty tracts with a total area of more
than i ico acres; among them are Elm Park (88 acres) in the W.
including Newton Hill (670 ft. above sea-level), and Green Hill
Park (500 acres) in the N.E. Other parks are Institute Park
(18 acres) and Boynton Park (113 acres) in the N.W. on Salisbury
Pond, given to the city by Stephen Salisbury; Dodge Park
(13 acres, N.); Burncoat Park (42 acres, N.E.); Chandler Hill
Park (80 acres, E.); Hadwen (50 acres), University (14 acres)
and Crompton Park (15-25 acres) in the S.W. and S.; and
Greenwood (12-65 acres), Beaver Brook (15-5 acres), Tatnuck
(2-94 acres), Kendrick (14-87 acres) and Vernon Hill (16-4 acres).
Two miles N.E. of the centre of the city lies lake Quinsigamond,
4 m. long, from which flows the river of the same name, a branch
of the Blackstone. On its shores is Lake Park (no acres).
Fronting the Common, a wooded square in the centre of the city,
is the City Hall, near which is a bronze statue, by D. C. French,
of G. F. Hoar. On the Common there is a monument, designed
by Randolph Rogers, to the soldiers and sailors of the Civil
War, and one to Colonel Timothy Bigelow (1739-1790), one of
Worcester's soldiers of the War of Independence. The E. side
of the Common was the site of an old burying ground, and the
W. side of the First Church, built in 1663. About 5 m. N. of the
Common is Lincoln Square, adjacent to which is the granite
Court House; in front of it is a statue of General Charles Devens
(1820-1891) by French. The old Salisbury mansion, dating
back to Colonial days, stands in this square. At Salisbury
Street and Park Avenue are the library and museum (1910)
of the American Antiquarian Society, established in 1812
by Isaiah Thomas, with a collection of interesting portraits, a
library of 99,000 vols. and many thousands of pamphlets, particu-
larly rich in Americana. The Art Museum was erected and
endowed (1899-1903) by Stephen Salisbury, and contains a
fine collection of casts, many valuable paintings, and the Ban-
croft Collection of Japanese art. The city has many fine
churches.
Worcester is an important educational centre. Clark
University was established here in 1889 by Jonas Gilman Clark
as a purely graduate institution. In 1902 Clark College was
opened for undergraduate work under the presidency of Carroll
D. Wright, with a separate endowment of $1,300,000. In 1910
it had 30 teachers and 177 students. The university in 1910 had
15 instructors, 103 students and a library of 50,000 volumes.
Under G. Stanley Hall, who was made president in 1888, the
university became well known for its work in child-psychology.
Worcester Polytechnic Institute (founded in 1865 by John
Boynton of Templeton, Massachusetts; opened in 1868) is one
of the best-equipped technical schools of college rank in the
country; in 1910 it had 49 instructors, 515 students and a
library of 12,700 vols.; the buildings are near Institute Park.
WORCESTERSHIRE
823
On Packachoag Hill or Mt. St James (690 ft.) is the Jesuit
college of the Holy Cross, with a preparatory school, founded in
i,s.(5 by Benedict J. Fenwick, bishop cf Boston, and chartered
in 1865; in 1910 it had 30 instructors and 450 students. There
is a State Normal School (1874), and connected with it a
kindergarten training school (1910).
The city library (175,000 vols.), founded in 1859, was one of
the first in the country to be open on Sunday. There are four
daily newspapers, one printed in French. From 1773 to 1848
was published here the weekly edition of the Worcester Spy,
established by Isaiah Thomas in 1770 in Boston as the Massa-
chusetts Spy and removed by him to Worcester at the outbreak
of the War of Independence; a daily edition wat published
from 1845 to 1904. Early in the I9th century the city was an
important publishing centre.
Worcester is one of the most important manufacturing
centres in New England: in 1905 the value of the factory
product was $52,144,965, ranking the city third among the
cities of the state. Manufacturers of hardware and tools at an
early date laid the foundation for the present steel and other
metal industries, in which 4 2 8 % of all the workers were employed
in 1905. A large proportion are employed in the wire and wire-
working industries, one plant, that of the American Steel and
Wire Company, employing about 5000 hands; in 1905 the total
value of wire-work was $1,726,088, and of foundry and machine
shop products $7,327,095.
The first grant of land in this part of the Blackstone Valley
was made in 1657, and the town, Quansigamond (or Quinsiga-
mond) Plantation, was laid out in October 1668. In 1675, on
the outbreak of King Philip's War, it was temporarily abandoned.
In 1684 it was settled again and its name was changed to Wor-
cester because several leaders in the settlement were natives of
Worcester, England. In 1713 the vicinity was opened up to
settlement, a tavern and a mill were constructed, and a turnpike
road was built to Boston. Worcester was incorporated as a town
in 1722. In 1755 a small colony of the exiled Acadians settled
here. At the outbreak of the War of Independence Worcester was
little more than a country market town. During Shays's Rebellion
it was taken by the rebels and the courts were closed. The
first real impetus to its growth came in 1835 with the construction
of the Boston & Worcester railway, and it received a city charter
in 1848. The strong anti-slavery sentiment of the city led in
1854 to a serious riot, owing to an apparent attempt to enforce
the Fugitive Slave Law. In Worcester, "or within a radius of
a dozen miles of it, were the homes of Elias Howe, inventor of
the sewing machine; Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton gin;
Erastus Bigelow (1814-1879), inventor of the carpet weaving
machine; Dr Russell L. Hawes, inventor of an envelope machine;
Thomas Blanchard (1788-1864), inventor of the machine for
turning irregular forms; Samuel Crompton (1753-1827) and
Lucius James Knowles (1819-1884), the perfectors of the modern
loom; and Draper Ruggles, Joel Nourse and J. C. Mason, per-
fectors of the modern plough and originators of many inventions
in agricultural machinery.
See F. E. Blake, Incidents of the First and Second Settlements of
Worcester (Worcester, 1884) ; Wm. Lincoln, History of Worcester to
1836 (Worcester, 1837); also same extended to 1862 by Charles
Mersey (Worcester, 1862); D. H. Hurd, History of Worcester County
(Worcester, 2 vols., 1889); I. N. Metcalf, Illustrated Business Guide
to City of Worcester (Worcester, 1880); C. F. Jewett, History of
Worcester County (2 vols., Worcester, 1879) ; the Collections and Pro-
ceedings (1881 sqq.) of the Worcester Society of Antiquity (instituted
in 1877).
WORCESTERSHIRE, a midland county of England, bounded
N. by Staffordshire, E. by Warwickshire, S. by Gloucestershire,
W. by Herefordshire, and N.W. by Shropshire. The area is
751 sq. m. It covers a portion of the rich valleys of the Severn
and Avon, with their tributary valleys and the hills separating
them. The Severn runs through the county from N. at Bewdley
to S. near Tewkesbury, traversing the Vale of Worcester. Follow-
ing this direction it receives from the E. the Stour at Stourport,
the Salwarpe above Worcester, and the Avon, whose point of
junction is just outside the county. The Avon /alley is known
in this county as the Vale of Evesham, and is devoted to orchards
and market gardening. The Cotteswold Hills rise sharply from
it on the S.E., of which Bredon Hill, within this county, is
a conspicuous spur. The Avon forms the county boundary
with Gloucestershire for a short distance above its mouth.
The Teme joins the Severn from the W. below Worcester, and
forms short stretches of the W. boundary. Salmon and lam-
preys are taken in the Severn; trout and grayling abound in
the Teme and its feeders. Besides the Cotteswolds, the most
important hills are the Malvern and the Lickey or Hagley
ranges. The Malverns rise abruptly from the flat Vale of
Worcester on the W. boundary, being partly in Herefordshire,
and reach a height of 1395 ft. in the Worcester Beacon, and
1114 in the Hereford Beacon. They are divided by the Teme
from a lower N. continuation, the Abberley Hills. The Lickey
Hills cross the N.E. corner of the county, rarely exceeding 1000
ft. Their N. part is called the Clent Hills. Partly within the
county are the sites of two ancient forests. That of Wyre,
bordering the Severn on the W. in the N. of Worcestershire and
in Shropshire, retains to some extent its ancient character;
but Malvern Chase, which clothed the slopes of the Malvern
Hills, is hardly recognizable.
Geology. Archean gneisses and schists (Malvernian) and volcanic
rocks (Uriconian) form the core of the Malvern Hills; being the most
durable rocks in the district, they form the highest ground. Similarly
tuffs and volcanic grits (Barnt Green rocks) crop out in the Lickey
Hills near Bromsgrove. They are succeeded by the Cambrian rocks
(Hollybush Sandstone and Malvern Shales), which are well developed
at the S. end of the Malvern Hills, where in places the Archean rocks
have been thrust over them. The Lickey Quartzite, probably of the
same age as the Hollybush Sandstone, is extensively quarried for
roadstone. Strata of Ordovician age being absent in Worcestershire,
the Silurian rocks rest unconformably on the earlier formations;
they include the Upper Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow series.
These dip steeply W. from the Malvern and Abberley axis and plunge
under the Old Red Sandstone ; some of the lower beds are represented
at the Lickey, while the Wenlock Limestone forms some sharp anti-
clines at Dudley. The Silurian strata are rich in marine fossils, and
the included limestones (Woolhope, Wenlock and Aymestry) are
all represented in the Malvern district. The Old Red Sandstone
succeeds the Silurian on the W. borders of the county. The Carboni-
ferous Limestone and Millstone Grit were not deposited, so that the
Coal Measures rest unconformably on the older rocks. These are
represented in the Wyre Forest coalfield near Bewdley and in the S.
end of the S. Staffordshire coalfield near Halespwen; they contain
rich seams of coal and ironstone and several intrusions of basalt
(dhustone, Rowley-rag). The so-called Permian red rocks are now
grouped with the Coal Measures; some intercalated breccias cap the
Clent Hills (1036 ft.). The Triassic red rocks unconformable to all
below cover the centre of the county, and on the W. are faulted
against the, older rocks of the Malverns; they include the Bunter
sandstones and pebble-beds, and the Keuper sandstones and marls,
the beds of rock-salt in the latter yielding brine-springs (Droitwich,
Stoke Prior). A narrow and seldom-exposed outcrop of Rhaetic
beds introduces the marine Liassic formation which occupies most
of the S.E. of the county; the Lower Lias consists of blue clays and
limestones; the latter are burnt for lime and yield abundant
ammonites. The sands and limestones of the Middle Lias and the
clays of the Upper. Lias are present in the lower slopes of Bredon Hill
and of the Cotteswolds, and are succeeded by the sands and oolitic
limestones of the Inferior Oolite. Glacial deposits-^-boulder-cIay,
isolated boulders, sand and gravel are met with in many parts
of the county, while later valley-gravels have yielded remains of
mammoth, rhinoceros, &c. Coal, ironstone, salt, limestone and road-
stone are the chief mineral products.
Climate and Agriculture. The climate is generally equable and
healthy, and is very favourable to the cultivation of fruit, vegetables
and hops, for which Worcestershire has long held a high reputation,
the red marls and the rich loams being good both for market gardens
and tillage. About five-sixths of the area of the county is under
cultivation, and of this about five-eighths is in permanent pasture.
Orchards are extensive, and there are large tracts of woodland.
Wheat and oats are the principal grain crops. Turnips are grown on
about one-third of the green crop acreage, and potatoes on about
one-fourth. There is a considerable acreage under beans. In the
neighbourhood of Worcester there are large nurseries.
Industries. In the N. Worcester includes a portion of the Black
Country, one of the most active industrial districts in England.
Dudley, Netherton and Brierley Hill, Stourbridge, Halesowen,
Oldbury and the S. and W. suburbs of Birmingham, have a vast
population engaged in iron-working in all its branches, from engineer-
ing works to nail-making, in the founding and conversion, galvaniz-
ing, finishing and extracting of metals, in chemical and glass works.
Worcester is famous for porcelain, Kidderminster for carpets and
824
WORCESTERSHIRE
Redditch for needles, fish-hooks, &c. Salt is produced from brine at
Droitwich and Stoke. The fire-clays and limestone of the N. unite
with the coal measures to form a basis of the industries in the Black
Country. Furniture, clothing and paper-making and leather-work-
ing are also important.
Communications. The Great Western railway serves Evesham,
Worcester, Droitwich and Kidderminster, with branches from
Worcester to Malvern and into Herefordshire, from Kidderminster
to Tenbury and the W., and from the same junction to Dudley
and Birmingham. The London & North-Western system touches
Dudley. The Midland company's line between Derby, Birmingham
and Bristol runs from N. to S. through the county, with a branch
diverging through Droitwich and Worcester, another serving
Malvern from Asnchurch, and an alternative route from Birmingham
to Ashchurch by Redditch and Evesham. The Severn is an im-
portant highway; the Avon, though locked up to Evesham, is little
used save by pleasure-boats. Canals follow the courses of the Stour
and the Salwarpe, and serve the towns of the Black Country.
Administration and Population. The area of the ancient
county is 480,560 acres, with a population in 1901 of 488,338.
The area of the administrative county is 480,059 acres. The
county is of very irregular shape, and has detached portions
enclaved in Herefordshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire and
Gloucestershire. It comprises five hundreds. The municipal
boroughs are Bewdley (2866), Droitwich (4201), Dudley (48,733),
Evesham (7101), Kidderminster (24,681) and Worcester (46,624).
Dudley and the city and county town of Worcester are county
boroughs. The urban districts are Bromsgrove (8418), King's
Norton and Northfield (57,122; forming a S. suburb of Birming-
ham), Lye and Wollescote (10,976; adjacent to Stourbridge),
Malvern (16,449), North Bromsgrove (5688), Oldbury (25,191),
Redditch (13,493), Stourbridge (16,302) and Stourport (4529)-
Halesowen (4057), Pershore (3348), Tenbury (2080) and Upton-
upon-Severn (2225) may be mentioned among other towns.
The county is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at
Worcester. It has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided
into 17 petty sessional divisions. Worcester and Dudley have
separate courts of quarter-sessions, and all the boroughs have
commissions of the peace. The total number of civil parishes
is 239. The ancient county, which is mostly in the diocese of
Worcester, with a few parishes in that of Hereford, contains
231 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part. The
county contains five parliamentary divisions West or Bewdley,
East, South or Evesham, Mid or Droitwich, and North or
Oldbury. The parliamentary boroughs of Kidderminster and
Worcester return one member each, and parts of the boroughs
of Dudley and Birmingham are included in the county.
History. The earliest English settlers in the district now known
as Worcestershire were a tribe of the Hwiccas of Gloucestershire,
who spread along the Severn and Avon valleys in the 6th cen-
tury. By 679 the Hwiccan kingdom was formed into a separate
diocese with its see at Worcester, and the Hwiccas had made
themselves masters of the modern county, with the exception
of the N.W. corner beyond the Abberley Hills. From this date
the town of Worcester became not only the religious centre of
the district, but the chief point of trading and military communi-
cation between England and Wales. A charter of the reign of
Alfred alludes to the erection of a " burh " at Worcester by
Edward and ^Ethelflead, and it was after the recovery of Mercia
from the Danes by Edward that the shire originated as an
administrative area. The first political event recorded by the
Saxon Chronicle in Worcestershire is the destruction of Worcester
by Hardicanute in 1041 in revenge for the murder of two of his
tax-gatherers by the citizens.
In no county has the monastic movement played a more
important part than in Worcestershire. Foundations existed
at Worcester, Evesham, Pershore and Fladbury in the 8th
century; at Great Malvern in the nth century, and in the I2th
and i3th centuries at Little Malvern, Westwood, Bordesley,
Whistones, Cookhill, Dudley, Halesowen and Astley. At the
time of the Domesday Survey more than half Worcestershire was
in the hands of the church. The church of Worcester held the
triple hundred of Oswaldslow, with such privileges as to exclude
the sheriff's jurisdiction entirely, the profits of all the local
courts accruing to the bishop, whose bailiffs in 1276 claimed
to hold his hundred outside Worcester, at Dryhurst, and at
Wimborntree. The two hundreds owned by the church of West-
minster, and that owned by Pershore, had in the i3th century
been combined to form the hundred of Pershore, while the
hundred of Evesham owned by Evesham Abbey had been con-
verted into Blakenhurst hundred; and the irregular boundaries
and outlying portions of these hundreds are explained by their
having been formed out of the scattered endowments of their
ecclesiastical owners. Of the remaining Domesday hundreds,
Came, Clent, Cresselaw and Esch had been combined to form the
hundred of Halfshire by the I3th century, while Doddingtree
remained unchanged. The shire-court was held at Worcester.
The vast possessions of the church prevented the growth of
a great territorial aristocracy in Worcestershire, and Dudley
Castle, which passed from William Fitz-Ansculf to the families
of Paynel and Someri, was the sole residence of a feudal baron.
The Domesday fief of Urse d'Abitot the sheriff, founder of
Worcester Castle, and of his brother Robert le Despenser passed
in the iath century to the Beauchamps, who owned Elmley
and Hanley Castles. The possessions of William Fitz Osbern
in Doddingtree hundred and the Teme valley fell to the crown
after his rebellion in 1074 and passed to the Mortimers. Hanley
Castle and Malvern Chase were granted by Henry III. to Gilbert
de Clare, with exemption from the sheriff's jurisdiction.
The early political history of Worcestershire centres round the
city of Worcester. In the Civil War of the 1 7th century Worcester-
shire was conspicuously loyal. On the retreat of Essex from
Worcester in 1642 the city was occupied by Sir William Russell
for the king, and only surrendered in 1646. In 1642 Prince
Rupert defeated the parliamentary troops near Powick. Sudeley
Castle surrendered in 1644, and Dudley and Hartlebury by
command of the king in 1646.
The Droitwich salt-industry was very important at the time of the
Domesday Survey, Bromsgrove alone sending 300 cartloads of wood
yearly to the salt-works. In the 1 3th and 1 4th centuries Bordesley
monastery and the abbeys of Evesham and Pershore exported wool
to the Florentine and Flemish markets, and in the i6th century the
Worcestershire clothing industry gave employment to 8000 people;
fruit-culture with the manufacture of cider and perry, nail-making
and glass-making also flourished at this period. The clothing in-
dustry declined in the I7th century, but the silk-manufacture re-
placed it at Kidderminster and Blockley. Coal and iron were mined
at Dudley in the I3th century.
As early as 1295 Worcestershire was represented by sixteen
members in parliament, returning two knights for the shire and two
burgesses each for the city of Worcester and the boroughs of Broms-
grove, Droitwich, Dudley, Evesham, Kidderminster and Pershore.
With the exception of Droitwich, however, which was represented
until 1311 and again recovered representation in 1554, the boroughs
ceased to make returns. Evesham was re-enfranchised in 1604, and
in 1606 Bewdley returned one_member. Under the Reform Act of
1832 the county returned four members in two divisions; Droitwich
lost one member; Dudley and Kidderminster were re-enfranchised,
returning one member each. In 1867 Evesham lost one member.
Antiquities. Remains of early camps are scarce, but there are
examples at Berrow Hill near the Teme, W. of Worcester, at
Round Hill by Spetchley, 3 m. E. of Worcester, and on the
Herefordshire Beacon. Roman remains have been discovered
on a few sites, as at Kempsey on the Severn, S. of Worcester,
at Ripple, in the S. near Upton, and at Droitwich. There are
remains of the great abbeys at Evesham and Pershore, and the
fine priory church at Malvern, besides the cathedral at Worcester.
There are further monastic remains at Halesowen and atBordesley
near Redditch, and there was a Benedictine priory at Astley,
3 m. S.W. of Stourport. There are fine churches in several of
the larger towns, as Bromsgrove. The village churches are
generally of mixed styles. Good Norman work remains in those
of Martley, 8 m. N.W. of Worcester, Astley, Rous Lench in the
Evesham district, Bredon near Pershore, and Bockleton in the
N.W. of the county; while the Early English churches of
Kempsey and Ripple are noteworthy. In domestic architecture,
the half-timbered style adds to the picturesqueness of many
streets in the towns and villages; and among country houses
this style is well exemplified in Birts Morton Court and Easting-
ton Hall, in the district S. of Malvern, in Elmley Lovett Manor
between Droitwich and Kidderminster, and in Pirton Court near
WORDSWORTH, C. WORDSWORTH, D.
825
Kempsey. Westwood Park is a mansion of the i6th and i7th
centuries, with a picturesque gatehouse of brick; the site was
formerly occupied by a Benedictine nunnery. Madresfield
Court, between Worcester and Malvern, embodies remains of
a fine Elizabethan moated mansion.
See Victoria County History, Worcestershire; T. R. Nash, Collec-
tions for the History of Worcestershire (2 vols., London, 1781-1799);
Sir Charles Hastings, Illustrations of the Natural History of Worcester-
shire (London, 1834) ; W. D. Curzon, Manufacturing Industries of
Worcestershire (Birmingham, 1883); W. S. Brassington, Historic
Worcestershire (Birmingham, 1893). See also publications of the
Worcester Historical Society.
WORDSWORTH, CHARLES (1806-1892), Scottish bishop,
son of Christopher Wordsworth, Master of Trinity, was born in
London on the 22nd of August 1806, and educated at Harrow
and Christ Church, Oxford. He was a brilliant classical scholar,
and a famous cricketer and athlete; he was in the Harrow
cricket eleven in the first regular matches with Eton (1822)
and Winchester (1825), and is credited with bringing about the
first Oxford and Cambridge match in 1827, and the first university
boat-race in 1828, in both of which he took part. He won the
Chancellor's Latin verse at Oxford in 1827, and the Latin essay
in 1831, and took a first-class in classics. From 1830 to 1833 he
had as pupils a number of men (including W. E. Gladstone and
H. E. Manning) who afterwards became famous. He then
travelled abroad during 1833-1834, and after a year's work as
tutor at Christ Church (1834-1835) was appointed second master
at Winchester. He had previously taken holy orders, though he
only became priest in 1840, and he had a strong religious influence
with the boys. In 1839 he brought out his Greek Grammar,
which had a great success. In 1846, however, he resigned;
and then accepted the wardenship of Trinity College, Glenalmond,
the new Scottish Episcopal public school and divinity college,
where he remained from 1847 to 1854, having great educational
success in all respects; though his views on Scottish Church
questions brought him into opposition at some important points
to W. E. Gladstone. In 1852 he was elected bishop of St Andrews,
Dunkeld and Dunblane, and was consecrated in Aberdeen early
next year. He was a strong supporter of the establishment,
but conciliatory towards the Free churches, and this brought
him into a good deal of controversy. He was a voluminous
writer, and one of the company of revisers of the New Testament
(1870-1881), among whom he displayed a conservative tendency.
He died at St Andrews on the 5th of December 1892. He was
twice married, first in 1835 to Charlotte Day (d. 1839), and
secondly in 1846 to Katherine Mary Barter (d. 1897). He had
thirteen children altogether.
See his Annals of my Early Life (1891), and Annals of My Life,
edited by W. Earl Hodgson (1893); also The Episcopate of Charles
Wordsworth, by his nephew John, bishop of Salisbury (1899).
WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER (1774-1846), English
divine and scholar, youngest brother of the poet William Words-
worth, was born on the 9th of June 1774, and was educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1798.
Twelve years later he received the degree of D.D. He took holy
orders, and obtained successive preferments through the patron-
age of Manners Sutton, bishop of Norwich, afterwards (1805)
archbishop of Canterbury, to whose son Charles (afterwards
Speaker of the House of Commons, and viscount Canterbury)
he had been tutor. He had in 1802 attracted attention by his
defence of Granville Sharp's then novel canon " on the uses of
the definitive article" in New Testament textual criticism. In
1810 he published an Ecclesiastical Biography in 6 volumes.
On the death of Bishop Mansel, in 1820, he was elected Master
of Trinity, and retained that position till 1841, when he resigned.
He is regarded as the father of the modern " classical tripos,"
since he had, as vice-chancellor, originated in 1821 a proposal for
a public examination in classics and divinity, which, though then
rejected, bore fruit in 1822. Otherwise his mastership was un-
distinguished, and he was not a popular head with the college.
He died on the 2nd of February 1846, at Buxted. In his Who
wrote Ikon BasUike? (1824), and in other writings, he advocated
the claims of Charles I. to its authorship; and in 1836 he
published, in 4 volumes, a work of Christian Institutes, selected
from English divines. He married in 1804 Miss Priscilla Lloyd
(d. 1815), a sister of Charles Lamb's friend Charles Lloyd; and
he had three sons, John W. (1805-1839), Charles (q.v.), and
Christopher (q.v.); the two latter both became bishops, and
John, who became a fellow and classical lecturer at Trinity
College, Cambridge, was an industrious and erudite scholar.
WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER (1807-1885), English bishop
and man of letters, youngest son of Christopher Wordsworth,
Master of Trinity, was born in London on the 3oth of October
1807, and was educated at Winchester and Trinity, Cam-
bridge. He, like his brother Charles, was distinguished as an
athlete as well as for scholarship. He became senior classic,
and was elected a fellow and tutor of Trinity in 1830; shortly
afterwards he took holy orders. He went for a tour in Greece
in 1832-1833, and published various works on its topography
and archaeology, the most famous of which is " Wordsworth's "
Greece (1839). In 1836 he became Public Orator at Cambridge,
and in the same year was appointed headmaster of Harrow,
a post he resigned in 1844. He then became a canon of West-
minster, and from 1850 to 1870 he held a country living in
Berkshire. In 1865 he was made archdeacon of Westminster,
and in 1869 bishop of Lincoln. He died on the 2oth of March
1885. He was a man of fine character, with a high ideal of
ecclesiastical duty, and he spent his money generously on church
objects. As a scholar he is best known for his edition of the
Greek New Testament (1856-1860), and the Old Testament
(1864-1870), with commentaries; but his writings were many
in number, and included a volume of devotional verse, The
Holy Year (1862), Church History up to A.D. 451 (1881-1883),
and Memoirs of his uncle the poet (1851), to whom he was literary
executor. His Inscripliones Pompeianae (1837) was an important
contribution to epigraphy. He married in 1838 Susanna Hartley
Frere (d. 1884), and had a family of seven; the eldest son was
John (b. 1843), bishop of Salisbury (1885), and author of Frag-
ments of Early Latin (1874); the eldest daughter, Elizabeth
(b. 1840), was the first principal (1879) of Lady Margaret Hall,
Oxford.
His Life, by J. H.'Overton and Elizabeth Wordsworth, was pub-
lished in 1888.
WORDSWORTH, DOROTHY (1771-1855), English writer
and diarist, was the third child and only daughter of John
Wordsworth of Cockermouth and his wife, Anne Cookson-
Crackanthorpe. The poet William Wordsworth was her
brother and a year her senior. On the death of her father in
1783, Dorothy found a home at Penrith, in the house of her
maternal grandfather, and afterwards for a time with a maiden
lady at Halifax. In 1787, on the death of the elder William
Cookson, she was adopted by her uncle, and lived in his Norfolk
parish of Fomcett. She and her brother William, who dedicated
to his sister the Evening Walk of 1792, were early drawn to one
another, and in 1794 they visited the Lakes together. They
determined that it would be best to combine their small capitals,
and that Dorothy should keep house for the poet. From this
time forth her life ran on lines closely parallel to those of her
great brother, whose companion she continued to be till his death.
It is thought that they made the acquaintance of Coleridge in
1797.
From the autumn of 1795 to July 1797 William and Dorothy
Wordsworth took up their abode at Racedown, in Dorsetshire.
At the latter date they moved to a large manor-house, Alfoxden,
in the N. slope of the Quantock hills, in W. Somerset, S. T. Cole-
ridge about the same time settling near by in the town of Nether
Stowey. On the 2oth of January 1798 Dorothy Wordsworth
began her invaluable Journal, used by successive biographers of
her brother, but first printed in its quasi-entirety by Professor
W. Knight in 1897. The Wordsworths, Coleridge, and Chester
left England for Germany on the I4th of September 1798; and
of this journey also Dorothy Wordsworth preserved an account,
portions of which were published in 1897. On the I4th of May
1800 she started another Journal at Grasmere, which she kept
very fully until the 3151 of December of the same year. She
8a6
WORDSWORTH, W.
resumed it on the ist of January 1802 for another twelve months,
closing on the nth of January 1803. These were printed first
in 1889. She composed Recollections of a Tour in Scotland, in
1803, with her brother and Coleridge; this was first published
in 1874. Her next contribution to the family history was her
Journal of a Mountain Ramble, hi November 1805, an account of
a walking tour hi the Lake district with her brother. In July
1820 the Wordsworths made a tour on the continent of Europe,
of which Dorothy preserved a very careful record, portions of
which were given to the world in 1884, the writer having refused
to publish it in 1824 on the ground that her " object was riot to
make a book, but to leave to tier niece a neatly-penned memorial
of those few interesting months of our lives." Meanwhile,
without her brother, but in the company of Joanna Hutchinson,
Dorothy Wordsworth had travelled over Scotland in 1822,
and had composed a Journal of that tour. Other MSS. exist
and have been examined carefully by the editors and biographers
of the poets, but the records which we have mentioned and her
letters form the principal literary relics of Dorothy Wordsworth.
In 1829 she was attacked by very serious illness, and was never
again in good health. After 1836 she could not be considered
to be in possession of her mental faculties, and became a pathetic
member of the interesting household at Grasmere. She outlived
the poet, however, by several years, dying at Grasmere on the
25th of January 1855.
It would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of Dorothy
Wordsworth's companionship to her illustrious brother. He
has left numerous tributes to it, and to the sympathetic
originality of her perceptions. " She," he said,
" gave me eyes, she gave me ears;
And humble cares, and delicate fears ;
A heart the fountain of sweet tears;
And love, and thought, and joy."
The value of the records preserved by Dorothy Wordsworth,
especially in earlier years, is hardly to be over-estimated by those
who desire to form an exact impression of the revival of English
poetry. When Wordsworth and Coleridge refashioned imagina-
tive literature at the close of the i8th century, they were daily
and hourly accompanied by a feminine presence exquisitely
attuned to sympathize with their efforts, and by an intelligence
which was able and anxious to move in step with theirs.
" S. T. C. and my beloved sister," William Wordsworth wrote
in 1832, " are the two beings to whom my intellect is most
indebted." In her pages we can put our finger on the very pulse
of the machine; we are present while the New Poetry is evolved,
and the sensitive descriptions in her prose lack nothing but the
accomplishment of verse. Moreover, it is certain that the sharp-
ness and fineness of Dorothy's observation, " the shooting lights
of her wild eyes," actually afforded material to the poets.
Coleridge, for instance, when he wrote his famous lines about
" The one red leaf, the last of its clan," used almost the very
words in which, on the 7th of March 1798, Dorothy Wordsworth
had recorded " One only leaf upon the top of a tree . . . danced
round and round like a rag blown by the wind."
It is not merely by the biographical value of her notes that Dorothy
Wordsworth lives. She claims an independent place in the history
of English prose as one of the very earliest writers who noted, in
language delicately chosen, and with no other object than to pre-
serve their fugitive beauty, the little picturesque phenomena of
homely country life. When we speak with very high praise of her
art in this direction, it is only fair to add that it is called forth almost
entirely by what she wrote between 1798 and 1803, for a decline
similar to that which fell upon her brother's poetry early invaded
her prose; and her later journals, like her Letters, are less interest-
ing because less inspired. A Life by E. Lee was published in 1886;
but it is only since 1897, when Professor Knight collected and
edited her scattered MSS., that Dorothy Wordsworth has taken her
independent place in literary history> (E. G.)
WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM (1770-1850), English poet,
was born at Cockermouth, on the Derwent, in Cumberland,
on the 7th of April 1770. He was the son of John Wordsworth
(1741-1783), an attorney, law agent to the first earl of Lonsdale,
a prosperous man in his profession, descended from an old
Yorkshire family of landed gentry. On the mother's side also
Wordsworth was connected with the middle territorial class:
his mother, Anne Cookson, was the daughter of a well-to-do
mercer in Penrith, but her mother was Dorothy Crackanthorpe,
whose ancestors had been lords of the manor of Newbiggin, near
Penrith, from the time of Edward III. He thus came of " gentle "
kin, and was proud of it. The country squires and farmers
whose blood flowed in Wordsworth's veins were not far enough
above local life to be out of sympathy with it, and the
poet's interest in the common scenes and common folk of the
North country hills and dales had a traceable hereditary bias.
William Wordsworth was one of a family of five, the others being
Richard (1768-1816), Dorothy (q.v.), John (1772-1805), and
Christopher (q.v.).
Though his parents were of sturdy stock, both died prematurely,
his mother/when he was eight years old, his father when he was
thirteen. /At the age of eight Wordsworth was sent to school
at Hawkshead, in the Esthwaite valley in Lancashire. His
father died while he was there, and at the age of seventeen he
was sent to St John's College, Cambridge. He did not distin-
guish himself in the studies of the university, and for some
time after taking his degree of B.A., in January 1791, he showed
what seemed to his relatives a most perverse reluctance to adopt
any regular profession. His mother had noted his " stiff, moody
and violent temper " in childhood, and it seemed as if this family
judgment was to be confirmed in his manhood. After taking
his degree, he was pressed to take holy orders, but would not;
he had no taste for the law; he idled a few months aimlessly
in London, a few months more with a Welsh college friend,
with whom he had made a pedestrian tour in France and Switzer-
land during his last Cambridge vacation; then in the November
of 1791 he crossed to France, ostensibly to learn the language,
made the acquaintance of revolutionaries, sympathized with
them vehemently, and was within an ace of throwing in his lot
with the Girondins. When it came to this, his relatives cut off
his supplies, and he was obliged to return to London towards
the close of 1792. But still he resisted all pressure to enter
any of the regular professions, published his poems An Evening
Walk and Descriptive Sketches in 1793, and in 1794, still moving
about to all appearance in stubborn aimlessness among his friends
and relatives, had no more rational purpose of livelihood than
drawing up the prospectus of a periodical of strictly republican
principles to be called " The Philanthropist."
But all the time from his boyhood upwards a great purpose
had been growing and maturing in his mind. The Prelude
expounds in lofty impassioned strain how his sensibility for
nature was " augmented and sustained," and how it never,
except for a brief interval, ceased to be " creative " in the special
sense of his subsequent theory. But it is with his feelings to-
wards nature that The Prelude mainly deals; it says little
regarding the history of his ambition to express those feelings in
verse. It is the autobiography, not of the poet of nature, but
of the worshipper and priest. The salient incidents in the history
of the poet he communicated in prose notes and in familiar
discourses. Commenting on the couplet in the Evening Walk
" And, fronting the bright west, yon oak entwines
Its darkening boughs and leaves in stronger lines "
he said:
" This is feebly and imperfectly exprest; but I recollect distinctly
the very spot where this first struck me. It was on the way between
Hawkshead and Ambleside, and gave me extreme pleasure. The
moment was important in my poetical history; f<jr I date from it
my consciousness of the infinite variety of natural appearances
which had been unnoticed by the poets of any age or country, so
far as I was acquainted with them; and I made a resolution to
supply in some degree the deficiency. I could not at that time have
been above fourteen years of age."
About the same time he wrote, as a school task at Hawkshead,
verses that show considerable acquaintance with the poets of
his own country at least, as well as some previous practice in
the art of verse-making. 1 The fragment that stands at the
1 Memoirs of William. Wordsworth, by Canon Wordsworth, vol. i.
pp. 10, II. According to his own statement in the memoranda
dictated to his biographer, it was the success of this exercise that
" put it into his head to compose verses from the impulse of his own
\
WORDSWORTH, W.
827
beginning of his collected works, recording a resolution to end
his life among his native hills, was the conclusion of a long poem
written while he was still at school. And, undistinguished as
he was at Cambridge in the contest for academic honours, the
Evening Walk, his first publication, was written during his
vacations. 1 He published it in 1793, to show, as he said, that
he could do something, although he had not distinguished himself
in university work. There are touches here and there of the
bent of imagination that became dominant in him soon after-
wards, notably in the moral aspiration that accompanies his
Remembrance of Collins on the Thames:
" O glide, fair stream! for ever so
Thy quiet soul on all bestowing.
Till all our minds for ever flow
As thy deep waters now are flowing."
But in the main this first publication represents the poet in the
stage described in the twelfth book of The Prelude:
" Bent overmuch on superficial things,
Pampering myself with meagre novelties
Of colour and proportion ; to the moods
Of time and season, to the moral power,
The affections, and the spirit of the place
Insensible."
But, though he had not yet found his distinctive aim as a poet,
he was inwardly bent upon poetry as " his office upon earth."
In this determinatioa he was strengthened by his sister
Dorothy (?..), who with rare devotion consecrated her life
henceforward to his service. A timely legacy enabled them to
carry their purpose into effect. A friend of his, whom he had
nursed in a last illness, Raisley Calvert, son of the steward of
the duke of Norfolk, who had large estates in Cumberland, died
early in 1795, leaving him a legacy of 900. It may be well to
notice how opportunely, as De Quincey half-ruefully remarked,
money always fell in to Wordsworth, enabling him to pursue
his poetic career without distraction. Calvert's bequest came to
him when he was on the point ofconcluding an engagement
as a journalist in London. On it and other small resources he
and his sister, thanks to her frugal management, contrived to
live for nearly eight years. By the end of that time Lord
Lonsdale, who owed Wordsworth's father a large sum for pro-
fessional services, and had steadily refused to pay it, died, and
his successor paid the debt with interest. His wife, Mary
Hutchinson, whom he married on the 4th of October 1802, brought
him some fortune; and in 1813, when in spite of his plain living
his family began to press upon his income, he was appointed
stamp-distributor for Westmorland, with an income of 500,
afterwards nearly doubled by the increase of his district. In
1842, when he resigned his stamp-distributorship, Sir Robert
Peel gave him a Civil List pension of 300.
To return, however, 'to the course of his life from the time
when he resolved to labour with all his powers in the office of
poet. The first two years, during which he lived with his self-
sacrificing sister at Racedown, in Dorset, were spent in half-
hearted and very imperfectly successful experiments, satires
in imitation of Juvenal, the tragedy of The Borderers? and a poem
in the Spenserian stanza, now entitled Guilt and Sorrow. How
much longer this time of self-distrustful endeavour might have
continued is a subject for curious speculation; an end was put
to it by a fortunate incident, a visit from Coleridge, who had
read his first publication, and seen in it, what none of the public
critics had discerned, the advent of " an original poetic genius."
mind." The resolution to supply the deficiencies of poetry in the
exact description of natural appearances was probably formed while
he was in this state of boyish ecstasy at the accidental revelation of
his own powers. The date of his beginnings as a poet is confirmed by
the lines in The Idiot Boy, written in 1798
" I to the Muses have been bound
These fourteen years by strong indentures."
1 In The Prelude, book iv., he speaks of himself during his first
vacation as " harassed with the toil of verse, much pains and little
progress."
'Not published till 1842. For the history of this tragedy see
Memoirs, vol. i. p. 113; for a sound, if severe, criticism of it, A. C.
Swinburne's Miscellanies, p. 118. And yet it was of the blank verse
of The Borderers that Coleridge spoke when he wrote to Cottle that
" he felt a little man by the side of his friend."
Stubborn and independent as Wordsworth was, he needed some
friendly voice from the outer world to give him confidence in
himself. Coleridge rendered him this indispensable service.
He had begun to seek his themes in
" Sorrow, that is not sorrow, but delight ;
And miserable love, that is not pain
To hear of, for the glory that redounds
Therefrom to human kind, and what we are."
He read to his visitor one of these experiments, the story of the
ruined cottage, afterwards introduced into the first book of
The Excursion? Coleridge, who had already seen original poetic
genius in the poems published before, was enthusiastic in his
praise of them as having " a character, by books not hitherto
reflected."
June 1797 was the date of this memorable visit. So pleasant
was the companionship on both sides that, when Coleridge returned
to Nether Stowey, in Somerset, Wordsworth at his instance
changed his quarters to Alfoxden, within a mile and a half of
Coleridge's temporary residence, and the two poets lived in
almost daily intercourse for the next twelve months. During
that period Wordsworth's powers rapidly expanded and matured;
ideas that had been gathering in his mind for years, and lying
there in dim confusion, felt the stir of a new life, and ranged
themselves in clearer shapes under the fresh quickening breath
of Coleridge's swift and discursive dialectic.
The Lyrical Ballads were the poetic fruits of their companion-
ship. Out of their frequent discussions of the relative value of
common life and supernatural incidents as themes for imaginative
treatment grew the idea of writing a volume together, composed
of poems of the two kinds. Coleridge was to take the super-
natural; and, as his industry was not equal to his friend's, this
kind was represented by the Ancient Mariner alone. Among
Wordsworth's contributions were The Female Vagrant, We are
Seven, Complaint of a. Forsaken Indian Woman, The Last of
the Flock, The Idiot Boy, The Mad Mother (" Her eyes are wild "),
The Thorn, Goody Blake and Harry GUI, The Reverie of Poor
Susan, Simon Lee, Expostulation and Reply, The Tables Turned,
Lines left upon a Yew-tree Seat, An Old Man Travelling (" Animal
Tranquillity and Decay "), Lines above Tintern Abbey. The
volume was published by Cottle of Bristol in September 1798.
It is necessary to enumerate the contents of this volume in
fairness to the contemporaries of Wordsworth, for their cold
or scoffing reception of his first distinctive work. Those Words-
worthians who give up The Idiot Boy* Goody Blake and The
Thorn as mistaken experiments have no right to triumph over
the first derisive critics of the Lyrical Ballads, or to wonder at
the dullness that failed to see at once in this humble issue from
an obscure provincial press the advent of a great master in
literature. It is true that Tintern Abbey was in the volume,
and that all the highest qualities of Wordsworth's imagination
and of his verse could be illustrated from the lyrical ballads
proper in this first publication; but clear vision is easier for
us than it was when the revelation was fragmentary and
incomplete.
Although Wordsworth was not received at first with the
respect to which he was entitled, his power was not entirely
without recognition. There is a curious commercial evidence
of this, which ought to be noted, because a perversion of the
fact is sometimes used to exaggerate the supposed neglect of
Wordsworth at the outset of his career. When the Longmans
1 The version read to Coleridge, however, must have been in Spen-
serian stanzas, if Coleridge was right in his recollection that it was in
the same metre with The Female Vagrant, the original title of Guilt
and Sorrow.
4 The defect of The Idiot Boy is really rhetorical, rather than poetic.
Wordsworth himself said that " he never wrote anything with so much
glee," and, once the source of his glee is felt in the nobly affectionate
relations between the two half-witted irrational old women and the
glorious imbecile, the work is seen to be executed with a harmony
that should satisfy the most exacting criticism. Poetically, there-
fore, the poem is a success. But rhetorically this particular attempt
to " breathe grandeur upon the very humblest face of human life "
must be pronounced a failure, inasmuch as the writer did not
use sufficiently forcible means to disabuse his readers of vulgar
prepossessions.
828
WORDSWORTH, W.
took over Cottle's publishing business in 1799, the value of the
copyright of the Lyrical Ballads, for which Cottle had paid
thirty guineas, was assessed at nil. Cottle therefore begged
that it might be excluded altogether from the bargain, and
presented it to the authors. But in 1800, when the first edition
was exhausted, the Longmans offered Wordsworth 100 for two
issues of a new edition with an additional volume and an explana-
tory preface. The sum was small compared with what Scott and
Byron soon afterwards received, but it shows that the public
neglect was not quite so complete as is sometimes represented.
Another edition was called for in 1802, and a fourth in 1805.
The new volume in the 1800 edition was made up of poems
composed during his residence at Goslar in Germany (where he
went with Coleridge) in the winter of 1798-1799, and after his
settlement at Grasmere in December 1799. It contained a
large portion of poems now universally accepted: Ruth, Nutting,
Three Years She Grew, A Poet's Epitaph, Hartleap Well, Lucy
Gray, The Brothers, Michael, The Old Cumberland Beggar, Poems
on the Naming of Places. But it contained also the famous
Preface, in which he infuriated critics by presuming to defend his
eccentricities in an elaborate theory of poetry and poetic diction.
This document (and let it be noted that all Wordsworth's
Prefaces are of the utmost interest in historical literary criticism)
is constantly referred to as a sort of revolutionary proclamation
against the established taste of the i8th century. For one who
has read Wordsworth's original, hundreds have read Coleridge's
brilliant criticism, and the fixed conception of the doctrines
put forth by Wordsworth is taken from that. 1 It is desirable,
therefore, considering the celebrity of the affair, that Words-
worth's own position should be made clear. Coleridge's criticism
of his friend's theory proceeded avowedly " on the assumption
that his words had been rightly interpreted, as purporting that
the proper diction for poetry in general consists altogether in
a language taken, with due exceptions, from the mouths of men
in real life, a language which actually constitutes the natural
conversation of men under the influence of natural feelings."
Coleridge assumed further that, when Wordsworth spoke of
there being " no essential difference between the language of
prose and metrical composition," he meant by language not the
mere words but the style, the structure and the order of the
sentences; on this assumption he argued as if Wordsworth
had held that the metrical order should always be the same
as the prose order. Given these assumptions, which formed
the popular interpretation of the theory by its opponents, it
was easy to demonstrate its absurdity, and Coleridge is very
generally supposed to have given Wordsworth's theory in its
bare and naked extravagance the coup de grdce. But the truth
is that neither of the two assumptions is warranted; both were
expressly disclaimed by Wordsworth in the Preface itself. There
is not a single qualification introduced by Coleridge that was not
made by Wordsworth himself in the original statement. 2 In
the first place, it was not put forward as a theory of poetry in
general, though from the vigour with which he carried the war
into the enemy's country it was naturally enough for polemic
purposes taken as such; it was a statement and defence of the
principles on which his own poems of humbler life were composed.
Wordsworth also assailed the public taste as " depraved," first
1 Sir Henry Taylor, one of the most acute and judicious of Words-
worth's champions, came to this conclusion in 1834.
2 Although Coleridge makes the qualifications more prominent than
they were in the original statement, the two theories are at bottom
so closely the same that one is sometimes inclined to suspect that
parts, at least, of the original emanated from the fertile mind of
Coleridge himself. The two poets certainly discussed the subject
together in Somerset when the first ballads were written, and
Coleridge was at Grasmere when the Preface was prepared in 1800.
The diction of the Preface is curiously Hartleian, and, when they first
met, Coleridge was a devoted disciple of Hartley, naming his first
son after the philosopher, while Wordsworth detested analytic
psychology. If Coleridge did contribute to the original theory in
1798 or 1800, he was likely enough to have forgotten the fact by 1814.
At any rate, he evidently wrote his criticism without making a close
study of the Preface, and what he did in effect was to restate the
original theory against popular misconceptions of it.
and mainly in so far as it was adverse to simple incidents simply
treated, being accustomed to " gross and violent stimulants,"
" craving after extraordinary incident," possessed with a
" degrading thirst after outrageous stimulation," " frantic
novels, sickly and stupid German tragedies, and deluges of idle
and extravagant stories in verse." This, and not adherence
to the classical rule of Pope, which had really suffered deposition
a good half century before, was the first count in Wordsworth's '
defensive indictment of the taste of his age. As regards the
" poetic diction," the liking for which was the second count in
his indictment of the public taste, it is most explicitly clear that,
when he said that there was no essential difference between the
language of poetry and the language of prose, he meant words,
plain and figurative, and not structure and order, or, as Coleridge
otherwise puts it, the " ordonnance " of composition. Coleridge
says that if he meant this he was only uttering a truism, which
nobody who knew Wordsworth would suspect him of doing;
but, strange to say, it is as a truism, nominally acknowledged
by everybody, that Wordsworth does advance his doctrine on
this point. Only he adds " if in what I am about to say it
shall appear to some that my labour is unnecessary, and that
I am like a man fighting a battle without enemies, such persons
may be reminded that, whatever be the language outwardly
holden by men, a practical faith in the opinions which I am
wishing to establish is almost unknown."
What he wished to establish was the simple truth that what is
false, unreal, affected, bombastic or nonsensical in prose is
not less so in verse. The form in which he expresses the theory
was conditioned by the circumstances of the polemic, and
readers were put on a false scent by his purely incidental and
collateral and very much overstrained defence of the language
of rustics, as being less conventional and more permanent,
and therefore better fitted to afford materials for the poet's
selection. But this was a side issue, a paradoxical retort on
his critics, seized upon by them in turn and made prominent
as a matter for easy ridicule; all that he says on this head
might be cut out of the Preface without affecting in the least
his main thesis. The drift of this is fairly apparent all through,
but stands out in unmistakable clearness in his criticism of the
passages from Johnson and Cowper:
" But the sound of the church-going bell
These valleys and rocks never heard,
Ne'er sighed at the sound of a knell
Or smiled when a Sabbath appeared."
The epithet " church-going " offends him as a puritan in
grammar; whether his objection is well founded or ill founded,
it applies equally to prose and verse. To represent the valleys
and rocks as sighing and smiling in the circumstances would
appear feeble and absurd in prose composition, and is not less
so in metrical composition; " the occasion does not justify
such violent expressions." These are examples of all that
Wordsworth meant by saying that " there is no essential differ-
ence between the language of prose and metrical composition."
So far is Wordsworth from contending that the metrical order
should always be the same as the prose order, that part of the
Preface is devoted to a subtle analysis of the peculiar effect of
metrical arrangement. What he objects to is not departure from
the structure of prose, but the assumption, which seemed to him
to underlie the criticisms of his ballads, that a writer of verse is
not a poet unless he uses artificially ornamental language, not
justified by the strength of the emotion expressed. The furthest
that he went in defence of prose structure in poetry was to main-
tain that, if the words in a verse happened to be in the order of
prose, it did not follow that they were prosaic in the sense of
being unpoetic a side-stroke at critics who complained of his
prosaisms for no better reason than that the words stood in
the order of prose composition. Wordsworth was far from
repudiating elevation of style in poetry. " If," he said, " the
poet's subject be judiciously chosen, it will naturally, and upon
fit occasion, lead him to passions the language of which, if
selected truly and judiciously, must necessarily be dignified
and variegated, and alive with metaphors and figures."
WORDSWORTH, W.
829
Such was Wordsworth's theory of poetic diction.. Nothing
could be more grossly mistaken than the notion that the greater
part of Wordsworth's poetry was composed in defiance of his
own theory, and that he succeeded best when he set his own
theory most at defiance. The misconception is traceable to
the authority of Coleridge. His just, sympathetic and penetrat-
ing criticism on Wordsworth's work as a poet did immense
service in securing for him a wider recognition; but his proved
friendship and brilliant style have done sad injustice to the poet
as a theorist. It was natural to assume that Coleridge, if any-
body, must have known what his friend's theory was; and it
was natural also that readers under the charm of his lucid and
melodious prose should gladly grant themselves a dispensation
from the trouble of verifying his facts in the harsh and cumbrous
exposition of the theorist himself. 1
The question of diction made most noise, but it was far from
being the most important point of poetic doctrine set forth in
the Preface. If in this he merely enunciated a truism, generally
admitted in words but too generally ignored in practice, there
was real novelty in his plea for humble subjects, and in his theory
of poetic composition. Wordsworth's remarks on poetry in
general, on the supreme function of the imagination in dignifying
humble and commonplace incidents, and on the need of active
exercise of imagination in the reader as well as in the poet, are
immeasurably more important than his theory of poetic diction.
Such sayings as that poetry " takes its origin from emotion
recollected in tranquillity," or that it is the business of a poet
to trace " how men associate ideas in a state of excitement,"
are significant of Wordsworth's endeavour to lay the foundations
of his art in an independent study of the feelings and faculties
of men in real b'fe, unbiased as far as possible by poetic custom
and convention. This does not mean that the new poet was to
turn his back on his predecessors and never look behind him to
what they had done. Wordsworth was guilty of no such extra-
vagance. He was from boyhood upwards a diligent student of
poetry, and was not insensible to his obligations to the past.
His purpose was only to use real life as a touchstone of poetic
substance. The poet, in Wordsworth's conception, is distinctively
a man in whom the beneficent energy of imagination, operative
as a blind instinct more or less in all men, is stronger than in
others, and is Voluntarily and rationally exercised for the benefit
of all in its proper work of increase and consolation. Not every
image that the excited mind conjures up in real life is necessarily
poetical. It is the business of the poet to select and modify
for his special purpose of producing immediate pleasure.
There were several respects in which the formal recognition
of such elementary, principles of poetic evolution powerfully
affected Wordsworth's practice. One of these may be indicated
by saying that he endeavoured always to work out an emotional
motive from within. Instead of choosing a striking theme
and working at it like a decorative painter, embellishing, enrich-
ing, dressing to advantage, standing back from it and studying
effects, his plan was to take incidents that had set his own
imagination spontaneously to work, and to study and reproduce
with artistic judgment the modification of the initial feeling,
the emotional motive, within himself. To this method he owed
much of his strength and also much of his unpopularity. By
keeping his eye on the object, as spontaneously modified by his
own imaginative energy, he was able to give full and undis-
tracted scope to all his powers in poetic coinage of the wealth
that his imagination brought. On the other hand, readers
1 Wordsworth was not an adroit expositor in prose, and he did
not make his qualifications sufficiently prominent, but his theory of
diction taken with those qualifications left him free without in-
consistency to use any language that was not contrary to " true taste
and feeling." He acknowledged that he might occasionally have
substituted " particular for general associations," and that thus
language charged with poetic feeling to himself might appear trivial
and ridiculous to others, as in The Idiot Boy and Gooay Blake', he
even went so far as to withdraw Alice Fell, first published in 1807,
from several subsequent editions; but he argued that it was danger-
pus for a poet to make alterations on the simple authority of a few
individuals or even classes of men, because if he did not follow his own
judgment and feelings his mind would infallibly be debilitated.
whose nature or education was different from his own, were
repelled or left cold and indifferent, or obliged to make the sym-
pathetic effort to see with his eyes, which he refused to make in
order that he might see with theirs.
" He is retired as noontide dew
Or fountain in a noon-day grove,
And you must love him ere to you
He will seem worthy of your love."
From this habit of taking the processes of his own mind as
the standard of the way in which " men associate ideas in a state
of excitement," and language familiar to himself as the standard
of the language of " real men," arises a superficial anomaly in
Wordsworth's poetry, an apparent contradiction between his
practice and his theory. Hisown imagination, judged by ordinary
standards, was easily excited by emotional motives that have
little force with ordinary men. Most of his poems start from
humbler, slighter, less generally striking themes than those of
any other poet of high rank. But his poetry is not correspond-
ingly simple. On the contrary, much of it, much of the best of
it for example, the Ode to Duty, and that on the Intimations
of Immortality is intricate, elaborate and abstruse. The
emotional motive is simple; the passion has almost always a
simple origin, and often is of no great intensity; but the imagina-
tive structure is generally elaborate, and, when the poet is at
his best, supremely splendid and gorgeous. No poet has built
such magnificent palaces of rare material for the ordinary
everyday homely human affections. It is because he has in-
vested our ordinary everyday principles of conduct, which are
so apt to become threadbare, with such imperishable robes of
finest texture and richest design that Wordsworth holds so high
a place among the great moralists in verse.
His practice was influenced also, and not always for good,
by his theory that poetry " takes its origin from emotion
recollected in tranquillity." This was a somewhat doubtful
corollary from his general theory of poetic evolution. A poem
is complete in itself; there must be no sting in it to disturb
the reader's content with the whole; through whatever agita-
tions it progresses, to whatever elevations it soars, to this end
it must come, otherwise it is imperfect as a poem. Now the
imagination in ordinary men, though the process is not expressed
in verse, and the poet's special art has thus no share in producing
the effect, reaches the poetic end when it has so transfigured
a disturbing experience, whether of joy or grief, that this rests
tranquilly in the memory, can be recalled without disquietude,
and dwelt upon with some mode and degree of pleasure, more
or less keen, more or less pure or mixed with pain. True to his
idea of imitating real life, Wordsworth made it a rule for himself
not to write on any theme till his imagination had operated
upon it for some time involuntarily; it was not in his view ripe
for poetic treatment till this transforming agency had subdued
the original emotion to a state of tranquillity. 1 Out of this
tranquillity arises the favourable moment for poetic composition,
some day when, as he contemplates the subject, the tranquillity
disappears, an emotion kindred to the original emotion is re-
instated, and the poet retraces and supplements with all his
art the previous involuntary and perhaps unconscious imagina-
tive chemistry.
When we study the moments that Wordsworth found favour-
able for successful composition, a very curious law reveals itself,
somewhat at variance with the common conception of him as
a poet who derived all his strength from solitary communion
with nature. We find that the recluse's best poems were written
under the excitement of some break in the monotony of his
quiet life change of scene, change of companionship, change
of occupation. The law holds from the beginning to the end
of his poetic career. An immense stimulus was given to his
powers by his first contact with Coleridge after two years of
solitary and abortive effort. Above Tintern Abbey was composed
1 The Prelude contains a record of his practice, after the opening
lines of the first book
" Thus far, O friend! did I, not used to make
A present joy the matter of a song,
Pour forth, "&c.
8 3 o
WORDSWORTH, W.
during a four days' ramble with his sister; he began it on
leaving Tintern, and concluded it as he was entering Bristol.
His residence amidst strange scenes and " unknown men " at
Goslar was particularly fruitful: She Dwelt among the Untrodden
Ways, Ruth, Nutting, There was a Boy, Wisdom and Spirit of
the Universe, all belong to those few months of unfamib'ar en-
vironment. The breeze that met him as he issued from the city
gates on his homeward journey brought him the first thought of
The Prelude.
At the end of 1799 he was settled at Grasmere, in the Lake
District, and seeing much of Coleridge. The second year of his
residence at Grasmere was unproductive; he was " hard at
work " then on The Excursion; but the excitement of a tour
on the Continent in the autumn of 1802, combined perhaps with
a happy change in his pecuniary circumstances and the near
prospect of marriage, roused him to one of his happiest fits
of activity. His first great sonnet, the Lines on Westminster
Bridge, was composed on the roof of the Dover coach; the first
of the splendid series " dedicated to national independence and
liberty," the most generally impressive and universally intelli-
gible of his poems, Fair Star of Evening, Once did She hold the
Gorgeous East in Fee, Toussaint; Milton, than shouldst be Living
at this Hour; It is not to be Thought of that the Flood, When I have
Borne in Memory what has Tamed, were all written in the course
of the tour, or in London in the month after his return. A tour
in Scotland in the following year, 1803, yielded the Highland
Girl and The Solitary Reaper. Soon after his return he resumed
The Prelude; and The Affliction of Margaret and the Ode to Duly,
his greatest poems in two different veins, were coincident with
the exaltation of spirit due to the triumphant and successful
prosecution of the long-delayed work. The Character of the
Happy Warrior, which he described to Harriet Martineau as
" a chain of extremely valooable thoughts," though it did not
fulfil " poetic conditions," 1 was the product of a calmer period.
The excitement of preparing for publication always had a rousing
effect upon him; the preparation for the edition of 1807 resulted
in the completion of the ode on the Intimations of Immortality,
the sonnets The World is too much with us, Methought I saw the
Footsteps of a Throne, Two Voices are there, and Lady, the Songs
of Spring were in the Grove, and the Song at the Feast of Brougham
Castle. After 1807 there is a marked falling off in the quality,
though not in the quantity, of Wordsworth's poetic work. It is
significant of the comparatively sober and laborious spirit in
which he wrote The Excursion that its progress was accompanied
by none of those casual sallies of exulting and exuberant power
that mark the period of the happier Prelude. The completion
of The Excursion was signalized by the production of Laodamia.
The chorus of adverse criticism with which it was received
inspired him in the noble sonnet to Haydon High is our Calling,
Friend. He rarely or never again touched the same lofty
height.
It is interesting to compare with what he actually accom-
plished the plan of life-work with which Wordsworth settled
at Grasmere in the last month of I799- 2 The plan was definitely
conceived as he left the German town of Goslar in the spring
of 1799. Tired of the wandering unsettled life that he had led
hitherto, dissatisfied also with the fragmentary occasional and
disconnected character of his lyrical poems, he longed for a
permanent home among his native hills, where he might, as one
called and consecrated to the task, devote his powers con-
tinuously to the composition of a great philosophical poem on
" Man, Nature and Society." The poem was to be called The
Recluse, " as having for its principal subject the sensations and
1 This casual estimate of his own work is not merely amusing but
also instructive, as showing what is sometimes denied that Words-
worth himself knew well enough the difference between " poetry "
and such " valuable thoughts as he propounded in The Excursion.
2 Wordsworth's residences in the Lake District were at Dove
Cottage, Townend, Grasmere, from December 1799 till the spring of
1808; Allan Bank, from 1808 to 1811; the parsonage at Grasmere,
from 1811 to 1813; Rydal Mount, for the rest of his life. Dove
Cottage was bought in 1891 as a public memorial, and is held by
trustees.
opinions of a poet living in retirement." He communicated the
design to Coleridge, who gave him enthusiastic encouragement
to proceed. But, though he had still before him fifty years
of peaceful life amidst his beloved scenery, the work in the pro-
jected form at least was destined to remain incomplete. Doubts
and misgivings soon arose, and favourable moments of felt
inspiration delayed their coming. To sustain him in his resolu-
tion he thought of writing as an introduction, or, as he put it,
an antechapel to the church which he proposed to build, a
history of his own mind up to the time when he recognized the
great mission of his life. One of the many laughs at his expense
by unsympathetic critics has been directed against his saying
that he wrote this Prelude of fourteen books about himself out
of diffidence, j But in truth the original motive was distrust of
his own powers. He turned aside to prepare the second volume
of the Lyrical Ballads and write the explanatory Preface,
which as a statement of his aims in poetry had partly the same
purpose of strengthening his self-confidence. From his sister's
Journal we learn that in the winter of 1801-1802 he was " hard
at work on The Pedlar " the original title of The Excursion.
But this experiment on the larger work was also soon abandoned.
It appears from a letter to his friend Sir George Beaumont that
his health was far from robust, and in particular that he could
not write without intolerable physical uneasiness. His next
start with The Prelude, in the spring of 1804, was more prosper-
ous; he dropped it for several months, but, resuming again
in the spring of 1805, he completed it in the summer of that year.
In 1807 appeared two volumes of collected poems. It was not
till 1814 that the second of the three divisions of The Recluse,
ultimately named The Excursion, was ready for publication;
and he went no further in the execution of his great design.
The derisive fury with which The Excursion was assailed
upon its first appearance has long been a stock example of
critical blindness, yet the error of the first critics is seen to lie
not in their indictment of faults, but in the prominence they
gave to the faults and their generally disrespectful tone towards
a poet of Wordsworth's greatness. Jeffrey's petulant " This
will never do," uttered, professedly at least, more in sorrow than
in angei, because the poet would persist in spite of all friendly
counsel in misapplying his powers, has become a byword of
critical cocksureness. But The Excursion has not " done,"
and even Wordsworthians who laugh at Jeffrey are in the habit
of repeating the substance of his criticism.
Jeffrey, it will be seen, was not blind to the occasional felicities
and unforgetable lines celebrated by Coleridge, and his general
judgment on The Excursion has been abundantly ratified. 3 It
is not upon The Excursion that Wordsworth's reputation as a
poet can ever rest. The two " books " entitled The Church-
yard among the Mountains are the only parts of the poem that
derive much force from the scenic setting; if they had been
published separately, they would probably have obtained at
once a reception very different from that given to The Excursion
as a whole. The dramatic setting is merely dead weight, not
because the chief speaker is a pedlar Wordsworth fairly justifies
this selection but because the pedlar, as a personality to be
known, and loved, and respected, and listened to with interest,
is not completely created. ,
There can be little doubt that adverse criticism had a depressing
influence on Wordsworth's poetical powers, notwithstanding
his nobly expressed defiance of it and his determination to hold
on in his own path undisturbed. Its effect in retarding the sale
of his poems was a favourite topic with him in his later years; 4
but the absence of general appreciation, and the ridicule of what
he considered his best and most distinctive work, contributed
in all probability to a still more unfortunate result the pre-
mature depression and deadening of his powers.
8 Ward's English Poets, iv. 13.
4 Matthew Arnold heard him say that " for he knew not how
many years his poetry had never brought him in enough to buy his
shoe-strings " (preface to Selection, p. v.). The literal facts are that
he received 100 from the Longmans in 1800, and nothing more till
he was sixty-five, when Mpxon bought the copyright of his writings
for 1000 (Prose Works, iii. 437).
WORKINGTON WORKSOP
831
For five years after the condemnation of The Excursion
Wordsworth published almost nothing that had not been com-
posed before. The chief exception is the Thanksgiving Ode of
1816. In 1815 he published a new edition of his poems, in
the arrangement according to faculties and feelings in which
they have since stood; and he sought to explain his purposes
more completely than before in an essay on "(Poetry as a Study."
In the same year he was persuaded to publish The While Doe
of Rylstone, written mainly eight years before. In purely poetic
charm The White Doe ought to be ranked among the most perfect
of Wordsworth's poems. But Jeffrey, who was too busy to enter
into a vein of poetry so remote from common romantic sentiment,
would have none of The While Doe: he pronounced it " the very
worst poem ever written," and the public too readily endorsed
his' judgment. Two other poems, with which Wordsworth
made another appeal, were not more successful. Peter Bell,
written in 1798, was published in 1819; and at the instigation
of Charles Lamb it was followed by The Waggoner, written in
1805. Both were mercilessly ridiculed and parodied. These
tales from humble life are written in Wordsworth's most uncon-
ventional style, and with them emphatically " not to sympathize
is not to understand."
Meantime, the great design of The Recluse languished. The
neglect of what Wordsworth himself conceived to be his best
and most characteristic work was not encouraging; and there
was another reason why the philosophical poem on man, nature,
and society did not make progress. Again and again in his
poetry Wordsworth celebrates the value of constraint, and the
disadvantage of " too much liberty," of " unchartered freedom." l
The formlessness of the scheme prevented his working at it con-
tinuously. Hence his " philosophy " was expressed in casual
disconnected sonnets, or in sonnets and other short poems
connected by the simplest of all links, sequence in time or place.
He stumbled upon three or four such serial ideas in the latter
part of his life, and thus found beginning and end for chains of
considerable length, which may be regarded as fragments of
the project which he had not sufficient energy of constructive
power to execute. The Sonnets on the River Duddon, written in
1820, follow the river from its source to the sea, and form a
partial embodiment of his philosophy of nature. The Ecclesi-
astical Sonnets, written in 1820-1821, trace the history of the
church from the Druids onwards, following one of the great
streams of human affairs, and exhibit part of his philosophy
of society. A tour on the continent in 1820, a tour in Scotland
in 1831, a tour on the west coast in 1833, a tour in Italy in 1837,
furnished him with other serial forms, serving to connect mis-
cellaneous reflections on man, nature and society; and his
views on the punishment of death were strung together in still
another series in 1840.
It was Coleridge's criticism in the Biographia Literaria (1817),
together with the enthusiastic and unreserved championship
of Wilson in Blackwood's Magazine in a series of articles
between 1819 and 1822 (Recreations of Christopher North), that
formed the turning-point in Wordsworth's reputation. From
1820 to 1830 De Quincey says it was militant, from 1830 to
1840 triumphant. On the death of Southey in 1843 he was
made poet laureate. He bargained with Sir Robert Peel,
before accepting, that no official verse should be required of
him; and his only official composition, an ode on the installa-
tion of the Prince Consort as chancellor of Cambridge university
in 1847, is believed to have really been written either by his
son-in-law Edward Quillinan or by his nephew Christopher
(afterwards bishop of Lincoln). He died at Rydal Mount, after
a short illness, on the 23rd of April 1850, and was buried in
Grasmere churchyard. His wife survived him till 1859, when she
died in her ooth year. They had five children, two of whom
had died in 1812; the two surviving sons, John (d. 1875) and
William (d. 1883), had families; the other child, a daughter,
Dora, Wordsworth's favourite, married Edward Quillinan
in 1841 and died in 1847.
1 See the Sonnet, Nuns fret not, &c., The Pass of Kirkstone and
the Ode to Duty.
Professor Knight brought out in 1882-1886 an eight-volume
edition of the Poetical Works, and in 1889 a Life in three volumes.
The Memoirs of the poet were published (1851) by his nephew.
Bishop Christopher Wordsworth. The " standard text " of the
works is the edition of 1849-1850. The " Aldine " edition (1892) is
edited by Edward Dowden. The one-volume " Oxford " edition
(1895), edited by Thomas Hutchinson, contains every piece of verse
known to have been published or authorized by Wordsworth, his
Prefaces, &c., and a useful chronology and notes. Among critics of
Wordsworth especially interesting for various reasons we may
mention De Quincey (Works, vols. ii. and v.), Sir Henry Taylor
(Works, vol. v.), Matthew Arnold (preface to Selection), Swinburne
(Miscellanies), F. W. H. Myers (" Men of Letters " series), Leslie
Stephen (Hours in a Library, 3rd series, " Wordsworth's Ethics "),
Walter Pater (Appreciations), Walter Raleigh ( Wordsu-or th, 1903).
Wordsworth's writings in prose were collected oy DrGrosart (London,
1876). This collection contained the previously unpublished Apology
for a French Revolution, written in 1793, besides the scarce tract on the
Convention of Cintra (1809) and the political addresses To the Free-
holders of Westmoreland (1818). Wordsworth's Guide to the Lakes
originally appeared in 1810 as an introduction to Wilkinson's Select
Views, and was first published separately in 1822. (W. M.; H. CH.)
WORKINGTON, a municipal borough, seaport and market
town in the Cockermouth parliamentary division of Cumberland,
England, 34 m. S.W. cf Carlisle, served by the Cockermouth,
Keswick & Penrith, the London & North-Western and the
Cleator & Workington Junction railways. Pop. (1001) 26,143.
It lies on the S. bank of the river Derwent, at its outflow into the
Irish Sea. The harbour is safe, being protected by a stony beach
and by a breakwater. The Lonsdale dock is 4^ acres in extent.
The port was made subordinate to that of Maryport in 1892.
There are large collieries in the neighbourhood of the town, the
workings in some cases extending beneath the sea, and blast-
furnaces, engineering works, cycle and motor works, ship-
building yards and paper mills. The borough is under a mayor,
7 aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 2245 acres. Near the town
is Workington Hall, a castellated structure retaining some of the
ancient rooms, including that in which Mary, queen of Scots,
is said to have slept when she escaped to England after the
battle of Langside in May 1568.
WORKS AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS, BOARD OF, an adminis-
trative department in England. In 1832 the public works and
buildings of Great Britain were for the first time placed under
the control of a responsible minister of the crown, and were
assigned to the commissioners of woods and forests. In 1851
the department of public works was erected into a board under
the name of Office of Works and Public Buildings. The first
commissioner of works is the head of the board, and has the
custody of the royal palaces and parks and of all public buildings
not specially assigned to other departments; he is a member
of the government and frequently has a seat in the cabinet.
WORKSOP, a market town in the Bassetlaw parliamentary
division of Nottinghamshire, England, on the Great Central
and the Midland railways, and on the Chesterfield Canal, 15! m.
E.S.E. of Sheffield. Pop. of urban district (1001) 16,112. To
the S. lies that portion of Sherwood Forest popularly known
as the dukeries. The church of St Mary and St Cuthbert is an
old priory church, once divided internally into two parts, the
E. dedicated to St Mary being for the use of the canons, and
the W. dedicated to St Cuthbert for the parishioners. At the
Reformation only the W. portion of the church was spared, and
for many years it was in a dilapidated condition until it was
restored with Perpendicular additions. Behind it are the ruins
of the lady chapel, containing some fine Early English work.
The priory gatehouse, chiefly in the Decorated style, now forms
the entrance to the precincts of the church. It is supposed to
have been built early in the I4th century by the 3rd Lord
Furnival, when the market was established. Of the priory itself
the only remains are a wall at the N.W. corner of the church
which includes the cloister gateway. There was formerly a
Norman keep on the castle hill. The manor-house, built by
John Talbot, ist earl of Shrewsbury, and occasionally occupied
by Mary, queen of Scots, during her captivity under the 6th
earl, was in great part destroyed by fire in 1761, and when the
estate came into the possession of the duke of Newcastle in 1840
the ruined portion was removed and a smaller mansion built .
8 3 2
WORLD WORMS
The town hall and free library are the principal public buildings
of Worksop. Malting is the principal industry. A large corn
market and a cattle and horse fair are held. The town also
possesses brass and iron foundries, agricultural implement
works, saw-mills and chemical works; and there is a consider-
able trade in Windsor chairs and wood for packing-cases for
Sheffield cutlery. There are collieries at Shireoaks, 3 m. W.
WORLD, a word which has developed a wide variety of mean-
ings from its original etymological sense of the " age of man,"
" course of man's life." In O. Eng. it appears under its true
form weoruld, being a compound of wer, man (cf. Lat. vir), and
yldo, age, from eald, eld, old. Of the various meanings the
principal are the earth (q.v.), as a planet, or a large division of
the earth, such as the " old world," the eastern, the " new world,"
the western hemisphere; the whole of created things upon the
earth, particularly its human inhabitants, mankind, the human
race, or a great division of mankind united by a common racial
origin, language, religion or civilization, &c. A derived meaning
is that of social life, society, as distinct from a religious life.
WORM, 1 a term used popularly to denote almost any kind of
elongated, apparently limbless creature, from a lizard, like the
blindworm, to the grub of an insect or an earthworm. Linnaeus
applied the Latin term Vermes to the modern zoological divisions
Mottusca, Coelentera, Protozoa, Tunicata, Echinoderma (qq.v.),
as well as to those forms which more modern zoologists have
recognized as worms. As a matter of convenience the term
Vermes or Vermidea is still employed, for instance in the Inter-
national Catalogue of Zoological Literature and the Zoological
Record, to cover a number of wormlike animals. In systematic
zoology, however, the use of a division Vermes has been
abandoned, as it is now recognized that many of the animals
that even a zoologist would describe as worms belong to different
divisions of the animal kingdom. The so-called flatworms
(Platyelmia, q.v.), including the Planarians (q.v.), Flukes
(see TREMATODES), Cestodes (see TAPEWORM) and the curious
Mesozoa (q.v.), are no doubt related. The marine Nemertine
worms (see NEMERTINA) are isolated. The thick-skinned round
worms, such as the common horse-worm and the threadworms
(see NEMATODA), together with the Nematomorpha (q.v.),
Chaetosomatida (q.v.), Desmoscolecida (q.v.) and Acanthocephala
(q.v.), form a fairly natural group. The Rotifera (q.v.), with
probably the Kinorhyncha (q.v.) and Gastrotricha (q.v.), are
again isolated. The remaining worms are probably all coelomate
animals. There is a definite Annelid group (see ANNELIDA),
including the Archiannelida, the bristleworms (see CHAETO-
PODA), of which the earthworm (q.v.) is the most familiar type,
the Myzostomida (q.v.), Hirudinea (see LEECH) and the armed
Gephyreans (see ECHIUROIDEA). The unarmed Gephyreans
(see GEPHYREA) are now separated from their former associates
and divided into two groups of little affinity, the Sipunculoidea
and the Priapuloidea (qq.v.). The Phoronidea (q.v.) are now
associated with Hemichordata (q.v.) in the line of vertebrate
ancestry, whilst the Chaetognatha (q.v.) remain in solitary
isolation.
Mention is made under TAPEWORM of the worms of that species
inhabiting the human body as parasites, and it will be convenient
here to mention other parasitic varieties. The most common human
parasite is the Ascaris lumbricoides or round worm, found chiefly in
children and occupying the upper portion of the intestine. They
are usually few in number, but occasionally occur in such large
numbers that they cause intestinal obstruction. Unlike the tape-
worm no intermediate host is required for the- development of this
worm. It develops from direct ingestion of the larvae. Various
1 The O. Eng. wyrm represents a word common to Teutonic languages
for a snake or worm, cf. Ger. Wurm, Dan. and Swed. arm, Du. Worm.
The Lat. vermis must be connected. The Sanskrit word is krimi,
which has given kermes, the cochineal insect, whence " crimson."
Skeat takes the ultimate root to be kar, to move, especially in a
circular motion, seen in " curve," " circle," &c. The word " worm "
is applied to many objects resembling the animals in having a spiral
shape or motion, as the spiral thread of a screw, or the spiral pipe
through which vapour is passed in distillation (q.v.). As a term of
disparagement and contempt the word is also used of persons, from
the idea of wriggling or creeping on the ground, partly, too, perhaps,
with a reminiscence of Genesis lii. 14.
symptoms, such as diarrhoea, anaemia, intermittent fever, restless-
ness, irritability and convulsions are attributed to these worms.
The treatment is the administration of santonin, followed by a
purgative. The threadworm or Oxyuris vermicularis is a common
parasite infecting the rectum. The larvae of this worm are also
directly swallowed, and infection probably takes place through
water, or possibly through lettuces and watercress. The symptoms
caused by threadworms are loss of appetite, anaemia and intense
irritation and itching. The treatment consists in the use of enemata
containing quassia, carbolic acid, vinegar or turpentine or even
common salt. In addition mild purgatives should be given.
WORMS, a city of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-
Darmstadt, situated in a fertile plain called the Wonnegau,
on the left bank of the Rhine, 25 m. S. of Mainz, 20 m. N.W. of
Heidelberg, and 9 m. by rail N.W. of Mannheim. Pop. (1895)
28,636; (1905) 43,841, about a third of whom are Roman
Catholics. The town is irregularly built, and some of the old walls
and towers still remain, but its general aspect is modern. The
principal church and chief building is the spacious cathedral of
SS. Peter and Paul, which ranks beside those of Spires and
Mainz among the noblest Romanesque churches of the Rhine
(see ARCHITECTURE: Romanesque and Gothic in Germany).
This magnificent basilica, with four round towers, two large
domes, and a choir at each end, has a specially imposing exterior,
though the impression produced by the interior is also one of
great dignity and simplicity, heightened by the natural colour
of the red sandstone of which it is built. Only the ground plan
and the lower part of the western towers belong to the original
building consecrated in mo; the remainder was mostly finished
by 1181, but the west choir and the vaulting were built in the
I3th century, the elaborate south portal was added in the I4th
century, and the central dome has been rebuilt. The ornamenta-
tion of the older parts is simple to the verge of rudeness; and
even the more elaborate later forms show no high development
of workmanship. The baptistery contains five remarkable stone
reliefs of the late i sth century. The cathedral is 358 ft. long, and
89 ft. wide, or including the transepts, which are near the west
end, 118 ft. (inside measurements). It belongs to the Roman
Catholic community, who possess also the church of St Martin
and the church of Our Lady (Liebfrauenkirche) , a handsome
Gothic edifice outside the town, finished in 1467. The principal
Protestant place of worship is the Trinity church, built in 1726.
Second in interest to the cathedral is the church of St Paul, also
in the Romanesque style, and dating from 1102-1116, with a
choir of the early I3th century, cloisters and other monastic
buildings. This church has been converted into an interesting
museum of national antiquities. The late Romanesque church
of St Andrew is not used. The old synagogue, an unassuming
building erected in the nth century and restored in the I3th,
is completely modernized. The Jewish community of Worms
(about 1300 in number) claims to be the most ancient in Germany
and to have existed continuously since the Christian era, though
the earliest authentic mention of it occurs in 588. A curious
tradition, illustrating the efforts of the dispersed people to
conciliate their oppressors, asserts that the Jews of Worms gave
their voice against the crucifixion, but that their messenger did
not arrive at Jerusalem until after the event.
The town hall was rebuilt in 1884. The Bischofshof, in which
the most famous diet of Worms (1521) was held, is now replaced
by a handsome modern residence. The Luginsland is an old
watch-tower of the I3th century. In the Lutherplatz rises the
imposing Luther monument (unveiled in 1868), on a platform
48 ft. sq. In the centre the colossal statue of Luther rises, on a
pedestal at the base of which are sitting figures of Peter Waldo,
Wycliffe, Hus and Savonarola, the heralds of the Reformation;
at the corners of the platform, on lower pedestals, are statues
of Luther's contemporaries, Melanchthon, Reuchlin, Philip of
Hesse, and Frederick the Wise of Saxony, between which are
allegorical figures of Magdeburg (mourning), Spires (protesting)
and Augsburg (confessing). The greater part of the work,
which took nine years to execute, was designed by Rietschel, and
carried out after his death in 1861 by Gustav Kietz (1826-1908),
Adolf von Donndorf (b. 1835) and Johannes Schilling (b. 1828).
The " Rosengarten " on the opposite bank of the Rhine.
WORMWOOD WORSLEY
833
associated with the stories of the wooing of Kriemhild (see infra) ,
has been laid out in keeping with the old traditions and was
opened with great festivities in 1906. Extensive burial-grounds,
ranging in date from neolithic to Merovingian times, have recently
been discovered near the city.
The trade and industry of Worms are important, and not
the least resource of the inhabitants is vine-growing, the most
famous vintage being known as Liebfraumilch, grown on vine-
yards near the Liebfrauenkirche. The manufacture of patent
leather employs about 5000 hands. Machinery, wool, cloth,
chicory, slates, &c., are also produced. Worms possesses a good
river harbour, and carries on a considerable trade by water.
Worms was known in Roman times as Borbetomagus, which
in the Merovingian age became Wormatia, afterwards by popular
etymology connected with Wurm, a dragon. The name Borbeto-
magus indicates a Celtic origin for the town, which had, however,
before Caesar's time become the capital of a German tribe, the
Vangiones. Drusus is said to have erected a fort here in 14 B.C.
In 413 the emperor Jovinus permitted the Burgundians under
their king Guntar or Guntiar to settle on the left bank of the
Rhine between the Lauter and the Nahe. Here they founded
a kingdom with Worms as its capital. Adopting Arianism they
came into conflict with the Romans, and under their king
Gundahar or Gundicar (the Gunther of the Nibdungenlied) rose
in 435 against the Roman governor Aetius, who called in the
Huns against them. The destruction of Worms and the Bur-
gundian kingdom by the Huns in 436 was the subject of heroic
legends afterwards incorporated in the Nibdungenlied (q.v.) and
the Rosengarten (an epic probably of the late I3th century).
In the Nibdungenlied King Gunther and Queen Brunhild
hold their court at Worms, and Siegfried comes hither to woo
Kriemhild.
Worms was rebuilt by the Merovingians, and became an
episcopal see, first mentioned in 614, although a bishop of the
Vangiones had attended a council at Cologne as early as 347.
There was a royal palace from the 8th century, in which
the Prankish kings, including Charlemagne, occasionally resided.
The scene of the graceful though unhistorical romance of Einhard
and Emma, the daughter of Charlemagne, is laid here.
Under the German kings the power of the bishops of Worms
gradually increased, although they never attained the importance
of the other Rhenish bishops. Otto I. granted extensive lands
to the bishop, and in 979 Bishop Hildbold acquired comital
rights in his city. Burchardl. (bishop from loooto 102 5) destroyed
the castle of the Franconian house at Worms, built the cathedral
and laid the foundations of the subsequent territorial power of
the see. There were frequent struggles between the bishops and
the citizens, who espoused the cause of the emperors against
them, and were rewarded by privileges which fostered trade.
Herny IV. granted a charter to Worms in 1074, and held a synod
there in 1076, by which Pope Gregory VII. was declared deposed.
Henry V. acquired Worms in 1121 by the treaty of Wiirzburg,
built a castle and granted privileges to the city, which retained
its freedom until 1801, in spite of the bishops, who ruled a small
territory south of the city, on both sides of the Rhine, and
resided at Ladenburg near Mannheim till 1622.
The city of Worms was frequently visited by the imperial
court, and won the title of " Mother of Diets." The concordat
of Worms closed the investiture controversy in 1122. The
" perpetual peace " (ewiger Landfriede) was proclaimed by the
emperor Maximilian I. at the diet of 1495, an< ^ Luther appeared
before the famous diet of 1521 to defend his doctrines in the
presence of Charles V. Four years later, Worms formally
embraced Protestantism, and religious conferences were held
there in 1540 and 1557. It suffered severely during the Thirty
Years' War. After being sacked in turn by Mansfeld, Tilly
and the Spaniards, it was taken by Oxenstierna in 1632, who
held a convention here with his German allies. The imperial-
ists again took Worms in 1635, and it admitted the French
under Turenne in 1644. The French under M61ac burnt the
city almost entirely in 1689, and it has only fully recovered
from this blow in recent years. Thus the population, which
xxvm. 27
in its prosperous days is said to have exceeded 50,000, had
sunk in 1815 to 6250.
By the treaty of Worms in 1743 an offensive alliance was
formed between Great Britain, Austria and Sardinia. The
French under Custine took the city by surprise hi 1792 and it
was annexed by the peace of LuneVille in 1801 to France, together
with the bishop's territories on the left bank of the Rhine. The
remaining episcopal dominions were secularized in 1803 and
given to Hesse-Darmstadt, which acquired the whole by the
Vienna Congress in 1815. In 1849 the Baden revolutionaries
seized Worms, but were overthrown by the Mecklenburgers and
Prussians in May of that year.
See Zorn, Wormser Chronik (Stuttgart, 1857); Fuchs, Geschichte
der Stadt Worms (Worms, 1868) ; F. Soldan, Der Reichstag zu Worms,
1521 (Worms, 1883); Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Stadt Worms
(Worms, 1 896) ; G. Wolf, Zur Geschichte der Juden in Worms (Breslau,
1862); Nover, Das altc und neue Worms (Worms, 1895).
WORMWOOD, the popular name for an aromatic herb known
botanically as Artemisia Absinthium, a member of the family
Compositae. It grows from I to 3 ft. high and is silkily hairy;
the leaves are small and much cut, and the flowers are small
yellow hemispherical heads among the leaves at the end of the
branches. It grows in waste places. It is a tonic and vermifuge
and used to flavour drinks. A closely allied species is A . vulgaris,
mugwort, also an aromatic herb, with larger and broader leaves,
which are white woolly beneath, and erect woolly heads of
reddish-yellow flowers.
WORSBOROUGH, an urban district in the Holmfirth parlia-
mentary division of the W. Riding of Yorkshire, England,
3 m. S. of Barnsley, near the Sheffield & Barnsley branch of
the Great Central railway, and on a branch of the Dearne &
Dove canal. Pop. (1901) 10,336. The church of St Mary is
an interesting structure with remains of Norman work, but
chiefly of Early English date. There are extensive collieries
and gunpowder mills near, and in the town iron and steel works
and corn mills.
WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weordscipe) , honour,
dignity, reverence, respect. The word is used hi a special sense
of the service, reverence and honour paid, by means of devotional
words or acts, to God, to the gods, or to hallowed persons, such
as the Virgin Mary or the saints, and hallowed objects, such as
holy images or relics. In this sense, however, it must be borne
in mind that the Roman Catholic Church distinguishes three
kinds of worship: (i) latria, the worship due to God alone (from
Gr. \aTfxia, service, esp. the service of the gods, worship) , and (2)
hyperdulia, the worship or adoration due to the Virgin Mary as
the Mother of God (from Gr. inrep, above, and 5ov\da, service),
and (3) dulia, that due to the saints. (See also ADORATION.)
The public service of God in church is known as " divine worship "
or " divine service " (see LITURGY). In the sense of " revere "
or " respect," the verb " to worship " occurs in the English
Prayer-book, in the phrase " with my body I thee worship "
in the Marriage Service. In this sense the term " worship "
is also used as a title of honour in speaking of or addressing
other persons of position. Thus a mayor is spoken of as " his
worship the mayor," or " the worshipful the mayor." Magis-
trates are addressed as " your worship."
WORSLEY, PHILIP STANHOPE (1835-1866), English poet,
son of the Rev. Charles Worsley, was bom on the i2th of August
1835, and was educated at Highgate grammar school and Corpus
Christi College, Oxford, where he won the Newdigate prize in
1857 with a poem on " The Temple of Janus." In 1861 he
published a translation of the Odyssey, followed in 1865 by a
translation of the first twelve books of the Iliad, in both of
which he employed the Spenserian stanza with success. In 1863
appeared a volume of Poems and Translations. Worsley died
on the 8th of May 1866. His translation of the Iliad was com-
pleted after his death by John Conington.
WORSLEY, an urban district in the Eccles parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 6 m. W.N.W. of Manchester
by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 12,462.
Its growth is a result of the development of the cotton manu-
facture and of the neighbouring collieries.
5.
834
WORTH, C. F. WORTH
WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895), the famous
dressmaker, was born at Bourne, Lincolnshire, in 1825. His
father, a country solicitor, having lost his money in speculation.
Charles was sent to London as an apprentice to Swan & Edgar,
drapers. Thence, in 1846, he went to Paris, without capital or
friends, and after twelve years in a wholesale silk house he began
business as a dressmaker in partnership with a Swede named
Dobergh. His originality and skill in design won the patronage
of the empress Eugenie, and, through her, of fashionable Paris.
After the Franco-German War, during which he turned his house
into a military hospital, his partner retired, and Worth con-
tinued the business, which employed 1 200 hands, with his two
sons John and Gaston both naturalized Frenchmen. For more
than thirty years he set the taste and ordained the fashions of
Paris, and extended his sway over all the civilized and much of
the uncivilized world. He died on the loth of March 1895.
WORTH, a village of Alsace, on the Sauer, 6 m. N. of Hagenau,
which gives its name to the battle of the 6th of August 1870,
fought between the Germans under the crown prince of Prussia
and the French under Marshal MacMahon. The battle is also
called Reichshoffen and Froschweiler.
The events which led up to the engagement, and the general
situation on the 6th are dealt with under FRANCO-GERMAN
WAR. During the 5th of August the French concentrated in
a selected position running nearly N. and S. along the Sauer
Bach on the left front of the German III. army which was moving
S. to seek them. The position is marked from right to left by
Morsbronn, the Niederwald, the heights W. of Worth and the
woods N.E. of Froschweiler. E. of the Sauer the German III.
army was moving S. towards Hagenau, when their cavalry
found the French position about noon. Thereafter the German
vedettes held the French under close observation, while the
latter moved about within their h'nes and as far as the village
of WOrth as if in peace quarters, and this notwithstanding the
defeat of a portion of the army at Weissenburg on the previous
day. The remnant of the force which had been engaged, with
many of its wounded still in the ranks, marched in about noon
with so soldierly a bearing that, so far from their depressing
the morale of the rest, their appearance actually raised it.
About 5 P.M. some horses were watered at the Sauer, as in
peace, without escort, though hostile scouts were in sight. A
sudden swoop of the enemy's hussars drove the party back to
camp. The alarm was sounded, tents were struck and the
troops fell in all along the line and remained under arms until
the confusion died down, when orders were sent to fall out, but
not to pitch the tents. The army therefore bivouacked, and but
for this incident the battle of the next day would probably not
have been fought. A sudden and violent storm broke over the
bivouacs, and when it was over, the men, wet and restless, began
to move about, light fires, &c. Many of them broke out of camp
and went into Worth, which was unoccupied, though Prussians
were only 300 yds. from the sentries. These fired, and the
officer commanding the Prussian outposts, hearing the confused
murmur of voices, ordered up a battery, and as soon as there
was light enough dropped a few shells into Worth. The stragglers
rushed back, the French h'nes were again alarmed, and several
batteries on their side took up the challenge.
The Prussian guns, as strict orders had been given to avoid
all engagement that day, soon withdrew and were about to
return to camp, when renewed artillery fire was heard from the
S. and presently also from the N. In the latter direction, the
II. Bavarian corps had bivouacked along the Mattstall-Langen-
sulzbach road with orders to continue the march if artillery
were heard to the S. This order was contrary to the spirit of
the III. army orders, and moreover the V. Prussian corps to
the S. was in ignorance of its having been given.
The outpost battery near Worth was heard, and the Bavarians
at once moved forward. Soon the leading troops were on the
crest of the ridge between the Sauer and the Sulzbach, and the
divisional commander, anxious to prove his loyalty to his new
allies his enemies in 1866 ordered his troops to attack, giving
the spire of Froschweiler, which was visible over the woods, as
the point of direction. The French, however, were quite ready
and a furious fusillade broke out, which was multiplied by the
echoes of the forest-clad hills out of all proportion to the numbers
engaged. The Prussian officers of the V. corps near Dieffenbach,
knowing nothing of the orders the Bavarians had received,
were amazed; but at length when about 10.30 a.m. their comrades
were seen retiring, in some cases in great disorder, the corps
commander, General von Kirchbach, decided that an effort
must at once be made to relieve the Bavarians. His chief of
staff had already ordered up the divisional and corps artillery
(84 guns in all), and he himself communicated his intention of
attacking to the XI. corps (General von Bose) on his left and asked
for all available assistance. A report was also despatched to
the crown prince at Sulz, 5 m. away.
Meanwhile the XI. corps had become involved in an engage-
ment. The left of the V. corps' outposts had over night occupied
Gunstett and the bank of the Sauer, and the French shortly after
daylight on the 6th sent down an unarmed party to fetch water.
As this appeared through the mist, the Prussians naturally
fired upon it, and the French General Lartigue (to whose division
the party belonged), puzzled to account for the firing, brought
up some batteries in readiness to repel an attack. These fired a
few rounds only, but remained in position as a precaution.
Hearing the firing, the XI. corps' advanced guard, which had
marched up behind in accordance with the general movement of
the corps in changing front to the west, and had halted on reaching
the Kreuzhecke Wood, promptly came up to Spachbach and
Gunstett. In this movement across country to Spachbach
some bodies appear to have exposed themselves, for French
artillery at Elsasshausen suddenly opened fire, and the shrapnel
bursting high, sent showers of bullets on to the house roofs of
Spachbach, in which village a battalion had just halted. As
the falling tiles made the position undesirable, the major in
command ordered the march to be resumed, and as he gave the
order, his horse ran away with him towards the Sauer. The
leading company, seeing the battalion commander gallop,
moved off at the double, and the others of course followed.
Coming within sight of the enemy, they drew a heavy shell fire, and,
still under the impression that they were intended to attack,
deployed into line of columns and doubled down to the river,
which they crossed. One or two companies in the neighbourhood
had already begun to do so, and the stream being too wide for
the mounted officers to jump, presently eight or ten companies
were across the river and out of superior control. By this time
the French outposts (some 1500 rifles), lining the edge of the
Niederwald, were firing heavily. The line of smoke was naturally
accepted by all as the objective, and the German companies
with a wild rush reached the edge of the wood.
The same thing had happened at Gunstett. A most obstinate
struggle ensued and both sides brought up reinforcements. The
Prussians, with all their attention concentrated on the wood
in their front, and having as yet no superior commanders, soon
exhibited signs of confusion, and thereupon General Lartigue
ordered a counter attack towards the heights of Gunstett,
when all the Prussians between the Niederwald and the Sauer
gave way. The French followed with a rush, and, fording the
Sauer opposite Gunstett, for a moment placed the long line of
German guns upon the heights in considerable danger. At this
crisis a fresh battalion of the XI. corps arrived by the road from
Surburg to Gunstett, and attacked the French on one flank
whilst the guns swept the other. The momentum of the charge
died out, and the French drifted backwards after an effort
which compelled the admiration of both sides.
In the centre the fight had been going badly for the V. corps.
As soon as the 84 guns between Dieffenbach and Spachbach
opened fire the French disappeared from sight. There was no
longer a target, and, perhaps to compel his adversary to show
himself, von Kirchbach ordered four battalions to cross the
river. These battalions, however, were widely separated, and
coming under fire as soon as they appeared, they attacked
in two groups, one from Worth towards Froschweiler. the
other from near Spachbach towards the Calvary spur, E. of
WORTH
835
Elsasshausen. Both were overpowered by infantry fire. A frac-
tion of the S. party maintained itself all day in the elbow of the
Hagenau chaussee, which formed a starting-point for subsequent
attacks. But the rest were driven back in great confusion.
Once more the dashing counter-attack of the French was thrown
into confusion by the Prussian shell fire, and as the French fell
the attack against the Niederwald with such of his forces as had
arrived, and had ordered General von Schkopp's brigade, which
was then approaching, to join the troops collecting to the east
of Gunstett. Schkopp, however, seeing that his present line of
advance led him direct on to the French right about Morsbronn
and kept him clear of the confusion to be seen around Gunstett,
back the Prussian infantry, now reinforced, followed them up
(about i p.m.). The commander-in-chief of the German III.
army (the crown prince Frederick) now appeared on the field and
ordered Kirchbach to stand fast until the pressure of the XI.
corps and Wurttemberg division could take effect against the
French right wing. The majority of these troops had not yet
reached the field. Von Bose, however, seeing the retreat of the
troops of the V. corps, had independently determined to renew
disregarded the order and continued to advance on Morsbronn.
This deliberate acceptance of responsibility really decided the
battle, for his brigade quietly deployed as a unit and compelled
the French right wing to fall back.
To cover the French retreat Michel's brigade of cavalry was
ordered to charge. The order was somewhat vague, and in his
position under cover near Eberbach, General Michel had no know-
ledge of the actual situation. Thus it came about that, without
8 3 6
WORTHING WOTTON, SIR H.
reconnoitring or manoeuvring for position, the French cavalrj
rode straight at the first objective which offered itself, and struck
the victorious Prussians as they were crossing the hills between
the Albrechtshaiiserhof and Morsbronn. Hence the charge was
costly and only partly successful. However, the Prussians were
ridden over here and there, and their attention was sufficiently
absorbed while the French infantry rallied for a fresh counter-
stroke. This was made about i . 20 P.M. with the utmost gallantry
and the Prussians were driven off the hillsides between the
Albrechtshauserhof and Morsbronn which they had already won
But the counter-attack soon came under the fire of the great
artillery mass above Gunstett, and, von Bose having at length
concentrated the main body of the XI. corps in the meadows
between the Niederwald and the Sauer, the French had to with-
draw. Their withdrawal involved the retreat of the troops who
had fought all day in defence of the Niederwald.
By 3 P.M. the Prussians were masters of the Niederwald and
the ground S. of it on which the French right wing had originally
stood, but they were in indescribable confusion after the prolonged
fighting in the dense undergrowth. Before order could be
restored came another fierce counter-stroke. As the Prussians
emerged from the N. edge of the wood, the French reserves
suddenly came out from behind the Elsasshausen heights, and
striking due S. drove the Prussians back. It was a grave crisis,
but at this moment von Schkopp, who throughout all this had
kept two of his battalions intact, came round the N.W. corner
of the Wald, and these fresh battalions again brought the French
to a standstill. Meanwhile von Kirchbach, seeing the progress
of- the XI. corps, bad ordered the whole of his command forward
to assault the French centre, and away to the right the two
Bavarian corps moved against the French left, which still main-
tained its original position in the woods N.E. of Froschweiler.
MacMahon, however, was not beaten yet. Ordering Bonne-
mains' cavalry division to charge, by squadrons to gain time, he
brought up his reserve artillery, and sent it forward to case-shot
range to cover a final counter-stroke by his last intact battalions.
But from his position near Froschweiler he could not see into the
hollow between Elsasshausen and the Niederwald. The order
was too late, and the artillery unlimbered just as the counter
attack on the Niederwald alluded to above gave way before
von Schkopp's reserve. The guns were submerged in a flood
of fugitives and pursuers. Elsasshausen passed into the hands
of the Germans. To rescue the guns the nearest French in-
fantry attacked in a succession of groups, charging home the
bayonet with the utmost determination. Before each attack
the Prussians immediately in front gave way, but those on the
flanks swung inwards and under this converging fire each French
attempt died out, the Prussians following up their retreat. In
this manner, step by step, in confusion which almost defies
analysis, the Prussians conquered the whole of the ground to the
S. of the Froschweiler-Worth road, but the French still held on
in the village of Froschweiler itself and in the woods to the N.
of the road, where throughout the day they had held the two
Bavarian corps in check with little difficulty. To break down
this last stronghold, the guns of the V. and XI. corps, which
had now come forward to the captured ridge of Elsasshausen,
took the village as their target; and the great crowd of infantry,
now flushed with victory but in the direst confusion, encouraged
by the example of two horse artillery batteries which galloped
boldly forward to case-shot range, delivered one final rush which
swept all resistance before it.
The battle was won and cavalry only were needed to reap its
consequences, but the Prussian cavalry division had been left
behind without orders and did not reach the battlefield till late
at night. The divisional cavalry squadrons did their best, but
each pursued on its own account, and the results in prisoners
and guns fell far short of what the opportunity offered. Under
cover of darkness the French escaped, and on the following day
the cavalry division was quite unable to discover the direction of
the retreat.
MacMahon received no support from the neighbouring French
troops (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The battle was won by over-
powering weight of numbers. The Prussian general staff were able
to direct upon the field no fewer than 75,000 infantry, 6000 cavalry,
and 300 guns, of which 71,000 rifles, 4250 sabres and 234 guns
came into action, against 32,000 rifles, 4850 sabres and 101 guns
on the French side. The superiority of the French chassepot to the
needle guns may reasonably be set against the superior number
of rifles on the German side, for though the Germans were generally,
thanks to their numbers, able to bring a converging fire upon the
French, the latter made nearly double the number of hits for about
the same weight of ammunition fired, but the French had nothing
to oppose to the superior German artillery, and in almost every
instance it was the terrible shell fire which broke up the French
counter attack. All of these attacks were in the highest degree
honourable to the French army, and many came nearer to imperilling
the ultimate success of the Germans than is generally supposed.
One other point deserves special attention. As soon as the fighting
became general, all order in the skirmisher lines disappeared on both
sides, and invariably, except where the Prussian artillery fire inter-
vened, it was the appearance of closed bodies of troops in rear of
the fighting line which determined the retreat of their opponents.
Even in the confused fighting in the Niederwald, the mere sound of
the Prussian drums or the French bugles induced the adversary to
give way even though drums and bugles frequently appealed to non-
existent troops.
The losses of the Germans were 9270 killed and wounded and 1370
missing, or 13%; those of the French were about 8000 killed and
wounded, and perhaps 12,000 missing, and prisoners, representing a
total loss of about 41 %. Some French regiments retained a sem-
blance of discipline after suffering enormous losses. The 2nd Turcos
lost 93 %, 1 3th hussars 87 %, and thirteen regiments in all lost over
50 % of their strength.
See the French and German official histories of the war; H.
Bonnal, Froschwiller (1899); H. Kunz, SMacht von Worth (1891)
and Kriegsgesch. Beispiele, Nos. 13-18; R. Tournes, De Gunstett au
Niederwald and Le Calvaire ; and Commandant Grange, " Les Realite's
du champ de bataille," Revue d'infanterie (1908-1910). (F. N. M.)
WORTHING, a municipal borough and seaside resort in the
Lewes parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 61 m. S. by
W. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast rail-
way. Pop. (1901) 20,015. It has a fine marine parade, and a
promenade pier, and there is a long range of firm sands. A
public park, 2 1 acres in extent, was opened in 188 1 . The principal
buildings are several modem churches, the town hall (1834),
municipal buildings, free library, literary institute, infirmary and
convalescent homes. The mother parish of Worthing is Broad-
water, the church of which, i m. north of Worthing, is a cruciform
building, and a fine example of transitional Norman work. A
Roman villa, evidence of the existence of pottery works, and
a so-called mile-stone, have been discovered at Worthing. The
town was incorporated in 1890, and is under a mayor, 8 alder-
men and 24 councillors. Area, 1439 acres.
WOTTON, SIR HENRY (1568-1639), English author and
diplomatist, son of Thomas Wotton (1521-1587) and grand-
nephew of the diplomatist Nicholas Wotton (q.v.), was born at
Bocton Hall in the parish of Bocton or Boughton Malherbe,
Kent. 1 He was educated at Winchester School and at New
lollege, Oxford, where he matriculated on the 5th of June 1584.
Two years later he removed to Queen's College, graduating B.A.
n 1588. At Oxford he was the friend of Albericus Gentilis,
then professor of Civil Law, and of John Donne. During his
residence at Queen's he wrote a play, Tancredo, which has not
survived, but his chief interests appear to have been scientific.
n qualifying for his M.A. degree he read three lectures De oculo,
and to the end of his life he continued to interest himself in
physical experiments. His father, Thomas Wotton, died in
1587, leaving to his son the very inadequate maintenance of
a hundred marks a year. About 1589 Wotton went abroad, with
a view probably to preparation for a diplomatic career, and his
ravels appear to have lasted for about six years. At Altdorf
ic met Edward, Lord Zouch, to whom he later addressed a series
of letters (1590-1593) which contain much political and other
news. These (Reliquiae Wottonianae, pp. 585 et seq. 1685)
>rovide a record of the journey. He travelled by way of Vienna
1 His elder half-brother, Edward Wotton (1548-1626), entered the
service of Sir Francis Walsingham, and in 1585 was sent on an im-
xjrtant errand to James VI. of Scotland. In 1602 he was made
:omptroller of the royal household, and in 1603 he was created
Jaron Wotton of Marley. The peerage became extinct on the death
>f his son Thomas, the 2nd baron (1588-1630).
WOTTON, N. WOUND
837
and Venice to Rome, and in 1593 spent some time at Geneva in
the house of Isaac Casaubon, to whom he contracted a consider-
able debt. He returned to England in 1594, and in the next
year was admitted to the Middle Temple. While abroad he had
am time to time provided Robert Devereux, second earl of
ex, with information, and he now definitely entered his
ervice as one of his agents or secretaries. It was his duty to
apply intelligence of affairs in Transylvania, Poland, Italy and
Germany. Wotton was not, like his unfortunate fellow-secretary,
Henry Cuffe, who was hanged at Tyburn in 1601, actually in-
volved in Essex's downfall, but he thought it prudent to leave
England, and within sixteen hours of his patron's apprehension
he was safe in France, whence he travelled to Venice and Rome.
In 1602 he was resident at Florence, and a plot to murder James
VI. of Scotland having come to the ears of the grand-duke of
Tuscany, Wotton was entrusted with letters to warn him of the
danger, and with Italian antidotes against poison. As " Ottavio
Baldi " he travelled to Scotland by way of Norway. He was well
received by James, and remained three months at the Scottish
court, retaining his Italian incognito. He then returned to
Florence, but on receiving the news of James's accession hurried
to England. James knighted him, and offered him the embassy
at Madrid or Paris; but Wotton, knowing that both these offices
involved ruinous expense, desired rather to represent James at
Venice. He left London in 1604 accompanied by Sir Albertus
Morton, his half-nephew, as secretary, and William Bedell, the
author of an Irish translation of the Bible, as chaplain. Wotton
spent most of the next twenty years, with two breaks (1612-1616
and 1619-1621), at Venice. He helped the Doge in his resistance
to ecclesiastical aggression, and was closely associated with
Paolo Sarpi, whose history of the Council of Trent was sent to
King James as fast as it was written. Wotton had offended the
scholar Caspar Schoppe, who had been a fellow student at
Altdorf. In 1611 Schoppe wrote a scurrilous book against James
entitled Ecclesiasticus, in which he fastened on Wotton a saying
which he had incautiously written in a friend's album years
before. It was the famous definition of an ambassador as an
"honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country."
It should be noticed that the original Latin form of the epigram
did not admit of the double meaning. This was adduced as an
example of the morals of James and his servants, and brought
Wotton into temporary disgrace. Wotton was at the time on
leave in England, and made two formal defences of himself, one
a personal attack on his accuser addressed to Marcus Welser of
Strassburg, and the other privately to the king. He failed to
secure further diplomatic employment for some time, and seems
to have finally won back the royal favour by obsequious support
in parliament of James's claim to impose arbitrary taxes on
merchandise. In 1614 he was sent to the Hague and in 1616 he
returned to Venice. In 1620 he was sent on a special embassy to
Ferdinand II. at Vienna, to do what he could on behalf of James's
daughter Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia. Wotton's devotion to
this princess, expressed in his exquisite verses beginning " You
meaner beauties of the night," was sincere and unchanging.
At his departure the emperor presented him with a jewel of great
value, 'which Wotton received with due respect, but before
leaving the city he gave it to his hostess, because, he said, he
would accept no gifts from the enemy of the Bohemian queen.
After a third term of service in Venice he returned to London
early in 1624 and in July he was installed as provost of Eton
College. This office did not relieve him from his pecuniary
embarrassments, and he was even on one occasion arrested for
debt, but he received in 1627 a pension of 200, and in 1630 this
was raised to 500 on the understanding that he should write
a history of England. He did not neglect the duties of his pro-
vostship, and was happy in being able to entertain his friends
lavishly. His most constant associates were Izaak Walton and
John Hales. A bend in the Thames below the Playing Fields,
known as " Black Potts," is still pointed out as the spot where
Wotton and Izaak Walton fished in company. He died at the
beginning of December 1639 and was buried in the chapel of
Eton College.
Sir Henry Wotton was not an industrious author, and his
writings are very small in bulk. Of the twenty-five poems
printed in Reliquiae Wottonianae only fifteen are Wotton's.
But of those fifteen two have obtained a place among the best
known poems in the language, the lines already mentioned " On
his Mistris, the Queen of Bohemia," and " The Character of a
Happy Life."
During his lifetime he published only The Elements of Architecture
(1624), which is a paraphrase from Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, and a
Latin prose address to the king on his return from Scotland (1633).
In 1651 appeared the Reliquiae Wottonianiae, with Izaak Walton's
Life. An admirable Life and Letters, representing much new
material, by Logan Pearsall Smith, was published in 1907. See also
A. W. Ward, Sir Henry Walton, a Biographical Sketch (1898).
WOTTON, NICHOLAS (c. 1497-1567), English diplomatist,
was a son of Sir Robert Wotton of Boughton Malherbe, Kent,
and a descendant of Nicholas Wotton, lord mayor of London in
1415 and 1430, and member of parliament for the city from
1406 to 1429. He early became vicar of Boughton Malherbe and
of Sutton Valence, and later of Ivychurch, Kent; but, desiring a
more worldly career, he entered the service of Cuthbert Tunstall,
bishop of London. Having helped to draw up the Institution
of a Christian Man, Wotton in 1539 went to arrange the marriage
between Henry VIII. and Anne of Cleves and the union of
Protestant princes which was to be the complement of this union.
He crossed over to England with the royal bride, but, unlike
Thomas Cromwell, he did not lose the royal favour when the king
repudiated Anne, and in 1 541 , having already refused the bishopric
of Hereford, he became dean of Canterbury and in 1544 dean of
York. In 1543 he went on diplomatic business to the Nether-
lands, and for the next year or two he had much intercourse with
the emperor Charles V. He helped to conclude the treaty of
peace between England and France in 1546, and was resident
ambassador in France from 1546 to 1549. Henry VIII. made
Wotton an executor of his will and left him 300, and in 1549,
under Edward VI., he became a secretary of state, but he only
held this post for about a year. In 1550 he was again sent as
envoy to Charles V., and he was ambassador to France during
the reign of Mary, doing valuable work in that capacity. He
left France in 1557, but in 1558 he was again in that country,
helping to arrange the preliminaries of the treaty of Cateau
Cambresis. In 1 560 he signed the treaty of Edinburgh on behalf
of Elizabeth, and he had again visited the Netherlands before
his death in London on the 26th of January 1567.
His brother, Sir Edward Wotton (1489-1551), was made
treasurer of Calais in 1 540, and was one of those who took part
in the overthrow of the protector Somerset. His son, Thomas
Wotton (1521-1587) was the father of Sir Henry Wotton (q.v.).
WOTTON, WILLIAM (1666-1727), English scholar, son of
the Rev. Henry Wotton, was born in his father's parish of
Wrentham, Suffolk, on the i3th of August 1666. He was not
yet ten years old when he was sent to Catherine Hall, Cambridge,
having by this time a good knowledge of Latin, Greek and
Hebrew. He obtained a fellowship at St John's College, and
was elected an F.R.S. in 1687. Wotton is chiefly remembered
for his share in the controversy about the respective merits of
ancient and modern learning. In his Reflections upon Ancient
and Modern Learning (1694, and again 1697) he took the part of
the moderns, although in a fair and judicial spirit, and was
attacked by Swift in the Battle of the Books. During some of his
later years Wotton resided in Wales and gave himself to the study
of Celtic, making a translation of the laws of Howel Dda, which
was published after his death (1730). Having taken holy orders,
he was a prebend of Salisbury from 1705 until his death at
Buxted, Essex, on the i3th of February 1727.
Wotton wrote a History of Rome (1701) and Miscellaneous Dis-
coveries relating to the Traditions and Usages of the Scribes and Phari-
sees (1718).
WOUND (O. Eng. awnJ, connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning
to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. vrinnan, whence Eng. " win ") ,
a solution in the continuity of the soft parts of the body. Con-
tused wounds, or bruises, are injuries to the cellular tissues in
which the skin is not broken. In parts where the tissues are lax
the signs of swelling and discoloration are more noticeable than
8 3 8
WOUWERMAN, P. WRANGEL, K. G. VON
in the tenser tissues. The discoloration is caused by haemorrhage
into the tissues (ecchymosis), and passes from dark purple through
green to yellow before it disappears. If a considerable amount of
blood is poured forth into the injured tissues it is termed a
haematoma. The treatment of a bruise consists in the application
of cold lotion, preferably an evaporating spirit-lotion, to limit
the subcutaneous bleeding. The haemorrhage usually becomes
absorbed of its own accord even in haematomata, but should
suppuration threaten an incision must be made and the cavity
aseptically evacuated.
Open wounds are divided into incised, lacerated, punctured and
gunshot wounds. Incised wounds are made by any sharp instrument
and have their edges evenly cut. In these wounds there is usually
free haemorrhage, as the vessels are cleanly divided. Lacerated
wounds are those in which the edges of the wound are torn irregularly.
Such injuries occur frequently from accidents with machinery or
blunt instruments, or from bites by animals. The haemorrhage
is less than from incised wounds, and the edges may be bruised.
Punctured wounds are those in which the depth is greater than the
external opening. They are generally produced by sharp-pointed
instruments. The chief danger arises from puncture of large blood-
vessels, or injury to important structures such as occur in the thorax
and abdomen. It is also difficult to keep such wounds surgically
clean and to obtain apposition of their deeper parts, and septic germs
are often carried in with. the instrument.
The treatment of incised wounds is to arrest the bleeding (see
HAEMORRHAGE)., cleanse the wound and its surroundings, removing
all foreign bodies (splinters, glass, &c.), and obtain apposition of the
cut surfaces. This is usually done by means of sutures or stitches of
silk, catgut, silkwormgut or silver wire. If the wound can be
rendered aseptic, incised wounds usually heal by first intention.
In lacerated wounds there is danger of suppuration, sloughing,
erysipelas or tetanus. These wounds do not heal by first intention,
and there is consequently considerable scarring. The exact amount
of time occupied in the repair depends upon the presence or not of
septic material, as lacerated wounds are very difficult to cleanse
properly. Carbolic acid lotion should be used for cleansing, while
torn or ragged portions should be cut away and provision made for
free drainage. It is not always possible to apply sutures at first,
but the wound may be packed with iodoform gauze, and later,
when a clean granulating surface has been obtained, skin-grafting
may be required. In extensive lacerated wounds, where the flesh
has been stripped from the bones, where there is spreading gangrene,
or in such wounds in conjunction with comminuted fractures or with
severe sepsis supervening, amputation of a limb may be called for.
Punctured wounds should be syringed with carbolic lotion, and all
splinters and foreign bodies removed- The location of needles is
rendered comparatively easy by the use of the Rontgen rays; the
wound can then be packed with gauze and drained. If a large vessel-
should have been injured, the wound may have to be laid open and
the bleeding vessel secured. Should paralysis indicate that a large
nerve has been divided, the wound must also be laid open in order
to suture the injured structure.
It is only possible here to mention some of the special character-
istics of gunshot wounds. In the modern small-bore rifle (Lee-
Metford, Mauser) the aperture of entry is small and the aperture of
exit larger and more slit-like. There is usually but little haemorrhage.
Should no large vessel be torn, and should no portion of septic
clothing be carried in, the wound may heal by first intention. Such
bullets may be said to disable without killing. They may drill a
clean hole in a bone without a fracture, but sometimes there is much
splintering. Abdominal wounds may be so small that the intestine
may be penetrated and adhesions of neighbouring coils of intestine
cover the aperture. Martini-Henry bullets make larger apertures,
while soft-nosed or " dum-dum " bullets spread out as soon as the
bullet strikes, causing great mutilation and destruction of the tissues.
Shell wounds cause extensive lacerations. Small shot may inflict
serious injury should one of the pellets enter the eye. In gunshot
wounds at short distance the skin may be blackened owing to the
particles of carbon lodging in it. The chief dangers of gunshot
wounds are haemorrhage, shock and the carrying in of septic material
or clothing into the wound.
WOUWERMAN, PHILIP (1619-1668), Dutch painter of
battle and hunting scenes, was bom at Haarlem in May 1619.
He learned the elements of his art from his father, Paul Joosten
Wouwerman, an historical painter of moderate ability, and he
then studied with the landscape painter, Jan Wynants (1620-
1679). Returning to Haarlem, he became a member of its gild
of painters in 1642, and there he died in May 1668. About
800 pictures were enumerated in John Smith's Catalogue raisonne
(1840) as the work of Philip Wouwerman, and in C. Hofstede
de Groot's enlarged Catalogue, vol. ii. (1909), the number exceeds
1200; but probably many of these are the productions of his
brothers Peter (1623-1682) and Jan (1620-1666), and of his
many other imitators. His authentic works are distinguished by
great spirit and are infinitely varied, though dealing recurrently
with cavalry battle-pieces, military encampments, cavalcades,
and hunting or hawking parties. He is equally excellent in his
vivacious treatment of figures, in his skilful animal painting,
and in his admirable and appropriate landscape backgrounds.
Three different styles have been observed as characteristic of
the various periods of his art. His earlier works are marked
by the prevalence of a foxy-brown colouring, and by a tendency
to angularity in draughtsmanship; the productions of his middle
period have greater purity and brilliancy; and his latest and
greatest pictures possess more of force and breadth, and are full
of a delicate silvery-grey tone.
See the Catalogue raisonne of the works of the most eminent
Dutch and Flemish Painters of the ijth Century, by De Groot, vol. ii.
(1909), referred to above.
WRAITH, a general term in popular parlance for the appear-
ance of the spirit of a living person. (See " Phantasms of the
Living," under PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.)
WRANGEL, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ERNST, COUNT VON
(1784-1877), Prussian general field marshal, was born at Stettin,
on the I3th of April 1784. He entered a dragoon regiment
in 1796, became cornet in 1797, and second lieutenant in 1798.
He fought as a subaltern against Napoleon, especially distinguish-
ing himself as Heilsberg in 1807, and receiving the order pout
le merile. In the reorganization of the army, Wrangel became
successively first lieutenant and captain, and won distinction
a.nd promotion to lieutenant-colonel in the War of Liberation
in 1813, won the Iron Cross at Wachau near Leipzig, and became
colonel in 1815. He commanded a cavalry brigade in 1821,
and two years later was promoted major-general. He commanded
the I3th Division, with headquarters at Minister, in Westphalia,
in 1834, when riots occurred owing to differences between the
archbishop of Cologne and the crown, and the determination and
resolution with which he treated the clerical party prevented
serious trouble. He was promoted lieutenant-general, received
many honours from the court, enjoyed the confidence of the
Junker party, and commanded successively at Konigsberg
and Stettin. In 1848 he commanded the II. Corps of the German
Federal army in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign, was promoted
general of cavalry, and won several actions. In the autumn he
was summoned to Berlin to suppress the riots there. As governor
of Berlin and commander-in-chief of the Mark of Brandenburg
(appointments which he held till his death) he proclaimed a
state of siege, and ejected the Liberal president and members
of the Chamber. Thus on two occasions in the troubled history
of Prussian revival Wrangel's uncompromising sternness achieved
its object without bloodshed. From this time onwards he was
most prominent in connexion with the revival of the Prussian
cavalry from the neglect and inefficiency into which it had fallen
during the years of peace and poverty after 1815. In 1856,
having then seen sixty years' service, he was made a field marshal.
At the age of eighty he commanded the Austro-Prussian army
in the war with Denmark in 1864 and though he was too old
for active work, and often issued vague or impracticable orders
(he himself had always desired that the young and Brilliant
'' Red Prince," Frederick Charles, should have the command),
the prestige of his name, and the actual good work of Frederick
Charles, Moltke and Vogel von Falckenstein among the Prussian,
and of Gablenz among the Austrian generals, made the campaign
a brilliant success. After the capture of Diippel he resigned
the command, was created a count, and received other honours.
In 1866 "Papa" Wrangel assisted in the Bohemian campaign,
but without a command on account of his great age. He took
a keen interest in the second reorganization of the cavalry arm
1866-1870, and in the war with France in 1870-71. He died
at Berlin on the and of November 1877. On the seventieth
anniversary of his entering the army his regiment, the 3rd
Cuirassiers, was given the title " Graf Wrangel."
See supplement to Militdr. WocnenUatt (1877), and lives by von
Koppen and von Maltitz (Berlin, 1884).
WRANGEL, KARL GUSTAV VON (1613-1676), Swedish
soldier, was descended from a family of Esthonian origin, branches
WRASSE WRECK
839
of which settled in Sweden, Russia and Germany. His father,
Hermann von Wrangel (1587-1643), was a Swedish field marshal
in Gustavus Adolphus's wars. Karl Gustav was born near
Upsala on the 23rd of December 1613, and at the age of twenty
distinguished himself as a cavalry captain in the war against
the Army of the League. Three years later he was colonel,
and in 1638 major-general, still serving in Germany. In 1644
he commanded a fleet at sea, which defeated the Danes at
Kehmarn on the 23rd of October. In 1646 he returned to
Germany as a field marshal and succeeded Torstensson as
commander-in-chief of the Swedish army in Germany, which
post he held during the last three campaigns of the Thirty Years'
War. Under Wrangel and Turenne the allied Swedish and
French armies marched and fought in Bavaria and Wiirttemberg.
At the outbreak of a fresh Polish war in 1655 Wrangel com-
manded a fleet, but in 1656 he was serving on land again and
commanding, along with the Great Elector of Brandenburg,
in the three days' battle of Warsaw. In 1657 he invaded Jutland
and in 1658 passed over the ice into the islands and took Kronborg.
In 1657 he was appointed admiral and in 1664 general of the
realm, and as such he was a member of the regency during the
minority of Charles XI. But his last campaign was unfortunate.
Commanding, ineffectively owing to his broken health, in the
war against Brandenburg, he was recalled after his stepbrother
Waldcmar, Freiherr von Wrangel (1647-1676), had been defeated
at Fehrbellin. He died at Riigen shortly afterwards, on the
5th of July 1676.
WRASSE, a name given to the fishes of the family Labridae
generally, and more especially to certain members of the
family. They are very abundant in the tropical zone, less so
in the temperate, and disappear altogether in the Arctic and
Antarctic Circles. Their body is gener-
ally compressed, like that of a carp,
covered with smooth (cycloid) scales;
they possess one dorsal fin only, the
anterior portion of which consists of
numerous spines. Many wrasses are
readily recognized by their thick lips,
the inside of which is sometimes curi-
ously folded, a peculiarity which has
given to them the German name of
" lip-fishes." The dentition of their
jaws consists of strong conical teeth, of which some in front, and
often one at the hinder end of the upper jaw, are larger than the
others. But the principal organs with which they crush shell-
fish, crustaceans and other hard substances are the solid and
strongly-toothed pharyngeal bones, of which the lower are
coalesced into a single flat triangular plate. All wrasses are
surface fishes, and rocky parts of the coast overgrown with
seaweed are their favourite haunts in the temperate, and coral-
reefs in the tropical seas. Some 450 species of wrasses (including
parrot-wrasses) are known, chiefly from the tropics.
Of the British wrasses the ballan wrasse (Labrus maculatus) and
the striped or red or cook wrasse (Labrus mixlus) are the most
common. Both belong to the genus Labrus, in which the teeth
stand in a single series, and which nas a smooth edge of the praepper-
culum and only three spines in the anal fin. The ballan wrasse is the
larger, attaining to a length of 18 in., and, it is said, to a weight of
8 ft; its colours are singularly variegated, green or brownish, with
red and blue lines and spots; the dorsal spines are twenty in number.
The cook wrasse offers an instance of well-marked secondary sexual
difference the male being ornamented with blue streaks or a blackish
band along the side of the body, whilst the female has two or three
large black spots across the back of the tail. This species possesses
only from sixteen to eighteen spines in the dorsal fin. The goldsinny
or corkwing (Crenilabrus melops) is much more frequent on the S.
coasts of England and Ireland than farther N., and rarely exceeds a
length of 10 in. As in other wrasses, its colours are beautiful, but
variable ; but it may be readily distinguished from the two preceding
species by the toothed edge of the praeoperculum. The three other
British wrasses are much scarcer and more local, viz. Jago's goldsinny
(Ctenolabrus rupeslris), with a large black spot on the anterior dorsal
spines and another on the base of the upper caudal rays; Acantho-
labrus palloni, which is so rarely captured that it lacks a vernacular
name, but may be easily recognized by its five anal spines and by
the teeth in the jaws forming a band; and the rock-cook (Centro-
Lips of Labrus festivus.
labrus exoletus), which also has five anal spines, but has the jaws
armed with a single series of teeth.
On the Atlantic coasts of the N. states of the United States the
wrasses are represented by the genus Tautoga. The only species of
this genus, known by the names of tautog or blackfish, is much
esteemed as food. It is caught in great numbers, and generally sold
of a weight of about 2 tb.
WRAXALL, SIR NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1751-1831),
English author, was born in Queen's Square, Bristol, on the
8th of April 1751. He was the son of a Bristol merchant,
Nathaniel Wraxall, and his wife Anne, great niece of Sir James
Thornhill the painter. He entered the employment of the East
India Company in 1769, and served as judge-advocate and
paymaster during the expeditions against Guzerat and Baroche
in 1771. In the following year he left the service of the company
and returned to Europe. He visited Portugal and was pre-
sented to the court, of which he gives a curious account in his
Historical Memoirs; and in the N. of Europe he made the
acquaintance of several Danish nobles who had been exiled for
their support of the deposed Queen Caroline Matilda, sister of
George III. Wraxall at their suggestion undertook to endeavour
to persuade the king to act on her behalf. He was able to secure
an interview with her at Zell in September 1774. His exertions
are told in his Posthumous Memoirs. As the queen died on the
i ith of May 1775, his schemes came to nothing and he complained
that he was out of pocket, but George III. took no notice of him
for some time. In 1775 he published his first book, Cursory
Remarks made in a Tour through some of the Northern Parts of
Europe, which reached its fourth edition by 1807, when it was
renamed A Tour Round the Baltic. In 1777 he travelled again
in Germany and Italy. As he had by this time secured the
patronage of important people, he obtained a complimentary
lieutenant's commission from the king on the application of
Lord Robert Manners, which gave him the right to wear uniform
though he never performed any military service. In this year
he published his Memoirs of the Kings of France of the Race of
Valois, to which he appended an account of his tour in the
Western, Southern and Interior Provinces of France. In 1778
he went again on his travels to Germany and Italy, and accumu-
lated materials for his Memoirs of the Courts of Berlin, Dresden,
Warsaw and Vienna (1799). In 1780 he entered parliament
and sat till 1794 for Hinton in Wiltshire, Ludgershall and
Wallingford, in succession. He published in 1795 the beginning
of a History of France from the Accession of Henry III. to the
Death of Louis XI V., which was never completed. Little is known
of his later years except that he was made a baronet by the
prince regent in 1813. His Historical Memoirs appeared in
1815. Both they and the Posthumous Memoirs (1836) are very
readable and have real historical value. Wraxall married Miss
Jane Lascelles in 1789, and died suddenly at Dover on the 7th
of November 1831. His grandson, Sir F. C. Lascelles Wraxall
(1828-1865), was a miscellaneous writer of some note.
See preface to The Historical and Posthumous Memoirs of Sir N. W.
Wraxall, by H. B. Wheatley (London, 1884).
WREATH (O. Eng. weed, from wridan, to. twist), a band of
leaves, flowers or metal, twisted into a circular form, and used
either as a chaplet or diadem for the head or as an ornament
to be hung upon or round an object. For the ancient usages
of crowning victors in the games with wreaths, and the bestowal
of them as marks of honour see CROWN and CORONET.
WRECK, a term which in its widest sense means anything
without an apparent owner that is afloat upon, sunk in, or
cast ashore by the sea; in legal phraseology, as appears below,
it has a narrower meaning. Old Norman forms of the word, varec
and veresc, are to be found in charters of 1181 and later date;
and the former is still in use in Normandy. Latinized it becomes
wreccum, wreckum or warectum; and such phrases as mar is
ejectum, jaclura maris, adventura marts, shipbrychc, are all used
as descriptions of wreck. In Anglo-Saxon charters s<6-&pwyrp,
and in the charters of the Cinque Ports inventiones, a translation
of " findalls," probably a local word, are synonymous with
wreck. Formerly an appreciable source of revenue to the crown,
afterwards a valuable addition to the income of a landowner
840
WRECK
on the sea coast, wreck has almost within modern times ceased
to be a perquisite of either, or to enrich the casual finder at the
expense of its rightful owner. The history of the law as sketched
below will indicate how this has come about.
History. Of old it seems to have been the general rule in the
civilized maritime countries of Europe that the right to wreck be-
longed to the sovereign, and formed part of the royal revenue.
This was so under the Roman, French and feudal law; and in Eng-
land the common law set out in the statute De praerogativa regis
(17 Edw. II., 1324) , provided that the king has wreck of the sea, whales
and sturgeons taken in the sea and elsewhere within the kingdom,
except in certain places privileged by the king. This right, which it
is said had for its object the prevention of the practice of destroying
the property of the shipwrecked, was, however, gradually relaxed;
and the owner of wreck was allowed to recover it if he made claim
to it, and gave proof of his ownership within a certain time fixed
at a year or a year and a day alike by a decree of Antonine the
Great, the feudal law, the general maritime law, the law of France
and English law. Richard I. released his prerogative right to
wreck to the extent of allowing children, or if there were none,
brothers and sisters of a perishing owner, to have his goods; and
Henry III., by a charter of 1236, allowed the owner of wrecked
goods to have his property again if he claimed within three months,
provided that any man or beast escaped from the ship. The statute
of Westminster the First (1276, 3 Edw. I.) provided that where a
man, a dog or a cat escape alive out of the snip, such ship or barge
or anything in it shall not be adjudged wreck, but the goods shall be
saved and kept by view of the sheriff, coroner or the king's bailiff,
and delivered into the hands of such as are of the town where the
goods were found, so that if any one sue for those goods and prove
that they were his, or perished within his keeping, within a year and
a day, they shall be restored to him without delay, and if not they
shall remain to the king or to such others to whom the wreck be-
longed. In 1277 the statute De officio coronatoris made provision for
the safe custody of wreck, but coroners were relieved of their duties
in respect of wreck by the Coroners Act 1887. An act of 1353 pro-
vided for the delivery to the merchants of goods coming to land
which may not be said to be wreck, on payment of salvage. In
Scotland, a statute of Alexander II., similar to that of Westminster,
declared that where any creature escapes alive from a wrecked
vessel, the goods cast away are not accounted wreck, but are to be
preserved by the sheriff for those who within a year shall prove their
property therein ; otherwise they shall escheat to the crown. For a
long time the view of English law was that the right to recover
wrecked property depended on the fact of a live creature escaping,
though in Hale's words, " because it was lex odiosa to add affliction
to the afflicted, it was bound up with as many limits and circum-
stances, and restricted to as narrow a compass as might be " ; and
the admiralty records illustrate the statement. Thus in 1382 the
prior of Wymondham claimed as wreck a ship which came ashore
with no one on board, the men having left her for fear of their lives
because of an enemy ship which was about to capture her; but the
king's council, before whom it came, by certioran from the admiral
of the north, decided against the claim. In 1543, ships grounded on
the Goodwins were held to be waif and wreck, although their crews to
save their lives made their way to shore; and in 1637 a ship in the
Cinque Ports was proceeded against in admiralty and condemned,
" no man or dog being on board, but only a dead man with his head
shot off. " Upon the institution of the office of lord high admiral
early in the I5th or at the close of the I4th century, it became usual
for the crown to grant to the lord admiral by his patent of appoint-
ment, amongst other proficua et commoditates appertaining to his
office, wreck of the sea; and when, early in the reign of Henry VIII.,
vice-admirals of the coast were created, the lord admiral by patent
under his own hand delegated to them his rights and duties in the
several counties, including those in connexion with wreck. He did
not, however, part with the whole of his emoluments; his vice-
admirals were required to render an account of the proceeds of
wreck, and to hand over to him a part, usually one-half, of their gains.
This system, depending not upon any statute, but apparently upon
an arrangement between the lord-admiral and his vice-admirals,
continued until the year 1846. In that year an act (9 & 10 Viet,
c. 99) was passed forbidding the vice-admirals to intermeddle with
wreck, and it required the receivers of droits of admiralty to receive
all wreck from the finders and to detain it for twelve calendar
months ; at the end of that period it was to be sold and the proceeds
carried to the credit of the consolidated fund. The transfer to this
fund of the hereditary casual revenues of the crown had previously
been effected by legislation in the first years of the reigns of William
IV. and Victoria, by which the civil list was instituted. The last
lord-admiral, however, who beneficially enjoyed the proceeds of
wreck was the duke of Buckingham in the reign of Charles I. Prince
George of Denmark, Queen Anne's husband and lord-admiral, took
wreck by his patent, but by a collateral instrument he surrendered
the greater part of the revenues of his office to the crown. Not-
withstanding this arrangement, the vice-admirals of counties, who,
in the absence of a lord high admiral, received their appointments
sometimes from the crown and sometimes from the commissioners
of the admiralty, appear to have taken the whole or part of the
proceeds of wreck until the passing of the act of 1846. The ancient
jaw by which the unfortunate owner was deprived of his property,
if no living thing escaped from the wreck, had during the l6th and
I7th centuries been gradually but tacitly relaxed; it required,
however, a decision of Lord Mansfield and the king's bench in 1771
(Hamilton v. Davis, 5 Burr. 2732) to settle the law definitely that,
whether or no any living creature escaped, the property in a wreck
remains in the owner. In Scotland it seems that the same law had
been laid down in 1725, and there are indications that upon the
continent of Europe there had before this date been a relaxation of
the old law in the same direction. As early as 1269 a treaty with
Norway provides that owners of ships wrecked upon the coasts of
England or Norway should not be deprived of their goods (Rym.
Foed. 1450). The system under which the lord-admiral and the vice-
admirals of counties had for more than three centuries taken charge
of wreck never worked well. Their interest was directly opposed
to their duty; for it was to the interest of every one concerned,
except the owners and crews of ships in distress, that nothing should
land alive. Apart from this, the system discouraged legitimate
salvors. The admirals and vice-admirals had by degrees assumed
that all salvage operations were exclusively their business; they
took possession of wreck brought or cast ashore, whether it was
legal wreck or not, and this often gave rise to conflicts with outside
working salvors. It was not until the 1 7th century that working
salvors established the right, which they now have, to a lien upon
property saved as a security for adequate remuneration of their
exertions in saving it; and if the vice-admirals restored to its
owners wreck that had come to their hands, they did so only upon
payment of extravagant demands for salvage, storage and often
legal expenses. A curious side light is thrown upon their practices
by the case of an English ship that went ashore on the coast of
Prussia in 1743. Frederick the Great restored her to her owners,
but before doing so he exacted from them a bond tor the full value
of ship and cargo, and the condition of the bond was that the owners
would within six months produce a certificate under seal of the
English admiralty that by the law of England no " salvage " was
payable to the crown or to the admiral of England in the like case
of a Prussian ship going ashore upon an English coast. The records
of the admiralty court show that Frederick's action in this case was
intended as a protest, not against the payment of a fair reward to
salvors of Prussian ships, but against exactions by English vice-
admirals and their officers. Stories of wilful wrecking of ships and
of even more evil deeds are probably exaggerations, but modern
research has authenticated sufficient abuses to show that further
legislation was necessary to regulate the taking possession of wreck
and ships in distress by " sea-coasters. " Previously to the passing
of the act of 1846 the only substantial protection against plunder
which owners of a wrecked ship could get was to apply to the ad-
miralty judge for a commission enabling them or their agents to take
possession of what came ashore; but to obtain such a commission
took time and cost money, and before the commissioners arrived
at the scene of the wreck a valuable cargo would have disappeared
and been dispersed through the country. Plunder of wrecks was
common, and the crowds that collected for the purpose set law at
defiance. The vice-admirals, even if they had been able, did little
to protect the ship wrecked. Complaints from the lord-admiral
that they neglected to render accounts of their profits were constant ;
and although the crown and the lord-admiral profited little by
wreck, there is reason to think that the gains of vice-admirals and
their officers, and also of landowners and dwellers on the coast,
were more considerable. Many of the vice-admirals' accounts of the
1 7th and following centuries are extant. Most of them are for
trifling sums, but occasionally the amounts are considerable. A
vice-admiral for Cornwall charges himself in his account for the years
1628-1634 with [a sum of 29,253, and in 1624 the duke of
Buckingham found it worth his while to buy out the rights
of the warden of the Cinque Ports over wreck within his
jurisdiction for 1000 in addition to an annuity of 500 for the
warden's jife. At the close of the i?th century the vice-admirals
were required to make affidavits as to the amount of their gains; in
1 709 twenty of them swore that their office was worth less than 50
in the year.
The right of the warden of the Cinque Ports to wreck, above
alluded to, was derived from charters granted to the ports by Edward
I. and his successors; many other seaports enjoyed a similar right
under early charters. It would seem that these rights were of some
value, for in 1829 the little towns of Dunwich and Southwold litigated
at a cost of 1000 the question whether a tub of whisky picked up at
sea belonged to the admiralty jurisdiction of the one town or the
other; and the town of 'Yarmouth is said to have spent no less than
7000 upon a similar question. It was partly in order to put an end
to all dealings with wreck by local admiralty courts that the Municipal
Corporations Act of 1835 was passed, abolishing all of them, except
that of the Cinque Ports.
Grants of wreck to individuals are earlier than those to towns.
Even before the conquest it seems to have been not unusual for
grantees from the crown of lands adjoining the sea to get the fran-
chise of wreck included in their grants. A charter purporting to be
of the year 1023 contains a grant by King Canute to the abbot of
Canterbury of wreck found at sea below low-water mark as far as a
WRECK
841
man could by wading touch it with a sprit (Kemble, Cod. Dipl., No.
737). There is reason to think that before the end of the reign of
Henry II. the crown had granted away its right to wreck round a
great part of the coast of England. Although a landowner of the
nt day, who under such a grant is entitled to wreck, will, in
respect of wreck itself, derive no substantial benefit, nevertheless
the grant may be of great value as evidence of his right to the fore-
shore; and even where no grant of wreck can be produced, if he can
show that he and his predecessors have been accustomed to take
possession of wreck on the foreshore, it is strong evidence as against
the crown of his right to the foreshore, and a lost grant may be
presumed. As to these grants of wreck Hale says that " though
wreck of the sea doth dejure communi belong to the king, yet it may
In-long to a subject by charter or by prescription.... Sometime
wreck hath belonged to an honour by prescription, as in the honour
of Arundel, sometimes to the owner of a county. The lords of all
counties palatine regularly had wreccum marts within their counties
palatine as part of their jura regalia, but yet inferior lords might
prescribe for wreck belonging to their several manors within a
county palatine. The earl of Cornwall had wreccum marts per
totum comitatum Cornubiae; for though Cornwall was not a county
palatine, it had many royalties belonging to it, viz. as against the
king, though particular lords might prescribe for wreck against
the earl" (De jure marts, i. vii.; Hargrave, 41). In the Isle of
Man unreclaimed wreck, whether cast on shore or found in the
sea, within the headlands of Man, belongs to the lord, now the
crown by purchase from the duke of Athol ; in the Channel Islands
a(l wreck cast on shore or within reach of a person standing on
shore, except certain valuables which go to the crown, belongs to
the lord of the manor if not reclaimed within a year and a day;
while in Wales the old law made everything thrown on shore belong
to the king, for " the sea is a packhorse of the king " (A. G. v.
Jones, 2 H. & C. 347). In Scotland, as in England, unclaimed
wreck belonged to the crown and was often granted to subjects,
generally under the style of " wrak, waith and ware," the last two
words signifying derelict and seaweed. It was so granted to the earl
of Orkney in 1581. It was occasionally dealt with by the Scottish
parliament. Thus by an act of 1426, ships wrecked on the coast of
Scotland were to be escheat to the king if they belonged to a country
observing a similar law, otherwise to have the favour shown to ships
of Scotland. In France under the name of droit de bris or droit
d'ipave similar grants were made to feudal seigneurs.
From early times a distinction was made in English law between
wreck cast ashore and wreck that is floating or sunken below low-
water mark. Wreck proper, or common law wreck, ejectum marts,
is what is cast by the sea upon the shore; for " nothing shall be said
to be wreccum marts, but such goods as are cast or left upon the land "
(Sir H. Constable's Case, 1599, 5 Rep. 106), and this belonged to the
king jur e coronae, and was dealt with by the common law. Floating
and sunken wreck belonged to the crown as inter regalia, but was
granted to the lord-admiral jure reeis. Even when the office of lord
nigh admiral is in abeyance, ana the duties performed by com-
missioners, as now, these rights are distinguished from the other royal
revenues as belonging to the crown in its office of admiralty, or, as
they are commonly known, droits of the admiralty. From early
times the lord-admiral tried to usurp, and there are several instances
of his actually usurping jurisdiction over wreck proper; and in the
reign of Richard II. special statutes (which were only declaratory
of the common law) were passed for the purpose of confining his
jurisdiction to its proper limits. One of these (15 Ric. II.) declared
that " of all manner of contracts, pleas and cjuereles, and all other
things arising within the bodies of the counties as well by land as
by water and also of wreck of the sea, the admiral's court shall have
no manner of cognizance, power nor jurisdiction, but all such manner
of contracts, pleas and quereles, and all other things rising within
the bodies of counties as well by land as by water as afore, and also
wreck of the sea, shall be tried by the laws of the land and not before
nor by the admiral nor his lieutenant in any wise."
In spite of this statute, instances still occurred of the admiralty
court exercising this jurisdiction, until by frequent prohibition by
the common law courts, especially in the I7th century, and by the
admission of the admiralty judges themselves, it was recognized as
beyond the scope of their authority. These admiralty droits are
classified as flotsam, jetsam, lagan and derelict. In Lord Coke's
words, flotsam is " when a ship sinks or otherwise perishes, and the
goods float on the sea "; jetsam is " when goods are cast out of a
ship to lighten her when in danger of sinking, and afterwards the ship
perishes ' ; and ligan, or lagan, is " when heavy goods are, to lighten
the ship, cast out and sunk in the sea tied to a buoy or cork, or some-
thing that will not sink, in order that they may be found again and
recovered." Derelict is a ship or cargo, or part of it, abandoned by
its master and crew sine spe recuperandi et sine animo revertendt.
" None of these goods," adds Coke, " which are so called, are called
wreck so long as they remain in or upon the sea; but if any of them
by the sea be put upon the land then they shall be said to be wreck"
(Sir H. Constable's Case, 1599, 5 Rep. 106; and 2 Inst. 167). Hale
says" they are not wreck of the sea but of another nature, neither do
they pass by wreccum marts as is recorded in Sir Henry Constable's
case and the case of the 3 Edw. II., where they are styled adventurae
marts. And as they are of another nature, so they are of another
cognizance or jurisdiction, viz. the admiral jurisdiction. Flotsam,
jetsam and lagan, and other sea estrays, if they are taken up in the
wide ocean, belong to the taker of them if the owner cannot be known.
But if they be taken up within the narrow seas that do belong to\he
king, or in any haven, port or creek or arm of the sea, they do prima
facie and of common right belong to the king, in case where the ship
perisheth or the owner cannot be known. . . . But if the owner can
be known he ought to have his goods again, for the casting them
overboard is not a loss of his property. Although the right of these
adventures of the sea within the king s seas belongs to him where the
owner cannot be known, yet the king hath little advantage of it, for
by the custom of the English seas the one moiety of what is gained
belongs to him that saves it [this is not the present rule] A
subject may be entitled to these as he may be entitled to wreck
(i) by charter; (2) by prescription " (Dejure marts; Hargrave,
41, 42). The difference between these two kinds of wreck is clearly
brought out in R. v. 49 Casks of Brandy (1836, 3 Hagg. Ad. 257;
and R. v. 2 Casks of Tallow, tbid. 294) a dispute between the
crown and a grantee of wreck, where it was decided that objects
picked up below low-water mark, and within 3 m. of it, as also
objects afloat between high- and low-water marks, never having
touched the ground, are droits of the crown, whereas objects picked
up aground between high- and low-water marks, or though aground,
yet covered by the waves, are wreck.
The distinction that Hale draws in the above passage between
sea waifs or estrays taken on the high seas, and those taken in the
seas of the realm, seems to be founded on the occupaJio of the civil
law; but although favoured by the similar rule existing in the case
of royal fish, it has not been recognized by the courts, which have
always held that in both cases they are droits of the crown in its
office of admiralty, and, subject to the right of the salvor to reward
and the right of the owner to reclaim them in a year and a day, go
to the royal revenue (Lord Stowell, The Aquila, 1798, i C. Rob. 37).
Lord Stowell bases this prerogative right " on the general rule of
civilized countries that what is found derelict on the seas is acquired
beneficially for the sovereign, if no owner shall appear." It seems
that this was also Coke's view (2 Inst. 168).
The provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, mentioned
below, upon the subject of droits of admiralty are not clear. In
practice the only droits of the admiralty that are commonly dealt
with are anchors that have been slipped or parted from in heavy
weather. In the Downs and other roadsteads these are " swept
for by creepers towed over the sea bottom, and in former days
sweeping for anchors was a common industry. In the Downs large
sums have been made after gales in this way. In the i?th century
it became customary to obtain from the crown grants oT the right to
fish for sunken wreck and treasure not only upon English coasts but
all over the world.
Although a ship on board which, or by means of which a man was
killed, might be a deodand ({..), yet qua wreck she was not subject
to forfeiture as deodand.
Present British Law. From the above sketch of the develop-
ment of the law of wreck it will be seen that it owes little to the
legislature. After the act of 1353 no statute dealt with the sub-
ject until 1712. In that year a salvage act was passed, but it
made no material alteration in the law; and although during
the i8th and early ipth centuries several acts were passed
dealing fragmentarily with wreck and salvage, the act of 1846,
above mentioned, is the only one that calls for notice. That
act was embodied in and added to by the Merchant Shipping
Act 1854, which again was repealed, re-enacted and added to
by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. The last mentioned act
contains the whole of the existing statute law upon the subject
of wreck within the territorial waters of the United Kingdom.
For its purposes wreck includes jetsam, flotsam, lagan and
derelict, found in or on the shores of the sea or any tidal water.
The term does not extend to a barge adrift in the Thames, nor
a raft of timber adrift; it must be the hull, cargo or appurten-
ances of a vessel. Under the Sea Fisheries Act 1883, passed to
give effect to the North Sea Fisheries Convention, the provisions
of the Merchant Shipping Act as to wreck apply to fishing boats
with their rigging and gear.
The provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act dealing with wreck
(ninth part) may be summarized as follows: The Board of Trade
(as the receiver-general of droits of admiralty) has the general super-
intendence of wreck in the United Kingdom, and appoints receivers
of wreck for the whole coast, who are paid by fees. Where a British
or foreign vessel is wrecked, stranded or in distress, at any place on
or near the coasts or any tidal water within the limits of the kingdom,
it is the duty of the receiver for the district to proceed there and give
directions for preserving the ship, the lives on board her and her
cargo and apparel. He can require the assistance of any person,
especially the master of any vessel, or the use of any waggons, carts
or horses, near at hand; and for this purpose any person may,
WREDE
unless there is a public road equally convenient, pass and repass
with or without horses or carriages over any adjoining lands without
the owner's or occupier's consent, doing as little damage as possible,
and may also deposit there any things recovered from the ship; any
damage so done is a charge on the ship, cargo or articles, and is
recoverable like salvage (q.v.). Penalties are imposed on any owner
or occupier hindering the operations. The receiver has power to
suppress any plundering or disorder, or any hindering of the preser-
vation of the ship, persons, cargo or apparel. Where any vessel,
wrecked or in distress as above, is plundered, damaged or destroyed,
by any riotous or tumultuous assembly ashore or afloat, compensa-
tion must be made to her owner in England and Scotland by the
same authority which would be liable to pay compensation in cases
of riot (q.v.), and in Ireland in cases of malicious injuries to property.
In the absence of the receiver, his powers may be exercised by the
following officers or persons in successive order, viz. a chief officer
of customs, principal officer of coast-guard, inland revenue officer,
sheriff, justice of the peace, and naval or military officer on full pay.
These persons act as the receiver's agent and put the salvage in his
custody, but they are not entitled to any fees nor are they deprived
of any right to salvage by so doing. An examination is also directed
to be held, in cases of ships in distress on the coasts of the kingdom,
by a wreck receiver, wreck commissioner or his deputy, at the request
of the Board of Trade or a justice of the peace, by evidence on oath
as to the name and description of ship, name of master, shipowner
and owner of cargo, ports to and from which the ship was bound, the
occasion of the ship's distress, the services rendered and the like.
The act provides as follows for dealing with wreck : Any one finding
wreck, if he is the owner of it, must give notice of his having done so
to the receiver of the district, and if he is not the owner he must de-
liver it to that officer as soon as possible, except for reasonable cause,
e.g. if, as a salvor, he retains it with the knowledge of the receiver.
No articles belonging to a wrecked ship found at the time of the
casualty must be taken or kept by any person, whether their owner
or not, but must be handed over to the receiver. The receiver
taking possession of any wreck must give notice of it, with a descrip-
tion, at the nearest custom-house; and if the wreck is in his opinion
worth more than 20, also to Lloyd's. The owner of any wreck in the
hands of a receiver must establish his claim to it within a year, and
on so doing, and paying all expenses, is entitled to have it restored
to him. Where a foreign ship has been wrecked on or near the coast,
and any articles forming part of her cargo are found on or near the
coast, or are brought into any port, the consular officer of the foreign
country to which the ship or cargo belongs is deemed to be the agent
for the owner so far as the custody and disposal of the articles is
concerned. The receiver may in certain cases, e.g. where the value
is small, sell the wreck and hold the proceeds till claimed. The right
to unclaimed wreck belongs to the crown, except in places where the
crown has granted that right to others. Persons so entitled, such as
admirals vice-admirals are mentioned in the act (sed quaere)
lords of manors and the like, are entitled, after giving the receiver
notice and particulars of their title, to receive notice from the receiver
of any wreck there found. Where wreck is not claimed by an owner
within a year after it was found, and has been in the hands of a
receiver, it can be claimed by the person entitled to wreck in the place
where it was found, and he is ent itled to have it after paying expenses
and salvage connected with it; if no such person claims it, it is sold
by the receiver, and the net proceeds are applied for the benefit of the
crown, either for the duchy of Lancaster or the duchy of Cornwall ;
or if these do not claim it, it goes to the crown. Where the title to
unclaimed wreck is disputed, the dispute may be settled summarily
as in cases of salvage ; either party, if dissatisfied, may within three
months after a year since the wreck came into the hands of the
receiver proceed in any competent court to establish his title.
Delivery of unclaimed wreck by the receiver discharges him from
liability, but does not prejudice the title thereto. The Board of
Trade has power to purchase rights of wreck. No person exercising
admiralty jurisdiction as grantee of wreck may interfere with wreck
otherwise than in accordance with the act. Duties are payable on
wrecked goods coming into the United Kingdom or Isle of Man as if
they had been imported thither; and goods wrecked on their home-
ward voyage may be forwarded to their original destination, or, if
wrecked on their outward voyage, to their port of shipment, on due
security being taken for the protection of the revenue. Wreck com-
missioners may be appointed by the lord chancellor to hold investi-
gations into shipping casualties, to act as judges of courts of survey,
and to take examinations in respect of ships in distress.
The owner of a wrecked ship, sunk by his negligence in a navigable
highway, so as to be an obstruction to navigation, if he retains the
ownership of her, is liable in damages to the owner of any other ship
which without negligence runs into her. If, however, the owner has
taken steps to indicate her position, or the harbour authority at his
request has undertaken to do so, no action lies against him for
negligence either in rem or in personam. He may, however (whether
the sinking was due to his negligence or not), abandon the ship, and
can thus free himself from any further liability in respect of her.
If he abandons her to any other. person e.g. an underwriter who
pays for her as for a total loss, that person does not become liable
for her unless he takas possession or control in any way. Harbour
authorities generally have by local statute, as they have by the
general Harbours, Docks and Piers Clauses Act 1847 (if incorporated
in their own act), the power of removing the wreck in such a case,
and recouping themselves for their expenses from its proceeds. The
general act also gives a personal right of action against the owner
for any balance of expense over the value of the wreck; but if the
owner has abandoned it, and no one else has taken it, neither he nor
any one else is liable. A particular or local act (as e.g. one of the
State of Victoria) may, however, fasten this liability on the person
who is owner at the time when the ship is wrecked, and then he
cannot free himself of it. A harbour authority is not obliged to
remove a wreck because it has power to do so, unless it takes dues
from vessels using the harbour where the wreck lies, or in some way
warrants that the harbour is safe for navigation, in which case it is
under an obligation to do so. Further statutory provision is now
made in this respect by the Merchant Shipping Act, which empowers
harbour authorities to raise, remove or destroy (and meantime buoy
or light), or to sell and reimburse themselves out of the proceeds
of any vessel or part of a vessel, her tackle, cargo, equipment and
stores, sunk, stranded or abandoned in any water under their control,
or any approach thereto, which is an obstruction or danger to navi-
gation or lifeboat service. They must first give due notice of such
intention, and must allow the owner to have the wreck on his paying
the fair market value. The act gives similar powers to lighthouse
authorities, with a provision that any dispute between a harbour and
lighthouse authority in this respect is to be determined finally by
the Board of Trade. Provision is also made by statute for the burial
of bodies cast on shore from the sea by wreck or otherwise within the
limits of parishes, or, in extra-parochial places, by the parish officers
or constables at the cost of the county ; and lords of manors entitled
to wreck may defray part of the cost of burial of bodies cast up
within the manor, as evidence of their right of wreck.
The method of dealing with wreck outside territorial waters (which
does not come within the scope of the act) is governed by the previous
general law relating to droits of admiralty. The Board of Trade, as
receiver-general, in its instructions to receivers, directs that wreck
picked up at sea out of the limits of the United Kingdom, or brought
to it by British ships, is to be taken possession of by the receiver
and held by him on behalf of the owners, or, if the owners do not claim
it, on behalf of the crown. Derelict ships picked up at sea outside
territorial limits and brought into British ports must be delivered to
the receiver and kept by him until the owner can be found (but not
longer than a year and a day). Wreck picked up out of territorial
limits by a foreign ship need not be interfered with by the receiver,
unless upon application by a party interested. For the receiver's
rights with respect to property in distress and its liability to salvage,
see SALVAGE.
By an act of 1896 it is the duty of the master of a British ship to
report to Lloyd's agent, or to the secretary of Lloyd's, any floating
derelict ship which he may fall in with at sea. Under the Merchant
Shipping Act, it is a felony to take wreck found in territorial limits
to a foreign port, and it is punishable by fine to interfere with a
wreck. The receiver has power, by means of a search warrant from
a justice, to search for wreck which he has reason to believe is con-
cealed. By the general criminal law in Scotland plundering wreck is
punishable at common law; and in England and Ireland it is a felony
to plunder or steal any wreck or part thereof, to destroy any wreck
or part thereof, to prevent or impede any person on board a wreck
from saving himself, and to exhibit any false signal with the intent
of endangering any ship, or to do anything tending to the immediate
loss or destruction of a ship for which no other punishment is
provided.
AUTHORITIES. Du Cange, Glossarium, tit. " Wreckum "; Chief-
Justice Hale, De jure maris; Hargrave, Tracts (London, 1787);
Palmer, Law of Wreck, Law Tracts (London, 1843); Marsden.
Select Pleas of Admiralty, Selden Society (London, 1892 and 1897);
Records of the Admiralty and of the High Court of Admiralty, Public
Record Office (London) ; Victoria County History, Cornwall, and other
seaboard counties; Maritime History, by M. Oppenheim (1906, &c.) ;
Board of Trade Instructions as to Wreck and Salvage (London).
(R. G.M.; G. G. P.*)
WREDE, KARL PKILIPP, PRINCE VON (1767-1838), Bavarian
field-marshal, was born at Heidelberg on the 2Qth of April
1767, and educated for the career of a civil official under the
Palatinate government, but on the outbreak of the campaign
of 1799 he raised a volunteer corps in the Palatinate and was
made its colonel. This corps excited the mirth of the well-
drilled Austrians with whom it served, but its colonel soon brought
it into a good condition, and it distinguished itself during Kray's
retreat on Ulm. At Hohenlinden Wrede commanded one of
the Palatinate infantry brigades with credit, and after the peace
of Luneville he was made lieutenant-general in the Bavarian
army, which was entering upon a period of reforms. Wrede
soon made himself very popular, and distinguished himself
in opposing the Austrian invasion of 1805. The Bavarians were
for several years the active allies of Napoleon, and Wrede was
WREN, SIR C.
843
engaged in the campaign against Prussia, winning especial dis-
tinction at Pultusk. But the contemptuous attitude of the
French towards the Bavarian troops, and accusations of looting
against himself, exasperated the general's fiery temper, and
both in 1807 and in 1809 even outward harmony was only
maintained by the tact of the king of Bavaria. In the latter
year, under Lefebvre, Wrede conducted the rearguard operations
on the Isar and the Abens, commanded the Bavarians in the
bitter Tirolese war, was wounded in the decisive attack at
Wagram, and returned to Tirol in November to complete the
subjection of the mountaineers. Napoleon made him a count of
the Empire in this year. But after a visit to France, recognizing
that Napoleon would not respect the independence of the Rhine
states, and that the empire would collapse under the emperor's
ambitions, he gradually went over to the anti-French party in
Bavaria, and though he displayed his usual vigour in the Russian
campaign, the retreat convinced him that Napoleon's was a
losing cause and he left the army. At first his resignation was
not accepted, but early in 1813 he was allowed to return to
Havaria to reorganize the Bavarian army. But he had no
intention of using that army on Napoleon's side, and when the
king of Bavaria resolved at last to join Napoleon's enemies,
Wrede's army was ready to take the field. In concert with
Schwarzenberg Wrede threw himself across Napoleon's line of
retreat from Germany at Hanau, but on the 3oth of October
he was driven off the road with heavy losses. Next year,
after recovering from a dangerous wound, he led a corps in the
invasion of France, and supported Bliicher's vigorous policy.
In 1815 the Bavarians took the field but were not actively
engaged. After Waterloo, Wrede, who had been made a prince
in 1814, played a conspicuous part in Bavarian politics as the
opponent of Montgelas, whom he succeeded in power in 1817,
and in 1835 he was made head of the council of regency during
the king's absence. He died on the I2th of December 1838.
See lives by Riedel (1844) and Heilmann (1881).
WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1632-1723), English architect,
the son of a clergyman, was born at East Knoyle, Wiltshire,
on the 20th of October 1632; he entered at Wadham College,
Oxford, in 1646, took his degree in 1650, and in 1653 was made a
fellow of All Souls. While at Oxford Wren distinguished himself
in geometry and applied mathematics, and Newton, in his Prin-
cipia, p. 19 (ed. of 1713), speaks very highly of his work as a
geometrician. In 1657 he became professor of astronomy at
Gresham College, and in 1660 was elected Savilian professor of
astronomy at Oxford. It is, however, as an architect that Wren
is best known, and the great fire of London, by its destruction
of the cathedral and nearly all the city churches, gave Wren a
unique opportunity. Just before the fire Wren was asked by
Charles II. to prepare a scheme for the restoration of the old St
Paul's. In May 1666 Wren submitted his report and designs
(in the All Souls collection), for this work; the old cathedral was
in a very ruinous state, and Wren proposed to remodel the greater
part, as he said, " after a good Roman manner," and not, " to
follow the Gothick Rudeness of the old Design." According to
this scheme only the old choir was left; the nave and transepts
were to be rebuilt after the classical style, with a lofty dome at
the crossing not unlike the plan eventually carried out.
In September of the same year (1666) the fire occurred, and the
old St Paul's was completely gutted. Prom 1668 to 1670
attempts were being made by the chapter to restore the ruined
building; but Dean Sancroft was anxious to have it wholly
rebuilt, and in 1668 he had asked Wren to prepare a design for a
wholly new church. This first design, the model for which is
preserved in the South Kensington Museum, is very inferior to
what Wren afterwards devised. In plan it is an immense
rotunda surrounded by a wide aisle, and approached by a
double portico; the rotunda is covered with a dome taken
from that of the Pantheon in Rome; on this a second dome
stands, set on a lofty drum, and this second dome is crowned by a
tall spire. But the dean and chapter objected to the absence of a
structural choir, nave and aisles, and wished to follow the
medieval cathedral arrangement. Thus, in spite of its having
been approved by the king, this design was happily abandoned
much to Wren's disgust ; and he prepared another scheme with a
similar treatment of a dome crowned by a spire, which in 1675
was ordered to be carried out. Wren apparently did not himself
approve of this second design, for he got the king to give him
permission to alter it as much as he liked, without showing
models or drawings to any one, and the actual building bears
little resemblance to the approved design, to which it is very
superior in almost every possible point. Wren's earlier designs
have the exterior of the church arranged with one order of
columns; the division of the whole height into two orders was
an immense gain in increasing the apparent scale of the whole,
and makes the exterior of St Paul's very superior to that of St
Peter's in Rome, which is utterly dwarfed by the colossal size of
the columns and pilasters of its single order. The present dome
and the drum on which it stands, masterpieces of graceful line
and harmonious proportion, were very important alterations from
the earlier scheme. As a scientific engineer and practical architect
Wren was perhaps more remarkable than as an artistic designer.
The construction of the wooden external dome, and the support
of the stone lantern by an inner cone of brickwork, quite inde-
pendent of either the external or internal dome, are wonderful
examples of his constructive ingenuity. The first stone of the
new St Paul's was laid on the 2ist of June 1675; the choir was
opened for use on the 2nd of December 1697; and the last stone
of the cathedral was set in 1710.
Wren also designed a colonnade to enclose aJarge piazza forming
a clear space round the church, somewhat after the fashion of
Bernini's colonnade in front of St Peter's, but space in the city
was too valuable to admit of this. Wren was an enthusiastic
admirer of Bernini's designs, and visited Paris in 1665 in order
to see him and his proposed scheme for the rebuilding of the
Louvre. Bernini showed his design to Wren, but would not let
him copy it, though, as he said, he " would have given his skin "
to be allowed to do so.
After the destruction of the city of London Wren was employed
to make designs for rebuilding its fifty burnt churches, and he
also prepared a scheme for laying out the whole city on a new plan,
with a series of wide streets radiating from a central space.
Difficulties arising from the various ownerships of the ground
prevented the accomplishment of this scheme.
Among Wren's city churches the most noteworthy are St
Michael's, Cornhill; St Bride's, Fleet Street, and St Mary-le-Bow,
Cheapside, the latter remarkable for its graceful spire; and St
Stephen's, Walbrook, with a plain exterior, but very elaborate
and graceful interior. In the design of spires Wren showed much
taste and wonderful power of invention. He was also very
judicious in the way in which he expended the limited money at
his command; he did not fritter it away in an attempt to make
the whole of a building remarkable, but devoted it chiefly to
one part or feature, such as a spire or a rich scheme of internal
decoration. Thus he was in some cases, as in that of St
James's, Piccadilly, content to make the exterior of an almost
barnlike plainness.
The other buildings designed by Wren were very numerous.
Only a few of the principal ones can be mentioned: the Custom
House, the Royal Exchange, Marlborough House, Buckingham
House, and the Hall of the College of Physicians now destroyed ;
others which exist are at Oxford, the Sheldonian theatre, the
Ashmolean museum, the Tom Tower of Christ Church, and
Queen's College chapel; at Cambridge, the library of Trinity
College and the chapel of Pembroke, the latter at the cost of
Bishop Matthew Wren, his uncle. The western towers of West-
minster Abbey are usually attributed to Wren, but they were not
carried out till 1735-1745, many years after Wren's death, and
there is no reason to think that his design was used. Wren
(D.C.L. from 1660) was knighted in 1673, and was elected
president of the Royal Society in 1681. He was in parliament
for many years, representing Plympton from 1685, Windsor from
1689, and Weymouth from 1700. He occupied the post of
surveyor of the royal works for fifty years, but by a shameful
cabal was dismissed from this office a few years before his death.
WREN WRESTLING
He died in 1723, and is buried under the choir of St Paul's;
on a tablet over the inner north doorway is the well-known
epitaph Si monumentum requiris, circumspice.
For further information the reader should consult the Parentalia,
published by Wren's grandson in 1750, an account of the Wren
family and especially of Sir Christopher and his works; also the
two biographies of Wren by Elmes and Miss Phillimore; Milman,
Annals of St Paul's (1868); and Longman, Three Cathedrals dedi-
cated to St Paul in London (1873), pp. 77 seq. See also Clayton,
Churches of Sir C. Wren (1848-1849) ; Taylor, Towers and Steeples
of Wren (London, 1881); Niven, City Churches (London, 1887),
illustrated with fine etchings; A. H. Mackmurdo, Wren's City
Churches (1883); A. Stratton, The Life, Work and Influence of Sir
Christopher Wren (1897); Lena Milman, Sir Christopher Wren (1908).
In the library of All Souls at Oxford are preserved a large number of
drawings by Wren, including the designs for almost all his chief
works, and a fine series showing his various schemes for St Paul's
Cathedral. (J-H.M.)
WREN (0. Eng. wr&nna, Mid. Eng. wrenne;lcel. rindilt) , the
popular name for birds of the Passerine family Troglodytidae,
of which the best known example is Troglodytes paniulus, the
little brown bird with its short tail, cocked on high inquisitive
and familiar, that braves the winter of the British Islands, and
even that of the European continent. Great interest is taken in
this bird throughout all European countries, and, though in
Britain comparatively few vernacular names have been applied
to it, two of them " jenny " or " kitty-wren " are terms of
endearment. M. Holland records no fewer than 139 local names
for it in France; and Italy, Germany and other lands are only
less prolific. Many of these carry on the old belief that the wren
was the king of birds, a belief connected with the fable that once
the fowls of the air resolved to choose for their leader that one
of them which should mount highest. This the eagle seemed to
do, and all were ready to accept his rule, when a loud burst of
song was heard, and perched upon him was seen the wren, which
unseen had been borne aloft by the giant. The curious associa-
tion of this bird with the Feast of the Three Kings, on which day
in S. Wales, or, in Ireland and in the S. of France, on or about
Christmas Day, men and boys used to "hunt the wren,"
addressing it in a song as " the king of birds," is remarkable.
The better known forms in the United States are the house-
wren, common in the eastern states; the winter- wren, remarkable
for its resonant and brilliant song; the Carolina-wren, also a
fine singer, and the marsh-wren, besides the cactus wrens and
the canon-wrens of the western states.
Wrens have the bill slender and somewhat arched: their
food consists of insects, larvae and spiders, but they will also take
any small creatures, such as worms and snails, and occasionally
eat seeds. The note is shrill. The nest is usually a domed struc-
ture of ferns, grass, moss and leaves, lined with hair or feathers, and
from three to nine eggs are produced, in most of the species white.
The headquarters of the wrens are in tropical America, but
they reach Greenland in the N. and the Falkland Islands in the S.
Some genera are confined to the hills of tropical Asia, but Tro-
glodytes, the best known, ranges over N. and S. America, Asia
and Europe.
The Troglodytidae by no means contain all the birds to which the
name " wren " is applied. Several of the Sylviinae (cf. Warbler)
bear it, especially the beautiful little golden-crested wren (cf. Kinglet)
and the group commonly known in Britain as " willow-wrens "
forming the genus Phylloscopus. Three of these are habitual summer-
visitants. The largest, usually called the wood-wren, P. sibilatrix, is
more abundant in the N. than in the S. of England, and chiefly
frequents woods of oak or beech. It has a loud and peculiar song,
like the word twee, sounded very long, and repeated at first slowly,
but afterwards more quickly, while at uncertain intervals conies
another note, which has been syllabled as chea, uttered about three
times in succession. The willow-wren proper, P. trochilus, is in
many parts of Great Britain the commonest summer-bird, and is
the most generally dispersed. The third species, P. collybita or
minor (frequently but most wrongly called Sylvia rufa or P. rufus),
commonly known as the chiffchaff, from the peculiarity of its con-
stantly repeated two-noted cry, is very numerous in the S. and W.
of England, but seems to be scarcer N. These three species
make their nest upon or very close to the ground, and the building is
always domed. Hence they are commonly called " oven-birds,"
and occasionally, from the grass used in their structure, " hay-jacks,"
a name common to the white-throat (g.f.) and its allies. (A. N.)
WRESTLING (0. Eng. wrcestlian), a sport in which two persons
strive to throw each other to the ground. It is one of the most
primitive and universal of sports. Upon the walls of the temple-
tombs of Beni Hasan, near the Nile, are sculptured many hundred
scenes from wrestling matches, depicting practically all the holds
and falls known at the present day, thus proving that wrestling
was a highly developed sport at least 3000 years before the
Christian era. As the description of the bout between Odysseus
and Ajax in the 23rd book of the Iliad, and the evolutions of the
classic Greek wrestlers, tally with the sculptures of Beni Hasan
and Nineveh, the sport may have been introduced into Greece
from Egypt or Asia. In Homer's celebrated description of the
match between Ajax and Odysseus the two champions wore only
a girdle, which was, however, not used in the classic Greek games.
Neither Homer nor Eustathius, who also minutely depicted the
battle between Ajax and Odysseus, mentions the use of oil,
which, however, was invariable at the Olympic games, where
wrestling was introduced during the i8th Olympiad. The Greek
wrestlers were, after the application of the oil, rubbed with fine
sand, to afford a better hold.
Wrestling was a very important branch of athletics in the
Greek games, since it formed the chief event of the pentathlon, or
quintuple games (see GAMES, CLASSICAL) . All holds were allowed,
even strangling, butting and kicking. Crushing the fingers was
used especially in the pancraiion, a combination of wrestling and
boxing. Wrestlers were taught to be graceful in all their move-
ments, in accordance with the Greek ideas of aesthetics. There
were two varieties of Greek wrestling, the TrdX?) opdr\, or upright
wrestling, which was that generally practised, and the a\ivSijo-is
(xuAwij, lucta iiolutatoria) or squirming contest after the con-
testants had fallen, which continued until one acknowledged
defeat. It was this variety that was employed in the pancration.
The upright wrestling was very similar to the modern catch-as-
catch-can style. In this three falls out of five decided a match.
A variation of this style was that in which one of the contestants
stood within a small ring and resisted the efforts of his adversary
to pull him out of it. Other local varieties existed in the different
provinces. The most celebrated wrestler of ancient times was
Milo of Crotona (c. 520 B.C.), who scored thirty-two victories in
the different national games, six of them at Olympia. Greek
athletic sports were introduced into Rome in the last quarter
of the 2nd century B.C., but it never attained to the popularity
that it enjoyed in Greece.
Among the Teutonic peoples wrestling, at least as a method
of fighting, was of course always known; how popular it had
become as a sport during the middle ages is proved by the
voluminous literature which appeared on the subject after the
invention of printing, the most celebrated work being the Ringer-
Kunst of Fabian von Auerswald (1539). Albrecht Durer made
1 19 drawings illustrating the different holds and falls in vogue in
the isth and i6th centuries. These singularly resembled those
used in the Greek games, even to certain brutal tricks, which,
however, were considered by the German masters as not gesel-
liglich (friendly) and were not commonly used. Wrestling was
adopted by the German Turnvereine as one of their exercises,
but with the elimination of tripping and all holds below the hips.
At present the most popular style in Europe is the so-called
Graeco-Roman.
In Switzerland and some of the Tirolese valleys a kind of
wrestling flourishes under the name of Schwingen (swinging).
The wrestlers wear schwinghosen or wrestling-breeches, with
stout belts, on which the holds are taken. The first man down
loses the bout. In Styria, wrestlers stand firmly on both feet
with right hands clasped. When the word is given each tries to
push or pull the other from his stance, the slightest movement
of a foot sufficing to lose.
The popularity of wrestling has survived in many Asiatic
countries, particularly in Japan, where the first match recorded
took place in 23 B.C., the victor being Sukune, who has ever
since been regarded as the tutelary deity of wrestlers. In the
8th century the emperor Sh&mu made wrestling one of the
features of the annual harvest " Festival of the Five Grains,"
WRESTLING
845
the victor being appointed official referee and presented with a
fan bearing the legend, " Prince of Lions." In 858 the throne
of Japan was wrestled for by the two sons of the emperor
Buntoku, and the victor, Koreshito, succeeded his father under
the name of Seiwa. Imperial patronage of wrestling ceased in
1175, after the war which resulted in the establishment of the
Shogunate, but continued to be a part of the training of the
samurai or military caste. About 1600, professional wrestling
again rose to importance, the best men being in the employ of
the great daimios or feudal nobles. It was, nevertheless, still
kept up by the samurai, and eventually developed into the
peculiar combination of wrestling and system of doing bodily
injury called ju-jutsu (q.v.), which survives with wrestling
as a separate though allied art.- The national championships
were re-established in 1624, when the celebrated Shiganosuke
won the honour, and have continued to the present day. The
Japanese wrestlers, like those of India, lay much stress upon
weight and are generally men of great bulk, although surprisingly
light on their feet. They form a gild which is divided into several
ranks, the highest being composed of the joshiyori, or elders,
in whose hands the superintendence of the wrestling schools
and tournaments lies, and who in feudal times used to rank next
to the samurai. The badges of the three highest ranks are
damask aprons richly embroidered. Every public wrestler must
have passed through a thorough course of instruction under one
of the joshiyori and have undergone numerous practical tests.
The wrestling takes place in a ring 12 ft. in diameter, the wrestlers
being naked but for a loin-cloth. At the command of the referee
the two adversaries crouch with their hands on the ground and
watch for an opening. The method is very similar to that of
the ancient Greeks and the modern catch-as-catch-can style,
except that a wrestler who touches the ground with any part of
his person except the feet, after the first hold has been taken,
loses the bout.
Indian wrestling resembles that of Japan in the great size of
its exponents or Pulwans, and the number and subtlety of its
attacks, called penches. It is of the " loose " order, the men
facing each other nude, except for a loin-cloth, and manoeuvring
warily for a hold. Both shoulders placed on the ground simul-
taneously constitute a fall.
In Great Britain wrestling was cultivated at a very early age,
both Saxons and Celts having always been addicted to it, and
English literature is full of references to the sport. On St James's
and St Bartholomew's days special matches took place through-
out England, those in London being held in St Giles's Field,
whence they were afterwards transferred to Clerkenwell. The
lord mayor and his sheriffs were often present on these occasions,
but the frequent brawls among the spectators eventually brought
public matches into disrepute. English monarchs have not
disdained to patronize the sport, and Henry VIII. is known to
have been a powerful wrestler.
It was inevitable, in a country where the sport was so ancient
and so universal, that different methods of wrestling should
grow up. It is likely that the " loose " style, in which the con-
testants took any hold they could obtain, generally prevailed
throughout Great Britain until the close of the i8th century,
when the several local fashions became gradually coherent; but
it was not until well into the ipth that their several rules were
codified. Of these the " Cumberland and Westmorland " style,
which prevails principally in the N. of England (except Lanca-
shire) and the S. of Scotland, is the most important. In this
the wrestlers stand chest to chest, each grasping the other with
locked hands round the body with his chin on the other's right
shoulder. The right arm is below and the left above the ad-
versary's. When this hold has been firmly taken the umpire
gives the word and the bout proceeds until one man touches
the ground with any part of his person except his feet, or he
fails to retain his hold, in either of which cases he loses. When
both fall together the one who is underneath, or first touches
the ground, loses. If both fall simultaneously side by side, it
is a " dog-fall," and the bout begins anew. The different
manoeuvres used in British wrestling to throw the adversary are
called " chips," those most important in the " Cumberland and
Westmorland" or "North Country" style being the "back-
heel," in which a wrestler gets a leg behind his opponent's heel
on the outside; the " outside stroke," in which after a sudden
twist of his body to the left the opponent is struck with the left
foot on the outside of his ankle; the " hank," or lifting the
opponent off the ground after a sudden turn, so that both fall
together, but with the opponent underneath; the " inside
click," a hank applied after jerking the opponent forward, the
pressure then being straight back; the " outside click," a back-
heel applied by a wrestler as he is on the point of being lifted
from the ground it prevents this and often results in over-
setting the opponent; the " cross-buttock," executed by getting
one's hip underneath the opponent's, throwing one's leg across
both his, lifting and throwing him; the " buttock," in which
one's hip is worked still further under that of the opponent, who
is then thrown right over one's back; the " hipe " or " hype,"
executed by lifting the opponent, and, while swinging him to
the right, placing the left knee under his right leg and carrying
it as high as possible before the throw; the " swinging hipe,"
in which the opponent is swung nearly or quite round Before
the hipe is applied; and the " breast-stroke," which is a sudden
double twist, first to one side and then to the other, followed
by a throw.
In the "Cornwall and Devon" or "West Country" style
the men wrestle in stout, loosely cut linen jackets, the hold being
anywhere above the waist or on any part of the jacket. A
bout is won by throwing the opponent on his back so that two
shoulders and a hip, or two hips and a shoulder (three points),
shall touch the ground simultaneously. This is a difficult
matter, since ground wrestling is forbidden, and a man, when
he feels himself falling, will usually turn and land on his side
or face. Many of the " chips " common to other styles are used
here, the most celebrated being the " flying mare," in which
the opponent's left wrist is seized with one's right, one's back
turned on him, his left elbow grasped with the left hand and he
is then thrown over one's back, as in the buttock. Until com-
paratively recently there was a difference between the styles of
Cornwall and Devon, the wrestlers of the latter county having
worn heavily-soled shoes, with which it was legitimate to
belabour the adversary's shins. In 1826 a memorable match
took place between Polkinhorne, the Cornish champion, and
the best wrestler of Devon, Abraham Cann, who wore
" kicking-boots of an appalling pattern." Polkinhorne,
however, encased his shins in leather, and the match was
eventually drawn.
The " Lancashire " style, more generally known as " catch-
as-catch-can," is practised not only in Lancashire and the
adjacent districts, but throughout America, Australia, Turkey
and other countries. It is the legitimate descendant and repre-
sentative of the ancient Greek sport and of the wrestling of the
middle ages. A bout is won when both shoulders of one wrestler
touch the floor together. No kicking, striking or other foul
practices are allowed, but theoretically every hold is legitimate.
Exceptions are, however, made of the so-called strangle-holds,
which are sufficiently described by their designation, and any
hold resulting in a dislocation or a fracture. This style contains
practically all the manoeuvres known to other methods, and
in its freedom and opportunity for a display of strategy, strength
and skill, is the most preferable. A fall, though invariably
begun standing, is nearly always completed on the ground (mat).
The holds and " chips " are so numerous and complicated as to
make anything but an elaborate description inadequate. The
best book on the subject is the Handbook of Wrestling by Hugh
F. Leonard (1897).
In Scotland a combination of the Cumberland and catch-as-
catch-can styles has attained some popularity, in which the
wrestlers begin with the North Country hold, but continue the
bout on the ground should the fall not be a clean one with two
shoulders down.
In Ireland the national style is called " collar and elbow "
(in America, "back- wrestling"), from the holds taken by the
WREXHAM WRIGHT, S.
two hands. The man loses, any part of whose person, except
the feet, touches the ground.
The style mostly affected by the professional wrestlers of
Europe at the present day is the Graeco-Roman (falsely so
called, since it bears almost no resemblance to classic wrestling),
which arose about 1860 and is a product of the French wrestling
schools. It is a very restricted style, as no tripping is allowed,
nor any hold below the hips, the result being that the bouts,
which are contested almost entirely prone on the mat, are usually
tediously long. British and American wrestlers, being accus-
tomed to their own styles, are naturally at a disadvantage when
wrestling under Graeco-Roman rules.
WREXHAM (Welsh Gwrecsam, in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Wrightesham), a market town and parliamentary and municipal
borough of Denbighshire, N. Wales, n m. S.S.W. of Chester,
with stations on the Great Western railway, and on the Great
Central railway, 202 m. from London. Pop. (1901) 14,966.
" One of the seven wonders of Wales " is St Giles's church, of
the I4th, isth and i6th centuries, with a panelled tower of
several stages erected between 1506 and 1520, and containing
ten faSnous bells cast (1726) by Rudhall; the interior is Decor-
ated, and has two monuments by Roubilliac to the Myddletons.
Wrexham is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Menevia,
whose diocese includes all Wales except Glamorganshire. The
endowed free school was established in 1603. The markets and
fairs are good, and the ales, mills (corn and paper) and tanneries
locally famous. Brymbo Hall, in the neighbourhood, is said
to have been built from a design by Inigo Jones, as were probably
Gwydyr chapel (1633) and the Conwy bridge (1636), both at
Llanrwst. Erddig Hall was noted for its Welsh MSS. Near
Wrexham, but in a detached portion of Flintshire, totheS.E.,
is Bangor-is-coed (Bangor yn Maelor), the site of the most
ancient monastery in the kingdom, founded before 180; some
1 200 monks were slain here by ^Ethelfrith of Northumbria, who
also spoiled the monastery. Bangor-is-coed was probably
Antoninus's Bovium, and the Banchorium of Richard of Ciren-
cester. Wrightesham was of Saxon origin, and lying E. of
Offa's Dyke, was yet reckoned in Mercia. It was given (with
Bromfield and Yale, or lot) by Edward I. to Earl Warenne.
WRIGHT, CARROLL DAVIDSON (1840-1909), American
statistician, was born at Dunbarton, New Hampshire, on the
25th of July 1840. He began to study law in i86o,_but in 1862
enlisted as a private in a New Hampshire volunteer regiment.
He became colonel in 1864, and served as assistant-adjutant-
general of a brigade in the Shenandoah Valley campaign. He
was admitted to the New Hampshire bar after the war, and in
1867 became a member of the Massachusetts and United States
bars. From 1872 to 1873 he served in the Senate of Massachu-
setts, and from 1873 to 1878 he was chief of the Massachusetts
Bureau of Statistics of Labor. He was U.S. commissioner of
labour from 1885 to 1905, and in 1893 was placed in charge of
the Eleventh Census. In 1894 he was chairman of the com-
mission which investigated the great railway strike of Chicago,
and in 1902 was a member of the Anthracite Strike Commission.
He was honorary professor of social economics in the Catholic
university of America from 1895 to 1904; in 1900 became
professor of statistics and social economics in Columbian (now
George Washington) University, from 1900 to 1901 was univer-
sity lecturer on wage statistics at Harvard, and in 1903 was a
member of the special committee appointed to revise the labour
laws of Massachusetts. In 1902 he was chosen president of
Clark College, Worcester, Mass., where he was also professor
of statistics and social economics from 1904 until his death.
Dr Wright was president of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1903, and in 1907 received the Cross
of the Legion of Honour for his work in improving industrial
conditions, a similar honour having been conferred upon him in
1906 by the Italian government. He died on the 2oth of
February 1909.
His publications include The Factory System of the United States
(1880); Relation of Political Economy to the Labor Question (1882);
History of Wages and Prices in Massachusetts, 1752-1883 (1885);
The Industrial Evolution of the United Stales (1887); Outline of
Practical Sociology (1899); Battles of Labor (1906); and numerous
pamphlets and monographs on social and economic topics.
WRIGHT. CHAUNCEY (1830-1875), American philosopher
and mathematician, was born at Northampton, Mass., on the
20th of September 1830, and died at Cambridge, Mass., on the
I2th of September 1875. In 1852 he graduated at Harvard,
and became computer to the American Ephemeris and Nautical
Almanac. He made his name by contributions on mathematical
and physical subjects in the Mathematical Monthly. He soon,
however, turned his attention to metaphysics and psychology,
and for the North American Review and later for the National-
lie wrote philosophical essays on the lines of Mill, Darwin and
Spencer. In 1870-71 he lectured on psychology at Harvard.
Although, in general, he adhered to the evolution theory, he
was a free lance in thought. Among his essays may be men-
tioned The Evolution of Self-Consciousness and two articles
published in 1871 on the Genesis of Species. Of these, the
former endeavours to explain the most elaborate psychical
activities of men as developments of elementary forms of con-
scious processes in the animal kingdom as a whole; the latter
is a defence of the theory of natural selection against the attacks
of St George Mivart, and appeared in an English edition on the
suggestion of Darwin. From 1863 to 1870 he was secretary
and recorder to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
and in the last year of his life he lectured on mathematical
physics at Harvard.
His essays were collected and published by C. E. Norton in 1877,
and his Letters were edited and privately printed at Cambridge>
Mass., in 1878 by James Bradley Thayer.
WRIGHT, JOSEPH (1734-1797), styled Wright of Derby,
English subject, landscape and portrait painter, was born at
Derby on the 3rd of September 1734, the son of an attorney,
who was afterwards town-clerk. Deciding to become a painter,
he went to London in 1751 and for two years studied under
Thomas Hudson, the master of Reynolds. After painting
portraits for a while at Derby, he again placed himself for fifteen
months under his former master. He then settled in Derby,
and varied his work in portraiture by the production of the
subjects seen under artificial light with which his name is chiefly
associated, and by landscape painting. He married in 1773,
and in the end of that year he visited Italy, where he remained
till 1775. While at Naples he witnessed an eruption of Vesuvius,
which formed the subject of many of his subsequent pictures.
On his return from Italy he established himself at Bath as a
portrait-painter; but meeting with little encouragement he
returned to Derby, where he spent the rest of his life. He was
a frequent contributor to the exhibitions of the Society of
Artists, and to those of the Royal Academy, of which he was
elected an associate in 1781 and a full member in 1784. He,
however, declined the latter honour on account of a slight which
he believed that he had received, and severed his official con-
nexion with the Academy, though he continued to contribute to
the exhibitions from 1783 till 1794. He died at Derby on the
29th of August 1797. Wright's portraits are frequently defective
in drawing, and without quality or variety of handling, while
their flesh tints are often hard. He is seen at his best in his
subjects of artificial light, of which the " Orrery" (1766), the
property of the corporation of Derby, and the " Air-pump "
(1768), in the National Gallery, are excellent examples. His
" Old Man and Death " (1774) is also a striking and individual
production. An exhibition of Wright's works was brought
together at Derby in 1883, and twelve of his pictures were shown
in the winter exhibition of the Royal Academy in 1886.
His biography, by William Bemrose, was published in 1885.
WRIGHT, SILAS (1795-1847), American political leader,
was born at Amherst, Mass., on the 24th of May 1795. He
graduated at Middlebury College, Vermont, in 1815, was ad-
mitted to the bar in 1819, and began practice at Canton, in
northern New York. He was appointed surrogate of St Lawrence
county in 1820, and was successively a member of the state
Senate in 1824-1826, a member of the national House of Repre-
sentatives in 1827-1829, comptroller of the state in 1829-1833,.
WRIGHT, T. WRIT
847
U.S. senator in 1833-1844, and governor of New York in 1844-
1846. During his public life he had become a leader of the
Democratic party in New York, Martin Van Buren being his
closest associate. He was an influential member of the so-callec
" Albany Regency," a group of Democrats in New York, includ
ing such men as J. A. Dix and W. L. Marcy, who for many years
virtually controlled their party within the state. Wright's
integrity in office was illustrated in 1845, when the " anti-rent
troubles " (see NEW YORK) broke out and it seemed probable
that the votes of the disaffected would decide the coming election
The governor asked and obtained from the legislature the power
to suppress the disturbance by armed force, and put an end to
what was really an insurrection. When the national Demo-
cratic party in 1844 nominated and elected James K. Polk to
the presidency, instead of Martin Van Buren, Wright and the
state organization took an attitude of armed neutrality towards
the new administration. Renominated for governor in 1846,
Wright was defeated, and the result was by many ascribed in
part to the alleged hostility of the Polk administration. He
died at Canton on the 27th of August 1847.
The best biography is that by J. D. Hammond, Life and Times of
Silas Wright (Syracuse, N.Y., 1848), which was republished as vol.
iii. of that author's Political History of New York.
WRIGHT, THOMAS (1809-1884), British palaeontologist,
was born at Paisley in Renfrewshire on the gth of November
1809. He studied at the Royal College of Surgeons in Dublin,
and qualified as a doctor in 1832. Soon afterwards he settled
at Cheltenham, and graduated M.D. at St Andrews in 1846.
He devoted his leisure to geological pursuits, became an active
member of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Club (founded in 1846),
and gathered a fine collection of Jurassic ammonites and echino-
derms. He contributed to the Palaeontographical Society
monographs on the British fossil Echinodermata from the
Oolitic and Cretaceous formations (1855-1882); he also began
(1878) a monograph on the Lias ammonites of the British
Islands, of which the last part was issued in 1885, after his
death. He wrote many papers in the Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.
and Proc. Cotteswold Club. The Wollaston medal was awarded
to him by the Geological Society of London in 1878, and he was
elected F.R.S. in 1879. He died at Cheltenham on the I7th
of November 1884.
WRIGHT, THOMAS (1810-1877), English antiquary, was born
near Ludlow, in Shropshire, on the 2ist of April 1810. He was
descended from a Quaker family formerly living at Bradford,
Yorkshire. He was educated at the old grammar school, Ludlow,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1834.
While at Cambridge he contributed to the Gentleman's Magazine
and other periodicals, and in 1835 he came to London to devote
himself to a literary career. His first separate work was Early
English Poetry in Black Letter, with Prefaces and Notes (1836,
4 vols. i2mo), which was followed during the next forty years
by a very extensive series of publications, many of lasting value.
He helped to found the British Archaeological Association and
the Percy, Camden and Shakespeare societies. In 1842 he was
elected corresponding member of the Academic des Inscriptions
et Belles Lettres of Paris, and was a fellow of the Society of
Antiquaries as well as member of many other learned British
and foreign bodies. In 1859 he superintended the excavations
of the Roman city of Uriconium, near Shrewsbury, of which
he issued a description. He died at Chelsea on the 23rd of
December 1877, in his sixty-seventh year. A portrait of him
is in the Drawing Room Portrait Gallery for October ist, 1859.
He was a great scholar, but will be chiefly remembered as an
industrious antiquary and the editor of many relics of the
middle ages.
His chief publications are Queen Elizabeth and her Times, a
Scries of Original Letters (1838, 2 vols.); Reliquiae antiquae (1839-
1843, again 1845, 2 vols.), edited with Mr J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps;
W. Mapes's Latin Poems (1841, 410, Camden Society); Political
Ballads and Carols, published by the Percy Society (1841); Popular
Treatises on Science (1841); History of Ludlow (1841, &c.; again
1852); Collection of Latin Stories (1842, Percy Society); The Vision
and Creed of Piers Ploughman (1842, 2 vols.; 2nd ed., 1855); Bio-
graphia literaria, vol. i. Anglo-Saxon Period (1842), vol. ii. Anglo-
Norman Period (184^6); The Chester Plays (1843-1847, 2 vols.,
Shakespeare Society); St Patrick's Purgatory (1844); Anecdota
literarta (1844); Archaeological Album (1845,410); Essays connected
with England in the Middle Ages (1846, 2 vols.); Chaucer's Canter-
bury Tales (1847-1851, Percy Society), a new text with notes, re-
printed in i vol. (1853 and 1867); Early Travels in Palestine (1848,
Bohn's Antiq. Lib.) ; England under the House of Hanover (1848,
2 vols., several editions, reproduced in 1868 as Caricature History of
the Georges) ; Mapes, De nugis curialium (1850, 410, Camden Society) ;
Geoffrey Gaimar's Metrical Chronicle (1850, Caxton Society);
Narratives of Sorcery and Magic (1851, 2 vols.); The Celt, the Roman
and the Saxon (1852; 4th ed., 1885); History of Fulke Fitz Warine
(1855); Jo. de Garlandia, De triumphis ecclesiae (1856, 410, Rox-
burghe Club); Dictionary of Obsolete and Provincial English (1857);
A Volume of Vocabularies (1857; 2nd ed., by R. P. Wiilcker, 1884,
2 vols.) ; Les Cent Nouvelles nouvelles (Paris, 1858, 2 vols.) ; Malory s
History of King Arthur (1858, 2 vols., revised 1865) ; Political Poems
and Songs from Edward III. to Richard III. (1850-1861, 2 vols.,
" Rolls ' series) ; Songs and Ballads of the Reign of Philip and Mary
(1860, 410, Roxburghe Club); Essays on Archaeological Subjects
(1861, 2 vols.); Domestic Manners and Sentiments in England in the
Middle Ages (1862, 410, reproduced in 1871 as The Homes of other
Days); Roll of Arms of Edward I. (1864, 410); Autobiography of
Thomas Wright (I73&-I797), his grandfather (1864); History of
Caricature (1865, 410); Womankind in Western Europe (1869, 410);
Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets of izth Century (1872, 2 vols., " Rolls "
series).
WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALOIS (1836- ), English man of
letters, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1888
became vice-master of the college. He was one of the editors
of the Journal of Philology from its foundation in 1868, and was
secretary to the Old Testament revision company from 1870 to
1885. He edited the plays of Shakespeare published in the
" Clarendon Press " series (1868-1897), also with W. G. Clark the
" Cambridge " Shakespeare (1863-1866; 2nd ed. 1891-1893)
and the " Globe " edition (1864). He published (1899) a fac-
simile of the Milton MS. in the Trinity College library, and edited
Milton's poems with critical notes (1903). He was the intimate
friend and literary executor of Edward FitzGerald, whose
Letters and Literary Remains he edited in 1889. This was
followed by the Letters of Edward FitzGerald to Fanny Kemble
(1895), his Miscellanies (1900), More letters of Edward Fitz-
Gerald (1901), The Works of Edward FitzGerald (7 vols., 1903).
He edited the metrical chronicle of Robert of Gloucester (1887),
Gene.ryd.es (1878) for the Early English Text Society, and other
texts.
WRIST, in anatomy, the carpus or carpal articulation in man,
the joint by which the hand is articulated with the fore-arm
(see ANATOMY: Superficial and Artistic; and SKELETON: Ap-
pendicular). The word means by origin " that which turns,"
and is formed from the 0. Eng. wridan, to twist.
WRIT (O. Eng. gewrit, writ, from writan, to write), in law, a
formal order from the crown or a delegated executive officer
to an inferior executive officer or to a private person, enjoining
some act or omission. 1 The word represents the Latin brems
or breve (sometimes Englished into "brief" in the older authori-
ties), so called, according to Bracton and Fleta, from its
shortly " expressing the intention of the framer (quia breviter
et paucis verbis intentionem proferentis exponit)?
The breve can be traced back as far as Paulus (about A.D. 220),
who wrote a work Ad edictum de brevibus, cited in the Vatican
Fragment, 310. In the Corpus juris the word generally means a
summary or report. In Cod. vii. 44, breviculum means a summary
cf the grounds of a judgment. The interdiclum of Roman law some-
:imes represents the writ of English law; e.g. there is considerable
ikeness between the Roman interdictum de libero homine exhibendo
ind the English writs of habeas corpus and de homine replegiando.
From Roman law the breve passed into the Liber feudorum and the
anon law, in both in a sense differing from that at present borne
sy the writ of English law. The breve testatum of the Liber feudorum
was an instrument in writing made on the land at the time of giving
seisin by the lord to the tenant, and attested by the seals of the lord
1 There seems to be no authentic definition of writ. That of
Reeves is " a settled form of precept applicable to the purpose of
compelling defendants to answer the charge alleged by plaintiffs"
'i Hist, of the Eng. Law, 415).
1 It is perhaps doubtful whether intentio is here used in its ordinary
sense of in the technical signification which it bore as a pan of the
^oman formula.
WRIT
History.
and the pares curiae or other witnesses. In England such witnesses
were part of the inquest, and joined in the verdict in case of disputed
right until 12 Edw. II. st. I, c. 2. The breve testatum in England
developed into the feoffment, later into the deed of grant ; in Scot-
land into the charter, and later into the disposition. In canon law
breve or brevikgium denoted a letter from the pope, sealed with the
seal of the fisherman and less formal than a bull. In old English
ecclesiastical law a brief still named in one of the rubrics of the
Book of Common Prayer meant letters patent to churchwardens
or other officers for the collection of money for church or charitable
purposes. 1 (For counsel's brief see under BRIEF.)
The writ in English law still occupies a very important position,
which can scarcely be understood without a sketch of its history.
The whole theory of pleading depends in the last
resort upon the writ, the plaintiff's claim simply
expanding its terms.
Writ or breve was at first used in a less technical sense than that
which it afterwards assumed: thus in the Leges Henrici Pmm it
simply means a letter from the king, and in the Assize of Clarendon
(i 1 66) imbreviari means to be registered. It became formalized by
the reign of Henry II., and precedents are given by Glanyill. The
writ process was at that date the foundation of all civil justice in the
king's court, and of much in the lower courts, and was a profitable
source of revenue to the exchequer. Writs were not framed on any
scientific scheme, but as occasion arose, and were frequently the
result of compromise in the struggle between the king's and the
lords' courts. Every writ had to be purchased (breve perquirere was
the technical term). This purchase developed in later times into
the payment of a fine to the king where the damages were laid above
40. The usual scale was 6s. 8d. for every 100 marks claimed. In
suing out a writ of covenant, the basis of the proceedings in levying
a fine the king was entitled to his primer fine, i.e. one-tenth of the
annual value of the land concerned. The sale of writs was forbidden
by Magna Carta and other statutes in certain cases, especially that
of the writ de odio et alia in favour of the liberty of the subject. A
solicitor was so called because his original duty was to solicit or sue
out a writ and take the due proceedings by paying the proper fine.
The costs of a writ purchased were first allowed to a successful
demandant by the Statute of Gloucester, 1278. The counterpart of
the writ (contrabreve) was usually filed in court with the custos bremum.
Through the Norman period the prerogative of issuing writs seems
to have been undisputed. Glanvill's precedents did not tx.iaust all
possible forms, for in the time of Bracton, in the lath century, it was
still possible to frame new writs at the pleasure of the crown. The
Provisions of Oxford in 1258 put an end to this by enacting that the
chancellor should not seal anything out of course (i.e. any writ for
which there was no precedent) by the will of the king, but that he
should do it by the council. In 1285 the Statute of Westminster the
Second re-established the power of the crown within certain limits,
that is, in causes of action in a similar case falling under the same
law (in consimili casu cadente sub eodem jure) as those for which
precedents of writs already existed in the chancery. These pre-
cedents were recorded about 1227 in the Registrum bremum, called
by Sir Edward Coke the oldest book in the common law. 2 Apart
from the powers given by the statute, new writs could only be issued
by the authority of parliament, and writs are sometimes found set
out in statutes, especially in the Statutum Walliae, 1284, where
precedents of the most usual writs will be found. The Statute of
Westminster the Second itself contained precedents of the writ of
formedon and of many others. The original flexibility of the writ
was thus limited within comparatively narrow bounds. The right
to the issue of the writ determined the right of action. If the writ
was not sufficient to found an action, the writ was said to fail (cadere).
So essential was the writ that it was a legal axiom in Bracton that
no one could sue at law without a writ, and it was called by Coke,
in his introduction to Littleton, " the heartstrings of the common
law." As such it occupied an important place in some of the leading
statutes dealing with constitutional rights. The Statute of Marl-
bridge, 1267, forbade a lord to distrain his freeholders to answer
for their freeholds, or for anything touching their freeholds, without
the king's writ. By 25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 4 (1342), it was accorded,
asserted and stabhshed that none should be taken by petition or
suggestion made to the king or his council unless by indictment or
presentment in due manner or by process made by writ original at
the common law. 42 Edw. III. c. 3 d359) provided that no man
should be put to answer without presentment before justices, or
matter of record, or by due process and writ original according to
the old law of the land. Both these statutes were recited and the
general principle confirmed by 16 Car. I. c. 10 (1641). Uniformity
of procedure was secured by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24 (1536), by which all
writs were to be in the king's name in a county palatine or liberty,
1 See W. A. Bewes, Church Briefs (1896). The lines in Cowper's
" Charity " allude to such a brief:
" The brief proclaimed it visits every pew, ^
But first the squire's a compliment but due.
1 See article by F. W. Maitland in 3 Harvard Law Rev. 177.
t tested by those who had the county palatine or liberty. It was
not until 1731 that, by virtue of 4 Geo. II. c. 26, writs were framed
n the English language. They had previously been in Latin;
:his accounts for the Latin names by which a large number are still
mown.
The writ was issued from the common law side of the chancery,
and was in the special charge of the hanaper and petty bag offices.*
Though issuing from the king's chancery, it did not necessarily
direct the trial of the question in the king's court. In whatever
court it was returnable, it called in the aid of the sheriff as executive
officer. It was either addressed to him or, if addressed to the party
alleged to be in default, it concluded with a threat of constraint by
the sheriff in the event of disobedience, generally in those terms, et,
nisi feceris, vicecomes de N. facial ne amplius clamorem audiam pro
defectu justitiae. If the writ was returnable in the county court or
the lord's court, the sheriff or the lord sat as the deputy of the king,
not by virtue of his inherent jurisdiction. The writ was not necessary
tor the initiation of proceedings in these courts or before the justices
in eyre, but a custom seems to have grown up of suing out a writ
[rom the king where the claim was above 405. Cases were transferred
from the lord's court to the county court by writ of toll (so called
because it removed, tollit, the case), from the latter to the king's
court by writ of pone (so called from its first word). By Magna
Carta the power of bringing a suit in the king's court in the first
instance by writ of praecipe was taken away, and the writ was thence-
forth only returnable in the king's court where the tenant held of the
king in capite, or where the lord had no court or abandoned his right.
Hence it became a common form in the writ of right to allege that
the lord had renounced his court (dominus remisit curiam) so as to
secure trial in the king's court.
Besides being used for the trial of disputes, writs addressed to
sheriffs, mayors, commissioners or others were in constant use for
financial and political purposes, e.g. for the collection of fifteenths,
scutage, tallage, &c., for summons to the council and later to parlia-
ment, and for dissolving a parliament, the last by means of the rarely
occurring writ de revocatione parliament.
There were several divisions of writs (excluding those purely
financial and political), the most important being that into original
and judicial, the former (tested in the name of the king) issued to
bring a suit before the proper court, the latter (tested in the name
of a judge) issued during the progress of a suit or to enforce judgment.
Original were either optional, i.e. giving an option of doing a certain
act or of showing cause why it was not done, beginning with the
words praecipe quod reddat, the principal example being the writ on
which proceedings in a common recovery (see FINE) were based, or
peremptory, i.e. calling on a person to do a certain act, beginning
with the words si A . fecerit te securum. Original were also either de
cursu (also called by Bracton formata) or magistralia, the former
those fixed in form and depending on precedent, the latter those
framed by the masters in chancery under the powers of the Statute
of Westminster the Second. They were also either general or special,
the latter setting forth the grounds of the demand with greater
particularity than the former. In regard to real estate they might
be possessory or ancestral. By 5 Geo. II. c. 27 (1732) special writs
were confined to causes of action amounting to 10 or upwards.
There was also a division of writs into writs of right (ex debito jus-
titiae), such as habeas corpus, and prerogative writs (ex gratia), such
as mandamus and prohibition. Coke and other authorities mention
numerous other divisions, but those which have been named appear
to be the principal.
The most interesting form of writ from the historical point of view
was the writ of right (breve de recto), called by Blackstone " the highest
writ in the law, used at first for debt and other personal claims,
afterwards confined to the recovery of real estate as the writ of right
par excellence. It was so called from the words plenum rectum
contained in it, and was the remedy for obtaining justice for ouster
from or privation of the freehold. By it property as well as posses-
sion could be recovered. It generally lay in the king's court, as has
been said, by virtue of a fictitious allegation. In that case it was
addressed to the sheriff and was called a writ of right close. When
addressed to the lord and tried in his court, it was generally a writ
of right patent. After the appearance of the tenant the demandant
in a writ of right counted, that is, claimed against the tenant accord-
ing to the writ, but in more precise terms, the writ being as it were
the embryo of the future count. The trial was originally by battle
(see TRIAL), but in the reign of Henry II. an alternative and optional
procedure was introduced, interesting as the earliest example of the
substitution of something like the jury (q.v.) for the judicial combat.
A writ de magna assisa eligenda was directed to the sheriff command-
ing him to return four knights of the county and vicinage to the court,
there to return twelve other knights of the vicinage to try upon oath
the question contained in the writ of right (technically called the
mise). This mode of trial was known as trial by the grand assize.
Generally the whole of the sixteen knights were sworn, though twelve
was a sufficient number. The last occasion of trial by the grand
1 The place where writs were deposited was called breviarium or
breviorium. This use of the word must be distinguished from legal
compendia, such as the Breviarium Alarici or Breviarium extrava-
ganhum.
WRIT
849
assize was in 1835. But long before that date possessory had from
their greater convenience tended to supersede proprietary remedies,
and in most cases the title was sufficiently determined by the assizes
of other kinds, especially that of novel disseisin and later by pro-
ceedings in ejectment. The oath of the champion on proceedings
in a writ of right where the alternative of the judicial combat was
accepted was regulated by statute, 3 Edw. I. c. ii (1275). The writ
of right is also interesting as being the basis of the law of limitation.
Hy the Statute of Merton (1226) no seisin could be alleged by the
demandant but from the time of Henry II. By 3 Edw. I. c. 39 the
time was fixed at the reign of Richard I., by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2 (1541)
at sixty years at the most. There were other writs of right with
special names, e.g. the writ of right by the custom of London for land
in London, the writ of right by advowson, brought by the patron to
recover his right of presentation to a benefice, and the writs of right
of dower, ne injuste vexes and de rationabili parte, the latter brought
by coparceners or brothers in gayelkind. Coheirs and coparceners
also had the nuper obiit for disseisin by one of themselves. There
were also writs in the nature of a writ of right, e.g. formedon, brought
by a reversioner on discontinuance by a tenant in tail and given by
the statute De Donis Conditionalibus ; escheat, brought by the lord
where the tenant died without an heir; ne injuste vexes, to prohibit
the lord from exacting services or rents beyond his due; de nativo
habendo, to recover the inheritance in a villein; and the little writ
of right close according to the custom of the manor, to try in the
lord's court the right of the king's tenants in antient demesne.
They had also the writ of monstraverunt.
Up to 1832 an action was (except as against certain privileged
persons, such as attorneys) begun at law by original writ, and writ
practically became the equivalent of action, and is so used in old
books of practice. The law was gradually altered by_ legislation
and still more by the introduction of fictitious proceedings in the
common law courts, by which the issue of the original writ was
suspended, except in real actions, which were of comparatively rare
occurrence. The original writ is no longer in use in civil procedure,
an action being now in all cases commenced by the writ of summons,
a judicial writ, a procedure first introduced in 1832 by 2 Will. IV.
c. 39. In the following year an immense number of the old writs
was abolished by the Real Property Limitation Act 1833. _ An
exception was made in favour of the writ of right of dower, writ of
dower unde nihil habet, quare imped.it and ejectment, and of the
plaints for freebench and- dower in the nature of writs of right.
Ejectment was remodelled by the Common Law Procedure Act
1852; the other writs and plaints remained up to the Common
Law Procedure Act 1860, by which they were abolished. Other
writs which have been superseded by simpler proceedings, generally
by ordinary actions, are those of the four assizes of novel disseisin,
juris utrum, mart d'auncester and darrein presentment, conspiracy,
estrepement and waste, false judgment, monstrans de droit, nuisance,
partition, praemunire, quo warranto, scire facias, subpoena and
warrantia chartae.
The number of writs, especially those connected with ecclesiastical
procedure, was so large that any exhaustive list of them is almost
impossible, but a few of those of more special interest
tsolete w hich have become obsolete may be shortly mentioned.
writs. Admensuratio lay against persons usurping more than
their share of property. It was either dotis or pasturae, the latter,
like the Scottish " souming and rouming, " being the remedy for
surcharge of common, for which also quod permittas lay. Alias and
pluries writs were issued when a previous writ had been disobeyed.
Apostata capiendo was the mode of apprehension of a monk who
had broken from his cloister. Assistance went to the sheriff to assist
the party or an officer of chancery to gain possession of land. A Uaint
lay to inquire by a jury of twenty-four whether a jury of twelve
had given a false verdict. Decies tantum also lay against a j uror who
had accepted a bribe, so called because he had to refund ten times
the sum received. Audita querela was a means of relieving a de-
fendant by a matter of discharge occurring after judgment. _ After
having been long practically superseded by stay of execution it was
finally abolished by the rules made under the Judicature Act 1875.
Beaupleader lay to prohibit the taking of a fine de pulcre placitando,
forbidden by the Statuteof Marlbridge (I268). 1 Capias, latitat and
quominus are interesting as showing the extraordinary mass of
fictitious allegation in the old procedure of the common law courts
before 1832. By capias ad respondendum followed by alias and
pluries the court of common pleas was enabled to take cognizance
of an action without the actual issue of an original writ. The capias
was a judicial writ issued to follow an original writ of trespass quia
clausum fregit. The issue of the original writ and after a time the
issue of the capias became mere fictions, and proceedings commenced
with the issue of another writ called capias testatum. On return of
the writ the plaintiff elected to proceed with a cause of action other
than trespass, and the real merits of the case were eventually reached
in this tortuous manner. After being served with the capias the
defendant was bound to put in common or special bail, the former
being sufficient in all but exceptional cases. Here again there was a
1 Relief from " miskenning " or " mescheninga, " or fine for beau-
pleader, was often granted in charters to towns, as by that of Henry I.
to London.
fiction, for his common bail were John Doe and Richard Roe. The
same fictitious pair also appeared on the side of the plaintiff as his
pledges for the due prosecution of his action. By latitat and quo-
minus the courts of king's bench and exchequer respectively assumed
jurisdiction by a further series of fictions over ordinary civil actions.
The writ of latitat, following the bill of Middlesex, itself in later times
generally a fiction, alledged that the defendant was in hiding out of
Middlesex, after committing a trespass quia clausum fregit, for which
he was in the custody of the king's marshal in the Marshalsea prison.
The real cause of action was then stated in what was called the ac
etiam clause. The writ of quominus alleged that the plaintiff was the
king's debtor, and that through the defendant's default he was unable
to discharge the debt. De cautions admittenda was a curiosity. It
enjoined a bishop to admit an excommunicated person to absolution
on condition of his giving security to obey the commands of the
church. Deceit or disceit lay for the redress of anything done
deceitfully in the name of another, but was especially used to reverse
a judgment in a real action obtained by collusion. Distraint of
knighthood was a mode of obtaining money for the crown by the
exercise of the prerogative of forcing every one who held a knight's
fee under the crown to be knighted or to pay a fine. The earliest
extant writ was issued in 1278. It was abolished in 1641 by 16 Car.
I. c. 20. Entry was a possessory remedy against one alleged to hold
land unlawfully. It was divided into a large number of kinds,
and was the subject of much of the old real property learning. The
ones most commonly occurring were the writs of entry in the per
and in the post, the former alleging, the latter not, the title of the
heir from the original disseisor. When writ had come to be equivalent
in meaning to action, one of the divisions of possessory actions was
into writs of entry and writs of assize. A special writ of entry for
dower was given by 6 Edw. I. c. 7. Excommunicate capiendo was the
authority for arresting an excommunicated person and detaining
him until he was reconciled to the church, when he was liberated by
the writ de excommunicate liberando. These proceedings were
abolished and the writ de contumace capiendo substituted in 1817.
Faux judgment was for revising the decision of an inferior court.
Haeretico comburendo was issued on certificate of conviction for
heresy by the ecclesiastical court. A case of burning two Arians
under this writ occurred as lately as the reign of James I. It was
abolished by 29 Car. II. c. 9. Homine replegiando, mainprize and
odio et alia (or bono et maid) were all ancient means of securing the
liberty of the subject, long superseded by the more effective pro-
cedure of habeas corpus. The last of the three enjoined the sheriff
to inquire whether a committal on suspicion of murder was on just
cause cr from malice and ill-will. It was regulated by Magna Carta
and the Statute of Westminster the Second, but, having been
abused to the advantage of sheriffs, it was abolished in 1355 by
28 Edw. III. c. 9. It was possibly among the means like the writ
of right by which the trial by battle and the appeal of felony tended
to become obsolete. Leproso amovendo explains itself. Moderata
misericordia was the means of reviewing an excessive amercement
of an inferior court, especially after an amercement had tended to
become a fixed sum of twelve pence. Nisi prius was given by the
Statute of Westminster the Second, 13 Edw. I. c. 30. Its place
is now taken by the commission of nisi prius. Orando pro rege et
regno, before the present Book of Common Prayer, enjoined public
prayers for the high court of parliament. Protection was given for
enabling a man to be quit of suits brought against him while absent
beyond seas. It was dealt with by a large number of old statutes,
but none has been issued since 1692. Quare ejecit infra terminum
was the old remedy of the lessee for eviction by the lessor. Rebellion
was a means of enforcing obedience to the process of the court of
chancery. In modern procedure attachment takes its place. Rege
inconsulto commanded judges of a court not to proceed in a case
which might prejudice the king until his pleasure should be known.
Replevin was a survival of the most archaic law. The procedure
consisted of writ on writ to an almost unlimited extent. It origin-
ally began by the issue of a writ of replevin or replegiari facias. The
case might be removed from the county court to a superior court by
writ of recordari facias loquelam. If the distrainor claimed a property
in the goods distrained, the question of property or no property was
determined by a writ de proprietate probanda, and, if decided in
favour of the distrainor, the distress was to be returned to him by
writ de retorno habendo. If the goods were removed or concealed,
a writ of rescous or capias in withernam enabled the sheriff, after due
issue of alias and pluries writs, to take a second distress in place
of the one removed. It is said that the question whether goods
taken in withernam could be replevied was the only one which the
Admirable Crichton found himself unable to answer. RestHutione
extracti ab ecclesia lay for restoring a man to a sanctuary from
which he had been wrongfully taken. Secta lay for enforcing the
duties of tenants to their lord's court, e.g. secta ad molendmum,
where the tenants were bound to have their corn ground at the lord's
mill. Seisina habenda allowed delivery of lands of a felon to the lord
after the king had had his year, day and waste. Vi laica removenda
is curiously illustrative of ancient manners. It lay where two
parsons contended for a church, and one of them entered with a great
number of laymen and kept out the other by force. As lately as
1867 an application for the issue of the writ was made to the chancery
court of the Bermuda Islands, but refused on the ground that the
850
WRIT
writ was obsolete, and that the same relief could be obtained by
injunction. On appeal this refusal was sustained by the privy
council.
Of writs now in use, other than those for elections, all are judicial,
or part of the process 1 of the court, except perhaps the writ of error
writ no * n criminal cases. They are to be hereafter issued out
in use f tne centra ' office of the supreme court, or the office
of the clerk of the crown in chancery. By the Crown
Office Act 1877 the wafer great seal or the wafer privy seal may be
attached to writs instead of the impression of the great or privy seal.
The judicial writs issue chiefly, if not entirely, from the central office,
with which the old crown office was incorporated by the Judicature
(Officers) Act 1879. The crown office had charge of writs occurring
in crown practice, such as quo warranto and certiorari.
In local civil courts, other than county courts, writs are usually
issued out of the office of the registrar, or an officer of. similar juris-
diction. By the Borough and Local Courts of Record Act 1872,
writs of execution from such courts for sums under 20 may be
stamped or sealed as of course by the registrar of a county court,
and executed as if they had issued from the county court. In county
court practice the warrant corresponds generally to the writ of the
supreme court. Most of the present law on the subject of writs is
contained in the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Ord. xlii.-xliv.,
and in the Crown Office Rules 1906. Both sets of rules contain
numerous precedents in their schedules. By Ord. ii. r. 8 of the rules
of 1883 all writs (with certain exceptions) are to be tested in the name
of the lord chancellor, or, if that office be vacant, in the name of the
lord chief justice. The main exceptions are those which occur in
crown practice, which are tested by the lord chief justice. The writ
of error bears the teste of the king "witness ourselves." Before the
issue of most writs a praecipe, or authority to the proper officer to
issue the writ, is necessary. This is of course not to be confounded
with the old original writ of praecipe. Writs affecting land must
generallyibe registered in order to bind the land (see LAND REGISTRA-
TION). A writ cannot as a rule be served on Sunday. Some of the
more important modern writs (other than those of an extrajudicial
nature) may be shortly noticed. Habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibi-
tion, scire facias and others are treated separately. Writs are gener-
ally, unless where the contrary is stated, addressed to the sheriff.
Abatement or nocumento antovendo enjoins the removal of a nuisance
in pursuance of a judgment to that effect. Ad quod damnum is for
the purpose of inquiring whether a proposed crown grant will be to
the damage of the crown or others. If the inquiry be determined in
favour of the subject, a reasonable fine is payable to the exchequer
by 27 Edw. I. st. 2 (1299). Attachment is issued as a means of
supporting the dignity of the court by punishment for contempt of
its orders (see CONTEMPT OF COURT). Since the Judicature Acts a
uniform practice has been followed in all the branches of the high
court, and a writ of attachment can now only be issued by leave of
the court or a judge after notice to the party against whom it is to
be issued. Capias: the old writs of capias ad satisfaciendum and
capias ultimatum may still be used, but their importance has been
much diminished since the alterations made in the law by the
Debtors Act 1869 and the abolition of civil outlawry (see OUT-
LAWRY). Certiorari is a writ in very frequent use, by which the pro-
ceedings of an inferior court are brought up for review by the high
court. In general it lies for excess of jurisdiction as mandamus
does for defect. The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 makes the
writ no longer necessary where a special case has been stated by a
court of quarter sessions. Delivery enforces a judgment for the
delivery of property without giving the defendant (unless at the
option of the plaintiff) power to retain it on payment of the assessed
value. Distnngas lay to distrain a person for a crown debt or for
his appearance on a certain day. Its operation has been much
curtailed by the substitution of other proceedings by the Crown
Suits Act 1865 and the rules of the supreme court. It now seems
to lie only against inhabitants for non-repair of a highway. Dis-
tringas nuper vicecomiiem is a writ calling on an ex-sheriff to account
for the proceeds of goods taken in execution. Elegit is founded on
the Statute of Westminster the Second, 1285, and is so named from
the words of the writ, that the plaintiff has chosen (elegit\ this
particular mode of satisfaction. It originally ordered the sheriff to
seize a moiety of the debtor's land and all his goods, save his oxen
and beasts of the plough. By the Judgments Act 1838, the elegit
was extended to include the whole of the lands, and copyholds as
well as freeholds. By the Bankruptcy Act 1883, an elegit no longer
applies to goods. Error, the last remaining example of an original
writ was at one time largely used in both civil and criminal pro-
ceedings. It was abolished in civil procedure by the rules made
under the Judicature Act 1875, and in criminal cases by the Criminal
Appeal Act 1907. Exigent (with proclamation) forms part of the
process of outlawry now existing only against a criminal. _ It
depends on several statutes, commencing in 1344, and is specially
mentioned in the Statute of Provisoes of Edward III., 25 Edw.
III. st. 6. Extent is the writ of execution issued by the crown fora
crown debt of record. The sale of chattels seized under an extent
takes place under a writ of venditioni exponas. A crown debtor is
1 It may be noticed that by the interpretation clause of the Sheriffs
Act 1887 the expression " writ " includes any process.
entitled to an extent in aid against a person indebted to him. Where
a crown debtor has died a writ reciting his death, and so called diem
clausit extrcmum, issues against his property. Fieri facias is the
ordinary writ of execution on a judgment commanding the sheriff to
levy the sum, interest and costs on the personal property of the party.
Where the sheriff has not sold the goods, venditioni exponas issues to
compel him to do so. Where the party is a beneficed clergyman,the
writ is one of fieri facias de bonis ecclesiasticis or of seque strari facias
(addressed to the bishop). The latter writ also issues in other cases
of an exceptional nature, as against a corporation and to seize a
pension. It is addressed to commissioners, not to the sheriff.
Habere facias possessionem is given to the owner of a tithe or rent
charge, enabling him to have possession of the lands chargeable there-
with until arrears due to him are paid. Indicavit is still nominally
grantable under the statute De Conjunctim Feoffatis of 1306, and is a
particular kind of prohibition granted to the patron of an advowson.
Inquiry issues for the assessment of damages by the sheriff or his
deputy. It represents to some extent the old writ of justicies,
and the later writ of trial allowed by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42, but is
narrower in its operation, for under the last-named writs the whole
case or issues under it could be tried. Before an inquiry the liability
has been already established. Levari facias is the means of levying
execution for forfeited recognizances. The Bankruptcy Act 1883
abolished it in civil proceedings. Ne exeat regno was at one time
issued by virtue of the prerogative to prevent any person from
leaving the realm, a form of restraint of liberty recognized by
parliament in 5 Ric. II. c. 2. It has now become a means of prevent-
ing one who owes an equitable debt of 50 or more .from quitting
the kingdom, and so withdrawing himself from the jurisdiction of
the court without giving security for the debt. It is usually issued
on an ex parte motion in the chancery division, but is rare in practice,
having been superseded by proceedings under the Debtors Act 1869.
Non omittas is for executing process by the sheriff in a liberty or
franchise, where the proper officer has neglected to do so. It rested
originally chiefly upon the Statute of Westminster the Second, c. 39,
and is now regulated by the Sheriffs Act 1887, which repeals the
previous enactment. Possession enjoins the sheriff to give possession
of land to the party entitled thereto under a judgment for such
possession. It fills the place of the old writ of assistance. In
admiralty, where the judgment is for possession of a ship, the writ
is addressed to the marshal. Procedendo is the converse of prohibi-
tion. It directs the lower court to proceed with the case. It also
lies to restore the authority of commissioners suspended by super-
sedeas. Restitution restores property, either real or personal, after
the right to it has been judicially declared. Thus it lies on behalf
of the owner of real property under the statutes of forcible entry
and of the owner of personal property under the Larceny Act 1861.
Significavit, once a writ, appears since 57 Geo. III. c. 127 to be merely
a notice. It is a part of the process against a person disobeying the
order of an ecclesiastical court, and consists in a notification to the
crown in chancery of the disobedience. Thereupon a writ de con-
tumace capiendo issues for his arrest. On his subsequent obedience
or satisfaction, a writ of deliverance is granted. Precedents of these
writs are given in the act named. Subpoena is the ordinary means
of securing the presence of a witness in court, and is addressed to
the person whose attendance is required. It is so called from its
containing the words " and this you are not to omit under the
penalty of 100," &c. The subpoena may be either ad testificandum,
to give evidence, or duces tecum, to produce documents, &c., or both
combined. By special order of a judge a subpoena may be issued
from any court in England, Scotland or Ireland to compel the attend-
ance of a witness out of the jurisdiction. Summons is the universal
means of commencing an action in the high court. It is addressed to
the defendant, and may be either generally or specially indorsed with
a statement of the nature of the claim made. The latter form of in-
dorsement is allowed in certain cases of debt or liquidated demand,
and gives the plaintiff the great advantage of entitling him to final
judgment in default of appearance by the defendant, and even in
spite of appearance unless the defendant can satisfy a judge that
he ought to be allowed to defend. No statement of claim is necessary
in case of a specially indorsed writ, the indorsement being deemed to
be the statement. The writ may be issued out of the central office or
out of a district registry, and the plaintiff may name on his writ the
division of the high court in which he proposes to have the case tried.
There are special rules governing the issue of writs in probate and
admiralty actions. The writ remains in force for twelve months, but
may be renewed for good cause after the expiration of that time.
Service must be personal, unless'where substituted service is allowed,
and in special cases, -such as actions to recover land and admiralty
actions. Service out of the jurisdiction of a writ or notice of a writ is
allowed only by leave of the court or a judge. Notice of the issue of
a writ, and not the writ itself, is served on a defendant who is neither
a British subject nor in British dominions. The law is contained in
the Rules of the Supreme Court, especially orders ii.-xi. and xiv.
Supersedeas commands the stay of proceedings on another writ. It
is often combined with procedendo, where on a certiorari or prohibition
the high court has decided in favour of the jurisdiction of the inferior
court. It is also used for removing from the commission of the peace,
and for putting an end to the authority of any persons acting under
commission from the crown. Venire facias is the first proceeding in
WRITERS TO THE SIGNET
851
outlawry, calling upon the party to appear. Under the old practice
a venire facias de novo was the means of obtaining a new trial. Venire
inspiciendo appears still to be competent, and is a curious relic of
antiquity. It issues on the application of an heir presumptive in
order to determine by a jury of matrons whether the widow of a
deceased owner of lands be with child or not. Almost exactly the
same proceeding was known in Roman law.
The principal writs of a non-judicial nature relate to parliament
or some of its constituent elements. Parliament is summoned by
the king's writ issued out of chancery by advice of the privy council.
The period of forty days once necessary between the writ and the
assembling is now by an act of 1852 reduced to thirty-five days.
Writs of summons are issued to the lords spiritual and temporal
before every new parliament. Those to Irish representative peers
are regulated by the Act of Union, those to archbishops and bishops
by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1847. New peerages are
no longer created by writ, but the eldest son of a peer is occasionally
summoned to the House of Lords in the name of a barony of his
father's. With respect to election of members of the House of
Commons, the procedure differs as the election takes place after a
dissolution or on a casual vacancy. After a dissolution the writ
is issued, as already stated, by order of the crown in council. For
a single election the warrant for a new writ is issued during the
session by the speaker after an order of the house made upon motion ;
during the recess by the speaker's authority alone. The warrant is
addressed to the clerk of the crown in chancery for Great Britain, to
the clerk of the crown and hanaper of Ireland. A supersedeas to a
writ has sometimes been ordered where the writ was improvidently
issued. The time allowed to elapse between the receipt of the writ
and the election is fixed by the Ballot Act 1872, sched. I, at nine days
for a county or a district borough, four days for any other borough.
The writ is to be returned by the returning officer to the clerk of the
crown with the name of the member elected endorsed on the writ.
Sched. 2 gives a form of the writ, which is tested, like the writ
of error, by the king himself. The returning officer is the sheriff
in counties and counties of cities, generally the mayor in cities and
boroughs, and the vice-chancellor in universities. Other writs for
election are those for convocation, which is by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19
summoned by the archbishop of the province on receipt of the king's
writ, and for election of coroners, verderers of royal forests, and some
other officers whose office is of great antiquity. The writ de coronatore
eligendo, addressed to the sheriff, is specially preserved by the
Coroners Act 1887.
Offences relating to writs are dealt with by the Criminal Law
Consolidation Acts of 1861 and other statutes. The maximum
penalty is seven years' penal servitude.
Scotland. " Writ " is a more extensive term than in England.
Writs are either judicial or extrajudicial, the latter including deeds
and other instruments as, for instance, in the Lord Clerk Register
Act 1879, and in the common use of the phrase " oath or writ " as a
means of proof. In the narrower English sense both " writ " and
" brieve " are used. The brieve was as indispensable a part of the
old procedure as it was in England, and many forms are given in
Regiam Majestatem and Quoniam Attachiamenta. It was a command
issued in the king's name, addressed to a judge, and ordering trial
of a question stated therein. It was drawn by the waters to the
signet, originally clerks in the office of the secretary of state. Its
conclusion was the will of the summons. In some cases proceedings
which were by writ in England took another form in Scotland.
For instance, the writ of attaint was not known in Scotland, but a
similar end was reached by trial of the jury for wilful error. 1 The
English writ of ne exeat regno is represented by the meditatio fugae
warrant. Most proceedings by brieve, being addressed to the sheriff,
became obsolete after the institution of the court of session, when
the sheriffs lost much of that judicial power which they had enjoyed
to a greater extent than the English sheriff (see SHERIFF).* An
English writ of execution is represented in Scotland by diligence,
chiefly by means of warrants to messengers-at-arms under the
authority of signet letters in the name of the king. See the Writs
Execution Act 1868. The brieve, however, has not wholly dis-
appeared. Brieves of tutory, terce and division among heir-por-
tioners are still competent but not in use. Other kinds of brieve
have been superseded by simpler procedure, e.g. the brieve of service
of heirs, representing the older breve de morte antecessoris, by a petition
to the sheriff under the Titles to Land Consolidation Act 1868 and
the brieve of perambulation by a declaratory action. The brieve of
cognition of insane persons is now one of the few of practical im-
portance. The old brieves of furiosity and idiotcy were abolished,
and this new form was introduced by the act last named. Writs
eo nomine have been the subject of much modern legislation. The
writs of capias, habeas, certiorari and extent were replaced by other
proceedings by the Exchequer Court Act 1856. The writs of dare
constat, resignation and confirmation (whether granted by the crown
or a subject superior) were regulated by the act of 1868. By the
1 An example occurring jn the reign of James VI. will be found in
Pitcairn, Criminal Trials, i. 216.
! Explanations of many of the older writs will be found in Lord
Clerk Register Skene's De verborum signification* (1641), and styles
in Spotiswood, Stile of Writs (1715).
same act crown writs are to be in the English language and registered
in the register of crown writs. Writs need not be sealed unless at
the instance of the party against whom they are issued. Writs of
progress (except crown writs, writs of dare constat and writs ot
acknowledgment) were abolished by the Conveyancing Act 1874.
The dare constat writ is one granted by the crown or a subject superior
for the purpose of completing title of a vassal's heirs to lands held
by the deceased vassal. Where the lands are leasehold the writ of
acknowledgment under the Registration of Leases Act 1857 is used
for the same purpose. By the Writs Execution Act 1877 the form of
warrant of execution on certain extracts of registered writs is amended.
Extracts of registered writs are to be equivalent to the registered
writs themselves. Writs registered in the register 'of sasines for
preservation only may afterwards be registered for preservation and
execution. By 22 Geo. II. c. 48, passed for the purpose of assimi-
lating the practice of outlawry for treason in Scotland to that in
use in England, the court before which an indictment for treason
or misprision of treason is found, is entitled on proper cause to
issue writs of capias, proclamation and exigent. In some respects
the proceedings in parliamentary elections differ from those in use in
England. Thus the writ in university elections is directed to the
vice-chancellors of Edinburgh and Glasgow respectively, but not to
those of St Andrews and Aberdeen, and there is an extension of the
time for the return in elections for Orkney and Shetland, and for the
Wick burghs. Representative peers of Scotland were by the Act of
Union to be elected after writ issued to the privy council of Scotland.
On the abolition of the privy council a proclamation under the great
seal was substituted by 6 Anne, c. 23.
United States. Writs in United States courts are by Act of
Congress to be tested in the name of the chief justice of the United
States. By state laws writs are generally bound to be in the name
of the people of the state, in the English language, and tested in
the name of a judge. Writs of error have been the subject of much
legislation by the United States and by the states. In New York
writs of error and of ne exeat have been abolished. Writs as parts
of real actions have been generally superseded, but in Massachu-
setts a writ of entry on disseisin is still a mode of trying title. Writs
of dower and of estrepement are still in use in some states. By the
law of some states, e.g. New Jersey, writs of election are issued to
supply casually occurring vacancies in the legislature. The writ of
assistance, already named, has its interest in constitutional history.
Before the War of Independence it was issued to revenue officers
to search premises for smuggled goods. It was on this writ that it
was first contended in 1761 that a colonial court had jurisdiction
to examine the constitutionality of a legislative act authorizing the
issue of the writ. See Quincy's Massachusetts Rep. App., I. 520.
AUTHORITIES. The importance of the writ in procedure led to the
compilation of a great body of law and precedent at an early date.
In addition to the Registrum brevium there were, among other old
works, the Natura brevium, first published in 1525; Theloall, Le
Digest des brief es originates (1579) ; Fitzherbert, Le Nouvel Natura
brevium (1588) ; Hughes, Original Writs (1655) ; Thesaurus brevium
(1661); Brownlow, Brevia judicialia (1662); Officina brevium
(1679). See too Coke upon Littleton, 158, 159, 2 Coke's Inst. 39;
and Du Cange. 8 Many precedents will be found in the collection of
parliamentary writs and in Stubbs's Select Charters. The Crown
Office Rules, 1906, contain many precedents of the modern writs
used in crown practice. Old books of practice, such as Tidd's
Practice, Corner's Crown Practice and Booth's Real Actions, contain
much law on the subject. For the history, Spence's Equitable Juris-
diction, vol. i. bk. ii. en. viii. ; Forsyth's Hist, of Trial by Jury, Stephen ;
On Pleading, Bigelow's Hist, of Procedure, ch. iv. ; Pollock and Mait-
land, Hist, of Eng. Law, and W. S. M'Kechnie, Magna. Carlo may be
consulted. There appears to be no book dealing with the wnt in
modern practice, but sufficient information is contained in the
ordinary treatises on procedure. (J. W.)
WRITERS TO THE SIGNET, in Scotland, a society of law
agents corresponding to solicitors in England. They were
originally clerks in the secretary of state's office and prepared
the different writings passing the signet; every summons is
still signed on its last page by a writer to the signet. By the
Titles to Land Consolidation (Scotland) Act 1868, they have
the exclusive privilege of preparing all crown writs, charters,
precepts, &c. , from the sovereign or the prince of Scotland. They
have no charter but are usually considered a corporation by long
custom; they have office-bearers and are members of the
College of Justice. On the Act of Union there was much debate
as to whether writers to the signet should be eligible to the
Scottish bench. It was finally decided that they should be
eligible aften ten years' practice. But, with the exception of
Hamilton of Pencaitland in 1712, no writer to the signet has
ever had a seat on the bench.
* A reference to Du Cange will show the great variety of the
non-legal uses of brevis or breve. It may mean, inter alia, an annual
rent, an amulet, a notice of the death of a monk. Brevetum signified
what are now known as ship's papers.
8 5 2
WRITING
WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to
inscribe), the use of letters, symbols or other conventional
characters, for the recording by visible means of significant
sounds; more specifically, the art of tracing by hand these
symbols on paper or other material, by pen and ink, pencil,
stylus or other such means, as opposed to mechanical methods
such as printing. The principal features in the development
of writing in its primary sense are dealt with in separate articles
(see ALPHABET, PALAEOGRAPHY, INSCRIPTIONS, BOOK, MANU-
SCRIPT, SHORTHAND, &c.). Here it is only necessary briefly to
refer to the origins of a system which has eventually followed
the history of the various languages and has been stereotyped
by the progress of typography (g.v.). Very early in the history
of mankind three needs become pressing. These are (a) to recall
at a particular time something that has to be done; (b) to com-
municate with some other person who is not present, nor for the
moment easily accessible; (c) to assert rights over tools, cattle,
&c., by a distinctive mark, or by a similar mark to distinguish
one's own production (e.g. a special make of pottery) from that of
others. The last-named use, out of which in time develops
every kind of trade-mark, is itself a development of the earlier
property mark. The right to property must be established
before traffic, whether by way of barter or of sale, is possible.
Every one is familiar with devices to achieve the first of
these aims; one of the commonest is to tie a knot in a hand-
kerchief. It is obvious that by multiplying the
signs. number of knots a number of points equal to the
number of knots might in this way be referred to,
though it is probable that the untrained memory would fail to
recall the meaning attached to more than a very limited number
of knots. The simplest application of these knots is in keeping
a record of a number of days, as in the story related by Herodotus
(iv. 98), to the effect that Darius, on crossing the Ister in his
Scythian expedition, left with the Greeks appointed to guard
the bridge a thong with a number of knots equal to the number
of days that their watch over the bridge was to be continued.
One knot was to be undone each day, and if the king had not
returned by the time that all the knots were undone, the Greeks
were to break down the bridge and go away. . A development of
this is found in the Peruvian quipus, which consists of a number
of thongs or cords hanging from a top-band or cross-bar. In
its simplified form, knots are merely tied upon the individual
cords. In its more elaborate forms the cords are of different
colours, and are knotted together so as to form open loops of
various shapes. In the Antiguedades Peruanas, 1 we are told
that the knots of the quipus in all probability indicated only
numbers originally, but that as time went on the skill of the
makers became so great that historical events, laws and edicts
could thus be communicated. In every place of any importance
there was an official whose business it was to interpret quipus
received from a distance, and to make quipus himself. If,
however, the quipus which was received came from a distant
province, it was not intelligible without an oral explanation.
Unfortunately, the art of interpretation of quipus is lost, so
that it is impossible to ascertain how far the knots were merely
a mnemonic for the messenger, and how far they were intelligible
without explanation to a stranger. Similar mnemonics are said
to have been used in the remotest antiquity amongst the Chinese,
the Tibetans, and other peoples of the Old World. 2
Similar in character to the quipus is the message-stick, which
is still in use amongst the natives of Australia. A branch of a
Mess tree * s ta ' ien an d notches made upon it. These are
sticks. now cu t with a knife; in earlier times they were made
with the edge of a mussel shell. The notches are made
in the presence of the messenger, who receives his instructions
while they are being made. The notches are thus merely aids
to memory, and not self-explanatory, though if messages fre-
quently passed between two parsons, practice would in time
help the person to whom the message was sent to guess at the
1 Quoted by Middendorf , Das Runa Simi oder die Keshua Sprache
(Leipzig, 1890), p. 8.
* Cf. Andree, Ethnologische Parallelen und Vergleiche, i. p. 184 sqq.
meaning, even without a verbal explanation. The following
was the method of the Wotjoballuk of the Wimmera river in
Victoria. 3 " The messenger carried the message-stick in a net
bag, and on arriving at the camp to which he was sent, he handed
it to the headman at some place apart from the others, saying to
him, ' So-and-so sent you this,' and he then gives his message,
referring as he does so to the notches on the message-stick;
and if his message requires it, also enumerates the days or stages,
as the case may be," by a method of counting on different parts
of the body.
For the purposes of communication with absent persons,
however, another method commended itself, which in time was
adopted also for mnemonic purposes. This method
was the beginning whence some forms at least of later
writing have been derived. From the very earliest
times to which the energy of man can be traced, date two
kinds of writing: (a) engraving of a visible object on some
hard substance, such as the flat surface of a bone; (b) drawing,
painting or engraving marks which could again be identified.
Of the first kind are the engravings of reindeer, buffaloes and
other animals by the cave men of prehistoric times; of the second
are a large number of pebbles discovered by M. Ed. Piette at
Mas d'Azil, on the left bank of the Arize, an account of which
was published by the discoverer in L' Anthropologie (1896),
vii. 384 sqq. This layer of coloured pebbles is intercalated
between the last layer of the Reindeer Age and the first of the
Neolithic period. The layer is over 2 ft. thick, of a reddish-black
colour, and along with the pebbles are found cinders, peroxide
of iron, teeth of deer perforated, probably in order to be strung
like beads, harpoons of various kinds, and the bones of a large
number of animals, some wheat, and, in the upper part of the
layer, nuts, cherry-stones and plums. The stones were coloured
with peroxide of iron. The characters are of two kinds: (a)
a series of strokes which possibly indicate numbers, (b) graphic
symbols. The stones were scattered about without connexion
or relation one with another. Whatever the meaning may be,
it is clear that the markings are not accidental. It is noticeable,
however, that none of them definitely represent any animal,
though some of them bear a certain resemblance to caterpillars
or serpents. Others look like rough attempts to represent trees
and river plants. A great number closely resemble symbols
of the alphabet. Piette himself was inclined to see in the symbols
the forerunners of the later syllabaries and alphabets of the East,
nine of them agreeing with forms in the Cypriot syllabary (see
below) and eleven with those of the Phoenician alphabet. A
certain amount of likeness, however, could not well be avoided,
for as soon as the artist advances beyond the single perpendicular
or horizontal line he must, by crossing two lines, get forms
which resemble alphabetical symbols. It might be therefore
a safer conclusion to suppose that if they passed beyond magic
symbols, to be buried like the Australian churinga, they were
conventional marks understood by the members of the clan or
tribe which frequented the caves of Mas d'Azil. It has been
suggested that, like similar things among the American Indians,
they may have been used in playing games or gambling.
A very large number of conventional marks, however, are
dernonstrably reductions from still older forms, conventional
marks often developing out of pictographs. Picto- American
graphy has, in fact, left its traces in all parts of the pktun-
world. It has, however, been most widely developed
in the New World as a system lasting down to modern
times. The American Indians, besides picture-writing, used also
(i) the simple mnemonic of a notched stick to record various
incidents, such as the number of days spent on an expedition,
the number of enemies slain and the like; (2) wampum belts,
consisting of strung beads, which could be utilized as a mnemonic,
exactly like a rosary. Wampum belts, however, were employed
in more intricate forms; white beads indicated peace, purple or
violet meant war. Sometimes a pattern was made in the belt
with beads of a different colour, as in the belt presented to
8 A. W. Howitt in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xviii.
(1889), p. 318 sqq.
WRITING
853
William Penn on the making of a treaty with the Leni-Lenape
chiefs in 1682. Here, in the centre of the belt, two figures, in-
tended to represent Penn and an Indian, join hands, thus clearly
indicating a treaty. Very simple pictures are drawn upon birch
bark, indicating by their order the subjects in a series of song-
chants with sufficient precision to enable the singer to recall the
theme of each in his recitation. An account can be kept of sales
or purchases by representing in perpendicular strokes the number
of items, and adding at the end of each series a picture of the
animal or object to which the particular series refers. Thus
three strokes followed by the picture of a deer indicate that the
hunter has brought three deer for sale. A conventional symbol
(a circle with a line across it) is used to indicate a dollar, a cross
represents ten cents, and an upright stroke one cent, so that the
price can be quite clearly set forth. This practice is followed in
many other parts of the world. In clay tablets discovered by
Dr Arthur Evans during his exploration of the great palace at
Knossos, in Crete, a somewhat similar method of enumeration is
followed; while at Athens conventional symbols were used to
distinguish drachmae and obols upon the revenue records, of
which considerable fragments are still preserved.
In comparatively recent times, according to Colonel Mallery
(loth Annual Report of American Bureau of Ethnology), the
Dakota Indians invented a chronological table, or winter count,
wherein each year is recorded by a picture of some important
event which befell during that year. In these pictures a con-
siderable amount of symbolism was necessary. A black upright
stroke indicates that a Dakota Indian was killed, a rough outline
of the head and body spotted with blotches indicates that in the
year thus indicated the tribe suffered from smallpox. Some-
times, in referring to persons, the symbol is of the nature of a
rebus. Thus, Red Coat, an Indian chief, was killed in the winter
of 1807-1808; this fact is recorded by a picture of a red coat
with two arrows' piercing it and blood dripping. There is,
however, nothing of the nature of a play upon words intended,
and even when General Manyadier is represented as a figure in
European dress, with the heads of two deer behind his head and
connected with his mouth, no rebus was intended (many a deer),
but the Indians supposed that his name really meant this, like
their own names Big Crow, Little Beaver, and so forth. Here
the Mexicans proceeded a stage further, as in the often quoted
case of the name of Itz-coatl, literally knife-snake, which is
Ordinarily represented by a reptile (coatf) with a number of
knives (its) projecting from its back. It is, however, also found
divided into three words, itz-co-atl knife-pot-water and
represented by a different picture accordingly. The Mexicans,
moreover, to indicate that the picture was a proper name, drew
the upper part of the human figure below the symbol, and joined
them by a line, a practice adopted also amongst their northern
neighbours when, as in names like Little-Ring, the representation
would hardly be sufficiently definite. Simple abstract notions
could also be expressed in this picture-writing. Starvation or
famine was graphically represented by a human figure with the
ribs showing prominently. A noose amongst the Mexicans was
the symbol for robbery, though more logically belonging to its.
punishment. In a Califomian rock-painting reproduced by
Mallery (p. 638), sorrow is represented by a figure from whose
eyes drop tears. This could be abbreviated to an eye with tears
falling from it, a form recorded by Schoolcraft as existing
amongst the Ojibwa Indians. The symbol is so obvious that it
is found with the same value among Egyptian hieroglyphics.
The civilization of the American Indians was nowhere very
high, and for their simple needs this system, without further
development, sufficed. It was different in the more elaborate
civilizations which prevailed among the ancient peoples of the
Old World, to whom with certainty the development of writing
from pictography can be ascribed the Assyrians (see CUNEI-
FORM), Egyptians (see EGYPT) and Chinese (see CHINA). Here
more complex notions had to be expressed. The development
of the system can be traced through many centuries, and,
as might be expected, this development shows a tendency
to conventionalize the pictorial symbols employed. Out of
conventionalized forms develop (a) syllabaries, (6) alphabets.
As regards the latter the historical evolution is traced in the
article ALPHABET. The account given under CHINA (language)
gives a good idea of the development of a syllabary from pict o-
graphic writing.
The Egyptian system of writing is perhaps the oldest of known
scripts, and was carried on till the Ptolemaic period, when the more
convenient Greek alphabet led to its gradual disuse. Brvotlan
But, as in Chinese, the fact that it was so long in use led ^^
to the conventionalizing of the pictures, and in many cases to a
complete divorcement between the symbol and the sound repre-
sented, the original word having often become obsolete. In this
case it is no longer possible to trace it. Attempts have been made to
connect the three great pictographic systems of the Old World,
some authorities holding that the Chinese migrated eastwards from
Babylonia, while others contend that the civilization of Egypt
sprang originally from the valley of the Euphrates, and that the
ancient Egyptians were of the *ime stock as the Somali and were
overlaid and permeated by a Semitic conquest and civilization.
But there is no clear evidence that the Egyptian system of writing
was not a development in the Nile Valley itself, or that it was either
the descendant or the parent of the pictographic system which
developed into the cuneiform of Assyria and neighbouring lands.
Egyptian started from the same point as every other pictographic
system the representation of the object or the concrete expression
of the idea. But, like the Chinese, it took the further step, short of
which the American Indian pictographs stopped ; it converted its
pictures into a syllabary from which there was an imperfect develop-
ment towards an alphabet. Egyptian, however, never became
alphabetic in the sense in which the western languages of modern
Europe are alphabetic. This is attributed to the natural conserva-
tism of the people, and the influence of the artist scribes, who, as
Mr F. LI. Griffith has pointed out, " fully appreciated the effect of
decorative writing ; to have limited their choice of signs by alphabetic
signs would have constituted a serious loss to that highly important
body. " The effect of this love for decoration, combined with a
desire for precision, is shown by the repetition several times over in
the symbols of the sounds contained in a word. The development
of Egyptian was exactly parallel to Chinese. A combination of
sounds, which was originally the name of an object, was represented
by the picture of that object. This picture again, like Chinese, and
like the Indian name " Little-Ring," required at the end a determin-
ative a picture of the kind of object intended in order to avoid
ambiguity. As the alphabet represented only consonants and semi-
consonants, and the Egyptian roots consisted mostly of only three
letters, the parallelism with Chinese is remarkably close.
The cuneiform script spread to other people who spoke tongues in
no way akin to those of either its inventors, the Sumerians, or their
conquerors, the Semitic Babylonians. A widespread HHthe
series of inscriptions, found in many parts of Asia and
even in the Aegean, which are generally described as Hittite (q.v.)
are written in a script of pictographic origin, though probably
independent of Babylonian in its development.
It is noteworthy that at a very early period a colony of Greeks
from the Peloponnese, speaking a dialect closely akin to the Arcadian
dialect (which is known to us only from a much later Cyprian
period), had settled in the island of Cyprus. Alone
among the Greeks this colony did not write in an alphabet, but under
some Asiatic influence adopted a syllabary. Even when the island
came again closely in touch with their Greek kinsfolk, after the
Persian wars, the Greek inhabitants continued to write in their
syllabary. In the recent excavations made by the authorities of the
British Museum an inscription of the 4th century B.C. was dis-
covered, whereon a dedication to Demeter and Persephone was given
first in Greek letters and repeated below in the syllabary, the Greek
(as universally at so late a period) reading from left to right, the
syllabary from right to left. This syllabary has five vowel symbols,
but it could not distinguish between long and short vowels. In its
consonant system it is unable to distinguish between breathed,
voiced and aspirated stops, thus having but one symbol to represent
rt, Sand0. It is, of course, unable to represent a final consonant,
but this is achieved by using the symbol for a syllable ending in e
conventionally for the final consonant. Thus ka-se stands for d$,
the Cyprian equivalent of not, " and. " There are symbols for ta,
for te, for ti, for to, for tu, though none for t, and similarly for most
of the other consonants. There is, however, no symbol for wu (Fv) ;
ya, ye, yi occur, but no yo or yu. AW^TPI is expressed by ta-ma-li-ri,
where ti stands for t alone; sa-ta-sa-to-ro stands or Sroadi-ipu
(genitive). Here it is to be observed (l) that v preceding another
consonant is omitted altogether, the vowel being probably nasalized
as in French; (2) that, as in the previous word, there is a sort of
vowel euphony whereby the unnecessary vowel accompanying /
takes the colour of the succeeding vowel. In other cases, however,
it follows the preceding vowel, as in a-ri-si-to-pa-to-o-a-ri-si-ta-go-
ra-u = 'ApurrA0aTo(s) A ApurTa.y6pw.
For literature on the history of writing, see the bibliographies to
the articles ALPHABET, &c., and under the headings of the various
languages and peoples.
WROTHAM WUHU
WROTHAM, an urban district in the Medway parliamentary
division of Kent, England, 10 m. W. by N. of Maidstone, on
the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 3571. The
church of St George, Early English and later, contains numerous
brasses; and near it is the site of a palace of the archbishops
of Canterbury, maintained until the time of Archbishop Simon
Islip (c. 1350). S.W. of Wrotham is the village of Ightham,
in which is a fine quadrangular moated manor-house, the Mote,
in part of the I4th century, but with portions of Tudor dates.
WRYNECK (Ger. Wendehah, Dutch draaihalzen, Fr. torcol),
a bird so called from its way of writhing its head and neck,
especially when captured on its nest in a hollow tree. The lynx 1
torquilla is a regular summer visitant to most parts of Europe,
generally arriving a few days before the cuckoo, and is known
in England as " cuckoo's leader " and " cuckoo's mate," but
occasionally is called " snake-bird," not only from the undulatory
motions just mentioned, but from the violent hissing with which
it seeks to repel an intruder from its hole. 2
The unmistakable note of the wryneck is merely a repetition of
what may be syllabled que, que, que, many times in succession,
rapidly uttered at first, but gradually slowing and in a continually
falling key. This is only heard during a few weeks, and for the rest
of the bird's stay in Europe it seems to be mute. It feeds almost
exclusively on insects, especially on ants. It is larger than a sparrow,
but its plumage is not easily described, being beautifully variegated
with black, brown, buff and grey the last produced by minute
specks of blackish-brown on a light ground the darker markings
disposed in patches, vermiculated bars, freckles, streaks or arrow-
heads and the whole blended most harmoniously, so as to recall
the coloration of a goatsucker (q.v.) or of a woodcock (q.v.). The
wryneck commonly lays its translucent white eggs on the bare wood
of a hole in a tree, and it is one of the few wild birds that can be
induced to go on laying by abstracting its eggs day after day, and
thus upwards of forty have been taken from a single hole but the
proper complement is from six to ten. As regards Britain, the bird
is most common in the S.E., its numbers decreasing rapidly towards
the W. and N., so that in Cornwall and Wales and beyond Cheshire
and Yorkshire its occurrence is but rare, while it appears only by
accident in Scotland and Ireland.
Some writers have been inclined to recognize five other species of
the genus lynx; but the so-called /. japonica is specifically in-
distinguishable from /. torquilla; while that designated, through a
mistake in the locality assigned to it, /. indlca, has been found to be
identical with the I. pectoralis of S. Africa. Near to this is I. pulchri-
collis, discovered by Emin Pasha in the E. of the Bar-el- Djebel (Ibis,
1884, p. 28, pi. hi.). Another distinct African species is the /.
aequatorialis, originally described from Abyssinia. The wrynecks
(see WOODPECKER) form a subfamily lynqinae of the Picidae, from
the more normal groups of which they differ but little in internal
structure, but much in coloration and in having the tail-quills
flexible, or at least not stiffened to serve as props as in the climbing
Picinae. (A. N.)
WRY-NECK (Lat. Torticollis), a congenital or acquired
deformity, characterized by the affected side of the head being
drawn downwards towards the shoulder together with deviation
of the face towards the sound side. There are various forms,
(i) The congenital, due to a lesion of the sterno-mastoid muscle,
either the result of a malposition in utero or due to the rupture
of the muscle in the delivery of the aftercoming head in the birth
of the breech presentation. (2) The rheumatic, due to exposure
to a draught or cold. This is commonly known as " stiff-neck."
(3) The nervous or spasmodic, the result of (a) direct irritation
of the spinal accessory nerve or its roots, or (6) the result of
cerebral irritation. In this form there is generally a family
history of nervous diseases, notably epilepsy. This spasm is
one of a group of nervous spasms known as " tics," a variety
of habit spasm. The character of the movements varies with
the muscles involved, the most usual muscle being the sterno-
mastoid. The spasm ceases during sleep. Many cases are also
due to hysteria and some to spinal caries. When wry-neck is
congenital, massage and manipulation may be tried and some
form of apparatus. Failing this, division of the muscle surgically
1 Frequently misspelt, as by Linnaeus in his later years, Yunx.
1 The peculiarity was known to Aristotle, and possibly led to the
cruel use of the bird as a love-charm, to which several classical writers
refer, as Pindar (Pyth. iv. 214; Nem. iv. 35), Theocritus (iv. 17. 30)
and Xenophon (Memorabilia, iii. n. 17, 18). In one part at least
of China a name, Shay ling, signifying " Snake's neck," is given to
it (Ibis, 1875, p. 125).
may be practised. In the spasmodic forms, anti-neurotic treat-
ment is recommended, the use of the bromides, valerianates
and belladonna, and hydrobromide of hyoscine injected into
the muscles has been found of value. T. Grainger Stewart re-
commends in persistent tic the trial of continuous and regular
movements in the affected group of muscles with a view to
replacing the abnormal movements by normal ones. In severe
cases it may be necessary to cut down on and stretch or excise
the spinal accessory nerve. In rheumatic torticollis the spasm
is usually overcome by the application of hot compresses and
appropriate anti-rheumktic treatment.
WUCHANG, the capital of the combined provinces of Hup-eh
and Hu-nan, China. It is one of the three cities, Wuchang,
Hanyang and Hankow, which stand together at the mouth of
the Han river, and is situated on the right bank of the river
Yangtsze, almost directly opposite the foreign settlement of
Hankow. It is the seat of the provincial government of the
two Hu or Hu-kwang, as these provinces are collectively termed,
at the head of which is a viceroy. Next to Nanking and Canton,
it is one of the most important vice-royalties in the empire. It
possesses an arsenal and a mint. The provincial government
has established ironworks for the manufacture of rails and other
railway material. As the works did not pay under official
management, they were transferred to the director-general of
railways. Wuchang is not open to foreign trade and residence,
but a considerable number of missionaries, both Roman Catholic
and Protestant, live within the walls. The native population
is estimated at 800,000, including cities on both banks. Wuchang
is an important junction on the trunk railway from Peking to
Canton ; and is on the route of the Sze-ch'uen railway.
WUCHOW, a treaty port in the province of Kwang-si, China,
opened to foreign trade in 1897, and situated on the left bank
of the Si-kiang (West river) at its junction with the Fu or
Kwei-Kiang (Cassia) river. It is 220 m. above Canton, with which
it is in navigable connexion for vessels drawing up to 8 ft. of
water. In 1908 the value of the trade passing through the
maritime customs amounted to 1,566,000, representing, how-
ever, dnly a portion of the trade. Of this total, two-thirds were
for imports, consisting principally of cotton and cotton goods,
kerosene oil, woollens, &c. Sugar, various oils, hides and aniseed
were the chief exports. The native population is estimated at
65,000. At Shuihing the river flows for 5 m. through a deep
gorge bordered by limestone cliffs 2000 ft. in height. Farther f
up the river threads its way through a series of rocky defiles,
forming at intervals what seems an inland lake with no apparent
outlet. During summer floods the water thus pent up by the
gorges rises at Wuchow 50 or 60 ft. In consequence of the
variation of river level, the principal offices and shops are built
upon pontoons which are moored alongside the river-bank. The
situation of Wuchow makes it the natural distributing centre
between Kwei-chow, Kwang-si and Canton. Great things were
therefore expected of it as a treaty port, but disorders in Kwang-
si delayed the fulfilment of the hopes. Trade, however, has
improved, and a large native passenger traffic has sprung up
between it and Canton. It is connected with Hong Kong and
Shanghai by telegraph.
WUHU, a district city in the province of Ngan-hui, China,
about i m. from the S. bank of the Yangtsze-kiang, with which
it is connected by a straggling suburb. It is about 50 m. above
Nanking, and in 1858 it was marked out as a treaty port, but
was not opened to trade until 1877. It is connected by canals
,with the important cities of Ning-Kwo Fu, T'ai-p'ing Hien,
Nan-ling Hien and Ching Hien, the silk districts in the neigh-
bourhood of the two last cities being within 50 m. of Wuhu.
Coal to a considerable extent exists in the country round. At
first its commercial progress was very slow, the older ports of
Kiu-kiang and Chin-kiang militating against its success; but
of late there has been a distinct improvement in the trade of the
port, the net value of which was about 3,000,000 in 1906. The
principal exports are rice, cotton, wheat, tea, furs and feathers.
For the production of feathers large quantities of ducks are
reared in the surrounding districts. Of imports, opium formed
WULFENITE WUNDT
855
the most considerable item; other imports being matches,
needles, sandalwood and window glass. The city, which is one
of the largest of its rank in China, was laid desolate during the
T'ai-p'ing rebellion, but has been repeopled, the population
being estimated (1906) at 137,000- The streets are compara-
tively broad and are well paved. The land set apart for the
British settlement, advantageously situated, was little built
upon. A new general foreign settlement was opened in 1905.
WULFENITE, a mineral consisting of lead molybdate,
PbMoO 4 , crystallizing in the hemimorphic-tetartohedral class of
the tetragonal system. Crystals usually have the form of thin
square plates bevelled at the edges by pyramidal planes. They
have a brilliant resinous to adamantine lustre, and vary in
colour from greyish to bright yellow or red: the hardness is 3,
and the specific gravity 6-7. Small amounts of calcium are
sometimes present isomorphously replacing lead. The mineral
occurs in veins of lead ore, and was first found in the i8th
century in the lead mines at Bleiberg in Carinthia. Bright
yellow crystals are found in New Mexico and Utah, and brilliant
red crystals in Arizona.
WULFHERE (d. 675), king of the Mercians, was a younger
son of King Penda, and was kept in concealment for some
time after his father's defeat and death in 655. In 658 or 659,
however, the Mercians threw off the supremacy of Oswio, king
of Northumbria, and Wulfhere became their king. He took
energetic measures to spread Christianity, and was greatly helped
by his bishop, Jaruman, and afterwards by St Chad. Outside
Mercia he did something to induce the East and the South
Saxons to accept Christianity, and is said to have founded one
or two monasteries. He gained Lindsey from Northumbria
in 657, and was successful against Wessex. He extended his
borders in all directions, and was the founder of the passing
greatness of Mercia, although he lost Lindsey just before his
death. Wulfhere's wife was Eormenhild, a daughter of Ercon-
berht, king of Kent, and he was succeeded by his brother Aethel-
red. His only son Coenred became king in 704 in succession
to Aethelred. His only daughter was St Werburga or Werburh,
abbess of Ely.
See Bede, Historia ecdesiastica, ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896);
and J. R. Green, The Making of England (1897-1899).
WULFSTAN, archbishop of York from 1003 until his death
in May 1023, and also bishop of Worcester from 1003 to 1016,
is generally held to be the author of a remarkable homily in
alliterative English prose. Its title, taken from a manuscript,
is Lupi sermo ad Anglos, quando Dani maxime prosecuti sunt eos,
quodfuit anno 1014. It is an appeal to all classes to repent in t4ie
prospect of the imminent day of judgment, and gives a vivid
picture of the desperate condition of England in the year of King
Aethelred II.'s flight (1014). Of the many other homilies
ascribed to Wulfstan very few are authentic. Subsequent
legislation, especially that of Canute, bears clear traces of his
influence.
See the edition of his homilies by A. Napier (Berlin, 1883) ; also the
same writer's Cber die Werke des altenghschen Erzbischofs Wulfstan
(Gottingen dissertation, 1882), and his paper in An English Miscellany
(Oxford, 1901, pp. 355 f.) ; also A. Brand! in H. Paul s Grundriss der
germanischen Philologie (2nd ed., 1901-1909), ii. pp. 1110-1112.
WULFSTAN. ST (c. 1012-1095), bishop of Worcester, was born
at Little Itchington near Warwick and was educated in the
monastic schools of Evesham and Peterborough. He became
a monk at Worcester, and schoolmaster and prior in the cathedra]
monastery there. In 1062 he was chosen bishop of Worcester,
and the choice was approved by the witan; with some reluctance
Wulfstan accepted, and was consecrated at York in September.
The see of Worcester and the archbishopric of York had been held
together before 1062 by Archbishop Aldred, who, when he was
compelled to resign Worcester, retained twelve manors belonging
to the see, which Wulfstan did not recover for some years.
About 1070, however, it was decided that Worcester was in the
province of Canterbury. Although he had been on friendly
terms with Harold, the bishop submitted to William at Berk-
hampstead, and he was very useful in checking the rebellious
barons during the revolt of 1075. He was equally loyal to
William II. in his struggle with the Welsh. Wulfstan's relations
with his ecclesiastical superiors were not so harmonious, and at
one time both Lanfranc of Canterbury and Thomas of York
unsuccessfully demanded his removal. He was the only survivor
of the Anglo-Saxon bishops when he died on the i8th of January
1095. In 1203 he was canonized by Pope Innocent III. By his
reaching at Bristol Wulfstan is said to have put an end to the
ddnapping of English men and women and selling them as slaves.
He rebuilt the cathedral church of Worcester, and some parts of
lis building still remain.
Lives of St Wulfstan by Hemming and Florence of Worcester are
n H. Wharton's Anglia sacra (1691). See also E. A. Freeman,
Norman Conquest (1867-1879).
WULLENWEBER, JURGEN (c. 1492-1537), burgomaster of
LUbeck, was born probably at Hamburg. Settling in Lubeck
as a merchant he took some part in the risings of the inhabitants
in 1530 and 1531, being strongly in sympathy with the demo-
cratic ideas in religion and politics which inspired them. Having
joined the governing council of the city and become leader of the
democratic party, he was appointed burgomaster early in 1533
and threw himself into the movement for restoring Lubeck to
her former position of influence. Preparations were made to
attack the Dutch towns, the principal trading rivals of Lubeck,
when the death of Frederick I., king of Denmark, in April 1533
changed the position of affairs. The Lubeckers objected to the
bestowal of the Danish crown upon any prince favourable to
the Empire or the Roman religion, and Wullenweber went to
Copenhagen to discuss the matter. At length an alliance was
concluded with Henry VIII. of England; considerable support
was obtained in N. Germany; and in 1534 an attack was made
on Christian, duke of Holstein, afterwards King Christian III.,
who claimed the throne. At first the Lubeckers gained several
successes, but Christian of Holstein appeared before Lubeck;
the efforts of Wullenweber to secure allies failed; and the citizens
were compelled to make peace. The imperial court of justice at
Spires restored the old constitution, and in August 1535 the
aristocratic party returned to power. Soon afterwards Wullen-
weber was seized by Christopher, archbishop of Bremen, and
handed over to his brother Henry II., duke of Brunswick-
Wolfenbiittel. Having been tortured and sentenced to death as
a traitor and an Anabaptist, he was beheaded at Wolfenbiittel
on the 29th of September 1537. Wullenweber, who was long
regarded as a popular hero in Lubeck, inspired tragedies by
Heinrich Kruse and Karl Ferdinand Gutzkow, and a novel
by Ludwig K<5hler.
See G. Waitz, Lubeck unter Mrgen Wullenweber und die europaische
Politik (Berlin, 1855-1856).
WUNDT, WILHELM MAX (1832- ), German physiologist
and philosopher, was born on the i6th of August 1832 at Neck-
arau, in Baden. He studied medicine at Tubingen, Heidelberg
and Berlin, and in 1857 began to lecture at Heidelberg. In
1864 he became assistant professor there, and in 1866 was chosen
to represent Heidelberg in the Baden Chamber, but soon resigned.
In 1874 he was elected regular professor of philosophy at Zurich,
and in the following year was called to the corresponding chair
at Leipzig, where he founded an Institute for Experimental
Psychology, the precursor of many similar institutes. The list
of Wundt's works is long and comprehensive, including physi-
ology, psychology, logic and ethics. His earlier works deal
chiefly with physiology, though often in close connexion with
psychology, as in the Vorksungen fiber die Menschen- und Tier-
seek (1863; 4th ed., 1006; trans. Creighton and Titchener, 1896),
Lehrbuch der Physiologie des Menschen (1865; 4th ed., 1878),
and Grundzilge der physiologischen Psychologic (1874; 6th ed.,
3 vols., 1908). He published an important work on Logik (1880-
1883; 3rd ed., 1906-1907), and this was followed in 1886 by
his Ethik (3rd ed., 1903). According to Wundt, the straight road
to ethics lies through ethnic psychology, whose especial business
it is to consider the history of custom and of ethical ideas from
the psychological standpoint. We must look for ethics to supply
the corner-stone of metaphysics, and psychology is a necessary
propaedeutic. The System der Philosophic (1899; 3rd ed., 1007)
contained the results of Wundt's work up to that date, both in
856
WUNTHO WURTTEMBERG
the domain of science and in the more strictly philosophic field.
The metaphysical or ontological part of psychology is in Wundt's
view the acfaal part, and with this the science of nature and the
science of mind are to be brought into relation, and thus con-
stituted as far as possible philosophical sciences. In 1892 Wundt
published Hypnotismus und Suggestion. Subsequent important
works are the Grundriss der Psychologic (1896; 8th ed., 1907;
trans. Judd, 3rd ed., 1907); Volkerpsychologie (190x5-1906);
Einleilung in die PhUos. (1901 ; 4th ed., 1906). Two other works,
containing accounts of the work of himself and his pupils, are
Philosophische Studien (1883-1902) and Psychologische Studien
(1905 foil.).
WUNTHO, a native state of Upper Burma annexed by the
British and incorporated in the district of Katha in 1 892. Wuntho
was classed by the Burmese as a Shan state, but was never on
the same footing as the true Shan states, and only escaped be-
coming an integral part of the Burmese empire through Burmese
want of system. The Shan name is Wying Hso, " the city of the
high." It had an area of about 2400 sq. m. with 150,000 in-
habitants, and lay midway between the Irrawaddy and Chindwin
rivers. When the British annexed Upper Burma in 1885 the
state became a refuge for rebels and dacoit leaders. Finally in
1891 the state broke out into open rebellion, the sawbwa was
deposed, and a force of 1800 troops under General Sir George
Wolseley occupied the town of Wuntho and reduced the state to
order.
WUPPER, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the
Rhine, rising in the Sauerland near Meinerzhagen. The most
remarkable part of its course is that in the so-called Wuppertal.
In this section, 30 m. in length, it passes through the populous
towns of Barmen and Elberfeld and supplies water-power to
about five hundred mills and factories. Leaving the hills above
Opladen, it debouches on to the plain and enters the Rhine at
Rheindorf between Cologne and Diisseldorf, after a course of
63 m.
See A. Schmidt, Die Wupper (Lennep, 1902).
WURTTEMBERG, a kingdom of Germany, forming a tolerably
compact mass in the S.W. angle of the empire. In the south it is
cleft by the long narrow territory of Hohenzollern, belonging to
Prussia; and it encloses six small enclaves of Baden and Hohen-
zollern, while it owns nine small exclaves within the limits of
these two states. It lies between 47 34' 48" and 49 35' 17" N.,
and between 8 15' and 10 30' E. Its greatest length frcm N.
to S. is 140 m.; its greatest breadth is 100 m.; its boundaries,
almost entirely arbitrary, have a circuit of 1116 m.; and its
total area is 7534 sq. m., or about -faih of the entire empire.
It is bounded on the E. by Bavaria, and on the other three
sides by Baden, with the exception of a short distance on the
S., where it touches Hohenzollern and the lake of Constance.
Physical Features. Wurttemberg forms part of the South-German
tableland, and is hilly rather than mountainous. In fact the un-
dulating fertile terraces of Upper and Lower Swabia may be taken as
the characteristic parts of this agricultural country. The usual
estimates return one-fourth of the entire surface as " plain," less than
one-third as " mountainous," and nearly one-half as " hilly." The
average elevation above the sea-level is 1640 ft.; the lowest point is
at Bottingen (410 ft.), where the Neckar quits the country; the
highest is the Katzenkopf (3775 ft.), on the Hornisgrinde, on the
western border.
The chief mountains are the Black Forest (q.v.) on the west, the
Swabian Jura or Rauhe Alb stretching across the middle of the
country from south-west to north-east, and the Adelegg Mountains
in the extreme south-east, adjoining the Algau Alps in Bavaria. The
Rauhe Alb or Alp slopes gradually down into the plateau on its south
side, but on the north it is sometimes rugged and steep, and has its
line broken by isolated projecting hills. The highest summits are
in the south-west, viz. the Lemberg (3326 ft.), Ober-Hohenberg
(3312 ft.) and Plettenberg (3293 ft.). To the south of the Rauhe Alb
the plateau of Upper Swabia stretches to the lake of Constance and
eastwards across the Iller into Bavaria. Between the Alb and the
Black Forest in the north-west are the fertile terraces of Lower
Swabia, continued on the north-east by those of Franconia
About 70% of Wurttemberg belongs to the basin of the Rhine,
and about 30 % to that of the Danube. The principal river is the
Neckar, which flows northward for 186 m. through the country to
join the Rhine, and with its tributaries the Rems, Kocher, Jagst,
Ens, &c., drains 57 % of the kingdom. The Danube flows from east
to west across the south half of Wurttemberg, a distance of 65 m., a
small section of which is in Hohenzollern. Just above Ulm it is
joined by the Iller, which forms the boundary between Bavaria and
Wurttemberg for about 35 m. The Tauber in the north-east joins
the Main; the Argen and Schussen in the south enter the lake of
Constance. The lakes of Wurttemberg, with the exception of those
in the Black Forest, all lie south of the Danube. The largest is the
Federsee (i sq. m.), near Buchau. About one-fifth of the lake of
Constance is reckoned to belong to Wurttemberg. Mineral springs
are abundant ; the most famous spa is Wildbad, in the Black Forest.
The climate is temperate, and colder among the mountains in
the south than in the north. The mean temperature varies at
different points from 43 to 50 F. The abundant forests induce
much rain, most of which falls in the summer. The soil is on the
whole fertile and well cultivated, and agriculture is the main occupa-
tion of the inhabitants.
Population. The population of the four departments (Kreise)
into which the kingdom is divided is shown below:
District (Kreis).
Area in
sq. m.
Pop.
1900.
Pop.
1905.
Density
1905-
Neckar
Black Forest (Schwarz-
wald) ....
Jagst
Danube (Donau) .
1286
1844
1985
2419
745,669
509-258
400,126
514,427
811,478
541,662
407,059
541,980
631
293
205
223
Total . .
7534
2,169,480
2,302,179
306
The population is particularly dense in the Neckar valley from
Esslingen northward. The mean annual increase from 1900 to
1905 amounted to 1-22%. 8-5% of the births are illegitimate.
Classified according to religion, about 69% are Protestants,
30% Roman Catholics, and Jews amount to about |%. Pro-
testants largely preponderate in the Neckar district, Roman
Catholics in that of the Danube. The people of the north-west
belong to the Alamannic stock, those of the north-east to the
Franconian, and those of the centre and south to the Swabian.
According to the latest occupation census, nearly half of the
entire population is supported by agriculture, and a third by
industrial pursuits, mining and commerce. In 1910, 506,061
persons^ were engaged in agriculture and kindred occupations,
432,114 in industrial occupations, and 100,109 in trade and
commerce.
The largest towns in the kingdom are Stuttgart (with Cann-
stadt), Ulm, Heilbronn, Esslingen, Reutlingen, Ludwigsburg,
Goppingen, Gmiind, Tubingen, Tuttlingen and Ravensburg.
AgricuUure. Wurttemberg is essentially an agricultural state,
and of its 4,821,760 acres, 44-9 % are agricultural land and gardens,
l-l % vineyards, 17-9 % meadows and pastures, and 30-8 % forest.
It possesses rich meadowlands, cornfields, orchards, gardens, and
hills covered with vines. The chief agricultural products are oats,
spelt, rye, wheat, barley, hops. To these must be added wine (mostly
of excellent quality) of an annual value of about one million sterling,
peas and beans, maize, fruit, chiefly cherries and apples, beets and
tobacco, and garden and dairy produce. Of live stock, cattle, sheep
and pigs are reared in considerable numbers, and great attention is
paid to the breeding of horses.
Mining. Salt and iron are the only minerals of great industrial
importance found in Wurttemberg. The salt industry only began
to be of importance at the beginning of the igth century. The iron
industry, on the other hand, is of great antiquity, but it is hampered
by the entire absence of coal mines in the country. Other minerals
produced are granite, limestone, ironstone and fireclay.
Manufactures. The old-established manufactures embrace linen,
woollen and cotton fabrics, particularly at Esslingen and Goppingen,
and paper-making, especially at Ravensburg, Heilbronn and other
places in Lower Swabia. The manufacturing industries assisted by
the government developed rapidly during the later years of the
19th century, notably metal-working, especially such branches of it
as require exact and delicate workmanship. Of particular import-
ance are iron and steel goods, locomotives (for which Esslingen
enjoys a great reputation), machinery, motor-cars, bicycles, small
arms (in the Mauser factory at Oberndorf), all kinds of scientific and
artistic appliances, pianos (at Stuttgart), organs and other musical
instruments, photographic apparatus, clocks (in the Black Forest),
electrical apparatus, and gold and silver goods. There are also ex-
tensive chemical works, potteries, cabinet-making workshops, sugar
factories, breweries and distilleries. Water-power and petrol largely
compensate for the lack of coal. Among other interesting develop-
ments is the manufacture of liquid carbonic acid gas procured from
natural gas springs beside the Eyach, a tributary of the Neckar.
Commerce. The principal exports are cattle, cereals, wood, pianos,
WURTTEMBERG
857
salt, oil, leather, cotton and linen fabrics, beer, wine and spirits
The chief commercial cities are Stuttgart, Ulm, Heilbronn and Fried
richshafen. The book trade of Stuttgart, called the Leipzig of Soutl
Germany, is very extensive.
Communications. In 1907 there were 1219 m. of railways, of whicl
all except 159 m. belonged to the state. The Neckar, the Schussen
and the lake of Constance are all navigable for boats; the Danube
begins to be navigable at Ulm. The roads of Wurttemberg are
fairly good; the oldest of them are Roman. Wurttemberg, like
Bavaria, retained the control of its own postal and telegraph service
on the foundation of the new German empire.
Constitution. Wttrttemberg is a constitutional monarchy anc
a member of the German empire, with four votes in the federa
council (Bundesrat), and seventeen in the imperial diet. The
constitution rests on a law of 1819, amended in 1868, in 1874, and
again in 1906. The crown is hereditary, and conveys the simple
title of king of Wurttemberg. The king receives a civil list oi
103,227. The legislature is bi-cameral. The upper chamber
(Standesherren) is composed of adult princes of the blood, heads
of noble families from the rank of count (Graf) upwards, repre-
sentatives of territories (Standeshcrrschafteri), which possessed
votes in the old German imperial diet or in the local diet; it has
also members (not more than 6) nominated by the king, 8
members of knightly rank, 6 ecclesiastical dignitaries, a repre-
sentative of the university of Tubingen, and i of the technical
high school of Stuttgart, 2 representatives of commerce and
industry, 2 of agriculture, and i of handicrafts. The lower
house (Abgeordnetenhaus) has 92 members, viz. a representa-
tive from each of the administrative divisions (Oberamtsbezirke),
63 in all without Stuttgart, which has 6 representatives; also
i from each of the six chief provincial towns, and 17 members
elected by the two electoral divisions (Landeswahlkreise) into
which the kingdom is divided. The latter class of members
as well as those for Stuttgart are elected on the principle of
proportional representation. The king appoints the president
of the upper chamber; since 1874 the lower chamber has
elected its own chairman. Members of both houses must be
over twenty-five years of age, and parliaments are elected for six
years; the suffrage is enjoyed by all male citizens over twenty-
five years of age, and voting is by ballot.
The highest executive is in the hands of a ministry of state
(Staatsministerium) , consisting of six ministers respectively of
justice, foreign affairs (with the royal household, railways, posts
and telegraphs), the interior, public worship r and education, war
and finance. There is also a privy council, consisting of the
ministers and some nominated councillors (urirkliche Slaatsrate),
who advise the sovereign at his command. The judges of a
special supreme court of justice, called the Slaatsgerichtshof
(which is the guardian of the constitution), are partly elected
by the chambers and partly appointed by the king. Each of the
chambers has the right to impeach the ministers. The country
is divided into four governmental departments (Kreise) and
subdivided into sixty -four divisions (Oberamtsbezirke), each of
which is under a headman (Oberamtmann} 'assisted by a local
council (Amtsversammlung). At the head of each of the four
departments is a government (Regierung).
Religion. The right of direction over the churches resides in the
king, who has also, so long as he belongs to the Protestant Church,
the guardianship of the spiritual rights of that Church. The Pro-
testant Church is controlled (under the minister of religion and
education) by a consistory and a synod the former consisting of a
president, 9 councillors and 6 general superintendents or " prelates "
from six principal towns, and the latter of a representative council,
including both lay and clerical members. The Roman Catholic
Church is subject to the bishop of Rottenburg, in the archdiocese
of Freiburg. Politically it is under a Roman Catholic council,
appointed by government. The Jews also, since 1828, have been
subject to a state-appointed council (Oberkirchenbehorde).
Education. According to official returns there is not an individual
in the kingdom above the age of ten years who cannot both read and
write. The higher branches of learning are provided in the uni-
versity of Tubingen, in the technical high school (with academic
rank) of Stuttgart, the veterinary high school at Stuttgart, the
commercial college at Stuttgart, ana the agricultural college of
Hohenheim. There are gymnasia and other schools in all the larger
towns, while every commune has a school. There are numerous
schools and colleges for women. There is also a school of viticulture
at Weinsberg.
Army. By terms of the convention of 1871 the troops of Wurttem-
berg form the XIII. army corps of the imperial German army.
Finances. The state revenue for 1909-1910 was estimated at
4,840,520, which is nearly balanced by the expenditure. About
one-third of the revenue is derived from railways, forests and mines;
about 1,400,000 from direct taxation; and the remainder from in-
direct taxes, the post-office and sundry items. In 1909 the public
debt amounted to 29,285,335, of which more than 27,000,000 was
incurred for railway construction. Of the expenditure over 900,000
is spent upon public worship and education, and over 1,200,000
goes in interest and repayment of the national debt. To the treasury
of the German empire the kingdom contributed 660,000.
AUTHORITIES. See Wurttembergische Jahrbucher }ur Statistik und
Landeskunde; Das Konigreich Wurttemberg, tine Beschreibung nach
Kreisen, Oberdmtern und Gemeinden (Stuttgart, 1904) ; Statistisches
Handbuch fur das Konitnich Wurttemberg (Stuttgart, 1885 fol.);
Das Konigreich Wurttemberg, eine Beschreibung von Land, Volk und
Stoat (1893); the Jahresberichte der Handels- und Gewerbekammern
in Wurttemberg; Lang, Die Enhvickelung der Bevolkerung Wurttem-
bergs im Laufe des ipten Jahrhunderts (Tubingen, 1903) ; Engel and
Schulze, Geognosticher Wegweiser durch Wurttemberg (Stuttgart,
1908); Goz, Staalsrecht des Konigreichs Wurttemberg (Tubingen,
1008); and F. Bitzer, Regierung und Stande in Wurttemberg (Stutt-
gart, 1882).
History. The origin of the name Wurttemberg is uncertain,
but the once popular derivation from Wirth am Berg is now
universally rejected. Some authorities derive it from a proper
name, Wiruto or Wirtino; others from a Celtic place-name,
Virolunum or Verdunum. At all events from being the name of
a castle near the village of Rothenberg, not far from Stuttgart,
it was extended over the surrounding country, and as the lords
of this district increased their possessions so the name covered
an ever-widening area, until it reached its present denotation.
Early forms of it are Wirtenberg, Wirtembenc and Wirtenberc.
Wirtemberg was long current, and in the latter part of the i6th
century Wurtemberg and Wurttemberg appeared. In 1806
Wurttemberg was adopted as the official spelling, though
Wurtemberg is also common and occurs sometimes in official
documents and even on coins issued after that date.
As far as we know, the first inhabitants of the country were the
Celts, and then the Suebi. In the ist century A.D. the Romans
conquered the land and defended their position there by a ram-
aart (limes'). Early in the 3rd century the Alamanni drove the
Romans beyond the Rhine and the Danube, but in their turn
they were conquered by the Franks under Clovis, the decisive
battle being fought in 496. For about four hundred years the
district was part of the Prankish empire, being administered by
counts, but in the 9th century it was incorporated with the
German duchy of Swabia. The duchy of Swabia was ruled by
the Hohenstaufen family until the death of Conradin in 1268,
when a considerable part of it fell to the count of Wurttemberg,
the representative of a family first mentioned about 1080, a
certain Conrad von Beutelsbach, having called himself after his
ancestral castle of Wurttemberg. The earliest count about
whom anything is known is one Ulrich, who ruled from 1241
;o 1265. He was marshal of Swabia and advocate of the town
of Ulm, and had large possessions in the valleys of the Neckar
and the Rems. Under his sons, Ulrich II. and Eberhard I., and
heir successors the power of the family grew steadily. Eberhard
'd- 1325) was the opponent, and not always the unsuccessful
one, of three German kings; he doubled the area of his county
and transferred his residence from Wurttemberg to Stuttgart,
lis successors were not perhaps equally important, but all
added something to the area of Wurttemberg. The lands of
he family were several times divided, but in 1482 they were
declared indivisible and were united under Count Eberhard V.,
called im Bart. This arrangement was confirmed by the German
ting, Maximilian I., and the imperial diet in 1495.
Eberhard was one of the most energetic rulers that Wurttem-
>erg ever had, and in 1495 his county was raised to the rank of
luchy. Dying in 1496, he was succeeded by his cousin, Duke
Sberhard II., who, however, was deposed after a short reign of
wo years. The long reign (1498-1 550) of Ulrich I., who succeeded
o the duchy while still a child, was a most eventful period for
he country, and many traditions cluster round the name of this
gifted, unscrupulous and ambitious man. The extortions by
8 5 8
WURTTEMBERG
which he sought to raise money for his extravagant pleasures
excited a rising known as that of ihearme Konrad (poor Conrad) ,
not unlike the rebellion in England led by Wat Tyler ; order was
soon restored, and in 1514 by the treaty of Tubingen the people
undertook to pay the duke's debts in return for various political
privileges, which in effect laid the foundation of the constitutional
liberties of the country. A few years later Ulrich quarrelled
with the Swabian League, and its forces, helped by William IV.,
duke of Bavaria, who was angered by the treatment meted out
by Ulrich to his wife Sabina, a Bavarian princess, invaded
Wurttemberg, expelled the duke and sold his duchy to the
emperor Charles V. for 220,000 gulden. Charles handed over
Wurttemberg to his brother, the German king, Ferdinand I.,
who was its nominal ruler for a few years. Soon, however, the
discontent caused by the oppressive Austrian rule, the disturb-
ances in Germany leading to the Peasants' War and the commo-
tions aroused by the Reformation gave Ulrich an opportunity
to recover it. Aided by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and other
Protestant princes, he fought a victorious battle against Fer-
dinand's troops at Lauffen in May 1534, and then by the treaty
of Cadan he was again recognized as duke, but was forced to
accept his duchy as an Austrian fief. He now introduced the
reformed doctrines and proceeded to endow Protestant churches
and schools throughout his land. Ulrich's connexion with the
league of Schmalkalden led to another expulsion, but in 1547 he
was reinstated by Charles V., although on somewhat onerous
terms.
Ulrich's son and successor, Christopher (1515-1568), completed
the work of converting his subjects to the reformed faith. He
introduced a system of church government, the Grosse Kirchen-
ordnung, which has endured in part to the present day. In this
reign a standing commission was established to superintend
the finances, and the members of this body, all of whom belonged
to the upper classes, gained considerable power in the state,
mainly at the expense of the towns. Christopher's son Louis,
the founder of the Collegium illuslre, died childless in 1593 and
was succeeded by a kinsman, Frederick I. (1557-1608). This
energetic prince, who disregarded the limits placed to his
authority by the rudimentary constitution, by paying a large
sum of money, induced the emperor Rudolph II. in 1599 to free
the duchy from the suzerainty of Austria. Thus once again
Wurttemberg became a direct fief of the Empire. Unlike his
predecessor, the next duke, John Frederick (1582-1628), was
not allowed to become an absolute ruler, but was forced to
recognize the checks on his power. During this reign, which
ended in July 1628, Wurttemberg suffered severely from the
Thirty Years' War, although the duke himself took no part
in it. His son and successor Eberhard III. (1614-1674), however,
plunged into it as an ally of France and Sweden as soon as he
came of age in 1633, but after the battle of Nordlingen in 1634
the duchy was occupied by the imperialists and he himself was
for some years an exile. He was restored by the peace of West-
phalia, but it was to a depopulated and impoverished country,
and he spent his remaining years in efforts to repair the disasters
of the great war. During the reign of Eberhard IV. (1676-1733),
who was cnly one year old when his father Duke William Louis
died in 1677, Wurttemberg made the acquaintance of another
destructive enemy. In 1688, 1703 and 1707 the French entered
the duchy and inflicted brutalities and sufferings upon the
inhabitants. The sparsely populated country afforded a welcome
to the fugitive Waldenses, who did something to restore it to
prosperity, but this benefit was partly neutralized by the extrava-
gance of the duke, anxious to provide for the expensive tastes
of his mistress, Christiana Wilhelmina von Gravenitz. Charles
Alexander, who became duke in 1733, had embraced the Roman
Catholic faith while an officer in the Austrian service. His
favourite adviser was the Jew Suss Oppenheimer, and it was
thought that master and servant were aiming at the suppression
of the diet and the introduction of the Roman Catholic religion.
However, the sudden death of Charles Alexander in March 1737
put an abrupt end to these plans, and the regent, Charles Rudolph
of Wurttemberg-Neuenstadt, had Oppenheimer hanged.
Charles Eugene (1728-1793), who came of age in 1744, was
gifted, but vicious and extravagant, and he soon fell into the
hands of unworthy favourites. He spent a great deal of money
in building palaces at Stuttgart and elsewhere, and took the
course, unpopular to his Protestant subjects, of fighting against
Prussia during the Seven Years' War. His whole reign was
disturbed by dissensions between the ruler and the ruled, the
duke's irregular and arbitrary methods of raising money arousing
great discontent. The intervention of the emperor and even of
foreign powers was invoked, and in 1770 a formal arrangement
removed some of the grievances of the people. But Charles
Eugene did not keep his promises, although in his old age he
made a few further concessions. He died childless, and was
succeeded by one brother, Louis Eugene (d. 1795), and then
by another, Frederick Eugene (d. 1797). This latter prince,
who had served in the army of Frederick the Great, to whom he
was related by marriage, educated his children in the Protestant
faith. Thus, when his son Frederick II. became duke in 1797, the
ruler of Wurttemberg was again a Protestant, and the royal house
has adhered to this faith since that date. During Frederick
Eugene's short reign the French invaded Wurttemberg, com-
pelled the duke to withdraw his troops from the imperial army
and to pay a sum of money.
Frederick II. (1754-1816), a prince whose model was Frederick
the Great, took part in the war against France in defiance of the
wishes of his people, and when the French again invaded and
devastated the country he retired to Erlangen, where he re-
mained until after the conclusion of the peace of Luneville in
1801. By a private treaty with France, signed in March 1802,
he ceded his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine, receiving
in return nine imperial towns, among them Reutlingen and Heil-
bronn, and some other territories, amounting altogether to
about 850 sq. m. and containing about 124,000 inhabitants.
He also accepted from Napoleon the title of elector. These new
districts were not incorporated with the duchy, but remained
separate; they were known as New Wurttemberg and were
ruled without a diet. In 1805 Wurttemberg took up arms on the
side of France, and by the peace of Pressburg in December 1805
the elector was rewarded with various Austrian possessions in
Swabia and with other lands in the neighbourhood. On the
ist of January 1806 Frederick assumed the title of king, abrogated
the constitution and united old and new Wurttemberg. Sub-
sequently he placed the property of the church under the control
of the state. In 1806 he joined the Confederation of the Rhine
and received further additions of territory containing 160,000
inhabitants; a little later, by the peace of Vienna in October
1809, about 110,000 more persons were placed under his rule.
In return for these favours Frederick joined Napoleon in his
campaigns against Prussia, Austria and Russia, and of 16,000 of
his subjects who marched to Moscow only a few hundreds re-
turned. Then after the battle of Leipzig he deserted the waning
fortunes of the French emperor, and by a treaty made with
Metternich at Fulda in November 1813 he secured the confirma-
tion of his royal title and of his recent acquisitions of territory,
while his troops marched with those of the allies into France.
In 1815 the king joined the Germanic Confederation, but the
congress of Vienna made no change in the extent of his lands.
In the same year he laid before the representatives of his people the
sketch of a new constitution, but this was rejected, and in the midst
of the commotion Frederick died on the 3othof October 1816.
At once the new king, William I., took up the consideration
of this question and after much discussion a new constitution
was granted in September 1819. This is the constitution which,
with subsequent modifications, is still in force, and it is described
in an earlier section of this article. A period of quietness now
set in, and the condition of the kingdom, its education, its
agriculture and its trade and manufactures, began to receive
earnest attention, while by frugality, both in public and in private
matters, King William helped to repair the shattered finances of
the country. But the desire for greater political freedom had
not been entirely satisfied by the constitution of 1819, and after
1830 there was a certain amount of unrest. This, however,
WURTZ
859
soon passed away, while trade was fostered by the inclusion of
WiirUemberg in the German Zollverein and by the construction
of railways. The revolutionary movement of 1848 did not leave
Wurttemberg untouched, although no actual violence took
place within the kingdom. The king was compelled to dismiss
Johannes Schlayer (i 792-1860) and his other ministers, and to call
to power men with more liberal ideas, the exponents of the
' idea of a united Germany. A democratic constitution was pro-
claimed, but as soon as the movement had spent its force the liberal
ministers were dismissed, and in October 1849 Schlayer and his
associates were again in power. By interfering with popular
electoral rights the king and his ministers succeeded in assembling
a servile diet in 1851, and this surrendered all the privileges
gained since 1848. In this way the constitution of 1819 was
restored, and power passed into the hands of a bureaucracy. Al-
most the last act of William's long reign was to conclude a
concordat with the Papacy, but this was repudiated by the
diet, which preferred to regulate the relations between church
and state in its own way.
In July 1864 Charles I. (1823-1891) succeeded his father
William as king and had almost at once to face considerable
difficulties. In the duel between Austria and Prussia for supre-
macy in Germany, William I. had consistently taken the part of
the former power, and this policy was e'qually acceptable to the
new king and his advisers. In 1866 Wurttemberg took up arms
on behalf of Austria, but three weeks after the battle of Konig-
gratz her troops were decisively beaten at Tauberbischofsheim,
and the country was at the mercy of Prussia. The Prussians
occupied the northern part of Wurttemberg and peace was made
in August 1866; by this Wurttemberg paid an indemnity of
8,000,000 gulden, but at once concluded a secret offensive and
defensive treaty with her conqueror.
The end of the struggle was followed by a renewal of the
democratic agitation in Wurttemberg, but this had achieved no
tangible results when the great war between France and Prussia
broke out in 1870. Although the policy of Wurttemberg had
continued antagonistic to Prussia, the country shared in the
national enthusiasm which swept over Germany, and its troops
took a creditable part in the battle of Worth and in other opera-
tions of the war. In 1871 Wurttemberg became a member of
the new German empire, but retained control of her own post
office, telegraphs and railways. She had also certain special
privileges with regard to taxation and the army, and for the next
ten years the policy of Wurttemberg was one of enthusiastic
loyalty to the new order. Many important reforms, especially
in the realm of finance, were introduced, but a proposal for a
union of the railway system with that of the rest of Germany was
rejected. Certain reductions in taxation having been made in
1889, the reform of the constitution became the question of the
hour. The king and his ministers wished to strengthen the con-
servative element in the chambers, but only slight reforms were
effected by the laws of 1874, 1876 and 1879, a more thorough
settlement being postponed. On the 6th of October 1891 King
Charles died suddenly, and was succeeded by his cousin William
II. (b. 1848), who continued the poKcy of his predecessor. The
reform of the constitution continued to be discussed, and the
election of 1895 was memorable because of the return of a power-
ful party of democrats. King William had no sons, nor had
his only Protestant kinsman, Duke Nicholas (1833-1903);
consequently the succession would ultimately pass to a Roman
Catholic branch of the family, and this prospect raised up certain
difficulties about the relations between church and state. The
heir to the throne in 1910 was the Roman Catholic Duke Albert
(b. 1865).
Between 1900 and 1910 the political history of Wurttemberg
centred round the settlement of the constitutional and the
educational questions. The constitution was revised in 1906
on the lines already indicated, and a settlement of the education
difficulty was brought about in 1909. In 1904 the railway
system was united with that of the rest of Germany.
For the history of Wflrttemberg see the Wirttembergisches Ur-
kundenbuch (Stuttgart, 1849-1907); and the Darstellungen aus der
vnirttembergischen Geschichte (Stuttgart, 1904 fol.). Histories are
those of P. F. Stalin, Geschichte Wurttembergs (Gotha, 1882-1887);
E. Schneider, WurUembergische Geschichte (Stuttgart, 1896); Bel-
schner, Geschichte von Wurttemberg in Wort und Bild (Stuttgart,
1902); Weller, Wurttemberg in der deutscken Geschichte (Stuttgart,
1900) ; K. V. Fricker and Th. von Gessler, Geschichte der Verfassung
Wurttembergs (Stuttgart, 1860.); Hieber, Die vnirttembergische
Verfassungsreform von 1906 (Stuttgart, 1906); and R. Scnmid,
Reformationsgeschichle Wurttembergs (Heilbronn, lox>4). See also
Golther, Der Stoat und die katholische Kirche im Konigreich Wurttem-
berg (Stuttgart, 1874) ; B. Kaisser, Geschichte des Volksschutwesens
in Wurttembere (Stuttgart, 1895-1897); Bartens, Die wirtschaftliche
Entwickelung des Konigreichs Wurttemberg (Frankfort, 1901); W.
von Heyd, BMiographie der wiirttembergischen Geschichte (1895-
1896), Band iii. by Th. Schon (1907); D. Schafer, WurUembergische
Geschichtsquellen (Stuttgart, 1894 fol.); and A. Pfister, Konig
Friedrich von Wurttemberg und seine Zeit (Stuttgart, 1888).
WURTZ, CHARLES ADOLPHE (1817-1884), French chemist,
was born on the 26th of November 1817 at Wolfisheim, near
Strassburg, where his father was Lutheran pastor. When he
left the Protestant gymnasium at Strassburg in 1834, his father
allowed him to study medicine as next best to theology. He
devoted himself specially to the chemical side of his profession
with such success that in 1839 he was appointed " Chef des
travaux chimiques " at the Strassburg faculty of medicine.
After graduating there as M.D. in 1843, with a thesis on albumin
and fibrin, he studied for a year under J. von Liebig at Giessen,
and then went to Paris, where he worked in J. B. A. Dumas's
private laboratory. In 1845 he became assistant to Dumas
at the Ecole de Medecine, and four years later began to give
lectures on organic chemistry in his place. His laboratory at
the Ecole de Medecine was very poor, and to supplement it he
opened a private one in 1850 in the Rue Garenciere; but soon
afterwards the house was sold, and the laboratory had to be
abandoned. In 1850 he received the professorship of chemistry
at the new Institut Agronomique at Versailles, but the Institut
was abolished in 1852. In the following year the chair of organic
chemistry at the faculty of medicine became vacant by the
resignation of Dumas and the chair of mineral chemistry and
toxicology by the death of M. J. B. Orfila. The two were united,
and Wurtz appointed to the new post. In 1866 he undertook
the duties of dean of the faculty of medicine. In this position
he exerted himself to secure the rearrangement and reconstruc-
tion of the buildings devoted to scientific instruction, urging
that in the provision of properly equipped teaching laboratories
France was much behind Germany (see his report Les Hautes
tudes pratiques dans les universites allemandes, 1870). In
1875, resigning the office of dean but retaining the title of honor-
ary dean, he became the first occupant of the chair of organic
chemistry, which he induced the government to establish at the
Sorbonne; but he had great difficulty in obtaining an adequate
laboratory, and the building ultimately provided was not
opened until after his death, which happened at Paris on the
loth of May 1884. Wurtz was an honorary member of almost
every scientific society in Europe. He was one of the founders
of the Paris Chemical Society (1858), was its first secretary and
thrice served as its president. In 1880 he was vice-president
and in 1881 president of the Academy, which he entered in 1867
in succession to T. J. Pelouze. He was made a senator in 1881.
Wurtz's first published paper was on hypophosphorous acid (1842),
and the continuation of his work on the acids of phosphorus (1845)
resulted in the discovery of sulphophosphoric acid and phosphorus
oxychloride, as well as of copper hydride. But his original work
was mainly in the domain of organic chemistry. Investigation of
the cyanic ethers (1848) yielded a class of substances which opened
out a new field in organic chemistry, for, by treating those ethers
with caustic potash, he obtained methylamine, the simplest organic
derivative of ammonia (1849), and later (1851) the compound ureas.
In i85S, reviewing the various substances that had been obtained
from glycerin, he reached the conclusion that glycerin is a body of
alcoholic nature formed on the type of three molecules of water, as
common alcohol is on that of one, and was thus led (1856) to the
discovery of the glycols or diatomic alcohols, bodies similarly
related to the double water type. This discovery he worked out
very thoroughly in investigations of ethylene oxide and the poly-
ethylene alcohols. The oxidation of the glycols led him to homo-
logues of lactic acid, and a controversy about the constitution of
the latter with H. Kolbe resulted in the discovery of many new facts
86o
WURZBURG WURZEN
and in a better understanding of the relations between the oxy-
and the amido-acids. In 1867 Wurtz prepared neurine synthetically
by the action of trimethyjamine on glycol-chlorhydrin, and in 1872
he discovered aldol, pointing out its double character as at once an
alcohol and an aldehyde. In addition to this list of some of the new
substances he prepared, reference may be made to his work on
abnormal vapour densities. While working on the defines he noticed
that a change takes place in the density of the vapour of amylene
hydrochloride, hydrobromide, &c., as the temperature is increased,
and in the gradual passage from a gas of approximately normal
density to one of half-normal density he saw a powerful argument in
favour of the view that abnormal vapour densities, such as are
exhibited by sal-ammoniac or phosphorus pentachloride. are to be
explained by dissociation. From 1865 onwards he treated this
question in several papers, and in particular maintained the dis-
sociation of vapour of chloral hydrate, in opposition to H. Sainte-
Claire Deville and M. Berthelot.
For twenty-one years (1852-1872) Wurtz published in the Annales
de chimie et de physique abstracts of chemical work done out of
France. The publication of his great Dictionnaire de chimie pure
et appliquee, in which he was assisted by many other French
chemists, was begun in 1869 and finished in 1878; two supple-
mentary volumes were issued 1880-1886, and in 1892 the publication
of a second supplement was begun. Among his books are Chimie
medicals (1864), Lemons elementaires de chimie moderns (1867),
Theorie des atomes dans la conception du monde (1874), La Theorie
atomique (1878), Progres de I'industrie des matieres colorantes arti-
ficielles (1876) and Traite de chimie biologique (1880-1885). His
Histoire des doctrines chimiques, the introductory discourse to his
Dictionnaire, but published separately in 1868, opens with the well-
known dictum, " La chimie est une science franchise."
For his life and work, with a list of his publications, see Charles
Friedel's memoir in the Bulletin de la Societe Chimique (1885); also
A. W. von Hofmann in the Ber. deut. chem. Gesellsch. (1887), re-
printed in vol. iii. of his Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde
(1888).
WURZBURG, a university town and episcopal see of Bavaria,
Germany, capital of the province of Lower Franconia, situated
on the Main, 60 m. by rail S.E. from Frankfort and at the junction
of main lines to Bamberg and Nuremberg. Pop. (1905) 80,220.
An ancient stone bridge (1474-1607), 650 ft. long and adorned
with statues of saints, and two modern bridges, the Luitpold
(1887) and the Ludwig (1894), connect the two parts of the town
on each side of the river. On the lofty Leistenberg stands the
fortress of Marienberg, which from 1261 to 17 20 was the residence
of the bishops. The main part of the town, on the right bank,
is surrounded by shady promenades, the Ringstrasse and the
quay.
Wiirzburg is quaintly and irregularly built; many of the
houses are interesting specimens of medieval architecture; and
the numerous old churches recall the fact that it was long the
capital of an ecclesiastical principality. The principal church
is the imposing Romanesque cathedra), a basilica with transepts,
begun in 1042 and consecrated in 1189. The four towers, how-
ever, date from 1240, the (rococo) facade from 1711-1719, and
the dome from 1731. The spacious transepts terminate in apses.
The exterior was restored in 1882-1883. The beautiful Marien-
kapelle, a Gothic edifice of 1377-1441, was restored in 1856;
it is embellished with twenty statues by Tilman Riemen-
schneider(d. 1531). The Haugerstifts church, with two towers and
a lofty dome, was built in the Italian Renaissance style in 1670-
1691. The bones of St Kilian, the patron saint of Wiirzburg,
are preserved in the Neumiinster church, which dates from the
nth century; Walther von der Vogelweide is buried in the
adjoining cloisters. The church of St Burkhard is externally
one of the best-preserved architectural monuments in the city.
It was built in 1033-1042, in the Romanesque style, and was
restored in 1168. The Late Gothic choir dates from 1494-1497.
The Neubaukirche, or university church, curiously unites a
Gothic exterior with a Classical interior. The Protestant church
of St Stephen (1782-1789) originally belonged to a Benedictine
abbey. Of the secular buildings in Wiirzburg the most con-
spicuous is the palace, a huge and magnificent edifice built in
1720-1744 in imitation of Versailles, and formerly the residence
of the bishops and grand-dukes of Wiirzburg. The Julius
hospital, a large and richly endowed institution affording food
and lodging to 600 persons daily, was founded in 1576 by Bishop
Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn (1545-1619). In 1906 it was
arranged to convert this into a residential college for students,
the hospital being removed to a site outside the town. The
quaint town hall dates in part from 1456. Among the other
chief buildings are the government offices, the law courts, the
theatre, the Maxschule, the observatory and the various univer-
sity buildings.
A university was founded at Wiirzburg in 1403, but it only
existed for a few years. The present university was founded"
by Bishop Julius in 1582. The medical faculty speedily became
famous, and has remained the most important faculty in Wiirz-
burg ever since. Here W. K. Rontgen discovered the " Rontgen
rays " in 1896. Wiirzburg was long the stronghold of Jesuitism
in Germany, and the Roman Catholic theological faculty still
attracts a large number of students. The university has a
library containing 300,000 volumes, and is attended by about
1400 students. In no other university city of Germany has so
much of the medieval academic life been preserved.
Wiirzburg is surrounded by vineyards, which yield some of
the best wine in Germany. Its principal industries are the
manufacture of tobacco, furniture, machinery, scientific instru-
ments and railway carriages. It has also breweries, and produces
bricks, vinegar, malt and chocolate.
The site of the Leistenberg was occupied by a Roman fort,
and was probably fortified early in the I3th century. Wirce-
birgum is the old Latin form of the name of the town; Herbi-
polis (herb town) first appears in the I2th century. The
bishopric was probably founded in 741, but the town appears
to have existed in the previous century. The first bishop was
St Burkhard, and his successors soon acquired much temporal
power; about the I2th century they had ducal authority in
Eastern Franconia. It is not surprising that quarrels broke
out between the bishops and the citizens, and the latter espoused
the cause of the emperor Henry IV., while the former joined the
emperor's foes. The struggle continued intermittently until
1400, when the citizens were decisively defeated and submitted.
Several imperial diets were held hi Wiirzburg, chief among these
being the one of 1180 when Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
was placed under the ban.
By the peace of Luneville the bishopric was secularized, and
in 1803 Wiirzburg passed to Bavaria. The peace of Pressburg'
in 1805 transferred it, under the name of an electorate, to
Ferdinand, formerly grand-duke of Tuscany, who joined the
confederation of the Rhine and tock the title of grand-duke
of Wiirzburg. In 1815 the congress of Vienna restored Wiirzburg
to Bavaria. The Wiirzburg Conference is the name given to the
meeting of representatives of the smaller German states in 1859
to devise some means of mutual support. The conference,
however, had no result. Wiiizburg was bombarded and taken
by the Prussians in 1866, in which year it ceased to be a fortress.
The bishopric of Wiirzburg at one time embraced an area of
about 1900 sq. m. and had about 250,000 inhabitants. A new
bishopric of Wurzburg was created in 1817.
For the town see S. Gobi, Wiirzburg, Ein kulturhistorisches
Stadtebild (Wiirzburg, 1896); J. Gramich, Verfassung und Ver-
waltung der Stadt Wiirzburg .(Wurzburg, 1882); M. Cronthal, Die
Stadt Wurzburg im Bauernkriege (Wurzburg, 1887); Heffner, Wurz-
burg und seine Umgebungen (Wiirzburg, 1871); Beckmann, Fiihrer
durch Wurzburg (1906); and Hollander and Hessler, Malerisches aus
Alt-Wiirzburg (Wurzburg, 1898). For the university see F. X. von
Wegele, Geschichte der Universitat Wiirzburg (Wurzburg, 1882). For
the bishopric see J. Hofmann, Die Heiligen und Seligen des Bistums
Wurzburg (Wurzburg, 1889); F. J. B. Stamminger and A. Amrhein,
Franconia sacra. Geschichte des Bistums Wurzburg (Wurzburg,
1889-1901); and T. Henner, Die herzogliche Gewalt der Bischofe von
Wiirzburg (Wurzburg, 1874).
WURZEN, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on
the Mulde, here crossed by two bridges, 15! m. by rail N.E. of
Leipzig on the main line (via Riesa) to Dresden. Pop. (1905)
17,212. It has a cathedral dating from the I2th century, a
castle, at one time a residence of the bishops of Meissen and
now utilized as law courts, several schools and an agricultural
college. The industries comprise iron-founding, weaving and
brewing, and the making of machinery, carpets, cigars, furniture,
leather and paper.
WUTTKE WYAT, SIR THOMAS
861
Wurzen was founded by the Sorbs, and was a town early in the
I2th century, when Herwig, bishop of Meissen, founded a monastery
here. In 1581 it passed to the elector of Saxony, and in the Thirty
Years' War was sacked by the Swedes.
WUTTKE, KARL FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1819-1870), German
Protestant theologian, was born at Breslau on the loth of
November 1819. He studied theology at Breslau, Berlin and
Halle, where he eventually became professor ordinarius; and
is known as the author of a treatise on Christian ethics (Hand-
buck der christlichen Sittenlehre, 1860-1863, 3 r d fi d- 1874-1875;
Eng. trans., New York, 1873) and works on heathen religion
(Die Geschlchte des Heidentums, 1851-1853) and superstition
(Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart, 1865, and ed.
1869). Hediedon the 1 2th of April 1870.
WYANDOT, or HURON (q.v.), a tribe of N. American Indians
of Iroquoian stock. When first met by the French early in the
1 7th century, the Wyandots lived between Georgian Bay and
Lake Simcoe, Ontario. They were then estimated at about
10,000, scattered over twenty villages. They were continually
the victims of raids on the part of their neighbours the Iroquoian
league of six nations and the Sioux, being driven from place
to place, and a dispersal in 1650 resulted in one section settling
in Quebec, while others found their way to Ohio, where they
fought for the English in the Wars of Independence and 1812.
By a treaty made in 1817 the latter section was granted
territory in Ohio and Michigan, but the larger part of this was
sold in 1819. In 1842 they migrated to Kansas. In 1855
many became citizens, the remainder being in 1867 removed to a
reservation (now N.E. Oklahoma), numbering about 400 in 1905.
The Hurons at Lorette, in Quebec, also number about 400.
See Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington,
1907), s.v. " Huron."
WYANDOTTE, a city of Wayne county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
on the Detroit river, about 6 m. S. by W. of Detroit. Pop.
(1900) 5183, of whom 1267 were foreign-born; (1904) 5425;
(1910) 8287. It is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake
Shore & Michigan Southern, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton, and
(for freight only) the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line railways, and
by two interurban electric lines. Salt and limestone are found
here and the city has various manufactures. Wyandotte was
first settled about 1820, was laid out as a town in 1854, and
chartered as a city in 1867.
WYANDOTTE CAVE, a cave in Jennings township, Crawford
county, Indiana, U.S.A., 5 m. N.E. of Leavenworth, on the
Ohio river, and 12 m. from Corydon, the early territorial capital.
The nearest railway station is Milltown, 9 m. distant. The cave
is in a rugged region of high limestone hills, in one of which its
main entrance is found, 220 ft. above the level of the Blue
river, whose original name, the Wyandotte, was transferred to
the cave by Governor David Wallace; it having previously been
styled the Mammoth Cave of Indiana, the Epsom Salts Cave,
and the Indiana Saltpetre Cave. The exact date of discovery
is not known; but early records show it to have been pre-
empted by a Dr Adams in 1812 for the manufacture of saltpetre,
and his vats and hoppers are still to be seen. After the War of
1812 he relinquished his claim; and in 1819 the ground was
bought from the United States government by Henry P. Roth-
rock, whose heirs are its owners. The earliest account is in
Flint's Geography (1831); the first official report of it was by
Dr R. T. Brown (1831); and it was first mapped by the writer
(1855), whose map was revised by John Collett, state geologist
(1878). No instrumental survey has been made, nor have all
its intricate windings been explored. Its known passages
aggregate more than 23 m. in length, and 144 places are named
as noteworthy. The " Old Cave " contains the saltpetre works,
and ends in a remarkable chamber exactly 144 ft. long and 56 ft.
wide, in which stands the Pillar of the Constitution, a stalagmitic
column perfectly cylindrical and 71 ft. in circumference, entirely
composed of crystalline carbonate of lime (satin-spar), fluted
and snow-white. A cavity in the column was first claimed by
H. C. Hovey as a prehistoric quarry, proved to be such by the
stag horns and boulder pounders found in its vicinity. His
careful estimate of the rate of stalagmitic growth showed that
looo years would have been needed to form the lip now covering
the incision.
In the N. arm of the newer part of the cave, opened in 1850, is an
immense room, styled Rothrock's Cathedral, looo ft. in circumference
and 200 ft. high, with a rugged central hill 135 ft. high, surmounted
by statuesque stalagmites, near which is another quarry of satin-
spar with similar fragments, pounders
and aboriginal relics. When Mr
Hovey visited this cave in 1855 he
found many extinct torches, charcoal
embers, poles and pounders, as well
as numerous footprints, in the soft
nitreous earth of certain avenues,
which were left by exploring parties
previous to the coming of the white
man.
In the Pillared Palace a number of
large alabaster shafts had been thrown
down and fragments carried away.
Near by were so-called ' ' bear- wallows, ' '
which proved to be the remains of
an aboriginal workshop, where masses
of flint were broken into rectangular
blocks; and spalls and flint-chips en-
cumber the floor and choke the
passage-way. Milroy's Temple is a
magnificent room, loo by 150 ft. in
its dimensions. It contains many
remarkable formations; and its dis-
play of helictites, or twisted stalactites,
is unsurpassed.
As Wyandotte Cave has no large
streams and few pools or springs, its
fauna and flora are not extensive.
Formerly bears, wolves and other wild
animals took refuge in its fastnesses;
and bats, rats, mice and salamanders
are frequent visitors. Blind crawfish
(Cambarus peUucidus)inhabh the Craw-
fish Spring. Cave crickets (Hadenoecus
subterraneus) abound. A dozen kinds
of insects, with a few varieties of
spiders, flies and worms, complete
the meagre list. The flora" include
mainly forms brought in from the
outside. -* En.w.i.,.,
For more full descriptions of Wyandotte Cave and its contents,
see Hovey's Celebrated American Caverns, pp. 123-153; Indiana
State Geological Reports, by R. T Brown, E. T. Cox, John Collett
and W. S. Blatchley; and concerning cave fauna reports and
papers by C. H. Eigenmann, professor of zoology, Indiana State
University. t (H. C. H.)
WYANT, ALEXANDER H. (1836-1892), American artist,
was born at Port Washington, Ohio, on the nth of January
1836. He was a pupil of Hans Gude in Carlsruhe, Germany.
A trip with a government exploring expedition in the west
of America undermined his health, and he painted mainly in
the high altitudes of the Adirondack Mountains. He was elected
a full member of the National Academy of Design, New York,
in 1869, and died in New York City on the 29th of November
1892. He was only moderately appreciated during his lifetime,
though after his death his works were eagerly sought for.
WYAT, SIR THOMAS (1503-1542), English poet and states-
man, elder son of Henry Wyat, or Wiat, afterwards knighted,
and his wife Anne, daughter of John Skinner of Reigate, Surrey,
was born at Allington Castle, near Maidstone, Kent, in 1503.
His father (1460-1537) belonged to a Yorkshire family, but
bought Allington about 1493. He was an adherent of the
Lancastrian party, and was imprisoned and put to the torture
by Richard III. The family records (in the possession of the
earl of Romney) relate that during his imprisonment he was saved
from starvation by a cat that brought him pigeons. At the
accession of Henry VII. he became knight of the Bath (1509),
knight banneret (1513) and held various offices at court. His
son, Thomas Wyat, was admitted at St John's College, Cambridge,
when about twelve years of age, took his B.A. degree in 1518,
and proceeded M.A. in 1522. The vague statement of Anthony
a Wood (Athen. Oxon. i. 124), that he was transferred to Oxford
to attend Wolsey's new college there, has no foundation in fact.
He married very early Elizabeth Brooke, daughter of the 3rd
862
WYAT, SIR THOMAS
Lord Cobham. The marriage was an unhappy one, for a letter
(zgth March 1537) from the lady's brother to Thomas Cromwell
complains that Wyat had gone abroad and made no provision
for his wife, and a letter from the Spanish ambassador Chapuys
to Charles V. (pth Feb. 1542) speaks of her having been re-
pudiated by her husband. As early as 1516 Wyat was server
extraordinary to the king, and in 1524 he was at court as keeper
of the king's jewels. He was one of the champions in the
Christmas tournament of 1525. His father had been associated
with Sir Thomas Boleyn as constable of Norwich Castle, and he
had thus been early acquainted with Anne Boleyn. He appears
to have been generally regarded as her lover, but it is possible
that the relations between them were merely of the fashionable
poetic sort. In 1526 he was sent with Sir Thomas Cheney to
congratulate Francis I. on his safe return from Spain; in 1527
he accompanied Sir John Russell, afterwards ist earl of Bedford,
on an embassy to the papal court. He was sent by Russell,
who was incapacitated by a broken leg, to negotiate with the
Venetian republic. On his return journey to Rome he was
taken prisoner by the Spanish troops, who demanded 3000 ducats
for his ransom, but he contrived to escape. In 1528 he was
acting as high marshal at Calais with a salary of two shillings per
day, and was only superseded in November 1530. During the
following years he was constantly employed in Henry's service,
and was apparently high in his favour. He was, however, sent
to the Tower in 1536, perhaps because it was desired that he
should incriminate the queen. His father's correspondence with
Cromwell does not suggest that his arrest had anything to do
with the proceedings against Anne Boleyn, but the connexion
is assumed (Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. vol. x. No. 919)
in the letters of John Hussey to Lord Lisle, deputy of Calais.
The Roman Catholic writer, Nicholas Harpsfield, makes a
circumstantial statement (Pretended Divorce . . . Camden Soc.
p. 253) that Wyat had confessed his intimacy with Anne to
Henry VIII. and warned him against marrying her; but this,
in view of his continued favour, seems highly improbable. He
was released after a month's imprisonment, and in the autumn
of that year took part in the suppression of the Lincolnshire
rising. In March 1537 he was knighted, and a month later was
sent abroad as ambassador to Charles V., whose ill-will had been
revived by the declaration of the illegitimacy of the princess
Mary. In 1538 he was joined by Edmund Bonner, then a simple
priest, and one Simon Haynes, and seems to have been ashamed
of their bad manners, and to have offended them in various ways.
Bonner had evidently been desired by Thomas Cromwell to send
his own account of the negotiations. He wrote to Cromwell
(2nd Sept. 1538) a long letter (Petyt MS. 47, Middle Temple;
first printed in the Gentleman's Magazine, June 1850) in 'which he
accused Wyat of disloyalty to the king's interests, and of many
personal slights to himself. Wyat was unsuccessful in the
difficult affairs entrusted to him, but so long as Cromwell ruled
he had a firm friend at court, and no notice was taken of Bonner's
allegations. Cromwell even seems to have taken some care of
his private affairs, which were left in considerable disorder. He
was recalled in April 1539, but later in the same year he was
employed on another embassy to the emperor, who was on his
way to the Low Countries. After Cromwell's death Wyat's
enemies renewed their attacks, and he was imprisoned (iyth
Jan. 1541) in the Tower on the old charges, with the additional
accusation of treasonable correspondence with Cardinal Reginald
Pole. Being privately informed of the nature of the charges,
he prepared an eloquent and manly defence of his conduct in two
documents addressed to the Privy Council and to his judges, in
which he cleared himself effectually and exposed his accusers'
motives. He was released at the intercession of the queen,
Catherine Howard, on condition that he confessed his guilt and
took back his wife, from whom he had been separated for fifteen
years, on pain of death if he were thenceforth untrue to her (see
Chapuys to Charles V., March 1541). He received a formal
pardon on the 2ist of March, and received during the year
substantial marks of the king's favour. In the summer of the
next year he was sent to Falmouth to meet the ambassadors
of the emperor. The heat brought on a fever to which he
succumbed at Sherborne, Dorset, on the nth of October. A
Latin elegy on his death was written by his friend John Leland,
" Naenia in mortem Thomae Viati equitis incomparabilis ";
and Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, celebrated his memory in
some well-known lines beginning " Wyat resteth here, that
quick could never rest," and in two sonnets.
Wyat's work falls readily into two divisions: the sonnets,
rondeaus, and lyric poems dealing with love; and the satires and
the version of the penitential psalms. The love poems probably
date from before his first imprisonment. A large number were
published in 1557 in Songes and Sonettes (Tottel's Miscellany).
Wyat's contributions number 96 out of a total of 310. These
have been supplemented from MSS. He was the pioneer of the
sonnet in England, and the acknowledged leader of the " company
of courtly makers who . . . having travailed in Italie and there
tasted the sweet and stately measures and stile of the Italian
Poesie, as novices newly crept out of the schooles of Dante,
Arioste and Petrarche, greatly pollished our rude and homely
maner of vulgar Poesie, from that it had been before " (Putten-
ham's Artof English Poesie, 1589).* Wyat wrote in all thirty-one
sonnets, ten of which are direct translations of Petrarch. The
sentiment is strained and artificial. Wyat shows to greater
advantage in his lyrical metres, in his epigrams and songs,
especially in those written' for music, 2 where he is less hampered
by the conventions of the Petrarcan tradition, to which his
singularly robust and frank nature was ill-fitted. His thought is
generally far in advance of his technical skill, and his disciple
Surrey has been far more widely recognized, chiefly because of the
superior smoothness of his versification. His works are preserved
in a MS. hi possession of the Harrington family, which
originally belonged to Wyat himself, and in another belonging
to the duke of Devonshire in which are inscribed the names of
Wyat's sister, Margaret Lee, and of the duchess of Richmond,
Surrey's sister. The text differs considerably from Tottel's,
which has been generally adopted. Wyat wrote three excellent
satires " On the mean and sure estate," dedicated to John Poins,
" Of the Courtier's Life," to the same, and " How to use the
court and himself." They are written in terza rima and in form
and matter owe much to Luigi Alamanni. In the " Penitential
Psalms " each is preceded by a prologue describing the circum-
stances under which the psalmist wrote, and the psalms them-
selves are very freely paraphrased, with much original matter
from the author. They were published in 1549 by Thomas
Raynald and John Harrington as Cerlayne Psalmes . . . drawen
into English meter by Sir Thomas Wyat Knyght.
None of Wyat's other poems were printed until fifteen years after
his death, in Songes and Sonettes. The standard edition of his works
is that by Dr G. F. Nott, forming the second volume (1816) of The
Works of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, and of Sir Thomas Wyat the
Elder, with an exhaustive memoir. Some family papers, now in
the possession of the earl of Romney, were collected by Richard
Wyat in 1727. Some use of these is made in The History of Botley
Parish (1892), by J. Cave Browne. See also Brewer and Gairdner,
Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (especially from 1536 to 1542);
The Poetical Works of Sir Thomas Wyatt (1866), with a memoir in the
Aldine Edition of the British Poets; Professor E. Arber's introductory
matter to the edition of Songes and Sonnettes (1870) in his English
Reprints; R. Alscher, " Sir Thomas Wyatt ..." (1886), in Wiener
Beitrdge zur deutschen u. engl. Philologie, giving a full account of
Wyat's metrical practice; w. E. Simonds, Sir Thomas Wyatt
(Boston, 1889); W. J. Courthope, Hist, of Eng. Poetry, vol.ii. (1897),
the second chapter of which is devoted to a critical study of Wyat ;
E. Fltigel, " Die handschriftliche Uberlieferung der Gedichte von Sir
Thomas Wyat," in Anglia, vol. xviii. ; F. M. Padelford, Early
Sixteenth Century Lyrics (1907).
WYAT, SIR THOMAS (d. 1554), English conspirator, son of the
preceding, was over twenty-one in 1543, but the date of his birth
is uncertain. He is said to have accompanied his father on his
mission to Spain, and to have been turned into an enemy of the
1 Ed. J. Haslewood, Ancient Critical Essays, i. 48 (1811).
*One of the most musical of the pieces printed in his works,
however, " The Lover complayneth the unkindnes of his Love,
beginning " My lute, awake," is sometimes attributed to George
Boleyn, Lord Rochford (see E. Bapst, Deux Centilshommes poetes
de la cour de Henri VIII, p. 142).
WYATT WYCHERLEY
863
Spaniards by the menaces of the Inquisition. In 1537 he
married Jane, daughter of Sir William Hawte of Bishopsbourne
in Kent, by whom he had ten children. Wyat was noted in his
youth as dissipated, and even as disorderly. He is known to
have had a natural son, whose mother Elizabeth was a daughter
of Sir Edward Darrell of Littlecote. In 1542 he inherited the
family property of Allington Castle and Boxley Abbey on the
death of his father. From 1543 to 1550 he saw service abroad as
a soldier. In 1554 he joined with the conspirators who combined
to prevent the marriage of Queen Mary with Philip the prince of
Spain, afterwards King Philip II. A general movement was
planned; but his fellow-conspirators were timid and inept,
the rising was serious only in Kent, and Wyat became a formid-
able rebel mostly by accident. On the 22nd of January 1554
he summoned a meeting of his friends at his castle of Allington,
and the 2sth was fixed for the rising. On the 26th Wyat occupied
Rochester, and issued a proclamation to the county. The
country people and local gentry collected, but at first the queen's
supporters, led by Lord Abergavenny and Sir Robert Southwell,
the sheriff, appeared to be able to suppress the rising with ease,
gaining some successes against isolated bands of the insurgents.
But the Spanish marriage was unpopular, and Kent was more
affected by the preaching of the reformers than most of the
country districts of England. Abergavenny and Southwell
were deserted by their men, who either disbanded or went over to
Wyat. A detachment of the London train-bands sent against
him by Queen Mary, under the command of the duke of Norfolk,
followed their example. The rising now seemed so formidable
that a deputation was sent to Wyat by the queen and council
to ask for his terms. He insisted that the Tower should be
surrendered to him, and the queen put under his charge. The
insolence of these demands caused a reaction in London, where
the reformers were strong and were at first in sympathy with him.
When he reached Southwark on the 3rd of February he found
London Bridge occupied in force, and was unable to penetrate
into the city. He was driven from Southwark by the threats of
Sir John Brydges (or Bruges), afterwards Lord Chandos, who
was prepared to fire on the suburb with the guns of the Tower.
Wyat now marched up the river to Kingston, where he crossed
the Thames, and made his way to Ludgate with a part of his
following. Some of his men were cut off. Others lost heart and
deserted. His only hope was that a rising would take place,
but the loyal forces kept order, and after a futile attempt to force
the gate Wyat surrendered. He was brought to trial on the i sth
of March, and could make no defence. Execution was for a time
delayed, no doubt in the hope that in order to save his life
he would say enough to compromise the queen's sister Elizabeth,
afterwards Queen Elizabeth, in whose interests the rising was
supposed to have been made. But he would not confess enough
to render her liable to a trial for treason. He was executed on the
nth of April, and on the scaffold expressly cleared the princess
of all complicity in the rising. His estates were afterwards partly
restored to his son George, the father of the Sir Francis Wyat
(d. 1644) who was governor of Virginia in 1624-26 and 1639-
1642. A fragment of the castle of Allington is still inhabited
as a farm-house, near Maidstone, on the bank of the Medway.
See G. F. Nott, Works of Surrey and of Sir Thomas Wyat (1815);
and Froude, History of England.
WYATT, JAMES (1746-1813), English architect, was born at
Burton Constable in Staffordshire on the 3rd of August 1746.
He was the sixth son of Benjamin Wyatt, a farmer, timber
merchant and builder. At the age of fourteen his taste for
drawing attracted the attention of Lord Bagot, newly appointed
ambassador to the pope, who took him with him to Rome, where
he spent five or six years in studying architecture. He returned
to England in 1766, and gained his first great success by the
adaptation for dramatic purposes of the Pantheon in Oxford
Street, London (1772), a work which was destroyed by fire
twenty years later. In 1776 he was made surveyor of West-
minster Abbey, and in 1778 and the following years executed
many important commissions at Oxford.
During this earlier period Wyatt shared the prevailing
contempt for Gothic architecture; thus the New Buildings at
Magdalen College, Oxford, designed by him, formed part of a
scheme, the plans for which are extant, which involved the
demolition of the famous medieval quadrangle and cloisters. He
built many country houses in the classic style, of which he proved
himself a master. Gradually, however, he turned his attention
to Gothic, the spirit of which, in spite of his diligent study of
medieval models, he never understood. The result is still visible
in such " Gothic " freaks as that at Ashridge Park, Hertfordshire,
built for Lord Bridgewater to replace the ancient priory, and in
the lamentable " restorations," e.g. in Salisbury and Lichfield
cathedrals, which earned for him even among contemporary
archaeologists the title of " the Destroyer." Of these Gothic
experiments the most celebrated was Fonthill Abbey, built
for Beckford (the eccentric author of Vathek), the great
tower of which speedily collapsed, while much of the
rest has been pulled down. None the less, Wyatt must be
regarded as the pioneer of the " Gothic revival," while his
general influence may be gauged by the fact that nearly every
county and large town in England possesses or possessed
buildings by him.
On the death of Sir William Chambers in 1796, he was
appointed surveyor-general to the Board of \Vorks. In 1785 he
became a member of the Royal Academy, and during a mis-
understanding between Benjamin W r est and the Academy, in
1805, he filled the presidential office at the wish of King George
III. He was killed by a fall from his carriage on the 4th of
September 1813, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His
son, Benjamin Dean Wyatt (1775-1850?), who succeeded him
as surveyor of Westminster Abbey, was also an architect of some
distinction.
WYCHERLEY, WILLIAM (c. 1640-1716), English dramatist,
was bom about 1640 at Clive, near Shrewsbury, where for
several generations his family had been settled on a moderate
estate of about 600 a year. Like Vanbrugh, Wycherley spent
his early years in France, whither, at the age of fifteen, he was
sent to be educated in the very heart of the " precious " circle
on the banks of the Charente. Wycherley's friend, Major Pack,
tells us that his hero " improved, with the greatest refinements,"
the " extraordinary talents " for which he was " obliged to
nature." Although the harmless affectations of the circle of
Madame de Montausier, formerly Madame de Rambouillet,
are certainly not chargeable with the " refinements " of Wycher-
ley's comedies comedies which caused even his great admirer
Voltaire to say afterwards of them, " II semble que les Anglais
prennent trop de liberte et que les Franchises n'en prennent
pas assez " these same affectations seem to have been much
more potent in regard to the " refinements " of Wycherley's
religion.
Wycherley, though a man of far more intellectual power than
is generally supposed, was a fine gentleman first, a responsible
being afterwards. Hence under the manipulations of the
heroine of the " Garland " he turned from the Protestantism
of his fathers to Romanism turned at once, and with the same
easy alacrity as afterwards, at Oxford, be turned back to Pro-
testantism under the manipulations of such an accomplished
master in the art of turning as Bishop Barlow. And if, as
Macaulay hints, Wycherley's turning back to Romanism once
more had something to do with the patronage and unwonted
liberality of James II., this merely proves that the deity he
worshipped was the deity of the " polite world " of his time
gentility. Moreover, as a professional fine gentleman, at a
period when, as the genial Major Pack says, " the amours of
Britain would furnish as diverting memoirs, if well related, as
those of France published by Rabutin, or those of Nero's court
writ by Petronius," Wycherley was obliged to be a loose liver.
But, for all that, Wycherley's sobriquet of " Manly Wycherley "
seems to have been fairly earned by him, earned by that frank
and straightforward way of confronting life which, according
to Pope and Swift, characterized also his brilliant successor
Vanbrugh.
That effort of Wycherley's to bring to Buckingham's notice
86 4
WYCHERLEY
the case of Samuel Butler (so shamefully neglected by the court
Butler had served) shows that the writer of even such heartless
plays as The Country Wife may be familiar with generous im-
pulses, while his uncompromising lines in defence of Buckingham,
when the duke in his turn fell into trouble, show that the in-
ventor of so shameless a fraud as that which forms the pivot of
The Plain Dealer may in actual life possess that passion for
fairplay which is believed to be a specially English quality. But
among the " ninety-nine " religions with which Voltaire ac-
credited England there is one whose permanency has never been
shaken the worship of gentility. To this Wycherley remained
as faithful to the day of his death as Congreve himself. And,
if his relations to that " other world beyond this," which the
Puritans had adopted, were liable to change with his environ-
ments, it was because that " other world " was really out of
fashion altogether.
Wycherley's university career seems also to have been in-
fluenced by the same causes. Although Puritanism had certainly
not contaminated the universities, yet English " quality and
politeness " (to use Major Pack's words) have always, since the
great rebellion, been rather ashamed of possessing too much
learning. As a fellow-commoner of Queen's College, Oxford,
Wycherley only lived (according to Wood) in the provost's
lodgings, being entered in the public library under the title of
" Philosophiae Studiosus " in July 1660. And he does not seem
to have matriculated or to have taken a degree.
Nor when, on quitting Oxford, he took up his residence in
the Inner Temple, where he had been entered in 1659, did he
give any more attention to the dry study of the law than was
proper to one so warmly caressed " by the persons most eminent
for their quality or politeness." Pleasure and the stage were
alone open to him, and probably early in 1671 was produced,
at the Theatre Royal, Love in a Wood. It was published the next
year. With regard to this comedy Wycherley told Pope told
him " over and over " till Pope believed him believed him,
at least, until they quarrelled about Wycherley's verses that
he wrote it the year before he went to Oxford. But we need
not believe him: the worst witness against a man is mostly
himself. To pose as the wicked boy of genius has been the
foolish ambition of many writers, but on inquiry it will generally
be found that these inkhorn Lotharios are not nearly so wicked
as they would have us believe. When Wycherley charges
himself with having written, as a boy of nineteen, scenes so
callous and so depraved that even Barbara Palmer's appetite
for profligacy was, if not satisfied, appeased, there is, we repeat,
no need to believe him. Indeed, there is every reason to dis-
believe him, not for the reasons advanced by Macaulay, how-
ever, who in challenging Wycherley's date does not go nearly
deep enough. Macaulay points to the allusions in the play to
gentlemen's periwigs, to guineas, to the vests which Charles
ordered to be worn at court, to the great fire, &c., as showing that
the comedy could not have been written the year before the
author went to Oxford. We must remember, however, that
even if the play had been written in that year, and delayed in
its production till 1672, it is exactly this kind of allusion to
recent events which any dramatist with an eye to freshness of
colour would be certain to weave into his dialogue. It is not
that " the whole air and spirit of the piece belong to a period
subsequent to that mentioned by Wycherley," but that " the
whole air and spirit of the piece " belong to a man an experi-
enced and hardened young man of the world and not to a boy
who would fain pose as an experienced and hardened young man
of the world. The real defence of Wycherley against his foolish
impeachment of himself is this, that Love in a Wood, howsoever
inferior in structure and in all the artistic economies to The
Country Wife and The Plain Dealer, contains scenes which
no inexperienced boy could have written scenes which, not
for moral hardness merely, but often for real dramatic ripeness,
are almost the strongest to be found amongst his four plays.
With regard to dramatic ripeness, indeed, if we were asked to
indicate the finest touch in all Wycherley, we should very likely
select a speech in the third scene of the third act of this very
play, where the vain, foolish and boastful rake Dapperwit,
having taken his friend to see his mistress for the express pur-
pose of advertising his lordship over her, is coolly denied
by her and insolently repulsed. " I think," says Dapperwit,
" women take inconstancy from me worse than from any man
breathing."
Now, does the subsequent development of Wycherley's
dramatic genius lead us to believe that, at nineteen, he could
have given this touch, worthy of the hand that drew Malvolio ?
Is there anything in his two masterpieces The Country Wife or
The Plain Dealer that makes it credible that Wycherley, the
boy, could have thus delineated by a single quiet touch vanity
as a chain-armour which no shaft can pierce vanity, that is
to say, in its perfect development ? However, Macaulay
(forgetting that, among the myriad vanities of the writing frater-
nity, this of pretending to an early development of intellectual
powers that ought not to be, even if they could be, developed
early is at once the most comic and the most common) is rather
too severe upon Wycherley's disingenuousness in regard to the
dates of his plays. That the writer of a play far more daring
than Etheredge's She Would if She Could and far more brilliant
too should at once become the talk of Charles's court was
inevitable; equally inevitable was it that the author of the
song at the end of the first act, in praise of harlots and their
offspring, should touch to its depths the soul of the duchess of
Cleveland. Possibly Wycherley intended this famous song as a
glorification of Her Grace and her profession, for he seems to
have been more delighted than surprised when, as he passed
in his coach through Pall Mall, he heard the duchess address
him from her coach window as a " rascal," a " villain," and as a
son of the very kind of lady his song had lauded. For his answer
was perfect in its readiness: " Madam, you have been pleased
to bestow a title on me which belongs only to the fortunate."
Perceiving that Her Grace received the compliment in the spirit
in which it was meant, he lost no time in calling upon her, and
was from that moment the recipient of those " favours " to which
he alludes with pride in the dedication of the play to her. Vol-
taire's story (in his Letters on the English Nation) that Her
Grace used to go to Wycherley's chambers in the Temple dis-
guised as a country wench, in a straw hat, with pattens on and
a basket in her hand, may be apocryphal very likely it is
for disguise was quite superfluous in the case of the mistress of
Charles II. and Jacob Hall, but it at least shows how general
was the opinion that, under such patronage as this, Wycherley's
fortune as poet and dramatist, " eminent for his quality and
politeness," was now made.
Charles, who had determined to bring up his son, the duke
of Richmond, like a prince, was desirous of securing for tutor
a man so entirely qualified as was Wycherley to impart what
was then recognized as the princely education, and it seems
pretty clear that, but for the accident, to which we shall have
to recur, of his meeting the countess of Drogheda at Bath and
secretly marrying her, the education of the young man would
actually have been entrusted by his father to Wycherley as a
reward for the dramatist's having written Love in a Wood.
Whether Wycherley's experiences as a naval officer, which he
alludes to in his lines " On a Sea Fight which the Author
was in betwixt the English and the Dutch," occurred before or
after the production of Love in a Wood is a point upon which
opinions differ, but on the whole we are inclined to agree with
Macaulay, against Leigh Hunt, that these experiences took place
not only after the production of Love in a Wood but after the
production of Tfie Gentleman Dancing Master, in 1673. We also
think, with Macaulay, that he went to sea simply because it was
the " polite " thing to do so simply because, as he himself in the
epilogue to The Gentleman Dancing Master says, " all gentlemen
must pack to sea."
This second comedy was published in 1673, but was probably
acted late in 1671. It is inferior to Love in a Wood. In The
Relapse the artistic mistake of blending comedy and farce
damages a splendid play, but leaves it a splendid play still. In
The Gentleman Dancing Master this mingling of discordant
WYCHERLEY
865
elements destroys a play that would never in any circumstances
have been strong a play nevertheless which abounds in animal
spirits, and is luminous here and there with true dramatic
points.
It is, however, on his two last comedies The Country Wife
and The Plain Dealer that must rest Wycherley's fame as a
master of that comedy of repartee which, inaugurated by
Etheredge, and afterwards brought to perfection by Congreve
and Vanbrugh, supplanted the humoristic comedy of the Eliza-
bethans. The Country Wife, produced in 1632 or 1673 and
published in 1675, is so full of wit, ingenuity, animal spirits and
conventional humour that, had it not been for its motive a
motive which in any healthy state of society must always be as
repulsive to the most lax as to the most moral reader it would
probably have survived as long as the acted drama remained a
literary form in England. So strong, indeed, is the hand that
could draw such a character as Majory Pinchwife (the un-
doubted original not only of Congreve's Miss Prue but of Van-
brugh 's Hoyden), such a character as Sparkish (the undoubted
original of Congreve's Tattle), such a character as Homer
(the undoubted original of all those cool impudent rakes with
whom our stage has since been familiar), that Wycherley is
certainly entitled to a place alongside Congreve and Vanbrugh.
And, indeed, if priority of date is to have its fair and full weight,
it seems difficult to challenge Professor Spalding's dictum that
Wycherley is " the most vigorous of the set."
In order to do justice to the life and brilliance of The Country
Wife we have only to compare it with The Country Girl, after-
wards made famous by the acting of Mrs Jordan, that Bowdlerized
form of The Country Wife in which Garrick, with an object more
praiseworthy than his success, endeavoured to free it of its load
of unparalleled licentiousness by disturbing and sweetening the
motive even as Voltaire afterwards (with an object also more
praiseworthy than his success) endeavoured to disturb and
sweeten the motive of The Plain Dealer in La Prude. While the
two Bowdlerized forms of Garrick and Voltaire are as dull as
the ,&sop of Boursault, the texture of Wycherley's scandalous
dialogue would seem to scintillate with the changing hues of
shot silt or of the neck of a pigeon or of a shaken prism, were it
not that the many-coloured lights rather suggest the miasmatic
radiance of a foul ditch shimmering in the sun. It is easy to share
Macaulay's indignation at Wycherley's satyr-like defilement of
art, and yet, at the same time, to protest against that disparage-
ment of their literary riches which nullifies the value of Macaulay's
criticism. And scarcely inferior to The Country Wife is The
Plain Dealer, produced probably early in 1674 and published
three years later, a play of which Voltaire said, " Je ne connais
point de comedie chez les anciens ni chez les moderns oil il y ait
autant d'esprit." This comedy had an immense influence, as
regards manipulation of dialogue, upon all subsequent English
comedies of repartee, and he who wants to trace the ancestry
of Tony Lumpkin and Mrs Hardcastle has only to turn to Jerry
Blackacre and his mother, while Manly (for whom Wycherley's
early patron, the duke of Montausier, sat), though he is perhaps
overdone, has dominated this kind of stage character ever since.
If but few readers know how constantly the blunt sententious
utterances of this character are reappearing, not on the stage
alone, but in the novel and even in poetry, it is because a
play whose motive is monstrous and intolerable can only live
in a monstrous and intolerable state of society; it is because
Wycherley's genius was followed by Nemesis, who always
dogs the footsteps of the defiler of literary art. When Bums
said
" The rank is but the guinea stamp,
The man's the gowd for a' that ' ;
when Sterne, in Tristram Shandy, said, " Honours, like impres-
sions upon coin, may give an ideal and local value to a bit of
base metal, but gold and silver will pass all the world over
without any other recommendation than their own weight,"
what did these writers do but adopt adopt without improving
Manly 's fine saying to Freeman, in the first act: " I weigh
the man, not his title; 'tis not the king's stamp can make the
xxviii. 28
metal better or heavier "? And yet it is in the fourth and fifth
acts that the coruscations of Wycherley's comic genius are the
most dazzling; also, it is there that the licentiousness is the
most astonishing. Not that the worst scenes in this play are
really more wicked than the worst scenes in Vanbrugh's Relapse,
but they are more seriously imagined. Being less humorous than
Vanbrugh's scenes, they are more terribly and earnestly realistic;
therefore they seem more wicked. They form indeed a striking
instance of the folly of the artist who selects a story which cannot
be actualized without hurting the finer instincts of human nature.
When Menander declared that, having selected his plot, he
looked upon his comedy as three parts finished, he touched upon
a subject which all workers in drama all workers in imaginative
literature of every kind would do well to consider. In all
literatures ancient and modem an infinite wealth of material
has been wasted upon subjects that are unworthy, or else in-
capable, of artistic realization; and yet Wycherley's case is,
in our literature at least, without a parallel. No doubt it may
be right to say, with Aristotle, that comedy ban imitation of
bad characters, but this does not mean that in comedy art may
imitate bad characters as earnestly as she may imitate good ones,
a fact which Thackeray forgot when he made Becky Sharp
a murderess, thereby destroying at once what would otherwise
have been the finest specimen of the comedy of convention in the
world. And perhaps it was because Vanbrugh was conscious of
this law of art that he blended comedy with farce. Perhaps he
felt that the colossal depravity of intrigue in which the English
comedians indulged needs to be not only warmed by a super-
abundance of humour but softened by the playful mockery of
farce before a dramatic circle such as that of the Restoration
drama can be really brought within human sympathy. Plu-
tarch's impeachment of Aristophanes, which affirms that the
master of the old comedy wrote less for honest men than for
men sunk in baseness and debauchery, was no doubt unjust to
the Greek poet, one side of whose humour, and one alone, could
thus be impeached. But does it not touch all sides of a comedy
like Wycherley's a comedy which strikes at the very root of the
social compact upon which civilization is built? As to comparing
such a comedy as that of the Restoration with the comedy of
the Elizabethans, Jeremy Collier did but a poor service to the
cause he undertook to advocate when he set the occasional
coarseness of Shakespeare alongside the wickedness of Congreve
and Vanbrugh. And yet, ever since Macaulay's essay, it has
been the fashion to speak of Collier's attack as being levelled
against the immorality of the " Restoration dramatists." It is
nothing of the kind. It is (as was pointed out so long ago as 1699
by Dr Drake in his little-known vigorous reply to Collier) an
attack upon the English drama generally, with a special reference
to the case of Shakespeare. While dwelling upon that noxious
and highly immoral play Hamlet, Collier actually leaves un-
scathed the author of The Country Wife, but fastens on Congreve
and Vanbrugh, whose plays profligate enough in all conscience
seem almost decent beside a comedy whose incredible vis matrix
is " the modish distemper."
That a stage, indeed, upon which was given with applause
A Woman Killed with Kindness (where a wife dies of a broken
heart for doing what any one of Wycherley's married women
would have gloried in doing) should, in seventy years, have given
with applause The Country Wife shows that in historic and social
evolution, as in the evolution of organisms, " change " and
"progress" are very far from being convertible -terms. For
the barbarism of the society depicted in these plays was, in the
true sense of the word, far deeper and more brutal than any
barbarism that has ever existed in these islands within the historic
period. If civilization has any meaning at all for the soul of
man, the Englishmen of Chaucer's time, the Anglo-Saxons of
the Heptarchy, nay, those half-naked heroes, who in the dawn of
English history clustered along the southern coast to defend it
from the invasion of Caesar, were far more civilized than that
" race gangrened " the treacherous rakes, mercenary slaves
and brazen strumpets of the court of Charles II., who did their
best to substitute for the human passion of love (a passion which
866
WYCLIFFE
was known perhaps even to palaeolithic man) the promiscuous
intercourse cf the beasts of the eld. Yet Collier leaves
Wycherley unassailed, and classes Vanbrugh and Congreve with
Shakespeare !
It was after the success of The Plain Dealer that the turning-
point came in Wycherley's career. The great dream of all the
men about town in Charles's time, as Wycherley's plays all
show, was to marry a widow, young and handsome, a peer's
daughter if possible but in any event rich, and spend her
money upon wine and women. While talking to a friend in a
bookseller's shop at Tunbridge, Wycherley heard The Plain
Dealer asked for by a lady who, in the person of the countess of
Drogheda, answered all the requirements. An introduction
ensued, then love-making, then marriage a secret marriage,
probably in 1680, for, fearing to lose the king's patronage and
the income therefrom, Wycherley still thought it politic to pass
as a bachelor. He had not seen enough of life to learn that in the
long run nothing is politic but " straightforwardness." Whether
because his countenance wore a pensive and subdued expression,
suggestive of a poet who had married a dowager countess and
awakened to the situation, or whether because treacherous con-
fidants divulged his secret, does not appear, but the news of his
marriage oozed out it reached the royal ears, and deeply
wounded the father anxious about the education of his son.
Wycherley lost the appointment that was so nearly within his
grasp lost indeed the royal favour for ever. He never had an
opportunity of regaining it, for the countess seems to have really
loved him, and Love in a Wood had proclaimed the writer to be
the kind of husband whose virtue prospers best when closely
guarded at the domestic hearth. Wherever he went the countess
followed tiim, and when she did allow him to meet his boon
companions it was in a tavern in Bow Street opposite to his own
house, and even there under certain protective conditions.
In summer or in winter he was obliged to sit with the window
open and the blinds up, so that his wife might see that the party
included no member of a sex for which her husband's plays had
advertised his partiality. She died, however, in the year after
her marriage and left him the whole of her fortune. But the
title to the property was disputed; the costs of the litigation
were heavy so heavy that his father was unable (or else he
was unwilling) to come to his aid; and the result of his marrying
the rich, beautiful and titled widow was that the poet was
thrown into the Fleet prison. There he remained for seven
years, being finally released by the liberality of James II.
a liberality which, incredible as it seems, is too well authenticated
to be challenged. James had been so much gratified by seeing
The Plain Dealer acted that, finding a parallel between Manly's
" manliness " and his own, such as no spectator had before
discovered, he paid off Wycherley's execution creditor and
settled on him a pension of 200 a year. Other debts still
troubled Wycherley, however, and he never was released from
his embarrassments, not even after succeeding to a life estate in
the family property. In coming to Wycherley's death, we come
to the worst allegation that has ever been made against him
as a man and as a gentleman. At the age of seventy-five he
married a young girl, and is said to have done so in order to spite
his nephew, the next in succession, knowing that he himself
must shortly die and that the jointure would impoverish the
estate.
Wycherley wrote verses, and, when quite an old man, prepared
them for the press by the aid of Alexander Pope, then not much
more than a boy. But, notwithstanding all Pope's tinkering,
they remain contemptible. Pope's published correspondence
with the dramatist was probably edited by him with a view to
giving an impression of his own precocity. The friendship be-
tween the two cooled, according to Pope's account, because
Wycherley took offence at the numerous corrections on his verses.
It seems more likely that Wycherley discovered that Pope, while
still professing friendship and admiration, satirized his friend in
the Essay on Criticism. Wycherley died on the ist of January
1716, and was buried in the vault of the church in Covent
Garden. (T. W.-D.)
WYCLIFFE 1 (or WYCLIF), JOHN (c. 1320-1384), English
reformer, was born, according to John Leland, 2 our single
authority on the point, at Ipreswel (evidently Hipswell), i m.
from Richmond in Yorkshire. The date may have been some-
where about 1320. Leland elsewhere mentions that he " drew his
origin " from Wycliffe-on-Tees (Collectanea, ii. 329), so that his
lineage was of the ancient family which is celebrated by Scott in
Marmion. The Wycliffes had a natural connexion with the
college at Oxford which had been founded in the latter part of
the previous century by their neighbours, the Balliols of Barnard
Castle; and to Balliol College, then distinctively an " arts "
college,' John Wycliffe in due time proceeded. It has been
generally believed, and was in fact believed not many years
after his death, that he was a fellow of Merton College in 1356;
but this identification probably rests on a confusion with a con-
temporary. That the future reformer was a fellow of Balliol
is implied in the fact that some time after 1356, but before the
summer of 1360, he was elected master. This office he held but a
short time. So soon as 1361 he accepted a college living, that of
Fillingham in Lincolnshire, and probably left Oxford for some
time. In the same year the name of a certain " John de Wyclif
of the diocese of York, M.A." appears as a suppliant to the
Roman Curia for a provision to a prebend, canonry and dignity
at York (Cat. of Entries in the Papal Registries, ed. Bliss, Petitions,
i. 300). This was not granted, but Wycliffe received instead
the prebend of Aust in the collegiate church of Westbury-on-
Trym. In 1365 one " John de Wyclif " was appointed by Simon
Islip, archbishop of Canterbury, to the wardenship of Canterbury
Hall, a house which the archbishop founded for a mixed body of
monks and secular clergy, and then as a result of the inevitable
quarrels filled exclusively with the latter. Two years later,
however, Islip's successor, the monk Simon Langham, reversed
the process, replacing the intruded seculars by monks. The
dispossessed warden and fellows appealed to Rome, and in 1371
judgment was given against them. The question of the identity
of the warden of Canterbury Hall with the reformer is still a matter
of dispute. It has been understood as referred to by Wycliffe him-
self (De ecdesia, cap. xvi. pp. 370 sq.), and was assumed by the
contemporary monk of St Albans (Chron. A ngl. "Rolls " ser.p. 115)
and by Wycliffe's opponent William Woodford (Fasc. Zizan.
P- 5 1 ?)) who found in Wycliffe's resentment at this treatment
the motive for his attacks on the religious orders; it has likewise
been assumed by a series of modern scholars, including Loserth
(Realencyklopadie, 1008 ed., vol. xxi. p. 228, 35), who only
denies the deductions that Woodford drew from it. Dr Rashdall,
on the other hand, following Shirley, brings evidence to show
that the Wycliffe of Canterbury Hall could not have been the
reformer, but was the same person as the fellow of Merton, this
being the strongest argument against the identification of the
latter with the reformer. The confusion is increased by the
appearance of yet another " John Wyclif " or " Wiclif " on the
1 A note is necessary as to the spelling of Wycliffe's name. Out
of thirteen contemporary entries in documents, twelve give " y " in
the first syllable. In not one of these is there a " ck " (though
once a " kc ") (see F. D. Matthew in the Academy, June 7, 1884).
The chroniclers, &c., offer every imaginable variety of spelling, and
it is possible that one favourite form in more recent times, " Wick-
liffe,' derived its popularity from the old play on the name, " nequam
vita," which we find in Gascoigne. The spelling adopted in the
present article is that of the village from which Wycliffe derived
his name; it is also preferred by the editors of the Wycliffe Bible,
by Milman and by Stubbs. " Wyclif " has the support of Shirley,
of T. Arnold and of the Wyclif Society; while " Wiclif " is the
popular form in Germany.
2 Itinerary, Stow's transcript, Bodleian Library, Tanner MS.
464, f. 45 (Leland's original being mutilated at this place). Hearne
misprinted the name " Spreswel " and thus set all Wycliffe's bio-
graphers on a search after a vox nihili. The identification of Spres-
weli with the site of a vanished hamlet near Wycliffe on the Tees,
about I m. from that of a supposed " Old Richmond," accepted
by Loserth on the authority of Lechler, is unsupported by any
trustworthy evidence.
3 See a document of 1325 printed in the appendix to the Fourth
Report of the Historical Manuscripts Commission, pp. 442 sq.
Provision for theological study was made by the benefaction of Sir
Philip Somerville in 1340 (Lyte, Hist, of the Univ. of Oxford, p. 154,
1886).
WYCLIFFE
867
books of Queen's College, as paying rent for rooms as a " pen-
sioner " or "commoner" for the years 1371-1372, 1374-1375
and 1380-1381. It has thus been commonly assumed (e.g. by
Loserth) that the reformer was at one time in residence at Queen's,
the date being given as 1363. It is probable, however, that the
John Wiclif of the Queen's College accounts is the same as the
John Wyclif who appears in the College computus for 1371-1372
as one of the " almonry boys " of the College, and, therefore,
certainly not the reformer. 1
These questions, even that of the wardenship of Canterbury,
are, however, essentially unimportant, unless we are prepared
with Woodford to impute mean motives to a great man. What
is certain is that long before Wycliffe had become a power outside
Oxford his fame was established in the university. He was
acknowledged supreme in the philosophical disputations of the
schools, and his lectures were crowded. His influence was,
however, purely academic, nor does it seem to have been inspired
at the outset by any conscious opposition to the established
order in the church; and, as Loserth points out, it was not
until he was drawn into the arena of the politico-ecclesiastical
conflicts of the day that Wycliffe became of world-importance.
It has been generally assumed that this happened first in 1366,
and that Wycliffe published his Determinatio quaedam de dominio
in support of the action of parliament in refusing the tribute
demanded by Pope Urban V.; but Loserth has shown that this
work, which contains the first trace of that doctrine of dominium
or lordship which Wycliffe afterwards developed in a sense
hostile to the whole papal system, must be assigned to a date
some eight years later. Wycliffe, in fact, for some years to come
had the reputation of a good " curialist." Had it been other-
wise, the pope would scarcely have granted him (January 1373)
a licence to keep his Westbury prebend even after he should have
obtained one at Lincoln (Col. Papal Letters, ed. Bliss and Twem-
low, iv. 193). Moreover, it is uniformly asserted that Wycliffe
fell into heresy after his admission to the degree of doctor
(Fasc. Ziz. p. 2), and the papal document above quoted shows
that he had only just become a doctor pf theology, that is
in 1372.
This, of course, does not mean that Wycliffe's tendencies may
not already have been sufficiently pronounced to call attention
to him in high places as a possibly useful instrument for the
anti-papal policy of John of Gaunt and his party. Evidence
of royal favour was soon not wanting. On the 7th of April 1374,
he was presented by the crown to the rectory of Lutterworth
in Leicestershire, which he held until his death; and on the
26th of July he was nominated one of the royal envoys to proceed
to Bruges to confer with the papal representatives on the long
vexed question of " provisions " (q.v.). It is probable that he
was attached to this mission as theologian, and that this was
so is sufficient proof that he was not yet considered a persona
ingrata at the Curia. The rank he took is shown by the fact
that his name stands second, next after that of the bishop of
Bangor, on the commission, and that he received pay at the
princely rate of twenty shillings a day. The commission itself
was appointed in consequence of urgent and repeated com-
p'aints on the part of the Commons; but the king was himself
interested in keeping up the papal system of provisions and
reservations, and the negotiations were practically fruitless.
After his return to England Wycliffe lived chiefly at Lutter-
worth and Oxford, making frequent and prolonged visits to
London, where his fame as a popular preacher was rapidly
established. It is from this period, indeed, that dates the
development of the trenchant criticisms of the folly and corrup-
tion of the clergy, which had gained him a ready hearing, into
a systematic attack on the whole established order in the church.
It was not at the outset the dogmatic, but the political elements
1 See H. T. Riley's remarks in the Second Report of the Historical
Manuscripts Commission, appendix, pp. 141 sq. The appearance
of a John Wyclif on the books of Queen's led to the common mistake,
repeated in Milman's Hist, of Latin Christianity (bk. xiii. ch. vi).,
that Wycliffe began his university career at Queen's College. The
whole question is argued at length by Dr Rashdall in the Diet.
Nat. Bio%.
in the papal system that provoked his censure. The negotiations
at Bruges had doubtless strengthened the sympathy which he
already felt for the anti-curial tendencies in English politics
from Edward I.'s time onwards, and a final impulse was given by
the attitude of the " Good Parliament " in 1376; in the autumn
of that year he was reading his treatise on civil lordship (De
civili dominio) to his students at Oxford. Of its propositions
some, according to Loserth, were taken bodilx from the 140
titles of the bill dealing with ecclesiastical abuses introduced
in the parliament; but it may perhaps be questioned whether
Wycliffe did not rather inspire the bill than the bill Wycliffe.
However this may be, the reformer now for the first time publicly
proclaimed the revolutionary doctrine that righteousness is
the sole indefeasible titk to dominion and to property, that an
unrighteous clergy has no such title, and that the decision as
to whether or no the property of ecclesiastics should be taken
away rests with the civil power " politicorum qui intendunt
prari et statui regnorum " (De civ. dom. i. 37, p. 269). It was
unlikely that a doctrine so convenient to the secular authorities
should long have remained a mere subject of obscure debate
in the schools; as it was, it was advertised abroad by the in-
discreet zeal of its orthodox opponents, and Wycliffe could
declare that it was not his fault if it had been brought down
into the streets and " every sparrow twittered about it."
If the position at which Wycliffe had now arrived was originally
inspired, as Loserth asserts, by his intimate knowledge of and
sympathy with the legislation of Edward I., i.e. by political rather
than theological considerations, the necessity for giving to it a
philosophical and religious basis led inevitably to its development
into a criticism not only of the political claims but of the doctrinal
standpoint of the church. As a philosopher, indeed, Wycliffe was
no more than the last of the conspicuous Oxford scholastics, and his
philosophy is of importance mainly in so far as it determined his
doctrine of dominium, and so set the direction in which his political
and religious views were to develop. In the great controversy
between Realism and Nominalism he stood on the side of the former,
though his doctrine of universals showed the influence of the criti-
cisms of Ockham and the nominalists. He is Platonic in his con-
ception of God as the forma rerum in whom the rationes exemplares
exist eternally, being in fact his Word, who is omnia in omnibus
(l Cor. xv. 28) ; every creature in respect of its esse intelligibile is
God, since every creature is in essence the same as the idea, and all
rationes ideates are essentially the same as the Word of God (De
dominio divino, pp. 42, 43). There is one ens, the ens analogum,
which includes in itself and comprehends all other entia all uni-
versals and all the individual parts of the universe (De dom. div.
Ep. 58 sq.). The process by which the primary ens is specificated, or
y which a higher and more general class passes into sensible exist-
ence, is that it receives the addition of substantial form whereby it
is rendered capable of acquiring qualities and other accidents (ibid.
pp. 48 sq.). To Wycliffe the doctrine of arbitrary divine decrees
was anathema. The will of God is his essential and eternal nature,
by which all his acts are deterniined ; it was thus with the creation,
since God created all things in their primordial causes, as genera
and species, or else in their material essences, secundum rationes
absconditas seminales (ibid. p. 66). God's creation is conditioned by
his own eternal nature; the world is therefore not merely one
among an infinity of alternatives, an arbitrary selection, so to speak,
but is the only possible world; it is, moreover, not in the nature
of an eternal emanation from God, but was created at a given
moment of time to think otherwise would" be to admit its absolute
necessity, which would destroy free-will and merit. Since, however,
all things came into being in this way, it. follows that the creature
can produce nothing save what God has already created. 1 So then
all human lordship is derived from the supreme overlordship
of God and is inseparable from it, since whatever God gives to his
servants is part of himself, from the first gift, which is the esse
inteUigibile, i.e. really the divine essence, down to those special gifts
which flow from the communication of his Holy Spirit ; so that in
him we live and move and have our being. But, in giving, God
does not part with the lordship of the thing given ; his gifts are of
the nature of fiefs, and whatever lordship the creature may possess
is held subject to due service to the supreme overlord. Thus, as in
feudalism, lordship is distinguished from possession. Lordship is
1 This leads to the question of predestination and free-will, in
which Wycliffe takes a middle position with the aid of the Aristotelian
distinction between that which is necessary absolutely and that
which is necessary on a given supposition. God does not will sin,
for he only wills that which has being, and sin is the negation of
being; he necessitates men to perform actions which are in them-
selves neither right nor wrong; they become right or wrong through
man's free agency.
868
WYCLIFFE
not properly proprietary, and property is the result of sin; Christ
and his apostles had none. 1 The service, however, by which lord-
ship is held of God is righteousness and its works; it follows that
the unrighteous forfeit their right to exercise it, and may be deprived
of their possessions by competent authority.
The question, of course, follows as to what this authority is, and
this Wycliffe sets out to answer in the Determinatio quaedam de
dominio and, more elaborately, in the De civili dominio. Briefly, his
argument is that the church has no concern with temporal matters
at all, that for the c'ergy to hold property is sinful, and that it is
kwf ul for statesmen (politic?) who are God 's stewards in temporals
to take away the goods of such of the clergy as, by reason of their
unrighteousness, no longer render the service by which they hold
them. That the church was actually in a condition to deserve
spoliation he refused, indeed though only under pressure to
affirm ; but his theories fitted in too well with the notorious aims of
the duke of Lancaster not to rouse the bitter hostility of the endowed
clergy. With the mendicant orders he continued for a while to be
on good terms.
Hitherto Wycliffe had made no open attack on the doctrinal
system of the church, and for some time he had been allowed
to spread his doctrines without hindrance. Early in 1377,
however, Archbishop Sudbury summoned him to appear before
the bishop of London, and answer certain charges laid against
him. The nature of these accusations is not stated, but their
purport can hardly be doubtful. On the igth of February 1377,
Wycliffe made his appearance at St Paul's. He was accom-
panied by the duke of Lancaster, by Lord Percy, marshal of
England, and by four doctors of the four mendicant orders.
The trial, however, came to nothing; before Wycliffe could
open his mouth, the court was broken up by a rude brawl between
his protectors and Bishop Courtenay, ending in a general riot
of the citizens of London, who were so much enraged by the
insult to their bishop in his own cathedral church coming as
this did at the same time as a serious attempt at an invasion by
the duke in parliament of their civic ;liberties (Chron. Angl.
p. 120) that they would have sacked his palace of the Savoy
had not Courtenay himself intervened.
Wycliffe had escaped for the time, but his enemies did not
rely solely on their own weapons. Probably before this they
had set their case before the pope; and on the 22nd of May
five bulls were issued by Gregory XL, who had just returned to
Rome from Avignon, condemning eighteen (or in other copies
nineteen) " conclusions " drawn from Wycliffe's writings. All
the articles but one are taken from his De civili dominio. The
bulls truly stated Wycliffe's intellectual lineage; he was following
in the error of Marsilius of Padua; and the articles laid against
him are concerned entirely with questions agitated between
church and state how far ecclesiastical censures could lawfully
affect a man's civil position, and whether the church had a
right to receive and hold temporal endowments. The bulls were
addressed to the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of
London, the university of Oxford, and the king. The university
was to take Wycliffe and send him to the prelates; the latter
were then to examine the truth of the charges and to report to
the pope, Wycliffe being meanwhile kept in confinement. The
execution of the papal bulls was impeded by three separate
causes the king's death on the 2ist of June; the tardy action of
the bishops, who enjoined the university to make a report, instead
of simply sending Wycliffe to them; and the unwillingness of
the university to admit external authority, and, above all, the
pope's right to order the imprisonment of any man in England.
The convocation of the university, indeed, as the St Albans
1 See R. L. Poole's preface to his edition of the De dominio divino,
where Wycliffe's indebtedness to Richard Fitz Ralph, archbishop of
Armagh, for his views on lordship and property is shown at some
length (pp. xxxiv sq.). Fitz Ralph had been a fellow of Balliol, and
was vice-chancellor of the university in or about 1333 (A. a Wood,
Fasti Oxon. p. 21, ed. Gutch, 1790). The first four books of his De
pauperie Salvatoris were edited by R. L. Poole for the Wycliffe
Society, and published in 1890 in an appendix to the edition of the
De dominio divino. Fitz Ralph also taught that lordship was con-
ditioned by grace, and that property had come into the world with
sin. Fitz Ralph's work was, however, directed to the settlement of
the controversy raised by the mendicant orders as to " possession "
and " use "; Wycliffe extended the scope of the doctrine so as to
include all civil and ecclesiastical society.
chronicler 2 states with lamentation, made serious objections
to receiving the bull at all; and in the end it merely directed
Wycliffe to keep within his lodgings at Black Hall for a time.
If the university was disposed to favour the reformer, the
government was not less so. John of Gaunt was for the moment
in retirement; but the mother of the young king appears to
have adopted his policy in church affairs, and she naturally
occupied a chief position in the new council. As soon as parlia-
ment met in the autumn of 1377, Wycliffe was consulted by it as
to the lawfulness of prohibiting that treasure should pass out
of the country in obedience to the pope's demand. Wycliffe's
affirmative judgment is contained in a state paper still extant;
and its tone is plain proof enough of his confidence that his
views on the main question of church and state had the support
of the nation. 3 Indeed he had laid before this same parliament
his answer to the pope's bulls, with a defence of the soundness
of his opinions. His university, moreover, confirmed his argu-
ment; his tenets, it said, were true (i.e. orthodox), though their
expression was such as to admit of an incorrect interpretation.
But Wycliffe was still bound to clear himself before the prelates
who had summoned him, and early in 1378 he appeared for this
purpose in the chapel of Lambeth Palace. His written defence,
expressed in some respects in more cautious language than he had
previously used, was laid before the council; but its session
was rudely interrupted, not only by an inroad of the London
citizens with a crowd of the rabble, but also by a messenger from
the princess of Wales enjoining them not to pass judgment
against Wycliffe; and thus a second time he escaped, either
without sentence, or at most with a gentle request that he would
avoid discussing the matters in question. Meanwhile his " pro-
testatio " was sent on to Rome. Before, however, any further
step could be taken at Rome, Gregory XI. died.
In the autumn of this year Wycliffe was once more called upon
to prove his loyalty to John of Gaunt. The duke had violated
the sanctuary of Westminster by sending a band of armed men
to seize two squires who had taken refuge there. One of them
was taken by a stratagem, the other murdered, together with the
servant of the church who attempted to resist his arrest. After
a while the bishop of London excommunicated all concerned in
the crime (except only the king, his mother and his uncle),
and preached against the culprits at Paul's Cross. At the
parliament held at Gloucester in October, in the presence of the
legates of Pope Urban VI., Wycliffe read an apology for the
duke's action at Westminster, pleading that the men were killed
in resisting legal arrest. The paper, which forms part of the De
ecclesia, lays down the permissible limits of the right of asylum,
and maintains the right of the civil power to invade the sanctuary
in order to bring escaped prisoners to justice.
The schism in the papacy, owing to the election of Clement VII.
in opposition to Urban VI., accentuated Wycliffe's hostility to
the Holy See and its claims. His attitude was not, indeed, as
yet fully developed. He did not object to a visible head of
the church so long as this head possessed the essential quali-
fication of righteousness, as a member of the elect. It was only
later, with the development of the scandals of the schism, that
Wycliffe definitely branded the pope, qua pope, as Antichrist; 4
the sin of Silvester I. in accepting the donation of Constantine
had made all his successors apostates (Sermones, ii. 37).
The year 1378, indeed, saw the beginning of an agressive pro-
paganda which was bound sooner or later to issue in a position
wholly revolutionary. Wycliffe's criticism of the established
order and of the accepted doctrines had hitherto been mainly
s When he says that the bull was only received at Oxford
shortly before Christmas, he is apparently confounding it with the
prelates' mandate, which is dated December 18 (Lewis, appendix
xvii.). Chron. Angl. p. 173.
3 In one text of this document a note is appended, to the effect
that the council enjoined silence on the writer as touching the matter
therein contained (Fasciculi Zizaniorum, p. 271). This, if true, was
apparently a measure of precaution.
4 So he describes the popes in the first sermon in vol. ii. of the
Sermones. This may very probably refer to the two rival popes (cf .
Buddensieg, Polemical Works, intr. p. xxi). Book iii. of his Opus
evangelicum is also significantly entitled De Anlichristo.
WYCLIFFE
869
confined to the schools; he now determined to carry it down
into the streets. For this purpose he chose two means, both
based on the thesis which he had long maintained as to the
supreme authority of Holy Scripture, as the great charter of the
Christian religion. The first means was his institution of the
"poor" or "simple" priests to preach his doctrines throughout
the country; the second was the translation of the Vulgate into
English, which he accomplished with the aid of his friends
Nicholas Hereford and John Purvey (see BIBLE, ENGLISH).
This version of the Bible, and still more his numerous sermons
and tracts, established Wycliffe's now undisputed position as
the founder of English prose writing.
The choice of secular priests to be his itinerant, preachers
was significant of another change of attitude on Wycliffe's part.
Hitherto he had been on good terms with the friars, whose ideal
of poverty appealed to him; as already mentioned, four doctors
of the mendicant orders had appeared with him at his trial in
1377. But he had come to recognize that all organized societies
within the church, " sects " as he called them, were liable to the
same corruption, while he objected fundamentally to the principle
which had established a special standard of morality for the
" religious." On the other hand, Wycliffe's itinerant preachers
were not necessarily intended to work as rivals to the beneficed
clergy. The idea that underlay their mission was rather
analogous to that which animated Wesley four centuries later.
Wycliffe aimed at supplementing the services of the church
by regular religious instruction in the vernacular; and his
organization included a good number of men who held or had
held respectable positions in their colleges at Oxford. The
influence of their teaching was soon felt throughout the country.
The common people were rejoiced by the plain and homely
doctrine which dwelt chiefly on the simple " law " of the gospel,
while they no doubt relished the denunciation of existing evils
in the church which formed, as it were, the burthen of such
discourses. The feeling of disaffection against the rich and
careless clergy, monks and friars was widespread but undefined.
Wycliffe turned it into a definite channel.
Meanwhile, in addition to his popular propaganda and his
interventions in politics, Wycliffe was appealing to the world of
learning in a series of Latin treatises, which followed each other
in rapid succession, and collectively form his summa theologiae. 1
During the years 1378 and 1379 he produced his works on the
truth of Holy Scripture, on the church, on the office of king, on
the papal power.
Of all these, except the third, the general character has already
been indicated. The De offitio regis is practically a declaration of
war against the papal monarchy, an anticipation of the theocratic
conception of national kingship as established later by the Reforma-
tion. The king is God's vicar, to be regarded with a spiritual fear
second only to that due to God, and resistance to him for personal
wrong suffered is wicked. His jurisdiction extends over all causes.
The bishops who are to the king as Christ's Humanity is to his
Divinityderive their jurisdiction from him, and whatever they do
is done by his authority. 2 Thus in his palpable dignity, towards the
world, the king is superior to the priest; it is only in his impalpable
dignity, towards God, that the priest is superior to the king. Wycliffe
thus passed from an assailant of the papal to an assailant of the
sacerdotal power; and in this way he was ultimately led to examine
and to reject the distinctive symbol of that power, the doctrine of
transubstantiation. 8
*J. Loscrth, in his paper " Die Genesis von Wiclifs Summa
Theologiae " (Sitzungsber. der k. Akad. der Wissensch., Vienna,
1908, vol. 156) gives proofs that the Summa was not produced on a
previously thought out plan, but that even the larger works forming
part of it " were the outcome of those conflicts which were fought
put inside and outside the Good Parliament," i.e. they were primarily
intended as weapons in the ecclesiastico-political controversies of
the time.
1 Episcopi, sui officiates el curati sui, tenentur in qitalicunqve tali
causa spiritualiter cognoscere auctoritate regis; ergo rex per illos.
Sunt enim tales legii homines regis. See De officio regis (ed. A. W.
Pollard and Charles Sayle, from Vienna MSS. 4514, 3933, Wyclif
Soc. 1887), cap. vi. p. no.
1 Sporadic attacks had been made on this before, though it had
not been formally challenged in the schools. See the interesting case
of the heretic priest Ralph of Tremur in the Register of John de
Grandison, Bishop of Exeter, edited by F. C. Hingeston-Randolph
(London and Exeter, 1894), pp. 1147 and 1179.
Wycliffe himself had for some time, both in speech and writing,
indicated the main characteristics of his teaching on the Euchar-
ist. It was not, however, till 1379 or 1380* that began a formal
public attack on what he calls the " new " doctrine in a set of
theses propounded at Oxford. These were followed by sermons,
tracts, and, in 1381, by his great treatise De ewharistia. Finally,
at the close of his life, he summed up his doctrine in this as in
other matters in the Trialogus.
The language in which he denounced transubstantiation antici-
pated that of the Protestant reformers: it is a " blasphemous folly,"
a " deceit," which " despoils the people and leads them to commit
idolatry "; 'philosophically it is nonsense, since it presupposes the
possibility of an accident existing without its substance; it over-
throws the very nature of a sacrament. Yet the consecrated bread
and wine are the body and blood of Christ, for Christ himself says so
(Fasc. Zizan. p. us); we do not, however, corporeally touch and
break the Lord's body, which is present only sacramentaliter, spiritua-
liter et virtualiter as the soul is present in the body. The real
presence is not denied; what Wycliffe " dares not affirm " is that
the bread is after consecration " essentially, substantially, corpore-
ally and identically " the body of Christ (6.). His doctrine, which
was by no means always consistent or clear, would thus seem to
approximate closely to the Lutheran doctrine of consubstantiation,
as distinguished from the Zwinglian teaching accepted in the xxviii.
Article of Religion of the Church of England, that " the means
whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper is
Faith."
A public attack by a theologian of Wycliffe's influence on
the doctrine on which the whole system of the medieval church
was based could not be passed over as of mere academic interest.
The theologians of the university were at once aroused. The
chancellor, William Barton, sat with twelve doctors (six of whom
were friars), and solemnly condemned the theses. Wycliffe
appealed, in accordance with his principles, not to the pope, but
to the king. But the lay magnates, who were perfectly ready to
help the church to attain to the ideal of apostolic poverty,
shrank from the responsibility of lending their support to obscure
propositions of the schools, which, for no practical end, involved
undoubted heresy and therefore the pains of hell. John of
Gaunt, accordingly, hastily sent down a messenger enjoining the
reformer to keep silence on the subject. The rift thus created
between Wycliffe and his patrons in high places was, moreover,
almost immediately widened by the outbreak of the great
Peasants' Revolt of 1381, the result of which was to draw the
conservative elements in church and state together, in defence
of their common interests.
With the Peasants' Revolt it has been supposed that Wycliffe
had something to do. The only positive fact implicating him
is the confession of one of its leaders, John Ball, that he learned
his subversive doctrines from Wycliffe. But the confession
of a condemned man can seldom be accepted without reserve;
and we have not only the precise and repeated testimony of
Knyghton that he was a " precursor " of Wycliffe, but also
documentary evidence that he was excommunicated as early
as 1366, long before Wycliffe exposed himself to ecclesiastical
censure. Wycliffe in truth was always careful to state his
communistic views in a theoretical way; they are confined to his
Latin scholastic writings, and thus could not reach the people
from him directly. At the same time it is very possible that his
less scrupulous followers translated them in their popular dis-
courses, and thus fed the flame that burst forth in the rebellion.
Perhaps it was a consciousness of a share of responsibility for
it that led them to cast the blame on the friars. In any case
Wycliffe's advocates must regret that in all his known works
there is only one trace of any reprobation of the excesses that
accompanied the outbreak.
4 1381 (corrected by the editor from 1380) is the date given in
Shirley's edition of the Fasciculi Zizaniorum. F. D. Matthew, in the
Eng. Hisl. Rev. for April 1890 (v. 328), proves that the date must
have been 1379 or 1380.
6 Trialogus, lib. iv., cap. 22 ; De Euch. p. 249.
' The difference is summed up by Melanchthon, in his rejection of
Bucer's eirenicon, thus: Fucum faciunt hominibus per hoc quod
dicunt vere adesse corpus, et tamen postea addunt content platione fidei,
i.e. imaginatione. Sic iterum nega.nl praesentiam realem. Nos
docemus, quod corpus Christi vere et realiter adest cum pane vel in pane
(Corpus Reformatorum, ii. 222 sq.).
870
WYCLIFFE
In the spring following the Revolt his old enemy, William
Courtenay, who had succeeded the murdered archbishop Sud-
bury as archbishop of Canterbury, resolved to take measures
for stamping out Wycliffe's crowning heresy. He called a court
of bishops, theologians and canonists at the Blackfriars' convent
in London, which assembled on the I7th to zist of May and sat
with intervals until July. This proceeding was met by a hardly
expected manifestation of university feeling on Wycliffe's side.
The chancellor, Robert Rygge, though he had joined in the
condemnation of the theses, stood by him, as did also both the
proctors. On Ascension Day (the isth of May) his most pro-
minent disciple, Nicholas Hereford, was allowed to preach
a violent sermon against the regulars in the churchyard of
St Frideswyde. The archbishop protested through his com-
missary, the Carmelite Dr Peter Stokes, who was charged
with the execution of the archbishop's mandate (on the 28th
of May) for the publication in the university of the decision
of the Blackfriars' council, by which 24 articles extracted
from Wycliffe's works were condemned, ten as heretical and
fourteen as erroneous. The reply of the chancellor was to
deny the archbishop's jurisdiction within the university, and
to allow Philip Repington, another of Wycliffe's disciples,
to preach on Corpus Christi day before the university.
Chancellor and preacher were guarded by armed men, and
Stokes wrote that his life was not safe at Oxford. The chan-
cellor and proctors were now summoned to Lambeth, and
directed to appear before the Blackfriars' court on the I2th of
June. The result was that the university officers were soon
brought to submission. Though they were, with the majority
of regent masters at Oxford, on the side of Wycliffe, the main
question at issue was for them one of philosophy rather than
faith, and they were quite prepared to make formal submission to
the authority of the Church. For the rest, a few of the reformer's
more prominent adherents were arrested, and imprisoned until
they recanted.
Wycliffe himself remained at large and unmolested. It
is said indeed by Knyghton that at a council held by
Courtenay at Oxford in the following November Wycliffe was
brought forward and made a recantation; but our authority
fortunately gives the text of the recantation, which proves to be
nothing more nor less than a plain English statement of the
condemned doctrine. It is therefore lawful to doubt whether
Wycliffe appeared before the council at all, and even whether he
was ever summoned before it. Probably after the overthrow
of his party at Oxford by the action of the Blackfriars' council
Wycliffe found it advisable to withdraw permanently to Lutter-
worth. That his strength among the laity was undiminished
is shown by the fact that an ordinance passed by the House of
Lords alone, in May 1382, against the itinerant preachers was
annulled on the petition of the Commons in the following autumn.
In London, Leicester and elsewhere there is abundant evidence
of his popularity. The reformer, however, was growing old.
There was work, he probably felt, for him to do, more lasting
than personal controversy. So in his retirement he occupied him-
self, with restless activity, in writing numerous tracts, Latin and
English. To this period, too, belong two of his most important
works: the Trialogus and the unfinished Opus evangelicum.
The Trialogus is as it were his summa summarum theologiae, a
summing up of his arguments and conclusions on philosophy and
doctrine, cast in the form of a discussion between three persons,
Alithia, representing " solid theology," Phronesis, representing
" subtle and mature theology," and Pseustis, representing ' captious
infidelity " whose function is to bring out the truth by arguing and
demonstrating against it. The Trialogus was the best known and
most influential of all Wycliffe's works, and was the first to be
printed (1525), a fact which gave it a still greater vogue. It is also
significant that all the only four known complete MSS. of the work,
preserved in the Imperial Library at Vienna, are of Hussite origin.
The note of both the Trialogus and of the Opus evangelicum, Wy-
cliffe's last work, is their insistence on the " sufficiency of Holy
Scripture."
In 1382, or early in 1383, Wycliffe was seized with a paralytic
stroke, in spite of which he continued his labours. In 1384 it is
stated that he was cited by Pope Urban VI. to appear before him
at Rome; but to Rome he never went. On the 28th of December
of this year, while he was hearing mass in his own church, he
received a final stroke, from the effects of which he died on the
New Year's eve. He was buried at Lutterworth ; but by a decree
of the council of Constance, May 4, 1415, his remains were
ordered to be dug up and burned, an order which was carried out,
at the command of Pope Martin V., by Bishop Fleming in 1428.
A sober study of Wycliffe's life and works justifies a conviction
of his complete sincerity and earnest striving after what he
believed to be right. If he cannot be credited (as he has been
by most of his biographers) with all the Protestant virtues, he
may at least claim to have discovered the secret of the immediate
dependence of the individual Christian upon God, a relation
which needs no mediation of any priest, and to which the very
sacraments of the Church, however desirable, are not essentially
necessary. When he divorces the idea of the Church from any
connexion with its official or formal constitution, and conceives it
as consisting exclusively of the righteous, he may seem to have
gone the whole length of the most radical reformers of the
i6th century. And yet, powerful as was his influence in England,
his doctrines in his own country were doomed to perish, or at
best to become for a century and a half the creed of obscure
and persecuted sectaries (see LOLLARDS). It was otherwise in
Bohemia, whither his works had been carried by the scholars
who came to England in the train of Richard II. 's queen, Anne of
Bohemia. Here his writings were eagerly read and multiplied,
and here his disciple, John Huss (q.v.), with less originality
but greater simplicity of character and greater moral force, raised
Wycliffe's doctrine to the dignity of a national religion. Extracts
from the De ecclesia and the De potestate Papae of the English
reformer made up the greater part of the De ecclesia of Huss, a
work for centuries ascribed solely to the Bohemian divine, and
for which he was condemned and burnt. It was Wycliffe's
De sufficientia legis Christi that Huss carried with him to convert
the council of Constance; of the fiery discourses now included
in the published edition of Wycliffe's Sermones many were like-
wise long attributed to Huss. Finally, it was from the De
eucharistia that the Taborites derived their doctrine of the
Lord's Supper, with the exception of the granting of the chalice
to the laity. To Huss, again, Luther and other continental
reformers owed much, and thus the spirit of the English reformer
had its influence on the reformed churches of Europe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The documentary materials for Wycliffe's
biography are to be found in John Lewis's Life and Sufferings of J.
Wiclif (new ed., Oxford, 1820), which contains a valuable appendix
of illustrative papers and records; Foxe's Acts and Monuments, vol.
iii., ed. 1855, with app. ; Forshall and Madden's preface to the
Wycliffe Bible, p. vii. note, Oxford, 1851; W. W. Shirley's edition
of the Fasciculi Zizaniorum, a collection of contemporary documents
bearing on the history of Wycliffe and the Lollards, with inter-
spersed narrative and comments (probably the work of Thomas
Netter of Walden) (1858) ; and H. T. Riley's notices in the appendices
to the Second and Fourth Reports of the Historical Manuscripts
Commission. Among contemporary records the narrative of a monk
of St Albans a bitter opponent of John of Gaunt is of conspicuous
value; it was published under the title of Chronicon Angliae, by
Sir E. Maunde Thompson (1874). Of this the account in Walsing-
ham's Historia Anglicana (ed. H. T. Riley, 1863, 1864) is mainly a.
modified version. Knyghton, who wrote De eventibus Angliae at
Leicester in the heart of what may be called the Wycliffe country, is
very well informed as to certain passages In the reformer's history,
though his chronology is extremely faulty (ed. J. R. Lumby, 1889-
!895). There are valuable notices also in the continuation of the
Eulogium historiarum (vol. iii., ed. F. S. Haydon, 1863), in the
Chronicle of Adam of Usk (ed. E. M. Thompson, 1876), and in more
than one of the continuations of Higden. For the study of Wycliffe'*
theology the controversial works of Wodeford and Walden are
important, but must necessarily be used with caution.
Of modern biographies that by G. V. Lechler (Johann von Wiclif
und die Vorgeschichte der Reformaticn, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1873; partial
Eng. trans., by P. Lorimer, 1878, 1881 and 1884) is by far the most
comprehensive; it includes a detailed exposition of the reformer's
system, based to a considerable extent on works which were then
unpublished. Shirley's masterly introduction to the Fasciculi
Zizaniorum, and F. D. Matthew s to his edition of English Works
of Wyclif hitherto unprinled (1880), as well as Creighton's History of
the Papacy, vol. i., 1882, and Sir H. C. Maxwell Lyte's account in his
History of the University of Oxford ( 1 886) , add to or correct our stock
of biographical materials, and contain much valuable criticism.
WYCOMBE WYLIE, A.
871
Wycliffe's political doctrine is discussed by Mr R. L. Poole (Illustra-
tions of the History of Medieval Thought, 1884); and his relation to
Huss is elaborately demonstrated by Dr J. Loserth (Hus und Wiclif,
Prague, 1884; also Eng. trans.).
See also G. M. Trevelyan, England in the Age of Wycliffe (London,
1899); Oman, History of England 1377-14&S (London, 1906), pp.
511 ft", for authorities; W. W. Capes, "History of the English
Church in the Uth and isth Centuries," in Hist, of the Eng. Church,
ed. Stephen and Hunt (London, 1900). Many references to more
recent monographs on particular points will be found in J. Loserth's
article " Wiclif," in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (3rd ed.,
1908), xxi. pp. 225-227.
Wycliffe's works are enumerated in a Catalogue by Shirley (Oxford,
1865). Of his Latin works only two had been published previously
to 1880, the De officio pastorali, ed. G. V. Lechler (Leipzig, 1863) and
the Trialogus, ed. Lechler (Oxford, 1869). The pious hope expressed
by the learned editor of the Trialogus in his preface, that English
scholars might be moved to publish all Wycliffe s Latin works, began
to be realized in 1882 with the foundation at Oxford of the Wyclif
Society, under the auspices of which the following have been
published -.Polemical Tracts, ed. R. Buddensieg, (2 vols., 1883);
De civili dominio, vol. i. ed. R. L. Poole, vols. ii.-iv., ed. J. Loserth
(1885-1905); De composicione hominis, ed. R. Beer (1884); De
Ecclesia, ed. Loserth (1886); Dialogus sive speculum ecclesiae mili-
tantis, ed. A. W. Pollard (1886) ; Sermones, ed. Loserth, vols. i.-iv.
(1887-1890); De officio regis, ed. A. W. Pollard and C. Sayle (1887);
De apostasia, ed. M. Dziewicki (1889); De dominio divine, ed. R. L.
Poole (1890); Quaestiones. De ente praedicamentoji, ed. R. Beer
(1891); De eucharistia tractatus major, ed. Loserth (1893); De
blasphemia, ed. Dziewicki (1894); Logica (3 vols., ed. Dziewicki,
1895-1899); Opus evangeiicum, ed. Loserth (4 vols., 1898), parts
iii. and iv. also bear the title De Antichristo ; De Simonia, ed. Herz-
berg-Frankel and Dziewicki (1898); De veritatae sacrae scripturae,
ed. R. Buddensieg (3 vols., 1905); Miscellanea philosophica, ed.
Dziewicki (2 vols., 1905) (vol. i. has an introduction on Wycliffe's
philosophy); De potestate papae, ed. Loserth (1907).
For Wycliffe's English works see Select English Works, ed. T.
Arnold (3 vols., 1869-1871), and English Works hitherto unprinted,
ed. F. D. Matthew (1880), chiefly sermons and short tracts, of many
of which the authenticity is uncertain. The Wicket (Nuremberg,
IS46; reprinted at Oxford, 1828) is not included in either of these
collections. (R. L. P.; W. A. P.)
WYCOMBE (officially CREEPING WYCOMBE, also CHIPPING or
HIGH WYCOMBE), a market town and municipal borough in the
Wycombe parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, England,
34 m. W. by N. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1901) 15,542. The church of All Saints, originally of Norman
foundation, was rebuilt in 1273 by the abbess and nuns of
Godstow near Oxford, and was largely reconstructed early in
the 1 5th century. For the grammar school, founded c. 1550 by
the mayor and burgesses, a new building was erected in 1883.
There are remains of a Norman hospital of St John the Baptist,
consisting of arches of the chapel. The market-house and
guildhall was erected in 1757. The family of Petty, with whom
the town has long been connected, occupied the mansion called
Wycombe Abbey. Lord Beaconsfield's mansion of Hughenden
is ij m. N. of the town. Among a number of almshouses are
some bearing the name of Queen Elizabeth, endowed in 1562 out
of the revenues of a dissolved fraternity of St Mary. The
principal industry is chair-making, and there are also flour and
paper mills. The borough is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and
24 councillors. Area, 1734 acres. The burgesses of Wycombe
have ancient rights of common pasturage on the neighbouring
Rye Mead.
There are various British remains in the neighbourhood of Chipping
Wycombe (Wicumbe, Wycumbee, Cheping Wycombe, Cheping Wich-
ham), but the traces of a Roman settlement are more important.
In Domesday Book the manor only is mentioned, but in 1199 the
men of Wycombe paid tallage to the king. In 1225-1226 Alan
Basset granted to the burgesses the whole town as a free borough.
This grant was confirmed by Henry III., Edward I., Henry IV. and
Mary. In 1558, however, a new charter of incorporation was granted
in reward for the loyalty shown to Queen Mary. It was confirmed
by Elizabeth in 1598 and by James I. in 1609 with certain additions.
Cromwell granted another charter, but it was burnt after the Restora-
tion, and the last charter was granted by Charles II. in 1663. The
corporation was remodelled under the Municipal Corporations Act of
1835, and now consists of a mayor, 6 alde_rmen and 18 councillors.
Wycombe returned two burgesses to parliament in 1300 and con-
tinued to send members until 1885. The franchise was enlarged
after 1832, and in 1867 the borough was deprived of one of its
members. A market was granted by Basset to the burgesses in
1226, and at the present day it is held every Friday, the day fixed by
the charter of Queen Mary- Two statutory fairs were held under the
charter of 1558, but in 1792 only one fair was held on the Monday
before Michaelmas for hiring, but there is now a pleasure fair on the
same day.
See John Parker, History and Antiquities o/ Wycombe (1878).
WYE, a river of England, famous for its beautiful scenery.
It rises in Montgomeryshire on the E. slope of Plinlimmon,
close to the source of the Severn, the estuary of which it joins
after a widely divergent course. Its length is 130 m.; its
drainage area (which is included in the basin of the Severn),
1609 sq. m. Running at first S.E. it crosses the W. of Radnor-
shire, passing Rhayader, and receiving the Elan, in the basin of
which are the Birmingham reservoirs. It then divides Radnor-
shire from Brecknockshire, receives the Ithon on the left, passes
Builth, and presently turns N.E. to Hay, separating Radnorshire
from Herefordshire, and thus forming a short stretch of the
Welsh boundary. The river, which rose at an elevation exceeding
2000 ft., has now reached a level of 250 ft., 55 m. from its source.
As it enters Herefordshire it bends E. by S. to reach the city of
Hereford. It soon receives the Lugg, which, augmented by the
Arrow afcd the Frome, joins from the N. The course of the
Wye now becomes extremely sinuous; and the valley narrows
nearly to Chepstow. For a short distance the Wye divides
Herefordshire from Gloucestershire, and for the rest of its
course Gloucestershire and Monmouthshire. It passes Mon-
mouth, where it receives the Monnow on the right, and finally
Chepstow, 2 m. above its junction with the Severn estuary.
The river is navigable for small vessels for 15 m. up from the
mouth on high tides, but there is not much traffic above Cbep-
stow. The average spring rise of the tide is 38 ft. at Chepstow,
while 50 ft. is sometimes exceeded; the average neap rise is
28J ft. The scenery is finest between Rhayader and Hay in the
upper part, and from Goodrich, below Ross, to Chepstow in the
lower, the second being the portion which gives the Wye its fame.
The name of Wye belongs also to two smaller English rivers (i)
a right-bank tributary of the Derbyshire Derwent, rising in the
uplands near Buxton, and having part of its early course through one
of the caverns characteristic of the district ; (2) a left-bank tributary
of the Thames, watering the valley of the Chilterns in which lies
Wycombe and joining the main river near Bourne End.
WYKES, THOMAS, English chronicler, was a canon regular
of Oseney Abbey, near Oxford. He was the author of a chronicle
extending from 1066 to 1 289, which is printed among the monastic
annals edited by H. R. Luard for the " Rolls " Series. He gives
an account of the barons' war from a royalist standpoint, and is
a severe critic of Montfort's policy. He is of some value for the
reign of Edward I. His work is closely connected with the
Oseney Annals, which are printed parallel with his work by
Luard, but from 1258 to 1278 Wykes is an independent authority.
See H. R. Luard's Annales monastics, vol. iv. (1869); and earlier
edition in Gale's Scriptores quinque, pp. 21-128.
WYLIE, ALEXANDER (1815-1887), British missionary, was
born in London on the 6th of April 1815, and went to school
at Drumlithie, Kincardineshire, and at Chelsea. While appren-
ticed to a cabinet-maker he picked up a Chinese grammar written
in Latin, and after mastering the latter tongue made such good
progress with the former, that in 1846 James Legge engaged
him to superintend the London Missionary Society's press at
Shanghai. In this position he acquired a wide knowledge of
Chinese religion and civilization, and especially of their mathe-
matics, so that he was able to show that Sir George Homer's
method (1819) of solving equations of all orders had been known
to the Chinese mathematicians of the I4th century. He made
several journeys into the interior, notably in 1858 with Lord
Elgin up the Yang-tsze and in 1868 with Griffith John to the
capital of Sze-ch'uen and the source of the Han. From 1863 he
was an agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. He settled
in London in 1877, and died on the loth of February 1887.
In Chinese he published books on arithmetic, geometry, algebra
(De Morgan's), mechanics, astronomy (Herschel's), and The
Marine Steam Engine (T. J. Main and T. Brown), as well as trans-
lations of the first two gospels. In English his chief works were
Notes on Chinese Literature (Shanghai, 1867), and scattered articles
collected under the title Chinese Researches by Alexander Wyfo
(Shanghai, 1897).
See H. Cordier, Life and Labours of A. Wylie (1887).
WYLIE, R. WYNDHAM
WYLIE, ROBERT (1839-1877), American artist, was born in
the Isle of Man in 1839. He was taken to the United States
when a child, and studied in the schools of the Pennsylvania
Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, the directors of which
sent him to France in 1863 to study. He won a medal of the
second class at the Paris Salon of 1872. He went to Pont Aven,
Brittany, in the early sixties, where he remained until his death
on the 4th of February 1877. He painted Breton peasants and
scenes in the history of Brittany; among his important works
was a large canvas, " The Death of a Vendean Chief," now at
the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
WYMONDHAM (pronounced Windham), a market town in
the mid-paih'amentary division of Norfolk, England, 10 m. S.W.
of Norwich by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4764.
The church of St Mary the Virgin rises on an eminence on the
outskirts of the town. It was attached to a Benedictine priory,
founded about the beginning of the i2th century as a cell of
St Albans abbey by William de Albini. In 1448 this foundation
became an abbey. The nave is of ornate Norman work, with a
massive triforium, surmounted by a Perpendicular clerestory
and a beautiful wooden roof. The broad N. aisle is Perpendicular,
and has also a very fine rood screen. At the W. end there is a
lofty and graceful Perpendicular tower. The choir, which was
used as the conventual church, has left only slight traces, and one
arch is standing of a large chapel which adjoined it on the S.
In the centre of the town is a picturesque half-timbered market
cross (1616), with an octagonal upper chamber raised on massive
pillars of wood. A chapel, dedicated to St Thomas of Canterbury,
is used as a grammar school. At Wymondham on the 7th of
July a festival was formerly held in honour of the saint. It
was at this festival in 1549 that the rebellion of Robert Ket or
Kelt came to a head.
WYNAAD, or WAINAD, a highland tract in S. India, forming
part of Malabar district, Madras. It consists of a table-land
amid the W. Ghats, 60 m. long by 30 m. broad, with an average
elevation of 3000 ft.; pop. (1901) 75,149. It is best known as
the district where a large amount of British capital was sunk
during the decade 1876-1886 in gold mines. It had yet earlier
been a coffee-planting district, but this industry has recently
declined. Tea, pepper and cardamoms are produced in increasing
quantities. There are also valuable forest reserves.
WYNDHAM, SIR CHARLES (1837- ), English actor, was
born in Liverpool on the 23rd of March 1837, theson of a doctor.
He was educated abroad, at King's College, London and at the
College of Surgeons and the Peter Street Anatomical School,
Dublin, but his taste for the stage was too strong for him to
take up either the clerical or the medical career, suggested for him,
and early in 1862 he made a first appearance in London as an
actor. Later in the year, being in America, he volunteered
during the Civil War, and became brigade surgeon in the Federal
army, resigning in 1864 to appear on the stage in New York
with John Wilkes Booth. Returning to England, he played at
Manchester and Dublin in Her Ladyship's Guardian, his own
adaptation of Edward B. Hamley's novel Lady Lee's Widowhood.
He reappeared in London in 1866 as Sir Arthur Lascelles in
Morton's All that Glitters is not Gold, but his great success at
that time was in F. C. Burnand's burlesque of Black-eyed Susan,
as Hatchett, " with dance." This brought him to the St James's
theatre, where he played with Henry Irving in Idalia; then with
Ellen Terry in Charles Reade's Double Marriage, and Tom
Taylor's Still Waters Run Deep. As Charles Surface, his best
part for many years, and in a breezy three-act farce, Pink
Dominoes, by James Albery, and in Brighton, an anglicized
version of Saratoga by Bronson Howard (1842-1908), who
married his sister, he added greatly to his popularity both at
home and abroad. In 1876 he took control of the Criterion
theatre. Here he produced a long succession of plays, in which
he took the leading part, notably a number of old English
comedies, and in such modern plays as The Liars, The Case of
Rebellious Susan and others by Henry Arthur Jones; and he
became famous for his acting in David Gartick. In 1899 he
opened his new theatre, called Wyndham's. In 1902 he was
knighted. From 1885 onwards his leading actress was Miss
Mary Moore (Mrs Albery), who became his partner in the
proprietorship of the Criterion and Wyndham's theatres, and of
his New Theatre, opened in 1903; and her delightful acting in
comedy made their long association memorable on the London
stage.
WYNDHAM, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1687-1740), English
politician, was the only son of Sir Edward Wyndham, Bart., and
a grandson of William Wyndham (d. 1683) of Orchard Wynd-
ham, Somerset, who was created a baronet in 1661. Educated
at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, he entered parliament
in 1710 and became secretary-at-war in the Tory ministry in
1712 and chancellor of the exchequer in 1713. He was closely
associated with Lord Bolingbroke, and he was privy to the
attempts made to bring about a Jacobite restoration on the death
of Queen Anne; when these failed he was dismissed from office.
In 1715 the failure of a Jacobite movement led to his imprison-
ment, but he was soon set at liberty. Under George I. Wyndham
was the leader of the opposition in the House of Commons,
fighting for his High Church and Tory principles against Sir
Robert Walpole. He was in constant communication with the
exiled Bolingbroke, and after 1723 the two were actively associ-
ated in abortive plans for the overthrow of Walpole. He died
at Wells on the i7th of June 1740. Wyndham's first wife was
Catherine, daughter of Charles Seymour, 6th duke of Somerset.
By her he had two sons, Charles, who became 2nd earl of Egre-
mont in 1750, and Percy, who took the name of O'Brien and was
created earl of Thomond in 1756.
The Wyndham Family, Sir John Wyndham, a Norfolk man,
was knighted after the battle of Stoke in 1487 and beheaded
for high treason on the 2nd of May 1502. He married Margaret,
daughter of John Howard, duke of Norfolk, and his son Sir
Thomas Wyndham (d. 1521), of Felbrigg, Norfolk, was vice-
admiral of England under Henry VIII. By his first wife Sir
Thomas was ,the father of Sir John Wyndham, who married
Elizabeth, daughter of John Sydenham of Orchard, Somerset,
and founded the Somerset branch of the family, and also of Sir
Edmund Wyndham of Felbrigg, who was sheriff of Norfolk at
the time of Robert Ket's rebellion. By his second wife Sir
Thomas was the father of the seaman Thomas Wyndham
(c. 1510-1553), an account of whose voyage to Morocco in 1552
is printed in Hakluyt's Voyages.
From Sir John Wyndham of Orchard Wyndham was de-
scended Thomas Wyndham (1681-1745), lord chancellor of
Ireland from 1726 to 1739, who in 1731 was created Baion Wynd-
ham of Finglass, a title which became extinct on his death. His
nephew, Henry Penruddocke Wyndham (1736-1819), the topo-
grapher, wrote A Gentleman's Tour through Monmouthshire and
Wales in June and July 1774 (1775); and Wiltshire from Domes-
day Book, with a Translation of the Original Latin into English
(Salisbury, 1788).
Sir John Wyndham of Orchard Wyndham was also the ancestor
of the Windhams of Felbrigg, who adopted this form of spelling
the family name, the most noteworthy members of which were
the statesman William Windham (<?..), and Sir Charles Ash
Windham (1810-1870), a soldier who commanded in the Crimea
and in the Indian Mutiny.
The Wyndhams are also connected through a female line with
the family of Wyndham-Quin, which holds the earldom of Dun-
raven. Valentine Richard Quin (1752-1824), of Adare, county
Limerick, was created Baron Adare on the union with England
in 1800, and earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl in 1822. His son,
the 2nd earl (1782-1850), married Caroline (d. 1870), daughter
and heiress of Thomas Wyndham of Dunraven Castle, Glamorgan-
shire, and took the name of Wyndham-Quin. Their son, the
3rd earl (1812-1871), who was created a peer" of the United
Kingdom as Baron Kenry in 1866, was a well-known man of
science, especially interested in archaeology. His son, Windham
Thomas Wyndham-Quin (b. 1841), the 4th earl, was under-
secretary for the colonies in 1885-1887, and became later a
prominent figure in Irish politics, as chairman of the Irish Land
Conference and president of the Irish Reform Association;
WYNN WYOMING
873
he was also prominent as a yachtsman, competing for the
America cup (see YACHTING) in 1893 an< i 1895.
WYNN, SIR JOHN (1553-1627), Welsh antiquary, was the son
of Morris Wynn and descended from the princes of Wales. He
was educated at Oxford, succeeded to his father's estate of
Gwydir in Carnarvonshire in 1580, and was member of parlia-
ment for this county in 1 586. In 1606 he was made a knight and
in 161 1 a baronet. He was interested in several mining ventures
and also found time for antiquarian studies. He died on the ist
of March 1627. At Llanrwst Wynn founded an hospital and
endowed a school. His History of the Gwydir Family, which had
a great reputation in North Wales, was first published by Daines
Barrington in 1770, and in 1878 an edition was published at
Oswestry. It is valuable as the only work which describes the
state of society in North Wales in the isth and the earlier part
of the i6th century. His son Richard (d. 1649) was in attendance
on Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., when he visited Spain
in 1623, and was afterwards treasurer to Queen Henrietta Maria;
he wrote an account of the journey to Spain, published by T.
Hearne in 1729 with the Historic, vilae et regni Ricardi II. He
built the bridge over the Conway at Llanrwst. The baronetcy
became extinct in 1719, when Wynnstay, near Ruabon, passed
to Sir Watkin Williams, who took the name of Williams-Wynn
and founded the family of that name.
Sir John Wynn's estate of Gwydir came to the ist duke of
Ancaster in the i7th century by his marriage with the heiress
of the Wynns. On the death of the last duke in 1779, Gwydir
was inherited by his sister Priscilla, Lady Willoughby de Eresby
in her own right, whose husband was created Baron Gwydir.
On the death of Alberic, Lord Willoughby de Eresby (1870),
this title (now merged in that of earl of Ancaster) fell into
abeyance between his two daughters, while that of Baron
Gwydir passed to his cousin and heir male Gwydir itself was
sold by the earl of Ancaster in 1895, the house and part of the
estate being bought by Earl Carrington, who also claimed descent
from Sir John Wynn.
WYNTOUN, ANDREW OF (?i35o-?i 4 2o), author of a long
metrical history of Scotland, called the Orygynale Cronykil of
Scotland, was a canon regular of St Andrews, and prior of St
Serf's in Lochleven. He wrote the Chronicle at the request of
his patron, Sir John of Wemyss, whose representative, Mr
Erskine Wemyss of Wemyss Castle, Fifeshire, possesses the oldest
extant MS. of the work. The subject is the history of Scotland
from the mythical period (hence the epithet " original ") down
to the accession of James I. in 1406. The earlier books are of no
historical value, but the later have in all outstanding matters
stood the test of comparison with contemporary records. The
philological interest is great, for few works of this date, and no
other of like magnitude, are extant in the vernacular.
The text is preserved in eight MSS., of which three are in the British
Museum, the Royal (17 D xx.), the Cottonian (Nero D. xi.) and the
Lansdowne (197); two in the Advocates' library, Edinburgh (19,
2, 3 and 19, 2, 4), one at Wemyss Castle (u.s.) ; one in the university
library at St Andrews, and one, formerly in the possession of the
Boswells of Auchinleck, now the property of Mr John Ferguson,
Duns, Berwickshire. The first edition of the Chronicle (based on the
Royal MS.) was published by David Macpherson in 1795; the
second by David Laing, in the series of " Scottish Historians " (Edin.,
1872). Both are superseded by the elaborate edition by Mr Amours
for the Scottish Text Society (1906).
WYOMING, one of the Central Western states of the United
States of America, situated between the parallels cf latitude 41
and 45 N., and the meridians of longitude 27 and 34 W. of
Washington. It is bounded on the N. by Montana, on the E.
by S. Dakota and Nebraska, on the S. by Colorado and Utah,
and on the W. by Utah, Idaho, and a small southward projection
of Montana. The state has a length of about 375 m. E. and W.
along its southern border and a breadth of 276 m. N. and S. It
has an area of 97,914 sq. m., of which 320 sq. m. are water surface.
Physical Features. The greater portion of the state belongs to the
Great Plains Province, which extends from N. to S. across the
United States between the looth meridian and the Rocky Mountains.
Within this province are found the Black Hills of S. Dakota, and
their W. slopes extend across the boundary into N.E. Wyoming.
The N.W. portion of the state is occupied by the S. end of the
Northern Rocky Mountain Province ; and the N. end of the Southern
Rockies extends across the Colorado line into southern Wyoming.
The Great Plains in Wyoming have an elevation of from 5000 to
7000 ft. over much of the state, and consist of flat or gently rolling
country, barren of tree growth, but often covered with nutritious
grasses, and affording pasturage for vast numbers of live stock.
Erosion buttesand mesas occasionally rise as picturesque monuments
above the general level of the plains, and in the vicinity of the
mountains the plains strata, elsewhere nearly horizontal, are bent
sharply upward and carved by erosion into " hogback " ridges.
These features are well developed about the Bighorn Mountains, an
outlying member of the Rockies which boldly interrupts the con-
tinuity of the plains in north-central Wyoming. The plains sedi-
ments contain important coal beds, which are worked in nearly
every county in the state. In the region between the Northern and
Southern Rockies, the plains are interrupted by minor Mountain
groups, volcanic buttes and lava flows, among which the Leucite
Hills and Pilot Butte are prominent examples.
Notwithstanding these elevations, this portion of the state makes
a distinct break in the continuity of the Northern and Southern
Rockies, giving a broad, relatively low pass utilized by the Oregon
Trail in early days, and by the Union Pacific railway at a later period.
The Black Hills District in the N.E. contains the Little Missouri
Buttes and the Mato Tepee (or Devil's Tower), prominent erosion
remnants of volcanic intrusions. Local glacial ion has modified the
higher levels of the Bighorn Mountains, giving glacial cirques,
alpine peaks and many mountain lakes and waterfalls. Several
small glaciers still remain about the base of Cloud Peak, the highest
summit in the range (13,165 ft.). The Southern Rockies end in
broken ranges with elevations of 9000 ft. and over. That portion of
the Northern Rockies extending into the N.W. of the state affords the
most magnificent scenery. Here is the Yellowstone National Park
(q.v.). Just S. of the Park the Teton Mountains, rising abruptly from
the low basin of Jackson's Hole to elevations of 10,000 and 1 1 ,000 ft.,
form a striking feature. In the Wind River Range, farther S.E., are
Gannett Peak (13,775 ft-), the highest point in the state, and Fremont
Peak (13,720 ft.). In addition to the hot springs of the Yellowstone
region, mention should be made of large hot springs at Thermopolis
and Saratoga, where the water has a temperature of about 135 F.
Much of the state is drained by branches of the Missouri river, the
most important being the Yellowstone, Bighorn and Powder rivers
flowing .N., and the Cheyenne and North Platte flowing E. The
Green river, a branch of the Colorado, flows S. from the S.W. of the
state, while the Snake river rises farther N. and flows W. to the
Pacific drainage. S.W. of the centre of the state is an area with no
outward drainage, the streams emptying into desert lakes.
Fauna. Creat herds of bison formerly ranged the plains and a
few are still preserved in the National Park. The white- tailed
Virginia deer inhabits the bottom lands and the mule deer the more
open country. Lewis's prairie dog, the cottontail rabbit, the coyote,
the grey wolf and the kit fox are all animals of the plains. In the
mountains are elk, puma, lynx, the varying hare and snowshoe rabbit,
the yellow-haired porcupine, Fremont's and Bailey's squirrels, the
mountain sheep, the four-striped chipmunk, Townsend's spermo-
Chile, the prong-horned antelope, the cinnamon pack-rat, grizzly,
rown, silvertip and black bears and the wolverine. Other animals,
more or less common, are the black-tailed deer, the jackrabbit, the
badger, the skunk, the beaver, the moose and the weasel. The
prairie rattlesnake is common in the dry plains country.
The streams are well stocked with rainbow and brook trout. The
former fish were introduced from Californiain 1885. They thrive in the
Wyoming streams and rivers and are superior game fish. Specimens
of eight and ten pounds weight have been taken by rod and fly
fishermen from the Big Laramie river. Other fish native to the waters
of the state are the sturgeon, catfish, perch (locally called pike),
buffalo fish, flathead and sucker.
There is a great variety of birds. Eared grebes and ring-billed
gulls breed on the sloughs of the plains, and rarely the white pelican
nests about the lake shores. Here, too, breed many species of ducks,
the mallard, gadwall, baldpate, three species of teal, shoveler, pin-
tail, hooded mergansers, and Canada geese; other ducks and geese
are migrants only. Formerly the trumpeter swan nested here. On
the plains a few waders breed, as the avocet, western willet and long-
billed curlew ; but most are birds of passage. At high altitudes the
mountain plover is found ; the dusky grouse haunts the forests above
8000 ft. ; the white-tailed ptarmigan is resident in the alpine regions;
and on the plains are found the prairie sharp-tailed grouse and the
sage-hen. The turkey-buzzard is found mainly in the plains country.
Various hawks and owls are common ; the golden eagle nests on the
mountain crags and the burrowing owl on the plains. The red-naped
sapsucker and Lewis's woodpecker are conspicuous in wooded lands;
Nuttall's poor-will, Say's phoebe, the desert horned lark, Bullock's
oriole, the yellow-headed blackbird and -McCown's longspur are
characteristic of the open lowlands.
Flora. Forest growth in Wyoming is limited to the highest
mountain ranges, the most important forests being in the Black Hills
region in the N.E., on the lower slopes of the Bighorn Mountains,
and in the Rocky Mountain ranges of the N.W. of the state, including
Yellowstone National Park. The yellow pine is the most important
tree in the Bighorns, and small lodge-pole pine makes up the greater
8 74
WYOMING
part of the N.W. forests. White fir is found above the foot hill zone,
and heavy growths of cottonwood along the streams in the Bighorn
region. The Douglas spruce and Rocky Mountain white pine are
common in the forests of the Medicine Bow Mountains, from which
much of the native lumber used in the S. of the state is secured.
Other trees are the juniper, willow, green ash, box elder, scrub oak,
wild plum and wild cherry. Occasional cottonwoods along streams
are the only trees on the plains. The common sage brush, artemisia,
is the characteristic shrub of the plains where the soil is comparatively
free from alkali, and is abundant in the valleys of the arid foothills.
Where alkali is present, the plains may be nearly barren, or covered
with grease wood and species of atriplex, including the so-called white
sage. Grease wood is likewise abundant in the foothills wherever
the soil contains alkali. Various species of nutritious grasses cover
much of the plains and foothills, and even clothe the apparently
barren mountain peaks.
Climate. In the lower Bighorn Valley, summer temperatures rise
to 95 or 100, but at heights of 6000 to 7000 ft. on neighbouring
ranges, summer temperatures seldom rise above 90, and frosts may
occur at any time. Elevations under 6000 ft. have a mean annual
temperature of from 40 to 47, but high mountain areas and cold
valleys may have mean temperatures as low as 34. The air is
clear and dry, and although temperatures of 100 are recorded, sun-
strokes are practically unknown. Winter temperatures as low as
51 have been recorded, but these very low temperatures occur in the
valleys rather than on the higher elevations. The cold is sharp and
bracing rather than disagreeable, on account of the dryness of the
air; and the periods of cold weather are generally of short duration.
The winter climate is remarkably pleasant as a rule, and outdoor
work may usually be carried on without discomfort.
The following figures give some idea of the climatic variations,
At Basin, in the Bighorn Valley, the mean winter temperature is
16, the summer mean 72. Thayne, on the mountainous W. border
of the state, has a winter mean of 19, and a summer mean of but
59; Cheyenne, in the S.E., has a winter mean of 27, and a summer
mean of 65. The percentage of sunshine in the state is high.
Precipitation varies in different areas from 8 to 20 in., the average
for the state being 12-5 in. Wyoming thus belongs with the arid
states, and irrigation is necessary for agriculture. A greater pre-
cipitation doubtless prevails on the higher mountains, but trust-
worthy records are not available. Spring is the wettest season.
The prevailing winds are W. and reach a high velocity on the level
plains.
Soil. While some of the more arid districts have soils so strongly
alkaline as to be practically unreclaimable, there are extensive areas
of fertile lands which only require irrigation to make them highly
productive. Alluvial deposits brought down by mountain streams,
and strips of floodplain along larger streams on the plains are very
fertile and well repay irrigation. Lack of water rather than poverty
of soil renders most of the plains region fit for grazing only. In the
mountains, ruggedness combines with thin and scattered soil to make
these districts of small agricultural value.
Agriculture. The total area in farms in 1880 was 124,433 acres, of
which 83,122 acres (66-8%) were improved; in 1900 it was 8,124,536
acres, of which 792,332 acres (9-8%) were improved. The large
increase in unimproved acreage in farms was principally due to the
increased importance in sheep-raising. In 1909 Wyoming ranked
first among the states in the number of sheep and the production of
wool. The number of sheep in 1909 was 7,316,000, valued at
$32,190,000, being more than one-eighth in numbers and nearly one-
seventh in value of all sheep in the United States. The production of
wool in 1909 was 38,400,000 Ib of washed and unwashed wool and
12,288,000 ft of scoured wool. The average weight per fleece was
8 ft. The Bureau of Animal Industry of the U.S. Department of Agri-
culture has made experiments in breeding range sheep in Wyoming.
The total number of neat cattle on farms and ranges in 1910 was
986,000 (including 27,000 milch cows) valued at $26,277,000;
horses, 148,000, valued at $i2,284,ooo; 1 mules, 2000, valued at
$212,000; and swine, 21,000, valued at $178,000.
In 1909 the hay crop (alfalfa, native hay, timothy hay, &c.) was
665,000 tons, valued at $5,918,000 and raised on 277,000 acres.
The cereal crops increased enormously in the decade 1899-1909.
The principal cereal crop in 1909 was oats, the product of which was
3,500,000 bushels, grown on 100,000 acres and valued at $1,750,000.
The wheat crop increased from 4674 bushels in 1879 to 2,297,000
bushels in 1909, grown on 80,000 acres and valued at $2,274,000.
The product of Indian corn in 1909 was 140,000 bushels, grown on
5000 acres and valued at $109,000.
Mining. The development of Wyoming's naturally rich mineral
resources has been retarded by inadequate transport and by in-
sufficient capital. The value of the state's mineral product was
$5,684,286 in 1902 and $9,453,341 in 1908. In 1908 Wyoming
ranked twelfth among the states of the Union in the value of its
output of bituminous coal. Other mineral products of the state are
1 The breed of horses in Wyoming has improved rapidly; in 1904,
when the U.S. Department of Agriculture purchased eighteen
mares and a stallion in hope of improving the American carriage
horse, six of the mares were from Wyoming and were principally of
Morgan stocks.
copper, gold, iron, petroleum, asbestos, soda, silver and lead, gypsum,
stone and clay products. The original coal supply of the present
state has been estimated (by the United States Geological Survey) at
424,085,000,000 short tons of the bituminous or sub-bituminous
variety, this amount being second only to that for North Dakota,
500,000,000,000 short tons, which, however, is entirely lignite. Coal
was first mined in what is now Wyoming in 1865, probably in con-
nexion with the building of the Union Pacific railway, and the pro-
duct in that year was 800 short tons. Thereafter the industry
developed steadily and the product in 1908 was 5,489,902 tons,
valued at $8,868,157. In 1908 (and for several years before) the
largest product of coal (2,180,933 tons) came from Sweetwater
county, in the S.W. of the state, and Uinta county (adjoining Sweet-
water county on the W.) had the next largest product, 1 ,380,488 tons.
Sheridan county, in the north-central part of the state, Carbon
county, in the south-central part and Weston county in the N.E.
were the next largest producers. The product of coal to the end of
1908 was 125,000,000 short tons, or 0-029 % of the estimated supply.
The mining product next in value to coal in 1908 was copper,
taken chiefly in Carbon county in a zone of brecciated quartzite
underlying schist, the original ore being chalcopyrite, with possibly
some pyrite, a secondary enrichment, which has produced im-
portant bodies of chalcocite in the upper workings, but these are
replaced by chalcopyrite at greater depth. The production in 1908
was 2,416,197 ft, valued at $318,938. The gypsum product (from
the Laramie plains) in 1908 was 31,188 tons, valued at $94,935.
There are extensive deposits of petroleum and natural gas, which
have become of commercial importance. Oil has been found in
eighteen different districts, the fields being known as follows : The
Carter, Hilliard, Spring Valley and Twin Creek in Uinta county; the
Popo Agie, Lander, Shoshone, Beaver and a part of Dutton in
Fremont county; the Rattlesnake, Arrago, Oil Mountain and a part
of Dutton. Powder river and Salt Creek in Natrona county; part of
Powder river and Salt Creek in Johnson county; Newcastle in
Weston county; Belle Fourche in Crook county; Douglas in
Converse county and Bonanza in Bighorn county. The Popo Agie
and Lander fields produce the largest quantities of oil, the wells being
partly gushers from which a heavy fuel oil is obtained. This is now
being used by the Chicago & North Western Railroad Company on its
locomotives, and it is also used in Omaha (Nebraska) by manufactur-
ing establishments. There is a great variety in the grades of oils
produced in the state, ranging from the heavy asphaltic oils of the
Popo Agie and Lander fields to the high-grade lubricants and superior
light products obtained from the wells in the Douglas, Salt Creek and
Uinta county fields. Natural gas in quantity has haen found in the
Douglas field and in Bighorn county.
The iron deposits are very extensive, and the ores consist of red
haematites, magnetites, titanic, chrome and manganese irons. In
nearly every county there are veins of iron ore of varying extent and
quality, the most important being at Hartville, Laramie cou.ity,
Iron Mountain, Albany county, the Seminole and Rawlins in Carbon
county. The Hartville ores are remarkable for their high grade and
purity, running from 60 to 70% metallic iron, with 2j to 5% silica,
and only traces of sulphur and phosphorus. The ore is a red haema-
tite occurring in slate. The iron ore from this district obtained the
grand prize at the World's Fair held in Chicago in 1893, in competi-
tion with iron ores from all parts of the world. The Hartville iron
deposits are worked by the Colorado Fuel & Iron Company, which
ships large quantities of ore to its furnaces at Pueblo, Colorado.
The discovery of natural gas in the Douglas oil field has opened up
the possibility of working a smelting plant at the mines by means of
this cheap and convenient fuel. The distance to be covered by a
pipe line is not prohibitive, and the matter has been under considera-
tion by the owners and lessees of the iron mines.
There are sandstone deposits in Carbon county, which supplied the
stone for the Capitol at Cheyenne and the state penitentiary; and
from the Iron mountain quarries in Laramie county was taken the
white variety used in building the Carnegie library and the Federal
building in Cheyenne. Sandstones and quartzites were also quarried
in 1902 in Albany, Crook and Uinta counties. Limestone occurs in
thick formations near Lava Creek, and in the valley of the East Fork
of the Yellowstone river; also near the summit of the Owl Creek
range, and in the Wind River range. Gold was discovered on the
Sweetwater river in 1867, and placer and quartz deposits have been
found in almost every county in the state. Sulphur has been found
near Cody and Thermopolis.
Irrigation. The irrigable area of Wyoming is estimated at about
6,200,000 acres, lying chiefly in Bighorn, Sheridan and Johnson
counties in the N.W. of the state, and in Laramie, Albany and Carbon
counties in the S.E., though there are large tracts around the head-
waters of the Bighorn river, in Fremont county in the west -central
part, along the North Platte river and its tributaries in Converse
county in the central part, and along the Green river and its tribu-
taries in Sweetwater and Uinta counties in the S.W. Under the Carey
Act and its amendments Congress had in 1909 given to the state
about 2,000,000 acres of desert land on condition that it should be
reclaimed, and in that year about 800,000 acres were in process of
reclamation, mostly by private companies. Settlers intending to
occupy such lands must satisfy the state that they have entered into
contracts with the irrigating company for a sufficient water-right
WYOMING
WYOMING
875
and a perpetual interest in the irrigation works. The principal
undertaking of the Federal government is the Shoshone project in
Bighorn county. This provides for a storage reservoir, controlled
by Shoshone dam on Shoshone river, about 8 m. above Cody ; a
canal diverting water from Shoshone reservoir round the N. of
Shoshone dam and covering lands in the vicinity of Cody, Corbett,
Eagle Nest and Ralston; a dam at Corbett about 16 m. below the
reservoir diverting water to Ralston reservoir and thence to lands
in the vicinity of Ralston, Powell, Garland, Mantua and Frannie, and
a dam on the Shoshone river near Eagle Nest diverting water into a
canal covering the lands of the Shoshone River Valley. This project
was authorized in 1904; it will affect, when completed, 131,900
acres, of which in 1909 about 10,000 acres were actually under irriga-
tion. Near Douglas, in Converse county, there is a reinforced con-
crete dam, impounding the waters of Laprele Creek, to furnish
water for over 30,000 acres, and power for transmitting electricity.
There are large irrigated areas in Johnson and Sheridan counties.
Forests. The woodland area of Wyoming in 1900 was estimated at
12,500 sq. m. (13% of the area of the state), of which the United
States had reserved about 3500 sq. m. in the Yellowstone National
F'urk and 5207 sq. m., chiefly in the Bighorn Mountains in the N.,
and the Medicine Bow Mountains in the S.E. of the state. The
saleable timber consists almost entirely of yellow pine, though there
is a relatively small growth of other conifers and of hard-wood trees.
Manufactures. Wyoming's manufacturing industries are relatively
unimportant. In the period 1900-1905 the value of factory pro-
ducts increased from $3,268,555 to $3,523,260; the amount of
capital invested, from $2,047,883 to $2,695,889, and the number of
establishments from 139 to 169; the average number of employees
decreased from 2060 to 1834. In the same period (1900-1905), the
value of the products of urban * establishments decreased from
$1,332,288 to $1,244,223, and the amount of capital invested in-
creased from $871,531 to $988,615; but the value of the products
of rural establishments increased from $1,936,267 to $2,279,037, and
the capital invested from $1,176,352 to $1,707,274. The values of
the products of the principal industries of the state in 1905 were:
car and general shop construction and repairs by steam railway
companies, $1,640,361; lumber and timber products, $426,433;
flour and grist mill products, $283,653; butter, $114,354. Among
other manufactures were gypsum wall-plaster, saddlery and harness,
malt liquors and tobacco, cigars and cigarettes.
Transport. There has been relatively little development of trans-
port facilities in Wyoming. The railway mileage, which was only
459 m. in 1870, increased to 1002 m. in 1890, 1280 m. in 1905, and
1623 m. on the 1st of January 1909. The Union Pacific railway
crosses the S. of the state, connects with the Oregon Short Line at
Green river and extends both E. and S. from Cheyenne. The
Colorado & Southern (controlled by the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy Railroad Company) extends N. from Cheyenne to Orin
Junction, where it connects with the Chicago & North Western, which
runs across the south-central part of the state as far as Lander (under
the name of the Wyoming & North Western railroad). Four branches
of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy system enter or cross the state.
One extends from Cheyenne S.E. to Holdredge, Nebraska; the main
line crosses the N.E. of the state to Billings, Montana, whence it
extends S. to Cody and Kirby in the Bighorn basin, Wyoming;
while another branch from Alliance, Nebraska, extends to the iron
mines at Guernsey. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy was build-
ing in 1910 a new line from the N.W. to connect with the Colorado &
Southern line at Orin Junction, passing through Douglas. When
completed to Orin Junction this will be a main through route from
the Mexican Gulf to the N.W. Pacific coast. There are also several
shorter railways in the state, and various stage lines reach the more
inaccessible regions.
Population. The population in 1870 was 9118; in 1880,
20,789; in 1890, 60,705; in 1900, 92,531; in 1910, 145,965-
The density of the population was 0-6 per sq. m. in 1890 and
i'S per sq. m. in 1010, there being in this year only one state with
a smaller average number of inhabitants to the sq. m., namely
Nevada, with 0-7. Of the total population in 1900, 88,051,
or 96-2%, were whites; 1686 were Indians; 940 were negroes;
461 were Chinese and 393 were Japanese. The Indians are all
taxed. They belong to the Arapaho and Shoshoni tribes. 2
The Wind River Reservation, under the Shoshoni School, is in
the central part of the state. There were 17,415 foreign-born
in the state in 1900, of whom 2596 were English, 2146 Germans,
1727 Swedes, 1591 Irish, 1253 Scotch and 1220 Finns. Of the
41,993 persons of foreign parentage (i.e. having either or both
parents of foreign birth) in that year 4973 were of English, 4571 of
German, and 4482 of Irish parentage, i.e. on both the father's
and the mother's side. Of the 75,116 born in the United States,
1 That is, those in the two municipalities (Cheyenne and Laramie)
having a population in 1900 of more than 8000.
1 The Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1909 gives
854 Arapaho and 816 Shoshoni under the Shoshoni School.
19,507 were natives of Wyoming, 6112 were born in Iowa, 5009
in Nebraska, 4923 in Illinois, 4412 in Missouri and 3750 in Utah.
Among the numbers of religious denominations in 1906 the
Roman Catholics, with 10,264 communicants, had the largest
membership, followed by the Latter-day Saints, or Mormons,
with 5211 communicants (21-8% of the total church membership
for the state), the Protestant Episcopalians with 1741, the
Methodists with 1612 and the Presbyterians with 984. The
urban population (i.e. the population of places having 4000
inhabitants or more) increased from 18,078 in 1890 te 26,657 in
1900 or 47-5%, the urban being 28-8% of the total population
in 1900. The semi-urban population (i.e. population of incor-
porated places, or the approximate equivalent, having fewer
than 4000 inhabitants) decreased in the same period from 14,910
to 12,725, and the rural population (i.e. the population outside
of incorporated places) increased from 29,567 to 53,149, which was
78-7% of the total increase. The principal cities of the state
(with population) in 1900 were: Cheyenne, 14,087; Laramie,
8207; Rock Springs, 4363; Rawlins, 2317, and Evanston, 2110.
After 1900 the population of the centre and N. of the state
increased in proportion faster than the older settled portions in
the S. In 1910 Sheridan (8408) in Sheridan county, Douglas in
Converse county and Lander in Fremont county were as import-
ant as some of the older towns of the southern part of the state.
Government. Wyoming is governed under its first constitution,
which was adopted in November 1889. An amendment may be
proposed by either branch of the legislature. If it is approved
by two-thirds of the members of each branch, it must be sub-
mitted to the people at the next general election and, if approved
by a majority of the electors, it then becomes a part of the con-
stitution. Whenever two-thirds of the members elected to
each branch of the legislature vote for a convention to revise
or amend the constitution and a majority of the people voting
at the next general election favour it, the legislature must
provide for calling a convention. Suffrage is conferred upon
both men and women, and the right to vote at a general election
is given to all citizens of the United States who have attained
the age of twenty-one years, are able to read the constitution,
and have resided in the state one year and in the county sixty
days immediately preceding, with the exception of idiots, insane
persons, and persons convicted of an infamous crime; at a
school election the voter must also own property on which taxes
are paid. General elections are held biennially, in even-numbered
years, the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November,
and each new administration begins the first Monday in the
following January.
Executive. The governor is elected for a term of four years. He
must be at least thirty years of age, and have resided in the state for
five years next preceding his election. If the office becomes vacant
the secretary of state becomes acting governor; there is no lieu-
tenant-governor. The governor, with the concurrence of the Senate,
appoints the attorney-general, the state engineer and the members
of several boards and commissions. He has the power to veto bills, to
pardon, to grant reprieves and commutations, and to remit fines and
forfeitures, but the Board of Charities and Reform constitutes a
Board of Pardons for investigating all applications for executive
clemency and advising the governor with respect to them. The
secretary of state, auditor, treasurer and superintendent of public
instruction are elected for the same term as the governor.
Legislature. The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of
Representatives. The number of representatives must be not less
than twice nor more than three times the number of senators. One-
half the senators and all the representatives are elected every two
years. Both senators and representatives are apportioned among the
several counties according to their population; each county, how-
ever, is entitled to at least one senator and one representative. The
legislature meets biennially, in odd-numbered years, on the second
Tuesday in January, and the length of its sessions is limited to forty
days. All bills for raising a revenue must originate in the House of
Representatives, but the Senate may propose amendments. The
governor has three days (Sundays excepted) in which to veto any
bill or any item in an appropriation bill, and a two-thirds vote of the
members elected to each house is required to override his veto.
Judiciary. The administration of justice is vested principally in a
supreme court, district courts, justices of the peace and municipal
courts. The supreme court consists of three justices who are elected
by the state at large for a term of eight years, and the one having
the shortest term to serve is chief justice. The court has original
876
WYOMING
jurisdiction in quo warranto and mandamus proceedings against state
officers and in habeas corpus cases, general appellate jurisdiction, and
a superintending control over the inferior courts. It holds two terras
annually, at the capital, one beginning the first Monday in April and
one beginning the first Monday in October. The state is divided into
four judicial districts, and in each of these a district judge is elected
for a term of eight years. The district courts have original juris-
diction in all actions and matters not expressly vested in some other
court and appellate jurisdiction in cases arising in the lower courts.
Justices of the peace, one of whom is elected biennially in each
precinct, have jurisdiction in civil actions in which the amount in
controversy does not exceed $200 and the title to or boundary of real
estate is not involved, and in criminal actions less than a felony and
in which the punishment prescribed by law does not exceed a fine of
$100 and imprisonment for six months. Each incorporated city or
town has a municipal court for the trial of offences arising under its
ordinances.
Local Government. A board of three commissioners is elected in
each county, one for four years and one for two years at each biennial
election. It has the care of the county property, manages the county
business, builds and repairs the county buildings, apportions and
orders the levying of taxes, and establishes the election precincts.
The other county officers are a treasurer, a clerk, an attorney, a
surveyor, a sheriff, a coroner and a superintendent of schools, each
elected for a term of two years. A justice of the peace and a con-
stable are elected for and by each precinct. Cities and towns are
incorporated under general laws.
Miscellaneous Laws. A married woman may hold, acquire,
manage and convey property and carry on business independently
of her husband. When a husband or a wife dies intestate one-half
of the property of the deceased goes to the survivor; if there are no
children or descendants of any child three-fourths of it goes to the
survivor; if there are no children or descendants of any child and
the estate does not exceed $10,000 the whole of it goes to the sur-
vivor. The causes for a divorce are adultery, incompetency, con-
viction of a felony and sentence to imprisonment therefor after
marriage, conviction of a felony or infamous crime before marriage
provided it was unknown to the other party, habitual drunkenness,
extreme cruelty, intolerable indignities, neglect of the husband to
provide the common necessaries of life, vagrancy of the husband
and pregnancy of the wife before marriage by another man than her
husband and without his knowledge. The plaintiff must reside in
the state for one year immediately preceding his or her application
for a divorce unless the parties were married in the state and the
applicant has resided there since the marriage. Neither party is
permitted to marry a third party until one year after the divorce has
been granted. The desertion of a wife or of children under fifteen
years of age is a felony punishable with imprisonment for not more
than three years nor less than one year. The homestead of a house-
holder who is the head of a family or of any resident of the state who
has attained the age of sixty years is exempt, to the value of $1500,
or 1 60 acres of land, from execution and attachment arising from
any debt, contract or civil obligation other than taxes, purchase
money or improvements, so long as it is occupied by the owner or his
or her family, and the exemption inures for the benefit of a widow,
widower or minor children. If the owner is married the homestead
can be alienated only with the consent of both husband and wife.
The family Bible, school books, a lot in a burying-ground and $500
worth of personal property are likewise exempt to any person who
is entitled to a homestead exemption. A day's labour in mines and
in works for the reduction of ores is limited to eight hours except
in cases of emergency where life or property is in imminent danger.
The sale of intoxicating liquors is licensed only in incorporated cities
and towns.
Charities and Corrections. The state charitable and penal institu-
tions consist of the Wyoming General Hospital at Rock Springs, with
one branch at Sheridan and another branch at Casper ; the Big Horn
Hot Springs at Thermopolis, the Wyoming State Hospital for the
Insane at Evanston, the Wyoming Home for the Feeble- Minded and
Epileptic at Lander, the Wyoming Soldiers' and Sailors' Home
near Buffalo, and the State Penitentiary at Rawlins. The general
supervision and control of all these institutions is vested in the
Board of Charities and Reform, consisting of the governor, the
secretary of state, the treasurer, the auditor, and the superintendent of
public instruction; the same officers also constitute the Board of
Pardons. Convicts other than those for life are sentenced to the
penitentiary for a maximum and a minimum term, and when one has
served his minimum term the governor, under rules prescribed by the
Board of Pardons, may release him on parole, but he may be returned
to prison at any time upon the request of the Board of Pardons.
Education. The administration of the common school system is
vested in the state superintendent of public instruction, county
superintendents and district boards. Whenever 100 freeholders
request it, the county commissioners must submit to the voters of a
proposed high school district the question of establishing a high
school district, and each precinct giving a majority vote for it consti-
tutes a part of such a district forestablishingandmaintainingahigh
school. All children between seven and fourteen years of age must
attend a public, private or parochial school during the entire time
that the public school of their district is in session unless excused by
the district board. The common schools are maintained with the
proceeds of school taxes and an annual income from school funds
which are derived principally from lands. At the head of the educa-
tional system is the University of Wyoming (1886), at Laramie (q.v.) ;
it is governed by a board of trustees consisting of its president, the
superintendent of public instruction, and nine other members ap-
pointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate for a
term of six years. It is maintained with the proceeds from funds
derived principally from lands and with a university tax amounting
in 1909 to one-half mill on a dollar.
Finance. The principal sources of revenue are a general property
tax, a tax on the gross receipts of express companies, a tax on the
gross products of mines, an inheritance tax, a poll tax and the sale of
liquor licences. Railways, telegraph lines and mines are assessed by
the state board of equalization, which consists of the secretary of
state, the treasurer and the auditor. Other property is assessed by
the county assessors. The county commissioners constitute the
county board of equalization. A commissioner of taxation who is,
appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate for
a term of four years exercises a general supervision over all tax
officers and the boards of equalization. By a law enacted in 1909
county commissioners are forbidden to levy a tax which will yield
more than 10% in excess of that raised the preceding year. The
constitution limits the state tax for other than the support of educa-
tional and charitable institutions and the payment of the state debt
and the interest thereon to four mills on the dollar; the county tax
for other than the payment of the county debt and the interest
thereon to twelve mills on the dollar; the tax of an incorporated city
or town for other than the payment of its debt and the interest
thereon to eight mills on the dollar. The constitution also forbids
the creation of a state debt in excess of I % of the assessed value of
the taxable property in the state ; of a county debt in excess of 2 %
of the assessed value of the taxable property in the county ; or of a
municipal debt for any other purpose than obtaining a water supply
in excess of 2 %, unless for building sewerage, when a debt of 4 %
may be authorized. Wyoming entered the Union with a bonded
indebtedness of $320,000. This has been reduced as rapidly as the
bonds permit, and on the 3Oth of June 1910 the debt was only
$140,000.
History. Spanish historians have claimed that adventurers
from the Spanish settlements in the S. penetrated almost to the
Missouri river during the first half of the I7th century and even
formed settlements within the present limits of Wyoming,
but these stories are more than doubtful. The first white men
certainly known to have traversed the region were Sieur de la
Verendrye and his sons, who working down from Canada spent
a part of the year 1743-1744 examining the possibilities of the
fur trade. Apparently no further French explorations were made
from that direction, and the transfer of Canada from France to
Great Britain (1763) was followed by lessened interest in ex-
ploration. The expedition of Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark in 1804-1806 did not touch the region, but a discharged
member of the party, John Colter, in 1807 discovered the
Yellowstone Park region and then crossed the Rocky Mountains
to the head of Green river. Trappers began to cover the N.
portion about the same time, and in 1811 the overland party of
the Pacific Fur Company crossed the country on their way to
Astoria. In 1824 William H. Ashley with a considerable party
explored and trapped in the Sweetwater and Green river
valleys, and in 1826 wagons were driven from St Louis to Wind
river for the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. Captain B. L. E.
Bonneville was the first to cross the Rockies with wagons
(1832),* and two years later Fort Laramie, near the mouth of
the Laramie river, was established to control the fur trade of
the Arapahoes, Cheyennes and Sioux.
The United States exploring expedition, commanded by John
Charles Fremont, explored the Wind River Mountains and the
South Pass in 1842, under the guidance of Kit Carson. From
this time the favourite route to the Pacific led through Wyoming; 2
but of all the thousands who passed few or none settled per-
manently within the present limits of the state, partly because
of the aridity of the land and partly because of the
pronounced hostility of the Indians. For the latter reason
the National Congress on the igth of May 1846 authorized the
construction at intervals along the trail of military stations for
the protection of the emigrant trains, and Fort Kearny was
built (1848) and Fort Laramie was purchased (1849). The great
1 See Washington Irving, Adventures of Captain Bonneville (New
York, i860).
2 See Francis Parkman, The Oregon Trail (Boston, 1849).
WYOMING
877
Mormon migration passed along the trail in 1847-1840, and in
1853 fifty-five Mormons settled on Green river at the trading
post of James Bridger, which they purchased and named Fort
Supply. This S.W. corner of the present state was at that time
a part of Utah. With the approach of United States troops under
Albert Sidney Johnston in 1857, Fort Supply was abandoned, and
in the next year the Mormon settlers retired to Salt Lake City,
again leaving the region almost without permanent inhabitants.
The Indians saw with alarm the movement of so many whites
through their hunting grounds and became increasingly un-
friendly. By a treaty negotiated at Fort Laramie in 1851, the
Arapahoes, Sioux, Cheyennes and others agreed to confine
themselves within the territory bounded by 100 and 107 W.
longitude and 39 and 44 N. latitude; but, besides minor con-
flicts, a considerable portion of the garrison of Fort Laramie was
killed in 1854 and there was trouble for more than twenty years.
During the Civil War (1861-1865) the Indians were especially
bold as they realized that the Federal troops were needed else-
where. Meanwhile, there began a considerable migration to
Montana, and the protection of the N. of the trail demanded
the construction of posts, of which the most important were
Fort Reno, on the Powder river, and Fort Phil Kearny in the
Bighorn Mountains. In spite of the treaty allowing the
opening of the road, during a period of six months fifty-one
hostile demonstrations were made, and on the 2ist of December
1866 Captain W. J. Fetterman and seventy-eight men from
Fort Phil Kearny were ambushed and slain. Hostilities con-
tinued in 1867, but the troops were hampered on account of the
scarcity of cavalry. Congress in 1867 appointed a commission
to arrange a peace, but not until 1868 (zgth April, at Fort
Laramie) were any terms agreed upon. The posts on the Montana
trail were abandoned, and the Indians agreed to remove farther
E. and to cease attacking trains, not to oppose railway construc-
tion, &c. The territory N. of the Platte river and E. of the Big-
horn Mountains was to be reserved as an Indian hunting ground
and no white men were to settle on it without the consent of the
Indians. Gold was discovered on the Sweetwater river in 1867,
and a large inrush of population followed. This unorganized
territory E. of the Rocky Mountains was a part of Dakota, and in
January 1868 Carter (later Sweetwater) county was erected.
Farther E. Cheyenne was laid out by the Union Pacific Railroad
(July 1867), a city government was established in August,
newspapers began publication, and Laramie county was organized
before the arrival of the first railway train on the I3th of
November 1867. About six thousand persons spent the winter
in Cheyenne, and disorder was checked only by the organization
of a vigilance committee. Almost the same scenes followed
the laying off of Laramie in April 1868, when 400 lots were sold
during the first week and 500 habitations were erected within
a fortnight. Albany and Carbon counties were organized farther
W. in the same year.
A bill to organize the Territory of Wyoming had been intro-
duced into Congress in 1865, and in 1867 the voters of Laramie
county had chosen a delegate to Congress. He was not permitted
to take a seat, but his presence in Washington hastened action,
and on the 25th of July 1868 the act of Congress establishing a
Territory with the present boundaries was approved by President
Andrew Johnson. The portion of the Territory E. of the Rocky
Mountains was taken from Dakota and that W. from Utah and
Idaho, and included parts of the three great additions to the
original territory of the United States. That portion E. of the
mountains was a part of the Louisiana Purchase (1803), the W.
portion above 42 was a part of the Oregon country, and that S.
of that parallel came by the Mexican cession of 1848. The first
governor, John A. Campbell, was appointed in April 1869, and
the organization of the Territory was completed in May of the
same year. At the first election, on the 2nd of September 1869,
5266 votes were cast. The legislature established the seat of
government at Cheyenne, and granted full suffrage and the right
of holding office to women. The first great inrush of population,
following the discovery of gold and the opening of the rail-
way, brought many desperate characters, who were held in check
only by the stern, swift measures of frontier justice. After the
organization of the Territory, except for the appearance of
organized bands of highwaymen in 1877-1879, there was little
turbulence, in marked contrast with conditions in some of the
neighbouring Territories. Agriculture began in the narrow
but fertile river valleys, and stock-raising became an important
industry, as the native grasses are especially nutritious. The
history of the Territory was marked by few striking events other
than Indian troubles. The N.E. of the Territory, as has been
already said, had been set apart (1868) as a hunting ground for
the Sioux Indians, but the rumour of the discovery of gold in the
Black Hills and the Bighorn Mountains in 1874-1875 caused a
rush to the region which the military seemed powerless to prevent.
The resentful Indians resorted to war. After a long and arduous
contest in Wyoming, Montana and Dakota, which lasted from
1874 to 1879, and during which General George A. Custer (g.v.)
and his command were killed in 1876 on the Little Bighorn in
Montana, the Indians were thoroughly subdued and confined
to reservations. The settlers in Wyoming shared the general
antipathy to the Chinese, common to the western country.
On the 2nd of September 1885 the miners at Rock Springs
attacked about 400 Chinamen who had been brought by the
railway to work in the mines, killing about fifty of them and
driving the remainder from the district. Governor Warren
summoned Federal troops and prevented further destruction
of life and property.
The Territory increased in population and more rapidly in
wealth, owing chiefly to the large profits in cattle raising, though
this prosperity suffered a check during the severe winter of
1886-1887, when nearly three-fourths of the range cattle died
of exposure. Agitation for statehood increased, and on the 3oth pf
September 1889 a constitution was formed which was adopted by
the people in November of the same year. The Constitution, which
continued the Territorial provision of full suffrage for women,
met the approval of Congress, and on the loth of July 1890
Wyoming was formally admitted as a state. Since admission
the progress of the state has been steady. Extensive irrigation
projects have made available many thousand acres of fertile
land, and much more will be subjected to cultivation in the
future as the large ranges are broken up into smaller tracts.
In some sections a system of dry-farming, by which the scanty
rainfall is protected from evaporation by deep ploughing and
mulching the soil, has proved profitable.
The transition of the principal stock-raising industry from
large herds of cattle to small, and the utilization of the ranges for
sheep grazing almost exclusively covered a period of over twenty
years preceding 1910, during which time many conflicts occurred
between range cattle-owners and sheep flockmasters over the use
of the grazing grounds. The settler also, who selected his home-
stead covering watering places to which the range cattle formerly
had free access, came into conflict with the cattlemen. Some of
these small settlers owned no cattle, and subsisted by stealing
calves and unbranded cattle (mavericks) belonging to the range
cattlemen. In parts of the state it became impossible to get a
jury composed of these small squatters to convict anybody for
stealing or killing cattle, and so bad did this become that, in 1892,
certain cattlemen formed a small army of mounted men and in-
vaded the central part of the state with the avowed intention
of killing all the men generally considered to be stock thieves,
an episode known as the Johnson County Raid. This armed
body, consisting of over fifty men, surrounded a log cabin and shot
down two of the supposed cattle " rustlers," the latter defending
themselves bravely. The country round was roused and large
numbers of settlers and others turned out and besieged the
cattlemen, who had taken refuge in some ranch buildings. Their
case was becoming desperate when a troop of Federal cavalry
arrived, raised the siege, and took the cattlemen back to
Cheyenne as prisoners. They were subsequently held for
murder, but were finally released without trial. Since that time
experience has proved that the grazing ranges of the state are
better suited to sheep than cattle, the former being much more
profitable and better able to stand the cold on the open range.
8 7 8
WYOMING VALLEY
1869-1875
1875-1878
1878-1882
1882-1885
1885-1886
1886-1887
1887-1889
1889-1890
Republican
1890
1890-1892
Dem. -Populist 1892-1895
Republican 1895-1899
1899-1903
1903-1905
Democrat
1905-1911
1911-
While many cattlemen have been driven out of business by the
encroachments of sheep, the majority of the present flockmasters
were range cattle owners in the past and have changed to the
more profitable occupation. At the present time serious collisions
between sheep and cattle owners are rare. There are still many
cattle in the state, but they are divided up into small herds, no
longer depending upon the open range for a precarious sub-
sistence during the winter, but are sheltered and fed during
winter storms on the hay ranches. The breeds of cattle are
far superior now to the old range stock, so that it pays to take
care of them; many thousands are fed during the winter on
alfalfa hay. GOVERNORS OF WYOMING
Territorial.
John A. Campbell
John M. Thayer .
John W. Hoyt .
William Hale
Francis E. Warren
George W. Baxter (acting) .
Thomas Moonlight
Francis E. Warren
State.
Francis E. Warren
Amos W. Barber (acting) .
J. E. Osborne
W. A. Richards
De Forest Richards
Fenimore Chatterton * (acting)
Bryant B. Brooks
J. M. Carey
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. C. Beeler, Report to the Governor of Wyoming
by the State Geologist (Cheyenne, 1904), and " Geology and Mineral
Resources of Wyoming," pp. 113-118 of Rept. of Proc. Am. Mining
Cong., 7th Ann. Sess. (1905), a general account of the geology and
mineral resources of Wyoming; C. A. White, " Geology and Physio-
graphy of a portion of North-western Colorado and adjacent parts of
Utah and Wyoming," pp. 677-712 of 9th -Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol.
Survey, 1887-1888 (Washington, 1889); F. E. Mathes, "Glacial
Sculpture of Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming," pp. 167-190 of Pt. ii. of
2ist Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1899-1900 (Washington, 1900);
N. H. Darton, " Preliminary Description of the Geology and Water
Resources of the Southern Half of the Black Hills and adjoining
regions in South Dakota and Wyoming," pp. 489-599 of Pt. iv. of
2ist Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1899-1900 (Washington, 1901);
A. C. Spencer, " Mineral Resources of the Encampment Copper
Region, Wyoming," pp. 163-169, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. No. 213
(Washington, 1903) ; Mineral Resources of the United States published
annually by the U.S. Geological Survey; and material indexed in
the various bibliographies (e.g. Bulls. 301, 372 and 409) of the U.S.
Geological Survey; Aven Nelson, Report on the Flora of Wyoming,
Wyoming Experiment Station, Bull. 28 (1896); A. J. Henry,
Climatology of the United States, U.S. Weather Bureau Bull. Q
(Washington, 1906); for industries, population, &c., the Reports of
the U.S. Census generally; Department of Immigration of the state,
Some Views of Wyoming (1908) ; The State of Wyoming, published by
authority of the state legislature (1908) ; F. Chatterton, secretary of
state, The State of Wyoming (1904) ; and reports of the various state
officers mentioned in the text ; Revised Statutes of Wyoming (Laramie,
1899); Wyoming Irrigation Laws (1908); G. R. Hebard, Govern-
ment of Wyoming (San Francisco, 1904) ; H. H. Bancroft, Nevada,
Colorado and Wyoming (San Francisco, 1890), and Utah (San Fran-
cisco, 1889); E. R. Talbot, My People of the Plains (New York,
1906); W. M. Raine, Wyoming, a Story of the Outdoor West (New
York, 1909). An interesting picture of former conditions in Wyoming
is given in Owen Wister's novel, The Virginian (1902).
WYOMING VALLEY, a valley on the N. branch of the Susque-
hanna river, in Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Its
name is a corruption of a Delaware Indian word meaning " large
plains." The valley, properly speaking, is about 3! m. wide and
about 25 m. long, but the term is sometimes used historically in
a broader sense to include all of the territory in the N.E. of the
state once in dispute between Pennsylvania and Connecticut.
In Connecticut the Susquehanna Land Company was formed
in 1753 to colonize the valley, and the Delaware Land Company
was formed in 17 54 for the region immediately W.of the Delaware
river. The rights of the Six Nations to all this territory were
purchased at Albany, New York, by the Susquehanna Company
in 1754, but the work of colonization was delayed for a time by
the Seven Years' War. A few colonists sent out by the Susque-
hanna Company settled at Mill Creek near the present site of
1 In place of De Forest Richards, deceased.
Wilkes-Barre in 1763, but were (October isth) attacked and
driven away by the Indians. In December 1768 the company
divided a part of the valley into five townships of 5 sq. m. each,
granting to forty proprietors the choice of one of these on con-
dition that they should take possession of it by the ist of February
1769, and the other four townships to 200 settlers on condition
that they should follow by the ist of May. The first group
arrived on the 8th of February, the first division of the larger
body on the 1 2th of May, and the five original towns of Wilkes-
Barre (q.v.), Kingston (q.v.), Hanover, 2 Plymouth and Pittston
were soon founded.
In the meantime the Six Nations (in 1768) had repudiated
their sale of the region to the Susquehanna Company and had
sold it to the Penns; the Penns had erected here the manors of
Stoke and Sunbury, the government of Pennsylvania had com-
missioned Charles Stewart, Amos Ogden and others to lay out
these manors, and they had arrived and taken possession of
the block-house and huts at Mill Creek in January 1769. The
conflict which followed between the Pennsylvania and the Con-
necticut settlers is known as the first Pennamite- Yankee War.
Although defeated in the early stages of the conflict, the Yankees
or Connecticut settlers finally rallied in August 1771 and com-
pelled the Pennsylvanians to retreat, and the war terminated
with the defeat of Colonel William Plunket (1720-1791) and
about 700 Pennsylvanians by a force of 300 Yankees under
Colonel Zebulon Butler (1731-1795) in the battle of " Rampart
Rocks " on the 25th of December 1775. The General Assembly
of Connecticut, in January 1774, erected the valley into the town-
ship of Westmoreland and attached it to Litchfield county, and
in October 1776 the same body erected it into Westmoreland
county. On the 3rd of July 1778, while a considerable number
of the able-bodied men were absent in the Connecticut service,
a motley force of about 400 men and boys under Colonel Zebulon
Butler were attacked and defeated near Kingston in the " battle
of Wyoming" by about noo British, Provincial (Tory) and
Indian troops under Major John Butler, and nearly three-fourths
were killed or taken prisoners and subsequently massacred.
Thomas Campbell's poem, Gertrude of Wyoming (1809), is based
on this episode, various liberties being taken with the facts.
As the War of Independence came to a close the old trouble with
Pennsylvania was revived. A court of arbitration appointed
by the Continental Congress met at Trenton, New Jersey, in
1782, and on December 3oth gave a unanimous decision in
favour of Pennsylvania. The refusal of the Pennsylvania
government to confirm the private land titles of the settlers, and
the arbitrary conduct of a certain Alexander Patterson whom
they sent up to take charge of affairs, resulted in 1784 in the
outbreak of the second Pennamite- Yankee War. The Yankees
were dispossessed, but they took up arms and the government
of Pennsylvania despatched General John Armstrong with a
force of 400 men to aid Patterson. Armstrong induced both
parties to give up their arms with a promise of impartial justice
and protection, and as soon as the Yankees were defenceless he
made them prisoners. This treachery and the harsh treatment
by Patterson created a strong public opinion in favour of the
Yankees, and the government was compelled to adopt a milder
policy. Patterson was withdrawn, the disputed territory was
erected into the new county of Luzerne (1786), the land titles
were confirmed (1787), and Colonel Timothy Pickering (q.v.)
was commissioned to organize the new county and to effect a
reconciliation. But a few of the settlers under the lead of Colonel
John Franklin (1740-1831) attempted to form a separate state
government. Franklin was seized and imprisoned, under a
warrant from the State Supreme Court. As Pickering was held
responsible for Franklin's imprisonment, some of Franklin's
followers in retaliation kidnapped Pickering and carrying him into
the woods, tried in vain for nearly three weeks to get from him
a promise to intercede for Franklin's pardon. The trouble
was again revived by the repeal in 1790 of the confirming act
1 Several Scotch-Irish families from Lancaster county, Pennsyl-
vania, accepted Connecticut titles and settled at Hanover under
Captain Lazarus Stewart.
WYON WYTTENBACH
879
of 1787 and by a subsequent decision of the United States
Circuit Court, unfavourable to the Yankees, in the case of Van
Horn versus Dorrance. All of the claims were finally confirmed,
by a series of statutes passed in 1799, 1802 and 1807. Since 1808,
mainly through the development of its coal mines (see PITTSTON,
I 'A .), the valley has made remarkable progress both in wealth
and in population.
For a thorough study of the early history of Wyoming Valley see
O. J. Harvey, A History of Wilkes-Barre (3 vols., Wilkes-Barrd,
1909-1910); see also H. M. Hoyt, Brief of a Tide in the Seventeen
Townships in the County of Luzerne (Harrisburg, 1879).
WYON, THOMAS (1792-1817), English medallist, was born
at Birmingham. He was apprenticed to his father, the chief
engraver of the king's seals, and studied in the schools of the
Royal Academy, London, where he gained silver medals in both
the antique and the life class; he also obtained a gold medal
from the Society of Arts. He was appointed probationary
engraver to the mint in 1811, and soon after engraved his medal
commemorative of the peace, and his Manchester Pitt medal.
In 1815 he was appointed chief engraver to the mint. His
younger brother, Benjamin Wyon (1802-1858), his nephews,
Joseph Shepherd Wyon (1836-1873) and Alfred Benjamin
Wyon (1837-1884), and his cousin, William Wyon (1795-1851),
were also distinguished medallists.
WYSE, SIR THOMAS (1791-1862), Irish politician, belonged
to a family claiming descent from a Devon man, Andrew
Wyse, who is said to have crossed over to Ireland during the
reign of Henry II. and obtained lands near Waterford, of which
city thirty-three members of the family are said to have been
mayors or other municipal officers. From the jReformation
the family had been consistently attached to the Roman Catholic
Church. Thomas Wyse was educated at Stonyhurst College and
at Trinity College, Dublin, where he distinguished himself as a
scholar. After 1815 he passed some years in travel, visiting
Italy, Greece, Egypt and Palestine. In 1821 he married
Laetitia (d. 1872), daughter of Lucien Buonaparte, and after
residing for a time at Viterbo he returned to Ireland in 1825,
having by this time inherited the family estates. He now devoted
his great oratorical and other talents to forwarding the cause of
Roman Catholic emancipation, and his influence was specially
marked in his own county of Waterford, while his standing
among his associates was shown by his being chosen to write the
address to the people of England. In 1830, after the passing
of the Roman Catholic Relief Act, he was returned to parliament
for county Tipperary, and he attached himself to the Liberal
party and voted for the great measures of the reform era. But
he was specially anxious to secure some improvement in the
education of the Irish people, and some of his proposals were
accepted by Mr E. G. Stanley, afterwards i4th earl of Derby, and
the government. He was chairman of a committee which in-
quired into the condition of education in Ireland, and it was partly
owing to his efforts that provincial colleges were established at
Cork, Galway and Belfast. His work as an educational pioneer
also bore fruit in England, where the principles of state control
and inspection, for which he had fought, were adopted, and
where a training college for teachers at Battersea was established
on lines suggested by him. From 1835 to 1847 he was M.P. for
the city of Waterford and from 1839 to 1841 he was a lord of the
treasury; from 1846 to 1849 he was secretary to the board of
control, and in 1849 he was sent as British minister to Greece.
He was very successful in his diplomacy, and he showed a great
interest in the educational and other internal affairs of Greece. In
1857 he was made a K.C.B., and he died at Athens on the i6th
of April 1862. Wyse wrote Historical Sketch of the late Catholic
Association of Ireland (1829); An Excursion in the Peloponnesus
(1858, new ed. 1865); and Impressions of Greece (1871). His
two sons shared his literary tastes. They were Napoleon Alfred
Bonaparte Wyse (1822-1895); and William Charles Bonaparte
Wyse (1826-1892), a student of the dialect of Provence.
WYTTENBACH, DANIEL ALBERT (1746-1820), German-
Swiss classical scholar, was born at Bern, of a family whose
nobility and distinction he loved to recall. In particular, he was
proud of his descent from Thomas Wyttenbach, professor of
theology in Basel at the end of the isth and beginning of the
i6th century, who numbered the Reformer Zwingli and other
distinguished men among his pupils. Wyttenbach's own father
was also a theological professor of considerable note, first at
Bern, and then at Marburg. His removal to Marburg, which
took place in 1756, was partly due to old associations, for he
had studied there under the famous Christian Wolff, and em-
bodied the philosophical principles of his master in his own
theological teaching. Young Wyttenbach entered at the age of
fourteen the university of Marburg, and passed through a four
years' course there. His parents intended that he should become
a Lutheran pastor. The first two years were given up to general
education, principally to mathematics, " philology," philosophy
and history. The professor of mathematics, Spangenberg,
acquired great influence over young Wyttenbach. He is said to
have taught his subject with great clearness, and with equal
seriousness and piety, often referring to God as the supreme
mathematician, who had constructed all things by number,
measure and weight. " Philology " in the German universities
of that age meant Hebrew and Greek. These two languages
were generally handled by the same professor, and were taught
almost solely to theological students. Wyttenbach's university
course at Marburg was troubled about the middle of the time
by mental unrest, due to the fascination exercised over him by
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. The disorder was cured by Spang-
enberg. The principal study of the third year was metaphysics,
which took Wyttenbach entirely captive. The fourth and last
year was to be devoted to theology and Christian dogma.
Wyttenbach had hitherto submitted passively to his father's
wishes concerning his career, in the hope that some unexpected
occurrence might set him free. But he now turned away from
theological lectures, and privately devoted his time to the task
of deepening and extending his knowledge of Greek literature.
He possessed at the time, as he tells us, no more acquaintance
with Greek than his own pupils at a later time could acquire
from him during four months' study. He was almost entirely
without equipment beyond the bare texts of the authors. But
Wyttenbach was undaunted, and four years' persistent study
gave him a knowledge of Greek such as few Germans of that
time possessed. His love for philosophy carried him towards
the Greek philosophers, especially Plato. During this period
Ruhnken's notes on the Platonic lexicon of Timaeus fell into his
hands. Ruhnkcn was for him almost a superhuman being,
whom he worshipped day and night, and with whom he imagined
himself as holding converse in the spirit. When Wyttenbach
was twenty-two he determined to seek elsewhere the aids to
study which Marburg could not afford. His father, fully realizing
the strength of his son's pure passion for scholarship, permitted
and even advised him to seek Heyne at Gottingen. From this
teacher he received the utmost kindness and encouragement,
and he was urged by him to dedicate to Ruhnken the first-fruits
of his scholarships. Wyttenbach therefore set to work on some
notes to Julian, Eunapius and Aristaenetus, and Heyne wrote
to Ruhnken to bespeak his favourable consideration for the
work. Before it reached him Ruhnken wrote a kind letter to
Wyttenbach, which the recipient " read, re-read and kissed,"
and another on receipt of the tract, in which the great scholar
declared that he had not looked to find in Germany such know-
ledge of Greek, such power of criticism, and such mature judg-
ment, especially in one so young. By Heyne's advice, he
worked hard at Latin, which he knew far less thoroughly than
Greek, and we soon find Heyne praising his progress in Latin
style to both Ruhnken and Valckenaer. He now wrote to ask
their advice about his scheme of coming to the Netherlands
to follow the profession of a scholar. Ruhnken strongly exhorted
Wyttenbach to follow his own example, for he too had been
designed by his parents for the Christian ministry in Germany,
but had settled at Leiden on the invitation of Hemsterhuis.
Valckenaer's answer was to the same effect, but he added that
Wyttenbach's letter would have been pleasanter to him had
it been free from excessive compliments. These letters were
88o
WYVERN
forwarded to the elder Wyttenbach, with a strong recommendation
from Heyne. The old man had been himself in Leiden in his
youth, and entertained an admiration for the scholarship of the
Netherlands; so his consent was easily won. Young Wyttenbach
reached Leiden in 1770. A year was spent with great content-
ment, in learning the language of the people, in attending the
lectures of the great " duumviri " of Leiden, and in collating
MSS. of Plutarch. At the end of 1771 a professor was wanted
at Amsterdam for the College of the Remonstrants. By the
recommendation of Ruhnken, Wyttenbach obtained the chair,
which he filled with great success for eight years. His lectures
took a wide range. Those on Greek were repeated also to the
students of the university of Amsterdam (the " Athenaeum ").
In 1775 a visit was made to Paris, which was fruitful both of
new friendships and of progress in study. About this time, on
the advice of Ruhnken, Wyttenbach began the issue of his
Bibliotheca critica, which appeared at intervals for the next
thirty years. The methods of criticism employed were in the
main those established by Hemsterhuis, and carried on by
Valckenaer and Ruhnken, and the publication met with accept-
ance from the learned all over Europe. In 1777 the younger
Burmann (" Burmannus Secundus ") retired from his professor-
ship at the Athenaeum, and Wyttenbach hoped to succeed
him. When another received the appointment, he was sorely
discouraged. Only his regard for Ruhnken and for Dutch
freedom (in his own words " Ruhnkeni et Batavae libertatis
cogitatio ") kept him in Holland. For fear of losing him, the
authorities at Amsterdam nominated him in 1779 professor of
philosophy. In 1785 Toll, Burmann's successor, resigned, and
Wyttenbach was at once appointed to succeed him. His full
title was " professor of history and eloquence and Greek and
Latin literature." He had hardly got to work in his new office
when Valckenaer died, and he received a call to Leiden. Greatly
to Ruhnken's disappointment, he declined to abandon the
duties he had so recently undertaken. In 1 787 began the internal
commotions in Holland, afterwards to be aggravated by foreign
interference. Scarcely during the remaining thirty-three years
of Wyttenbach 's life was there a moment of peace in the land.
About this time two requests were made to him for an edition of
the Moralia of Plutarch, for which a recension of the tract
De sera numinis vindicta had marked him out in the eyes
of scholars. One request came from the famous " Societas
Bipontina," the other from the delegates of the Clarendon
Press at Oxford. Wyttenbach, influenced at once by the reputa-
tion of the university, and by the liberality of the Oxonians in
tendering him assistance of different kinds, declined the offer of
the Bipontine Society, very fortunately, since their press was
soon destroyed by the French. The fortunes of Wyttenbach's
edition curiously illustrate the text " habent sua fata libelli."
The first portion was safely conveyed to Oxford in 1794. Then
war broke out between Holland and Great Britain. Randolph,
Wyttenbach's Oxford correspondent, advised that the next
portion should be sent through the British ambassador at Ham-
burg, and the MS. was duly consigned to him " in a little chest
well protected by pitch." After sending Randolph a number
of 'letters without getting any answer, Wyttenbach in disgust
put all thought of the edition from him, but at last the missing
box was discovered in a forgotten corner at Hamburg, where it
had lain for two years and a half. The work was finally com-
pleted in 1805. Meanwhile Wyttenbach received invitations
from his native city Bern, and from Leiden, where vacancies
had been created by the refusal of professors to swear allegiance
to the new Dutch republic set up in 1795, to which Wyttenbach
had made submission. But 'be only left Amsterdam in 1799,
when on Ruhnken's death he succeeded him at Leiden. Even
then his chief object in removing was to facilitate an arrangement
by which the necessities of his old master's family might be
relieved. His removal came too late in life, and he was never
so happy at Leiden as he had been at Amsterdam. Before long
appeared the ever-delightful Life of David Ruhnken. Though
written in Latin, this biography deserves to rank high in the
modern literature" of its class. Of Wyttenbach's life at Leiden
there is little to tell. The continual changes in state affairs
greatly disorganized the universities of Holland, and Wyttenbach
had to work in face of much detraction; still, his success as a
teacher was very great. In 1805 he narrowly escaped with his
life from the great gunpowder explosion, which killed 150 people,
among them the Greek scholar Luzac, Wyttenbach's colleague
in the university. One of Wyttenbach's letters gives a vivid
account of the disaster. During the last years of his life he
suffered severely from illness and became nearly blind. After
the conclusion of his edition of Plutarch's Moralia in 1805, the
only important work he was able to publish was his well-known
edition of Plato's Phaedo. Many honours were conferred upon
him both at home and abroad, and in particular he was made a
member of the French Institute. Shortly before his death, he
obtained the licence of the king of Holland to marry his sister's
daughter, Johanna Gallien, who had for twenty years devoted
herself to him as housekeeper, secretary and aider in his studies.
The sole object of the marriage was to secure for her a better
provision after her husband's death, because as the widow of a
professor she would be entitled to a pension. Johanna Gallien
was a woman of remarkable culture and ability, and wrote works
held in great repute at that time. On the festival of the ter-
centenary of the foundation of the university of Marburg,
celebrated in 1827, the degree of doctor was conferred upon
her. Wyttenbach died of apoplexy in 1820, and he was buried
in the garden of his country house near Amsterdam, which stood,
as he noted, within sight of the dwellings of Descartes and
Boerhaave.
Although his work can hardly be set on the same level as that
of Hemsterhuis, Valckenaer and Ruhnken, yet he was a very eminent
exponent of the sound methods of criticism which they established.
These four men, more than any others after Bentley, laid the founda-
tions of modern Greek scholarship. The precise study of grammar,
syntax and style, and the careful criticism of texts by the light of the
best manuscript evidence, were upheld by these scholars in the
Netherlands when they were almost entirely neglected elsewhere on
the Continent, and were only pursued with partial success in England.
Wyttenbach may fairly be regarded as closing a great period in the
history of scholarship. He lived indeed to see the new birth of
German classical learning, but his work was done, and he was un-
affected by it. Wyttenbach's criticism was less rigorous, precise
and masterly, but perhaps more sensitive and sympathetic, than that
of his great predecessors in the Netherlands. In actual acquaintance
with the philosophical writings of the ancients, he has probably never
been surpassed. In character he was upright and simple-minded, but
shy and retiring, and often failed to make himself appreciated. His
life was not passed without strife, but his few friends were warmly
. attached to him, and his many pupils were for the most part his
enthusiastic admirers. Wyttenbach's biography was written in a
somewhat dry and lifeless manner by Mahne, one of his pupils, who
also published some of his letters. His Opuscula, other than those
published in the Bibliotheca critica, were collected in two volumes
(Leiden, 1823). (J. S. R.)
WYVERN, or WIVERN, the name of an heraldic monster, with
the forepart of a winged dragon and the hind part of a serpent or
lizard (see HERALDRY). The earlier spelling of the word was
wilier or wivere; O. Eng. wyvre; O. Fr. wivre, mod. givre. It
is a doublet of " viper," with an excrescent n, as in " bittern,"
M. Eng. bitore.
X XANTHONE
881
Xthe twenty-fourth letter of the English alphabet. Its
position and form are derived from the Latin alphabet,
which received them from the Western Greek alphabet.
The alphabet of the Western Greeks differed from the
Ionic, which is the Greek alphabet now in general use, by the
shape and position of X and of some other consonants. The
Ionic alphabet placed x () immediately after N and, in the
oldest records, in the form ^, from which the ordinary Greek
capital E was developed. The position and shape of this
symbol show clearly that it was taken from the Semitic Samekh,
which on the Moabite stone appears as ^=. Why the Greeks
attached this value to the symbol is not clear; in Semitic the
symbol indicates the ordinary s. Still less clear is the origin
of the form X> which in the Ionic alphabet stands for x (*
followed by a breath). In a very ancient alphabet on a small
vase found in 1882 at Formello near the ancient Veii in Etruria,
a symbol appears after N consisting of three horizontal and
three vertical lines, EB- From this it has been suggested that
both forms of the Greek * are derived, H by removing the
vertical lines, X in its earliest 'form -f" by removing the four
marginal lines. The Ionic symbol, however, corresponds closely
to the earliest Phoenician, so that this theory is not very plausible
for E, and there are various other possibilities for the develop-
ment of X (see ALPHABET). This symbol appears in the very
early Latin inscriptions found in the Roman Forum in 1899
as 7^. In its usual value as ks it is superfluous. In the Ionic
alphabet it was useful, because there it represented a single
sound, which before the invention of the symbol had to be
represented by kh. In the alphabet in use officially at Athens
before 403 B.C. x was written by x^ (khs). In English there is
an interesting variation of pronunciation in many words accord-
ing to the position of the accent: if the accent precedes, x is
pronounced ks; if it follows, x is pronounced gz: compare exit
(eksit) with exdct (egzact).
The symbol X was used both by the Romans and the Etruscans
for the numeral 10. Which borrowed from the other is uncertain,
but the Etruscans did not use X as part of their alphabet. X
with a horizontal line over it was used for 10,000, and when a
line on each side was added, |X|, for a million. (P. Gi.)
XANTHI (Turkish Eskije), a town of European Turkey in the
vilayet of Adrianople; situated on the right bank of the river
Eskije and at the S. foot of the Rhodope Mountains, 29 m.
W. of Gumuljina by the Constantinople-Salonica railway.
Pop. (1905) about 14,000, of whom the bulk are Turks and
Greeks in about equal proportions, and the remainder (about
4000) Armenians, Roman Catholics or Jews. There are re-
mains of a medieval citadel, and on the plain to the S. the ruins
of an ancient Greek town. Xanthi is built in the form of an
amphitheatre and possesses several mosques, churches and
monasteries, a theatre with a public garden, and a municipal
garden. A preparatory school for boys and girls was founded
and endowed by Mazzini. The town is chiefly notable for the
famous Yenidjfi tobacco.
XANTHIC ACID (xanthogenic acid), C 2 H 5 0-CS-SH, an organic
acid named from the Greek {forffc, yellow, in allusion to the
bright yellow colour of its copper salt. The salts of this
acid are formed by the action of carbon bisulphide on the
alcoholates, or on alcoholic solutions of the caustic alkalis.
They react with the alkyl iodides to form dialkyl esters of the
dithio-carbonic acid, which readily decompose into mercap-
tans and thiocarbamic esters on treatment with ammonia:
CjHsO-CS-SR^NH^CsHsO-CS-NHj+RrSH; with the alkali
alcoholates they give salts of the alkyl thiocarbonic acids:
CsH 6 0-CS-SR+CHjOK+H,0=CHiO-CO-SK+C5H 6 OH+R-SH.
Ethyl xanthic acid, CjH 6 OCS-SH, is obtained by the ac-
tion of dilute sulphuric acid on the potassium salt at o C.
(Zeise, Berz. Jahresb., 3, p. 83). It is a colourless oil which is
very unstable, decomposing at 25 C. into carbon bisulphide
and alcohol. The potassium salt crystallizes in colourless
needles and is formed by shaking carbon bisulphide with a
solution of caustic potash in absolute alcohol. On the addi-
tion of cupric sulphate to its aqueous solution it yields a yellow
precipitate of cupric xanthate. Potassium xanthate is used
in indigo printing and also as an antidote for phylloxera.
Tschugaeff (Ber., 1899, 32, p. 3332) has used the xanthic ester
formation for the preparation of various terpenes, the methyl
ester when distilled under slightly diminished pressure decom-
posing, in the sense of the equation, CnH2n-rO.CS-SCH 3 =
C n H2n_2+COS-r-CH 3 SH. According to the author molecular
change in the hydrocarbon is prevented, since no acid agent is used.
XANTHIPPE, the wife of Socrates (q.v.). Her name has
become proverbial in the sense of a nagging, quarrelsome woman.
Attempts have been made to show that she has been maligned,
notably by E. Zeller (" Zur Ehrenrettung der Xanthippe," in
his VorlrSge und Abhandlungen, i., 1875).
XANTHONE (dibenzo-^y-pyrone, or diphenylene ketone oxide),
CisHgOz, in organic chemistry, a heterocyclic compound con-
taining the ring system shown below. It is obtained by the
oxidation of xanthene (methylene diphenylene oxide) with
chromic acid; by the action of phosphorus oxychloride on
disodium sah'cylate; by heating 2-2'-dioxybenzophenone with
concentrated sulphuric acid; by distilling fluoran with lime;
by the oxidation of xanthydrol (R. Meyer, Ber., 1893, 26,
p. 1277); by boiling diazotized 2-2'-diaminobenzophenone with
water (Heyl., Ber., 1898, 31, p. 3034); by heating salol with
concentrated sulphuric acid (C. Graebe, Ann., 1889, 254,
p. 280), and by heating potassium-ortho-chlorobenzoate with
sodium phenolate and a small quantity of copper powder to
180-190 C. (F. Ullmann, Ber., 1905, 38, pp. 729, 2120, 2211). It
crystallizes in needles which melt at 173-174 and boil
at 340-350 C., and are volatile in steam. Its solution in
concentrated sulphuric acid is of a yellow colour and
shows a marked blue fluorescence. The carbonyl group is
not ketonic in character since it yields neither an oxime nor
hydrazone. When fused with caustic potash it yields phenol
and salicylic acid. Mild reducing agents convert it into
xanthydrol, the group >CO becoming >CH-OH, whilst a strong
reducing agent like hydriodic acid converts it into xanthene,
the group > CO becoming >CH 2 . Phosphorus pentasulphide at
140-150 C. converts it into xanthion by transformation of >CO
to >CS (R. Meyer, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 2580), and this latter com-
pound condenses with hydroxylamine to form xanthone oxime.
All four mono-hydroxyxanthones are known, and are prepared by
heating salicylic acid with either resorcin, pyrpcatechin or hydro-
quinone; they are yellow crystalline solids, which act as dyestuffs.
The i'7-dihydroxyxanthone, known as euxanthone, is prepared by
heating euxanthic acid with hydrochloric acid or by heating hydro-
quinone carboxylic acid with /3-resorcylic acid and acetic anhydride
(S. Kostanecki, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 3983; C. Graebe, Ann., .1880,
254, p. 298). It is also obtained from Indian yellow (Graebe, ibid^.),
formed in the urine of cows fed on mango leaves. It crystallizes in
yellow needles which sublime readily. On fusion with caustic
potash it decomposes with formationof tetrahydroxy-benzophenone,
which then breaks up into resorcin and hydrpquinone. The
isomeric I '6-dihydroxyxanthone, isoeuxanthone, is formed when
/S-resorcylic acid is heated with acetic anhydride. Gentisein, or
i 3'7-trihydroxyxanthone, is found in the form of its methyl ether
(gentisin) in gentian root; it is obtained synthetically by condensing
phloroglucin with hydroquinone carboxylic acid.
Xanthene, CisHiyO, may be synthesized by condensing phenol
with ortho-cresol in the presence ^of aluminium chloride. Its
tetramethyl-diamino derivative, which is formed by condensing
formaldehyde with dimethyl-meta-aminophenol and subsequent
elimination of water from the resulting diphenyl methane derivative,
is the leuco base of pyronine, into which it passes by oxidation.
8
,/\/ co \/\ a
Oxo/0
5 4
Xanthone.
Pyronine.
882
XANTHUS XAVIER
XANTHUS (mod. Guniik), an ancient city of Lycia, on the
river Xanthus (Eshen Choi) about 8 m. above its mouth. It
was besieged by the Persian general Harpagus (546 B.C.), when
the acropolis was burned and all the inhabitants perished
(Herod, i. 176). The city was afterwards rebuilt; and in 42 B.C.
it was besieged by the Romans under M. Junius Brutus.
It was taken by storm and set on fire, and the inhabitants
perished in the flames. The ruins lie on a plateau, high above
the left bank of the river. The nearest port is Kalamaki,
whence a tedious ride of three to four hours round the edge
of the great marsh of the Eshen Chai brings the traveller to
Xanthus. The whole plan of the city with its walls and gates
can be discerned. The well-preserved theatre is remarkable
for a break in the curve of its auditorium, which has been con-
structed so as not to interfere with a sarcophagus on a pedestal
and with the " Harpy Monument " which still stands to its full
height, robbed of the reliefs of its parapet (now in the British
Museum). In front of the theatre stands the famous stele of
Xanthus inscribed on all four sides in Lycian and Greek. Be-
hind the theatre is a terrace on which probably the temple of
either the Xanthian Apollo or Sarpedon stood. The best of the
tombs the " Payava Tomb," the " Nereid Monument," the
" lopic Monument " and the " Lion Tomb " are in the British
Museum, as the result of Sir Chas. Fellows's expedition; only
their bases can be seen on the site. A fine triple gateway,
much polygonal masonry, and the walls of the acropolis are the
other objects of most interest.
See O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, Reisen in Lykien utid Karien
(1884). (D. G. H.)
XAVIER, FRANCISCO DE (1506-1552), Jesuit missionary
and saint, commonly known in English as St Francis Xavier
and also called the " Apostle of the Indies." He was the
youngest son of Juan de Jasso, privy councillor to Jean d'Albret,
king of Navarre, and his wife, Maria de Azpilcueta y Xavier, sole
heiress of two noble Navarrese families. He was born at his
mother's castle of Xavier or Xavero, at the foot of the Pyrenees
and close to the little town of Sanguesa, on the 7th of April 1506,
according to a family register, though his earlier biographers
fix his birth in 1497. Following a Spanish custom of the
time, which left the surname of either parent optional with
children, he was called after his mother; the best authorities
write " Francisco de Xavier " (Lat. Xaverius) rather than
" Francisco Xavier," as Xavier is originally a place-name. In
1524 he went to the university of Paris, where he entered the
College of St Barbara, then the headquarters of the Spanish
and Portuguese students, and in 1528 was appointed lecturer
in Aristotelian philosophy at the College de Beauvais. In
1530 he took his degree as master of arts. He and the Savoyard
Pierre Lefevre, who shared his lodging, had already, in 1529,
made the acquaintance of Ignatius of Loyola like Xavier a
native of the Spanish Basque country. Ignatius succeeded,
though in Xavier's case after some opposition, in gaining their
sympathy for his missionary schemes (see LOYOLA, IGNATIUS or) ;
and they were among the company of seven persons, including
Loyola himself, who took the original Jesuit vows on the isth
of August 1534. They continued in Paris for two years longer;
but on November isth, 1536, they started for Italy, to concert
with Ignatius plans for converting the Moslems of Palestine. In
January 1537 they arrived in Venice. As some months must
elapse before they could sail for Palestine, Ignatius determined
that the time should be spent partly in hospital work at Venice
and later in the journey to Rome. Accordingly, Xavier devoted
himself for nine weeks to the hospital for incurables, and then
set out with eight companions for Rome, where Pope Paul III.
sanctioned their enterprise. Returning to Venice, Xavier was
ordained priest on Midsummer Day 1537; but the outbreak
of war between Venice and Turkey put an end to the Palestine
expedition, and the companions dispersed for a twelvemonth's
home mission work in the Italian cities. Nicolas Bobadilla
and Xavier betook themselves first to Monselice and thence
to Bologna, where they remained till summoned to Rome by
Ignatius at the close of 1538.
Ignatius retained Xavier at Rome until 1541 as secretary
to the Society of Jesus (see JESUITS for the events of the period
1538-41). Meanwhile John III., king of Portugal, had re-
solved on sending a mission to his Indian dominions, and had
applied through his envoy Pedro Mascarenhas to the pope for six
Jesuits. Ignatius could spare but two, and chose Bobadilla
and a Portuguese named Simao Rodrigues for the purpose.
Rodrigues set out at once for Lisbon to confer with the king,
who ultimately decided to retain him in Portugal. Bobadilla,
sent for to Rome, arrived there just before Mascarenhas was about
to depart, but fell too ill to respond to the call made on him.
Hereupon Ignatius, on March 15th, 1540, told Xavier to leave
Rome the next day with Mascarenhas, in order to join Rodrigues
in the Indian mission. Xavier complied, merely waiting long
enough to obtain the pope's benediction, and set out for Lisbon,
where he was presented to the king, and soon won his entire
confidence, attested notably by procuring for him from the
pope four briefs, one of them appointing him papal nuncio in
the Indies. On April 7th, 1541, he sailed from Lisbon with
Martini Alfonso de Sousa, governor designate of India, and
lived amongst the common sailors, ministering to their religious
and temporal needs, especially during an outbreak of scurvy.
After five months' voyage the ship reached Mozambique, where
the captain resolved to winter, and Xavier was prostrated with
a severe attack of fever. When the voyage was resumed, the
ship touched at Malindi and Sokotra, and reached Goa on
May 6th, 1542. Exhibiting his brief to D. Joao d' Albuquerque,
bishop of Goa, he asked his permission to officiate in the diocese,
and at once began walking through the streets ringing a small
bell, and telling all to come, and send their children and servants,
to the " Christian doctrine " or catechetical instruction in the
principal church. He spent five months in Goa, and then
turned his attention to the " Fishery Coast," where he had
heard that the Paravas, a tribe engaged in the pearl fishery,
had relapsed into heathenism after having professed Christianity.
He laboured assiduously amongst them for fifteen months, and
at the end of 1 543 returned to Goa.
At Travancore he is said to have founded no fewer than forty-
five Christian settlements. It is to be noted that his own letters
contain, both at this time and later on, express disproof of
that miraculous gift of tongues with which he was credited even
in his lifetime, and which is attributed to him in the Breviary
office for his festival. Not only was he obliged to employ
interpreters, but he relates that in their absence he was com-
pelled to use signs only.
He sent a missionary to the isle of Manaar, and himself visited
Ceylon and Mailapur (Meliapur), the traditional tomb of St
Thomas the apostle, which he reached in April 1544, remaining
there four months. At Malacca, where he arrived on September
25th, 1545, he remained another four months, but had compara-
tively little success. While in Malacca he urged King John III. of
Portugal to set up the Inquisition in Goa to repress Judaism, but
the tribunal was not set up until 1 560. After visiting Amboyna,
the Moluccas and other isles of the Malay archipelago, he
returned to Malacca in July 1547, and found three Jesuit
recruits from Europe awaiting him. About this time an attack
upon the city was made by the Achinese fleet, under the raja
of Pedir in Sumatra; and Xavier's early biographers relate a
dramatic story of how he roused the governor to action. This
story is open to grave suspicion, as, apart from the miracles
recorded, there are wide discrepancies between the secular
Portuguese histories and the narratives written or inspired
by Jesuit chroniclers of the I7th century.
While in Malacca Xavier met one Yajiro, a Japanese exile
(known to the biographies as Anger, Angero pr Anjiro), who
fired him with zeal for the conversion of Japan. But he
first revisited India and then, returning to Malacca, took ship
for Japan, accompanied by Yajiro, now known as Paul of the
Holy Faith. They reached Kagoshima on the isth of August
1549, and remained in Japan until the 2oth of November 1551.
(See JAPAN, viii.) On board the " Santa Cruz," the vessel
in which he returned from Japan to Malacca, Xavier discussed
XENIA XENOCRATES
883
with Diogo Pereira, the captain, a project for a missionary
journey to China. He devised the plan of persuading the
viceroy of Portuguese India to despatch an embassy to China,
in whose train he might enter, despite the law which then ex-
cluded foreigners from that empire. He reached Goa in February
1552, and obtained from the viceroy consent to the plan of a
Chinese embassy and to the nomination of Pereira as envoy.
Xavier left India on the 2Sth of April 1552 for Malacca, intending
there to meet Pereira and to re-embark on the "Santa Cruz."
The story of his detention by the governor (officially styled
captain) of Malacca a son of Vasco da Gama named Alvaro
de Ataide or Athayde is told with many picturesque details
by F. M. Pinto and some of the Jesuit biographers, who have
pilloried Ataide as actuated solely by malice and self-interest.
Ataide appears to have objected not so much to the mission as
to the rank assigned to Pereira, whom he regarded as unfit for
the office of envoy. The right to send a ship to trade with China
was one for which large sums were paid, and Pereira, as com-
mander of the expedition, would enjoy commercial privileges
which Ataide had, ex officio, the power to grant or withhold. It
seems doubtful if the governor exceeded his legal right in re-
fusing to allow Pereira to proceed; 1 in this attitude he remained
firm even when Xavier, if the Jesuit biographers may be
trusted, exhibited the brief by which he held the rank of papal
nuncio, and threatened Ataide with excommunication. On
Xavier's personal liberty no restraint was placed. He embarked
without Pereira on July i6th, 1552. After a short stay at
Singapore, whence he despatched several letters to India and
Europe, the ship at the end of August 1532 reached Chang-
chuen-shan (St John Island) off the coast of Kwang-tung,
which served as port and rendezvous for Europeans, not then
admitted to visit the Chinese mainland.
Xavier was seized with fever soon after his arrival, and was
delayed by the failure of the interpreter he had engaged, as well
as by the reluctance of the Portuguese to attempt the voyage
to Canton for the purpose of landing him. He had arranged
for his passage in a Chinese junk, when he was again attacked
by fever, and died on December 2nd, or, according to some
authorities, November 27th, 1552. He was buried close to
the cabin in which he had died, but his body was later transferred
to Malacca, and thence to Goa, where it still lies in a magnificent
shrine (see J. N. da Fonseca, An Historical and Archaeological
Sketch of Goa, Bombay, 1878). He was beatified by Paul V.
in 1619 and canonized by Gregory XV. in 1621.
In appearance Xavier was neither Spanish nor Basque. He
had blue or grey eyes, and fair hair and beard, which turned
white through the hardships he endured in Japan. That he
was of short stature is proved by the length of the coffin in
which his body is still preserved, less than 5 ft. i in. (Fonseca,
op. cil. p. 296). Many miracles have been ascribed to him;
an official list of these, said to have been attested by eye-
witnesses, was drawn up by the auditors of the Rota when the
processes for his canonization were formed, and is preserved
in manuscript in the Vatican library. The contention that
Xavier should be regarded as the greatest of Christian mis-
sionaries since the first century A.D. rests upon more tangible
evidence. His Jesuit biographers attribute to him the con-
version of more than 700,000 persons in less than ten years;
and though these figures are absurd, the work which Xavier
accomplished was enormous. He inaugurated new missionary
enterprises from Hormuz to Japan and the Malay Archipelago,
leaving an organized Christian community wherever he preached;
he directed by correspondence the ecclesiastical policy of
John III. and his viceroy in India; he established and con-
trolled the Society of Jesus in the East. Himself an ascetic
and a mystic, to whom things spiritual were more real than
the visible world, he had the strong common sense which
1 See R. S. Whiteway, Rise of the Portuguese Power in India
(London, 1898), appendix A. The question is complicated by the
fact that the Sixth Decade of Diogo do Couto, the best contemporary
historian of these events, was suppressed by the censor in its original
form, and the extant version was revised by an ecclesiastical editor.
distinguished the other Spanish mystics, St Theresa, Luis
de Leon or Raimon Lull. This quality is nowhere better
exemplified than in his letters to Caspar Baertz (Barzaeus),
the Flemish Jesuit whom he sent to Hormuz, or in his sugges-
tions for the establishment of a Portuguese staple in Japan.
Supreme as an organizer, he seems also to have had a singularly
attractive personality, which won him the friendship even of
the pirates and bravos with whom he was forced to consort
on his voyages. Modern critics of his work note that he made
no attempt to understand the oriental religions which he
attacked, and censure him for invoking the aid of the Inquisi-
tion and sanctioning persecution of the Nestorians in Malabar.
He strove, with a success disastrous to the Portuguese empire,
to convert the government in Goa into a proselytizing agency.
Throughout his life he remained in close touch with Ignatius of
Loyola, who is said to have selected Xavier as his own successor
at the head of the Society of Jesus. Within a few weeks of
Xavier's death, indeed, Ignatius sent letters recalling him to
Europe with that end in view.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Many of the authorities on which the biographies
of Xavier have been based are untrustworthy, notably the Pere-
zrinac,am of F. M. Pinto (?..), which minutely describes certain
incidents of his life in the Far East (especially in Japan and Malacca).
Xavier's extant letters, supplemented by a few other 16th-century
documents, outweigh all other evidence. It is perhaps noteworthy
that Xavier himself never mentions Pinto; but the omission may be
explained by the numerous gaps in his correspondence. A critical
text of the letters, with notes, bibliography and a life in Spanish,
will be found in Monumenta Xaveriana ex Autographis vel ex Anti-
quioribus Exemplis collecta, vol. i. (Madrid, 1899-1000), included in
Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu. For translations, The Life and
Letters of St Francis Xavier, by H. Coleridge, S.J. (2 vols., London,
1872), is useful, though the historical commentary has little value.
There are numerous older and uncritical biographies by members of
the Society; best and earliest are De vita Francisca Xaverii . . .
libri sex, by O. Torsellino (Tursellinus) (Antwerp, 1596; English by
T. F., The Admirable Life of St Francis Xavier, Paris, 1632) ; and
Historia da Vida do Padre Francisco de Xavier, &c., by Joio Lucena
(Lisbon, 1600). Later works by the Jesuits Bartoli, Maffei, de
Sousa, Poussines, Menchacha, L&m Pages and others owe much to
Torsellino and Lucena, but also incorporate many traditions which
can no longer be verified. St Francois de Xavier, sa vie el ses
lettres, by J. M. Cros, S.J. (2 vols., Toulouse, 1900), embodies the
results of long research. The Missionary Life of St Francis Xavier,
by the Rev. H. Venn, prebendary of St Paul's cathedral, London
(London, 1862), is polemical, but contains an interesting map of
Xavier's journeys. For a non-partisan account of Xavier's work in
the East, see K. G. Jayne, Vasco da Gama and his Successors, chapters
25-32 (London, 1910); and Otis Gary, A History of Christianity in
Japan (2 vols., London, 1909). (K. G. J.)
XENIA, a city and the county-seat of Greene county, Ohio,
U.S.A., in the township of Xenia, about 3 m. E. of the Little
Miami river, and about 55 m. S.W. of Columbus and about
65 m. N.E. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) 8696, of whom 410
were foreign-born ; (1910 census) 8706. Xenia is served
by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania System) rail-
ways, and by interurban electric lines to Springfield and
Dayton. It is the seat of the Ohio Soldiers' and Sailors' Orphans'
Home and of the Xenia Theological Seminary (United Presby-
terian; founded in 1794 at Service, Pa., and united in 1874 with
the Theological Seminary of the North-West, founded in 1839
at Oxford, Ohio). About 3 m. N.E., at Wilberforce, is Wilber-
force University (co-educational; opened in 1856 and reorganized
in 1863), conducted by the African Methodist Episcopal Church.
The public buildings of Xenia include a public library, the county
court-house and the municipal building. Xenia is situated in
a fine farming and stock-raising region, and among its manu-
factures are cordage and twine, boots and shoes, carriages and
machinery- The township was first settled about 1797. Xenia
was laid out as a village in 1803, was incorporated as a town
in 1808 and was chartered as a city in 1870.
XENOCRATES, of Chalcedon, Greek philosopher, scholarch or
rector of the Academy from 339 to 314 B.C., was bom in 396.
Removing to Athens in early youth, he became the pupil of
the Socratic Aeschines, but presently joined himself to Plato,
whom he attended to Sicily in 361. Upon his master's death
884
XENOPHANES
(347 B.C.), in company with Aristotle he paid a visit to Hermias
at Atarneus. In 339, Aristotle being then in Macedonia,
Xenocrates succeeded Speusippus in the presidency of the
school, defeating his competitors Menedemus and Heracleides
by a few votes. On three occasions he was member of an
Athenian legation, once to Philip, twice to Antipater. Soon
after the death of Demosthenes in 322, resenting the Macedonian
influence then dominant at Athens, Xenocrates declined the
citizenship offered to him at the instance of Phocion, and,
being unable to pay the tax levied upon resident aliens, was,
it is said, sold, or on the point of being sold, into slavery. He
died in 314, and was succeeded as scholarch by Polemon, whom
he had reclaimed from a life of profligacy. Besides Polemon,
the statesman Phocion, Chaeron, tyrant of Pellene, the Academic
Grantor, the Stoic Zeno and Epicurus are alleged to have
frequented his lectures.
Xenocrates's earnestness and strength of character won for him
universal respect, and stories were remembered in proof of his purity,
integrity and benevolence. Wanting in quickness of apprehension
and in native grace, he made up for these deficiencies by a con-
scientious love of truth and an untiring industry. Less original
than Speusippus, he adhered more closely to the letter of Platonic
doctrine, and is accounted the typical representative of the Old
Academy. In his writings, which were numerous, he seems to have
covered nearly the whole of the Academic programme; but meta-
physics and ethics were the subjects which principally engaged
his thoughts. He is said to have invented, or at least to have
emphasized, the tripartition of philosophy under the heads of
physic, dialectic and ethic.
In his ontology Xenocrates built upon Plato's foundations: that
is to say, with Plato he postulated ideas or numbers to be the causes
of nature's organic products, and derived these ideas or numbers
from unity (which is active) and plurality (which is passive). But
he put upon this fundamental dogma a new interpretation. Accord-
ing to Plato, existence is mind pluralized: mind as a unity, i.e.
universal mind, apprehends its own plurality as eternal, immutable,
intelligible ideas; and mind as a plurality, i.e. particular mind,
perceives its own plurality as transitory, mutable, sensible things.
The idea, inasmuch as it is a law of universal mind, which in par-
ticular minds produces aggregates of sensations called things, is a
"determinant" (iripas lxv), and as such is styled "quantity"
(iroa6v ) and perhaps " number" (ipiB/jL/a) ; but^the ideal numbers
are distinct from arithmetical numbers. Xenocrates, however,
failing, as it would seem, to grasp the idealism which was the meta-
physical foundation of Plato's theory of natural kinds, took for his
principles arithmetical unity and plurality, and accordingly identi-
fied ideal numbers with arithmetical numbers. In thus reverting
to the crudities of certain Pythagoreans, he laid himself open to the
criticisms of Aristotle, who, in his Metaphysics, recognizing amongst
contemporary Platonists three principal groups (i) those who, like
Plato, distinguished mathematical and ideal numbers; (2) those
who, like Xenocrates, identified them; and (3) those who, like
Speusippus, postulated mathematical numbers only has much to
say against the Xenocratean interpretation of the theory, and in
particular points out that, if the ideas are numbers made up of
arithmetical units, they not only cease to be principles, but also
become subject to arithmetical operations. Xenocrates's theory of
inorganic nature was substantially identical with the theory of the
elements which is propounded in the Timaeus, 53 C seq. Neverthe-
less, holding that every dimension has a principle of its own, he
rejected the derivation of the elemental solids pyramid, octahedron,
icosahedron and cube from triangular surfaces, and in so far ap-
proximated to atomism. Moreover, to the tetrad of simple elements
viz. fire, air, water, earth he added the ire/nrTri ovaia, ether.
His cosmology, which is drawn almost entirely from the Timaeus,
and, as he intimated, is not to be regarded as a cosmogony, should
be studied in connexion with his psychology. Soul is a self-moving;
number, derived from the two fundamental principles, unity (tv)
and plurality (5uAj iApioros), whence it obtains its powers of rest
and motion. It is incorporeal, and may exist apart from body.
The irrational soul, as well as the rational soul, is immortal. The
universe, the heavenly bodies, man, animals, and presumably
plants, are each of them endowed with a soul, which is more or less
perfect according to the position which it occupies in the descending
scale of creation. With this Platonjc philosopheme Xenocrates
combines the current theology, identifying the universe and the
heavenly bodies with the greater gods, and reserving a place be-
tween them and mortals for the lesser divinities.
If the extant authorities are to be trusted, Xenocrates recog-
nized three grades of cognition, each appropriated to a region of its
own viz. knowledge, opinion and sensation, having for their
respective objects supra-celestials or ideas, celestials or stars, and
infra-celestials or things. Even here the mythological tendency
displays itself voijri, do^atrra and alffffrp-A [being severally
committed to Atropos, Lachesis and Clotho. Of Xenocrates's
logic we know only that with Plato he distinguished TO a.a.6' ai>r6 and
ri> Trptis TI, rejecting the Aristotelian list of ten categories as a super-
fluity.
Valuing philosophy chiefly for its influence upon conduct, Xeno-
crates bestowed especial attention upon ethics. The catalogue of
his works shows that he had written largely upon this subject ; but
the indications of doctrine which have survived are scanty, and
may be summed up in a few sentences. Things are goods, ills or
neutrals. Goods are of three sorts mental, bodily, external; but
of all goods virtue is incomparably the greatest. Happiness con-
sists in the possession of virtue, and consequently is independent of
personal and extraneous advantages. The virtuous man is pure,
not in act only, but also in heart. To the attainment of virtue the
best help is philosophy; for the philosopher does of his own accord
what others do under the compulsion of law. Speculative wisdom
and practical wisdom are to be distinguished. Meagre as these
statements are, they [suffice to show that in ethics, as elsewhere,
Xenocrates worked upon Platonic lines.
Xenocrates was not in any sense a great thinker. His meta-
physic was a travesty rather than a reproduction of that of his
master. His ethic had little which was distinctive. But his
austere life and commanding personality made him an effective
teacher, and his influence, kept alive by his pupils Polemon and
Crates, ceased only when Arcesilaus, the founder of the so-called
Second Academy, gave a new direction to the studies of the school.
See D. Van de Wynpersse, De Xenocrate Chalcedonio (Leiden,
1822); C. A. Brandis, Gesch. d. griechisch-rdmischen Philosophic
(Berlin, 1853), ii. 2, I ; E. Zeller, Philosophic d. Griechen (Leipzig,
1875), ii. i ; F. W. A. Mullach, Fragmenta Philosophorum Grae-
corum (Paris, 1881), iii. (H. JA.)
XENOPHANES of Colophon, the reputed founder of the
Eleatic school of philosophy, is supposed to have been born in
the third or fourth decade of the 6th century B.C. An exile from
his Ionian home, he resided for a time in Sicily, at Zancle and
at Catana, and afterwards established himself in southern
Italy, at Elea, a Phocaean colony founded in the sixty-first
Olympiad (536-533). In one of the extant fragments he speaks
of himself as having begun his wanderings sixty-seven years
before, when he was twenty-five years of age, so that he was not
less than ninety-two when he died. His teaching found expres-
sion in poems, which he recited rhapsodically in the course of
his travels. In the more considerable of the elegiac fragments
which have survived, he ridicules the doctrine of the migration
of souls (xviii.), asserts the claims of wisdom against the pre-
valent athleticism, which seemed to him to conduce neither to
the good government of states nor to their material prosperity
(xix), reprobates the introduction of Lydian luxury into
Colophon (xx.), and recommends the reasonable enjoyment of
social pleasures (xxi.) . Of the epic fragments, the more important
are those in which he attacks the " anthropomorphic and an-
thropopathic polytheism " of his contemporaries. According
to Aristotle, " the first of Eleatic Unitarians was not careful
to say whether the unity which he postulated was finite or in-
finite, but, contemplating the whole firmament, declared that
the One is God." Whether Xenophanes was a monotheist,
whose assertion of the unity of God suggested to Parmenides
the doctrine of the unity of Being, or a pantheist, whose
assertion of the unity of God was also a declaration of
the unity of Being, so that he anticipated Parmenides in .
other words, whether Xenophanes's teaching was purely theo-
logical or had also a philosophical significance is a question
about which authorities have differed and will probably
continue to differ. The silence of the extant fragments,
which have not one word about the unity of Being, favours the
one view; the voice of antiquity, which proclaims Xenophanes
the founder of Eleaticism, has been thought to favour the other.
Of Xenophanes's utterances about (i) God, (2) the world, (3)
knowledge, the following survive: (i) " There is one God, greatest
among gods and men, neither in shape nor in thought like unto
mortals. . . . He is all sight, all mind, all ear (i.e. not a composite
organism). . . . Without an effort ruleth he all things by thought.
. . . He abideth ever in the same place motionless, and it be-
fitteth him not to wander hither and thither. . . . Yet men imagine
gods to be born, and to have raiment and voice and body, like
themselves. . . . Even so the gods of the Ethiopians are swarthy
and flat-nosed, the gods of the Thracians are fair-haired and blue-
eyed. . . . Even so Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods
all that is a shame and a reproach among men theft, adultery,
deceit and other lawless acts. . . . Even so oxen, lions and horses,
if they had hands wherewith to grave images, would fashion gods
XENOPHON
885
after their own shapes and make them bodies like to their own.
(2) From earth all things are and to earth all things return. . . .
From earth and water come all of us. ... The sea is the well
whence water springeth. . . . Here at our feet is the end of the
earth where it reacheth unto air, but, below, its foundations are
without end. . . . The rainbow, which men call Iris, is a cloud
that is purple and red and yellow. (3) No man hath certainly
known, nor shall certainly know, that which he saith about the
gods and about all things; for, be that which he saith ever so
perfect, yet doth he not know it; all things are matters of opinion.
. . . That which I say is opinion like unto truth. . . . The_ gods
did not reveal all things to mortals in the beginning; long is the
search ere man findeth that which is better."
There is very little secondary evidence to record. " The Eleatic
school," says the Stranger in Plato's Sophist, 242 D, "^beginning
with Xenophanes, and even earlier, starts from the principle of the
unity of all things." Aristotle, in a passage already cited, Meta-
physics, AS, speaks of Xenophanes asthe first of the Eleatic Unitarians,
adding that his monotheism was reached through the contempla-
tion of the oiipaifa. Theophrastus (in Simplicius s Ad Physica, 5)
sums up Xenophanes's teaching in the propositions, " The All is
One and the One is God." Timon (in Sext. Empir. Pyrrh. i. 224),
ignoring Xenophanes's theology, makes him resolve all things into
one and the same unity. The demonstrations of the unity and the
attributes of God, with which the treatise De Melissa, Xenophane et
Gorria (now no longer ascribed to Aristotle or Theophrastus) ac-
credits Xenophanes, are plainly framed on the model of Eleatic proofs
of the unity and the attributes of the Ent, and must therefore be
set aside. The epitomators of a later time add nothing to the
testimonies already enumerated.
Thus, whereas in his writings, so far as they are known to us,
Xenophanes appears as a theologian protesting against an anthro-
pomorphic polytheism, the ancients seem to have regarded him as a
philosopher asserting the unity of Being. How are we to under-
stand these conflicting, though not irreconcilable, testimonies?
According to Zeller, the discrepancy is only apparent. The Greek
gods being the powers of nature personified, pantheism lay nearer
to hand than monotheism. Xenophanes was, then, a pantheist.
Accordingly his assertion of the unity of God was at the same time
a declaration of the unity of Being, and in virtue of this declaration
he is entitled to rank as the founder of Eleaticism, inasmuch as
the philosophy of Parmenides was his forerunner's pantheism
divested of its theistic element. This reconciliation of the internal
and the external evidence, countenanced as it is by Theophrastus,
one of the best informed of the ancient historians, and approved
by Zeller, one of the most learned of the modern critics, is more
than plausible; but there is something to be said on the contrary
part. In the first place, it may be doubted whether to a Greek of
the 6th century pantheism was nearer than monotheism. Secondly,
the external e_vidence does not bear examination. The Platonic
testimony, if it proved anything, would prove too much, namely,
that the doctrine of the unity of Being originated, not with Xeno-
phanes, but before him; and, in fact, the passage from the Sophist
no more proves that Plato attributed to Xenophanes the philosophy
of Parmenides than Theaetetus, 160 D, proves that Plato attributed
to Homer the philosophy of Heraclitus. Again, Aristotle's de-
scription of Xenophanes as the first of the Eleatic Unitarians does not
necessarily imply that the unity asserted by Xenophanes was the
unity asserted by Parmenides; the phrase, " contemplating the
firmament, he declared that the One is God," leaves it doubtful
whether Aristotle attributed to Xenophanes any philosophical
theory whatever; and the epithet iypouirrtpm discourages the belief
that Aristotle regarded Xenophanes as the author of a new and
important departure. Thirdly, when Xenophanes himself says
that theories about gods and about things are not knowledge, that
his own utterances are not verities but verisimilitudes, and that,
so far from learning things by revelation, man must laboriously
seek a better opinion, he plainly renounces the "disinterested
pursuit of truth. If then he was indifferent to the problem, he
can hardly be credited with the Eleatic solution. In the judgment
of the present writer, Xenophanes was neither a philosopher nor a
sceptic. He was not a philosopher, for he despaired of knowledge.
He was not a sceptic, if by "sceptic" is meant the misologist
whose despair of knowledge is the consequence of disappointed
endeavour, for he had never hoped. Rather he was a theologian
who arrived at his theory of the unity of the Supreme Being by
criticism of the contemporary mythology. But, while he thus
stood aloof from philosophy, Xenophanes influenced its development
in two ways: first, his theological henism led the way to the philo-
sophical henism of Parmenides and Zeno; secondly, his assertion
that so-called knowledge was in reality no more than opinion
taught his successors to distinguish knowledge and opinion, and to
assign to each a separate province.
Apart from the old controversy about Xenophanes's relations to
philosophy, doubts have recently arisen about his theological
position. In fragments i., xiv., xyi., xxi., &c., he recognizes, thinks
Freudenthal, a plurality of deities; whence it is inferred that,
besides the One God, most high, perfect, eternal, who, as immanent
intelligent cause, unifies the plurality of things, there were also
lesser divinities, who govern portions of the universe, being them-
selves eternal parts of the one all-embracing Godhead. Whilst
it can hardly be allowed that Xenophanes, so far from deny-
ing, actually affirms a plurality of gods, it must be conceded to
Freudenthal that Xenophanes's polemic was directed against the
anthropomorphic tendencies and the mythological details of the con-
temporary polytheism rather than against the polytheistic principle,
and that, apart from the treatise De Melissa Xenophane et Gorgia,
now generally discredited, there is no direct evidence to prove him a
consistent monotheist. The wisdom of Xenophanes, like the wisdom
of the Hebrew Preacher, showed itself, not in a theory of the uni-
verse, but in a sorrowful recognition of the nothingness of things
and the futility of endeavour. His theism was a declaration not
so much of the greatness of God as rather of the littleness of man.
His cosmology was an assertion not so much of the immutability
of the One as rather of the mutability of the Many. Like Socrates,
he was .not a philosopher, and did not pretend to be one; but, as
the reasoned scepticism of Socrates cleared the way for the philo-
sophy of Plato, so did Xenophanes's " abnormis sapientia" for the
philosophy of Parmenides.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. S. Karsten. Xenophanis Colephonii Carminum
Reliquiae (Brussels, 1830); F. W. A. Mullach, Frag. Phil. Graec.
(Pans, 1860), i. 99-108; G. Teichmuller, Studien z. Gesch. d. Begri/e
(Berlin, 1874), pp. 589-623; E. Zeller, Phil. d. Griechen (Leipzig,
1877), i. 486-507; J. Freudenthal, Ueber d. Theologie d. Xeno-
phanes (Breslau, 1886), and " Zur Lehre d. Xen.," in Archiv f.
Gesch. d. Philos. (Berlin, 1888), i. 322-347; H. Diels, Poetarum
Philosophorum Fragmenta (Berlin, 1901); and Die Fragmente dir
Vorsokratiker (Berlin, 1906). For fuller bibliography, including the
controversy about the De Melissa Xen. el Gorgia, see Ueberweg,
Grundriss d. Gesch. d. Philos. (Berlin, 1871), i. 17. See also PAR-
MENIDES. (H. JA.)
XENOPHON, Greek historian and philosophical essayist, the
son of Gryllus, was born at Athens about 430 B.C. 1 He
belonged to an equestrian family of the deme of Erchia. It
may be inferred from passages in the Hellenica that he fought
at Arginusae (406), and that he was present at the return of
Alcibiades (408), the trial of the Generals and the overthrow
of the Thirty. Early in life he came under the influence of
Socrates, but an active life had more attraction for him. In
401, being invited by his friend Proxenus to join the expedition
of the younger Cyrus against his brother, Artaxerxes II. of
Persia, he at once accepted the offer. It held out the prospect
of riches and honour, while he was little likely to find favour
in democratic Athens, where the knights were regarded with
suspicion as having supported the Thirty. At the suggestion
of Socrates, Xenophon went to Delphi to consult the oracle;
but his mind was already made up, and he at once proceeded to
Sardis, the place of rendezvous. Of the expedition itself he
has given a full and detailed account in his Anabasis, or the
" Up-Country March." After the battle of Cunaxa (401), in
which Cyrus lost his life, the officers in command of the Greeks
were treacherously murdered by the Persian satrap Tissaphernes,
with whom they were negotiating an armistice with a view to
a safe return. The army was now in the heart of an unknown
country, more than a thousand miles from home and in the
presence of a troublesome enemy. It was decided to march
northwards up the Tigris valley and make for the shores of the
Euxine, on which there were several Greek colonies. Xenophon
became the leading spirit of the army ; he was elected an officer,
and he it was who mainly directed the retreat. Part of the
way lay through the wilds of Kurdistan, where they had to
encounter the harassing guerrilla attacks of savage mountain
tribes, and part through the highlands of Armenia and Georgia.
After a five months' march they reached Trapezus [Trebizond]
on the Euxine (February 400), where a tendency to demoraliza-
tion began to show itself, and even Xenophon almost lost his
control over the soldiery. At Cotyora he aspired to found a
new colony; but the idea, not being unanimously accepted, was
abandoned, and ultimately Xenophon with his Greeks arrived
at Chrysopolis [Scutari] on the Bosporus, opposite Byzantium.
After a brief period of service under a Thracian chief, Seuthes,
they were finally incorporated in a Lacedaemonian army which
1 As the description of the Ionian campaign of Thrasyllus in 410
(Hellenica, i. 2) is clearly derived from Xenophon's own reminiscences,
he must have taken part in this campaign, and cannot therefore have
been less than twenty years of age at the time.
886
XENOPHON
had crossed over into Asia to wage war against the Persian
satraps Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus. Xenophon, who
accompanied them, captured a wealthy Persian nobleman, with
his family, near Pergamum, and the ransom paid for his recovery
secured Xenophon a competency for life.
On his return to Greece Xenophon served under Agesilaus,
king of Sparta, at that time the chief power in the Greek world.
With his native Athens and its general policy and institutions
he was not in sympathy. At Coroneia (394) he fought with the
Spartans against the Athenians and Thebans, for which his
fellow-citizens decreed his banishment. The Spartans provided
a home for him at Scillus in Elis, about two miles from Olympia;
there he settled down to indulge his tastes for sport and literature.
After Sparta's crushing defeat at Leuctra (371), Xenophon was
driven from his home by the people of Elis. Meantime Sparta
and Athens had become allies, and the Athenians repealed the
decree which had condemned him to exile. There is, however,
no evidence that he ever returned to his native city. According
to Diogenes Laertius, he made his home at Corinth. The year
of his death is not known; ail that can be said is that it was
later than 355, the date of his work on the Revenues of Athens.
The Anabasis (composed at Scillus between 379 and 371) is a work
of singular interest, and is brightly and pleasantly written. Xeno-
phon, like Caesar, tells the story in the third person, and there is a
straightforward manliness about the style, with a distinct flavour of
a cheerful lightheartedness, which at once enlists our sympathies.
His description of places and of relative distances is very minute
and painstaking. The researches of modern travellers attest his
general accuracy. It is expressly stated by Plutarch and Diogenes
Laertius that the Anabasis was the work of Xenophon, and the
evidence from style is conclusive. The allusion (Hellenica, iii. i, 2)
to IThemistogenes of Syracuse as the author shows that Xenophon
published it under an assumed name.
The Cyropaedia, a political and philosophical romance, which
describes the boyhood and training of Cyrus, hardly answers to its
name, being for the most part an account of the beginnings of the
Persian empire and of the victorious career of Cyrus its founder.
The Cyropaedia contains in fact the author's own ideas of training
and education, as derived conjointly from the teachings of Socrates
and his favourite Spartan institutions. It was said to have been
written in opposition to the Republic of Plato. A distinct moral
purpose, to which literal truth is sacrificed, runs through the work.
For instance, Cyrus is represented as dying peacefully in his bed,
whereas, according to Herodotus, he fell in a campaign against the
Massagetae.
The Hellenica written at Corinth, after 362, is the only contem-
porary account of the period covered by it (411-362) that has come
down to us. It consists of two distinct parts; books i. and ii.,
which are intended to form a continuation of the work of Thucydides,
and bring the history down to the fall of the Thirty, and books
iii.-vii., the Hellenica proper, which deal with the period from ^01
to 362, and give the history of the Spartan and Theban hegemonies,
down to the death of Epaminondas. There is, however, no ground
for the view that these two parts were written and published as
separate works. There is probably no justification for the charge of
deliberate falsification. It must be admitted, however, that he had
strong political prejudices, and that these prejudices have influenced
his narrative. He was a partisan of the reactionary movement
which triumphed after the fall of Athens; Sparta is his ideal, and
Agesilaus his hero. At the same time, he was a believer in a divine
overruling providence. He is compelled, therefore, to see in the
fall of Sparta the punishment inflicted by heaven on the treacherous
policy which had prompted the seizure of the Cadmea and the raid
of Sphodrias. Hardly less serious defects than his political bias
are his omissions, his want of the sense of proportion and his failure
to grasp the meaning of historical criticism. The most that can be
said in his favour is that as a witness he is at once honest and well-
informed. For this period of Greek history he is, at any rate, an
indispensable witness.
The Memorabilia, or " Recollections of Socrates," in four books,
was written to defend Socrates against the charges of impiety and
corrupting the youth, repeated after his death by the sophist
Polycrates. The work is not a literary masterpiece; it lacks
coherence and unity, and the picture it gives of Socrates fails to do
him justice. Still, as far as it goes, it no doubt faithfully describes
the philosopher's manner of life and style of conversation. It was
the moral and practical side of Socrates's teaching which most
interested Xenophon; into his abstruse metaphysical speculations
he seems to have made no attempt to enter : for these indeed he had
neither taste nor genius. Moving within a limited range of ideas, he
doubtless gives us " considerably less than the real Socrates, while
Plato gives us something more." It is probable that the work in
its present form is an abridgment.
Xenophon has left several minor works, some of which are very
interesting and give an insight into the home life of the Greeks.
The Oeconomics (to some extent a continuation ef the Memorabilia,
and sometimes regarded as the fifth book of the same) deals with the
management of the house and of the farm, and presents a pleasant
and amusing picture of the Greek wife and of her home duties.
There are some good practical remarks on matrimony and on the
respective duties of husband and wife. The treatise, which is in the
form of a dialogue between Socrates and a certain Ischomachus,
was translated into Latin by Cicero.
Intheessayson horsemanship (Hippike) and hunting (Cynegeticus),
Xenophon deals with matters of which he had a thorough practical
knowledge. In the first he gives rules how to choose a horse, and
then tells how it is to be groomed and ridden and generally managed.
The Cynegeticus deals chiefly with the hare, though the author
speaks also of boar-hunting and describes the hounds, tells how they
are to be bred and trained, and gives specimens of suitable names
for them. On all this he writes with the zest of an enthusiastic
sportsman, and he observes that those nations whose upper classes
have a taste for field-sports will be most likely to be successful in
war. Both treatises may still be read with interest by the modern
reader.
The Hipparchicus explains the duties of a cavalry officer; it is
not, according to our ideas, a very scientific treatise, showing that
the art of war was but very imperfectly developed and that the
military operations of the Greeks were on a somewhat petty scale.
He dwells at some length on the moral qualities which go to the
making of a good cavalry officer, and hints very plainly that there
must be strict attention to religious duties.
The Agesilaus is a eulogy of the Spartan king, who had two special
merits in Xenophon's eyes: he was a rigid disciplinarian, and he
was particularly attentive to all religious observances. We have
a summary of his virtues rather than a good and striking picture
of the man himself.
The Hiero works out the line of thought indicated in the story
of the Sword of Damocles. It is a protest against the notion that
the " tyrant "_ is a man to be envied, as having more abundant
means of happiness than a private person. This is one of the most
pleasing of his minor works; it is cast into the form of a dialogue
between Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, and the lyric poet Simonides.
The Symposium, or " Banquet," to some extent the complement
of the Memorabilia, is a brilliant little dialogue in which Socrates
is the prominent figure. He is represented as " improving the
occasion," which is that of a lively Athenian supper-party, at which
there is much drinking, with flute-playing, and a dancing-girl from
Syracuse, who amuses the guests with the feats of a professional
conjuror. Socrates's table-talk runs through a variety of topics,
and winds up with a philosophical disquisition on the superiority
of true heavenly love to its earthly or sensual counterfeit, and with
an earnest exhortation to one of the party, who had just won a
victory in the public games, to lead a noble life and do his duty to
his country.
There are also two short essays, attributed to him, on the political
constitution of Sparta and Athens, written with a decided bias in
favour of the former, which he praises without attempting to criticize.
Sparta seems to have presented to Xenophon the best conceivable
mixture of monarchy and aristocracy. The second is certainly not
by Xenophon, but was probably written by a member of the oli-
garchical party shortly after the beginning of the Pelpponnesian War.
In the essay on the Revenues of Athens (written in 355) he offers
suggestions for making Athens less dependent on tribute received
from its allies. Above all, he would have Athens use its influence
for the maintenance of peace in the Greek world and for the settle-
ment of questions by diplomacy, the temple at Delphi being for
this purpose an independent centre and supplying a divine sanction.
The Apology, Socrates's defence before his judges, is rather a
feeble production, and in the general opinion of modern critics is
not a genuine work of Xenophon, but belongs to a much later period.
Xenophon was a man of great personal beauty and considerable
intellectual gifts; but he was of too practical a nature to take an
interest in abstruse philosophical speculation. His dislike of the
democracy of Athens induced such lack of patriotism that he even
fought on the side of Sparta against his own country. In religious
matters he was narrow minded, a believer in the efficacy of sacrifice
and in the prophetic art. His plain and simple style, which at
times becomes wearisome, was greatly admired and procured him
many imitators.
The editions of Xenophon's works, both complete and of separate
portions, are very numerous, especially of the Anabasis; only a
selection can be given here. Editio princeps (1516, incomplete);
J. G. Schneider (1790-1849); G. Sauppe (1865-66); L. Dindorf
(1875); E. C. Marchant (1900- , in the Clarendon Press Scrip-
torum Classicorum Bibliotheca). ANABASIS: R. Kiihner (1852);
J. F. Macmichael (1883); F. Vollbrecht (1887); A. Pretor (r888);
C. W. Kriiger and W. Pokel (1888) ; W. W. Goodwin and J. W. White
(i.-iv., 1894). CYROPAEDIA: G. M. Gorham (1870); L. Breiten-
bach (1875); A. Goodwin (vi.-viii., 1880); F. Hertlcin and W.
Nitsche (1886); H. A. Holden (1887-90). HELLENICA: L. Breiten-
bach (1874-84); R. Buchsenschutz (1880-91); J. I. Manatt
XERXES X-RAY TREATMENT
887
(i_iv 1888); L. D. Dowdall (i., ii., 1890). MEMORABILIA:
P Frost (1867); A. R. Clucr (1880); R. Kuhner (1882); L. Breiten-
bach (1889); J Marshall (1890). OECONOMICUS: H. A. Ho den
(,895); C Graux and A. Jacob (1886). HIERO: H A. Holden
AGESILAUS: R. VV. Taylor (1880); O. Guthlmg (1888).
RESP LACEDAEM.: G. Pierleoni (1905). RESP. ATHENIENSIUM:
A KirchU (1874): E. Belot (1880); H. Muller and Strubmg
(1880). CYNEGETICUS: G. Pierleon. (1902). HIPHKB: Tom-
masini (1902). REDITUS ATHEN.: A. Zurborg (1876). bCR
\ I N- RA L. Dindorf (1888). There is a good English translation
of the complete works by H. G. Dakyns (1890-94 . and of the
Art of Horsemanship by M. H. Morgan (U.S.A., 1890). Of general
works bearing on the subject may be mentioned: G. bauppe,
SXS Xenophonteus (,869); A. cVoiset, X, son earache etson
talent (1873); Roquette, De Xenophontis Vita (1884); I. Ha
mann, Anilecta Xenophontea (1887) and Analecla Xenophontea
JVwa (1889); C. Joi-1. Der echte und der Xenophonteische Socrates
1892) ; Lange, X., sein Leben, seine Geistesart und seine Werke
IQOO See also GREECE: Ancient History, "Authorities,
and works quoted; J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909);
M \ires History of Greek Literature and Grant s monograph m BiacR-
wood's Ancient Classics for English Readers may be read with
advantage. Bibliographies in Engelmann-Preuss, BtUiotheca
Scriptorum Classicorum (i., 1880) and in C. Bursian's Jahresbericht
(c., 1900) by E. Richter. (E. M. W.; J. H. *
XERXES (the Greek form of the Pers. Khshayarsha; Old
Testament Ahasverus, Akhashveroshi.e. Ahasuerus (q.v.)
with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for v, instead of
Akhshavarsh; in Aramaic inscriptions and papyri from Egypt
the name is written Khshai'arsh), the name of two Persian kings
of the Achaemenid dynasty.
i. XERXES I., son of Darius I. and Atossa, the daughter
Cyrus the Great, and therefore appointed successor to his father
in preference to his eldest half-brothers, who were born before
Darius had become king (Herod, vii. 2 f.). After his accession
in October 485 B.C. he suppressed the revolt in Egypt which
had broken out in 486, appointed his brother Achaemenes as
satrap and " brought Egypt under a much heavier yoke than
it had been before " (Herod, vii. 7) His predecessors, especially
Darius, had not been successful in their attempts to conciliate
the ancient civilizations. This probably was the reason why
Xerxes in 484 abolished the " kingdom of Babel " and took
away the golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands
of which the legitimate king of Babel had to seize on the first
day of each year, and killed the priest who tried to hinder him. 1
Therefore Xerxes does not bear the title of " King of Babel '
in the Babylonian documents dated from his reign, but " King
of Persia and Media," or simply " King of countries " (i.e. of the
world). This proceeding led to two rebellions, probably in 484
and 479; in the Babylonian documents occur the names of two
ephemeral kings, Shamash-irba and Tarziya, who belong to this
time. One of these rebellions was suppressed by Megabyzus,
son of Zopyrus, the satrap whom the Babylonians had slain. 2
Darius had left to his son the task of punishing the Greeks
for their interference in the Ionian rebellion and the victory of
Marathon. From 483 Xerxes prepared his expedition with
great care: a channel was dug through the isthmus of the
peninsula of Mount Athos; provisions were stored in the
stations on the road through Thrace; two bridges were thrown
across the Hellespont. Xerxes concluded an alliance with
Carthage, and thus deprived Greece of the support of the power-
ful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum. Many smaller
Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians
(" Medized "), especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos. A large
fleet and a numerous army were gathered. In the spring of
480 Xerxes set out from Sardis. At first Xerxes was victorious
everywhere. The Greek fleet was beaten at Artemisium,
Thermopylae stormed, Athens conquered, the Greeks driven
back to their last line of defence at the Isthmus of Corinth and
in the Bay of Salamis. But Xerxes was induced by the astute
message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of
Halicarnassus) to attack the Greek fleet under unfavourable
1 Herod, i. 183, by Ctesias changed into a plundering of the tomb
of Belitanas or Belus: cf. Aelian, Var. Hist. 13. 3: Anstobulus
ap. Arrian vii. 17, 2, and Strabo xvi. p. 7? r .
1 Ctesias, Pers. 22 ; his legendary .listory is transferred by
Herodotus, iii. 150 ff., to the former rebellion against Darius.
conditions, instead of sending a part of his ships to the Pelopon-
nesus and awaiting the dissolution t>f the Greek armament. 1
The battle of Salamis (28th of September 480) decided the war
(see SALAMIS). Having lost his communication by sea with
Asia, Xerxes was forced to retire to Sardis; the army which
he left in Greece under Mardonius was in 479 beaten at Plataea
(q.v.). The defeat of the Persians at Mycale roused the Greek
cities of Asia.
Of the later years of Xerxes little is known. He sent out
Sataspes to attempt the circumnavigation of Africa (Herod,
iv. 143), but the victory of the Greeks threw the empire into a
state of languid torpor, from which it could not rise again.
The king himself became involved in intrigues of the harem
(cf. Herod, ix. 108 ff. compare the late Jewish novel of
Esther, in which a remembrance of the true character of the
king is retained) and was much dependent upon courtiers
and eunuchs. He left inscriptions at Persepolis, where he
added a new palace to that of Darius, at Van in Armenia, and
on Mount Elvend near Ecbatana; in these texts he merely
copies the words of his father. In 465 he was murdered by his
vizier Artabanus (q.v.), who raised Artaxerxes I. to the throne.
2. Xerxes II., son and successor of Artaxerxes I., was
assassinated in 424 after a reign of forty-five days by his brother
Secydianus or Sogdianus, who in his turn was murdered by
Darius II. (q.v.).
See Ctesias, Pers. 44; Diod. xii., 64, 71, and the chronographers;
neither of the two ephemeral kings is mentioned in the canon of
Ptolemy nor in the dates of Babylonian contracts of this time.
The name XERXES was also borne by a king of Armenia, killed
about 212 B.C. by Antiochus the Great (Polyb. viii. 25; Johannes
Antiochenus, p. 53; his name occurs on copper coins); and by
a son of Mithradates the Great of Pontus (Appian, Mithr. 108,
II7 ). (En. M.)
XIPHILINUS, JOANNES, epitomator of Dio Cassius, lived
at Constantinople during the latter half of the nth century A.D.
He was a monk and the nephew of the patriarch of Con-
stantinople of the same name, a well-known preacher (Migne,
Patrologia Graeca, cxx.). The epitome (ecXo^oI) of Dio was
prepared by order of Michael Parapinaees (1071-1078), but is
unfortunately incomplete. It comprises books 36-80, the period
included being from the times of Pompey and Caesar down to
Alexander Severus. In book 70 the reign of Antoninus Pius
and the early years of Marcus Aurelius appear to have been
missing in his copy, while in books 78 and 79 a mutilated original
must have been used. Xiphilinus divided the work into
sections, each containing the life of an emperor. He omitted
the name of the consuls and sometimes altered or emended the
original. The epitome is valuable as preserving the chief inci-
dents of the period for which the authority of Dio is wanting.
See H. Reimar's edition of Dio Cassius, ii.; J. Melber's Dio
in Teubner series; C. Wachsmuth, Einleitun$ in das Stadium der
alien Geschichte (1895); W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen
Litteratur (1898).
X-RAY TREATMENT. The X rays (see R5NTGEN RAYS) are
now used extensively in medical work for purposes of treatment.
They have been found tc be valuable in many forms of skin
disease, more particularly in those of a chronic character.
They have a favourable influence upon glandular tumours, as
for example in enlargements of the lymphatic glands, of the
spleen and of the thyroid gland. They give useful palliative
effects in certain forms of malignant disease, although it is not
yet certain that any permanent cures of cancerous conditions
have been obtained by their use. In the disease known as
rodent ulcer, which is a process of destructive ulceration, and
to that extent presents features allied to cancer, there is no
doubt of the efficacy of X-ray treatment for bringing about a
complete cure in the majority of cases, provided that the disease
has not advanced too deeply into the tissues.
See G. B. Grundy, Great Persian War (1901), and in criticism
W. W. Tarn, " The Fleet of Xerxes," in Journal of Hellenic Studies
(1908), 202-34; also Macan's notes on Herod, iv.-vi. (1895), and
authorities for PLATAEA, SALAMIS.
888
X-RAY TREATMENT
The idea of using X rays in the treatment of disease arose
from the recognition of the injurious effects which followed
the prolonged applicatipn of the rays for diagnostic purposes.
It fell to the lot of many early workers with X rays to notice
the production of an inflammation of the skin, or a falling out of
the hair over parts which had been subjected to X rays, and
Leopold Freund, of Vienna, has stated that his first attempts
to utilize X rays in treatment were made in 1896 to cure a hairy
mole and were prompted by what he had read of such occur-
rences. A definite action of the rays upon the skin having been
observed, their employment in the treatment of skin diseases
followed as a natural corollary. Amongst the earliest investi-
gators of the possible therapeutic effects of X rays the names of
Schiff, Freund, Kienbock, Holtzknecht, Sjogren and Stenbeck
may be mentioned. In Great Britain Sir Malcolm Morris,
E. Dore and J. H. Sequeira were amongst the earliest investi-
gators.
For operating successfully with an agent capable of producing
decidedly harmful effects when given in large doses it is neces-
sary to have some method of measurement, and the need for
this quickly became apparent when X rays were used for treat-
ment. The results of X-ray photography had already shown
that the tubes employed were capable of emitting radiations
of very varying powers of penetration, and that the tubes were
by no means constant in this respect; and the question whether
highly penetrating rays or rays of feeble penetration were to be
preferred for therapeutic use became the subject of much
discussion. It is now recognized that the rays which act upon
the tissues are those which are absorbed by the tissues, and
consequently the softer or less penetrating rays are now regarded
as those to be used in treatment. So too the problem of
measuring the quantity of rays emitted by a tube during a
given time began to call for a solution, if that were in any
way possible. In 1901 Benoist designed an apparatus by
which the quality of the rays emitted by a tube at any moment
could be accurately determined, and in 1902 Holtzknecht brought
out the first quantitative device. It was called a chromo-
radiometer, and it enabled the dose administered to a patient to
be observed, and recorded for future guidance. Holtzknecht
also drew up a scale of units by means of which the indications
of his apparatus could be interpreted. The units of Holtz-
knecht are still used to express the dosage of X rays, though
his apparatus has been superseded. Holtzknecht's method of
measurement consisted in observing the change of colour in
certain pastilles when exposed to X rays, and his apparatus
consisted of a scale of tints, and a number of pastilles of a
yellow tint which acquired a green colour during exposure.
The composition of these was kept a secret, but analysis revealed
in them the presence of potassium sulphate combined with
celluloid or gelatine. The pastilles were laid upon the surface
under treatment, and their change of colour was compared at
intervals with the scale of standard tints.
It was next thought that under suitable conditions the
measurement of the current passing through the X-ray tube
might serve as a guide to the quantity of X rays emitted by
the tube, but, although this is the case to a certain extent,
the method of quantity measurement which is now employed
almost universally in X-ray treatment is that devised by
Sabouraud and Noir6, and used with signal success by them in
an enormous number of cases of ringworm, in which disease
measurement of dose is of the most critical importance, for
the following reason. The cure of ringworm by X rays requires
that all the hair of the affected region shall be caused to fall
out, but, nevertheless, it is necessary for obvious reasons that
the hair should grow again after the disease has disappeared.
Now if the dose of X rays be insufficient the hair does not come
out and no cure results, while if the dose be too great the hair
comes out but does not grow again; and the margin of safety
is quite a narrow one. The method of Sabouraud and Noire
which has proved itself reliable for such critical measurements
of dosage as are required for ringworm treatment, has to-day
the universal acceptance of all X-ray workers for other forms
of X-ray treatment, although the use of their pastilles has
certain disadvantages.
Sabouraud's pastilles consist of small disks of platino-
cyanide of barium. This chemical compound has a bright
yellow-green colour when freshly prepared, and changes through
gradations of yellow to a brown colour when exposed to X rays.
The pastilles are supplied in a book with which a permanent
tint of colour is supplied, to indicate the colour change in the
pastille which corresponds with a quantity of X rays equal
to the maximum dose which the healthy skin will stand with-
out inflammatory consequences. This is often spoken of
as a " pastille dose." As the amount of irradiation needed
to produce the change of colour is considerable, the salt is
fixed, during the treatment, at a point half-way between the
source of the rays and the skin surface under treatment. During
an exposure the chemical salt, in the form of a small disk of
the material on cardboard, is adjusted in the required position
by means of a pastille holder, and it is examined at intervals
during the course of the exposure, until it has reached the
required tint. When in the holder the pastille must be pro-
tected from light, and should have a piece of metal as a backing,
H its indications are to be accurate.
In X-ray treatment some protection of the surrounding
healthy parts is usually necessary. With this object various
methods of shielding have been devised, either by coverings
of the patient by impermeable materials, or by enclosing the
tube in an impermeable box. Both methods are used, but
tube-boxes are the most convenient, and most instrument
makers now supply these boxes with suitable windows or
openings of different sizes for the passage of the pencil of rays
which is to fall upon the part under treatment.
The effect of the rays on healthy tissues is in the main a
destructive one, but some of the cells of the tissues are more
sensitive to the rays than are others; and this permits of a
selective effect being obtained, with the destruction of some cells
and not of the whole tissue. Young ceils, and actively growing
cells, are the most susceptible, and for this reason it is possible
to influence the glands of the skin and the papillae of the hairs
with a dose which will not destroy the skin itself. The art of
successful working with X rays is based upon a careful adjust-
ment of the dose so as to secure a selective destruction of the
morbid elements, and to avoid wholesale damage to the part
treated. The effects of excessive doses of X rays is to pro-
duce an inflammation which may result in painful sores which
obstinately refuse to heal for many weeks or months. A
quantity up to double that of the usual maximum or pastille
dose may be employed in urgent cases without risk of any
serious inflammation, but anything over this is to be avoided
most carefully. In the treatment of ringworm the exact
pastille dose must not be exceeded, for after a dose of about one
and a half pastilles the fall of the hair is likely to be followed
by permanent baldness.
In X-ray treatment it is customary to make use of moderate
currents, and to bring the X-ray tube in its tube-holder and box
into position so that the pencil of rays may fall upon the part
to be treated. The distance of the skin surface from the centre
of the tube must be known, and the pastille arranged in place
accordingly. Fifteen centimetres is a usual distance, and at
this distance a tube working with a current of a milliampere
should give the full therapeutic dose or " pastille dose " in
about 15 minutes. In general X-ray treatment it is quite usual
at the present time to proceed by the method of full doses
at rather long intervals. From the experience obtained by
Sabouraud hi numerous cases of ringworm it has been found
that a full dose must not be repeated until a month has elapsed.
So too in the treatmentof rodent ulcerfulldosesatlongintervals
are now thought better than smaller doses repeated more often,
and such doses are more easily measured by the Sabouraud
pastille, which records large doses more simply than small ones,
in which the slighter changes of tint are not easy to distinguish.
A great amount of work has been done with X rays for the
treatment of cancer, but it is now recognized that the X rays
XYLANDER XYSTUS
do not cure a cancer, although they are of value for the relief
of pain and for the healing of cancerous ulcers. Diminution
of size in cancerous growths has frequently been observed,
and in some instances sarcomatous tumours have completely
disappeared under X-ray treatment. Sooner or later, however,
he cancer or sarcoma returns either in the original site or
ewhere, and the patient dies of the disease. It is probable
at X-ray treatment is able to prolong life in a fair number
cases, and by its agency in causing a healing of ulceration in
ancer cases it is able to give valuable relief both to the body and
nd of the patient, and this relief may last for a year or more.
In rodent ulcer X rays are usually sufficient to provide a
sting cure, but there are some exceptions, as for instance
vhen the rodent ulcer has been long neglected, and has spread
eeply so as to invade bony structures. An important factor
the successful treatment of rodent ulcer by X rays is to
continue the applications at intervals for several months after
apparent cure. If this precaution is omitted there is a very
great likelihood of relapse taking place later on.
In the treatment of skin diseases by X rays the method finds
a very suitable field. Almost all chronic skin affections yield
to X-ray treatment fairly quickly, and maximal doses are not
usually necessary.
In ringworm X rays have achieved wonderful results. The
rays act upon the hair papillae, and not upon the ringworm
fungus. They cause a shedding of the hair fifteen days after
exposure and the fungus then dies out from the hair follicles,
so that when in due course the hair begins to grow again after
a period of two months it grows healthily and without disease.
The X-ray treatment of ringworm has been a real advance, and
Sabouraud has told us of the enormous pecuniary saving which
has been effected in Paris by the shortening of the stay of the
ringworm cases in the special schools maintained there for the
affected children.
In lupus X rays are valuable, but not fully satisfactory.
The treatment by the rays will often succeed in bringing about
a healing of the ulceration of lupus, but relapses are frequent,
because foci of infection are apt to remain in the healed scar
tissue and after a period of quiescence these may gradually
provoke fresh mischief.
X-ray treatment is of service for the treatment of enlarged
" strumous " glands in the neck. When these glands are in
the early stages, and there has not been any softening or breaking
down of the gland tissue, the application of X rays, a few times
repeated in moderate doses, will determine the subsidence of
the enlargement and may effect a complete cure.
In the massive glandular enlargements of lymphadenoma
a great reduction of the tumours can be brought about by
heavy doses of X rays, but the results are to give a symptomatic
rather than a real cure, for fresh glandular growths take place
internally, and the usual course of the disease is not fundamentally
modified.
So too in leukemia, the symptom of excessive abundance of
white cells in the circulating blood can be surprisingly altered
for the better by X rays, but generally without real cure of the
underlying condition. The effect appears to be due to a direct
destructive action upon the leucocytes or white corpuscles of
the blood.
Quite recently the use of X rays in fibroid tumours of the
uterus has been advocated, particularly by Courmelles in
France and Albert-Schonberg in Germany. The action of the
rays seems to be in part due to their influence upon the activity
of the ovaries and in part to a direct effect upon the growing
fibroids themselves, causing decrease of activity, relief of
symptoms and reduction of the tumours. (H. L. J.)
XYLANDER, GUILIELMUS (WILHELM HOLTZMAN, accord-
ing to his own spelling) (1532-1576), German classical scholar,
was born at Augsburg on the 26th of December 1532. He
studied at Tubingen, and in 1558, when in a state of abject
poverty (caused, according to some, by his intemperate habits),
he was appointed to succeed Micyllus (Molshem, Molseym or
Molsheym) in the professorship of Greek at Heidelberg, which
he exchanged for that of logic (publicus organi Aristotelii
interpres) in 1562. He died at Heidelberg on the loth of
February 1576. Xylander was the author of a number of
important works, among which his Latin translations of Dio
Cassius (1558), Plutarch (1560-1570) and Strabo (1571) deserve
special mention. He also edited (1568) the geographical
lexicon of Stephanus of Byzantium; the travels of Pausanias
(completed after his death by F. Sylburg, 1583); the Meditations
of Marcus Aurelius (1558, the editio princeps based upon a
Heidelberg MS. now lost; a second edition in 1568 with the
addition of Antoninus Liberalis, Phlegon of Tralles, an unknown
Apollonius, and Antigonus of Carystus all paradoxographers) ;
and the chronicle of George Cedrenus (1566). He translated
the first six books of Euclid into German with notes, the Arith-
metica of Diophantus, and the De quatluor mathematicis scientiis
of Michael Psellus into Latin.
XYLENE, or DIMETHYL BENZENE, CH4(CH,),. Three
isomeric hydrocarbons of this formula exist; they occur in the
light oil fraction of the coal tar distillate, but they cannot be
separated by fractional distillation owing to the closeness of
their boiling points. The mixture can be separated by shaking
with sulphuric acid, whereupon the ortho and meta forms are
converted into soluble sulphonic acids, the para form being
soluble only in concentrated acid; the ortho and meta acids
may be separated by crystallization of their salts or sulphon-
amides. Ortho-xylene is obtained from ortho-bromtoluene,
methyl iodide and sodium as a colourless mobile liquid boiling
at 142, melting at -28, and having a specific gravity of 0-8932
at o. Oxidation by potassium permanganate gives phthalic
acid; whilst chromic acid gives carbon dioxide and water.
Meta- or iso-xylene, the most important isomer, may be prepared
by nucleus-synthetic reactions, or by distilling mesitylenic
acid, CjHatCHa^COjH, an oxidation product of mesitylene,-
CeHatCHs^, which is produced on the condensation of acetone,
with lime; this reaction is very important, for it orientates
meta-compounds. It boils at 139, melts at -54, and has a
specific gravity of 0-8812. Para-xylene is obtained when
camphor is distilled with zinc chloride, but it is best prepared
from para-brom-toluene or dibrombenzene, methyl iodide and
sodium. Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it first to para-toluic acid
and then to terephthalic acid. It boils at 138, melts at 15,
and has a specific gravity of 0-8801 at o.
XYLOPHONE (Fr. xylophone; Ger. Xylophon, Strohfiedel
or Holzharmonika; Ital. armonica de legno), a small instrument
of percussion, of definite sonorousness, used in the orchestra
to mark the rhythm. The xylophone consists of a series of
little wooden staves in the form of a half cylinder and graduated
in size. The staves, each of which represents a semitone, rest
on two, three or four wooden bars, covered with straw and
converging to form an acute angle. They are so arranged that
each stave is isolated. In some models the staves are grouped
in two rows, comprising the naturals and the accidentals. The
xylophone is played with two little wooden hammers, and has a
compass of two or three octaves. The quality of tone is inferior
to that of the steel harmonica or glockenspiel. (K. S.)
XYSTUS, the Greek architectural term for the covered portico
of the gymnasium, in which the exercises took place during
the winter or in rainy weather; this was known as the wrr6s
Sp6/K>s, from its polished floor (veu>, to polish). The Romans
applied the term to the garden walk in front of the porticoes,
which was divided into flower beds with borders of box, and to
a promenade between rows of large trees.
890
Y YACHTING
Ythe twenty-fifth letter of the English alphabet, one of
four variants (u, v, w, y) which have been developed
out of one Greek symbol. It was taken into the
Roman alphabet as a form distinct from V in the
ist century B.C., when it was desired to represent the sound
of the Greek u more accurately than could be done by the
ordinary Roman alphabet. Many Greek words had been
borrowed from Greek long before this and pronounced like
genuine Latin words. Thus the proper name Hippos was
borrowed as Burrus, $pvyes as Bruges. But with the growth
of literary knowledge this was felt to be a very inexact repre-
sentation of the Greek sounds, and the words were respelt as
Pyrrhus and Phryges. The philosopher Pythagoras is said
to have regarded this letter as a symbol of human life (Servius,
on Virgil, Aeneid vi. 136). To this there are various references
in the Roman poets. Two lines of Persius (iii. 56-57) seem
to throw some light upon the particular form of Y intended'
" Et tibi quae Samios diduxit littera ramos
surgentem dextro monstravit limite callem "
These lines appear to imply that the letter took the form y,
which can only be one of the oldest forms (\) written from right
to left. The straight road is the difficult, the deviating line is
the easier path of vice. Anglo-Saxon took over the Roman Y
with its Roman iralue of the "modified u" (u), and employed it
accordingly for the sound which arose from a u sound under the
influence of an i in the following sy liable :fyttan, " fill," cp. Gothic
fulljan; mus, " mouse," plural mus, from an earlier lost musis.
The y sounds were often confused with i, whence, in modern
English, mice.
The vowel use was the only use of the old symbol. The consonant
Y is of a different origin. The early English g (always hard as
in gig) was palatalized before e and i sounds into a consonant t
(j) or y, which was written in Middle English with the symbol 3.
With this letter also was written the original consonant i (i),
which appears in Latin as i (j) in iugum, iuvencus. This Latin
sound seems, at least initially, to have represented two originally
separate sounds, for Greek represents the first sound of iugum
by f (fiTop), while in other words it represents a i (y) of other
languages by the " rough breathing " (h or ') : ayvbs, " holy,"
is the same word as the Sanskrit yajnas. The English words that
correspond etymologically to iugum and iuvencus are " yoke "
and " young." In Northern English the symbol 5 survived
longer than in the southern part of the island, and in Scottish
documents of the i6th century was confused with 2. From
this cause various Scottish names that were never pronounced
with z are so spelt, as Menzies (Mengies), Dalziel, Cadzow.
In others like Mackenzie, z is now universally pronounced,
though as late as the middle of the i8th century Lord Kames
declared that to hear Mackenzie pronounced with a z turned his
stomach. (P. Gi.)
YABLONOI, or YABLONOVOI (" Apple Mountains," known to
the Mongols as Dynze-daban), a range of E. Siberia, stretching
N.E. from near the sources of the river Kerulen (N.E. of Urga
in N. Mongolia) to the bend of the river Olekma in 56 N.,
and forming the S.E. border ridge of the upper terrace of the
great plateau of Central and E. Asia. Its summits reach alti-
tudes of 5000-6000 ft., culminating in Mount Sokhondo (8040
ft.) near the Transbaikal-Mongolia frontier. The range serves
as the water-parting between the streams which flow to the
Pacific and those which flow to the Arctic Ocean, and is a dividing
line between the Siberian and the Daurian flora. The passes
have altitudes of 2000-3500 ft. The range is a continuation
of the Kentei Mountains of Mongolia, but is not orographically
connected with the Stanovoi Mountains, farther to the N.E.,
though the names Yablonoi and Stanovoi are commonly used
alternatively. The latter are the S.E. border-range of the
lower terrace and are connected with the Great Khingan
Mountains.
YACHOW-FU, a prefecture! city in the province of Sze-
ch'uen, China, in 30 N., 103 E.; pop. about 40,000. It is situ-
ated in a valley on the banks of the river Ya, where tea is grown.
The town owes its importance to the fact that it stands at the
parting of the tea and tobacco trade route to Tibet via Tachien-
lu and the cotton trade route to west Yun-nan via Ningyuen-Fu.
The city wall measures 2 m. in circumference, and is pierced by
four gates. Yachow-Fu is first mentioned during the Chow
dynasty (1122-255 B.C.).
YACHTING, the sport of racing in yachts 1 and boats with
sails, and also the pastime of cruising for pleasure in sailing
steam or motor vessels. Yacht racing dates from the beginning
of the i gth century; for, although there were sailing yachts long
before, they were but few, and belonged exclusively to princes
and other illustrious personages. For instance, in the Anglo-
Saxon period Athelstan had presented to him by the king of
Norway a magnificent royal vessel, the sails of which were purple
and the head and dck wrought with gold, apparently a kind of
state barge. Elizabeth had one, and so has every English sove-
reign since. During her reign a pleasure ship was built (1588) at
Cowes (Isle of Wight), so that the association of that place
with the sport goes back a very long time. In 1660 Charles II.
was presented by the Dutch with a yacht named the " Mary,"
until which time the word " yacht " was unknown in England.
The Merrie Monarch was fond of sailing, for he designed a yacht
of 25 tons called the " Jamie," built at Lambeth in 1662, as well
as several others later on. In that year the " Jamie "was matched
for 100 against a small Dutch yacht, under the duke of York,
from Greenwich to Gravesend and back, and beat her, the king
steering part of the time apparently the first record of a yacht
match and of an amateur helmsman. Mr Arthur H. Clark, in
his History of Yachting (1904), traces the history of pleasure
craft from 1600 to 1815, and gives an interesting illustrated
account of the yachts belonging to Charles II.
The first authentic record of a sailing club is in 17 20, when the
Cork Harbour Water Club, now known as the Royal Cork Yacht
Club, was established in Ireland, but the yachts were small.
Maitland, in his History of London (1739) mentions sailing and
rowing on the Thames as among the amusements then indulged
in; and Strutt, in his Sports and Pastimes (1801), says that the
Cumberland Society, consisting of gentlemen partial to this pas-
time, gave yearly a silver cup to be sailed for in the vicinity
of London. The boats usually started from Blackfriars Bridge,
went up the Thames to Putney, and returned to Vauxhall,
being, no doubt, mere sailing boats and not yachts or decked
vessels. From the middle to the end of the i8th century yacht-
ing developed very slowly: although matches were sailed at
Cowes as far back as 1780, very few yachts of any size, say
35 tons, existed in 1800 there or elsewhere. In 1812 the Royal
Yacht Squadron was established by fifty yacht-owners at Cowes
and was called the Yacht Club, altered to the Royal Yacht Club
in 1820; but no regular regatta was held there until some years
later. The yachts of the time were built of heavy materials,
like the revenue cutters, full in the fore body and fine aft; but it
was soon discovered that their timbers and scantlings were
unnecessarily strong, and they were made much lighter. It
was also found that the single-masted cutter was more weatherly
than the brigs and schooners of the time, and the former rig was
adopted for racing, and, as there was no time allowance for
difference of size, they were all built of considerable dimensions.
Early English Yachts. Among the earliest of which there
is any record were the " Pearl," 95 tons, built by Sainty at
Wyvenhoe near Colchester in 1820, for the marquess of Anglesey,
and the " Arrow," 84 tons, originally 61 ft. 9^ in. long and
18 ft. si in. beam, built by Joseph Weld in 1822, which for many
years remained extant as a racing yacht, having been rebuilt and
1 The English word " yacht " is the Dutch jacht, jagt, from jachten,
" to hurry, " to hunt." See also SHIP and SHIPBUILDING.
YACHTING
891
altered several times, and again entirely rebuilt in 1887-88.
The Thames soon followed the example of the Solent and
established the Royal Thames Yacht Club in 1823, the Clyde
founding the Royal Northern Yacht Club in 1824, and Plymouth
the Royal Western in 1827. In this year the Royal Yacht
Squadron passed a resolution disqualifying any member who
should apply steam to his yacht the enactment being aimed at
T. Assheton Smith, an enthusiastic yachtsman and fox-hunter,
who was having a paddle-wheel steam yacht called the " Menai "
built on the Clyde. In 1830 one of the largest cutters ever
constructed was launched, viz. the " Alarm," built by Inman
at Lymington for Joseph Weld of Lulworth Castle, from the
lines of a famous smuggler captured off the Isle of Wight. She
was 82 ft. on the load-line by 24 ft. beam, and was reckoned
of 193 tons, old measurement, in which length, breadth and
half-breadth (supposed to represent depth) were the factors for
computation. Some yachtsmen at this time preferred still
larger vessels and owned square-topsail schooners and brigs
like the man-o'-war brigs of the day, such as the " Waterwitch,"
381 tons, built by White of Cowes, in 1832, for Lord Belfast,
and the " Brilliant," barque, 493 tons, belonging to J. Holland
Ackers, who invented a scale of time allowance for competitive
sailing. In 1834 the first royal cup was given by William IV.
to the Royal Yacht Squadron. In 1836 the Royal Eastern
Yacht Club was founded at Granton near Edinburgh; in 1838
the Royal St George's at Kingstown and the Royal London;
in 1843 the Royal Southern at Southampton and the Royal
Harwich; in 1844 the Royal Mersey at Liverpool and the Royal
Victoria at Ryde. The number of vessels kept pace with the
clubs the fifty yachts of 1812 increasing nearly tenfold before
the middle of the century.
First Alteration in Type. In 1848, after J. Scott Russell had
repeatedly drawn attention to the unwisdom of constructing
sailing vessels on the " cod's head and mackerel tail " plan, and
had enunciated his wave-line theory, Mare built at Blackwall
an entirely new type of vessel, with a long hollow bow and
a short after-body of considerable fulness. This was the iron
cutter " Mosquito," of 59 ft. 2 in. water-line, 15 ft. 3 in. beam,
and measuring 50 tons. Prejudice against the new type of
yacht being as strong as against the introduction of steam,
there were no vessels built like the " Mosquito," with the excep-
tion of the " Volante," 59 tons, by Harvey of Wyvenhoe, until
the eyes of English yachtsmen were opened by the Americans
three years later. About this period yacht racing had been
gradually coming into favour in the United States, the first
yacht club being founded at New York in 1844 by nine yacht-
owners; and in 1846 the first match between yachts in the
States was sailed, 25 m. to windward and back from Sandy
Hook lightship, between J. C. Stevens's new centre-board sloop
" Maria," 170 tons, 100 ft. water-line and 26 ft. 8 in. beam,
with a draught of 5 ft. 3 in. of water, and the " Coquette,"
schooner, 74 tons, belonging to J. H. Perkins, the latter winning;
but the appearance of the " Maria," which had a clipper or
schooner bow, something like that of the racing cutters of
1887-88, did much for yachting in America. Stevens then
commissioned George Steers of New York, builder of the crack
pilot schooners, to construct a racing schooner to visit England
in the year of the great exhibition, and the result was the
" America " of 1 70 tons. She crossed the Atlantic in the summer
of 1851, but failed to compete for the Queen's cup at Cowes
in August, although the club for that occasion threw the prize
open to all the world, as her owner declined to concede the
usual time allowance for difference of size. The members of
the Yacht Squadron, not wishing to risk the reproach of denying
the visitor a fair race, decided that their match for a cup given
by the club, to be sailed round the Isle of Wight later in the
same month, should be without any time allowance. The
" America," thus exceptionally treated, entered and competed
against fifteen other vessels. The three most dangerous com-
petitors being put out through accidents, the " America "
passed the winning-post 18 minutes ahead of the 47-ton cutter
" Aurora," and won the cup; but, even if the time allowance
had not been waived, the American schooner yacht would still
have won by fully a couple of minutes. The prize was given
to the New York Yacht Club and constituted a challenge cup,
called " the America's cup," for the yachts of all nations, by
the deed of gift of the owners of the winner. (See below for a
complete account of these races.)
Not only was the " America " as great a departure from the
conventional British type of yacht as the " Mosquito," but the
set of her sails was a decided novelty. In England it had been
the practice to make them baggy, whereas those of the " America "
were flat, which told materially in working to windward. The
revolution in yacht designing and canvasing was complete, and
the bows of existing cutters were lengthened, that of the " Arrow "
among others. The " Alarm " was also lengthened and turned
into a schooner of 248 tons, and the " Wildfire," cutter, 59 tons,
was likewise converted. Indeed there was a complete craze
for schooners, the " Flying Cloud," " Gloriana," " Lalla Rookh,"
" Albertine," " Aline," " Egeria," " Pantomime " and others
being built between 1852 and 1865, during which period the
centre-board, or sliding keel, was applied to schooners as well
as sloops in America. The national or cutter rig was nevertheless
not neglected in England, for Hatcher of Southampton built
the 35-ton cutter " Glance " the pioneer of the subsequent
4o-tonners in 1855, and the " Vampire " the pioneer of the
zo-tonners in 1857, in which year Weld also had the " Lul-
worth," an 82-ton cutter of comparatively shallow draught,
constructed at Lymington. At this time too there came into
existence a group of cutters, called " flying fifties " from their
tonnage, taking after the " Mosquito " as their pioneer; such
were the " Extravaganza," " Audax " and " Vanguard." In
1866 a large cutter was constructed on the Clyde called the
" Condor," 135 tons, followed by the still larger " Oimara,"
163 tons, in 1867. In 1868 the " Cambria " schooner was built
by Ratsey at Cowes for Ashbury of Brighton, and, having proved
a successful match-sailer, was taken to the United States in
1870 to compete for the America's cup, but was badly beaten, as
also was the " Livonia " in 1871.
The First Great Era cf Yacht Racing. The decade between
1870 and 1880 may be termed the first Golden Age of yachting,
inasmuch as the racing fleet had some very notable additions
made to it, of which it will suffice to mention the schooners
"Gwendolin," " Cetonia," " Corinne," "Miranda" and
" Waterwitch "; the large cutters " Kriemhilda," " Vol au
Vent," " Formosa," " Samcena " and " Vanduara," a cutter
built of steel; the 4o-tonners " Foxhound," " Bloodhound,"
" Myosotis " and " Norman "; the 2o-tonners " Vanessa "
(Hatcher's masterpiece), " Quickstep," " Enriqueta," " Louise "
and "Freda"; and the yawls " Florinda," " Corisande,"
" Jullanar " and " Latona." The " Jullanar " may be noted as
a specially clever design. Built in 1874 from the ideas of Bentall,
an agricultural implement maker of Maldon, Essex, she had no
dead wood forward or aft, and possessed many improvements
in design which were embodied and developed by the more
scientific naval architects, G. L. Watson, William Fife, jun.,
and others in later years. Lead, the use of which commenced
in 1846, was entirely used for ballast after 1870 and placed on
the keel outside.
Of races there was a plethora; indeed no fewer than 400
matches took place in 1876, as against 63 matches in 1856,
with classes for schooners and yawls, for large cutters, for 40-
tonners, 2o-tonners and lo-tonners. The sport, too, was better
regulated, and was conducted on a uniform system: the Yacht-
Racing Association, established in 1875, drew up a simple code
of laws for the regulation of yacht races, which was accepted
by the yacht clubs generally, though a previous attempt to
introduce uniformity, made by the Royal Victoria Yacht Club
in 1868, had failed. The Association adopted the rule for
ascertaining the size or tonnage of yachts which had been for
many years in force, known as the Thames rule; but in 1879
they altered the plan of reckoning length from that taken on
deck to that taken at the load water-line, and two years later
they adopted an entirely new system of calculation.
8 9 2
YACHTING
The Plank-on-edge. These changes led to a decline in yacht-
racing, the new measurement exercising a prejudicial effect
on the sport, as it enabled vessels of extreme length, depth
and narrowness, kept upright by enormous masses of lead
on the outside of the keel, to compete on equal terms with
vessels of greater width and less depth, in other words, smaller
yachts carrying an inferior area of sail. The new type was
known as the " lead mine " or plank-on-edge type. Of this
type were the yawls " Lorna " and " Wendur," the cutters
" May," " Annasona," " Sleuth-hound," " Tara," " Marjorie "
and " Margarite " the most extreme of all being perhaps
the 4o-tonner " Tara," six times as long as she was broad,
and unusually deep, with a displacement of 75 tons, 38 tons
of lead on her keel, and the sail-spread of a 6o-tonner like
" Neva."
In 1884 two large 8o-ton cutters of the above type were
built for racing, the " Genesta " on the Clyde and the " Irex "
at Southampton. Having been successful in her first season,
the former went to the United States in 1885 in quest of the
America's cup; but she was beaten by the " Puritan," which
had a moderate draught of 8 ft. 3 in. of water, considerable
beam and a deep centre-board. The defeat of the " Genesta "
was not surprising; she drew 13 ft. of water, had a displacement
or weight of 141 as against the " Puritan's " 106 tons, and a
sail area of 7887 sq. ft. to the American's 7982 a greater
mass with less driving power. Still, she did not leave the
States empty-handed, as she won and brought back the Cape
May and Brenton Reef challenge cups, though they were wrested
from her by the " Irex " in the following year. The same thing
happened to the " Galatea," which was beaten by the " May-
flower " in 1886. In all classes in British waters the narrow
type was not carried to excess; indeed, as the narrowness
of the new yachts increased annually, so did the popularity of
racing decrease.
Plank-on-edge Type abandoned. Prior to 1886 it had been
the custom in Great Britain for several reasons to build the
yachts deep, narrow, wall-sided, with very heavy lead keels
and heavy displacement. The system of measurement had
been a tonnage measurement, and under this system designers
found, from the knowledge they had then attained from racing
trials, that a narrow heavy vessel would beat a wider and
lighter craft when both were measured by the tonnage rules.
In America this was not the case. There a much lighter and
wider form of yacht had been in vogue, having shallower draught
and relying upon a centre-board for weatherliness instead
of a deep lead keel. Hence in the International contests
from 1884 to 1886 for the America's cup and other events the
trials were between deep and narrow British yachts and shallow
and broad American yachts. Even in 1867, when G. L. Watson
built the " Thistle," much broader than " Genesta " and
" Galatea," this vessel was met and defeated by a far wider and
shallower American sloop, namely, the " Volunteer " above
referred to. British yachtsmen claimed that their narrow
deep-keeled vessels were more weatherly and better sea-boats
than the light American sloops, but racing honours rested with
the Americans.
In 1887 the plank-on-edge type was completely abandoned
in the United Kingdom. Thenceforward, therefore, the old
spirited contests between deep British yachts and shallow
American sloops ceased. Whilst Britain abandoned her narrow
deep type, America soon also began to modify the old shallow
centre-board sloop type, and so between 1887 and 1893 the
rival types began to converge very rapidly, until the old idea
of a race for the America's cup being a test of a British type
against an American type completely died out. Races sailed
for that trophy, after 1887, were less and less trials of oppos-
ing national types, but merely contests between British and
American designed yachts built upon the same general principle
of similar type.
Dixon Kemp in 1887 induced British yachtsmen to abandon
the system of measuring yachts by tonnage and to adopt a
new system of rating them by water-line length and sail area.
The new system contained no taxes or penalties upon beam
or depth nor upon " over all " length. The only factors
measured were the water-line and the area of the sails. All
the old tonnage rules taxed the length and the breadth. The
effect of this change of the system measurement was electrical.
It crushed the plank-on-edge type completely. There was not
another boat of the kind built.
Revival of Yacht-Racing under Length and Sail Area Rule.
Yachtsmen were greatly pleased with the broader and lighter
types of yachts that designers began to turn out under the
length and sail area rule. They were more comfortable and
drier in a seaway than the old vessels. The first large cutters
built with considerable beam were " Yarana " and " Petronilla "
in 1888, and in 1889 the first of Lord Dunraven's Valkyries
was a vessel that was much admired. Then in 1890 " Iverna,"
a handsome clipper-bowed cutter owned by Mr Jameson, came
out and raced against " Thistle." Meanwhile, up to 1892
a host of splendid 4o-raters had been built; " Mohawk,"
" Deerhound," " Castanet," " Reverie," " Creole," " Thalia,"
"Corsair," "White Slave," "Queen Mab " and " Varuna "
formed a class the like of which had never been surpassed in
British waters. Watson, Fife and Payne were the most suc-
cessful designers.
While a revival of yachting in the larger classes was notable
under the rule Dixon Kemp had originated, the sudden popularity
attained in the small classes in the Solent was even more remark-
able. Under the tonnage rules deep narrow 3-tonners, 5-tonners
and lo-tonners had raced about the coast, but the Solent did not
seem to attract a greater number of yachtsmen as small boat sailors
than the Thames, Mersey or Irish ports. Moreover, the Clyde
really remained the most advanced centre of small yacht sailing.
At Southampton, prior to Dixon Kemp's rule being adopted by the
Yacht-Racing Association in 1887, there were some sporting classes
of so-called lichen Ferry boats which raced on a rating consisting
of length on the water-fine only. As there was no tax upon their
sail, they were built (according to the ideas of designers in 1885
or 1886, who had not by that time absorbed the knowledge of the
value of bulb-keels) with great beam, immense displacement and
very thick heavy lead keels and huge sail-spread. A sail area of
2200 sq. ft. was crowded on to a w-foot yacht, and one 3O-footer
even carried a jointed spinnaker boom 56 ft. in length. It was
not surprising that such a type never became popular; indeed the
Southampton length classes in the 'eighties were no better than the
extremely narrow 5-tonners and 3-tonners. The 5-tonner " Doris,"
built by Watson in 1885, was 33 ft. 8 in. L.W.L., 5 ft. 7 in. beam, 7 ft.
draught; displacement of 12-55 tons; 1681 sq. ft. of sail. The
" Yvonne," built by Fife in 1889, was 34-1 ft. L.W.L., 9 ft. beam,
8-1 ft. draught, with a displacement of 12-9 tons and a sail area of
1726 sq. ft. The difference in dimensions between " Doris" and
" Yvonne " shows how the beam and sail-carrying power was in-
creased in the new type, for " Yvonne " could beat the " Doris "
with the greatest ease. With the advent of the length and sail area
rule the Solent at once became the fashionable rendezvous for small
racing yachts, and the craft known as the Solent classes, 5-raters,
2j-raters, i-raters and j-raters, flourished greatly.
The Second Great Era in Yachting. As the years 1870 to
1880 will always be remembered for the great schooners and
the glorious fleet of old-fashioned cutters and yawls, which
showed such fine sport before they were outbuilt by the planks-
on-edge, so will the seasons following 1892 be identified with
the big cutter racing. In that year it was commonly said that
yachtsmen would build no more very large cutters. The
revival under the length and sail area rule had so far extended
to " Iverna," " Tarana," " Petronilla," and " Valkyrie I." being
built in the first class, but then there had been a pause of some
years during which large numbers of 4o-raters, 2o-raters and the
Solent classes had been built. Just when the critics were declaring
that in the future no yachtsmen would build a class racer
larger than a 40-rater (60 ft. L.W.L. with 4000 sq. ft. of sail),
the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) gave an order
for the cutter " Britannia," while Lord Dunraven built " Val-
kyrie II.," Mr A. D. Clarke " Satanita" and Mr Peter Donald-
son " Calluna "; and in this same season (1893), an American
yachtsman took the Herreshoff yacht " Navahoe " over the
Atlantic. The new vessels averaged 87 ft. L.W.L. and carried
about 10,300 sq. ft. of canvas, their beam being as much as
23 ft. They were an entirely different type from " Iverna " or
YACHTING
893
" Thistle," being developed from the form of the 4O-raters
" Varuna " and " Queen Mab." The main differences between
the " Britannia " and other yachts of her year and the older
vessels was that the new yachts had an overhanging shallow-
sectioned mussel or pram bow instead of a fiddle or clipper
bow with a wedge-shaped transverse section; the outline of the
under-water profile was hollow, sloping in a concave curve from
the deep part of the keel under the mast to the forward end of
the water-line; the keel was deep, practically developing into
a fin. The new vessels skimmed over the waves instead of
cutting and plunging through them. The seaworthiness, speed,
weatherliness and general handiness for racing purposes of the
cutters of 1893 far exceeded all previous results. Yacht
designing and building now became a science demanding the
highest tax upon the skill and ingenuity of the naval architect.
The cutter " Valkyrie II." visited the United States in 1893,
but Lord Dunraven's vessel was beaten by the " Vigilant."
Curiously enough, when the crack Herreshoff cutters " Navahoe "
and " Vigilant " visited the British Isles they were severely
beaten by the British yachts. In 1893 the " Navahoe " started
13 times and only won two first prizes. In 1894 " Vigilant " did
a little better, but she only won six races in 19 starts. During the
years that followed the " Britannia " held a wonderful record:
.
Starts.
First
Prizes.
Other
Prizes.
Total.
Prizes
Value.
1893 .
1894 .
$
24
36
9
2
33
38
i572
2799
1895 .
5
38
2
40
3040
1896 .
58
H
IO
24
1562
1897 .
20
10
2
12
IOOO
219
122
25
147
9973
Some other famous racing yachts which were built under the
length and sail area rule were " Ailsa " (1895), a first-class cutter
designed by Fife, " Isolde," a very beautiful 4O-rater for Mr Donald-
son By the same designer, " Caress," a 4O-rater by Watson, and the
2O-raters " Audrey," from Lord Dunraven's own model, " Niagara "
by Herreshoff, and the " Sibbick "-designed 5-rater "Norman,"
owned by Captain Orr-Ewing. Since the introduction of Dixon
Kemp's rule the smaller classes from 2O-rating right down to
J-ratmg had been built in great numbers, but whilst these classes
had flourished exceedingly, the type of boat built had developed
a very peculiar form. Each succeeding craft was made lighter and
lighter in weight and more extreme in the overhang at the bow
and stern. The stability was now attained by means of a cigar-
shaped piece of lead placed at the bottom of a steel plate or fin,
the hull of the boat being nothing more than the bowl of a dessert
spoon resting upon the water.
Fin and Bulb Keels. Downfall of Length and Sail Area Rule.
It was apparent in 1895 that if plate and bulb skimming-
dishes could win all the prizes in the 2o-rating and smaller
classes, it would be easy to design a modified form of fin and
bulb yacht to beat " Isolde," " Britannia " and " Ailsa " in
the larger classes. It was equally obvious that a skimming-
dish of " Britannia's " or " Isolde's " rating would be an utterly
useless machine with no cabin accommodation or head room,
and that the evolution of such type would be as bad for the sport
as the development of the old plank-on-edge had been in 1885.
It seemed strange that whilst the old tonnage rule had evolved
the plank-on-edge ten years previously, the sail area measure-
ment now evolved a plank-on-side, balanced by a fin. The fact
was that designers had solved the problem. The rule measured
only the length and the area of canvas. Taking the length of
the vessel on the water-line as constant, then the vessel with
the smallest possible weight could be driven with less sail at
the same speed as vessels with greater weight and greater sail.
This solution of the problem was not apparent to designers from
1880 to 1885, because of the difficulty of obtaining stability.
From 1880 to 1885 stability was obtained by means of very
heavy keels. In 1895 the stability was obtained by means of
a light piece of lead placed at the bottom of a deep steel fin.
" Niagara," " Audrey " (zo-raters) and " Norman "(s-rater) were
thus built. They were wonderful sailing machines in heavy
weather, fast, powerful, handy and efficient in all weathers.
But if head room and cabin accommodation are considered
essential parts of a yacht these fliers, as "yachts," were entirely
inefficient.
The First Linear Rating Rule. To endeavour to check the
tendency to build skimming-dishes the Yacht-Racing Association
introduced in 1896 a new system of measurement which was
proposed by Mr R. E. Froude. The novelty of the system
consisted of a tax upon the skin girth of the yacht, whereby a
vessel with hollow midship section was penalized by her girth
being measured round the skin surface. Froude's first system
of rating began on the ist of January 1896 and ended at the
close of the year 1900. It therefore had a career of five seasons.
The measurement of the yacht was obtained by che following
formula:
Length L.W.L.+beam + f skin girth + }
= linear rating.
This rule partially failed in its object. It was hoped that the
skin-surface measurement would prevent the fin-bulb type being
successful, but Froude and his colleagues had under-estimated
the possible developments of exaggerated pram bows, immense
scow-shaped shoulders and stern-lines, all of which could be
introduced into the skimming-dish type with great success. So,
notwithstanding the small premium on displacement this rule
contained, the dishes could still beat the full-bodied yachts.
Yachts built in the small classes were very shallow bodied, and
in the 2O-rating and 4O-rating, now called the 52 ft. and 65 ft.
classes respectively, were uncomfortably shallow. The best vessels
in the large classes were undoubtedly well formed and useful yachts;
indeed in the larger classes the rule seems to have checked excesses.
Under this rule in 1896 the German Emperor ordered a huge first-
class cutter, the " Meteor II. ."from Watson. By sheer size and power
this vessel outsailed " Britannia." She carried a main boom of 96 ft.
long against the " Britannia's " boom of 91 ft. In 1900 Watson
designed another great cutter called the " Distant Shore," the same
size as " Britannia," but she was not launched until 1901. In 1900
also Watson crowned all his previous successes by turning out
the yawl " Sybarita," the same size as " Meteor." " Senta Tutty,"
" Eelin " and " Astrild," and finally " Khama," were amongst
the 65-footers, and " Penitent," " The Saint," " Morning Star"
and " Senga " about the best 2-footers. Probably the yacht which
emphasized the possibilities of the rule more than any of her con-
temporaries was Captain Orr-Ewing's 3&-footer " Sakuntala," built
by Sibbick. She was a complete scow-shaped skimming-dish.
The 3O-footers " Marjory " and ' Flatfish " were similar craft, and
they outsailed everything in their respective classes in the Solent.
Although many fine vessels, including the schooner " Rainbow "
and others, were built under this rule, it was obviously insufficient
to check the hollow-sectioned type.
The Second Linear Rating Rule. This rule, also suggested
by Froude, was introduced on the ist of January 1901. The
confidence of yachtsmen had been decidedly shaken by the
previous rule, and the Y.R.A. agreed to fix this rule for a period
of seven years. The object of the rule was to ensure a big-
bodied vessel. The formula was:
Length + breadth + jgirth +43+} V sail area ,.
,.
Now the novelty of this rule was the new tax 3. This 'J represents
the difference in feet between the measurement of the girth of
the yacht's hull taken round the skin surface and the girth at
the same place measured with a string pulled taut. This
measurement is taken A tns of the distance from the fore end
of the water-line. It is easy to see that in a full-bodied yacht
<?=a small unit, whilst in a hollow-bodied yacht 3= a larger
unit. Four times 2 being taken, it followed that hollow-bodied
yachts were heavily penalized. This ingenious J measurement
was evolved by Alfred Benzon, a Danish scientist and yachtsman.
The rule, so far as the development of a full-bodied cabin yacht
went, pro% r ed very successful. It had certain marked faults:
the measurement of the girth at a fixed station caused a shallow-
ness of keel at that particular spot, and there was no check
upon the full pram bows, which when introduced into vessels
of heavy displacement strained the ships terribly as they
smashed into a heavy seaway. The new racing yachts generally,
however, from 1896 onwards, proved worthy and fast vessels.
As an instance of what could be done with them, in 1901 a memor-
able match was sailed on the Clyde between the Watson cutter
YACHTING
" Kariad " (originally the " Distant Shore," previously mentioned)
and the same designer's go-foot yawl " Sybarita." It was blowing a
gale of wind, and the yachts raced from Rothesay round Ailsa Craig
and back, a distance of 75 m., averaging 12-3 knots, with closed
reefed sails, housed topmasts and in a mountainous sea. Several
steam yachts attempted to accompany them, but all put back
owing to the roaring sea that was running near the Craig. The
yawl had the advantage of being" the larger vessel, and " Sybarita "
on this occasion won one of the greatest races ever recorded in
Scottish waters.
Class Racing, Handicapping and Cruiser Racing. Yacht
racing may be subdivided under these three heads. Yacht
racing by rating measurement or tonnage, when either the
first yacht to finish is the winner, or the yacht saving her time
by a fixed scale of time allowance in proportion to the rating
of the vessel and the length of the course, is called class racing,
and it obviously tends to encourage the fastest possible vessel
under the current rating rule to be produced. It has always
been regarded as the highest form of the sport. It is naturally,
however, the most expensive form, because only the most
up-to-date and perfectly equipped vessels can keep in the first
flight.
From time to time, chiefly from about the years 1884 and 1885
onwards, handicaps framed according to merits have been fashion-
able amongst yachtsmen. They were originally devised to afford
amusement and sport to out-classed racers and cruisers, but they
obviously did nothing to encourage owners to build very fast vessels,
nor to stimulate improvement in design. When a handicap is
allotted to each vessel according to her assumed speed, the slowest
and most ill-designed craft should have an equal chance with the
best. Nevertheless, owing to the expense of class racing, handicap
racing thrived greatly during the period of the first and second
Girth Rules. During these periods, too, the third style of yacht
racing came into vogue, namely cruiser racing; either very fast
cruisers were built specially for the purpose of handicap racing, or
a number of yachts of exactly similar design were built specially
to the owner's orders for the purpose of racing in a class together.
The fast handicap cruisers had the great advantage over class racers
from 1896 up to 1906, inasmuch as they were much more strongly
built. " Valdora " (107 tons), " Brynhijd " (160 tons), " Leander,
" Namara," " Rosamond," " Merrymaid " and many others were
yachts of the former type. In form they did not differ vastly from
the racers of their period, but in scantling of hull, fittings, bulwarks
and rig they were more comfortable and better vessels than their
class-racing sisters. It was obvious in the larger classes that many
yacht-owners were not prepared to put up with the discomfort of
the thin-skinned racers. During the whole period of the Girth
Rules (1896 to 1906), while the class racers developed a good enough
form of body they were latterly yachts with plenty of cabin room
they were necessarily built in the lightest possible manner, the
lightest steel frames being covered with the thinnest planking and
decks for the sake of saving weight. The light scantling began to tell
severely upon large yacht lacing. Meanwhile, in the small classes,
the Solent one-design class, South Coast one-design class, numerous
Belfast one-design classes, Redwings, Whitewings and a host of
others, show how an inexpensive form of cruiser racing had usurped
the place of class racing and competitive designing. Many yachts-
men felt that if handicap racing and one-design racing were to usurp
the place of the higher form of class racing the whole sport of yacht-
ing must soon deteriorate. It was obvious that had handicap
racing and the one-design principle been seriously introduced in
1880 or 1886 and obtained a strong hold on yachtsmen such im-
proved types as the modern cruisers of 1906 would never have been
evolved. For all the best cruisers, even the " Valdora " and the
ketches " Cariad I." and " Cariad II.," are but modified types
evolved from the crack racers. Hence yachtsmen began to give
careful attention during the early period of the Second Linear
Rating rule to suggestions that in the future every class-racing
yacht should be built according to a fixed table of scantlings, so
that her hull should be as strong as a bona fide cruiser.
Yachts Built under the Second Linear Rating Rule. Few
large vessels were built expressly for racing under this rule;
indeed the Fife 65-footer " Zinita " (1904) was the only light-
scantling yacht of any importance. However, two very hand-
some first-class vessels were constructed to the rule: " White
Heather I." by Fife in 1904, and " Nyria " by Nicholson in
1906; they were some 12 ft. shorter than the great cutters
of " Britannia's " year and altogether smaller, having less beam
and draught and some 1700 sq. ft. less sail area. The growing
dissatisfaction of yacht-owners at the extreme light scantling
of modern racing yachts was strongly demonstrated by* the
fact that both " White Heather I." and " Nyria " were specially
ordered to be of heavy scantling, and they were classed Ai at
Lloyd's. They were therefore of the semi-cruiser type.
" Nyria," however, was the extreme type of a yacht of her
period in shape, although heavy in construction. The only
conspicuous fault to be found with the form of the racing
yachts under the rule was a skimping of the mean draught and
an exaggeration of the full pram-shaped overhanging bow.
The 52-footers were a very popular class. Fife made a great
advance in yacht architecture with a 52-foot cutter called the " Mag-
dalen " (1901). All the other successful vessels under the rule
" Camellia " (Payne), " Lucida " and " Maymon " (Fife), " Moyana"
and " Britomart " (Mylne), and the first-class cutter " Nyria "-
followed her closely in type. An interesting trial took place in
1906, when the first-class cutter " Kariad " (1900) was brought out
to compete with " Nyria " and " White Heather I.," and decidedly
put-sailed, showing that yacht architecture had steadily improved
in the past six seasons.
International Rules Introduced. In April 1904 Mr Heckstall
Smith drew the attention of German, French and British
yachtsmen to the fact that the yacht measurement rules (then
different in the various countries) were generally due to terminate
about the end of 1907, and suggested that many advantages
would accrue if an international rule could be agreed upon.
The Yacht-Racing Association agreed to take the matter up,
and at two International Conferences, held in London in January
and June 1906, an international rule of yacht measurement
and rating was unanimously agreed to by all the nations of
Europe. America alone refused to attend the Conference.
Mr R. E. Froude struck the keynote of the object of the Confer-
ence by a statement that the ideal yacht should be a vessel
combining " habitability with speed." The truth of this axiom
was generally accepted. Old plank-on-edge types under the
tonnage rules were habitable but slow. Skimming-dishes at-
tained the maximum speed, but were uninhabitable. Neither
therefore attained the ideal type. A good form was attained
in 1901 with " Magdalen," but since that year the bane of
light construction had become harmful to yachting. Hence
the conference aimed at a rule which would produce a yacht
combining habitabili'cy with speed. They adopted a form of
linear rating comprising certain penalties upon hollow mid-
ship section (i.e. Benzon's d tax) and also upon full pram bows.
The following was adopted as the rule by which all racing
yachts in Europe are rated:
L+B+jG+3i7-H VS-F _ Rating in linear units, Le. either ft. or
2 metres.
Where L = Length in linear units.
B = Extreme beam in linear units.
G = Girth in linear units.
2 = Girth difference in linear units.
S = Sail area in square units.
F = Freeboard in linear units.
The length L for the formula is the length on the water-line,
with the addition (i) of the difference between the girth, covering-
board to covering-board, at the bow water-line ending, and twice
the freeboard at that point, and (2) one-fifth of the difference
between the girth, covering-board to covering-board, at the stern
water-line ending, and twice the freeboard at that point. The
additions (i) and (2) penalize the full overhangs and the bow
overhang in particular. The girth, G, is the chain girth
measured at that part of the yacht at which the measurement,
is greatest, less twice the freeboard at the same station, but
there are certain provisions allowing the measurement of girth
generally to be taken 0-55 from the bow end of the water-line.
The girth difference, d in the formula, is the difference between
the chain girth, measured as above described, from covering-
board to covering-board, and the skin girth between the
same points, measured along the actual outline of the cross-
section.
For racing the yachts are divided into eleven classes. Class A
is for schooners and yawls only, above 23 metres (75-4 ft.) of
rating, with a time allowance of four seconds per metre per
mile. All the yachts in this class must be classed Ai. In
racing, yawls sail at their actual rating and schooners at 12%
less than their actual rating. The other classes are the ten
YACHTING
895
separate cutter classes, in which there is no time allowance
whatever:
International
Classes approximating
to L.W.L of Yacht.
Corresponding
Classes in English
Feet.
Limit to Number
of Persons allowed
on Board during
a Race.
23 metres rating.
75-4
No limit
19
62-3
20
15
49-2
>4
12
39-4
IO
IO
32-8
8
9
29-5
6
8 . .
26-2
5
7
23-0
4
6
19-7
3
5
16-4
2
Under the international rule the old trouble of ultra-light
scantling in racing yachts has been completely abolished, for
all yachts must be built under the survey and classed with one
of the three classification societies Lloyd's Register of British
and Foreign Shipping, Germanischer Lloyd, or Bureau Veritas;
and yachts of the international cutter classes enumerated above
so built will be classed R., denoting that their scantlings are
as required for their respective rating classes. This rule was
introduced on the ist of January 1008; England, Germany,
France, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Austria-Hungary, Belgium,
Holland, Italy, Spain, Finland, Russia and the Argentine
Republic agreed to adopt it until December 3 ist, 1917. England
adopted the new system a year before it formally became
international, on the ist of January 1907.
Racing Yachts Built under the International Rules. The new
rule produced the type of yacht desired a vessel combining
habitability with speed. Amongst the handsomest examples
were the German Emperor's schooner " Meteor " (1909), and
the schooner "Germania" (1908), 400 tons or 31^ metres
measurement, Class A, both built by Krupp's at Kiel. German
designed, German built, and German rigged and manned, they
demonstrated the wonderful strides made by Germany in yacht-
ing. A few years before there were not a dozen smart yachts
in Germany, and indeed the Kaiserlicher Yacht Club at Kiel
was only founded in 1887. The " Germania " holds the record
over the old " Queen's course " at Cowes, having in 1908 sailed
it a quarter of an hour faster than any other vessel. Her time
over the distance of about 47 to 48 nautical m. was 3 hours
35 min. n sees., or at the rate of 13-1 knots. In 1910
Herreshoff built a wonderful racing schooner of A class for
the international rules called the " Westward," and in the
races this Yankee clipper sailed at Cowes she proved the
most weatherly schooner ever built.
It is interesting to recall some old records of speed over
courses inside the Isle of Wight.
Date.
Yacht.
Distance.
Time.
Remarks.
1858
The Arrow
45 miles
4 h. 19 m.
Cutter ) Same
1872
The Arrow
5 ..
4 h. 40 m.
Cutter ) vessel.
1872
Kriemhilda
4 h. 37 m.
Cutter.
1883
Marjorie
50 ',',
4 h. 26 m.
Cutter.
1883
Samoena
50
4 h. 15 m.
Cutter.
1885
Lorna
50 ..
4 h. 14 m.
Yawl.
1885
I rex
50
4 h. 7 m.
Cutter.
1870
1875
Egeria
Olga
50
5
4 h. 27 m.
4 h. 25 m.
Schooner.
Schooner.
1879
Enchantress
4 h. 18 m.
American
schooner.
1908
Cicely
46
3 h. 43 m.
British sch.
1902
Meteor
47 ..
3 h. 50 m.
American sch.
1908
Shamrock
47 .,
4 h. o m.
British cutter,
only 75 feet
L.W.L.
1908
Germania
47 -
3 h. 35 m.
German sch.
In 1907, 1908, 1909 and 1910, 389 yachts were built under the
international rules: A class, 3; 23 metres class, 3; 15 metres
class, 15; 12 metres, 21; 10 metres, 33; 9 metres, 17;
8 metres, 88; 7 metres, 46; 6 metres, 144; and 5 metres, 22.
The 23-metre cutters " Shamrock," designed by Fife (1908),
belonging to Sir Thomas Lipton, " White Heather II." (Fife;
1907), owned by Mr Kennedy, and " Brynhild " (Nicholson;
1907), owned by Sir James Fender; and also " Ostara,"
15 metres (Mylne; 1909), owned by Mr W. P. Burton;
" Hispania," 15 metres (Fife; 1009), owned by the king of
Spain; " Alachie and Cintra " (Fife) in the 1 2-metre class, have
been amongst the best yachts built for the international rules.
During the seasons of 1908, 1909 and 1910 there was splendid
sport in England, Germany, France, Belgium, Norway and
Sweden, and indeed all over the continent; the yachts were
very closely matched, the is-metres (49-2 ft.), 8-metres (26-2 ft.)
and 6-metres (19-7 ft.) proving perhaps the most popular. The
national authorities of the countries which adopted the inter-
national rules in 1906 have now formed an International
Yacht-Racing Union, under the chairmanship of the British
Yacht-Racing Association.
YACHT-BUILDING STATISTICS.
The number and tonnage of yachts shown on Lloyd's Register (1909) as built in the several countries are as follows:
COUNTRIES.
TOTAL.
UNITED
KINGDOM.
BRITISH
COLONIES.
BELGIUM
and
HOLLAND.
DEN-HARK.
FIANCE.
GERMANY
and
AUSTRIA.
ITALY.
NORWAY
and
SWEDEN.
OTHER
COUNTRIES.
STEAK AND MOTOR YACHTS: Total
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tens.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tom.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tom
1,443
100,160
137
3,775
76
3,454
37
5,408
183
6,745
86
6,603
20
437
37
1,648
>86
66,107
3,394
383,418
SAILING YACHTS: Total .
Grand Total .
3.ISI
57.510
7i
3.J3I
139
3,643
106
1,911
347
4,063
647
6,884
49
57i
305
3.809
369
13.398
5.374
04.009
4.S94
347,670
408
7,006 | 305
5,097
33
7,409
539
10,807
733
13.488
09
998
343
5,547
555
79,405
7,568
377,437
American yachts of 75 gross registered tons and upwards are
included under "Other Countries"; the number of these yachts
built in America is 2^8 of 67,119 tons.
In 1909, in the United Kingdom, from January to May, the time
of the year when yachts are generally constructed, there were
building, or built, 27 steam yachts of 3471 tons, and 28 sailing
yachts of 963 tons; this includes only yachts of 10 tons and
upwards. Excluding the small craft built in America, particulars
of which are difficult to obtain, there were on the register 7568
vachls with a tonnage of 377,427. In 1887 there was a total of
about 3000 yachts on the register with a tonnage of 132,718. Since
that date, therefore, in round figures, 1500 had been added to the
number and more than 100,000 tons to the tonnage. This fact
seems to show clearly the extension of the pastime of yachting.
The America's Cup.
This international trophy was originally a cup given by the Royal
Yacht Squadron at Cowes, Isle of Wight, on the 22nd of August
1851, for a race open to all yachts, with no time allowance of any
kind, the course being " round the Isle of Wight, inside the No Man's
buoy and Sand Head buoy and outside the Nab." Fifteen vessels
took up their stations off Cowes and started from moorings. In
the table on the following page are the names of the competitors.
The fleet started at 10 o'clock. At the No Man's buoy the yachts
were in a cluster, " Volante " leading, then " Freak " " Aurora,"
" Gipsy Queen," " America," " Beatrice," " Alarm," "Arrow " and
" Bacchante " in the order named. The other six brought up the
rear, and the " Wyvern " returned to Cowes. Passing out to the
8 9 6
YACHTING
Yacht.
Rig.
Tons.
Owner.
Beatrice
Schooner
161
Sir W. P. Carew.
Volante
Cutter
48
Mr J. L. Craigie.
Arrow
Cutter
81
Mr T. Chamberlayne.
Wyvern
Schooner
205
The duke of Marlborough.
lone .
Schooner
75
Mr A. Hill.
Constance
Schooner
218
The marquis of Conyngham.
Gipsy Queen
Schooner
160
Sir H. B. Hoghton.
Alarm
Cutter
193
Mr J. Weld.
Mona
Cutter
Lord Alfred Paget.
America
Schooner
170
Messrs Stevens.
Brilliant
3-masted
392
Mr G. H. Ackers.
schooner
Bacchante .
Cutter
80
Mr B. H. Jones.
Freak
Cutter
60
Mr W. Curling.
Eclipse
Cutter
50
Mr H. S. Fearon.
Aurora
Cutter
84
Mr T. Le Marchant.
eastward the " America " went inside the Nab, a course which was
contrary to the printed programme, but an objection afterwards
made on this score against her was not persisted in. Off Sandown
Bay. the " America " obtained a long lead and in a freshening wind
carried away her jibboom. Here the " Aurora " was second boat.
The " Volante " sprung her bowsprit and gave up. The " Arrow "
ran ashore and the " Alarm " went to her assistance, so both were
out of the race. Abreast of Ventnor the American schooner was
a mile ahead of " Aurora," which was the last British craft to keep
her in sight in a thick haze that blew up from the S.W. late in the
afternoon. At the Needles the wind dropped until it was very light,
and the " America " was then some 6 m. ahead of " Aurora," the time
being about 6 p.m. The finish was:
America (winner)
Aurora .
Bacchante
Eclipse
Brilliant
8.37 P.m.
8.58 p.m.
9.30 p.m.
9-45 P-m.
i. 20 a.m.
Aug. 22.
Aug. 22.
Aug. 22.
Aug. 22.
Aug. 23.
The " America " was built at New York by the firm of George &
James R. Steers for the special purpose of competing with British
yachts at Cowes. George Steers, who was born in New York,
designed her, the designer being a son of Henry Steers, a shipwright
at Dartmouth. The registered owners of the vessel were Mr J. C.
Stevens, the commodore of the NewYorkYacht Club, Mr C.A.Stevens,
Mr H. Wilkes and Mr J. B. Finlay. Her crew consisted of thirteen
all told, seven seamen before the mast, two mates, cook, steward,
boy and master. The cost of building was set down at 24 per ton,
and her builder was to receive one-third more should she succeed
" in out-sailing any competitors of the same tonnage in England."
The vessel had a long lean hollow entrance and rather short but fine
run, but her lines were graceful and clean and the transverse sections
amidships very gentle and shapely. She had a clipper bow and
elliptical stern. Her sails particularly were superior in cut to those
of the English vessels. Her masts raked, and she carried a mainsail
laced to the boom, which in those days was almost unknown in
England, a foresail, and a jib, also set on a boom and on an immensely
heavy forestay which was the chief support of the foremast. She
carried a small main topsail with a short yard and small jackyard.
Occasionally she set also a flying jib on a jibboom, but this was not
regarded as of much account. The principal dimensions of the
"America" were: tonnage 171; length over all 94 ft.; on the
keel 82 ft. ; beam 22 ft. 6 in. ; foremast 79 ft. 6 in. ; mainmast 81 ft.
(with a rake of 2j in. to the foot in each mast); hollow bowsprit
17 ft. out board only; foregaff 24 ft.; maingaff 28 ft ; mainboom
56 ft. She was ballasted with pig-iron; 21 tons of the iron were
permanently built into the vessel and the rest stowed inside. Below
deck she was comfortably fitted for the living accommodation of the
owner, guests and crew, and a cockpit on deck was a feature that few
English yachts of the period possessed.
The cup won at Cowes by the " America," although not originally
intended as a challenge cup, was afterwards given to the New York
Yacht Club by the owner of the " America ' as a challenge trophy
and named the " America's cup." In 1887 the sole surviving owner
of the cup, George L. S. Schuyler, attached to the trophy a deed of
gift which sets forth the conditions under which all races for the cup
must take place. In brief the conditions are; (i) That the races
must be between one yacht built in the country of the challenging
club and one yacht built in the country of the club holding the cup.
(2) That the size of the yachts, if of one mast, must be not less than
65 ft. L.W.L. and not more than 90 ft. L.W.L. If of two-masted
rig not less than 80 ft. L.W.L. and not more than 115 ft. L.W.L.
(3) The challenging club must give ten months' notice of the race,
and accompanying the challenge must be sent the name, rig and
the following dimensions: length L.W.L.; beam and draught of
water of the challenging vessel (which dimensions shall not be
exceeded), and as soon as possible a custom-house registry of the
vessel. (4) The vessel must proceed under sail on her own bottom
to the place where the contest is to take place.
The deed of gift, however, is an elastic document, for it contains
the following clause which is known as the Mutual Agreement
Clause: " The club challenging for the cup and the club holding the
same may by mutual consent make any arrangement satisfactory
to both as to the dates, courses, number of trials, rules and sailing
regulations, and any and all other conditions of the match, in which
case also the ten months' notice may be waived."
In 1870 Mr James Ashbury of Brighton challenged with the
schooner " Cambria," and in 1871 with another schooner the
" Livonia." In both cases the event was a test of rival types,
" Cambria " and " Livonia " being old-fashioned British schooners
while the vessels they met were the pick of the American broader
and shallower types. " Cambria " had to meet fourteen opponents,
but in 1871 the " Livonia " raced against one opponent only. The
Americans, however, although they agreed to race one vessel only
against the " Livonia," brought several yachts up to the line and
only selected their defender at the last moment. The first defender
which " Livonia " had to meet was the " Columbia," which won the
first and second events. In the third meeting, however, in a very
strong wind the British schooner hammered the " Columbia "
severely, and eventually the American yacht, having carried away
some gear, was beaten by a quarter of an hour. In the two remain-
ing races of the series the Americans were represented by the
' Sappho,'' which eanly defeated the " Livonia."
The next challenges came from Canada in 1876 and 1881, but
neither the schooner " Countess of Dufferin " nor the sloop " Ata-
lanta " met with any success.
The races of 1885 and 1886, when Sir Richard Sutton challenged
with " Genesta " and Lieutenant Henn, R.N., with " Galatea,"
were interesting chiefly because they were of the nature of trials
between the heavy plank-pn-edge type of cutter and the prevailing
American type of broad light-draught sloop. The contests proved
the superiority of the American sloops.
In 1886 the plank-on-edge type was abandoned in England,
and when the Scottish yacht " Thistle " was built in 1887 to chal-
lenge for the cup it was hoped that she would meet with success.
Thistle," however, although of greater beam and proportionately
lighter displacement than such vessels as " Genesta " and " Galatea,
was quite easily defeated by the centre-board sloop " Volunteer."
Thus once again did the lighter American type prevail even against
the modified form of the " Thistle."
The race between the " Thistle " and " Volunteer " of 1887
may be said to have been the last race for the cup wherein there
was any marked difference between the type of the boats contesting.
In all subsequent races the form of the challenger and defender
became approximately similar, but while the types were gradually
converging the American yachts were still usually somewhat lighter
in displacement than the challengers. The " Thistle " was the first
vessel built in Great Britain expressly for the match, and after her
race in 1887 the types in fashion on both sides of the Atlantic rapidly
converged, and deep-draught fin-keeled vessels with deep fins and
light shallow hulls took the place of the former types of the shallow
American sloops and deep-keeled wall-sided British cutters. In
1892 some splendid semi-fin-keeled cutters of the new pattern were
built in the 4O-rating class for the ordinary English coast regattas,
and in 1893 the fin-keel type in England was even more successful.
The first .class cutters "Britannia," "Valkyrie II.," " Satanita "
and " Calluna," built in 1893, handsomely defeated a Herreshoff
yacht, the " Navahoe," which went over from America to race
against them. On the strength of the victories of " Valkyrie II."
and " Britannia " many British yachtsmen anticipated success for
Lord Dunraven when he raced for the America's cup with his cutter
" Valkyrie II." in the autumn of 1893. The Americans, however,
had built a fine fleet of defenders, " Colonia," " Pilgrim," " Jubilee "
and " Vigilant," and the latter beat " Valkyrie II." In the follow-
ing season the " Vigilant " crossed the Atlantic and raced in British
waters in 1894 against the " Britannia," and was frequently beaten.
G. L. Watson, who had designed " Thistle " and " Valkyrie II."
as well as " Britannia," was commissioned by Lord Dunraven to
design " Valkyrie III." specially for an " America's cup " race in
1895. " Valkyrie III." was a very extreme fin-keeled boat, and
for the first time the challenger appeared to have outbuilt the
defending designer. " Valkyrie III. ' carried 13,027 sq. ft. of sail
to the American " Defender's " 12,602. It was said that the
Watson boat actually had less displacement. Both were 90 ft.
L.W.L., " Valkyrie III." being 129 ft. over all against " Defender's "
123, and " Valkyrie III." 26-2 ft. beam against " Defender's "
23-03 ft. The races were unsatisfactory. In the first race Lord
Dunraven claimed that " Valkyrie III." was hampered by the wash
of steamers following the race, and his yacht was 8 m. 49 sec. astern.
In the second race " Valkyrie " beat " Defender " by 49 seconds
on the corrected time and actually by I m. 14 sec., but there was a
foul at the start in which " Defender " was partially disabled.
On protest the English yacht was disqualified, so that both events
counted to " Defender." In the third race Lord Dunraven objected
that ballast had been added to the American yacht since measure-
ment, and the " Valkyrie III." merely crossed the line and retired,
giving the " Defender " the match.
In 1899. 1901 and 1903 Sir Thomas Lipton tried to win the cup
YACHTING
897
with three very costly and extreme vessels, " Shamrock I.,"
"Shamrock II." and " Shamrock III." No. I. and No. III. were
designed by W. Fife, and No. II. by G. L. "Watson. In 1899
" Shamrock I." was rather easily defeated by " Columbia." In
1901 the Americans were not especially successful in building the
vessel which they had prepared to defend the cup, and in the trial
races the old 1899 yacht " Columbia," sailed by Captain Charles
Barr a half-brother of the skipper of the Scottish yacht " Thistle "
defeated the new vessel " Constitution," which had been built
for the defence of the trophy for 1901 ; consequently the New York
Yacht Club again selected the " Columbia to defend the cup
against " Shamrock II." After very close racing the " Columbia "
vhich was the better handled boat retained the prize.
The next contest for the cup was in 1903. On this occasion
Herreshoff turned out in " Reliance " a wonderful example of a large
fin-keeled boat with full pram-bow and light skimming-dish hull.
She was of the lightest possible construction (bronze with steel
web frames), 90 ft. length L.W.L., 144 ft. length over all, with
16,160 so. ft. of sail area, 25 ft. 10 in. beam, and a draught of 19 ft.
?in. " Reliance " was a far more extreme vessel than " Shamrock
II." The latter had a deeper body and a less prammed overhang
forward. With the same water-line as " Reliance," the English
yacht had rather over a foot less beam. The chief difference in
dimensions, however, was in the sail area; " Shamrock III."
i carried 14437 sq. ft., or 1823 sq. ft. less than " Reliance." The
i result was a very easy victory for the " Reliance."
RACES FOR THE AMERICA'S CUP
Date.
Name.
Tonnage.
Course.
Allows
Elapsed
Time.
Corrected
Time.
Wins by
M.S.
H. M. S.
H. M. S.
M. S.
Aug. 22, 1851
America
170
From Cowes around Isle of Wight (Aurora
10 37 o
10 37 o
18 o
Aurora
47
second).
10 55 o
'0 55 o
Aug. 8, 1870
Magic
97-2
N.Y.Y.C. Course (Cambria tenth).
4 7 54
3 58 26
39 12-7
Cambria
227-6
4 34 57
4 37 38
Oct. 16, 1871
Columbia
220
N.Y.Y.C. Course.
6 17 42
6 19 41
27 4
Livonia
280
6 43 o
6 46 45
Oct. 1 8, 1871
Columbia
2 2O
20 miles to windward off Sandy Hook Light-
3 i 33i
3 7 4'!
10 33l
Livonia
280
ship and return.
3 6 49}
3 18 15*
Oct. 19, 1871
Livonia
280
N.Y.Y.C. Course (Columbia disabled).
3 53 5
4 2 25
15 10
Columbia
2 2O
4 '2 38
4 '7 35
Oct. 21, 1871
Sappho
310
20 miles to windward off Sandy Hook Lightship
5 33 24
5 3 2
33 21
Livonia
280
and return.
6 4 38
6 9 23
Oct. 23, 1871
Sappho
310
N.Y.Y.C. Course.
4 38 5
4 46 17
25 27
Livonia
280
544'
5 n 44
Aug. ii, 1876
Madeleine
I5I-49
N.Y.Y.C. Course.
5 24 55
5 23 54
10 59
C'tess.of Dufferin
I38'20
5'34 53
5 34 53
Aug. 12, 1876
Madeleine
I5I-49
20 miles to windward off Sandy Hook Lightship
7 19 47
7 18 46
27 14
C'tess.of Dufferin
I38-20
and return.
7 46 o
7 46 o
Nov. 9, 1881
Mischief
79-27
N.Y.Y.C. Course.
4 17 9
4 17 9
28 20j
Atlanta
8 4
4 48 244
4 45 29i
Nov. 10, 1881
Mischief
79-27
1 6 miles to leeward from Buoy 5 off Sandy Hook
4 54 53
4 54 53
38 54
Atlanta
8 4
. and return.
5 36 52
5 33 47
Sept. 14, 1885
Puritan
I4O
N.Y.Y.C. Course.
. .
665
665
16 19
Genesta
80
o 28
6 22 52
6 22 24
Sept. 16, 1885
Puritan
140
20 miles to leeward off Sandy Hook Lightship
5 3 H
5 3 H
I 38
Genesta
80
and return.
o 38
5 5 20
5 4 5 2
Sept. 9, 1886
Mayflower
171-74
N.Y.Y.C. Course.
5 26 41
*/ T **
5 26 41
12 2
Galatea
171-14
o 38
5 39 21
5 38 43
Sept. n, 1886
Mayflower
171-74
20 miles to leeward off Sandy! Hook Lightship
6 49 o
6 49 o
29 9
Galatea
171-14
and return.
o 39
7 18 48
7 18 9
Sept. 27, 1887
Volunteer
209-08
N.Y.Y.C. Course.
4 53 18
4 53 18
19 23}
Thistle
253-94
o 5
5 12 463
5 12 41}
Sept. 30, 1887
Volunteer
209-08
20 miles to windward off Scotland Lightship
5 42 56i
5 42 56}
II 48}
Thistle
253-94
and return.
o"6
5 54 5i
5 54 45
Sailing Length.
M. S.
H. M. S.
H. M. S.
M. S.
Oct. 7, 1893
Vigilant
96-78
15 miles to windward off Scotland Lightship and
4 5 47
4 5 47
5 48
Valkyrie II.
93-n
return.
i '48
4 13 23
4 II 35
Oct. 9, 1893
Vigilant
96-78
Course 1 equilateral triangle 30 miles.
3 25 i
3 25 i
10 35
Valkyrie II.
93-n
i 48
3 37 24
3 35 3
Oct. 13, 1893
Vigilant
96-78
15 miles to windward off Scotland Lightshipand
3 24 39
3 24 39
o 40
Valkyrie II.
93-57*
return.
i 33
3 26 52
3 25 19
Sept. 7, 1895
Defender
100-36
15 miles to windward off Scotland Lightshipand
o 29
5 o 24
4 59 55
8 49
Valkyrie III.
101-49
return.
5 8 44
5 8 44
Sept. 10, 1895
Defender
100-36
Course equilateral triangle 30 miles.
o 29
3 56 25
3 55 56
o 47
Valkyrie III.
101-49
3 55 9t
3 55 9
Sept. 12, 1895
Defender
100-36
15 miles to windward and return from Sandy
o 29
4 44 12
4 43 43
Valkyrie III.
101-49
Hook Lightship.
T
Oct. 16, 1899
Columbia
102-135
15 miles E.S.E. from Sandy Hcok Lightship and
4 53 53
4 53 53
10 8
Shamrock
101-092
return 30 miles.
o"6
547
5 4 I
Oct. 17, 1899
Columbia
102-135
i o miles triangular from Sandy Hook Lightship
3370
Shamrock
101-092
30 miles.
o"6
1
Oct. 20, 1899
Columbia
102-135
15 miles S. by W. from Sandy Hook Lightship
o 16
3 38 25
3 38 9
634
Shamrock
102-565
and return 30 miles.
3 44 43
3 44 43
Sept. 28, 1901
Columbia
102-355
15 miles E. by S. from Sandy Hook Lightship
o 43
4 31 7
4 30 24
I 20
Shamrock II.
103-79
and return 30 miles.
4 31 44
4 31 44
Oct. 3, 1901
Columbia
102-355
Course equilateral triangle 30 miles.
o 43
3 13 18
3 12 35
3 35
Shamrock II.
103-79
3 16 10
3 16 10
Oct. 4, 1901
Columbia
102-355
15 miles S.S.E. from Sandy Hook Lightship and
o 43
4 33 40
4 32 57
c 41
Shamrock II.
103-79
return 30 miles.
4 33 38
4 33 3 8
Aug. 22, 1903
Reliance
108-41
15 miles to windward and return 30 miles.
3 32 17
3 32 17
7 3
Shamrock III.
104-37
i 57
3 41 17
3 39 20
Aug. 25, 1903
Reliance
108-41
Course equilateral triangle 30 miles.
3 H 54
3 H 54
i 19
Shamrock III.
'04-37
i 57
3 18 10
3 16 12
Sept. 3, 1903
Reliance
108-39
15 miles to windward and return 30 miles.
4 28 o
4 28 o
Shamrock III.
104-37
i 57
Did no
t finish.
1 Remeasured. t Disqualified for fouling " Defender." J Withdrew on crossing the line,
xxvm. 29
Carried away topmast and withdrew.
(B. H.-S.)
898
YAK YAKUTSK
YAK, the wild (and domesticated) ox of the Tibetan plateau;
a species nearly allied to the bison group. The yak, Bos
(Poephagus) grunnicns, is one of the finest and largest of the
wild oxen, characterized by the growth of long shaggy hair on
the flanks and under parts of the body and the well-known bushy
tail. In Europe a false impression of the yak is prevalent, owing
lo the fact that all the specimens imported have belonged either i
to a small domesticated breed from Darjiling, or to half-breeds; |
the latter being generally black and white, instead of the uniform
Domesticated Yak, Bos (Poephagus) grunniens.
black of the pure-bred and wild animal. None of such half-
breeds can compare with the magnificent half-tamed animals
kept by the natives of the elevated Rupsu plateau, S. of the
Indus, where they afford the only means of transport by this
route between Ladak and India. But even these are inferior
to the wild yak, which stands nearly 6 ft. at the shoulder,
and is absolutely confined to the arid central plateau of Tibet.
Yak have the great disadvantage that they will not eat corn,
and the large pure-bred animals will not live at low elevations.
The tails are used in India as fly-whisks, under the name of
chowris. The title of " grunting ox " properly belongs only
to the domesticated breed.
YAKUB KHAN (1840- ), ex-amir of Afghanistan, son of
the amir Shere Ali, was born in 1849. He showed great ability
at an early age, and was made governor of Herat by his father,
but broke into open rebellion against him in 1870, and was
imprisoned in 1874 in Kabul. However, when Shere Ali in 1878
fled before the British, he handed over the government to Yakub,
who, on his father's death in the following February, was pro-
claimed amir, and signed a treaty of peace with the British at
Gandamak. He agreed to receive a British resident, and was in
turn to receive a subsidy and support against foreign attack.
But in September of the same year his revolted troops attacked
the British residency, and the resident, Sir Louis Cavagnari,
and his staff and suite were cut to pieces. This outrage was
instantly avenged, for in October Ear! (then Sir Frederick)
Roberts with a large force defeated the Afghans on the 6th and
took possession of Kabul on th izth. Yakub Khan thereupon
abdicated, took refuge in the British camp, and was sent to India
on the I3th of December.
YAKU-SHIMA, an island belonging to Japan, lying S. of Kiu-
shiu, in 30 30' N. and 130 30' E. It is an irregular pentagon,
14 m. in width and the same in length. It is separated from
Tanega-shima by the Vincennes Strait (Yaku-kaiky6), 12^ m.
wide, and its surface is broken by lofty mountains, of which
Yae-dake rises to a height of 6515 ft., and Eboshi-dake to a height
of 4840 ft. It is covered with dense forest, in which are some
of the finest cryptomeria in Japan, known as Yaku-sugi.
YAKUTSK, a province of E. Siberia, including nearly the
whole of the basin of the Lena, and covering an area of 1,530,253
sq. m. It has the Arctic Ocean on the N., the governments of
Yeniseisk and Irkutsk on the W., and Irkutsk and Amur on
the S., and is separated from the Pacific (Sea of Okhotsk) by
the narrow Maritime Province. The Vitim plateau, 2500 to
3500 ft. in altitude, bordered on the S.E. by the Stanovoi Moun-
tains, occupies the S.E. portion of the province. Its moist,
elevated valleys, intersected by ranges of flat, dome-shaped
hills, which rise nearly 1000 ft. above the plateau, form an
immense desert of forest and marsh, visited only by Tungus
hunters, save in the S.W., where there are a few gold-mining
settlements. The high border-ridge of the plateau (see SIBERIA)
stretches from the South Muya Mountains towards the N.E.,
thus compelling the river Aldan to make a great bend in
that direction. An alpine country skirts the plateau all
along its N.W. margin, and contains productive gold-mines
in the spurs between the Vitim and the Lena. The latter
stream drains the outer base of this alpine region. It is a wild
land, traversed by several chains of mountains, all having a
N.E. strike, and intersected by deep, narrow valleys, down
which the mountain-streams tumble uncontrolled. The whole
is clothed with dense forests, through which none but the
Tunguses can find their way. The summits of the mountains,
4000 to 6000 ft., mostly rise above the limits of tree vegetation,
but in no case pass the snow-line. The summits and slopes
alike are strewn with dtbris of crystalline rock, mostly hidden
under thick incrustations of lichens, amid which the larch
alone is able to find sustenance. Birch and aspen grow on
the lower slopes; and in the narrow valley bottoms thickets
of poplar and willow or patches of grass spring up on the
scanty alluvium. All the necessaries of life for the gold-diggings
have to be shipped from Irkutsk down the Lena, and deposited
at entrep6ts, whence they are transported in winter by means
of reindeer to their destination. A line drawn from the mouth
of the Vitim N.E. towards that of the Aldan separates the
mountain regions from the elevated plains (1500 to 2000 ft.)
which fringe the highlands all the way from the upper Lena
to Verkhne-Kolymsk, and probably to the mouth of the
Kolyma. Vast meadows, sometimes marshy, extend over these
plains in the S.W.; farther N. mosses and lichens are the
predominant vegetation. The surface is much furrowed by
rivers and diversified by mountain-chains (Verkhoyansk,
Kolymsk and Alazeya) about the real character of which little
is known. Beyond the elevated plains vast tundras, carpeted
with mosses and lichens, stretch to the shores of the ice-bound
ocean.
The Arctic coast is indented by several bays Borkhaya and
Yana E. of the Lena delta, and Omulakh, Kolyma and Chaun still
farther E. The islands fall into three groups the Lyakhov, the
Anjou or New Siberian and the De Long Islands. The Medvyezhie
(Bear) Islands off the Kolyma and the two Ayun Islands in Chaun
Bay are merely littoral. Wrangel Land seems to be the outer
island of a great and as yet unknown archipelago. Every year a
narrow passage close to the coast is left almost free of ice, enabling
a ship or two sometimes to reach the estuary of the Yenisei, or even
the delta of the Lena.
The great artery of Yakutsk, the Lena, rises on the W. slope of
the Baikal Mountains, close to Lake Baikal. About 60 N. it
receives from the right its first great tributary, the Vitim (1250 m.
in length), which is navigable by steamers in its lower course. The
Olekma (700 m.) is navigable only in the very lowest part of its
course, and the Aldan (1155 m.) is navigated from Ust-Maysk.
On the left is the Vilyui (1300 m.), which has an immense drainage
area on the lower plains, and has been navigated since 1887. The
lower course of the Lena is subject to terrible inundations when
the ice breaks up on its upper reaches. The Olenek (1200 m.),
which enters the Arctic Ocean to the W. of the Lena, is also a con-
siderable river; the Yana (750 m.), Indigirka (950) and Kolyma
(uoo) all rise in the mountain region between 61 and 62 N., and
now N. and N.E. into the Arctic Ocean.
The granites, granitic syenites and gneisses of the high plateau
are wrapped about by a variety of crystalline slates, Huroman and
Laurentian ; and Silurian and Devonian limestones and sandstones
extend over vast areas. Farther N. the Carboniferous, Cretaceous
and Jurassic formations are spread over a wide region, and the
whole is covered with Glacial deposits in the highlands and with
post-Glacial elsewhere. The mineral wealth of Yakutsk is very
great; but gold and salt (obtained from springs) only are worked.
Coal has been discovered on the Vilyui and on the lower Lena.
Yakutsk has unparalleled extremes of cold and heat. At
YAKUTSK YALE UNIVERSITY
899
Verkhoyansk on the Yana (67 34' N. and 134 20' E.), frosts of
79-5. F. have been observed, and the average temperature of the
three winter months is 53-1; even that of March only is little
above the freezing-point of mercury (37-9). Neither Ust-Yansk
(7 55' N-i but close to the sea coast) nor Yakutsk, nor even the polar
station of Sagastyr at the mouth of the Lena (73 23' N.), has a
winter so cold and so protracted. And yet at Sagastyr temperatures
of 63-6 have been observed, and the average temperature of
February is only 43-6. At Yakutsk the average temperature of
the winter is 40-2 , and the soil is frozen to a depth of 600 ft.
(Middendorff). The Lena, both at Kirensk and at Yakutsk, is
free from ice for only 161 days in the year, the Yana at Ust-Yansk
for 105. At Yakutsk only 145 days and at Verkhoyansk only 73
have no snow; the interval between the latest frosts of one
season and the earliest frosts of the next is barely 37 days.
The bulk of the inhabitants are Yakuts; there are some
20,000 Russians, many of them exiles, and a certain number
of Tunguscs, Tatars, Lamuts and Chukchis. The estimated
pop. in 1906 was 300,600. The Yakuts belong to the
Turkish stock, and speak a dialect of Turkish, with an ad-
mixture of Mongolian words. They call themselves Sokha or
Sakhov (pi. Sokhalar or Sakhalov), their present name having
been borrowed by the Russians from the Tunguses, who call
them Yeko or Yekot. Most probably they once inhabited
S. Siberia, especially the upper Yenisei, where a Tatar tribe
calling itself Sakha still survives in Minusinsk. They are
middle-sized, have dark and rather narrow eyes, a broad
flat nose, thick black hair and little beard. They are very
laborious and enterprising, and display in schools much more
intelligence than the Tunguses or Buryats. Their implements
show a great degree of skill and some artistic taste. They
live in log yurtas or huts, with small windows, into which
plates of ice or pieces of skin are inserted instead of glass.
During summer they abandon their wooden dwellings and
encamp in conical tents of birch bark. Their food is chiefly
flesh, and they drink kumiss, or mares' milk. Though nearly
all are nominally Christians, they retain much of their original
Shamanism. Their settlements are now steadily advancing
S. into the hunting domains of the Tunguses, who give way
before their superior civilization.
The province is divided into five districts, the chief towns
of which are Yakutsk. Olekminsk, Sredne-Kolymsk, Verk-
hoyansk and Viluisk. Though the production of gold from
gold washings has been on the decrease, over 15,000 workers
are employed in the Olekma and Vitim gold-mines. Only
43,000 acres are under crops, chiefly barley. Most of the
inhabitants are engaged in live-stock breeding, and keep rein-
deer and sledge-dogs. Fish is an important article of food, especi-
ally in the Kolyma region. In the N. hunting is important,
the skins taken being principally those of squirrels, ermines,
hares, foxes, Arctic foxes, and a few sables, beavers and bears.
The principal channel of communication is the Lena. As
soon as the spring arrives, scores of boats are built at
Kachungsk, Verkholensk and Ust-Ilginsk, and the goods brought
on sledges in winter from the capital of Siberia, including con-
siderable amounts of corn and salt meat, are shipped down
the river. A few steamers descend to the delta of the Lena, and
return with cargoes of fish and furs. Cattle are brought from
Transbaikalia. Two routes, mere horse-tracks, radiate from
Yakutsk to Ayan and to Okhotsk. Manufactured goods and
groceries are imported to Yakutsk by the former.
See F. Thiess, Das Gouvernement Jakutsk in Ostsibirten, in Peter-
mann's Mitteilungen (1897), and Maydell, Reisen and Forschungen
im Jakutskischtn Gebiet in Ostsibirien (St Petersburg, 2 vols., 1805-
1896). (P. A. 1C; J. T. BE.)
YAKUTSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of the province
of the same name, in 62 2' N. and 129 44' E., 1165 m. N.E.
of Irkutsk, on a branch of the Lena. Pop. about 7000.
The old fort is destroyed, except its five wooden towers. The
wooden houses are built upon high basements to protect them
from the floods. Yakutsk possesses a theological seminary and
a cathedral. Its merchants carry on trade in furs, mammoth
ivory and reindeer hides. The town was founded in 1632.
YALE UNIVERSITY, the third oldest university in the United
States, at New Haven, Connecticut.
The founders of the New Haven colony, like those of Massa-
chusetts Bay, cherished the establishment of a college as an
essential part of their ideal of a Christian state, of which educa-
tion and religion should be the basis and the chief fruits. New
Haven since 1644 had contributed annually to the support of
Harvard College, but the distance of the Cambridge school from
southern New England seemed in those days considerable; and
a separate educational establishment was also called for by a
divergent development in politics and theology. Yale was
founded by ministers selected by the churches of the colony, as
President Thomas Clap said, to the end that they might " educate
ministers in our own way." Though " College land " was set
apart in 1647," Yale College had its actual beginning in 1700 when
a few clergymen met in the New Haven with the purpose " to
stand as trustees or undertakers to found, erect and govern the
College " for which at various times donations of books and
money had teen made. The formal establishment was in 1701.
The Connecticut legislature in October granted a charter which
seems to have been partly drafted by Judge Samuel Sewall of
Boston; the Mather family also were among those in Boston
who welcomed and laboured for the establishment of a seminary
of a stricter theology than Harvard, and the ten 2 clergymen who
were the founders and first trustees of the College were graduates
of Harvard.
The legislature, fearful of provoking in England attention
either to the new school or to the powers used in chartering it,
assumed merely to license a " collegiate school," and made its
powers of conferring degrees as unobtrusive as possible. In
1702 the teaching of Yale began. In the early years the
upper students studied where the rector lived, and considerable
groups of the lower students were drawn off by their tutors to
different towns. In 1716 the trustees purchased a lot in New
Haven, and in the next year the College was established there by
the legislature. Commencement was held at New Haven in the
same year, but the last of the several student bodies did not
disband until 1719. The school did not gain a name until the
completion of the first building in 1718. This had been made
possible by a gift from Elihu Yale (1649-1721), a native of
Boston and son of one of the original settlers of New Haven;
he had amassed great wealth in India, where he was governor
of the East India Company's settlement at Madras. The trustees
accordingly named it Yale College in his honour.
The charter of 1701 stated that the end of the school was the
instruction of youth " in the arts and sciences," that they might
be fitted " for public employment, both in church and civil
state." To the clergy, however, who controlled the College,
theology was the basis, security and test of " arts and sciences."
In 1722 the rector, Timothy Cutler, was dismissed because of
a leaning toward Episcopacy. Various special tests were em-
ployed to preserve the doctrinal purity of Calvinism among the-
instructors; that of the students was carefully looked after. In
1753 a stringent test was fixed by the Corporation to ensure the
orthodoxy of the teachers. This was abolished in 1778. From
1808 to 1818 the President and tutors were obliged to signify
assent to a general formulation of orthodox belief. When
George Whitefield, in 1740, initiated by his preaching the
" Great Awakening," a local schism resulted in Connecticut
between " Old Lights " and " New Lights." When the College
set up an independent church the Old Lights made the contention
that the College did not owe its foundation to the original
trustees, but to the first charter granted by the legislature,
which might therefore control the College. This claim President
Clap triumphantly controverted (1763), but Yale fell in con-
sequence under popular distrust, and her growth was delayed
by the shutting off of financial aid from the legislature.
By the first charter (1701) the trustees of the College
were required to be ministers (for a long time, practically,
1 In 1668 the Hopkins Grammar School, next after the Boston
Latin School the oldest educational institution of this grade in the
United States, was established in New Haven.
1 This number was increased to eleven, the full number allowed
by the charter, within a month after it was granted.
goo
YALE UNIVERSITY
Congregationalists) residing in the colony. By a supplementary
act of 1 723 the rector was made ex-officio a trustee. By a second
charter (1745) ample powers were conferred upon the president
(rector) and fellows, constituting together a governing board or
Corporation. This charter is still in force. In 1792 the governor
and lieutenant-governor of the state, and six state senators,
were made ex-officio members of the Corporation. In 1872 the
six senators were replaced by six graduates, chosen by the alumni
body. The clerical element still constitutes one half of the
Corporation. In the first half of the ipth century, under the
lead of Nathaniel W. Taylor (?..), the Divinity School of Yale
became nationally prominent for " Taylorism " or " New Haven
Theology." Daily -attendance at prayers is still required of all
college students.
The first college professorship established was that of divinity
( I 755)> which, in a sense, was the beginning of extra-college
or university work. The theological department was not
organized as a distinct school until 1822. In 1770 a second
professorship was established, of mathematics and natural
philosophy. Timothy Dwight (president, 1795-1817) planned
the establishment of professional schools; his term saw the
foundation of the Medical School (1813) besides the Divinity
School. In 1803 a chair was created for Benjamin Silliman, Sr.
(1770-1864) in chemistry and natural history; English grammar
and geography did not disappear from the curriculum until
1826, nor arithmetic until 1830; political economy was intro-
duced in 1825, and modern languages (French) in the same
year. Not until 1847 did modern history receive separate
recognition. The Library had been given the status of an
independent department in 1843. Compulsory commons were
abolished in 1842, thus removing one feature of a private
boarding school. Corporal punishment (" cuffing " of the
offender's ears by the President) had disappeared before the
War of Independence; and so also had the custom of printing
the students' names according to their social rank, and using
a " degradation " in precedence as punishment; while Dwight
abolished the ancient custom of fagging, and the undemocratic
system of fines that enabled a rich student to live as he pleased
at the expense only of his pocket. The School of Law was
established in 1843. Instruction to graduates in non-profes-
sional courses seems to have been begun in 1826. The appoint-
ment of Edward E. Salisbury to the chair of Arabic and Sanskrit
(1841) was the first provision at Yale for the instruction of
graduates by professors independent of the College. About the
same time graduate instruction in chemistry became important.
(In 1846 also a chair of agricultural chemistry was established
the first in the country.) In 1846 an extra-College department
of Philosophy and Arts was created, conferring degrees since
1852; and from this were separated in 1854 the sciences, which
were entrusted to a separate Scientific School, the original
promoter of agricultural experiment stations in the United
States. Since that time this school and the College have
developed much as complementary and co-ordinate schools of
undergraduates, Yale affording in this respect a very marked
contrast with Harvard. Graduate instruction was concentrated
in 1871 into a distinct Graduate School. This with the three
traditional professional schools the Art School, established
in 1866 (instruction since 1869), and the first university art
school of the country, the Music School, established in 1894
(instruction since 1890), and the Forest School, established in
1900 make up the University, around the College. For the
founding of the Peabody Museum of Natural History, George
Peabody, of London, contributed $150,000 in 1866. The
Observatory, devoted exclusively to research, was established
in 1871. In 1887 the name Yale " University " was adopted.
The organic unity of the whole was then recognized by throwing
open to students ot any department the advantages of all. In
1886, for the first time, a president was chosen who was not of the
College faculty, but from the University faculty.
Great as were the changes in the metamorphosis of old Yale,
none had more influence upon its real and inner life than the
gradual extension of the freedom accorded the students in
the selection of their studies. In 1854 there was no election
permissible until late in the Junior year. In 1876, 1884 and
1893 such freedom was greatly extended. In 1892 the work of
the Graduate School was formally opened to women (some pro-
fessors having admitted them for years past by special consent).
Yale was the first college in New England to take this step.
The buildings number sixty-four in all. Connecticut Hall
(1750-52), long known as South Middle College, a plain brick
building, is the only remainder of the colonial style (restored, 1905)!
Around it are fourteen buildings forming a quadrangle on the
College campus on the W. side of the New Haven Green, between
Elm and Chapel Streets. The oldest are the Old Library (1842)
and Alumni Hall (1853). Others are the Art School (1864), Farnam
Hall (1869), Durfee Hall (1870), Lawrance Hall (1886), Battell
Chapel (1876), Osborn Hall (1889), Vanderbilt Hall (1894), Chit-
tenden Hall (1888) and Linsly Hall (1908). Dwight Hall, erected
in 1886 for the Yale University Christian Association, Welch Hall
(1892) and Phelps Hall complete the quadrangle. Across from
the W. side of the quadrangle is the Peabody Museum (1876).
On the N. side of Elm Street is a row of buildings, including the
Gymnasium (1892), the Divinity School (1870) and the Law
School (18^7). University Avenue leads N. from the College campus
to the University court or campus, on which are the Bicentennial
Buildings (1901-2). E. and N.E. of the University court are
the buildings of the Sheffield Scientific School. Farther N.E. are
the Observatory, Hammond Metallurgical Laboratory, Forestry
Building and Infirmary, and to the S.W. of the College campus
are the Medical School and University Clinic.
The University is organized in four departments Philosophy
and the Arts, Theology, Medicine, and Law each with a distinct
faculty. The first embraces the Academical Department (College),
the Sheffield Scientific School, named in honour of Joseph Earle
Sheffield (1793-1882), a generous benefactor, the School of the
Fine Arts, the Department of Music, the Graduate School and
the Forest School, founded in 1900 by a gift of $150,000 from
J. W. Pinchot and his wife. Other institutions organized inde-
pendently of any one department are: the Library, the Peabody
Museum of Natural History, the Astronomical Observatory and
the Botanical Garden, established in 1900 on the estate of Professor
O. C. Marsh. The special treasures of the Library include the
classical library of Ernst Curtius; the collection of Oriental books
and manuscripts made by Edward E. Salisbury (1814-1901); the
Chinese library of Samuel Wells Williams (1812-1884); a Japanese
collection of above 3000 volumes; the Scandinavian library of
Count Riant; the collection of Arabic manuscripts made by
Count Landberg; the political science collection of Robert von
Mohl; a copy of Newton's Principia presented to the College by
the author; manuscripts of Jonathan Edwards; and large parts
of a gift of nearly a thousand volumes given to Yale in 1733 by
Bishop George Berkeley, who also gave to the College his American
farm, as a basis of a scholarship, the first established in America.
The Library is especially strong in the departments of American
history, medieval history and English dramatic literature. Its
total number of volumes in 1910 was nearly 600,000, exclusive of
many thousand pamphlets. The Peabody Museum contains an un-
rivalled collection of Silurian trilobites; a fine collection of pseudo-
morphs; a beautiful collection of Chinese artistic work in stone
made by Samuel Wells Williams; a notable mineralogical collec-
tion; a fine collection of meteorites made by Professor Hubert
Anson Newton (1830-1896); and the magnificent palaeontological
collection of Professor O. C. Marsh. The School of the Fine Arts
possesses the Jarves gallery of Italian art, a remarkable collection
of Italian "primitives" dating from the nth to the I7th century;
the Alden collection of Belgian wood-carvings, of the lyth
century; and a large collection of modern paintings among which
are fifty-four pictures by John Trumbull. The organization of
the Trumbull collection in 1831 was the first step taken in the
United States toward the introduction of the fine arts into a
university. The equipment of the Observatory consists principally
of a six-inch heliometer by Repsold, an eight-inch equatorial by
Grubb, and two sets of equatorially mounted cameras for photo-
graphing meteors.
In the College and the Medical School four years are required
to complete the course of instruction; in the Divinity School and
the Law School, three years; in the Forest School, two years;
and in the Scientific School there are both three-year and five-year
courses, five years being required for all engineering degrees. Ad-
mission to the College is gained only by passing an examination in
Latin, Greek or substitutes for Greek, French or German, English,
mathematics and ancient history. Admission to the Scientific
School is also only by_ examination. Substantially the equivalent
of a college degree is required for admission to the Divinity
School, but the Medical School and the Law School require only
two years of college work, and a student may obtain a degree
from Yale College and a degree in divinity, medicine or law in
six years. The Forest School, with an extensive equipment at
New Haven and a Forest Experiment Station comprising about
YALTA YAM
901
200 acres of forest and open land at Milford, Pike county, Pennsyl-
vania the estate of J. W. Pinchot is open only to such graduates
of colleges and scientific schools as have had a suitable scientific
training, especially in advanced botany. It confers the degree
of Master of Forestry.
In the College the individual courses are arranged in twenty-six
groups within three divisions, and each student must complete
before graduation both a major and a minor in some one of the
three divisions and one minor in each of the other two divisions.
In the Freshman and Sophomore years the student's freedom ol
election is further restricted. In the Scientific School there is a
somewhat different system of groups. The College confers only
the degree of Bachelor of Arts, but the Scientific School confers
the degrees of Bachelor of Philosophy, Master of Science (requiring
at least one year of resident graduate study), and the engineering
degrees. In the Divinity School the student has the choice of three
courses the historical, the philosophical and the practical or, by
the use of electives, he may combine the three; the study of Hebrew
is required only in the historical course. In the Law School there
is one course for candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Laws and
another for candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Civil Law, the
latter requiring the study of Roman law and allowing the sub-
stitution of certain studies in political science for some of the law
subjects. The Graduate School confers the degrees of Master of
Arts and Doctor of Philosophy; the School of Music, the degree
of Bachelor of Music; and the School of Fine Arts, which is open
to both sexes, the degree of Bachelor of the Fine Arts.
In 1910 the body of officers and instructors in all departments
numbered 496, and the students 3312.
In addition to the regular work of the departments there are
several lecture courses open to all students of the University.
Among them are: the Dodge Lectures on the Responsibilities of
Citizenship (1900); the'Bromley Lectures on Journalism, Litera-
ture and Public Affairs (1900); the Lyman Beecher Lectures on
Preaching (1871); the Silliman Memorial Lectures (1884) on
subjects connected with "the natural and moral world"; the
Stanley Woodward Lectures (1907) by distinguished foreigners;
the Harvard Lectures (1905) by members of the faculty of Harvard
University; the Sheffield Lectures on scientific subjects; and
the Medical Alumni Lectures.
The principal publications with which the University is more
or less closely associated are: The Yale Review, a Quarterly Journal
for the Scientific Discussion of Economic, Political and Social
Questions, edited by Professors in Political Science and History;
the Yale Law Journal, edited by a board of students; the Yale
Medical Journal, edited by members of the Medical Faculty with
the assistance of a board of students; the Yale Alumni Weekly;
and the Yale News, a daily paper managed by the students. The
Yale Bicentennial Publications contain reprints of Research Papers
from the Kent Chemical Laboratory, Studies in Physiological Chemistry
and Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrography. Numerous
other publications of the Yale University Press are issued only
with the approval of the University.
In addition to several million dollars invested in lands and build-
ings the University possessed at the end of 1909 productive funds
amounting to $10,561,830 (in 1886, $2,111,000). The income
from all sources for the year 1908-9, exclusive of benefactions
($1,^69,515), was $1,240,208. Up to 1908 more than three-fourths
of all the University buildings had been erected as private gifts;
the rest were built with College funds, or from legislative grants.
Yale shares with its fellow colleges founded in colonial days
the advantages of old traditions and social prestige. In par-
ticular it shared these with Harvard so long as New England
retained its literary and intellect uaJ dominance over the rest of
the country. But the spirit of the two institutions has always
been very different. Harvard has on the whole been radical and
progressive; Yale conservative. Yale could not draw, like
Harvard, on the leaders of the New England schools of letters
and philosophy to fill her professorial chairs. Her " compara-
tive poverty, the strength of college feelings and traditions"
(President Hadley) united with the lesser stimulus of her
intellectual environment to delay her development. Harvard's
transformation into a modern university was more spontaneous
and rapid; Yale remained much longer under the dominance of
collegiate traditions. But, according to Dr Charles F. Thwing
(The American College in American Life, New York, 1897), of the
men filling " the highest political and judicial offices," and coming
from American colleges founded before 1770, Yale had helped
(up to 1897) to train the largest number. On the roll of her
alumni are such names as Philip Livingston, Eli Whitney, John
C. Calhoun, James Kent, Samuel F. B. Morse, Chief-Justice
Morrison R. Waite and President Taft.
The Presidents have been as follows: in 1701-1707, Abraham
Pierson (1645-1707); pro lem. 1707-1719, Samuel Andrew
(1656-1737); in 1710-1722, Timothy Cutler (1684-1765); in
1722-1726, office filled by the College trustees in rotation; in
1726-1739, Elisha Williams (1694-1755); in 1730-1766, Thomas
Clap (1703-1767); pro tern. 1766-1777, Naphtali Daggett (1727-
1780); in 1777-1795, Ezra Stiles (1727-1795); in 1795-1817,
Timothy Dwight (1752-1817); in 1817-1846, Jeremiah Day
(1773-1867); in 1846-1871, Theodore Dwight Woolsey (1801-
1889); in 1871-1886, Noah Porter (1811-1892); in 1886-
1899, Timothy Dwight (b. 1828); and Arthur Twining Hadley
(b. 1856).
See Universities and their Sons (Boston, 5 vols., 1898-1900);
Charles E. Norton, Arthur T. Hadley et al., Four American Uni-
versities (New York, 1895); Timothy Dwight, Memories of Yale
Life and Men, 18,15-1899 (New York, 1903); Franklin Bowditch
Dexter, Sketch of the History of Yale University (New York, 1887),
and Biographical Sketches of Yale College with Annals of the College
History, 1701-1792 (New York, 4 vols., 1885-1907); B. C. Steiner,
The History of Education in Connecticut, Circular of Information
No. 2 of the United States Bureau of Education (Washington,
1893) ; L. S. Welch and Walter Camp. Yale, Her Campus, Class
Room and Athletics (Boston, 1899); Charles Franklin Thwing, A
History of Higher Education in America, (New York, 1906).
YALTA, a seaport of Russia, in the government of Taurida,
on the S. coast of the Crimea, at the foot of the Yaila Mountains,
32 m. S. of Simferopol. Pop. 13,269. It is the Galita or Jalita
of the Arab geographers. Its roadstead is open, and the
annual mean temperature is 56-5 F. The town is a fashion-
able summer resort.
YAM, a term usually applied to the tubers of various species
of Dioscorea. These are plants with thick tubers (generally
a development of the base of the stem), from which pro-
trude long, slender, annual climbing stems, bearing alternate
or opposite, entire
or lobed leaves and
unisexual flowers in
long clusters. The
flowers are gene-
rally small and
individually incon-
spicuous, though
collectively showy.
Each consists of a
greenish bell-shaped
or flat perianth of
six pieces, enclosing
six or fewer stamens
in the male flowers,
and surmounting a
three-celled, three-
winged ovary in the
female flowers. The
ovary ripens into a
membranous cap-
sule, bursting by
three valves to
liberate numerous
flattish or globose
seeds. The species
are natives of the
warmer regions of
x>th hemispheres.
According to Professor Church's analysis of the Chinese yam, it
contains more nitrogenous matter, but less starch, than
sotatoes: in 100 parts there are of water 82-6, starch 13-1,
albumen 2-4, fat 0-2, woody fibre 0-4 and mineral matter
1-3 parts.
D. saliva and D. alata are the species most widely diffused in
Topical and subtropical countries. D. aculeata, grown in India,
Cochin China and the South Sea Islands, is one of the best varieties.
0. Batatas, the Chinese yam, is hardy in Great Britain, but the great
depth to which its enormous tubers descend renders its cultivation
unprofitable. It has deeply penetrating, thick, club-shaped, fleshy
roots, full of starch, which when cooked acquire a mild taste like
that of a potato ; they grow 3 ft. or upwards in length, and sometimes
Yam (Dioscorea Batatas). Branch about
J nat. size. Root much reduced.
go2
YAMA YANG-CHOW FU
weigh more than ii ft. The plant grows freely in deep sandy
soil, moderately enriched. The sets, consisting of pieces of the
roots, may be planted in March or April, and require no other
culture than the staking of the climbing stems. They should not
be dug up before November, the chief increase in their size taking
place in autumn. They sometimes strike downwards 2 or 3 ft.
into the soil, and must be carefully dug out, the upper slender
part being reserved for propagation, and the lower fleshy portion
eaten after having been allowed a few days to dry. The tubers of
D. alata sometimes weigh 100 ft. Most of the yams contain an
acrid principle, which is dissipated in cooking.
The only European Dioscorea is that known as D. pyrenaica,
a native of the Pyrenees, a remarkable instance of a species growing
at a long distance from all its congeners. True yams must not
be confounded with the sweet potato, Ipomoea Batatas, as they
sometimes are in London markets. The common black bryony
(Tamus communis) of hedges in England is closely allied to the
yams of the tropics, and has a similar root-stock, which is reputed
to be poisonous.
For the history of the yam, and its cultivation and uses in India,
see G. Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, iii. (1890).
YAMA (Sanskrit "twin," in allusion to his being twin with
his sister Yami, traditionally the first human pair), in Hindu
mythology, judge of men and king of the unseen world. He
was the first moital to die, and having discovered the way to the
other world is the guide of the dead. Three hymns in the Rig
Veda are addressed to him.
YAMAGATA, ARITOMO, PRINCE (1838- ), Japanese
field-marshal, was born in Choshu. He began life as an ordinary
samurai and rose steadily in reputation and rank, being created
a count in 1884, a marquess in 1895 (after the war with China)
and a prince in 1907 (after the war with Russia). He twice
held the post of premier, and was the leader of Japanese con-
servatism, being a staunch opponent of party cabinets.
YAHBOLI, a town of Bulgaria, on the river Tunja, 49 m. W.
of Burgas by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,708. It has a large agricul-
tural trade, being situated in the centre of one of the chief corn
districts. In the town are the remains of old fortifications, and
the ruins of a fine mosque. The bezellan, or old market-house,
is entire, but is now used as a military magazine. An ancient
Macedonian town lay some 4 m. N., but Yamboli is first men-
tioned in the nth century, when it was known by the Byzan-
tines as Dampolis or Hyampolis.
YAMETHIN, a town and district in the Meiktila division of
Upper Burma. The town has a station on the railway 275 m.
N. of Rangoon. Pop. (1901) 8680. It is an important centre
of trade with the Shan States. The district lies between the
Shan States and the Meiktila, Magwe and Toungoo districts;
area, 4258 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 243,197, showing an increase
of 18% in the decade. The staple crop is rice, which is irrigated
from tanks and canals. Millets and oil-seeds are grown in the
N., where drought has more than once caused distress. There
are special industries of inlaid metal-work and ornamental
pottery. Besides the chief town, Pyinmana and Pyawbwe,
both also on the railway, carry on an active trade with the Shan
States.
YANAON, or YANAM, a French settlement in India, near the
mouth of the river Godavari, within the Godavari district of
Madras. It is situated in 16 44' N. and 82 13' E.; area,
S sq. m.; pop. (1901) 5005. Yanaon was founded about 1750,
and followed the vicissitudes of French history in S. India. It
was finally restored to the French by the treaty of 1815.
YANCEY, WILLIAM LOWNDES (1814-1863), American
political leader, son of Benjamin Cudworth Yancey, an able
lawyer of South Carolina, of Welsh descent, was born near the
Falls of the Ogeechee, Warren county, Georgia, on the loth of
August 1814. After his father's death in 1817, his mother
remarried and removed to Troy, New York. Yancey attended
Williams College for one year, studied law at Greenville, South
Carolina, and was admitted to the bar. As editor of the Green-
ville (South Carolina) Mountaineer (1834-35), he ardently
opposed nullification. In 1835 he married a wealthy woman,
and in the winter of 1836-1837 removed to her plantation in
Alabama, near Cahaba (Dallas county), and edited weekly papers
there and in Wetumpka (Elmore county), his summer home.
The accidental poisoning of his slaves in 1839 forced him to
devote himself entirely to law and journalism; he was now an
impassioned advocate of State's Rights and supported Van Buren
in the presidential campaign of 1840. He was elected in 1841
to the state House of Representatives, in which he served for
one year; became state senator in 1843, and in 1844 was elected
to the national House of Representatives to fill a vacancy, being
re-elected in 1845. In Congress his ability and his unusual ora-
torical gifts at once gained recognition. In 1846, however, he
resigned his seat, partly on account of poverty, and partly
because of his disgust with the Northern Democrats, whom he
accused of sacrificing their principles to their economic interests.
His entire energy was now devoted to the task of exciting
resistance to anti-slavery aggression. In 1848 he secured the
adoption by the state Democratic convention of the so-called
" Alabama Platform," which was endorsed by the legislatures
of Alabama and Georgia and by Democratic state conventions
in Florida and Virginia, declaring that it was the duty of Congress
not only to allow slavery in all the territories but to protect it,
that a territorial legislature could not exclude it, and that the
Democratic party should not support for president or vice-
president a candidate " not . . . openly and unequivocally
opposed to either of the forms of excluding slavery from the
territories of the United States mentioned in these resolutions."
When the conservative majority in the national Democratic
convention in Baltimore refused to incorporate his ideas into the
platform, Yancey with one colleague left the convention and
wrote an Address to the People of Alabama, defending his course
and denouncing the cowardice of his associates. Naturally, he
opposed the Compromise of 1850, and went so far as openly to
advocate secession; but the conservative element was in control
of the state. Disappointment of the South with the results of
" Squatter Sovereignty " caused a reaction in his favour, and in
1858 he wrote a letter advocating the appointment of committees
of safety, the formation of a League of United Southerners,
and the repeal of the laws making the African slave-trade piracy.
After twelve years' absence from the national conventions of the
Democratic party, he attended the Charleston convention in
April 1860, and again demanded the adoption of his ideas.
Defeated by a small majority, he again left the hall, 1 followed this
time by the delegates of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, South
Carolina, Florida, Texas, and two of the three delegates from
Delaware. On the next day the Georgia delegation and a
majority of the Arkansas delegation withdrew. In the Balti-
more convention of the seceders he advocated the nomination
of John C. Breckinridge, and he made a tour of the country on his
behalf. In Alabama he was the guiding spirit in the secession
convention and delivered the address of welcome to Jefferson
Davis on his arrival at Montgomery. He refused a place in
President Davis's cabinet. On the 3ist of March 1861 he sailed
for Europe as the head of a commission sent to secure recognition
of the Confederate government, but returned in 1862 to take a
seat in the Confederate Senate, in which he advocated a more
vigorous prosecution of the war. On account of his failing
health, he left Richmond early in 1863, and on the 27th of July
died at his home near Montgomery.
See J. W. Du Bose, Life and Times of W. L. Yancey (Birmingham,
Ala., 1892); W. G. Brown, The Lower South in American History
(New York, 1902); and Joseph Hodgson, The Cradle of the Con-
federacy (Mobile, Ala., 1876).
YANG-CHOW FU, a prefectural city in the province of Kiang-
su, China, forming the two distinct cities of Kiang-tu and Kan-
ch'uan, on the Grand Canal, in 32 21' N., 119 15' E. Pop.
about 100,000. The walls are between three and four miles in
circumference. The streets are well supplied with shops, and
there are handsome temples, colleges, and other public buildings.
There was a serious religious outbreak in 1868, when Hudson
Taylor, the founder of the China Inland Mission, opened a station
here; but Yang-chow is now one of the centres of the Protestant
1 It is probable that Yancey was approached with the offer of the
vice-presidential nomination on the Douglas ticket by George N.
Sanders. There was a movement to nominate him on the ticket
with Breckinridge also.
YANGTSZE-KIANG YAOS
93
missionaries in the province. Yang-chow Fu possesses an early
historical connexion with foreigners, for Marco Polo ruled over
it for three years by appointment from Kublai Khan (?i 282-85).
YANGTSZE-KIANG, a great river of China, and the principal
commercial watercourse of the country. It is formed by the
junction of a series of small streams draining the E. slopes of the
Tibetan plateau, and for the first third of its course flows almost
parallel with the Mekong and the Salween, each, however,
separated from the other by intervening ridges of great height.
The total length of the Yangtsze is calculated to be not less than
3000 m. Although the term Yangtsze is applied by Europeans
to the whole couise of the river, in China it indicates only the
last three or four hundred miles, where it flows through a division
of the empire which in ancient time was known as " Yang," a
name which also survives in the cityof Yang-Chow in the province
of Kiang-su. The ordinary ofncipl name for the whole river is
Ch'ang Kiang (pronounced in the north, Chiang) or Ta Chiang,
meaning the " long river " or the " great river." Popularly in
the upper reaches every section has its local name. As it emerges
from Tibet into China it is known as the Kinsha Kiang or river
of Golden Sand, and farther down as the Pai-shui Kiang. In
Sze-ch'uen, after its junction with the large tributary known as
the Min, it is for some distance called the Min-kiang, the people
being of opinion that the Min branch is in fact the main river.
The fall in the upper reaches is very rapid. At the junction
of the two main affluents in Upper Tibet, where the river is
already a formidable torrent barely fordable at low water,
the altitude is estimated at 13,000 ft. From Patang (8540 ft.)
to Wa-Wu in Sze-ch'uen (1900 ft.) the fall is about 8 ft.
per mile, thence to Hwang-kwo-shu (1200 ft.) about 6 ft. per
mile, and farther down to Pingshan (1039 ft.) the fall is about
3 ft. per mile. At Pingshan, in the province of Sze-ch'uen,
the river first becomes navigable, and the fall decreases to about
6 in. per mile down to Chungking (630 ft.). From Chungking
through the gorges to Ich'ang (130 ft.), a distance of nearly
400 m., the fall again increases to about 14 in. per mile; but
from Ich'ang down to the sea, a distance of 1000 m., the fall is
exceedingly small, being as far as Hankow at the rate of i\ in.,
and from Hankow to the mouth at the rate of little more than
i in. per mile. The last 200 m. are practically a dead level, for
at low-water season there is a rise of tide enough to swing ships
as far up as Wuhu, 200 m. from the mouth.
The principal tributaries, counting from the sea upwards, are:
(1) the outlet from Poyang lake, draining the province of Kiang-si;
(2) the Han river, entering on the left bank at Hankow; (3) the
outlet from Tungt'ing lake on the right bank, draining the pro-
vince of Hu'nan ; (4) the three great rivers of Sze-ch'uen, the Kiafing,
the To Kiang and the Min, all entering on the left bank; and (5) the
Yaiung, draining a vast area on the borderland between Sze-ch'uen
and Tibet. The whole drainage area is about 650,000 sq. m., of
which more than four-fifths lie above Hankow. The period of
low water is from December to March. The melting of the snows
on the Tibetan highlands combined with the summer rainfall causes
an annual rise in the river of from 70 to 90 ft. at Chungking and from
40 to 50 at Hankow and Kiukiang. The mean volume of water
discharged into the sea is estimated at 770,000 cub. ft. per second.
The quantity of sediment carried in solution and deposited at the
mouth is similarly estimated at 6428 million cub. ft. per annum,
representing a subaerial denudation of the whole drainage area at
the rate of one foot in 3707 years. (See Journal of the China Branch
of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xvi., Dr Guppy.)
The Yangtsze-kiang forms a highway of first-class importance.
As the rise in the river is only about 130 ft. for the first 1000 m.,
it resembles a huge canal expressly formed for steam navigation.
Except at winter low water, steamers of 5000 or 6000 tons can reach
Hankow with ease. Between Hankow and Ich'ang, especially above
the outlet from Tungt'ing lake, the volume of water diminishes
very much, and as the channel is continually shifting with the
shifting sand-banks, navigation is more difficult. Above Ich'ang,
where the river flows between rocky gorges, and where a series of
rapids are encountered, navigation is still more difficult. But taking
the Yangtsze as a whole, with its numerous subsidiary streams,
canals and lakes, it forms a highway of communication unrivalled
in any other country in the world. About half the sea-borne com-
merce of all China is further distributed by means of the Yangtsze
and ite connexions, not to mention the interchange of native pro-
duce between the provinces, which is carried by native sailing craft
numbered by thousands.
The Yangtsze valley as a political term indicates the sphere of
influence or development which by international agreement was
assigned to Great Britain. This was first acquired in a somewhat
negative manner by the Chinese government giving an undertaking,
which they did in 1898, not to alienate any part of the Yangtsze
valley to any other power. A more formal recognition of the British
claim was embodied in the agreement between the British and
Russian governments in 1899 for the delimitation of their respective
railway interests in China, Russia agreeing not to interfere with
British projects in the basin of the Yangtsze, and Great Britain
agreeing not to interfere with Russian projects north of the Great
Wall (Manchuria). The basin or valley, of the Yangtsre was de-
fined to comprise all the provinces bordering on the Yangtsze river,
together with the provinces of Ho-nan and Chchekiang. This agree-
ment was communicated to the Chinese government, and has Leen
generally acknowledged. The object of the negotiations was to
guard against conflict of railway interests; in all other respects
the policy known as that of the " open door " was advocated by
Great Britain and the chief commercial states. This policy was
more fully declared by mutual engagements entered into in 1900
by the Great Powers on the initiative of the United States, whereby
each undertook to guarantee equality of treatment to the commerce
of all nations within its own sphere. As to railway enterprise,
an agreement of 1910 admitted French, German and American
financial interests equally with those of great Britain in the pro-
jected line from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen. (G. J.)
YANKEE, the slang or colloquial name given to a citizen of
the New England states in America, and less correctly applied,
in familiar European usage, to any citizen of the United States.
It was used by the British soldiers of their opponents during
the War of Independence, and during the Civil War by the
Confederates of the Federal troops and by the South of the
North generally. The origin of the name has given rise to
much speculation. In Dr William Gordon's History cf lite
American War (ed. 1789, i. 324) it is said to have been a cant
word at Cambridge, Mass., as early as 1713, where it was used
to express excellency, and he quotes such expressions as " a
Yankee good horse." Webster gives the earliest recorded use
of its accepted meaning, from Oppression, a Poem by an American
(Boston, 1765), " From meanness first this Portsmouth Yankee
rose," and states that it is considered to represent the Indian
pronunciation of " English " or Anglais, and was applied by
the' Massachusetts Indians to the English colonists. On the
other hand, the Scots " yankie," sharp or clever, would seem
more probable as the origin of the sense represented in the
Cambridge expression. Other suggestions give a Dutch origin
to the name. Thus it may be a corruption of " Jankin,"
diminutive of " Jan," John, and applied as a nickname to the
English of Connecticut by the Dutch of New York. Skeat
(Etym. Diet., 1910) quotes a Dutch captain's name, Yanky,
from Dampier's Voyages (ed. 1699, i. 38), and accepts the theory
that " Yankee " was formed from Jan, John, and Kees. a familiar
diminutive of Cornelius (H. Logeman, Notes and Queries, lolh
series, iv. 509, v. 15).
YANKTON, a city and the county-seat of Yankton county,
South Dakota, U.S.A., on the left bank of the Missouri river,
about 60 m. N.W. of Sioux City, Iowa. Pop. (1900) 4125
(850 foreign-born) ; (1910) 3787. It is served by the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, the Great Northern, and the Chicago
& North-Western railways. The Missouri is navigable at this
point, and the city has a considerable river traffic. Yankton
is the seat of Yankton College (founded by Congregationalists
in 1881, opened in 1882; now non-sectarian). The city is built
on a nearly level plateau, averaging about 1200 ft. above the
sea-level. It is in a rich grain-growing and stock-raising district,
has grain-elevators, and manufactures flour, beer and cement.
The water supply is obtained from artesian wells. The first
permanent settlement, a trading post, was made here in 1858,
when a treaty was concluded with the Yankton Indians. This
was the first settlement made in the Missouri Valley in Dakota.
Yankton was laid out in 1859, first chartered as a city in 1869,
rechartered in 1873, am ' m 1910 adopted a commission form
of government. In 1861-82 Yankton was the capital of the
Territory of Dakota. The name is a corruption of the Sioux
name Ihanktowwan, meaning " end village."
YAOS, or AJAWA, a Bantu-Negroid people of east-central
Africa, whose home is the country around the upper reaches of
94
YA'QUBf Y ARK AND
the Rovuma river, and the north of Portuguese East Africa. They
are an enterprising and intelligent race, and have spread into
British territory south of Lake Nyasa and throughout the
Shire districts. They are the tallest and strongest of the natives
in the Mozambique country, have negroid features and faces
which are noticeable for their roundness, and, for Africans, have
light skins. They have long been popular among Europeans as
carriers and servants. They earned, however, a bad name as
slave-traders, and gave much trouble to the British authorities
in Nyasaland until 1896, when they were reduced to submission.
They do not tattoo except for tribal marks on their foreheads.
The women wear disks of ivory or burnished lead in the sides
of their nostrils, and some, probably of Anyanja origin, disfigure
the lip with the pelele or tip-ring. The Yaos have elaborate
ceremonies of initiation for the youth of both sexes. They bury
their dead in a contracted position, the grave being roofed with
logs and earth sprinkled over; in the case of a rich man, some
of his property is buried with him and the rest is inherited by
his eldest sister's son.
See Miss A. Werner, The Natives of British Central Africa (1906) ;
Sir H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa (1897); H. L. Duff,
Nyasaland under the Foreign Office (1903). For the Yao language
see BANTU LANGUAGES.
YA'QUBl [Ahmad ibn abi Ya'qub ibn Ja'far ibn Wahb ibn
Wadih] (gth century), Arab historian and geographer, was a
great-grandson of Watjih, the freedman of the caliph Mansur.
Until 873 he lived in Armenia and Khorasan; then he travelled
in India, Egypt and the Maghrib, where he died in 891. His
history is divided into two parts. In the first he gives a compre-
hensive account of the pre-Mahommedan and non-Mahommedan
peoples, especially of their religion and literature. For the time
of the patriarchs his source is now seen to be the Syriac work
published by C. Bezold as Die Schatzhohle. In his account of
India he is the first to give an account of the stories of Kalila
and Dimna, and of Sindibad (Sinbad). When treating of Greece
he gives many extracts from the philosophers (cf. M. Klamroth
in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft,
vols. xl. and xli.). The second part contains Mahommedan
history up to 872, and is neither extreme nor unfair, although
he inherited Shi'ite leanings from his great-grandfather. The
work is characterized by its detailed account of some provinces,
such as Armenia and Khorasan, by its astronomical details and
its quotations from religious authorities rather than poets.
Edition by T. Houtsma (2 vols., Leiden, 1883). Ya'qubi's geo-
graphy, the Kitdb ul-Buldan, contains a description of the Maghrib,
with a full account of the larger cities and much topographical and
political information (ed. M. de Goeje, Leiden, 1892). (G. W. T.)
YAQOT, or YAKUT (Yaqut ibn 'Abdallah ur-Rumi) (1170-
1229), Arab geographer and biographer, was born in Greece
of Greek parentage, but in his boyhood became the slave of a
merchant of Hamah (Hamath), who trained him for commercial
travelling and sent him two or three times to Kish in the Persian
Gulf (on his journeys, cf. F. Wustenfeld, " Jacut's Reisen " in
the Zeitschr. d. deutsch. morg. Gesellschaft, vol. xviii. pp. 397-493).
In 1194 he quarrelled with his master and had to support himself
by copying; he took advantage of the opportunity of studying
under the grammarian al-'Ukbari. After five years he returned
to his old master and again travelled for him to Kish, but on
his return found his master dead, and set up for himself as a
bookseller and began to write. During the next ten years he
travelled in Persia, Syria, Egypt and visited Merv, Balkh,
Mosul and Aleppo. About 1222 he settled in Mosul and worked
on his geography, the first draft of which was ready in 1224.
After a journey to Alexandria in 1227 he went to Aleppo, where
he died in 1229. In his large geography, the Mujam ul-Buldan
(ed. F. Wustenfeld, 6 vols., Leipzig, 1866-73), the places men-
tioned in the literature or the stories of the Arabs are given
in alphabetical order, with the correct vocalization of the
names, an indication whether they are Arabic or foreign and
their locality. Their history is often sketched with a special
account of their conquest by the Moslems and the name of the
governor at the time is recorded. Attention is also given to
the monuments they contain and the celebrities who were born in
them or had lived there. In this way a quantity of old literature,
both prose and poetry, is preserved by Yaqut.
The parts of this work relating to Persia have been extracted
and translated by Barbier de Meynard under the title Dictionnaire
geographique, historique et litteraire de la Perse (Paris, 1871). Some
account of its sources is given in F. J. Heer's Die historischen
una geographischen Quellen in Jacut's geographischem Worlerbuch
(Strassburg, 1898), and the material relating to the Crusades is
treated by H. Derenbourg, " Les Croisades d'apres le dictionnaire
geographique de Jacout " in the volume of the Centenaire de Vecole
des langues orientales vivanles, 71-92. A digest of the whole work
was made by Ibn 'Abdulhaqq (d. 1338) under the title Maras.id
ul-Itttta (ed. T. G. J. Juynbpll, Leiden, 1850-1864). Yaqut also wrote
a dictionary of geographical homonyms, the Mushtarik (ed. F.
W_ustenfeld, Gottingen, 1846). Besides all this activity in geography
Yaqut gave his attention to biography, and wrote an important
dictionary of learned men, the Mu'jam ul-Udaba'. Parts of this
work exist in MS. in different libraries; vol. i. has been edited by
D. S. Margoliouth, Irshad al-Arib II a Md'rifat al Adib (London,
1908). (G. W. T.)
YARKAND (Chinese name Soche Fu), the chief town of the
principal oasis of Chinese Turkestan, on the Yarkand-Darya,
in 38 25' N., 77 16' E., and 3900 ft. above sea-level. The
settlements of the Yarkand oasis occupy the S.W. corner of
E. Turkestan, and are scattered along the numerous rivers which
issue from the steep slopes of the Pamir in the W., and the Kara-
koram and Kuen-Lun Mountains in the S. The oasis of Kashgar
limits it in the N., and a tract of desert separates it from the
oasis of Khotan in the S.E. The Yarkand-Darya and its numer-
ous tributaries, which are fed by the glaciers of the mountain
regions, as also many rivers which are now lost in the steppe or
amidst the irrigated fields, bring abundance of water to the
desert; one of them is called Zarafshan (" gold-strewing "), as
much on account of the fertility it brings as of its auriferous sands.
Numberless irrigation canals carry the water to the fields, which
occupy a broad zone of loess skirting the base of the mountains.
In the spurs of the mountains there are rich pasturages, where
goats, yaks, camels, sheep and cattle are reared. The oasis of
Yarkand is regarded as the richest of E. Turkestan, and its popu-
lation probably numbers about 200,000 inhabitants. Wheat,
barley, rice, beans and various oil-yielding plants are grown, and
melons, grapes, apples and other fruits. The cotton tree and the
mulberry are cultivated in the warmer parts of the oasis. Gold,
lead and precious stones are found in the mountains, though
only the first-named is worked. Yarkand is renowned for its
leather-ware and saddlery. Carpets and silk fabrics, cotton and
woollen goods are manufactured. The population consists of
Persians, who now speak Turkish, and of Turkish Sarts.
The town of Yarkand, which has a population of about 100,000
(5000 houses in the city, and as many in Yanghishar and the
suburbs), is situated on the river of the same name, five days'
journey S.E. from Kashgar. It is surrounded by a thick earthen
wall, nearly 4 m. long, with towers in the Chinese style of archi-
tecture, and is well watered by canals. The square fortress
of Yanghishar, which was built by the Chinese, stands within
400 yds. of the walls of the town. This is one of the three strong
places in Chinese Turkestan. The ten mosques and madrasas of
Yarkand, although poorer than those of Bokhara or Samarkand,
enjoy wide renown in the Moslem world. There is a brisk trade,
especially in horses, cotton, leather-ware and all kinds of im-
ported manufactured goods.
Yarkand is surrounded by a number of smaller towns, the
chief of which are Yanghi-hissar, which has about 600 houses,
Tashkurgan on the Pamirs, Posgam (1600 houses), Kargalyk,
at the junction of the routes leading to Ladakh and Khotan
(2000 houses), Sanju (2000), Tagarchi, Kartchum, Besh-taryk
(1800) and Guma (3000).
Yarkand was very imperfectly known until the second half of
the igth century. Marco Polo visited it between 1271 and 1275,
and Goes in 1603; but the continuous wars (see TURKESTAN)
prevented Europeans from frequenting it, so that until 1863 the
information borrowed from medieval travellers and from Chinese
sources, with that supplied by the pundit Mir Isset Ullah in 1812,
was all that was known about the Yarkand region. The first
European who reached it in the I9th century was Adolph Schlagint-
weit, who passed by Yarkand in August 1857, but was killed a few
days later at Kashgar. The pundit Mohammed Hamid visited it
YARMOUTH
95
in 1863 and determined its geographical position and altitude.
Later information is due to Robert Shaw ana G. W. Hayward, who
il at Yarkand in 1869, and to Sir Douglas Fprsyth, who first
(1 it in 1870. Three years later he visited it again with an
c.\| edition which had Gordon, Bellew, Chapman, Trotter, Biddulph
and Stoliczka as members, and afterwards published a detailed
report upon the scientific results of the mission. In 1886, after a
remarkable journey through E. Turkestan, A. D. Carey reached
Yarkand and spent the winter there. It was again visited by Dr
Lansdell in 1888, and by Dr Aurel Stein in 1906. The Swedish
Protestant missionaries whose headquarters are at Kashgar main-
tain a medical mission at Yarkand.
YARMOUTH, a seaport town and port of entry, Yarmouth
county, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the Dominion & Atlantic
railway, 218 m. from Halifax. Pop. (1901) 6430. Steamers
run daily to Boston (Mass.), and weekly to St John (N.B.) and
Halifax. It contains the county buildings, and has good schools
and small local manufactories. Fish and lumber are exported
in large quantities.
YARMOUTH (GREAT YARMOUTH), a municipal, county
and parliamentary borough, watering-place, and seaport of
Norfolk, England (with a small portion in Suffolk), 121 m. N.E.
from London by the Great Eastern railway, served also by the
Midland Si Great Northern joint line. Pop. (1901) 51,316.
It lies on a long and narrow peninsula of sand, between the
North Sea and the Breydon Water (formed by the rivers Yare
and Waveney) and the river Bure. The neighbouring country
is very flat, but the Bure affords access to the Norfolk Broads,
which give the district its well-known individuality. The old
town of Great Yarmouth was built chiefly along the E. bank of
the Yare, but the modern town has extended beyond its ancient
walls, of which some remains exist, to the seashore, where there
are a marine drive and three piers. On the landward or Suffolk
side of the estuary is the suburb of Southtown, and farther S.
that of Gorleston. The principal features of Yarmouth are the
N. and S. quays, and the straight narrow lanes called " rows,"
145 in number, running at right angles to them. These rows
were at one time inhabited by the wealthy burgesses, and many
of the houses, now tenanted by the poorer classes, have panelled
rooms with richly decorated ceilings. The old town is connected
with Little Yarmouth by a bridge across the Yare of stone and
iron, erected in 1854. The Bure is crossed by a suspension
bridge. The church of St Nicholas, founded in noi by Herbert
Losinga, the first bishop of Norwich, and consecrated in 1119,
is one of the largest parish churches in England. It is cruci-
form, with a central tower, which perhaps preserves a part of
the original structure, but by successive alterations the form
of the church has been completely changed. The Transitional
clerestoried nave, with columns alternately octagonal and
circular, was rebuilt in the reign of King John. A portion of
the chancel is of the same date. About fifty years later the
aisles were widened, so that the nave is now the narrowest part
of the building. A grand W. front with towers and pinnacles
was constructed in 1330-1338, but the building was interrupted
by a visitation of the plague. In the i6th century the monu-
mental brasses were cast into weights and the gravestones cut
into grindstones. Within the church there were at one time
eighteen chapels, maintained by gilds or private families, but
these were demolished by the Reformers, who sold the valuable
utensils of the building and applied the money to the widening
of the channel of the harbour. During the Commonwealth
the Independents appropriated the chancel, the Presbyterians
the N. aisle and the Churchmen were allowed the remainder
of the building. The brick walls erected at this time to separate
the different portions of the building remained till 1847. In
1864 the tower was restored, and the E. end of the chancel
rebuilt; in 1860-1870 the S. aisle was rebuilt; and in 1884 the
S. transept, the W. end of the nave and the N. aisle underwent
restoration. The width of the nave is 26 ft., and the total length
of the church is 236 ft. St John's is a noteworthy modern church,
and the Roman Catholic church is a handsome Gothic building
erected in 1850. A grammar-school was founded in 1551,
when the great hall of the old hospital, founded in the reign of
Edward I. by Thomas Fastolfe, was appropriated to its use.
It was closed from 1757 to 1860, was re-established by the
charity trustees, and settled in new buildings in 1872. Among
the principal public buildings are the town hall and public
offices (1883); a picturesque toll-house of the I4th century,
carefully preserved and serving as a free library; assembly
rooms, museum, drill hall, custom house, barracks at South-
town and theatres. Among charitable and benevolent institu-
tions are a royal naval lunatic asylum, three hospitals, and
fishermen's hospital, the North Sea Church Mission and various
homes and minor charities. To the S. of the town, on the part
of the peninsula known as the South Denes, are a race-course
and a Doric column erected in 1817 to commemorate Lord
Nelson. To the N. (on the North Denes) are golf links. Winter
gardens were opened in 1904. The municipal and parliamentary
borough became coextensive by the inclusion in the former
of Gorleston in 1890. The parliamentary borough, returning
one member, falls between the E. division of Norfolk and the
Lowestoft division of Suffolk. Yarmouth is governed by a
mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 3568 acres.
Yarmouth Roads, off the coast, afford excellent anchorage except
in E. or N.E. winds. The channel to the quays was made by Joost
Jansen, a Dutch engineer, in 1567, and affords a depth at the bar of
12 ft. at low water. The herring and mackerel fisheries are most
important, and fish-curing is an extensive industry, Yarmouth
bloaters being widely famous. The fishing fleet numbers some 500
vessels of 20,000 tons, and employs about 3000 hands. The principal
imports are coal, timber and seeds, and exports are grain and fish.
Other industries are ship and boat building, rope, twine and trawl-
net manufactories, silk-crape works and makings.
Yarmouth (Gernemwa, Yernemuth), which lies near the
site of the Roman camp of Gariannonum, is believed to have
been the landing-place of Cerdic in the sth century. Not
long afterwards, the convenience of its situation having at-
tracted many fishermen from the Cinque Ports, a permanent
settlement was made, and the town numbered seventy burgesses
before the Conquest. Henry I. placed it under the rule of a
reeve. The charter of King John (1208), which gave his bur-
gesses of Yarmouth general liberties according to the customs
of Oxford, a gild merchant and weekly hustings, was amplified
by several later charters asserting the rights of the borough
against Little Yarmouth and Gorleston. In 1552 Elizabeth
granted a charter of admiralty jurisdiction, afterwards con-
firmed and extended by James I. In 1668 Charles II. incor-
porated Little Yarmouth in the borough by a charter which
with one brief exception remained in force till 1703, when
Anne replaced the two bailiffs by a mayor, reducing the alder-
men and common councilmen to eighteen and thirty-six. By
the Boundary and Municipal Corporation Acts of 1832 and
1855, Gorleston was annexed to the borough, which became a
county borough in 1888. Yarmouth returned two members
to parliament from 1300 to 1868, when it was disfranchised
until 1885. From the nth to the i8th century the herring
trade, which has always been the main industry of Yarmouth,
was carried on at an annual fair between Michaelmas and
Martinmas. This was regulated by the barons of the Cinque
Ports, and many quarrels arose through their jurisdiction and
privileges. Yarmouth has had a weekly market at least from
the I3th century.
See Victoria County History, Norfolk; H. Swinden, History of
Great Yarmouth (1772); C. J. Palmer, History of Great Yarmouth
(1854).
YARMOUTH, a small port at the western extremity of
the Isle of Wight, England, on the shore of the Solent, where
the estuary of the Yar debouches. Pop. (1901) 903. Steamers
connect it with the London & South-Western railway at
Lymington on the mainland, and it is also served by the Isle
of Wight Central line. The church contains a fine monument
to Admiral Sir Robert Holmes, who took New Amsterdam,
afterwards New York, from the Dutch.
The place appears in the Domesday Survey of 1086 under the
name of Ermud; it was then assessed at I hide 2\ virgates, and held
in parage by Aluric and Wislac, two of the king's thegns who had
also held it under Edward the Confessor. The first charter was
granted by Baldwin de Redvers in 1135, and was confirmed by
Edward I., Henry VI., Edward IV. and Elizabeth, but the earliest
906
YARN
charter of incorporation was from James I., instituting a governing
body of a mayor and twelve chief burgesses, with power to choose a
.steward, town clerk and serjeant-at-mace. Under the Municipal
Corporations Act of 1883 the corporation was abolished and the
administration vested in a town trust of eleven members. Yar-
mouth and Newport returned members to parliament as one borough
in 1295, but no further returns were made until 1584, from which
date Yarmouth continued to send representatives until disfranchised
by the Reform Act of 1832. The charter from James I. instituted
a Wednesday market and a fair at the feast of St James, which were
maintained until within recent years. In the l8th century Yar-
mouth was a notorious smuggling centre. In 1206 John embarked
from Yarmouth for the expedition to La Rochelle. The town was
burnt by the French in 1337 and in 1544. In the i6th century, at the
time of the expectation of the Spanish invasion, a small fort was
built called Carey's Sconce, the remains of which are to be seen at
the W. of the town. In 1648 Charles I. was brought to Yarmouth on
his way from Carisbrooke to Hurst Castle; and in 1671 Charles II.
and his court were entertained at Yarmouth by Admiral Sir Robert
Holmes, governor of the island.
YARN, 1 the name given to any textile fibre when prepared
by the process of spinning for being woven into cloth. It is
only in a few minor and exceptional cases, such as the weaving
of haircloth or wire, that there is any making of fabrics without
the previous spinning of yarn. But yarn is of the most diverse
description, and its value varies in proportion to its lustre,
its bleaching and dyeing properties, its fineness, strength,
elasticity, uniformity of diameter, smoothness, suppleness and
colour in its natural condition. Yarn is single, folded and
fancy, and if twisted to the right it is called twist way, and if
to the left, weft way, but those terms do not necessarily imply
that the yarn is for either warp or weft.
Single Yarn consists of fibrous matter as twisted together during
the process of spinning. If it is intended for warp it should be strong,
elastic and smooth; if for weft it has less twist and is spongy. The
raw material from which yarn is made has much to do with its
appearance and value. Thus Cotton Yarn, although it varies from
a soft spongy thread to a closely compacted one, is generally dull
in appearance, soft, pliable and of but moderate strength and
elasticity. Dulness in this material is not, however, a constant
feature; when'combed and gassed it is brighter than when simply
carded, and when mercerized it assumes a high lustre. Cotton-
waste Yarn is of two classes, both of low counts, and is made from
the cotton wasted in the preparing, spinning and weaving operations :
one from soft material that had not previously been spun; the
other from hard threads which are broken up into separate fila-
ments. The best grades of cotton have been spun into commercial
threads, 588,000 yds. of which weigh I ft, but for experimental
purposes much finer threads have been spun. For yarn in more
general use the range is up to 250,000 yds. per ft. When spun from
soft waste it is up to 13,400 yds. per ft, and from hard waste it is
up to 2520 yds. per ft. Linen Yarn is of two kinds, namely, Line
and Tow. In their natural conditions both are stiff, inelastic and
somewhat rough, but the method of spinning has much to do with
their appearance. If spun wet they are more compact, smoother
and brighter than when spun dry; yet line yarn is always stronger
and better in these respects than tow, which is by comparison soft,
full and hairy. Both bleach to a pure white, become lustrous and
moderately soft. Exceptionally fine linen yarn contains 180,000
yds. per ft, but the range of line yarn in general use is up to 60,000
yds. per ft, and that of tow 10,000 yds. per ft. Woollen Yarn is
soft, spongy, hairy, elastic, moderately strong and possesses felting
properties in a high degree; it bleaches indifferently but dyes
readily. It is spun into threads that range up to 15,000 yds. per ft.
Several kinds of waste yarn are spun from wool, such as Shoddy,
Mungo and Extract, most of which are irregular, lustreless and only
suitable for coarse counts, but they dye well. Shoddy is made from
the liberated fibres of soft spun woollen threads and cloths that have
not been felted. Mungo is made from the liberated fibres of hard
spun woollen yarn, and felted cloths, while Extract is made from the
woollen material contained in mixed goods, the vegetable fibrous
matters from which have been destroyed by acids and heat.
Worsted Yarn is made from combed wool, and is, as a consequence,
uniform in diameter, lustrous, smooth, very elastic and strong.
It is spun into threads that range up to 56,000 yds. per ft. Silk
is made into Net, Spun and Noil yarns, all of which are readily
dyed. Net Silk yields Organzine and Tram; both are, in pro-
portion to diameter, the strongest and most elastic of textile threads,
and are highly lustrous and smooth; but organzine is hard twisted
and used for warp, while tram is slightly twisted and used for weft.
They give a range up to 450,000 yds. per ft. Spun Silk is made by
combing and spinning the material wasted during the conversion
of cocoons into fabrics; it is less lustrous and elastic than net silk,
1 The etymology is uncertain, but apparently the word is cognate
with " cord." The meaning " tale " comes from something spun out.
also weaker. Silk Noil is made from the fibres rejected by the
comber during the making of spun silk, and is inferior in all respects
to spun silk. Mixed Yarn is obtained by mixing and spinning
different fibrous materials together; as cotton and wool, silk and
ramie, and the proportions in which they are mixed vary from 10%
to 80% of the most expensive fibre. The counts of single yarns
made from different fibres are differently expressed, as are occasion-
ally those spun in different districts from similar fibres. Cotton
yarns are based upon the number of hanks, of 840 yds., contained
in I ft; linen, upon the number of leas, of 300 yds., in I ft;
worsted, upon the number of hanks, of 560 yds., in I ft. Wool
is expressed in the West of England by the number of hanks, of
320 yds., in I ft.; in parts of Yorkshire by the number of skeins,
of 1520 yds., in 6 ft; in some parts of the United States by the
number of runs, of 1600 yds., in I ft. Silk is expressed by the
weight of 1000 yds. in drams; also by the weight, in deniers, of
476 meters, the denier being an Italian weight equal to ^s"yj part
of I ft; spun silk, by the number of hanks, of 840 yds., in I ft.
Folded Yarn. Yarn is folded to impart increased strength,
elasticity and smoothness, and is used, both glazed and unglazed,
for warp and weft in ordinary fabrics. It is also made for such
special purposes as sewing, lace-making, crocheting and hosiery.
The counts of these yarns are expressed according to the number
of threads twisted together, as 2/50", 3/60"; the former indicating
that two threads of 50", and the latter three threads of 6o 5 , were
twisted together to yield yarn of 25 hanks and 20 hanks per ft
respectively; the count of the single yarn being invariably named in
the cotton, linen, woollen and worsted trades. With spun silk the
practice adopted is to name the count of the folded yarn; thus,
70/2 and 40/3 imply that two threads of 140* and three threads of
1 20' were respectively folded together. Sewing Cotton should be
smooth and strong, and much of it is from two to six cord. When
two or three cord, the doubling twist is in the opposite direction to
that of the singles. When more than three cord, it usually under-
goes two twistings, the first in the same direction as the single
threads, the second is in the opposite direction to, and more closely
twisted than the first. Thus: A six-cord thread is first folded and
twisted two into one, then three strands of two fold are twisted into
one; after which it is sized and polished. Lace Yarn should be
strong, elastic, smooth and spun twist way in the singles, but
doubled weft way. Crochet Yarn is bulky, elastic and has a corded
appearance. It is twice doubled : the first time it is twisted in the
opposite direction to the singles, the second time in the same direc-
tion as the singles. Hosiery Yarn is often a soft, bulky, single thread,
but it is also folded, sometimes without being twisted, at other times
it is slightly twisted. There are two types, namely, wool and silk,
neither of which need be made from the fibres named. For the
former a hairy surface is not objectionable, but the latter should be
smooth, and may be gassed. Polished Yarn may be either single or
folded, but it should be fully twisted and level. It is bleached or
dyed in hanks, immersed in size and polished with brushes while the
size is moist.
Fancy Yarn is made by twisting together threads of different
counts, colours, materials or twistings, at regular or irregular
tensions, and in the same or opposite directions. The effects thus
produced are known in commerce under a great variety of names, of
which the following are a few. Grandrelle is probably the one in
greatest demand; it has a mottled effect which is due to uniformly
twisting together two threads of different colours, but of approxi-
mately equal counts. In some cases the folding twist is slight, in
others it is considerable. Mock Grandrelle presents a similar
appearance to true grandrelle, but is made at the spinning machine
by twisting together two rovings that are dyed in different colours.
Flaked Yarn has a cloudy appearance imparted to it, (a) by twisting
a hard spun thread with a roving, which, at regular or irregular
intervals is made thick and thin by drawing rollers; (6) by supply-
ing, intermittently, during carding or spinning, tufts of extra fibre
to a thread; or (c) as in Knickerbocker Yarn, by dropping small
quantities of dyed fibres into two, similar or dissimilar, rovings at
the spinning machine, or into two, similar or dissimilar, threads at
the doublet. Corkscrewed Yarn has a spiral surface effect which
may be produced in different ways, such as twisting threads together
that differ in tension, in count and in the quantity or direction of
the twist in the single threads. If a fine, hard spun, single or folded
thread be twisted with a coarse, soft spun single, the coarse thread
will wrap itself about the fine one and give a corrugated surface.
Chain, and other effects may be given by two foldings and twistings,
if for the first doubling a coarse soft thread is twisted with a finer
one having medium twist, and for the second a still finer thread
is twisted with the twofold one, but in the opposite direction and with
a different number of twists per inch. Gimp Yarn is spiral in struc-
ture and requires two doublings, the first to form a twofold spiral,
then, at the second doubling, a fine tight thread is added. Knopped
Yarn is formed by twisting together several strands, one of which
is at intervals delivered in greater lengths than the others, in order
to allow a loop to be made; the direction of twist in one single
may differ from that in another. Curled Yarn is produced by twist-
ing two supple threads round a longer and stiffer one, after which
a fourth thread is added. (T. W. F.)
YAROSLAVL YATES, E. H.
907
YAROSLAVL, or YAROSLAV, a government of central Russia,
separated from the government of Moscow by the governments
of Vladimir and Tver on the S., and having Tver and Novgorod
on the W., Volgoda on the N. and Kostroma on the E. It is
one of the smallest, but most populous and busiest, governments
of Great Russia; area, 13,747 sq. m. It consists of a broad
and shallow depression, elongated from W. to E., where the
Volga flows at a level of 260 to 230 ft. above the sea, while the
surrounding hills rise to 700 or 800 ft. In the W., especially
between the Mologa and the Sheksna, the country contains
very many marshes and ponds, and there are low and marshy
tracts in the S. about Rostov.
Jurassic clays, sandstones and sands cover nearly the whole of
Yaroslavl, but they are concealed almost everywhere under thick
deposits of Glacial boulder clay, which is regarded by Russian
geologists as the bottom moraine of the great ice-cap of the Glacial
period. Triassic " variegated marls," widely disseminated through-
out the whole of the middle Volga region, undoubtedly underlie
nearly all the Jurassic deposits of the government, but only a few
patches emerge at the surface; many salt springs exist in these
deposits. The Upper Carboniferous limestones crop out only in the
N.W. and towards the E. The chief mineral products are bog-iron
ores, sulphate of copper and pottery clay. Peat occurs in thick
beds. There are several mineral springs. The soil is mostly a kind
of loess of moderate fertility; sandy tracts are not uncommon.
The principal river is the Volga, which traverses the government
for 1 80 m., making a great bend to the N. The chief towns
Rybinsk, Yaroslavl, Mologa, Romanovo-Bcrisoglyebsk, Uglich and
Myshkin are situated on its banks, and a brisk traffic is carried on,
both by the river itself and by two canals, Mariinsk and Tikhvinsk,
which connect it with the Neva through its tributaries the Sheksna
and the Mologa. Another tributary of the Volga is the Kotorost,
which has many factories on its banks and is navigated, especially
in spring. The Kostroma flows along the E. border and is a channel
for the export of timber and fuel.
The forests, chiefly fir and Scotch pine, cover one-third of the area ;
but they are being rapidly destroyed. The flora bears a northern
stamp, owing to the presence of the dwarf birch, of the Arctic rasp-
berry (Rubus arcticus), and of Linnaea borealis.
The average temperature at the city of Yaroslavl is 40 F.
(January, 6-5; July, 61-5); the prevailing S.W. and W. winds
render it moister than in central Russia. The rivers remain frozen
1 18 to 183 days every year.
The population, which is thoroughly Russian, numbered
1,175,900 in 1906. The government is divided into ten districts,
the chief towns of which are Yaroslavl, Danilov, Lyubim,
Mologa, Myshkin, Poshekhon, Romanovo-Borisoglyebsk, Ros-
tov, Rybinsk and Uglich. Yaroslavl belongs to the manufac-
turing region of central Russia, but the domestic character
of many industries permits the inhabitants to cultivate their
fields and also to work in small factories. The peasants and
peasant communities own over 5,000,000 acres, or about 57%
of the total area, of which they have acquired nearly
1,000,000 acres by purchase since their emancipation in
1861; 30% is held by private persons, and 7% by the
crown. There were in 1900 1,169,000 acres (13-3 % of
the total area) under cereals, the principal crops being rye,
wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. Flax is widely culti-
vated both for linseed and fibre, and both fresh and dried
vegetables are exported; Rostov enjoys a great reputation as
the centre of this industry. Live-stock breeding is of only
less importance than agriculture, and poultry is exported.
Large numbers find employment in the making of hardware,
locks, felt boots, gloves, wooden wares, pottery and metallic
wares. Factories have considerably developed; the principal
are cotton, flax and woollen mills, flour-mills, tobacco factories,
distilleries, breweries, chicory works, tanneries, candle works,
petroleum refineries, machinery, chemical and match works.
Rybinsk and Yaroslavl are the chief commercial centres, but
Rostov, Mologa, Romanovo and Poshekhon cany on an active
trade in corn, timber and manufactured wares. Many of the
male population annually leave their homes to work all over
Russia as locksmiths, masons, plasterers, waiters in restaurants,
greengrocers, tailors, gardeners, carpenters, joiners, pilots,
boatmen.
As early as the gth century the Slavs had become masters
of the Yaroslavl territory, which was formerly occupied by
the Finnish tribes of Vess and Merya, as also by Mordvinians,
Muroms and Cheremisses in the S. Rostov was already in
existence; but Yaroslavl, Rybinsk and Uglich begin to be
mentioned in the annals only in the nth and izth centuries.
The independent principality of Rostov was divided in the
I3th century into three parts, but these were soon afterwards
successively annexed to Moscow.
YAROSLAVL, a town of Russia, capital of the government
of the same name, on the right bank of the Volga, at its con-
fluence with the Kotorost, 174 m. by rail N.E. of Moscow.
Pop. about 70,000. Yaroslavl is an archiepiscopal see. The
Uspenskiy cathedral was begun in 1215 and rebuilt in 1646-48;
the churches of the Preobrazhenskiy monastery, St. John's
and Voskreseniye date from the isth and I7th centuries.
Yaroslavl has a lyceum, founded (1803) by a wealthy member
of the Demidov family. The manufactories include cotton-
mills, flour-mills, tobacco and linen factories. The town was
founded in 1026-36. It became the chief town of a principality
in 1218 and remained so until 1471, when it fell under the
dominion of Moscow.
YARRELL, WILLIAM (1784-1856), British naturalist, was
born in London on the 3rd of June 1784. His father was a
newspaper agent, and he succeeded to the business, and pro-
secuted it till within a few years of his death. He acquired the
reputation of being the best shot and the first angler in the
metropolis, and soon also became an expert naturalist. In
1825 he was elected a fellow of the Linnean Society, of which
he subsequently became treasurer, and was a diligent contributor
to their Transactions; and he was one of the original members
of the Zoological Society. The greater part of his leisure towards
the end of his life was devoted to his two great works, The
History of British Fishes (2 vols., 1836) and The History of
British Birds (2 vols., 1843). These works from the first took
rank as standard authorities. He died at Yarmouth on the
ist of September 1856.
YARROW, a river and parish of Selkirkshire, Scotland.
The river, issuing from St Mary's Loch, flows for 14 m. E. by
N. to the Tweed, which it joins about 3 m. below the county
town. The stream and vale are famous in poetry. Only a
fragment remains of Dryhope Tower, on Dryhope Burn, the
home of Mary Scott, " the flower of Yarrow," whom Walter
Scott of Harden married about 1576. On Douglas Burn, a
left-hand tributary, are the ruins of the keep of " the good "
Sir James Douglas, the friend of Robert Bruce; and Blackhouse,
Mount Benger and the farm of Altrive are all connected with
James Hogg. Near Broadmeadows Sir William Douglas, the
knight of Liddesdale, was murdered by his kinsman (1353) in
revenge for the death of Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie
at Hermitage Castle. The body lay for a night in Lindean
church, now in ruins, near Selkirk, before its burial in Melrose
Abbey. On the right bank are the ruins of Newark Castle,
built by James III. in 1466 as a hunting seat, afterwards the
property of the Scotts of Bucdeuch. It was burned by the
English in 1548, but the tower was restored. On the right side
of the Yarrow is Bowhill, a seat of the duke of Buccleuch.
YATAGHAN (from Turk, yataghan; sometimes spelled in
English " attaghan " and " ataghan "), the name of a type of
sword common to Mahommedan peoples. It has no guard or
quillons, but a large and often decorated pommel; its blade has
a double curve on the cutting edge, first concave and then
convex; the back is usually straight (see SWORD).
YATES, EDMUND HODGSON (1831-1894), English journalist
and author, son of Frederick Henry Yates (1797-1842), was
born at Edinburgh on the 3rd of July 1831. His father and
mother (nte Brunton; 1709-1860) were both prominent figures
on the London stage from about 1817 onwards. Edmund Yates
was educated at Highgate School and at Dusseldorf. In 1847
he obtained a clerkship in the General Post Office, with which
he continued to be connected up to 1872, becoming in 1862
head of the missing letter department. He married in 1853,
and soon began to write for the press. Charles Dickens made
him dramatic critic to the Daily News, and he was a contributor
908
YATES, M. A. YAWS
to Household Words. He wrote several farces which were acted
between 1857 and 1860. In 1855 he had begun writing a column
for the Illustrated Times (under Henry Vizetelly), headed " The
Lounger at the Clubs ": this was the first attempt at combining
" smart " personal paragraphs with the better class of journalism,
and in 1858 Yates was made editor of a new paper called
Town Talk, which carried the innovation a step forward.
His first number contained a laudatory article on Dickens,
and the second a disparaging one on Thackeray, containing
various personal references to private matters. Thackeray,
regarding this as a serious affront, brought the article before
the committee of the Garrick Club, of which he contended that
Yates had made improper use, and the result was that Yates
was expelled. Besides editing Temple Bar and Tinsley's Maga-
zine, Yates during the 'sixties took to lecturing on social
topics, and published several books, including his best novel,
Black Sheep (1867); and under the heading of " Le Flaneur"
he continued in the Morning Star the sort of " personal column "
which he had inaugurated in the Illustrated Times. On his re-
tirement from the Post Office in 1872 he went to America on a
lecturing tour, and afterwards, as a special correspondent for
the New York Herald, travelled through Europe. But in 1874,
with the help of E. C. Grenville Muiray, he established a new
London weekly, The World, " a journal for men and women,"
which he edited himself. The paper at once became a success,
and Yates bought out Grenville Murray and became sole pro-
prietor. The World was the first of the new type of " society
papers," abounding in personal criticism and gossip: one of its
features was the employment of the first person singular in its
columns, a device by which the personal element in this form
of journalism was emphasized. After Truth was started in 1877
by Mr Henry Labouchere (who was one of Yates's earliest
contributors), the rivalry between the two weeklies was amus-
ingly pointed by references in The World to what " Henry "
said, and in Truth to the mistakes made by " Edmund." In
1885 Yates was convicted of a libel in 1884 on Lord Lonsdale,
and was imprisoned in Holloway gaol for seven weeks. In the
same year he published his Recollections and Experiences in two
volumes. He died on the 2oth of May 1894. He had been the
typical flaneur in the literary world of the period, an entertaining
writer and talker, with a talent for publicity of the modern type
developed, no doubt, from his theatrical parentage which,
through his imitators, was destined to have considerable influence
on journalism.
YATES, MARY ANN (1728-1787), English actress, was the
daughter of William Graham, a ship's steward. In 1753 she
appeared at Drury Lane as Marcia in Samuel Crisp's (d. 1783)
Virginia, Garrick being the Virginius. She was gradually en-
trusted with all the leading parts. Mrs Yates, whose husband,
Richard Yates (c. 1706-1796), was a well-known comedian,
succeeded Mrs Gibber as the leading tragedian of the Eng-
lish stage, and was in turn succeeded and eclipsed by Mrs
Siddons.
YATES, RICHARD (1818-1873), American political leader,
was born at Warsaw, Kentucky, on the i8th of January 1818.
He graduated at the Illinois College at Jacksonville in 1838,
was admitted to the bar, and entered politics as a Whig. From
1842 to 1845 an d again in 1849 he served in the state House of
Representatives. He was a representative in Congress in 1851-
1855, but having become a Republican, was defeated for a third
term. From 1861 to 1865 he was governor of Illinois, and was
successful in enlisting troops and in checking the strong pro-
Southern sentiment in the state. He was a member of the
United States Senate in 1865-71, and was prominent in
Reconstruction legislation. He died at St Louis, Missouri, on
the 27th of November 1873. His son Richard (b. 1860) was
governor of Illinois from 1901 to 1905.
YATSAUK, called by the Shans LAWKSAWK, a state in the
central division of the southern Shan States of Burma. Area,
2197 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 24,839, of whom less than one-half are
Shans; revenue, 2000. The crops grown are rice, segamum,
cotton, ground-nuts and oranges. As a whole the state is moun-
tainous, with ranges running N. and S. The main range has a
general height of 5000 ft., with peaks, such as Loi Sampa, rising
to 7846 ft. The middle and S., however, consist of open roll-
ing country, with an average height of 3500 ft. To the N. the
country falls away to the Nam Tu (Myitnge), where there are fine
teak forests, as well as along the Nam Lang and Nam Et, which
with the Zawgyi form the chief rivers of the state. Most of them
disappear underground at intervals, which makes the extraction
of timber impossible except for local use. Lawksawk, the capital,
stands on the N. bank of the Zawgyi, near a small weedy lake.
The old brick walls and the moat are falling into decay. The
chief at the time of annexation had been at war with the Bur-
mese, but refused to submit to the British, and fled to Keng
Hung, where he died some years afterwards. The sawbwa
chosen in 1887 belonged to another Shan ruling house. He
died in 1900, and was succeeded by his son.
YATUNG, a trade-market of Tibet, situated in the mouth of the
Chumbi valley near the Indian frontier. According to the Con-
vention of 1890-93, the market at Yatung was opened to India,
and the conduct of the Tibetans in building a wall across the
road between Yatung and Tibet was one of the incidents that led
up to the British mission of 1904. According to the treaty of
that year, a British trade-agent was to be maintained at Yatung.
YAUCO, a city of the department of Ponce, Porto Rico,
20 m. W. by N. of the city of Ponce. Pop. (1899) 6108. Yaucois
served by the American Railroad of Pcrto Rico. The city is
situated about 150 ft. above the sea, and has a delightful climate.
It is connected by a wagon road with its port, Guanica (pop.
about 1000), which has an excellent harbour. Coffee and
tobacco are the chief industries. Yauco was first settled in
175.
YAVORSKY, STEPHEN (c. 1658-1722), Russian archbishop
and statesman, one of the ablest coadjutors of Peter the Great,
was educated at the Kiev Academy and various Polish schools.
Becoming a monk, he settled at the Kiev Academy as a preacher
and professor, being appointed prefect of the institution and
prior of the monastery of St Nicholas. He attracted the
attention of Peter by his funeral oration over the boyar Shein,
and was made archbishop of Ryazan in 1700. In 1702, on the
death of the last patriarch of Moscow, Yavorsky was appointed
custodian of the spiritualities of the patriarchal see. Not-
withstanding frequent collisions with Peter, and his parti-
ality for the unfortunate tsarevich Alexius, Yavorsky was too
valuable a man to be discarded. In 1721 he was made first
president of the newly erected Holy Synod, but died in the
following year.
Yavprsky's chief works are his Rock of the Faith of the Orthodox-
Catholic Eastern Church and Dogmatic, Moral and Panegyrical
Sermons. See Y. T. Samarin, Stephen Yavorsky (Rus.) (Moscow,
1844); I. Morev, " The Rock of the Faith" of the Metropolitan
Stephen Yavorsky (Rus.) (Petersburg, 1904).
YAWL, the name of a special rig of small sailing vessels
or yachts, with two masts, the mainmast cutter-rigged, and a .
small mizzen stepped far aft with a spanker or driving sail. The
name has also been applied to a small ship's boat rowed with
tour or more oars. The word is apparently an adaptation of
the Dutch jol, skiff.
The English" " jolly-boat," a small bluff-bowed, wide-transomed
ship's boat, swung at the stern of a vessel for ready use, is probably
a corruption of the Danish form of the word jolle. Other authori-
ties take it to be a corruption of a late 15th-century jolywat, a small
ship's boat, which is supposed to represent galiote, galliot (see
GALLEY). A galliot, however, was never a small boat, but an in-
dependent vessel propelled by oars or sails.
YAWS, the name in use in the British West Indies for a
contagious inoculable tropical disease, running a chronic
course and characterized by a peculiar eruption, together
with more or less constitutional disturbance. It is known
by various local names in different parts. In the French
Antilles it is called pian; in Brazil, boba ; on the west coast
of Africa, gattu, dubl and taranga; in Fiji, coko; in the Malay
Peninsula, purru; in the Moluccas, bouton d'Amboine; in Samoa,
tonga or tono; in Basutoland, makaola; and in Ceylon it is
YAZDEGERD YEATS
909
spoken of under the name of parangi. The name framboesia
was first given to the disease by Sauvages in 1759 from the
likeness of the typical excrescences to a raspberry. For many
years yaws was thought to be peculiar to the African negro,
either in his home (both west and east coasts) or in the West
Indies and Brazil. But a disease the same in every respect has
long been known in the East Indies (first mentioned by Bontius
early in the xyth century), affecting the Malays rather than
the negroes, its chief seats being Amboyna, Ternate, Timor,
Celebes, Java and Sumatra. It has been identified by De
Rochas and other observers in New Caledonia and Fiji.
The general course of the disease is as follows. Previous to the
eruption there may or may not be any disorder of health: in
children (who form a large part of the subjects of yaws) there will
probably be rheumatic pains in the limbs and joints, with languor,
debility and upset of the digestion ; in adults of ordinary vigour
the eruption is often the first sign, and it is attended with few or
no constitutional troubles. The eruption begins as small pimples
like a pin's head, smooth and nearly level with the surface; they
have a little whitish speck on their tops, grow rapidly and reach
the size of a sixpence or a shilling. The pustules then break and a
thick viscid ichor exudes and dries upon them as a whitish slough
and around their base as a yellowish-brown crust. Beneath the
whitish slough is the raspberry excrescence or yaw proper, a reddish
fungous growth with a nodular surface. The favourite seats of
the eruption are the forehead, face, neck, arm-pits, groin, genitals,
perinaeum and buttocks. Hairs at the seat of a yaw turn white.
In young children or infants the corners of the mouth ulcerate, as
in syphilis, and the perineal excrescences resemble condylomata.
The pustules and excrescences do not all arise in one crop: some
are found mature while others are only starting. If the patient
be of sound constitution and good reaction, the yaws may reach
the full size of a mulberry in a month, in which case they will
probably be few; but in persons of poor health they may take
three months to attain the size of a wood-strawberry, in which case
they will be numerous inversely to their size. Often there is one
yaw much larger than the rest, and longer in falling; it is called
the " master yaw " " or mother yaw." On the soles of the feet
(less often on the palms of the hands) the bursting yaws are as if
imprisoned beneath the horny cuticle; they cause swelling and
tenderness of the foot, until set free by paring the callous skin
down to the quick; these yaws are called " crab yaws " or tubbas.
Usually a yaw is painless unless when rubbed or irritated. The
absence of pain is used as a diagnostic sign if there be any doubt
as to the nature of the attack: a pustule is opened and a little of
the juice of capsicum dropped into it; if it be a yaw, no smarting
will be felt. In some cases a few yaws will show themselves long
after the primary attack is over; these are called " memba yaws "
(from " remember "), the term being sometimes applied also to
protracted cases with successive crops of eruption. Six weeks is
the average time in a good case, from the first of the eruption to
the fall of the excrescences ; in such regular cases a scar remains,
it may be for many months, darker than the rest of the (negro)
skin. But the disease is often a much more tedious affair, the more
protracted type having become common in the West Indies of
recent years. In such cases the eruption comes out by degrees and
as if with difficujty, crop after crop; foul, excavating and corroding
ulcers may remain, or a limb may be in part seamed and mutilated
by the scars of old ulceration. The scars after ulceration are not
so dark as the skin around.
Aetiology. Yaws is a highly contagious disease. It is
neither hereditary nor congenital. The disease spreads by
contact with previously infected cases, though it has been
.stated that infection also arises from inhabiting dirty houses,
the floors and walls of which are contaminated with yawey
matter from former yaw cases; and it is also believed, and
has been proved by experiment, that infection may be con-
veyed by flies, which act as go-betweens, carrying infective
material from a yaws sore to an ordinary ulcer. The virus
must be introduced directly through a breach of the skin or
mucous membrane; an attack in childhood gives a large
degree of immunity for the rest of life. A micrococcus was
found by Pierez and Nicholls in the tubercles of yaws, but a
pure culture of this micro-organism failed to give rise to yaws
in animals into whom it was injected experimentally, and in
no instance was it present in the blood. In 1905 Aldo Castellan!
demonstrated in yaws the presence of a slender spirillum,
which he named the Spiroctiaeta perttnuis or Spirochacta palli-
dula. It was also experimentally proved by him (i) that the
material taken from persons suffering from yaws and con-
taining* the Spirochaeta pertenuis is infective to monkeys;
(2) that when the Spirochaeta pertenuis is removed by filtration
the material becomes inert; (3) that the injection of blood
from the general circulation of a yaws patient gave positive
results in monkeys; (4) by means of the Bordet-Gengou
reaction it is possible to detect specific yaws anti-bodies and
antigen.
The prophylaxis consists in the segregation of the patients
suffering from the disease, the antiseptic dressing of the erup-
tion, the application of a covering to protect it from flies, and
the thorough cleansing and disinfection of infected houses
and clothing, even the demolition of houses in endemic centres,
and finally the compulsory notification of cases of yaws to the
local sanitary authority.
As regards treatment, the malady in a person of good con-
stitution runs its course and gets well in a few weeks. What-
ever tends to check the eruption, such as exposure to chill, is to
be avoided. A week's course of cream of tartar and sulphur
(confection of sulphur) at the beginning of the illness is often
resorted to, so as to bring the eruption well out. The patient
should remain indoors, in a well-aired room, and take daily
warm baths and diluent drinks. If the excrescences are flabby
and unhealthy, it is an indication for generous diet. When
the eruption is declared, iodide of potassium and arsenic are
very beneficial. As external applications, weak lotions of zinc
or carbolic acid may be used, and, if the excrescences are irri-
table, a watery solution of opium. Tedious and unhealthy yaws
should be dressed with a wash of sulphate of zinc or of copper;
the same may be applied to a yaw ulcer. The crab yaws of
the horny soles or palms, after they are let through by paring
the cuticle, may be dusted with alum powder.
On the whole, the mortality is small. In 7157 West Indian cases
treated in various hospitals there were only 185 deaths, a mortality
of 25 -8 per thousand (Nicholls).
YAZDEGERD ("made by God," Izdegerdes), the name of
three Sassanid kings of Persia, (i) YAZDEGERD I., son of
Shapur III., 399-420, called " the sinner " by the Persians,
was a highly intelligent ruler, who tried to emancipate himself
from the dominion of the magnates and the Magian priests.
He punished the nobles severely when they attempted op-
pression; he stopped the persecution of the Christians and
granted them their own organization. With the Roman
Empire he lived in peace and friendship, and is therefore as
much praised by the Byzantine authors (Procop. Pers. i. 2;
Agath. iv. 26) as he is blamed by the Persians. After a reign
of twenty years he appears to have been murdered in Khorasan.
(2) YAZDEGERD II., was the son of Bahrain V. Gor, 438-457.
He persecuted the Christians and Jews, and had a short war
with Rome in 441. He tried to extend his kingdom in the
East and fought against the Kushans and Kidarites (or Huns).
(3) YAZDEGERD III., a grandson of Chosroes II., who had been
murdered by his son Kavadh II. in 628, was raised to the throne
in 632 after a series of internal conflicts. He was a mere child
and never really ruled; in his first year the Arabic invasion
began, and in 637 the battle of Kadisiya decided the fate of
the empire. Ctesiphon was occupied by the Arabs, and the
king fled into Media. Yazdegerd fled from one district to
another, till at last he was murdered at Merv in 651 (see CALI-
PHATE, sect. A. i). The Parsees, who use the old Persian
calendar, continue to count the years from his accession (era of
Yazdegerd, beginning June i6th, A.D. 632). (Eo. M.)
YEAST (O.E. giest or gyst; the root yes-, to boil, ferment, is
seen in Sansk. nir-yasa, exudations from trees, and Gr. ftiiv,
to boil), a cellular organism produced in the alcoholic fermenta-
tion of saccharine liquids (see FUNGI, FERMENTATION, BREWING).
YEATS, WILLIAM BUTLER (1865- ), Irish author, son
of J. B. Yeats (b. 1839), a distinguished Irish artist and member
of the Royal Hibernian Academy, was bom at Sandymount,
Dublin, on the I3th of June 1865. At nine years old he went to
live with his parents in London, and was sent to the Godolphin
School, Hammersmith. At fifteen he went to the Erasmus
Smith School in Dublin. Later he studied painting for a
short time at the Royal Dublin Society, but soon turned to
cjio
YECLA YELLOW FEVER
literature, contributing poems and articles to the Dublin Uni-
versity Review and other Irish periodicals. In 1888 he was
encouraged by Oscar Wilde to try his fortune in London, where
he published in 1889 his first volume of verse, The Wanderings
of Oisin; its original and romantic touch impressed discerning
critics, and started a new interest in the " Celtic " movement.
The same year and the next he contributed to Mr Walter
Scott's "Camelot Series," edited by Ernest Rhys, Fairy and
Folk Tales, a collection of Irish folklore, and Tales from Carlelon,
with original introductions. In 1891 he wrote anonymously
two Irish stories, John Sherman and Dhoya, for Mr Fisher
Unwin's " Pseudonym Library." In 1892 he published another
volume of verse, including The Countess Kathleen (a romantic
drama), which gave the book its title, and in 1893 The Cdtic
Twilight, a volume of essays and sketches in prose. He now
submitted his earlier poetical work to careful revision, and it
was in the revised versions of The Wanderings of U sheen and
The Countess Kathleen, and the lyrics given in his collected
Poems of 1895 that his authentic poetical note found adequate
expression and was recognized as marking the rise of a new
Irish school. In the meantime he had followed The Countess
Kathleen with another poetical drama, The Land of Heart's
Desire, acted at the Avenue Theatre for six weeks in the spring
of 1894, published in May of that year. He contributed to
various periodicals, notably to the National Observer and the
Bookman, and also to the Book of the Rhymers' Club the
English Parnasse Contemporain of the early 'nineties. With
Edwin J. Ellis he edited the Works of William Blake (1893),
and also edited A Book of Irish Verse (1895). In 1897 ap-
peared The Secret Rose, a collection of Irish legends and tales
in prose, with poetry interspersed, containing the stories of
Hanrahan the Red. The same year he printed privately The
Tables of the Law and the Adoration of the Magi, afterwards
published in a volume of Mr Elkin Mathews's " Vigo Street
Cabinet " in 1904. In 1889 he published The Wind among the
Reeds, containing some of his best lyrics, and in 1900 another
poetical drama, The Shadowy Waters. He now became specially
interested in the establishment of an Irish literary theatre;
and he founded and conducted an occasional periodical (appear-
ing fitfully at irregular intervals), called first Beltain and later
Samhain, to expound its aims and preach his own views, the
first number appearing in May 1899. In the autumn of 1001
Mr F. R. Benson's company produced in London the play
Diarmuid and Crania, written in collaboration by him and
George Moore. In 1902 he published his own first original
play in prose, Cathleen ni Houlihan, which was printed in
Samhain in October that year. In 1903 be collected and
published a volume of literary and critical essays, to which he
gave the title, Ideas of Good and Evil. In the same and the
following years he published a collected edition of his Plays for
an Irish Theatre, comprising Where There is Nothing, The Hour-
Class, Cathleen ni Houlihan, The Pot of Broth, The King's
Threshold and On Baile's Strand. In 1904 he also edited two
volumes of 7mA Representative Tales. Whether or not " Celtic "
is the right word for it, Mr Yeats's art was quickly identified
by enthusiasts with the literary side of the new Irish national
movement. His inspiration may be traced in some measure
to the Pre-Raphaelites and also to Blake, Shelley and Maeter-
linck; but he found in his native Irish legend and life matter
apt for his romantic and often elfin music, with its artful sim-
plicities and unhackneyed cadences, and its elusive, inconclusive
charm.
See the section on W. B. Yeats in Poets of the Younger Generation
by William Archer (1902), and for bibliography up to June 1903,
English Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxix. (N.S.) p. 288. A library
edition of his collected works in prose and verse was issued by Mr
Bullen from the Shakespeare Head Works, Stratford-on-Avon, in
8 vols., 1908.
YECLA, a town of E. Spain, in the extreme N. of the pro-
vince of Murcia, on the Yecla-Villena railway; it is situated
on the W. slope of Monte Castillo, which rises above the left
bank of the Arroyo del Jua. Pop. (1900) 18,743. The chief
buildings are a half-ruined citadel, a modern parish church
with a pillared Corinthian facade, and a town hall standing
in a fine arcaded square. Yecla has a thriving trade in the
grain, wine, oil, fruit and esparto grass produced in the sur-
rounding country.
YEISK, a town of Russia, in the province of Kuban (Caucasus),
founded in 1848 on a sandbank which separates the shallow
Bay of Yeisk from the Sea of Azov, 76 m. S.W. of Rostov-
on-the-Don. Pop. 35,446. Notwithstanding its shallow road-
stead, Yeisk has grown with great rapidity, and exports corn,
linseed and wool. There are wool-cleansing factories, oil-works
and tanneries.
YELLOW FEVER, a specific infective tropical fever, the germ
of which is transmitted by the Stegomyia fasciala or domestic
mosquito, occurring endemically in certain limited areas. The
area of distribution includes the West Indies, Mexico, part of
Central America, the W. coast of Africa and Brazil.
The first authentic account of yellow fever comes from Bridge-
town, Barbados, in 1647, where it was recognized as a " nova
pestis " that was unaccountable in its origin, except that Ligon,
the historian of the colony, who was then on the spot, connected
it with the arrival of ships. It was the same new pestilence that
Dutertre, writing in 1667, described as having occurred in the
French colony of Guadeloupe in 1635 and 1640; it recurred at
Guadeloupe in 1648, and broke out in a peculiarly disastrous
form at St Kitts the same year, and again in 1652; in 1655 it
was at Port Royal, Jamaica; and from those years onwards
it became familiar at many harbours in the West Indies and
Spanish Main. It appeared at the Brazilian ports in 1849. In
1853 it appeared in Peru and in 1820 on the W. coast of Africa.
In Georgetown (British Guiana) 69% of the garrison died in
1840.
During the great period of yellow fever (1793-1805), and for
some years afterwards, the disease found its way time after time
to various ports of Spain. Cadiz suffered five epidemics in the
i8th century, Malaga one and Lisbon one; but from 1800 down
to 1821 the disease assumed much more alarming proportions,
Cadiz being still its chief seat, while Seville, Malaga, Cartagena,
Barcelona, Palma, Gibraltar and other shipping places suffered
severely, as well as some of the country districts nearest to the
ports. In the severe epidemic at Barcelona in the summer of
1821, 5000 persons died. At Lisbon in 1857 upwards of 6000
died in a few weeks. In New Orleans 7970 people died in 1853,
3093 in 1867, and 4056 in 1878. In Rio 4160 died in 1850,
1943 in 1852, and 1397 in 1886.
Certain distinct conditions have seemed to be necessary for
an outbreak. Foremost we may notice a high atmospheric
temperature, one of 75 F. or over. As the thermometer sinks,
the disease ceases to spread. Moisture favours the spread of
yellow fever, and epidemics in the tropics have usually occurred
about the rainy season. Seaport towns are most affected.
In many instances the elevated airy and hygienic quarters of
a town may escape, while the shore districts are decimated.
Usually the disease does not spread to villages or sparsely popu-
lated districts. Certain houses become hotbeds of the disease,
case after case occurring in them; and it is usually in houses
that the disease is contracted. A house may be said to be
infected when it contains infected mosquitoes, whether there
be a yellow-fever patient there or not. Ships become infected
in the same way, the old wooden trading ships affording an ideal
hiding-place to the Slegomyia in a way that the modern and
airy steamship does not.
The incubation period of yellow fever is generally four or five
days, but it may be as short as twenty-four hours. There are
usually three marked stages: (i) the febrile period, (2) the period
of remission or lull, (3) in severe cases, the period of reaction. The
illness usually starts with languor, chilliness, headache, and mus-
cular pains, which might be the precursors of any febrile attack.
These are followed by a peculiar look of the eyes and face,
which is characteristic: the face is flushed, and the eyes suffused
at first and then congested or ferrety, the nostrils and lips red,
and the tongue scarlet these being the most obvious signs of
YELLOW FEVER
911
universal congestion of the skin, mucous membranes and organs.
Mt-unwhile the temperature has risen to fever heat, and may reach
a very high figure (maximum of 110 Fahr., it is said); the
pulse is quick, strong and full, but may not keep up in these
characters with the high temperature throughout. There are
all the usual accompaniments of high fever, including hot skin,
failure of appetite, thirst, nausea, restlessness and delirium
(which may or may not be violent); albumen will nearly always
b'e found in the urine. The fever is continued; but the febrile
excitement comes to an end after two or three days. In a certain
class of ambulatory or masked cases the febrile reaction may
never come out, and the shock of the infection after a brief
interval may lead unexpectedly and directly to prostration and
death. The cessation of the paroxysm makes the stadium, or
lull, characteristic of yellow fever. The hitherto militant or
violent symptoms cease, and prostration or collapse ensues.
The internal heat falls below the normal; the action of the
heart (pulse) becomes slow and feeble, the skin cold and of a
lemon-yellow tint, the act of vomiting effortless, like that of an
infant, the first vomit being clear fluid, but afterwards black from
an admixture of blood. It is at this period that the prospect
of recovery or of a fatal issue declares itself. The prostration
following the paroxysm of fever may be no more than the weak-
ness of commencing recovery, with copious flow of urine, which
even then is very dark-coloured from the presence of blood.
The prostration will be all the more profound according to the
height reached by the temperature during the acute paroxysm.
Much blood in the vomit and in the stools, together with all other
haemorrhagic signs, is of evil omen. Death may also be ushered
in by suppression of urine, coma and convulsions, or by fainting
from failure of the heart. In severe types of the disease an
apoplectic, an algid and a choleraic form have been described.
The case mortality averages from 12 to 80%. In Rio in 1898
it reached the appalling height of 94-5%. In cities where it is
endemic the case mortality is usually lower. In 269 cases
observed by Sternberg, the mean mortality was 27-7%. In
158 cases of yellow fever in Vera Cruz in 1905 there were 91
deaths. The death-rate, however, tends to vary in different
epidemics. In the epidemic occurring in Zacapa, Mexico, in 1905
in a population of 6000 there were 700 cases, and the mortality
among the infected was 40%.
Treatment. The patient should be removed from the focus of
infection and nursed in a well-ventilated room, screened from
mosquitoes. The further treatment is symtomatic. A purga-
tive, followed by hot baths, is useful in the early stages to relieve
congestion, high temperature may be controlled by sponging;
vomiting, by ice; or, if haemorrhagic, by ergot, perchloride of iron
or other styptics; and pilocarpine may be given if the urine be
scanty. Sternberg has introduced a system of treatment by
alkalis to counteract the hyperacidity of the intestinal contents
and increase the flow of urine. Of 301 whites treated by this
method only 7-3 % died, and of 72 blacks all recovered.
Causation. The pathology of the disease is discussed in
the article PARASITIC DISEASES. In 1881 Dr Charles Finlay,
of Havana, propounded the theory that mosquitoes were the
carriers of the infection. Numerous theories had previously
been brought forward, notably that of the Bacillus icteroides,
described by Sanarelli; but it is now certain that this organism
is not the cause. Other authorities held that the disease was
spread by contagion, by miasmata, or some other of the vague
agencies which have always been put forward in the absence of
exact knowledge. Finlay's mosquito theory remained in abey-
ance until attention was again drawn to it by the demonstration
in recent years of the part played by these insects in the causa-
tion of other tropical diseases. The mosquito selected by Finlay
was the Stegomyia fasciata, a black insect with silvery markings
on the thorax, which is exceedingly common in the endemic
area. It frequents towns, and breeds in any stagnant water
about houses. Specimens were caught, fed upon yellow-fever
patients, kept for a fortnight, and then allowed to bite susceptible
persons established in a special camp with other susceptible
persons as a control. Those bitten developed the fever, the
others did not. An American commission was appointed in
1900, consisting of Walter Reed, James Carroll, A. Agramonte
and Lazear, and its conclusions were: that the Stegomyia
fasciata is the agent of infection, that the virus of yellow fever
is present in the blood during the first three days of the fever,
and is generally absent on the fourth; that the germ is so small
that it can pass through a Chamberland porcelain filter; that
the bite of all infected Stegomyia does not produce yellow fever
(about 35% of the experiments proving negative); that mos-
quitoes fed on yellow-fever blood were not capable of giving rise
to infection until after a lapse of twelve or fourteen days, but the
insects retained their infective power for at least fifty-seven
days. It can therefore be concluded that the virus of yellow
fever is a parasite, requiring as in malaria an alternate passage
through a vertebrate and an insect host, the analogy to malaria
being very complete. E. Marchoux and P. L. Simond, of the
French Yellow Fever Commission to Rio de Janeiro, 1906, have
observed an interesting fact in connexion with the 5. fasciata.
In order to lay her eggs she must first have a feed of blood, three
days after which she lays them. Before she lays her eggs she
strikes both day and night, after that period at night only.
Persons bitten in the day-time, therefore, do not develop yellow
fever, while those bitten at night do. This may explain the
impunity with which Europeans may visit an infected district
in the day-time provided that they are careful not to sleep there
at night. It was stated by Marchoux and Simond that an
infected mosquito transmits the parasite to her eggs, the progeny
proving infective.
Prophylaxis. Following on the publication of these experi-
ments there was instituted a vigorous campaign against mos-
quitoes in Havana in 1901, based on the methods applied to the
suppression of malaria, and carried out under the direction of
Major W. C. Gorgas of the United States army, chief sanitary
officer of Havana. The work was begun on the 2 7th of February
1901. An order was issued that all receptacles containing water
were to be kept mosquito-proof; sanitary inspectors were told off
for each district to maintain a constant house-to-house inspection,
and to treat all puddles, &c., with oil; receptacles found to contain
larvae were destroyed and their owners fined; breeding-grounds
near the town were treated by draining and oil; hospitals
and houses containing yellow-fever patients were screened;
infected and adjacent buildings were fumigated with pyrethrum
powder. The results exceeded all expectation, and after January
1902 the disease entirely ceased to originate in Havana. Cases
occasionally now come into Havana from Mexican ports, but
are treated under screens with impunity in ordinary city hospitals
and never at any time infect the city. Thus in 1907 there was
one death from yellow fever, and the general death-rate of Havana
from all diseases was 17 per thousand. In the Bulletin of Public
Health and Charities of Cuba it is stated there only occurred
between 1905-9 a total of 345 cases of yellow fever in all Cuba,
where formerly they numbered many thousands, and in April
1910 the republic was declared to be entirely free from the
disease.
Among other modern outbreaks in which sanitary measures have
triumphed in the suppression of yellow fever were the outbreak in
New Orleans in 1905, in which a medical staff of 50 with sub-
ordinates to the number of 1203 started immediately on the outbreak
to clean up the city ; the outbreak in Belize, British Honduras, in
1905; the anti-yellow-fever campaign undertaken in the British
W. Indies in 1906-9. As soon as the Isthmian Canal commissioners
took over the administration of the Panama Canal Zone they
undertook a vigorous campaign against the mosquito, as the result
of which yellow fever was successfully banished. Colonel Gorgas
in his 1908 report wrote: " It is now three years since a ca>c
of yellow fever has developed in the Isthmus, the last being in
November 1905."
Rio de Janeiro, which had lost 28,078 inhabitants in 13 years by
yellow fever, and Santo, have also waged war against the disease;
as a result of the ant\-Stegomyia policy the deaths from yellow
fever in Rio fell to 42 in 1906, 39 in 1907, 4 in 1908, and_ o in 1909.
See Sir P. Manson, Tropical Diseases (1907) ; article " Yellow Fever ' '
in Allbutt and Rollcston s System of Medicine; Sir R. Boyce, Report
on Yellow Fever in Honduras (1906), and Health and Administration
in the West Indies (1910) ; Bulletins of the U.S. Yellow Fever Institute;
Annales de I'Institut Pasteur (January 1906).
912
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, an American national
reservation, situated mainly in N.W. Wyoming, U.S.A., dedi-
cated by the United States government as " a public park or
pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people."
It is nearly a rectangle in shape, with a length, from N. to S.,
of 62 m., a width of 54 m. and an area of approximately 3350
sq. m. It extends into Montana, on the N., about 2j m. and into
Montana and Idaho, on the W., 2 m. Except at its main en-
trance, through the valley of the Yellowstone on the N., the
park is entirely surrounded by national forests: the Gallatin
and Absaroka national forests, on the N.; the Shoshone and
the Beartooth, on the E.; the Teton, on the S.; and the
Targhee, the Madison and the Gallatin, on the W.
The central portion, comprising an area of about 2000 sq. m.,
is an undulating volcanic plateau with a mean elevation above
the sea of about 8000 ft. Along the entire E. border stretches
the Absaroka range, with peaks exceeding 11,000 ft. (Index
Peak, 11,740 ft.) in height. On the N. is the Snowy range
with its snow-capped peaks. W. of the Snowy the Gallatin
range extends S. for 20 m. along the* W. border. Electric
Peak, in the N.W. corner of the park, rises to a height of
11,155 ft. Near the S. end of the park are the Red Mountains,
which culminate in Mt. Sheridan (10,385 ft.) and afford a mag-
nificent view of the whole region; and farther S. the N. spur of
the lofty Tetons juts across the S. border.
In the production of these mountains and plateau there
was first, at the close of the Cretaceous period, an upheaval of
the earth's substance to form a mountain rim and a depressed
basin. Subsequently, in the Tertiary period, there were two
enormous outpourings of volcanic material first andesitic lava,
and later, after a long interval of quiet, rhyolitic which nearly
half filled the basin, converted it into a plateau and broke
up the mountain rim. Two centres of volcanic activity were
Mt. Sheridan, in the S., and Mt. Washburn, in the N. The
volcanoes have long been extinct, but the diminished energy
now causes hot springs and geysers in all parts of the plateau,
about too in number. More than half, including the largest
and finest, are in the upper and the lower Geyser basins, near
the head of the Madison, here known as the Firehole, river.
Several others are farther N. in the Norris basin upon Gibbon
river, a branch of the Madison, and others are farther S. in the
Shoshone basin.
Excelsior, the largest geyser, with a crater about 300 ft. long and
200 ft. wide, has not been active since 1890, but for several years
after its discovery it threw up at intervals a huge mass of water to
a height of 200-250 ft. Old Faithful, at regular intervals of 65-70
minutes, throws up a column of hot water 2 ft. in diameter to a
height of 125-150 ft., and the eruption lasts 4-4! minutes. The
Giant, at intervals of 2 to 4 days or more, throws up a column to a
height of 250 ft. for 90 minutes. The Beehive (so called from the
shape of its cone), the Grand and the Lone Star throw up columns
to a height of 200 ft. but at irregular intervals. In the Norris basin
are the Black Growler and the Hurricane, which consist of small
apertures through which steam rushes with such tremendous force
that it may be heard for miles. The hot springs are widely distri-
buted over the plateau and number from 3000 to 4000. The water
of most of the springs and geysers holds silica in solution in con-
siderable quantities, so that as it cools and evaporates it deposits
a dazzling white sinter which has covered many square miles of the
valleys and contrasts strongly with the dark green of the surrounding
forests. The springs, geysers and steam vents are scattered over
it in the most irregular fashion. The silicious matter has also built
up around the springs and geysers cones or mounds of considerable
size and great beauty of form. The water of many of the springs
contains sulphur, iron, alum and other materials in solution, which
in places stain the pure white sinter with bright bands of colour.
The tints and hues of some of the pools are of matchless beauty.
Near the N. boundary of the park there is a group of about 70 active
springs, known as the Mammoth Hot Springs, which hold carbonate
of lime in solution. Their deposits have built across a small valley
or ravine a series of broad, flat, concentric terraces beautiful in
form and 300 ft. in height. The water which trickles over the rims
of the pools and basins on the upper terraces is a transparent blue,
while the formation itself contains a network of fibrous algae which
gives it a wonderful variety of colours. In the lower Geyser basin
are the Mammoth Paint Pots, a group of mud springs with colours
varying according to the mineral ingredients in the steam, which
not only colours the mud but also forms it into imitative figures.
Near the centre of the park is Mud Caldron, a circular crater about
40 ft. deep with the boiling mud at the bottom. Although there
have been some changes in the thermal energy in the park since
1871, there has been no appreciable diminution. Certain springs
and geysers lose some of their energy at intervals, while others gain;
certain geysers have become quiescent, but some new ones have been
formed.
The Continental Divide crosses the park in a S.E. direction
from the meeting-point of the states of Wyoming, Idaho and
Montana. The small section S. ef the Divide is drained by
the Snake river into the Columbia river and the Pacific Ocean;
the large section N. of the Divide is drained by the Yellowstone
and Madison rivers into the Missouri, the Mississippi and the
Gulf of Mexico. The Lewis river, a fork of the Snake, has
its origin in the beautiful Shoshone Lake, and the Heart river,
another fork of the Snake, rises in Heart Lake, under Mt.
Sheridan.
The Yellowstone drains the entire E. section. Rising just beyond
its S. limits, it flows into and through Yellowstone Lake, a magni-
ficent sheet of water, very irregular in shape, dotted with forested
islands, having an area of about 140 sq. m., lying 7741 ft. above the
sea and nearly surrounded by lofty mountains. A few miles below
the lake, the river, after a succession of rapids, leaps over a cliff,
making the Upper Fall, 109 ft. in height. Half a mile lower down
it rolls over the Lower Fall, which has a clear descent of 308 ft.
The river at this point carries, at the average stage of water, about
1200 cub. ft. per second. With this fall the river enters the " Grand
Canyon," which in many scenic effects is unequalled. Its depth is
not great, at least as compared with the canyons upon the Colorado
river system; it ranges from 600 ft. at its head to 1200 near the
middle, where it passes the Washburn Mountains. Its length to
the mouth of Lamar river is 24 m. It is cut in the volcanic plateau,
and its ragged broken walls, which are inclined at very steep angles,
are of a richness of colouring that almost defies description, a
colouring that is produced by the action of the thermal springs, at
the base of the canyon, upon the mineral pigments in the lava.
Bright orange, yellow, red and purple hues predominate and are
set off very effectively against the dark green pines with which the
margins of the canyon are fringed, and the white foam of the river
at the bottom of the chasm. Near the foot of the Grand Canyon,
Tower creek, which drains the concavity of the horseshoe formed
by the Washburn Mountains, enters the Yellowstone. Just above
its mouth this stream makes a beautiful fall of 132 ft. into the gorge
in which it joins the river. A few miles farther down, the Yellow-
stone is joined by an E. branch, Lamar river, which drains a large
part of the Absaroka Range. Then it enters the Third Canyon,
from which it emerges at the mouth of Gardiner river. The latter
stream drains an area of elevated land by means of its three forks,
and upon each of them occurs a fine fall in its descent toward the
Yellowstone. The Madison rises in the W. of the park and flows in
a generally N. and then W. course out of the park. Its waters are
mainly collected from the rainfall upon the plateaux, and from the
hot springs and geysers, most of which are within its drainage area.
Upon this river and its affluents are several fine falls. Indeed, all
the streams in this region show evidence, in the character of their
courses, of a recent change of level in the surface of -the country.
The climate, influenced by the high elevation, is character-
ized by long and severe winters and short summers with great
diurnal extremes of temperature. But the low temperature
causes the moisture-laden winds to deposit here greater quantities
of rain and snow than in the semi-arid regions below, which not
only promote the growth of vegetation, but cause the activity
of the springs, geysers and waterfalls. The mean annual
temperature at the station of the United States Weather Bureau,
near the N. boundary, is 39 F. The summer (June, July
and August) mean is 59; the winter (December, January and
February) mean, 20.
Extremes have ranged from 96 in July to -35 in February. The
temperature has fallen to 30 in July, and a warm summer day may
at any time be followed by frost at night. The mean annual pre-
cipitation is IQ-6 in. Much of this is in the form of snow, and nearjy
half of it is during the four months from December to March ; in
the four dryest months, from July to October, it is only 4-4 in.
Some snow falls in every month except July and August, and the
average annual snowfall amounts to 94-7 in. The prevailing winds
are S.
About four-fifths of the park is covered with dense forests
of black pine (Pinus Murray ana), balsam, fir, spruce, cedar
and poplar. These trees do not attain a large size. A low
blueberry (Vactinium myrttiis) forms a thick underbrush in
much of the forest. Choke-cherries, gooseberries, buffalo-
berries, red currants and black currants grow along the streams
and in moist places of the lower altitudes. In the glades are
YEMEN
9*3
bunch-grass and a variety of flowering plants; buttercups,
daisies, forget-me-nots and other wild flowers may be found
near melting snow-banks in August. In the hot-spring districts
are plants with peculiarities both of those common to the
desert and those common to the seashore. In the N.E. corner
of the park fossil forests rise one above the other. After the
destruction of one forest by volcanic eruptions another grew
over it; it, too, was buried under volcanic material, and the
process was repeated several times.
The native fauna is abundant and varied. The policy of
the government which protects game, both in the park and in
the surrounding national forests, has induced elk, deer, ante-
lope, mountain-sheep, bears, porcupines, coyotes, squirrels,
gophers and woodchucks to take shelter here. There are also a
few moose and some beavers. Black, brown and grizzly bears
may be seen at almost any time during the summer season
feeding on the garbage from the hotels. A few wild bison still
remain at large, and besides these there is a herd of about 100
confined within a pasture in the Lamar Valley. The lakes
and rivers are well stocked with trout and other fish, and
visitors have the privilege of catching a limited number with
rod and line. Robins, bluebirds, warblers, chickadees, finches,
vireos, wrens, yellow-headed blackbirds, nutcrackers, nut-
hatches, meadow-larks, sparrows, woodpeckers, swifts, kingbirds
and several other species of small birds are found in the park,
but the number of each is not great. Among birds of prey
are the golden eagle, bald eagle, hawks and owls. Geese,
ducks, cranes, pelicans and gulls are very numerous in the
autumn months.
The park is under the supervision of a superintendent who
is appointed and instructed by the Secretary of the Interior.
It is policed, however, by troops of United States cavalry
with headquarters at Fort Yellowstone, near the Mammoth
Hot Springs, and the building of roads and other improvements
is under the direction of the Secretary of War. The only rail-
way approaches to the park are a branch of the Northern
Pacific railway up the valley of the Yellowstone to the main
gate at Gardiner, Montana, and a branch of the Oregon Short
Line up the valley of the North Fork of the Snake to Yellow-
stone, Montana. Automobiles are not allowed within the park,
and the principal means of conveyance is by stage coaches and
by a steamboat on Yellowstone Lake. There are hotels at the
Mammoth Hot Springs, at the principal geyser basins and at
Yellowstone Lake. The hotels and stage lines open for the tourist
season early in June and close in the middle of September.
The strange phenomena of this region were known to some
of the Indians; they were discovered by John Colter, a member
of the Lewis and Clark expedition, in 1807; the region was
visited by James Bridger before 1840; an account of the
geysers was published at Nauvoo, Illinois, in The Wasp, a
Mormon paper, in 1842; Captain W. F. Raynolds, of the
United States Corps of Topographical Engineers, with full
knowledge of Bridger's accounts, was ordered to explore the
region in 1859, and yet, chiefly because of the persistent in-
credulity with which the accounts of the phenomena were
received, the region remained practically unknown until 1870.
From 1863 to 1866 gold seekers repeatedly confirmed the
early reports, and the publication of their accounts in Western
papers gradually aroused interest. In 1869 a private exploring
party, consisting of David E. Folsom, C. W. Cook and William
Peterson, set out from the gold-fields of Montana with the
express purpose of verifying or refuting the rumours, and
they returned full of enthusiasm. In 1870 a semi-official
expedition, led by Henry D. Washburn, the surveyor-general
of Montana, and Lieutenant Gustavus C. Doane of the Second
United States Cavalry, made the " Yellowstone Wonderland "
widely known. A year later an expedition under Dr Ferdinand
V. Hayden (1829-1887) made a large collection of specimens
and photographs, and with these data, together with the reports
of this and the Washburn-Doane expedition, Congress was
induced to reserve the area from settlement, which was done
by an act approved the ist of March 1872. In that year
further explorations were made, and in subsequent years
army expeditions continued the work of exploration. In 1878
a map of the park based upon triangulation was drawn up by the
Hayden survey, and in 1883-85 a more detailed map was made
by the United States Geological Survey, and a systematic study
of its geological phenomena was instituted.
See Arnold Hague, Geology of the Yellowstone National Park
(Washington, 1899), "Geological History of the Yellowstone
National Park," in the Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion (ibid., 1893}, and " The Yellowstone National Park," in
Scribner's Magazine (May, 1904); W. H. Weed, "Formation of
Travertine and Siliceous Sinter by the Vegetation of Hot Springs,"
in the 9th Annual Report of the Director of the United States
Geological Survey (Washington, 1889); descriptions in the 5th, 6th
and 1 2th Reports of the Hayden Geological and Geographical Survey
of the Territories (ibid., 1871,1872 and 1878); J. H. Raftery, His-
torical and Descriptive Sketch of the Yellowstone National Park,
Senate Document No. 752, 2nd Session of the 6oth Congress (ibid.,
1909); H. M. Chittenden, Yellowstone National Park, Historical
and Descriptive (Cincinnati, 1895); and Annual Reports of the
Superintendent of the Park (Washington, 1880 sqq.).
YEMEN (Yaman), a province of Arabia, forming the S.W.
corner of the peninsula, between 12 35' and 18 N., and 42
and 47 E., bounded on the N. by Asir and on the E. by the
Dahna desert and Hadramut. Ptolemy and the ancient
geographers in general include the whole peninsula under the
name of Arabia Felix (ivdcd/jtuiv) , in which sense they translate
the Arabic Yemen, literally " right hand," for all Arabia S. of
the Gulf of Akaba was to the right from their standpoint of
Alexandria; the Mahommedan geographers, however, viewing
it from Mecca, confine the term to the provinces S. of Hejaz,
including Asir, Hadramut, Oman and part of southern Nejd.
The Turkish vilayet of Yemen includes Asir, and extends along
the Red Sea coast from El Laith in the N. to Shekh Said at
the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; its land boundary on the E. is
undefined, except in the S.E., where the boundary between
Turkish territory and that of the independent tribes under
British protection was defined by an agreement between Great
Britain and Turkey in 1004, by a line running approximately
N.E. from Shekh Said to the Dahna desert. The main physical
characteristics of the province are described in the article
ARABIA. A lowland strip 20 to 30 m. wide' extends along its
western and southern coasts, skirting the great mountain
range which runs along the whole western side of the Arabian
peninsula, and attains its greatest height in the Jibal, or high-
lands of Yemen; beyond this mountain zone the interior plateau
falls gradually towards the N.E. to the Dahna desert.
The lowland, or Tehama, is hot and generally sterile; it contains
pases, however, near the foot of the mountains, fertilized and
irrigated by hill streams and supporting many large villages and
towns. The most important of these are Abu Arish, Bet cl Fakih
and Zubed in the western Tehama, the latter a thriving town of
20,000 inhabitants and the residence of a Turkish kaimalcam;
and Abyan and Lahej, the chief place of the independent Abdali
tribe, in the southern Tehama. Hodeda and Aden are the only
ports of commercial importance, Lohaia and Ghalefika have sunk
to insignificant fishing villages, and Mokha, the old centre of the
coffee trade, is now almost deserted. The Jibal forms a mountainous
zone some 50 m. in width rising steeply from the foothills of the
Tehama to an average height of 9000 ft.; many summits exceed
10,000 ft. the highest fixed by actual survey is Jebel Manar, 10,565
ft., about 10 m. E. of the town of Ibb. With its temperate climate
and regular rainfall, due to the influence of the S.W. monsoon, the
Jibal must be considered the most favoured district of Arabia.
The villages are substantially built of stone, often picturesquely
situated on the spurs and crests of the hills, the houses clustering
round the dars or towers which dominate the cultivated slopes and
valleys. The principal crops are wheat, barley, millet and coffee,
the last-named more particularly on the western slopes of the range
within reach of the moist sea-breezes. In many places the hill-
sides, otherwise too steep for cultivation, are cut into terraced
fields supported by stone walls; the name given by the Greek
geographers to the range of S. Arabia was no doubt intended to
describe the step-like appearance of the hills due to this method of
cultivation. A special characteristic of the Yemen highlands is
that fields and inhabited sites are found at the highest elevations,
the mountain-tops forming extensive plateaux, often scarped on
every side and only accessible by difficult paths cut in the cliffs
which encircle them like the escarpments of a natural fortress; a
remarkable example of this is Jebel Jihaf on the Aden border, 8000 ft.
YENISEI YENISEISK
above sea-level and 4000 ft. above the Kataba valley, an isolated
plateau some 6 m. long, containing thirty or forty villages.
The principal town of the Jibal is Ta'iz, the seat of a Turkish
mutassarif ; its present population does not exceed 4000, but it was
formerly a large city, and from its position in the centre of a com-
paratively fertile district at the junction of several trade routes it
must always be important. It contains five mosques and the
Turkish government offices and barracks, and in the business quarter
several cafes and shops kept by Greeks. The climate is unhealthy,
perhaps owing to its position in a low valley, 4400 ft. above sea-level,
at the foot of the lofty Jebel Sabur (9900 ft.), and even in Niebuhr's
time many of the houses in the city were in ruins. Thirty miles
further N. are the small towns of Ibb (6700 ft.) and Jibla, about
5 m. apart, typical hill towns with their high stone-built houses and
paved streets. To the E. on the main road to the coast via Zubed
is Uden, the centre of a coffee-growing district ; 80 m. to the N. is
Manakha, a Turkish post on the main road from Hodeda to the
capital, and the chief place of Jebel Haraz, which produces the best
coffee in Yemen. Another group of hill towns lies still further N. in
the mountain mass between the Wadi Maur and Wadi La'a, where the
strongholds of Dhafir, Afar, Haja and Kaurkaban held out for long
against the Turkish advance; the last-named town, now almost
deserted, was once a city of 20,000 inhabitants, and the capital of
a small principality which preserved its independence during the
earlier Turkish occupation between 1536 and 1630.
The inner or plateau zone of Yemen stretches along the whole
length of the province, with an average width of 120 m. ; it lies
entirely to the E. of the high range, and has therefore a smaller
rainfall than the Jibal; its general character is that of a steppe
increasing in aridity towards the E. where it merges in the desert,
but broken in places by rocky ranges, some of which rise 2000 ft.
above the general level, and which in the Hamdan district N. of Sana
show evidence of volcanic action. It is intersected by several
wadi systems, of which the principal are those in the N. uniting to
form the Wadi Nejran, in the centre the Wadi Kharid and Shibwan
running to the Jauf, and in the S. the Wadi Bana and its affluents
draining to the Gulf of Aden. The plateau has a gradual fall from
the watershed near Yarim, 8500 ft. above sea-level, to less than
4000 ft. at the edge of the desert.
The northern part nearly down to the latitude of Sana, is the
territory of the warlike Hashid and Bakil tribes, which have never
submitted to the Turks, and in 1892 and again in 1904-5 drove the
Turkish troops from almost every garrison in the province, and for a
time held the capital Sana itself for the Imam Muhammad Yahiya,
the representative of the old dynasty that ruled in Yemen from the
expulsion of the Turks in 1630 till i* reconquest in 1871. The
principal places are Sa'da, the residence of the Imam, an important
town on the old pilgrim road 120 m. N. of Sana, Khaiwan and Khamr.
In the N.E., bordering on the desert, is the district of Nejran, a
mountainous country with several fertile valleys including the
Wadi Nejran, Bedr and Habuna, all probably draining N.E. to
the Wadi Dawasir. Further S. is the oasis of Jauf, a hollow or
depression, as its name signifies, containing many villages, and of
great antiquarian interest as the central point of the old Minaean
and Sabaean kingdoms, known to the ancients from the earliest
historical times through their control of the frankincense trade of
S. Arabia. Ma'in, identified by Halevy as the seat of the former,
is on a hilltop surrounded by walls still well preserved. Numerous
other ruins were found by him in the neighbourhood, together with
inscriptions supporting the identification. Marib, the Sabaean
capital, was celebrated for its great dam, built according to tradition
by the Queen of Sheba, and the bursting of which in A.D. 120 is said
to have led to the abandonment of the city. This was, however,
more probably due to the deterioration of the country through
desiccation, which has forced the settled population farther west-
ward, where Sana became the centre of the later Himyaritic kingdom.
The Arhab district drained by the Wadi Kharid and Shibwan between
Sana and the Jauf is covered with Himyaritic ruins, showing that
the land formerly supported a large settled population where owing
to the want of water cultivation is now impossible.
South of this independent tribal territory the principal places are
Amran and Shibam on the road leading N. from the capital Sana;
Dhamar (a town of 4000 inhabitants, the residence of a kaimakam,
and the seat of an ancient university) and Yarim are on the road
leading S. to Aden ; and two days' journey to the E. is Rada in the
extreme S.E. of Turkish Yemen, formerly a large town, but now much
decayed. From near Rada the boundary runs S.W. to the small
town of Ka'taba through which the direct road passes from Aden to
Sana. The territory to the S. and E. is occupied by independent
tribes under British protection, of which the principal are the Yafa 1 ,
the Haushabi and the Abdali.
The inhabitants of Yemen are settled, and for the most part
occupied in agriculture and trade, the conditions which favour the
pastoral or Bedouin type found in Hejaz and Nejd hardly exist-
ing. As in the adjoining province of Hadramut, with which Yemen
has always been closely related, the people are divided into four
classes: (l) The Seyyids or Ashraf, descendants of the prophet,
forming a religious aristocracy; (2) the Kabail, or tribesmen,
belonging to the Kahtanic or original S. Arabian stock, who form
the bulk of the population, and are the only class habitually carrying
arms; (3) the trading class; (4) the servile class, mostly of mixed
African descent, and including a number of Jews. These latter
wear a distinctive garb and occupy separate villages, or quarters
in the towns. Owing to the hardships to which they have been
exposed through the disturbed state of the country, many are
emigrating to Jerusalem.
See C. Niebuhr, Travels and Description of Arabia (Amsterdam,
1774); D. G. Hogarth, Penetration of Arabia (London, 1904); E.
Glaser, Geschichte und Geographic Arabiens (Berlin, 1890), and in
Petermann's Mitt. (1886); R. Manzoni, // Yemen (Rome, 1884); A.
Deflers, Voyage en Yemen (Paris, 1889); S. M. Zwenier, Arabia
(Edinburgh, 1900); W. B. Harris, A Journey through Yemen
(London, 1893); H. Burchardt, Z. d. Ges. fiir Erdkunde (Berlin,
1902), No. 7. (R. A. W.)
YENISEI, a river of Asia, which rises in two principal head-
streams, the Bei-kem and the Khua-kem, on the plateau of
N.W. Mongolia the former on the S. flank of the Sayan
Mountains in 97 30' E. and 52 20' N., and the latter in marshes
a few miles W. of Lake Kosso-gol. They have a westerly
course, but after uniting they turn N., through the Sayan
Mountains in the wild gorge of Kemchik, in 92 E. Thence the
river makes its way across the Alpine region that borders the
Sayan Mountains on the N. until it emerges upon the steppes at
Sayansk (53 10' N.). Augmented by the Abakan on the left
and the Tuba on the right, it traverses the mining region of
Minusinsk, approaches within 6 m. of the Chulym, a tributary
of the Ob, intersects the Siberian railway at Krasnoyarsk,
and is joined first by the Kan and then by the Upper
(Verkhnyaya), the Stony (Podkamennaya), and the Lower
(Nizhnyaya) Tunguzka, all from the right. The Upper Tun-
guzka, known also as the Angara, drains Lake Baikal, and is
navigable from Irkutsk. The Yenisei continues N. to the
Arctic Ocean, joined on the left by the Zym, Turukhan and
Ingarevka, and on the right by the Kureika and Daneshkina.
After the confluence of the Angara, the stream continues to
widen out to 30 m., its bed being littered with islands until it
breaks into its delta (240 m. long). The length of the river is
nearly 3000 m., and the area of its drainage basin 970,000 sq. m.
It is navigable as far up as Minusinsk, a distance of 1840 m.,
and is free from ice on the average for 155 days at Turukhansk
and for 196 days at Krasnoyarsk. A canal connects the Great
Kaz, a tributary of the Yenisei, with the Ket, an affluent of
the Ob.
YENISEISK, a government of E. Siberia, extending from
the Chinese frontier to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, with an
area of 986,908 sq. m. It has the governments of Tobolsk and
Tomsk on the W., Yakutsk and Irkutsk on the E., N.W. Mon-
golia on. the S. and the Arctic Ocean on the N. Its southern
extremity being in 51 45' N. and its northern (Cape Chelyuskin)
in 77 38', it combines a great variety of orographical types,
from the Sayan alpine regions in the S. to the tundras of the
Arctic littoral:
The border-ridge of the high plateau of N.W. Mongolia, which is
known under the general name of the Western Sayans, and reaches
altitudes of 7000 to 8000 ft., limits it on the S. This is flanked on
the north-western slope by a zone, nearly loo m. wide, characterized
by narrow valleys separating parallel chains of mountains, which are
built up of crystalline slates, 6000 to 7000 ft. high. Here in the
impenetrable forests a few Tungus families live by hunting. Towards
the S., in the basins of the Tuba, Sisim, Yus, Kan, Agul and Biryusa,
the valleys of the alpine tracts contain rich auriferous deposits, and
numerous gold-washings have been established along the taiga.
A flattened range of mountains, hardly attaining more than 3000 to
3500 ft., shoots N.E. from the Kuznetskiy Ala-tau, and separates
the dry steppes of Minusinsk and Abakan from the next terrace
of plains, 1200 to 1700 ft. in altitude, which also stretch N.E. from
Barnaul in the government of Tomsk to Krasnoyarsk, and into the
upper basin of the Vilui. Another system of mountains, known as
the Yeniseisk Taiga, rises on the outer border of this terrace, in the
space between the upper Tunguzka, or Angara, and the Podkamen-
naya Tunguzka. This system consists of several parallel chains
running S.W. to N.E., and reaching 2500 to 3500 ft. in altitude, though
they are much lower on the left bank of the Yenisei. For many
years past the Yeniseisk Taiga has been one of the most productive
auriferous regions of Siberia, on account not so much of the percentage
of gold in its alluvial deposits (which are poor in comparison with
those of Olekminsk) as of the facilities for supplying the gold-fields
with food produced in the steppes of Minusinsk.
YENISEISK YEOMAN
Beyond the Yeniseisk Taiga begin the lowlands, which at no point
rise more than a few hundred feet above the sea. They slope gently
towards the Arctic Ocean and are covered with lakes, scanty
forests and marshes; and, as they approach the ocean, they assume
more and more the character of barren tundras. Beyond 70 N.
trees occur only along the courses of the rivers. Two ranges,
however, break the monotony of the lowlands the Tungusk,
which stretches N.E., between the Khatanga and Anabar rivers,
.ind the Byrranga mountains, which skirt the N.W. shore of the
Taimyr peninsula. The shores of the Arctic Ocean are indented by
deep estuaries, that of the Taz penetrating 600 m. into the interior
of the continent, and that of the Yenisei 300 m. Taymyr, Thaddeus
and Khatanga Bays are wide and deep indentations, ice-bound
almost all the year round. Taymyr peninsula, between the Yenisei
and the Khatanga, is a stony tundra.
The government is drained by the Yenisei and its affluents.
In 55 N. this river approaches the Chulym, a tributary of the Ob,
from which it is separated by an isthmus only 6 m. in width. The
possibility of connecting the two great river systems of Siberia
at this point has often been discussed; the difficulty is that the
Chulym valley is 440 ft. higher than the other.
Yeniseisk is rich in all Kinds of metals and minerals. Gold dust
appears in the N. Yeniseisk Taiga, in the region of the Kuznetskiy
Ala-tau and its spurs, with the basins of the Tuba, Sisim and Black
and White Yus, and in the upper parts of the tributaries of the
Kan and Agul. Silver ore is found in the basin of the Abakan, but
the mines have been abandoned. Iron ore occurs almost everywhere
in S. Yeniseisk, but there is only one iron-work on the Abakan.
Salt lakes are common.
The climate, though very severe throughout, offers great varieties.
The Minusinsk steppes have a dry and relatively mild climate. At
Krasnoyarsk (55* i' N.) the climate is more severe, and the winds
are disagreeable. The yearly fall of snow is so small that the
winds blow it away in the neighbourhood of the town. The town of
Yeniseisk (58 27 N.) has an average temperature below freezing-
point, and at Turukhansk the coldest month (February) averages
24 F. On the Taymyr peninsula the average summer tempera-
ture hardly reaches 45.
The highlands of Sayan and Ala-tau are thickly clothed with
forests of cedar, pitch-pine, larch, elder and birch, with rhodo-
dendrons, Herberts and Ribes; the Scotch fir appears only in the
lower and drier parts of the valleys. The summits and slopes of
the mountains are strewn with de'bris and boulders, and thickly
carpeted with lichens and mosses ; but there are patches of meadow-
land brightened with flowers, most of which are known in Europe.
Still, the flora is poor as a rule, and Dr Martianov, after several
years' labour, succeeded in collecting only 104 species of phanero-
gams. 1 -On the other hand, the Minusinsk plains and the steppes
of the Abakan are bright with flowers scattered amid the common
Gramineae, and in June and July with the Polygala, Dianthus,
Medicago, Lathyrus, yellow sweet-scented lily, and scores of other
(lowers, mostly familiar in Europe, but attaining in Yeniseisk a
larger size and greater brilliancy of colour. The rich carpet of grass
and flowers is overtopped by the tall white blossoms of Archangelica
and Spiraea Ulmaria, and by the blue masses of Veronica longtfolia.
The meadows of the moister localities, surrounded by thickets of
willow, poplar, wild cherry and hawthorn, are still more attractive,
on account of their wealth in anemones, violets, gentians and so on,
and the numerous creepers which festoon the trees and shrubs.
Dr Martianov' s lists enumerate a total of 760 flowering and 760 cryp-
togamic plants. Of the lower Fungi and parasitical Myxomycetes
1300 species were noted, and out of the 823 species hitherto described
by specialists no fewer than 124 have proved to be new. Farther
N. the flora is similar in character to that of the Siberian lowlands
(see SIBERIA). In the Taimyr peninsula it is represented by only
124 species of flowering plants.
The steppes of the upper Yenisei have been inhabited from
a very remote antiquity, and numberless kurgans, or burial-
mounds, graves, rock inscriptions and smelting furnaces of
the successive inhabitants are scattered all over the prairies of
Abakan and Minusinsk. 2 The present population exhibit traces
of all their predecessors. Numerous survivals of Turkish and
Samoyedic tribes are found in the steppes and in the Sayans;
but some of them are greatly reduced in numbers. The
estimated population in 1906 was 657,900. It is almost entirely
Russian, the rest (about 10%) consisting of Samoyedes, Tatars,
Tunguses, Yakuts, Mongols and Ostyaks. The government is
divided into five districts, the chief towns of which are Krasno-
yarsk, Achinsk, Kansk, Minusinsk and Yeniseisk.
1 N. Martianov, " Materials for a Flora of the Minusinsk Region,"
in Trudy of the Kazan Society of Naturalists (xi. 3, 1882).
'See W. Radlov, Aus Sibirien (2 vols., Leipzig, 1880), and
N. Savenkov, in Izvestia of the East Siberian Geographical Society
(xvii., 1887).
I,ii7,ooo acres (0-2%) are under crops, the principal being
eat, oats, barley and potatoes. Live-stock, including rein-
Some
rye, wheat,
deer, breeding is very extensively carried on. Fishing, especially
on the lower Yenisei, is of great importance. Sables are not now
to be found, and the hunters obtain chiefly squirrels, foxes, Arctic
foxes and bears. In the middle of the I9th century 350,000 to
525,000 oz. of gold were obtained annually in N. and S. Yeniseisk,
but by the end of the century the output had dropped to less than
100,000 oz. Salt is extracted as well as Epsom salts. Coal has been
found on the Lower Tunguzka, near the mouth of the Yenisei, and
in many places in the S. of the government. Silver, copper, lead,
brown coal or lignite, rock-salt, graphite and mica all exist in large
quantities, but are not regularly mined. There are several dis-
tilleries. The trade is in furs (exported), and in groceries and manu-
factured goods (imported). The gold-fields of the Yeniseisk Taiga
are supplied with grain and cattle by river from the Minusinsk
region, and with salt, spirits and iron by the Angara. The govern-
ment is traversed from W. to E. by the Siberian railway, and con-
siderable efforts have been made to establish regular steamer com-
munication between the mouth of the Yenisei and W. Europe. For
some years before the close of the igth century steamers (e.g. that
of the English Captain Wiggins) reached the mouth of the Yenisei,
importing provisions and machinery for the gold mines. Efforts
have been made to clear the rapids of the Angara, so as to bring
Lake Baikal into steamer communication with the Yenisei. Owing
to the shallowness, however, of the small tributaries of the Yenisei,
the canal connecting the Yenisei with the Ob has not proved as
serviceable as was expected. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
YENISEISK, a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, on the right bank of the Yenisei, 170 m.
N.N.W. of Krasnoyarsk, with which it has regular communica-
tion by steamer. Pop. 12,000. It is the centre of a gold-
mining region, and has a public library and a natural history
and archaeological museum. The town was founded in 1618.
YEOLA, a town of British India, in the Nasik district of
Bombay, on the chord line of the Great Indian Peninsula
railway, 18 m. from Manmad junction. Pop. (1901) 16,559.
There are important manufactures of cotton and silk cloth and
thread, and also of gold and silver wire. At the time of its
foundation Yeola was under the emperor of Delhi; it subse-
quently passed into the hands of the rajas of Satara and then
the Peshwas. Finally it was given in grant to Vithal, the
ancestor of the present chief of Vinchur.
YEOMAN, a term of which the various meanings fall into
two main divisions, first that of a class of holders of land, and
secondly that of a retainer, guard, attendant or subordinate
officer or official. The word appears in M.E. as $eman, ^oman
and yeman; it does not appear in O.E. Various explanations
of the first part have been suggested, such as jung-mann, young
man, and yeme-man, attendant, from yeme, care; but it is
generally accepted that the first part is the same word as the
Ger. Gau, district, province, and probably occurs in O.E. as gea
in Suftri-gea, Surrey, i.e. southern district, and other place-names.
Thus in O. Frisian is found gaman, a villager; Bavarian,
gUumann, peasant. " Yeoman " thus meant a countryman, a
man of the district, and it is this sense which has survived in the
special use of the word for a class of landholders, treated below.
For the transition in meaning to a guard of the sovereign's body
and to officials of a royal household see YEOMEN OF THE GUARD
and VALET. In the British royal household there are, besides
the Yeomen of the Guard, a yeoman of the wine and beer cellar,
a yeoman of the silver pantry and yeoman state porters. Tl e
term also occurs in the title of the first assistant to the Usher of
the Black Rod, the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod. In the
British navy there are petty officers in charge of the signalling
styled " Yeomen of Signals." For the history and present
organization of the " yeomanry cavalry " see YEOMANRY and
UNITED KINGDOM ( Army).
The extent of the class covered by the word " yeoman " in
England has never been very exactly defined. Not only has the
meaning of the word varied from century to century, but men
writing about it at the same time have given to it different in-
terpretations. One of the earliest pictures of a yeoman is that
given by Chaucer in the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales.
Here, represented as a forester, he follows the esquire as a
retainer or dependant. The yeomen of the ages succeeding
Chaucer are, however, practically all occupied in cultivating the
916
YEOMANRY YEOMEN OF THE GUARD
land, although, doubtless from its younger sons, the class
furnished retainers for the great lords, men-at-arms and archers
for the wars, and also tradesmen for the towns. Stubbs (Const.
Hist. vol. iii.) refers to them as " a body which in antiquity of
possession and purity of extraction was probably superior to
the classes that looked down, upon it as ignoble," and Medley
(Eng. Const. Hist.) describes the yeomen as in the isth century
representing on the whole " the small freeholders of the feudal
manor." Holinshed, in his Chronicle, following Sir T. Smyth
(De republica Anglorum), and W. Harrison (Description of
England), describes them as having free land worth 6 annually,
and in times past 403., and as not entitled to bear arms, being
for the most part farmers to gentlemen, and this description may
be accepted as the popular idea of the yeoman in the i6th
century. He formed the intermediate class between the gentry
and the labourers and artisans, the line of demarcation, however,
being not drawn very distinctly.
The yeomen were the smaller landholders, and in the is
century were practically identical with the forty-shilling free-
holders who exercised the franchise under the act of 1430.
Occasionally they found their way into parliament, for in 1446
the sheriffs were forbidden to return vallelti (i.e. yeomen) as
members, but this prohibition had very little result. Soon,
however, the name appears to have included tenant farmers as
well as small freeholders. Thus Latimer, in his famous sermon
before Edward VI., says: " My father was a yeoman, but had
no land of his own"; the bishop represents the yeoman as an
exceedingly prosperous person, and the same opinion had been
expressed about a century before by Sir John Fortescue in his
Governance of England. The decay of the class began with the
formation of large sheep farms in the i6th century, but its
decline was very slow, and the yeomen furnished many sturdy
recruits to the parliamentary party during the Civil War. Their
decay was accelerated during the i8th century, when many of
them were bought out by the large landowners, while they re-
ceived another blow when the factory system destroyed the
country's domestic industries. Many writers lament the decay
of the yeoman in the i8th and ipth centuries, but this is partly
accounted for by the fact that they exclude all tenant farmers
from the class, which they confine to men cultivating their own
land. Thus the wheel has come full circle and the word means
to-day much the same as it meant in the early part of the isth
century.
YEOMANRY, the name given to the volunteer mounted
troops of the home defence army of Great Britain, ever since their
original formation; it indicated that recruiting, organization
and command were upon a county basis, the county gentlemen
officering the force, the farmers and yeomen serving in its ranks,
and all alike providing their own horses. Although the yeomanry
was created in 1761, it was not organized until 1794. Under the
stimulus of the French War recruiting was easy, and 5000 men
were quickly enrolled. A little later, when more cavalry was
needed, the Provisional Cavalry Act was passed, whereby a sort
of revived knight-service was established, every owner of ten
horses having to find and equip a horseman, and all who owned
fewer than ten, grouped by tens of horses, similarly finding one.
But an amending act was soon passed, by which yeomanry
cavalry could be substituted for provisional cavalry in the county
quota. This gave a great stimulus to yeomanry recruiting, as
similar enactments had done in the case of the infantry volun-
teers. But even so the provisional cavalry, which was embodied
only in counties that did not supply the quota in yeomanry, was
stronger than the yeomanry at the peace of Amiens. At that
peace, partly with a view to preserving internal order, partly
because of the probable renewal of the war, the yeomanry was
retained, although the provisional cavalry was disbanded.
There was thus a nucleus for expansion when Napoleon's
threatened invasion (1803-5) called out the defensive powers of
the country, and as early as December 1803 there were in England,
Scotland and Ireland 44,000 yeomen. At the same time the
limitations as to place of service (some undertaking to serve in
any part oi Great Britain, some within a specified military
district, most only in their own county) were abolished. The
unit of organization was the troop of 80-100, but most of the
force was grouped in regiments of five or more troops, or in
" corps " of three or four troops. Permanent paid adjutants and
staff sergeants were allowed to corps and regiments, but no
assistance was given in the shape of officers on the active list and
serving non-commissioned officers of the army and militia.
Equipment, supply and mobilization arrangements were purely
regimental, and through all the war years most of the troops and
squadrons were ready to take the field, with equipment, food and
forage, complete at a day's notice. They were trained as light
cavalry, and armed with sabre and pistol. But a few town
corps had mounted riflemen, and several corps, both in town and
country, had one or more dismounted troops, who were carried
on vehicles similar to the " Expedition or Military Fly " pictured
by Rowlandson.
From the extinction of Chartism to the South African War
the history of the yeomanry is uneventful. The strength of the
force gradually sank to 10,000. But when it became apparent
that mounted troops would play a decisive part in the war
against the Boers, the yeomanry again came to the front. Of
its 10,000 serving officers and men, 3000 went to South Africa
in newly formed battalions of " Imperial Yeomanry," armed and
organized purely as mounted rifles, and to these were added over
32,000 fresh men, for whom the yeomanry organization at home
and at the seat of war provided the cadres and training, while
the home yeomanry not only filled up its gaps but expanded.
In 1901 the yeomanry, now all styled " Imperial," was re-
modelled; and the strength of regiments was equalized on a
four-squadron basis. In the prevailing conditions practically
all regiments were able to recruit up to the increased establish-
ment, and the strength of the force was more than trebled.
Fresh regiments were formed, some in the towns, others on the
nucleus of special corps disbanded at the close of the South
African War. In 1907 the yeomanry became part of the new
Territorial Force (see UNITED KINGDOM, Army).
YEOMEN OF THE GUARD, originally "Yeomen of the
Guard of (the body of) our Lord the King," or in the isth-century
Latin, " Valecti garde (corporis) domini Regis," the title (main-
tained with but a slight variation since their institution in 1485,
the official wording under Edward VII. being " The King's Body
Guard of the Yeomen of the Guard ") of a permanent military
corps in attendance on the sovereign of England, as part of the
royal household, whose duties, now purely ceremonial, were
originally that of the sovereign's personal bodyguard. They are
the oldest existing body of the kind, having an unbroken record
from 1485, as well as the oldest military body in England. Before
that time there had been forms of royal guard, but no permanent
institution. Under Edward I. we find in England the " cross-
bowmen of the household," and under Edward II. an "Archer
guard of the King's body"; but the "Archers of the King,"
" of the crown " or " of the household," who appear in the
records up to 1454, seem to have had no continuous establish-
ments. Apparently each sovereign, on coming to the throne,
established a new Guard of his own particular followers. It
was not till Henry VII. created the " Yeomen of the Guard "
that the royal bodyguard came into regular existence. The
first warrants to individual " Yeomen of the Guard " date from
September 16, 1485, and it is a fair inference that the Guard was
created by the king on the battlefield of Bosworth (August 22,
1485), its first members being men who had shared Henry's
exile in Brittany, followed him on his return, and fought as his
private Guard in that action. The warrant of September 18,
1485, now in the Record Office, " to William Brown, Yeoman
of the King's Guard," corroborates this view " in consideration
of the good service that oure humble and faithful subject William
Browne Yeoman of oure Garde hath heretofore doon unto us
as well beyonde the see as at our victorieux journeye." It is
argued by Sir Reginald Hennell that the title of " Yeomen of
the Guard " signified Henry VII. 's intention to choose the
special protectors of his person not from the ranks of the nobility,
but from the class just below them (see YEOMAN), who had
YEOMEN OF THE GUARD
917
proved in war the backbone of the national strength. The
term valecti, or " valets " (see VALET), was already in use, as
signifying personal attendants, with none of the modern menial
sense of the word.
The first official recorded appearance of the king's bodyguard
of the Yeomen of the Guard was at the coronation of its founder
Henry VII. at Westminster Abbey ontheaistof October 1485,
when it numbered 50 members. This number was rapidly
increased, for there is an authentic roll of 126 attending the
king's funeral in 1509. Henry VIII. raised the strength of the
Guard to 600 when he took it to visit Francis I. of France at
the Field of the Cloth of Gold. In Queen Elizabeth's reign it
numbered 200. The corps was originally officered by a captain
(a post long associated with that of vice-chamberlain), an ensign
(or standard-bearer), a clerk of the cheque (or chequer roll,
his duty being to keep the roll of every one connected with the
household), besides petty officers, captains, sergeants or ushers.
In 1669 Charles II. reorganized the Guard and gave it a fixed
establishment of 100 yeomen, officered by a captain, a lieutenant,
an ensign, a clerk of the cheque and four corporals, which is
the present organization and strength. The only variation is
that the captaincy is now a ministerial appointment filled by a
nobleman of distinction under the lord chamberlain, and that
the old rank of " corporals " has been changed to " exon," a
title derived from " exempt," i.e. exempted from regular regi-
mental duty for employment on the staff. Formerly^ officers
on the active list were given these appointments in addition to
their own.
The original duties of the Guard were of the most compre-
hensive nature. They were the king's personal attendants
day and night at home and abroad. They were responsible
for his safety not only on journeys and on the battlefield, but also
within the precincts of the palace itself. The regulations for
making of the king's bed in Tudor times were of the most elabor-
ate formality. No one but the Yeomen of the Guard under an
officer might touch it. Each portion was separately examined.
Each sheet or coverlet was laid with the greatest ceremony,
and the sovereign could not retire to rest until the work was
reported as well and truly done. The existence of the custom
is verified at the present day by the designations Y.B.H.
(" Yeomen Bed-Hangers ") and Y.B.G. (" Yeomen Bed-Goers "),
which are still affixed against the names of certain yeomen
on the roll of the Guard. Another of their duties outside the
palace is retained, viz. the searching of the vaults of the houses
of parliament at the opening of each session, dating from the
" Gunpowder Plot " in 1605, when the Yeomen of the Guard
seized Guy Fawkes and his fellow-traitors and conveyed them to
the Tower. Owing to the destruction by fire of most of the
records of the Guard in St James's Palace in 1809, the precise
history of the search is a matter of controversy. It is recorded
in the papers of the House of Lords that the Guard conducted
it in 1690 and that it has been continuous since 1760, but Sir
Reginald Hennell's contention is that it dated from 1605 and has
since been regularly observed.
Though the corps from the earliest day was composed of
foot-soldiers, during royal progresses and journeys a portion
of the Guard formed a mounted escort to the sovereign until
the end of the Georgian period.
The dress worn by the Yeomen of the Guard is in its most
striking characteristics the same as it was in Tudor times. It
has consisted from the first of a royal red tunic with purple
facings and stripes and gold lace ornaments. Sometimes the
sleeves have been fuller and the skirts longer. Red knee-breeches
and red stockings (white in Georgian period only), flat hat, and
black shoes with red, white and blue rosettes are worn. Queen
Elizabeth added the ruff. The Stuarts replaced the ruff and
round hats with fancy lace and plumed hats. Queen Anne
discarded both the ruff and the lace. The Georges reintroduced
the ruff, and it has ever since been part of the permanent dress.
But the most interesting point connected with the dress is that
the gold-embroidered emblems on the back and front of the
coats tell the history of the consolidation of the kingdoms of
Great Britain and Ireland. From 1485, when the Guard was
created, till 1603, the emblems were the Tudor crown with the
Lancastrian rose, and the initials of the reigning sovereign.
When the Stuarts succeeded the Tudors in 1603, they substi-
tuted the St Edward's crown for the Tudor, and added under it
and the initials the motto " Dieu et mon Droit," which is still
worn. When William and Mary came to the throne in 1689,
their initials were entwined, W.M.R.R. (William, Mary, Rex,
Regina), the only instance of the queen and king's initials being
so placed. Anne restored the Tudor crown, and added the
thistle to the rose on the official union with Scotland in 1709.
The Georges reverted to the St Edward's crown, and on the
union with Ireland in 1801 George III. added the shamrock
to the rose and thistle. No change was made during Queen
Victoria's reign. But Edward VII. ordered the Tudorcrownto
be substituted for the St Edward's, and now the coats of the
Guard are as they were in 1485, with the additions of the motto
" Dieu et mon Droit " and the shamrock and the thistle.
Up to 1830 the officers of the Guard wore the same Tudor dress
as the non-commissioned officers and men, but when William IV.
ordered that in future no civilian should be appointed, and that
the purchase and sale of officers' commissions should cease,
the old Tudor dress was discontinued, and the officers were
given the dress of a field officer of the Peninsular period.
There has also been little or no change in the arms of the
Guard. No doubt they retained during Henry VII.'s reign
(1485-1509) the pikes with which they had helped to win the
battle of Bosworth Field. Under Henry VIII. archery became
a national pastime, and the long-bow and arrow were issued
to at least one-half of his Guard. When firearms came into use,
a certain portion were armed with the harquebus, the Guard
being given buff cross belts to support the weight on service.
When on duty in the palace gold-embroidered cross belts took
the place of the service buff, and are worn now as part of the state
dress. The present weapons of the Guard are a steel gilt halberd
with a tassel of red and gold, and an ornamental sword.
The real fighting days of this Guard ended with the Tudor period,
but it was only at the end of the reign of George II. that the Guard ]s
function of attending a sovereign on the battlefield ceased. Their
last duty in this nature was at the battle of Dettingen (1743), when
they accompanied the king as personal attendants. For a brief
period during the Georgian era the Guard lost to a certain extent
its distinctive military character, and a custom crept in of filling
vacancies with civilians, who bought their places for considerable
sums, the appointments of the yeomen proper and the officers being
of great value. But William IV. put a stop to the practice. The
last civilian retired in 1848, and the Guard regained its original
military character. Every officer (except the captain), non-com-
missioned officer and yeoman must have served in the Home or
Indian army or Royal Marines. They are selected for distinguished
conduct in the field, and their pay is looked upon as a pension for
the same. The officers must be of the rank of captain and over,
and the yeomen of that of sergeant or warrant officer.
The Guard has a permanent orderly room in St James's Palace,
where the routine of duty is carried on by the adjutant and " clerk
of the cheque," the latter old true designation being retained after
the former modern title. Under the orderly room is a guard room
lined with lockers in which the uniforms are stored. They are in
charge of a resident wardrobe-keeper. Here the division for duty
musters once a week in the season and once a fortnight at other
times, and here the yeomen dress for state functions. These now
are confined to receptions of foreign potentates, levees, courts and
state banquets, the Guard still taking part in the searching of the
houses of parliament, the ceremony of the distribution of Maundy
money in Westminster Abbey and in the Epiphany ifferings of
gold, frankincense and myrrh in the Chapel Royal, St James's
Palace. The yeomen live in their own homes.
The nickname " Beef-eaters," which is sometimes associated with
the Yeomen of the Guard, had its origin in 1669, when Count Cosimo,
grand duke of Tuscany, was in England, and, writing of the size
and stature of this magnificent Guard, said, " They are great eaters
of beef, of which a very large ration is given them daily at the court,
and they might be called Beef-eaters." The supposed derivation
from " Buffetier " (i.e. one who attends at the sideboard) has no
authority.
A singular misapprehension exists as regards the Tower warders.
Wearing as they do the same uniform, except the cross belt which
used to hold the harquebus, and being so much more before the
public in their daily duty as warders of the Tower, they are often
thought erroneously to be Yeomen of the Guard. They had their
YEOTMAL YEW
origin in 1509-10 in the twelve Yeoman of the Guard whom young
King Henry VIII. left, when he gave up the Tower of London as a
permanent residence, to show that it was still a royal palace. When
the Tower was finally given up as a royal residence they became
warders and were deprived of the dress, but were given it back
in Edward VI. 's reign, on a petition from the lord protector, who
had been confined there and to whom the warders had been most
considerate. They are now a distinct body, but in an honorary
sense still termed " Extraordinary of the Guard." But they perform
no state functions, being solely yeomen warders under the orders
of the constable of the Tower. They are all old soldiers.
A brief notice of the other royal guard will be appropriate.
In 1509, Henry VIII., envying the magnificence cf the bodyguard
of Francis I. of France, decided to have a noble guard of his own,
which he accordingly instituted and called '"The Gentlemen
Speers." It was composed of young nobles gorgeously attired. In
539 this guard was reorganized and called : ' Gentleman Pen-
sioners." This title it retained till William IV. 's reign, when the
corps regained its military character, the king on their petition
giving them their present designation, " The Honourable Corps of
Gentlemen-at-Arms."
See The History of the King's Body Guard of the Yeomen of the
Guard, by Colonel Sir Reginald Hennell, D.S.O., Lieutenant of the
Yeomen of the Guard (1904). (R. HE.)
YEOTMAL, a town and district of India, in Berar. The
town stands at an elevation of 1476 ft. Pop. (1901) 10,545.
It was formerly the headquarters of Wun district, but in 1905
a new district of Yeotmal was established, covering the former
Wun district, with additions from the district of Basim.
Cotton-ginning and pressing are carried on. The town is also
the chief trading centre in the district, and is connected by
read with Dhamangaon station, 29 m. distant.
The DISTRICT OF YEOTMAL has an area of 5183 sq. m. It is
a wild hilly country, intersected by offshoots from the Ajanta
mountains. The hills are bare, or clothed only with dwarf
teak or small jungle; but on the heights near Wun town the
bamboo grows abundantly, and small bamboos are fcund in the
ravines. The Wardha and Penganga, which bound the district
on the E. and S., unite at its S.E. corner. The Penganga
drains the greater part of the district. The tiger, leopard
and hyena abound; bears, wolves and jackals are also numer-
ous; while small game is plentiful. The climate is enervating
and unhealthy; the annual rainfall averages about 41 in. Pop.
(1901) 575,957. The principal crops are millets, cotton, pulses,
oil-seeds and wheat. Coal has been found, and iron ore abounds.
See Yeotmal District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908).
YEOVIL, a market town and municipal boiough in the
S. parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, on the
Great Western and South-Western railways, 127 m. W. by S.
of London. Pop. (1901) 9861. The town lies on the river
Yeo, and is a thriving place, with a few old houses. The church
of St John the Baptist is a perpendicular cruciform structure,
consisting of chancel, nave of seven bays, aisles, transepts and
lofty western tower. There are some isth- and 16th-century
brasses, a dark cradle roof, and an early 13th-century crypt
under the chancel. The town is famous for its manufacture of
gloves (dating from 1565). Its agricultural trade is consider-
able. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and
12 councillors. Area, 654 acres. Yeovil (Gyoele, Evill, Ivle,
Yeoele) before the Conquest was part of the private domains
of the Anglo-Saxon kings. The town owed its origin to trade,
and became of some size in the I3th century. In 14th-century
documents it is described as a town or borough governed by
a portreeve, who frequently came into conflict with the parson
of St John's church, who had become lord of the manor of
Yeovil during the reign of Henry III. The corporation in
the i8th century consisted of a portreeve and eleven burgesses,
and was abolished when the town was reincorporated in 1853.
Fairs on the I7th of July and the 6th of November were held
under grant of Henry VII., and were important for the sale of
leather and of woollen cloth, both made in the town. The Friday
market dates from 1215. There is a great market every other
Friday and a monthly horse sale.
YERKES, CHARLES TYSON (1837-1905), American capitalist,
was born of Quaker parentage, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
on the 25th of June 1837. He was a clerk in a grain-commission
house, an exchange broker (1858-61) and a banker (1861-86).
When he failed in 1871 he refused to give any preference to
the city of Philadelphia for bonds sold on its account, and
was convicted of " misappropriating city funds, " and sentenced
to two years and nine months in the penitentiary. After
serving seven months of this sentence he was pardoned, and
the City Council afterward passed an ordinance cancelling the
municipality's claim against him. He established a banking
business in Chicago in 1881; in 1886 got control of the Chicago
City Railway Company; and within the next twelve years
organized a virtual monopoly of the surface and elevated
railway service of Chicago. He disposed of his street railway
interests in Chicago, and removed to London (1900). There
he acquired in 1901 a controlling interest in the Metropolitan
District railway, and by organizing the finances of the Under-
ground Electric Railways Company he took an important
initiative in extending the system of London electric railways.
Yerkes gave to the university of Chicago the great telescope
installed in the Yerkes Observatory at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin,
and gathered in his New York residence a remarkable collection
of paintings, tapestries and rugs, which were sold at auction
in April 1910 for $2,034,450. He died in New York on the
29th of December 1905.
YETHOLM, a village of Roxburghshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901) 571. It is situated on Bowmont Water, 75 m. S.E. of
Kelso, and 5 m. S.S.W. of Mindrum in Northumberland, the
nearest railway station. It is divided into two quarters, Kirk
Yetholm on the right and Town Yetholm on the left of the stream.
The name is said to be the O.E. yet, " gate," and holm (here the
same as ham), " hamlet," meaning " the hamlet at the gate "
of Scotland, the border being only 15 m. distant. Since about
the middle of the i?th century the district has been the head-
quarters of a tribe of gipsies.
YEW (Taxus baccata), a tree which belongs to a genus of
Coniferae (see GYMNOSPERMS), in which the ordinarily woody
Yew. i, shoot with male flowers; 2, leaf and in section; 3, branch
bearing two ripe seeds each with its crimson aril; 4, male
flowers; 5, stamens; 6, 7, female flower in different stages;
8, section of ripe seed and aril, a. I, slightly reduced; 2, and
4 to 8, enlarged.
cone is represented by a single seed surrounded by a fleshy
cup. Usually it forms a low-growing evergreen tree of very
YEZD YEZIDIS
919
diverse habit, but generally with dense spreading branches,
thickly covered with very dark green linear leaves, which
are given off from all sides of the branch, but which, owing
to a twist in the base of the leaf, become arranged in a single
series on each side of it. The trees are usually dioecious,
the male flowers being borne on one individual and the female
on another, although instances occur in which flowers of both
sexes are formed on the same tree. The male flowers are more or
less globular and occur in the axils of the leaves. They consist
of a number of overlapping brownish scales, gradually increasing
in size from below upwards and surrounding a naked stalk
that bears at its summit a head of four to eight stamens. Each
stamen has a flat five-lobed top, something like a shield; from
its under surface, five, six or more pollen cases hang down, and
these open lengthwise to liberate the globose pollen-grains.
The female flowers are also placed each separately in the axil
of a leaf, and consist of a number of overlapping scales, as in the
male. These scales surround a cup which is at first shallow,
green and thin (the so-called aril), but which subsequently
becomes fleshy and red, while it increases so much in length
as almost entirely to conceal the single straight seed. It is
clear that the structure of the female flower differs from that
of most conifers, from which it is now often separated in a
distinct order, Taxaceae.
The poisonous properties, referred to by classical writers
such as Caesar, Virgil and Livy, reside chiefly if not entirely
in the foliage. This, if eaten by horses or cattle, especially when
it has been cut and thrown in heaps so as to undergo a process
of fermentation, is very injurious. The leaves have also been
used for various medicinal purposes, but are not employed now.
An alkaloid taxine, said to depress the circulation, is extracted.
It forms white crystals soluble in alcohol and ether. As a timber
tree the yew is used for cabinet-work, axle-trees, bows and the
like, where strength and durability are required.
The yew occurs wild over a large area of the northern hemi-
sphere. In N.E. America and in Japan trees are found of a
character so similar that by some botanists they are all ranged
under one species. Generally, however, the European yew,
T. baccala, is regarded as native of Europe, N. Africa, and
Asia as far as the Himalayas and the Amur region, while the
American and Japanese forms are considered to represent
distinct species. The yew is wild in Great Britain, forming
a characteristic feature of the chalk downs of the southern
counties and of the vegetation of parts of the Lake District
and elsewhere. The evidence of fossil remains, antiquities and
place-names indicates that it was formerly more widely spread
in Europe than at the present day. The varieties grown in
the United Kingdom are numerous, one of the most striking
being that known as the Irish yew a shrub with the pyra-
midal or columnar habit of a cypress, in which the leaves spread
from all sides of the branches, not being twisted, as they usually
are, out of their original position. In the ordinary yew the
main branches spread more or less horizontally, and the leaves
are so arranged as to be conveniently exposed to the influence
of the light; but in the variety in question the branches are
mostly vertical, and the leaves assume a direction in accordance
with the ascending direction of the branches. The plants
have all sprung from one of two trees found growing wild more
than a hundred years ago on the mountains of Co. Fermanagh
in Ireland, and afterwards planted in the garden of Florence
Court, a seat of the earl of Enniskillen.
The yew is a favourite evergreen tree, either for planting separately
or for hedges, for which its dense foliage renders it well suited. Its
dense growth when pruned has led to its extensive use in topiary
work, which was introduced by John Evelyn and became very
prevalent at the close of the lyth and the beginning of the i8th
centuries. The wood is very hard, close-grained and of a deep red-
brown colour internally. The planting of the yew in churchyards
was at one time supposed to have been done with a view to the
supply of yew staves. But, while importation from abroad was
fostered, there seems to have been no statute enforcing the cultiva-
tion of the yew in Great Britain; a statute, however, of Edward 1.
(cited in The Gardeners' Chronicle, 6th March 1880, p. 306) states that
the trees were often planted in churchyards to defend the church from
high winds. The Crowhurst yew, mentioned by Evelyn as 30 ft.
in circumference, still exists. The large yew at Ankerwyke, near
Staines, with a trunk 3oJ ft. in circumference, in sight of which
Magna Carta was signed (1215), probably exceeds a thousand years
of age. The fine yew in Buckland churchyard, near Dover, was
removed in 1880 to a distance of 60 yds. The trunk had been split
so that it had a direction nearly parallel with the soil. This huge
tree was moved with a ball of soil round its roots, 16 ft. 5 in. by
15 ft. 8 in., by 3 ft. 6J in. in depth, the weight of the entire mass being
estimated at 56 tons. The dimensions of the tree in 1880 were as
follows: "circumference of the main trunk, 22 ft.; of the upright
portion of the trunk, 6 ft. 10 in.; second horizontal trunk, 10 ft.
10 in. ; do., south limb forking off at 9 ft. from the main trunk,
7 ft. 10 in.; do., west limb forking off at 9 ft. from the main trunk,
8 ft. 8 in.; extent of branches from centre of main trunk southwards,
30 ft. lo in., and from north to south, 48 ft.; they extend from the
main trunk westward 33 ft." The tree was replanted so that the
horizontal portions were replaced in their original erect position
and the natural symmetry restored.
For further details see Veitch, Manual of Coniferae (1900) ; Elwes
and Henry, Trees of Great Britain and Ireland (1906).
YEZD, or YAZD, a province of Persia, bounded S. by Kerman,
W. by Fars and Isfahan, and N. and E. by the central Persian
deserts. It contains an area of about 20,000 sq. m., but its
population barely exceeds 100,000, of whom about half inhabit
the capital of the province. Its subdivisions are: (i) the city
of Yezd and immediate environs; (2) Ardakan; (3) Bafk;
(4) Taft; (5) Kuhistan (Pish Kuh, Mian Kuh, Pusht Kuh, on the
slopes and in the valleys of the Shir Kuh, a part of the great
Central Range of Persia W. of the city of Yezd, and rising to an
elevation of 11,000 ft.); and (6) Shahr i Babek. The last is
situated far S. near Kerman, and sometimes is regarded as part
of that province. The revenues slightly exceed 60,000 a year.
Much silk is grown in the district, but is not sufficient for
the silk stuffs which Yezd manufactures with its 1000 looms,
and raw silk (about 75,000 Ib yearly) has to be obtained from
Khorasan and Gilan. Great quantities of felts (nimads), white
and yellow cotton stuffs, the latter a kind of nankeen made
of Gossypium herbaceum, are also manufactured and exported.
Other exports are opium, madder and almonds. The grain
produced suffices for only two or three months' consumption,
and supplies have to be brought from Khorasan, so that wheat
and barley are dearer than at other places in Persia. The
part of the district situated in the plain is much exposed to
moving sands, which render cultivation difficult and at times
impossible.
YEZD, the capital of the province of the same name in
Persia, situated 192 m. N.W. of Kerman, 162 m. S.E. of
Isfahan, in 31 54' N. and 54 22' E., at an elevation of 4240 ft.
Its population, 100,000 in 1810, is now estimated at 50,000,
including 2000 Jews and 1300 Zoroastrians. 1 The city is divided
into the Shahr i nau (new town) and Shahr i kohneh (old town),
separated by a wall with two gates. The ark, or citadel, in
the E. of the town, is fortified with walls, bastions and dry
ditch, and contains the governor's residence. The bazaar is in
good repair and well stocked; other parts of the town are
irregularly planned, with dark, narrow streets. There are
eighteen mosques, one, the Masjed i Jama, also called Masjed i
Mir Chakhmak, is an old and decayed structure originally built
in 1119, with a lofty and imposing frontage dating from 1472.
There are seven colleges. The caravanserais number thirty-
three. There are telegraph (English staff since 1003) and post
offices. The Englishman in charge of the telegraph office acts
as British vice-consul.
YEZIDIS, a sect of devil-worshippers, calling themselves
Dasni, who are found in Kurdistan, Armenia and the Caucasus.
Their religion has points of connexion with old Iranian and
Assyrian beliefs ?.nd traces of Manichaeism and Nestorianism.
Thus they regard the devil as the creative agent of the Supreme
God, a reinstated fallen angel who is the author of evil. They
avoid mentioning his name and represent him by the peacock.
They regard Christ as au angel in human form and recognize
1 In 1879 the Zoroastrian community of Yezd numbered 6483,
1242 residing in the city, 5241 in the villages; in 1892 the com-
munity numbered 6908, and as many have emigrated, it is computed
that it now numbers not more than 7000.
920
YEZO YGGDRASIL
Mahomet as a prophet with Abraham and the patriarchs.
They believe in a future life and practise both circumcision and
baptism. The name is probably derived from the Kurdish
and Persian Yazddn, God; though some have connected it
with the city of Yezd, or with Yezid, the second Omayyad
caliph (720-24). Their sacred book is called Al-Yahah, and
its chief exponent was Shaikh Adi (c. 1200).
See Layard, Ninevah and its Remains (London, 1850) ; Menant,
Les Yezidis (Paris, 1892).
YEZO, or Ezo, the most northerly of the five principal islands
forming the Japanese empire, the five being Yezo, Nippon, Shi-
koku, Kiushiu and Formosa. It is situated between 45 50' and
41 21' N. and between 146 7' and 139 n' E.; its coast-line
measures 1423-32 m., and it has an area of 30,148-41 sq. m. On
the N. it is separated from Sakhalin by Soya Strait (La Perouse)
and on the S. from Nippon by Tsugaru Strait. Its northern
shores are washed by the Sea of Okhotsk, its southern and eastern
by the Pacific Ocean, and its western by the Sea of Japan.
Orography. The highest mountain in the island is Ishikaridake
(6955 ft.) and the next in importance is Tokachi-dake (6541 ft.).
Yubari-take in Ishikari has a height of 6508 ft., and in the province
of Kushiro are O-akan-dake (4470 ft.) and Meakan-take (4500 ft.).
Dr Rein's investigations led him to state that Tokachi-dake forms
a species of central elevation whence most of the principal rivers flow
towards the sea, and that the mountain system is a continuation,
on the W., of the Sakhalin range, and on the E. of the Kuriles range;
the former consisting of granite and old schists, the latter chiefly
of volcanic formations. Near Hakodate are two conspicuous
volcanic peaks, Komaga-take (3822 ft.) and Tokatsu-dake (3800 ft.) ;
and 24 m. from Kushiro (by rail) is a volcano called Atosa-nobori, or
Iwo-zan (sulphur mountain), whence great quantities of first-rate
sulphur are exported to the United States. Mention must also be
made of Rishin, an islet on the extreme N.W. of Yezo, which has a
peak of the same name rising to a height of nearly 6000 ft.
Rivers. Yezo boasts the largest river in the Japanese empire,
the Ishikari-gawa, which is estimated to measure 275 m. Its other
large rivers are the Teshio-gawa (192 m.), the Tokachi-gawa (120 m.),
the Shiribeshi-gawa (88 m.), the Kushiro-gawa (81 m.), the Toshi-
betsu-gawa (64 m.), and the Yubetsu-gawa (64 m.). The valley of
the Ishikari is believed to be the most fertile part of the island ; the
Tokachi is navigable to a point 56 m. from its mouth, but the
Teshio has a bar which renders its approach extremely difficult.
A peculiarity of several of the rivers is that, on approaching the sea-
shore, they run parallel to it for some distance before finding an
exit. Those flowing to the S. coast take a W. direction, those flowing
to the E. coast a N. direction. This is attributed to the fact that the
prevailing winds set up the sand so as to deflect the rivers from their
straight course. Nearly all these rivers abound with salmon, the
most remarkable in that respect being the Nishibetsu-gawa, which
yields an average of over 2000 tons of fish annually.
Lakes. There are no large lakes, the most extensive Toyako,
Shikotsuko and Kushiroko not having a circumference of more
than 25 m. Lagoons, however, are not uncommon. The largest
of these Saruma-ko in Kitami is some 17 m. long by 7 wide. It
abounds with oysters nearly as large as those for which the much
smaller lagoon at Akkeshi is famous, the molluscs measuring about
1 8 in. in length.
Climate. The climate differs markedly from that of the main
island of Japan, resembling rather the climate of the British Isles,
though the winter is longer and more severe, and the atmosphere
in the warm season contains a greater quantity of moisture. During
five months the country is under snow, its depth averaging about
2 ft. in the regions along the southern coast and more than 6 ft. in
the northern and western regions. An ice-drift, setting from the
north and working southwards as far as Nemuro, stops all sea trade
on the E. coast during January, February and March, though the
W. coast is protected by the warm current of the Kuro-shiwo. _ Fogs
prevail along the E. coast during the summer months, and it is not
uncommon to find a damp, chilly atmosphere near the sea in July,
whereas, a mile inland, the thermometer stands at 80 or 90 F. in
the shade, and magnolia trees are in full blossom.
Zoology. Tsugaru Strait has been shown by Captain T. W.
Blakiston, R.A., to form a line of zoological division. Pheasants
and monkeys are not found on the Yezo side of this line, though
they abound on Nippon, and, on the other hand, Yezo has grouse
and solitary snipe which do not exist in Nippon. The Yezo bear,
too, is of a distinct species, and the island has an abundance of
singing birds which are absent S. of the strait. There are also
notable differences in the flora, the trees and flowers of Yezo re-
sembling those of the British Isles rather than those of Japan.
Population. The island seems to have been originally peopled
by a semi-barbarous race of pit-dwellers, whose modern repre-
sentatives are to be found in the Kuriles or their neighbours of
Kamchatka and Sakhalin. These autochthons were driven
out by the Ainu, and the latter, in their turn, succumbed to the
Japanese. The population of Yezo is 605,742, of whom 17,573
are Ainu. There is a steadily growing but not large emigration
from Japan proper to Yezo. Yezo is divided into ten provinces,
the names of which, beginning from the S., are Oshima, Shiribeshi,
Ishikari, Teshio, Kitami, Iburi, Hidaka, Tokachi, Kushiro and
Nemuro. Of these, Oshima, Shiribeshi and Ishikari are by far
the most important. There are only three towns having a
population of over 20,000, viz. Hakodate (50,314), Sapporo
(46,147) and Otaru (34,586). Other towns of importance are
Fukuyama (formerly called Matsumae), the seat of government
in feudal days, Esashi, Mombetsu, Oiwake, Tomakomai,
Piratori (the chief Ainu settlement), Mororan, Kushiro, Akke-
shi, Nemuro, Horobetsu, Yunokawa, Abashiri and Mashike.
Yunokawa, 45 m. from Hakodate, is much frequented for its
hot springs; Oiwake is the junction of the main line of railway
with the branch to the Yubari collieries; Kushiro exports coal
and sulphur; Akkeshi is celebrated for its oysters.
Industries and Products. Marine products constitute the prin-
cipal wealth of Yezo. Great quantities of salmon, sardines and
codfish are taken. The salmon are salted for export to Nippon
and other parts of Japan; the sardines are used as an agricultural
fertilizer, their value varying from 2 to 5 per ton; and the cod-
fish serve for the manufacture of oil. An immense crop of edible
seaweed is also gathered and sent to Chinese markets as well as to
Japanese. This kombu, as it is called, sometimes reaches a length
of 90 ft. and a width of 6 in. The herring fishery, too, is a source of
wealth, and the canning of Akkeshi oysters as well as 'of salmon
gives employment to many hands. Vast tracts are covered with
a luxuriant growth of ash, oak, elm, birch, chestnut and pine, but,
owing to difficulties of carriage, this supply of timber has not yet
been much utilized. One of the earliest acts of the Meiji govern-
ment was to develop the resources of Yezo and encourage Japanese
to emigrate thither. Free grants of agricultural land were made,
roads were constructed, model farms established, beet-sugar
factories and sawmills opened, horse-breeding undertaken, foreign
fruit trees planted and railways laid. The outlays incurred did
not immediately bear fruit, but they attracted large numbers of
settlers. During recent years attention has been attracted to the
mineral resources of Yezo. Coal of fair quality is abundant, and
a railway has been built for its carriage; an apparently inex-
haustible supply of sulphur is obtained from a mountain near
Kushiro lake; petroleum seems likely to pay exploiters, and in
1899 gold was discovered at Usotannai, Pankanai and other places
along the Poropetsu river, near Esashi in Kitami province.
Communications. The roads are few and in bad order, but there
is a railway which, setting out from Hakodate in the extreme S.,
runs, via Sapporo and Iwamizawa, to the extreme N., with branches
from Iwamizawa, S. to Mororan and E. to Poronai, and from
Oiwake N.E. to the Yubari coal-mines. There is also a line W.
along the S. coast from Nemuro. In districts beyond the railway,
travelling is done on horseback, there being an abundant supply
of ponies. There is good coastwise communication by steamer.
History. Yezo was not brought under Japan's effective
control until medieval times. In 1604 the island was granted
in fief to Matsumae Yoshihiro, whose ancestor had overrun it,
and from the close of the i8th century the E. was governed by
officials sent by the sh6gun, whose attention had been attracted
to it by Russian trespassers. In 1871 the task of developing
its resources and administering its affairs was entrusted to a
special bureau, which employed American agriculturists to assist
the work and American engineers to construct roads and rail-
ways; but in 1 88 1 this bureau was abolished, and the govern-
ment abandoned to private hands the various enterprises it
had inaugurated.
YGGDRASIL, in Scandinavian mythology, the mystical ash
tree which symbolizes existence, and binds together earth,
heaven and hell. It is the tree of life, of knowledge, of fate,
of time and of space. Its three roots go down into the three
great realms (i) of death, where, in the well Hvergelmer, the
dragon Nidhug (NiShoggr) and his brood are ever gnawing
it; (2) of the giants, where, in the fountain of Mimer, is the
source of wisdom; (3) of the gods, Asgard, where, at the sacred
fountain of Urd, is the divine tribunal, and the dwelling of the
Fates. The stem of Yggdrasil upholds the earth, while its
branches overshadow the world and reach up beyond the heavens.
On its topmost bough sits an eagle, between whom and Nidhug
the squirrel Ratatoskr runs to and fro trying to provoke
YO-CHOW FU YONGE, C. M.
921
strife. Honey-dew falls from the tree, and on it Odin hung
nine nights, offering himself to himself. G. Vigfusson and York
Powell (Corpus Poeticum Boreale, Oxford, 1883) see in Yggdrasil
not a primitive Norse idea, but one due to early contact with
Christianity, and a fanciful adaptation of the cross.
YO-CHOW FU, a prefectural city in the Chinese province
of Hu-nan, standing on high ground E. of the outlet of Tung-
t'ing Lake, in 29 18' N., 113 2' E. Pop. about 20,000. It was
opened to foreign trade in 1899. The actual settlement is at
Chinling-ki, a village 5$ m. below Yo-chow and half a mile
from the Yangtsze. From Yo-chow the cities of Chang sha and
Chang tfi are accessible for steam vessels drawing 4 to 5 ft.
of water by means of the Tung-t'ing Lake and its affluents,
the Siang and Yuen rivers. The district in which Yo-chow Fu
stands is the ancient habitat of the aboriginal San Miao tribes,
who were deported into S.W. China, and who, judging from some
non-Chinese festival customs of the people, would appear to
have left traditions behind them. The present city, which
was built in 1371, is about 3 m. in circumference and is entered
by four gates. The walls are high and well built, but failed
to keep out the T'aip'ing rebels in 1853. Situated between
Tung-t'ing Lake and the Yangtsze-kiang, Yo-chow Fu forms
a depot for native products destined for export, and for foreign
goods on their way inland. The net value of the total trade
of the port in 1906 was 747,00x2 taels.
YOGI, a Hindu religious ascetic. The word yoga means union,
and first occurs in the later Upanishads; and yogi means one
who practises yoga, with the object of uniting his soul with the
divine spirit. This union, when accomplished by the individual
soul, must enhance its susceptibilities and powers, and so the
yogis claim a far-reaching knowledge of the secrets of nature
and extensive sway over men and natural phenomena. The
most usual manifestation of this power is a state of ecstasy,
of the nature of self-hypnotism.
YOKOHAMA, a seaport of Japan on the W. shore of Tokyo
Bay, 18 m. S. of Tokyo by rail. It stands on a plain shut in by
hills, one of which, towards the S.E., terminates in a promontory
called Honmoku-misaki or Treaty Point. The temperature
ranges from 95 to 43 F., and the mean temperature is 57-7.
The cold in winter is severe, owing to N. winds, while the heat is
great in summer, though tempered by S.W. sea breezes. The
rainfall is about 70 in. annually. In 1859, when the neighbour-
ing town of Kanagawa was opened to foreigners under the
treaty with the United States, Yokohama was an insignificant
fishing village; and notwithstanding the protests of the
foreign representatives the Japanese government shortly after-
wards chose the latter place as the settlement instead of Kana-
gawa. The town grew rapidly in 1886 the population was
111,179 (3904 foreigners, including 2573 Chinese, 625 British
and 256 Americans, while in 1903 there were 314,333 Japanese
and 2447 foreigners (1089 British, 527 Americans, 270 Ger-
mans, 155 French) besides about 3800 Chinese. The Japanese
government constructed public works, and excellent water
was supplied from the Sagamigawa. The foreign settlement
has well-constructed streets, but the wealthier foreigners reside
S. of the town, on the Bluff. The land occupied by foreigners
was leased to them by the Japanese government, 20% of the
annual rent being set aside for municipal expenses. The
harbour, which is a part of Tokyo Bay, is good and commodious,
somewhat exposed, but enclosed by two breakwaters. There
is a pier 2000 ft. long, and two docks were opened in 1897
and 1898, with lengths of 351 ft. and 478 ft. 10 in., and depths
of 26 ft. 2 in. and 28 ft. on the blocks at ordinary spring tides.
The average depth in the harbour at high water is about 46 ft.,
with a fall of tide of about 8 ft., the entrance being marked by
a lightship and two buoys. The railway connecting Yokohama
with Tokyo was the first in Japan, and was constructed in
1872. The value of exports and imports, which in 1880 was
3,702,991 and 5,378,385, and in the ensuing five years
averaged 4,638,635 and 4,366,507, had increased in 1005
to 14,861,823 and 19,068,221. Metals and metal goods,
rice, wool and woollen goods, and cotton and cotton goods
are the chief imports; and silk, silk goods and tea are the
chief exports.
YOKOSUKA, a seaport and naval station of Japan, on the
W. shore of Tokyo Bay, 12 m. S. of Yokohama. The town is
connected by a branch line with the main railway from Tokyo.
The port is sheltered by hills and affords good anchorage. The
site was occupied by a small fishing village until 1865, when
the shogun's government established a shipyard here. In
1868 the Japanese government converted the shipyard into
a naval dockyard, and subsequently carried out many improve-
ments. In i884 the port became a first-class naval station;
and naval barracks, warehouses, offices, hospitals, &c., were
established here. The dockyard was first constructed by
French engineers ; but after 1875 the work passed entirely
into the hands of Japanese engineers.
YOLA, once a native state of West Africa, forming part of
the Fula emirate of Adamawa, now a province in the British
protectorate of Nigeria. The province, which has an area of
16,000 sq. m., occupies the S.E. of the protectorate and both
banks of the upper Benue. It is bounded S. and E. by the
German colony of Cameroon, N. by the British province of Bornu,
and W. by the British provinces of Bauchi and Muri. It has
an estimated population of 300,000. The capital is Yola, a
town founded by the Fula conqueror Adama about the middle
of the igth century. It was the capital of the emirate of
Adamawa, the greater part of which is now a German pro-
tectorate. The town is situated in 9* 12' N., 12 40' E. and is
built on the left or S. bank of the Benue, 480 m. by river from
Lokoja. It can be reached by shallow draught steamers when
the river is in flood. The Niger Company had trading relations
with Yola before the establishment of British administration
in Northern Nigeria. In 1901 the reigning emir, a sou of Adama,
forced them to evacuate their station, and, all attempts to
establish friendly relations proving unavailing, the British
government despatched an expedition from Lokoja in August
1901. The emir was deposed and a new emir installed in his
place. The hostility of certain pagan tribes had to be over-
come by British expeditions in January and April of 1902. By
1903 the province was brought fairly under administrative
control, and divided into three administrative divisions the
N.W. with a station at Gazi, the N.E. and the S. with Yola
for its station. The new emir proved friendly and loyal, but
though appointed in 1901 was not formally installed till October
1904, when he took the customary oath of allegiance to the
British crown and accepted all the conditions with regard to
the suppression of slavery, &c. The slave markets were imme-
diately closed as a result of British occupation, and any slave-
trading which is still done is smuggled. In 1903 an exploring
expedition was sent up the Gongola, one of the principal
rivers of the Yola province, and as a result the navigability of
the river for steam launches as far as Gombe at high water was
demonstrated. An important means of communication with
the province of Bornu was thus established, and a rich agri-
cultural district opened to development. The Gongola valley
was in ancient times extensively cultivated, and the population
are readily returning to the land. Cotton, rice and tobacco are
among the heavy crops (see NIGERIA, ADAMAWA).
YOLANDE [or ISABELLA] OF BRIENNE (1212-1228), the
daughter of John of Brienne, who had married Mary, daughter of
Conrad of Montferrat, heiress on the death of Amalric II. of
the kingdom of Jerusalem. Yolande inherited the throne on her
mother's death in 1212, but her father ruled as her guardian. In
1225 she married the emperor Frederick II., the pope hoping by
this bond to attach the emperor firmly to the crusade. Im-
mediately upon his marriage Frederick demanded all the rights
of sovereignty in the kingdom of Jerusalem, which he claimed
to exercise in his wife's name. His action led to difficulties with
John, who did not relish the loss of his position. Yolande died
in 1228 after the birth of a son, Conrad, and her husband then
continued to rule, though not without opposition.
YONGE, CHARLOTTE MARY (1823-1001), English novelist and
writer on religious and educational subjects, daughter of William
922
YONGE, J. YONKERS
Crawley Yonge, 52nd Regiment, and Frances Mary Bargus,
was born on the nth of August 1823 at Otterbourne, Hants.
She was educated by her parents, and from them inherited much
of the religious feeling and High Church sympathy which coloured
her work. She resided at Otterbourne all her life, and was one
of the most prolific writers of the Victorian era. In 1841 she
published five works of fiction, including The Clever Woman of
the Family, Dynevor Terrace and The Trial; and after that she
was the author of about 120 volumes, including novels, tales,
school manuals and biographies. Her first conspicuous success
was attained with The Heir of Redclyjfe (1853), which enjoyed an
enormous vogue. The Daisy Chain (1856) continued the success;
and among her other popular books may be mentioned Heartsease
(1854), The Young Stepmother (1861) and The Dove in the Eagle's
Nest (1866). In more serious fields of literature she published
Landmarks of History (three series, 1852-57), History of Christian
Names (1863), Cameos of English History (1868), Life of Bishop
Patleson (1874), English Church History for Use in Schools (1883)
and many others. She also edited various educational works,
and was for more than thirty years editor of the Monthly
Packet. She died at Otterbourne on 23rd March 1901. Her
books err on the side of didacticism, but exercised a wide and
wholesome influence. The money realized by the early sales of
The Daisy Chain was given to the building of a missionary college
at Auckland, N.Z., while a large portion of the proceeds of The
Heir of Redclyfe was devoted to the missionary schooner " The
Southern Cross. "
See Charlotte Mary Yonge: an Appreciation, by Ethel Romanes
(1908).
YONGE, JOHN (1467-1516), English ecclesiastic and diplo-
matist, was born at Heyford, Oxfordshire, and educated at
Winchester and New College, Oxford, where he became a fellow in
1485. He was ordained in 1500 and held several livings before
receiving his first diplomatic mission to arrange a commercial
treaty with the archduke of Austria in 1504, and in the Low
Countries in 1506 in connexion with the projected marriage
between Henry VII. and Margaret of Savoy. In 1507 he was
made Master of the Rolls, and in the following year was em-
ployed in various diplomatic missions. He was one of the
ambassadors who arranged the Holy League in 1513, and accom-
panied Henry VIII. during the ensuing campaign. In 1514
he was made dean of York in succession to Wolsey, and in
1515 he was one of the commissioners for renewing the peace
with Francis I. He died in London on the 25th of April 1516.
Yonge was on terms of intimate friendship with Dean Colet, and
was a correspondent of Erasmus.
YONGE, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (c. 1693-1755), English
politician, was the son of Sir Walter Yonge of Colyton, Devon-
shire, and great-great-grandson of Walter Yonge of Colyton
(?i58i-i649), whose diaries (1604-45), more especially four
volumes now in the British Museum (Add. MSS. 18777-18780),
are valuable material for history. In 1722 he was elected to
parliament as member for Honiton; and he succeeded his
father, the third baronet, in 1731. In the House of Commons
he attached himself to the Whigs, and making himself useful
to Sir Robert Walpole, was rewarded with a commissionership
of the treasury in 1724. George II., who conceived a strong
antipathy to Sir William, spoke of him as "Stinking Yonge";
but Yonge conducted himself so obsequiously that he obtained a
commissionership of the admiralty in 1728, was restored to the
treasury in 1730, and in 1735 became secretary of state for war.
He especially distinguished himself in his defence of the govern-
ment against a hostile motion by Pulteney in 1742. Making
friends with the Pelhams, he was appointed vice- treasurer of
Ireland in 1746; and, acting on the committee of manage-
ment for the impeachment of Lord Lovat in 1747, he won the
applause of Horace Walpole by moving that prisoners impeached
for high treason should be allowed the assistance of counsel. In
1748 he was elected F.R.S. He died at Escott, near Honiton,
on the loth of August 1755. By his second wife, Anne, daughter
and coheiress of Thomas, Lord Howard of Effingham, he had
two sons and six daughters. He enjoyed some reputation as a
versifier, some of his lines being even mistaken for the work of
Pope, greatly to the disgust of the latter; and he wrote the
lyrics incorporated in a comic opera, adapted from Richard
Brome's The Jovial Crew, which was produced at Drury Lan'e
in 1730 and had a considerable vogue.
His eldest son, SIR GEORGE YONGE (1731-1812), was member
of parliament for Honiton continuously from 1754 to 1794, and
held a number of different government appointments, becoming
a lord of the admiralty (1766-70), vice-treasurer for Ireland
(1782), secretary of state for war (1782-94, with an interval
from April to December 1783), master of the mint (1794-99).
In 1799 he was appointed governor of the Cape of Good Hope.
Serious charges being brought against his administration,
which was marked by great lack of judgment, he was re-
called in 1801. He died on the 25th of September 1812. The
baronetcy became extinct at his death.
YONKERS, a city of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the E. bank of the Hudson river, immediately adjoining New
York City on the N. Pop. (1900) 47,931, of whom 14,634 were
foreign-born and 1005 were negroes; (1910, U.S. census) 79,803.
Yonkers is served by three divisions of the New York
Central & Hudson River railway, and is connected with New
York City and other places E. and N. by interurban electric
lines. It has also during most of the year steamboat service
on the Hudson. There are two principal residential districts:
one in the N., including Amackassin Heights and (about i m.
W.)Glenwood, where are the old Colgate Mansion and " Grey-
stone," the former home of Samuel J. Tilden; the other in
the S., including Ludlow, Van Cortlandt Terrace and Park Hill
(adjoining Riverdale in the borough of the Bronx), a park-
like reserve with winding streets and drives. The business
and manufacturing districts occupy the low lands along the
river. Among the public buildings are the City Hall, the High
School and a Manual Training School, and Yonkers is the seat
of St Joseph's Theological Seminary (Roman Catholic; 1896),
the Halsted School (founded 1874) for girls, and a business
college. It has a good public library (established 1893; 25,000
vols. in 1910), and the Woman's Institute (1880) and the Holly-
wood Inn Club (1897; for working-men) have small libraries.
Philipse Manor Hall, built originally about 1682 as the mansion
of the son of Frederick Philipse (1626-1702), the lord of
Philipsburgh, and enlarged to its present dimensions in 1745,
is of some historic interest. It was confiscated by act of the
legislature in 1779 because its owner, Frederick Philipse (1746-
1785), was suspected of Toryism, and was sold in 1789. In 1867
it passed into the possession of Yonkers, and from 1872 to 1908
was used as the city hall. In 1908 it was bought by the state,
and is now maintained as a museum for colonial and revolu-
tionary relics. It is one of the best examples of colonial archi-
tecture in America. In the square before it stands a monument
to the soldiers and sailors of the Civil War. Yonkers is an
important manufacturing city, and in 1905 the value of its
factory products was $33,548,688.
On the site of Yonkers stood an Indian village known as
Nappeckamack, or town of the rapid water, at the time of
the settlement of the Dutch in New Amsterdam; and a great
rock, near the mouth of the Nepperhan Creek, was long a place
of Indian worship. The territory was part of the " Keskeskick
purchase," acquired from the Indians by the Dutch W. India
Company in 1639. In 1646 the tract was included in the grant
to Adrian van der Donck, the first lawyer and historian of
New Netherland, author of A Description of New Netherland
(1656), in Dutch. His grant, known as " Colen Donck "
(Donck 's Colony), embraced all the country from Spuyten
Duyvil Creek, N. along the Hudson to the Amackassin Creek,
and E. to the Bronx river. Some squatters settled here before
1646. Van der Donck encouraged others to remove to his lands
along the Hudson river, and in 1649 he built a saw-mill near
the mouth of the Nepperhan Creek, which for many years was
called " Saw-Mill river." The whole settlement soon came to
be called " De Jonkheer's Land " or " De Jonkheers " meaning
the estate of the young lord, as Van der Donck was called by
YONNE YORCK VON WARTENBURG
9 2 3
his tenants and afterwards Yonkers. Subsequently the tract
passed largely into the hands of Frederick Philipse and became
part of the manor of Philipsburgh. Early in the War of Inde-
pendence Yonkers was occupied for a time by part of Washing-
ton's army, and was the scene of several skirmishes. The
town of Yonkers was incorporated in 1788 and the village
in 1855. In 1872 Yonkers became a city; at the same time
the southern part was separately incorporated as Kingsbridge,
which in 1874 was annexed to New York.
See Frederic Shonnard and W. W. Spooner, History of West-
thester County (New York, 1900); J. T. Scharf, History of
Wcstchtster County (New York, 1886); and Allison, History of
Yenkers (New York, 1896).
^
YONNE, a department of central France, formed partly
from the province of Champagne proper (with its depend-
encies, Senonais and Tonnerrois), partly from Burgundy
proper (with its dependencies, the county of Auxerre and
Avallonnais) and partly from Gatinais (Orleanais and lle-de-
France). It is bounded by Aube on the N.E., C6te-d'Or on
the S.E., Nievre on the S., Loiret on the W. and Seine-et-
Marne on the N.W. Pop. (1906) 315,199. Area, 2880 sq. m.
The highest elevation (2000 ft.) is in the granitic highlands of
Morvan, in the S.E., where other peaks range from 1300 to
1600 ft. The department belongs to the basin of the Seine,
except a small district in the S.W. (Puisaye), which belongs to
that of the Loire. The river Yonne flows through it from
S. to N.N.W., receiving on the right bank the Cure, the Serein
and the Armancon, which water the S.E. of the department.
Farther N. it is joined by the Vanne, between which and the
Armancon lies the forest-clad plateau of the Pays d'Othe. To
the W. of the Yonne, in the Puisaye, are the sources of the
Loing, another tributary of the Seine, and of its affluents, the
Ouanne and the Lunain. The Yonne is navigable throughout
the department, and is connected with the Loire by the canal
of Nivernais, which in turn is connected with that of Briare,
which connects the Seine and the Loire. The climate is tem-
perate, except in the Morvan, where the extremes of heat and
cold are greater, and where the rainfall is most abundant.
The prevailing winds are S.W. and W.
The department is essentially agricultural. Wheat and oats
are the chief cereals; potatoes, sugar-beet, lucerne, mangold-
wurzel and other forage plants are also cultivated, and there is
much good pasture.
The vineyards of the Tonnerrois and Auxerrois produce the
finest red wines of lower Burgundy, and those of Chablis the finest
white. The wine of the C6te St Jacques (Joigny) is also highly
esteemed. Cider-apples are the chief fruit. Charny is a centre
for the rearing of horses. Forests cover considerable areas of the
department and consist chiefly of oak, beech, hornbeam, elm, ash,
birch and pine. Quarry products include building-stone, ochre
and cement. Among the industrial establishments are tanneries,
tile-works, saw-mills and breweries, but there is little manufac-
turing activity. Cereals, wines, firewood, charcoal, ochre and bark
are exported.
The department is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon railway.
The canal of Burgundy, which follows the valley of the Armangon,
has a length of 57 m. in the department, that of Nivernais, following
the valley of the Yonne, a length of 33 m. The department con-
stitutes the archiepiscopal diocese of Sens, has its court of appeal
in Paris, its educational centre at Dijon, and belongs to the district
of the V. army corps. It is divided into five arrondisscments (37
cantons, 486 communes), of which the capitals are Auxerre, also
capital of the department, Avallon, Sens, Joigny and Tonnerre,
which with those of Chablis, St Florentin and V6zelay are its most
noteworthy towns and are treated separately. Yonne is rich in
objects of antiquarian and architectural interest. At Pontigny
there is a Cistercian abbey, where Thomas Becket spent two years
of his exile. Its church is an excellent type of the Cistercian
architecture of the 12th century. The fine 12th-century chateau
of Druyes, which stands on a hill overlooking the village, once
belonged to the counts of Auxerre and Nevers. Villeneuve-sur-
Yonne has a medieval keep and gateways and a church of the
1 3th and i6th centuries. The Renaissance chateaux of Fleurigny,
Ancy-le-France and Tanlay, the last-named for some time the
property of the Coligny family, and the chateau of St Fargeau, of
the 1 3th century, rebuilt by Mademoiselle de Montpensier under
Louis XIV., are all architecturally remarkable. At St More 1 there
are remains of the Roman road from Lyons to Gallia Belgica and
of a Roman fortified post.
YORCK VON WARTENBURG. HANS DAVID LDDWIG.
COUNT (1759-1830), Prussian general field-marshal, was of Eng-
lish ancestry. He entered the Prussian army in 1772, but after
seven years' service was cashiered for disobedience. Entering
the Dutch service three years later he took part in the operations
of 1783-84 in the East Indies as captain. Returning to Prussia
in 1785 he was, on the death of Frederick the Great, reinstated
in his old service, and in 1794 took part in the operations in
Poland, distinguishing himself especially at Szekoczyn. Five
years afterwards Yorck began to make a name for himself as
commander of a light infantry regiment, being one of the first
to give prominence to the training of skirmishers. In 1805
he was appointed to the command of an infantry brigade, and
in the disastrous Jena campaign he played a conspicuous and
successful part as a rearguard commander, especially at Alten-
zaun. He was taken prisoner, severely wounded, in the last
stand of Bliicher's corps at Liibeck. In the reorganization of
the Prussian army which followed the peace of Tilsit, Yorck
was one of the leading figures. At first major-general com-
manding the West Prussian brigade, afterwards inspector-
general of light infantry, he was finally appointed second in
command to General Grawert, the leader of the auxiliary corps
which Prussia was compelled to send to the Russian War of
1812. The two generals did not agree, Grawert being an open
partisan of the French alliance, and Yorck an ardent patriot;
but before long Grawert retired, and Yorck assumed the com-
mand. Opposed in his advance on Riga by the Russian General
Steingcll. he displayed great skill in a series of combats which
ended in the retirement of the enemy to Riga. Throughout
the campaign he had been the object of many overtures from
the enemy's generals, and though he had hitherto rejected them,
it was soon borne in upon him that the Grand Army was
doomed. Marshal Macdonald, his immediate French superior,
retreated before the corps of Diebitsch, and Yorck found himself
isolated. As a soldier his duty was to break through, but as
a Prussian patriot his position was more difficult. He had to
judge whether the moment was favourable for the war of
liberation; and, whatever might be the enthusiasm of his
junior staff-officers, Yorck had no illusions as to the safety of
his own head. On December 3Oth the general made up his
mind. The Convention of Tauroggen " neutralized " the
Prussian corps. The news was received with the wildest enthu-
siasm, but the Prussian Court dared not yet throw oft the
mask, and an order was despatched suspending Yorck from
his command pending a court-martial. Diebitsch refused to
let the bearer pass through his lines, and the general
was finally absolved when the treaty of Kalisch definitely
ranged Prussia on the side of the Allies. Yorck's act was
nothing less than the turning-point of Prussian history. His
veterans formed the nucleus of the forces of East Prussia,
and Yorck himself in public took the final step by declaring
war as the commander of those forces. On March I7th, 1813,
he made his entry into Berlin in the midst of the wildest
exuberance of patriotic joy. On the same day the king declared
war. During 1813-14 Yorck led his veterans with conspicuous
success. He covered Blucher's retreat after Bautzen and took
a decisive part in the battles on the Katzbach. In the advance
on Leipzig his corps won the action of Wartenburg (October 4)
and took part in the crowning victory of October i8th. In
the campaign in France Yorck drew off the shattered rem-
nants of Sacken's corps at Montmirail, and decided the day
at Laon. The storm of Paris was his last fight. In the cam-
paign of 1815 none of the older men were employed in Blucher's
army, in order that Gneisenau (the ablest of the Prussian
generals) might be free to assume command in case of the old
prince's death. Yorck was appointed to a reserve corps in Prussia,
and, feeling that his services were no longer required, he retired
from the army. His master would not accept his resignation
for a considerable time, and in 1821 made him general field-
marshal. He had been made Count Yorck von Wartenburg
in 1814. The remainder of his life was spent on his estate of
Klein-Ols, the gift of the king. He died there on the 4th cf
YOREDALE SERIES YORK (HOUSE OF)
924
October 1830. A statue (by Rauch) was erected to him in
Berlin in 1855.
See Seydlitz, Tagebuch des Preussischen Armee Korps 1812 (Berlin,
1823) ; Droysen, Leben des G. F. M. Grafen Yorck von Wartenburg
(Berlin, 1851).
YOREDALE SERIES, in geology, a local phase of the lower
Carboniferous rocks of the N. of England. The name was
introduced by J. Phillips on account of the typical develop-
ment of the phase in Yoredale (Wensleydale), Yorkshire. In
the Yorkshire dales the Carboniferous rocks assume an aspect
very different from that which obtains in the S. Beds of
detrital sediment, sandstones, shales and occasional ironstones
and thin coals separate the limestones into well-defined beds.
These limestone beds have received various names of local
significance (Hardraw Scar, Simonstone, Middle, Underset,
Main and many others), and owing to the country being little
disturbed by faulting and being much cut up by the streams,
they stand out as escarpments on either side of the valleys.
The first indication of the intercalation of thick detrital deposits
within the massive limestone is seen in Ingleborough and Peny-
ghent; but as the rocks are traced N. the detrital matter
increases in quantity and the limestones diminish, till in North-
umberland the whole Carboniferous series assumes the Yoredale
phase, and consists of alternations of detrital and calcareous
beds, no massive limestone being seen.
The Yoredale limestones are characterized by the presence of
Productus giganteus and the brachiopod fauna usually associated
with it. The main limestone of Weardale is full of corals, including
Lonsdaleia floriformis, Dibunophyllum sp., Cyclophyllum pachyen-
dothecum, &c., and has a typical Visean fauna; it would therefore
correspond, palaeontologically, with the upper part of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone of Derbyshire. On Ingleborough the limestones
are not very fossiliferous, but the Main Limestone contains small
corals of a zaphrentoid type and an upper Visean fauna. Posi-
donomya Becheri occurs fairly low down in the series in the Shale
above the Hardraw Scar and Gayls limestones, but it is not accom-
panied by any of the goniatites or other cephalopods and lamelli-
branchs which characterize the Posidonomya Becheri beds of the
Pendleside Series, the faunas of the Yoredale and Pendleside phases
being very distinct. The Red Bed Limestone of Leyburn, the upper-
most limestone of the series, is very rich in fish remains, which are
identical in many cases with those found in the topmost beds of
the massive Carboniferous Limestone at Bolt Edge quarry in
Derbyshire. The shales between the limestones are rich in fossils
and contain abundant single corals referabJe to Zaphrentis enniskil-
leni, Cyclophyllum pachyendothecum and others; these, though
high-zonal forms, occur low down in the Yoredale strata, even m
the shale above the Hardraw Scar limestone. In the Derbyshire
area and farther N. these corals would indicate the uppermost beds
of the limestone series of those districts, and their early appearance
in the Yoredale area is probably entirely due to conditions of
environment. Attempts have been made to correlate rocks in a
number of widely separated areas with the Yoredale strata, but
on wholly insufficient grounds. It is clear that the exact relation-
ship which the Yoredale series of the type area bears as a whole
to the lower Carboniferous rocks of the Midlands. N. and S. Wales,
&c.,on the one hand, and to the Pendleside series on the other,
has yet to be established on a firm palaeontological basis.
See Mem. Geol. Survey, "Geology of Mallerstang " ; W. Hind,
Proc. Yorks. Geol. and Poly. Soc. (1902), xiv. part iii. ; and Rep.
Brit. Ass., " Life Zones Brit. Carb. Rocks " (1901).
YORK (HOUSE or), a royal line in England, founded by
Richard, duke of York (q.v.), who claimed the crown in opposi-
tion to Henry VI. It may be said that his claim, at the time
it was advanced, was rightly barred by prescription, the house
of Lancaster having then occupied the throne for three genera-
tions, and that it was really owing to the misgovernment of
Margaret of Anjou, and her favourites that it was advanced at
all. Yet it was founded upon strict principles of lineal descent.
For the duke was descended from Lionel, duke of Clarence, the
third son of Edward III., while the house of Lancaster came of
John of Gaunt, a younger brother of Lionel. One thing which
might possibly have been considered an element of weakness
in his claim was that it was derived (see the Table) through
females an objection actually brought against it by Chief-
Justice Fortescue. But a succession through females could not
reasonably have been objected to after Edward III.'s claim to
the crown of France; and, apart from strict legality, the duke's
claim wiis probably supported in the popular estimation by the
fact that he was descended from Edward III. through his father
no less than through his mother. For his father, Richard, earl
of Cambridge, was the son of Edmund, duke of York, fifth
son of Edward III.; and he himself was the direct lineal heir
of this Edmund, just as much as he was of Lionel, duke of
Clarence. His claim was also favoured by the accumulation of
hereditary titles and estates. The earldom of Ulster, the old
inheritance of the De Burghs, had descended to him from Lionel,
duke of Clarence; the earldom of March came from the Morti-
mers, and the dukedom of York and the earldom of Cambridge
from his paternal ancestry. Moreover, his own marriage with
Cecily Neville, though she was but the youngest daughter of
Ralph, ist earl of Westmorland, allied him to a powerful family
in the north of England, to whose support both he and his son
were greatly indebted.
The reasons why the claims of the line of Clarence had been
so long forborne are not difficult to explain. Roger Mortimer,
4th earl of March, was designated by Richard II. as his suc-
cessor; but he died the year before Richard was dethroned, and
his son Edmund, the sth earl, was a child at Henry IV.'s usurpa-
tion. Henry took care to secure his person; but the claims of
the family troubled the whole of his own and the beginning of
his son's reign. It was an uncle of this Edmund who took part
with Owen Glendower and the Percies; and for advocating the
cause of Edmund Archbishop Scrope was put to death. And
it was to put the crown on Edmund's head that his brother-in-
law Richard, earl of Cambridge, conspired against Henry V.
soon after his accession. The plot was detected, being revealed,
it is said, by the earl of March himself, who does not appear to
have given it any encouragement; the earl of Cambridge was
beheaded. The popularity gained by Henry V. in his French
campaigns secured the weak title of the house of Lancaster
against further attack for forty years.
Richard, duke of York, seems to have taken warning by his
father's fate; but, after seeking for many years to correct by
other means the weakness of Henry VI. 's government, he first
took up arms against the ill advisers who were his own personal
enemies, and at length claimed the crown in parliament as his
right. The Lords, or such of them as did not purposely stay
away from the House, admitted that his claim was unimpeach-
able, but suggested as a compromise that Henry should retain
the crown for life, and the duke and his heirs succeed after his
death. This was accepted by the duke, and an act to that
effect received Henry's own assent. But the act was repudiated
by Margaret of Anjou and her followers, and the duke was slain
at Wakefield fighting against them. In little more than two
months, however, his .son was proclaimed king at London by the
title of Edward IV., and the bloody victory of Towton imme-
diately after drove his enemies into exile and paved the way for
his coronation. After his recovery of the throne in 1471 he had
little more to fear from the rivalry of the house of Lancaster.
But the seeds of distrust had already been sown among the
members of his own family, and in 1478 his brother Clarence was
put to death secretly, indeed, within the Tower, but still by
his authority and that of parliament as a traitor. In 1483
Edward himself died; and his eldest son, Edward V., after a
nominal reign of two months and a half, was put aside by his
uncle, the duke of Gloucester, who became Richard III., and
then caused him and his brother Richard, duke of York, to be
murdered. But in little more than two years Richard was slain
at Bosworth by the earl of Richmond, who, being proclaimed
king as Henry VII., shortly afterwards fulfilled his pledge to
marry the eldest daughter of Edward IV. and so unite the
houses of York and Lancaster.
Here the dynastic history of the house of York ends, for its
claims were henceforth merged in those of the house of Tudor.
But, although the union of the Roses ought to have extinguished
controversy, a host of debatable questions and plausible pre-
texts for rebellion remained. The legitimacy of Edward IV.'s
children had been denied by Richard III. and his parliament,
and, though the act was denounced as scandalous, the slander
might still be reasserted. The duke of Clarence had left two
YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF
GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF YORK
Edward 111.
925
Edward, the
Black Prince.
Richard II.
(dethroned 1399).
William Lionel, - Elizabeth, d. of
of Hatfield duke of 1 William de Burgh,
(died young}. Clarence. carl of Ulster.
Edmund Mortimer, =-Philippa.
third earl of March. 1
Roger Mortimer, Eleanor Holland,
fourth earl of March, eldest daughter of
Thomas, second
earl of Kent.
John of Gaunt, Edmund, Thomas
duke of Lancaster. duke of York. of Woodstock,
I duke of Gloucester.
William
of Windsor
(died young) .
Henry IV.
1 Edward,
Henry V. duke of York.
Henry VI.
Edward,
prince of Wales.
Edmund Mortimer,
fifth earl of March.
Anne Mortimer "Richard, earl of Cambridge
J (executed 1415;.
uke of York
Ralph, earl of Westmoreland. I (killed in battle 1460).
Edward IV. (d. 1483). George, duk
| (attaint
: of Clarence Richard III. Anne, married Henry Holland, duke of
ed 1478;. (killed in battle 1485). Exeter, and had no child by him. By
her second husband. Sir Thomas St
Edward, Leger .she had a daughter married to Sir
prince of Wales Ceo. Manners, Lord Roos, and mother
(d. 1484). of the first earl of Rutland.
Elizabeth
John de la Pole,
duke of Suffolk
(d. 1491).
Edward V. Richard,
(murdered 1483). duke of York
(murdered 1483).
Edw.ird, Margaret,
earl of Warwick countess of Salisbury
(executed I4gg). (executed 1541).
-Sir Richard Pole. John de la Pole, Edmund Humphrey and
earl of Lincoln de la Pole Edward,
(d. 1487;. (d. lit}). churchmen.
Richard Four
de la Pole daughters.
(d. IJJJJ.
Henry Pole, Sir Geoffrey Pole, Arthur Pole. Reginald Pole, Ursula, mamed to Henry,
Lord Montague of Lordington, cardinal. Lord Stafford, son of
(executed 1539). Sussex. Edward, duke of Buck-
| inghara.
Five sons and one daughter. Among the former were
Arthur and Edmund, who were prisoners in the Tower.
children, a son and a daughter, and the attainder of their father
could not be a greater bar to the crown than the attainder of
Henry VII. himself. Seeing this, Henry had, immediately
after his victory at Bosworth, secured the person of the son,
Edward, earl of Warwick, and kept him a prisoner in the Tower
of London. Yet a formidable rebellion was raised in his behalf
by means of Lambert Simnel, who was defeated and taken
prisoner at the battle of Stoke in 1487. The earl of Warwick
lived for twelve years later in unjust confinement, and was
ultimately put to death in 1499 because he had consented to a
plot for his own liberation. As to his sister Margaret, she was
married to one of Henry VII. 's Welsh followers, Sir Richard
Pole (or Poole), and could give no trouble, so that, when Henry
VIII. came to the throne, he thought it politic to treat her with
kindness. He made her countess of Salisbury, reversed her
brother's attainder, created her eldest son, Henry, Lord Mon-
tague, and caused one of her younger sons, Reginald, who dis-
played much taste for learning, to be carefully educated. This,
however, was the very thing which involved the whole family in
ruin. For Henry looked to the learning and abilities of Reginald
Pole to vindicate before Europe the justice of his divorce from
Catherine of Aragon; and, when Pole was conscientiously
compelled to declare the very opposite, the king's indignation
knew no bounds. Pole himself was safe, having secured some
time before a retreat in Italy. He was even made a cardinal by
the pope. But this only made matters worse for his family
at home: his brother, Lord Montague, and even his mother, the
aged countess of Salisbury, were beheaded as traitors because
they had continued to correspond with him. Cardinal Pole,
however, came back to his own country with great honour
in the reign of Queen Maryland was made archbishop of Canter-
bury on the deprivation of Cranmer. '
Early in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, two nephews of the
cardinal, Arthur and Edmund Pole, being ardent young men,
conspired to go over to the duke of Guise in France, hoping to
return with an army into Wales and so promote the claims of
Mary Queen of Scots to the crown of England, for which service
the elder, Arthur, expected to be restored to the dukedom of
Clarence. The result was that they were condemned to death,
but were only imprisoned for the rest of their days in the Tower,
where they both carved inscriptions on the walls of their dungeon,
which are still visible in the Beauchamp tower.
Another branch of the house of York might have given trouble
to the Tudors if they had not been narrowly watched and ulti-
mately extinguished. Of the sisters of Edward IV., the eldest,
Anne, who married the duke of Exeter, left only one daughter
by her second husband, Sir Thomas St Leger; but the second,
Elizabeth, married John de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and had
several children. Their eldest son was created earl of Lincoln
during his father's life, and Richard III., after the death of his
own son, had designated him as his successor. Disappointed of
a kingdom by the success of Henry VII., he joined in Simnel's
rebellion and was killed at the battle of Stoke. His brother
Edmund thus became heir to his father; but in the reduced
circumstances of the family he agreed to forbear the title of duke
and take that of earl of Suffolk. He continued for some years
in favour with the king, who made him a knight of the Garter;
but, having killed a man in a passion, he fled abroad and was
entertained at the court of the emperor Maximilian, and after-
wards at that of Philip, king of Castile, when resident in the Low
Countries before his departure for Spain. Philip, having been
driven on the English coast when going to take possession of his
Spanish kingdom, was entertained at Windsor by Henry VII.,
to whom he promised to deliver up the fugitive on condition
that his life should be spared. Edmund de la Pole accordingly
was brought back to England and lodged in the Tower. Though
the promise to spare his life was kept by the king who gave it,
his son Henry VIII. caused him to be executed in 1513, when
war broke out with France, apparently for treasonable corre-
spondence with his brother Richard, then in the French service.
After his death Richard de la Pole, remaining in exile, called
himself earl of Suffolk, and was flattered occasionally by
Francis I. with faint hopes of the crown of England. He was
killed at the battle of Pavia in 1525. There were no more De
la Poles who could advance even the most shadowy pretensions
to disturb the Tudor dynasty. (J. GA.)
YORK. EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402), fifth
son of Edward III., was born at King's Langley in Hertford-
shire on the 5th of June 1341. He accompanied his father on a
campaign in France in 1359, was created earl of Cambridge in
1362, and took part in expeditions to France and Spain, being
present at the sack of Limoges in 1370. After marrying Isabella
(d. 1393), daughter of Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, he was
appointed one of the English lieutenants in Brittany, whither he
led an army in 1375. A second campaign in Brittany was
followed in 1381 by an expedition under the earl's leadership to
926
YORK, DUKES OF
aid Ferdinand, king of Portugal, in his struggle with John I.,
king of Castile; but after a period of inaction Edmund was
compelled to return to England as Ferdinand had concluded an
independent peace with Castile. Accompanying Richard II. on
his march into Scotland, he was created duke of York in August
1385, and subsequently on three occasions he acted as regent of
England. In this capacity he held a parliament in 1395, and he
was again serving as regent when Henry of Lancaster, after-
wards Henry IV., landed in England in July 1399. After a
feeble attempt to defend the interests of the absent king, York
joined the victorious invader; but soon retired from public life,
and, in the words of Froissart as translated by Lord Berners,
" laye styll in his castell, and medled with nothynge of the
busynesse of Englande." He died at King's Langley on the ist
of August 1402. York was a man who preferred pleasure to
business, and during the critical events of his nephew's reign he
was content to be guided by his more ambitious brothers, the
dukes of Lancaster and Gloucester. His second wife was Joan,
or Johanna (d. 1434), daughter of Thomas Holland, earl of
Kent, but his only children were two sons and a daughter,
Constance (d. 1416), by his first wife.
YORK, EDWARD, DUKE OF (c. 1373-1415), elder son of the
preceding, was created earl of Rutland in 1390. Being an
intimate friend of his cousin, Richard II., he received several
important appointments, including those of admiral of the fleet,
constable of the tower of London and warden of the Cinque
Ports. He accompanied the king to Ireland in 1394 and was
made earl of Cork; arranged Richard's marriage with Isabella,
daughter of Charles VI. of France; and was one of the king's
most active helpers in the proceedings against the "lords
appellant " in 1397. As a reward he secured the office of con-
stable of England and the lands in Holderness which had
previously belonged to his murdered uncle, Thomas of Wood-
stock, duke of Gloucester, together with other estates and the
title of duke of Aumerle or Albemarle. He appears to have
deserted Richard in 1399, but only at the last moment; and in
Henry IV. 's first parliament he was vigorously denounced as the
murderer of Gloucester. After declaring that his part in the
proceedings of 1397 had been performed under constraint, his
life was spared, but he was reduced to his former rank as earl of
Rutland, and deprived of his recent acquisitions of land. It is
uncertain what share Rutland had in the conspiracy against
Henry IV. in January 1400, but his complete acquittal by
parliament in 1401, and the confidence subsequently reposed in
him by the king, point to the conclusion that he was not seriously
involved. Serving as the royal lieutenant in Aquitaine and in
Wales, Rutland, who became duke of York on his father's death
in 1402, was, like all Henry's servants, hampered by want of
money, and perhaps began to feel some irritation against the
king. At all events he was concerned in the scheme, concocted
in 1405 by his sister, Constance, widow of Thomas le Despencer,
earl of Gloucester, for seizing the young earl of March, and his
brother Roger Mortimer, and carrying them into Wales. On
her trial Constance asserted that her brother had instigated the
plot, which also included the murder of the king, and York was
imprisoned in Pevensey castle. Released a few months later, he
was restored to the privy council and regained his estates, after
which he again served Henry in Wales and in France. York led
one division of the English army at Agincourt, where, on the
25th of October 1415, he was killed by "much hete and
thronggid." He was buried in Fotheringhay church. The
duke left no children and was succeeded as duke of York by his
nephew, Richard.
York compiled the Maystre of the Game, a treatise on hunting
which is largely a translation of the Livre de Chasse of Gaston Phochus,
count of Foix. This has been edited by W. A. and F. Baillie-
Grohman (1904).
YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827),
second son of George III., was born at St James's Palace on the
i6th of August 1763. At the age of six months his father secured
his election to the rich bishopric of Osnabriick. He was invested
a knight of the Bath in 1767, a K.G. in 1771, and was gazetted
colonel in 1780. From 1781 to 1787 he lived in Germany, where
he attended the manoeuvres of the Austrian and Prussian armies.
He was appointed colonel of the 2nd horse grenadier guards
(now 2nd Life Guards) in 1782, and promoted major-general
and appointed colonel of the Coldstream Guards in 1784. He
was created duke of York and Albany and earl of Ulster in 1784,
but retained the bishopric of Osnabriick until 1803. On his
return to England he took his seat in the House of Lords, where,
on December 15, 1788, he opposed Pitt's Regency Bill in a speech
which was supposed to have been inspired by the prince of Wales.
A duel fought on Wimbledon Common with Colonel Lennox,
afterwards duke of Richmond, served to increase the duke of
York's popularity, his acceptance of the challenge itself and his
perfect coolness appealing strongly to the public taste. In 1791
he married Princess Frederica Charlotte Ulrica Catherina
(b. 1767), daughter of Frederick William II. of Prussia. The
princess was enthusiastically received in London, but the
marriage was not happy, and a separation soon took place. The
princess retired to Oatlands Park, Weybridge, where she died
on the 6th of August 1820.
In 1793 the duke of York was sent to Flanders in command
of the English contingent of Coburg's army destined for the
invasion of France (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). On
his return in 1795 the king promoted him field-marshal, and
on April 3rd, 1798, appointed him commander-in-chief. His
second command was with the army sent to invade Holland
in conjunction with a Russian corps d'armie in 1799. Sir Ralph
Abercromby and Admiral Sir Charles Mitchell in charge of the
vanguard had succeeded in capturing the Dutch ships in the
Helder, but from time of the duke's arrival with the main
body of the army disaster followed disaster until, on the i7th of
October, the duke signed the convention of Alkmaar, by which
the allied expedition withdrew after giving up its prisoners.
Although thus unsuccessful as commander of a field army the
duke was well fitted to carry out reforms in the army at home,
and to this task he devoted himself with the greatest vigour and
success until his enforced retirement from the office of com-
mander-in-chief on the i8th of March 1809, in consequence of his
relations with Mary Ann Clarke (1776-1852), who was convicted
of profiting by her intimacy with the duke to extract money
from officers by promising to recommend them for promotion.
A select committee was appointed by the House of Commons to
inquire into the matter, and the duke was acquitted of having
received bribes himself by 278 votes to 196. Two years later,
in May 1811, he was again placed at the head of the army by the
prince regent, and rendered valuable services in this position.
He died on the sth of January 1827 and was buried at St George's
Chapel, Windsor.
A firm friendship seems to have existed between the duke and his
elder brother, afterwards George IV., and he is also said to have
been his father's favourite son. He was very popular, thanks to
his amiable disposition and a keen love of sport, but it is as the
organizing and administrative head of the army that he has left
his mark. He was untiring in his efforts to raise the tone of the
army, restore discipline, weed out the undesirables, and suppress
bribery and favouritism. He founded the Duke of York's School
for the sons of soldiers at Chelsea, and his name is also com-
memorated by the Duke of York's column in Waterloo Place.
YORK, RICHARD, DUKE OF (1411-1460), was born on the
2ist of September 1411, the son of Richard, earl of Cambridge,
second son of Edmund of Langley, duke of York. By the death
of his uncle Edward at Agincourt he became duke of York, and
on the death of Edmund Mortimer in 1425 he succeeded to his
claims as representing in the female line the elder branch of
the royal family. He had been kindly treated by Henry V.,
and his name appears at the head of the knights made by the
little Henry VI. at Leicester on the igth of May 1426. York's
first service was in France during 1430 and 1431. In 1432 he
obtained livery of his lands and afterwards went over to Ireland
to take possession of his estates there. In January 1436 he
was appointed lieutenant-general of France and Normandy, but
did not enter on his command till June. He showed vigour and
capacity, and recovered F6camp and some other places in
YORK (CITY)
927
Normandy. Probably he was not supported cordially by the
home government, and in 1437 applied to be recalled. One
authority alleges that his council thwarted him in his desire to
relieve Montereau, because he had been discharged from his
office (Chronicles of London, 143). York returned to England
in the autumn of 1437. From this time at all events he attached
himself to the war-party of which Humphrey of Gloucester was
head, in opposition to the government under Cardinal Beaufort.
By his marriage in 1438 to Cicely, sister of the earl of Salis-
bury, he allied himself to the rising family of the Nevilles.
On the 2nd of July 1440 York was again appointed to the
French command. His previous experience made him stipulate
for full powers and a sufficient revenue. He did not, however,
go to Rouen till June 1441. During his second governorship
York maintained, if he could not improve, the English position
in Normandy. He was again hampered by his political oppo-
nents at home, and at the end of 1446 was recalled, on the
pretext that his term of office had expired. The death of
Humphrey of Gloucester in February 1447 made York the first
prince of the blood. Suffolk, now Henry's chief minister, found
a convenient banishment for a dangerous rival by appointing
York to be lieutenant of Ireland for ten years (gth of December
1447). York, however, contrived to put off his departure for
eighteen months. During his absence in Ireland English dis-
content came to a crisis in Jack Cade's rebellion. The use
made of the names of Mortimer and York, however unauthorized,
shows the trend of popular opinion. In September 1450 York
landed in Wales. His opponents endeavoured to waylay him,
but he came to London with an armed retinue and forced
himself into the king's presence. Nevertheless he declared his
loyalty and that he desired only justice and good government.
He took part in the punishment of Cade's supporters, and dis-
countenanced a proposal in parliament that he should be
declared heir to the crown. In March 1452 he came once more
in arms to London, and endeavoured to obtain Somerset's dis-
missal. On a promise that his rival should be held in custody
he disbanded his men, and thus outwitted found himself virtu-
ally a prisoner. However, a nominal agreement was concluded,
and York accepted the king's pardon. The situation was
changed by the birth of a prince of Wales and the king's illness
in October 1453. After a struggle with the queen and Somer-
set, York secured his recognition as protector on the 27th of
March 1454. He declared that he accepted the post only as
a duty, and, though he put his own friends in power, exercised
his authority with moderation and on the side of good order.
But at the end of the year the king's sudden recovery brought
York's protectorate to an end. When it was clear that the
queen and Somerset would proceed to extremities, York and
his friends took up arms in self-defence. Even when the two
armies met at St Albans, York endeavoured to treat for settle-
ment. The issue was decided by the defeat and death of
Somerset on the 22nd of May 1455. York used his success
with moderation. He became constable of England, and his
friends obtained office. This was no more than a change of_
ministers. But a return of the king's illness in October 1455'
made York again for a brief space protector. Henry recovered
in February 1456, and Margaret, his queen, began to assert
herself. Finally, at Coventry, in October, the Yorkist officials
were displaced. Still there was no open breach, and in March
1458 there was even a ceremonial reconciliation of all parties
at St Paul's in London. York would not again accept honour-
able banishment to Ireland, but made no move till the queen's
preparations forced him to act. In September 1459 both
parties were once more in arms. York protested that he acted
only in self-defence, but the desertion of his best soldiers at
Ludlow on the 1 2th of October left him helpless. With a few
followers he escaped to Ireland, where his position as lord-
lieutenant was confirmed by an Irish parliament, and he ruled
in full defiance of the English government. In March 1460 the
carl of Warwick came from Calais to concert plans with his
leader. York himself only landed in England on the 8th of
September, two months after Warwick's victory at North-
ampton. All pretence of moderation was put aside, and he
marched on London, using the full arms of England, and with
his sword borne upright before him. On reaching Westminster,
York took up his residence in the royal palace, and formally
asserted his claim to the throne in parliament. In the end a
compromise was arranged, under which Henry was to retain
the crown for life, but Richard was to succeed him. On the
8th of November he was accordingly proclaimed heir-apparent
and piotector. Meantime the queen was gathering her friends,
and early in December, Richard went north with a small force.
He kept Christmas at Sandal Castle near Wakefield. There, on
the 3oth of December, he was hemmed in by a superior force
of Lancastrians. Declaring that he had never kept castle in
the face of the enemy, Richard rashly offered battle, and was
defeated and slain. His enemies had his head cut off, and set
it up on the walls of York adorned with a paper crown.
Richard of York was not a great statesman, but he had
qualities of restraint and moderation, and might have made a
good king. He had four daughters and four sons. Edmund,
earl of Rutland, his second son, was killed at Wakefield. The
other three were Edward IV., George, duke of Clarence, and
Richard III.
See The Paslon Letters with Dr Gairdner's Introduction; Three
Fifteenth Century Chronicles, and Collections of a London Citizen
(published by the Camden Society); Chronicles of London (ed.
C. L. Kingsford, 1905) ; J. S. Stevenson's Wars of the English in France
(Rolls Series). The French chronicles of Matthieu d'Escouchy,
T. Basin and Tehan Waurin should also be consulted (these three
are published by the Societe de I'Histoire de France). For modern
accounts see especially Sir James Ramsay's Lancaster and York,
and The Political History of England, vol. iv., by Professor C. Oman.
YORK, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough,
the seat of an archbishop, and the county town of Yorkshire,
England, 188 m. N. by W. from London by the Great Northern
railway. It is an important junction of the North-Eastem
railway. Pop. (1901) 77,914. It lies in a plain watered by
the river Ouse, at the junction of the Foss stream with the
main river. It has narrow picturesque streets, ancient walls,
and, besides the cathedral, many churches and buildings of
architectural interest.
York was a Roman station (see below), and large collections
of Roman remains are preserved in the hospitium of St Mary's
Abbey. Of these a great proportion came from the cemetery
and from the foundations of the railway station. A note-
worthy relic of the Roman occupation, however, appears in
its original place. This is the so-called multangular tower,
on the N.W. of the city walls. Its base is Roman, of mingled
stone and brick work. The city walls date in part from Norman
times, but are in the main of the I4th century. Their circuit
is a little over 2j m., and the area enclosed is divided by the
river Ouse, the larger part lying on the left bank. The walls
have been carefully preserved and are remarkably perfect.
On the E. for a short distance the river Foss took the place
of a wall. Of the gates, called Bars, the best specimen is
Micklegate Bar on the S.W., where the heads of traitors were
formerly exposed. It is a square tower built over a circular,
probably Norman, arch, and has embattled corner turrets.
Others are Bootham Bar, the main entrance from the N.,
also having a Norman arch; Monk Bar (N.E.), formerly called
Goodramgate, but renamed in honour of General Monk, and
Walmgate Bar, of the time of Edward I., retaining the barbican
repaired in 1648. The castle stands in the angle between the
Ouse and the Foss immediately above their junction. Of the
fortress built by William the Conqueror in 1068 some portions
were probably incorporated in Clifford's tower, the shell of
which, showing an unusual ground plan of four intersecting
circles, rises from an artificial mound. The castle serves as the
prison and county courts.
The cathedral of St Peter, commonly known as the minster,
has no superior in general dignity of form among English
cathedrals. It is in the form of a Latin cross, consisting of nave
with aisles, transepts, choir with aisles, a central tower, and
928
YORK (CITY)
two W. towers. The palace of the archbishops is at Bishop-
thorpe, 2| m. S. of York. It is of various dates, and includes
slight remains of the Early English palace of Archbishop Grey.
The diocese includes over half the parishes in Yorkshire, and
also covers very small portions of Durham, Nottinghamshire
and Lincolnshire.
The extreme external length of the cathedral is 524 ft. 6 in.,
the breadth across the transepts 250 ft., the height of the central
tower 213 ft., and the height of the western towers 202 ft. The
material is magnesian limestone. The cathedral occupies the site
of the wooden church in which King Edwin was baptized by
Paulinus (q.v.) on Easter Day 627. After his baptism Edwin,
according to Bede, began to construct " a large and more noble
basilica of stone," but it was partly destroyed during the troubles
which followed his death, and was repaired by Archbishop Wilfrid.
The building suffered from fire in 741, and, after it had been re-
paired by Archbishop Albert, was described by Alcuin as " a most
magnificent basilica." At the time of the Norman invasion the
Saxon cathedral, with the library of Archbishop Egbert, perished
in the fire by which the greater part of the city was destroyed,
the only relic remaining being the central wall of the crypt.
It was reconstructed by Archbishop Thomas of Bayeux (1070-
nop); but of this building few portions remain. The apsidal
choir and crypt were reconstructed by Archbishop Roger
(1154-81), the S. transept by Archbishop Walter de Grey (1216-
I 2 55)i and the N. transept and central tower by John Romanus,
treasurer of the cathedral (1228-56). With the exception of the
crypt, the transepts are the oldest portions of the building, now
remaining. They represent the Early English style at its best,
and the view across the great transept is unsurpassed for archi-
tectural effect. The S. transept is the richest and most elaborate
in its details, one of its principal features being the magnificent
rose window; and the N. transept contains a series of beautiful
lancet windows called the Five Sisters. The foundation of the
new nave was laid by Archbishop Romanus (1286-96), son of the
treasurer, the building of it being completed by Archbishop William
de Melton about 1340. The chapter-house, a magnificent ornate
building, was built during the same period. The W. front, con-
sisting of a centre and two divisions corresponding with the nave and
aisles, has been described as " more architecturally perfect as a
composition and in its details than that of any other English
cathedral," the great window above the door being considered by
some superior to the famous E. window at Carlisle.
In 1361 Archbishop Thoresby (1352-73) began the lady chapel
and presbytery, both in the Early Perpendicular style. The re-
building of the choir, begun about the same period, was not com-
pleted till about 1400. It is Late Perpendicular, the great E.
window being one of the finest in the world. With the rebuilding
of the choir the whole of the ancient Norman edifice was removed,
the only Norman architecture now remaining being the E. portion
of the crypt of the second period, built by Archbishop Roger (1154
1191). To correspond with later alterations, the central tower
was recased and changed into a Perpendicular lantern tower, the
work being completed in 1444. The S. W. tower was begun in 1432
during the treasurership of John de Bermingham, and the N.W.
tower in 1470. With the erection of this tower the church was com-
pleted as it now stands, and on the 3rd of February 1472 it was re-
consecrated by Archbishop Neville. On the 2nd of February 1829
the woodwork of the choir was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a
madman. On the 2nd of May 1840 a fire broke out in the S.W.
tower, reducing it to a mere shell. The stained glass both in the
cathedral and in other churches of the city is particularly note-
worthy; its survival may be traced to the stipulation made by
the citizens when surrendering to parliament in the civil wars that
it should not be damaged.
The following is a list of the archbishops of York:
I. Paulinus, 627-633.
*2. Chad, 664-669.
*3- Wilfrid, 669-678. (He again
held the see in 686 for
how long is not certain
Bosa retiring in his
favour.)
*4. Bosa, 678-c. 705.
*5. John of Beverley, 705-718.
*6. Wilfrid II., 718-732.
7. Egbert, 732-766.
8. Albert, 766-782.
9. Eanbald I., 782-796.
10. Eanbald II., 796-812.
11. Wulfsi, 812-831.
12. Wigmund, 837-854.
13. Wulfhere, 854-890.
14. Ethelbald, 890-895.
15. Redewald, 895-928.
16. Wulfstan, 928-956.
17. Oskyte!, 956-972.
18. Ethelwold, 972.
19. Oswald, 972-992.
20. Adulf, 992-1002.
21. Wulfstan, 1002-1023.
22. Alfric Puttoc, 1023-1050.
23. Kinsi, 1050-1060.
24. Ealdred, 1060-1067.
25. Thomas of Bayeux, 1070-
noo.
26. Gerard, 1101-1108.
27. Thomas, 1108-1114.
28. Thurstan, 1114-1140.
29. William Fitzherbert, 1143-
1147. (His election was
disputed, and he was
deprived by the pope.)
30. Henry Mordac, 1147-1153.
* These bishops did not receive the pall as metropolitans.
William Fitzherbert, re-
instated, 1153 to 1154.
Roger of Pont
1154-1181.
1'EvSque,
32-
(The see was now vacant for
ten years.)
Geoffrey, 1191-1207.
(The see was vacant for nine
years.)
Walter de Grey, 1216-1255.
Sewal de Bovil, 1256-1258.
Geoffrey of Ludham, 1258-
33'
34-
35-
1265.
36. Walter Giffard, 1266-1279.
37
William of
1279-1286.
Wickwaine,
38. John Romanus, 1286-1296.
39. Henry of Newark, 1298-
1299.
40. Thomas of Corbridge, 1300-
1304.
William
I3I5-
William
1340.
William la Zouche, 1342-
1352.
John Thoresby, 1352-1373.
Greenfield, 1306-
de Melton, 1317-
Neville, 1374-
Fitzalan, 1388-
Alexander
1388.
46. Thomas
1396.
47. Robert Waldby, 1397-1398.
48. Richard Scrope, 1398-1405.
49. Henry Bowet, 1407-1423.
50. John Kemp, 1426-1452.
51. William Booth, 1452-1464.
52. George Neville, 1464-1476.
53. Laurence Booth, 1476-1480.
54. Thomas Scott, 1480-1500.
55. Thomas Savage, 1501-1507.
56. Christopher
1508-1514.
Bainbridge,
57. Thomas Wolsey, 1514-1530.
58. Edward Lee, 1531-1544.
59. Robert Holgate, i 545-1554-
60. Nicholas Heath, 1555-1559.
61. Thomas Young, 1561-1568.
62. Edward Grindal, 1570-1576.
63. Edwin Sandys, 1577-1588.
64. John Piers, 1588-1594.
65. Matthew Hutton, 1595-
1606.
66. Tobias Matthew, 1606-1628.
67. George Monteign, 1628.
68. Samuel Harsnett, 1628-1631.
69. Richard Neile, 1632-1640.
70. John Williams, 1641-1650.
71. Accepted Frewen, 1660-
1664.
72. Richard Sterne, 1664-1683.
73- John Dolben, 1683-1686.
74'
Thomas
1691.
Lamplugh, 1688-
75- John Sharp, 1691-1714.
76. William Dawes, 1713-1724.
77. Lancelot Blackburne, 1724-
78. Thomas Herring, 1743-1747.
79. Matthew Hutton, 1747-
175
80. John Gilbert, 1757-1761.
81. Robert Hay Drummond,
1761-1776.
82. William Markham, 1777-
1807.
83. Edward Vernon Harcourt,
1808-1847.
84. Thomas Musgrave,
1860.
1847-
85. Charles Thomas Longley,
1860-1862.
86. William Thomson, 1863-
1891.
87. William Connor Magee, 1891.
88. William Dalrymple Mac-
lagan, 1891-1908.
89. Cosmo Gordon Lang, 1908-
Next to the cathedral, the most interesting building in York is
St Mary's Abbey, situated in Museum Gardens, founded for Bene-
dictines by Alan, lord of Richmond, in 1078, its head having the
rank of a mitred abbot with a seat in parliament. The principal
remains of the abbey (see ABBEY) are the N. wall and the ruins
of the church, in the Early English and Decorated styles, and the
principal gateway with a Norman arch. They lie near the cathedral,
outside the walls. The hospitium, of which the upper part is of
wood, contains a collection of Roman antiquities; the building
is of the 1 4th and isth centuries. A considerable portion of the
abbey was employed for the erection of the king's manor, a palace
for the lord president of the north, now occupied as a school for
the blind. In the gardens is also the ambulatory of St Leonard's
hospital, founded by King Aethelstan and rebuilt by Stephen.
St William's College, near the minster, was founded in 1453 as a
college for priests holding chantries in the minster; its restoration
as a church house and meeting-place for convocation was under-
taken in 1906. York also possesses a large number of churches
of special architectural interest, including All Saints, North Street,
Early English, Decorated and Perpendicular, with a spire 120 ft.
in height; Christ Church, with S. door in the Decorated style,
supposed to occupy the site of the old Roman palace; Holy Trinity,
in Goodramgate, Decorated and Perpendicular, with Perpendicular
tower; Holy Trinity, Micklegate, formerly a priory church, now
restored, showing Roman masonry in its walls; St Denis, Walm-
gate, with rich Norman doorway and Norman tower arches; St
Helen's, St Helen's Square, chiefly Decorated; St John's, North
Street, chiefly Perpendicular; St Margaret's, Walmgate, cele-
brated for its curiously sculptured Norman porch and doorway;
St Mary the Elder, Bjshophill, Early English and Decorated, with
brick tower, rebuilt in 1659; St Mary the Younger, Bishpphill,
with a square tower in the Saxon style, rebuilt probably in the
I3th century; St Mary, Castlegate, with Perpendicular tower and
spire 154 ft. in height, the body of the church dating back to tran-
sitional Norman times; St Michael-le-Belfry, founded in 1066, but
rebuilt in 1538 in Late Perpendicular style; St Martin's-le-Grand,
fine Perpendicular; and St Martin's cum Gregory, Early English
and Perpendicular. Among modern churches is the Roman Catholic
pro-cathedral, standing near the cathedral.
The guild-hall, with a fine old room in Perpendicular style erected
in 1446, contains a number of stained-glass windows. Adjoining
it are handsome municipal buildings (1891), and near it is the
mansion house, built in 1725 from designs by the earl of Burlington.
The courts of justice were opened in 1892. Assembly rooms, a
corn exchange, barracks and a theatre are the other chief buildings.
YORK
929
The public institutions include the Yorkshire Philosophical Society,
whose museum, In the Grecian style, was opened in 1830, and the
free library in the building of the York Institute of Science and
Art. The principal schools are St Peter's cathedral grammar-school
(originally endowed in 1557), Archbishop Holgate's grammar-school,
the York and diocesan grammar-school, and the bluecoat school for
boys (founded in 1705), with the associated greycoat school for girls.
There are numerous charities.
The chief industrial establishments are iron foundries, railway
and motor engineering works, breweries, flour-mills, tanneries and
manufactories of confectionery, artificial manure, &c. There is
water communication by the Ouse with the Humber, and by the
Foss Navigation to the N.E. This is under the control of the
corporation. The parliamentary borough returns 2 members.
The county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough
is under a lord mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. The city
within the municipal limits constitutes a separate division of the
county. The municipal city and the Ainsty (a district on the S.W.
included in the city bounds in 1449) are for parliamentary purposes
included in the N. Riding, for registration purposes in the E. Riding,
and lor all other purposes in the W. Riding. The parliamentary-
borough extends into the E. Riding. Area, 3730 acres.
History. York is known to have been occupied by the
Britons, and was chosen by the Romans as their most important
centre in north Britain and. named Ebordcum or Eburacum.
The fortress of Legio VI. Victrix was situated near the site
of the cathedral, and a municipality (colonia) grew up, near
' where the railway station now is, on the opposite side of the
Ouse. Many inscriptions and a great quantity of minor
objects have been found. The emperor Hadrian visited
York in A.D. 120, and, according to tradition, the body of the
emperor Severus who died there in A.D. 211 was burnt on
Severus Hill, near the city. After the death of Constantine
Chlorus, which also took place in York, his son Constantine
the Great, who, according to an ancient but incorrect tradition,
was born there, was also inaugurated emperor there. A bishop
of York is mentioned, along with, and with precedence of,
bishops of London and Lincoln (the last name is uncertain)
as present at the council of Aries in 314. Nothing is known
of the history of the city from the time the Romans withdrew
from Britain in 410 until 627, when King Edwin was baptized
there, and where shortly afterwards Paulinus, the first arch-
bishop, was consecrated. In the time of Archbishop Egbert
(732-766) and of Alcuin, at first a scholar and afterwards master
of the cloister school, York became one of the most celebrated
places of education in Europe. It was also one of the chief
Danish boroughs, and Earl Siward is said to have died there
in 1055. In 1066 it was taken by Harold Hardrada, and in
1068 the men of the north of England, rising under Edgar
Aetheling and Earl Waltheof, stormed the castles which
William I. had raised, putting to death the whole of the Normirt
garrison. The Conqueror in revenge burnt the town and laid
waste the country between the Humber and Tees. York was
frequently visited by the kings of England on the way to
Scotland, and several important parliaments were held there,
the first being that of 1175, when Malcolm, king of Scotland,
did homage to Henry II. In the reign of Richard I., the citizens
rose against the Jews, who fled to the castle. Here, however,
they were obliged to surrender, many killing themselves after
putting to death their wives and children, the rest being
massacred by the citizens. The council of the North was
established in York in 1537 after the suppression of the
Pilgrimage of Grace. In 1642 York was garrisoned by Royalists
and besieged by the parliament. It was relieved by Prince
Rupert, but surrendered after the battle of Mars ton Moor.
Being under the rule of the earls of Northumbria, York is not
mentioned in the Domesday Survey. In the first charter
(which is undated) Henry II. granted the citizens a merchant
gild and all the free customs which they had in the time of
Henry I. Richard I. in 1194 granted exemption from toll,
&c., throughout the kingdom, and King John in 1200 con-
firmed the preceding charters, and in 1212 granted the city
to the citizens at a fee-farm of 160 a year. These charters
were confirmed by most of the early kings. Richard II. con-
ferred the title of lord mayor, and a second charter, given in
1392, shows that the government then consisted of a lord
XXVIH. 30
mayor and aldermen, while a third in 1396 made the city a
county of itself and gave the burgesses power to elect two
sheriffs. Edward IV. in 1464 incorporated the town under
the title of " Lord Mayor and Aldermen," and in 1473 directed
that all the citizens should choose the mayor from among
the aldermen. As this led to constant disputes, Henry VII.
arranged that a common council, consisting of two men from
each of the more important gilds and one from each of the
less important ones, should elect the mayor. The city is now
governed under a charter of Charles II., confirming that of
1464, the governing body consisting of a lord mayor, 12
aldermen and 36 councillors. The city has returned two
members to parliament since 1295. During the I4th century
there were constant quarrels between the citizens and the
abbey of St Mary's about the suburb of Boot ham, which the
citizens claimed as within the jurisdiction of the city, and
the abbey as a separate borough. In 1353 the king took the
borough of York into his own hands, " to avoid any risk of
disturbance and possible great bloodshed such as has arisen
before these times," and finally in the same year an agreement
was brought about by Archbishop Thoresby that the whole of
Bootham should be considered a suburb of York except the
street called St Marygate, which should be in the jurisdiction
of the abbey.
From the time of the conquest York was important as a
trading and commercial centre. There were numerous trade
gilds, one of the chief being that of the weavers, which received
a charter from Henry II. During the iyth and i8th centuries
the trade declined, partly owing to the distance of the city from
the sea, and partly owing to the regulations of the trade gilds.
See Francis Drake, Eboracum: or the History and Antiquities
of the City of York, from its original to the present time (1736);
Extracts from the Municipal Records of the City of York during the
Reigns of Edward IV., Edward V. and Richard III. (1843); Victoria
County History, Yorkshire; J. Raine, York (1803); A. P. Purey-
Cust, York Minster (1897), Heraldry of York Minster (Leeds,
1890); B. S. Rowntree, Poverty: a Study of Town Life (1901).
YORK, a township of York county, Maine, U.S.A., on
the Atlantic coast about 45 m. S.W. of Portland, and 9 m. by
rail N.E. of Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Pop. (1910) 2802.
Area, 64 sq. m. York is at the terminus of the York Harbor
and Beach division of the Boston & Maine railway. In York
village is the county gaol (1653-54), preserved by the Old York
Historical and Improvement Society as a museum of local
antiquities. Two colonial taverns also remain. York Harbor,
York Beach, York Cliffs and Long Beach are attractive summer
villages. The first settlement was made about 1624. In April
1641 Sir Ferdinando Gorges, proprietor of the province of Maine,
erected this into the Borough of Agamenticus, and on the ist of
March 1642 he chartered it as a city under the name of Gorgeana.
In 1652, when Massachusetts extended her jurisdiction over
Maine, the city of Gorgeana became the town of York. In 1692
most of the houses were burned by the Indians and the inhabitants
killed or taken captive. York was the shire town of Yorkshire
from 1716 to 1735, tne shire town with Portland (then Falmouth)
of the district of Maine from 1735 to 1760, and a county-seat of
York county from 1760 to 1832. During the middle of the i8th
century York had considerable trade with the West Indies and
along the coast, and as late as the middle of the I9th century it
had important fishing interests. Its development as a summer
resort was begun about 1873, but until 1887, when the railway
reached it, its chief means of access was by stage from Ports-
mouth.
See J. P. Baxter, Agamenticus, Bristol, Gorgeana, York (Portland,
1904); G. A. Emery, Ancient City of Gorgeana and Modern Town
of York (Boston, 1873); and Pauline C. Bouvc, "Old York, a
Forgotten Seaport," in the New England Magazine (July 1902).
YORK, a city and the county- seat of York county, Nebraska,
U.S.A. , about 46 m.W. by N. of Lincoln. Pop. (1000) 51321(1910)
6235. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and
Chicago & North- Western railways. It is the seat of the School
of the Holy Family and of York College (founded in 1890,
930
YORK YORKSHIRE
co-educational). The city is situated in a farming and stock-
raising region, and among its manufactures are foundry products,
bricks and flour. York was settled in 1864, was laid out in 1869,
was incorporated as a town in 1875 and was chartered as a city
in 1877.
YORK, a city and the county seat of York county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., about 100 m. W. of Philadelphia and about 28 m. S.E.
of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 33,708 1304 being foreign-born and
776 negroes; (1910) 44,750. York is served by the Maryland &
Pennsylvania, the Northern Central (Pennsylvania) and the
Western Maryland railways. Among the public buildings are the
County Court House (1899) and a large Federal Building (1910).
York is the seat of the York Collegiate Institute (1873), founded
by Samuel Small (d. 1885) and of the York County Academy
(1785). The Historical Society of York (1895) has a valuable
collection of documents relating to local history. York is the
commercial centre for a rich agricultural region, and has manu-
factures of foundry and machine-shop products, silk goods, &c.
The total factory product in 1905 was valued at $14,258,696.
York, the first permanent settlement in the state W. of the
Susquehanna, was laid out in 1741 in what was then the Manor
of Springettsbury (named in honour of Springett Penn, a grand-
son of William Penn) by Thomas Cookson, a surveyor for Richard
and Thomas Penn, then the proprietors of the colony, and was
named after York, England. The first settlers were chiefly
Germans from the Rhenish Palatinate, who were Lutherans,
Reformed, Mennonites and Moravians. English Quakers and
Scotch-Irish settled here also. The settlement lay on the
Monocacy road, the main line of travel to the S. and S.W., and
it grew rapidly, especially between 1748 and 1751. In 1749 the
county of York was erected (from Lancaster county) and York
was made the county-seat. In 1754 York had 210 houses and
1000 inhabitants. Troops from York took part in the Seven
Years' War and the War of American Independence. In the old
county court-house (built in 1754-56, pulled down in 1841) the
Continental Congress sat from the 3oth of September 1777 to the
27th of June 1778, having left Philadelphia on the approach
of the British, and having held a day's session at Lancaster.
At York the Congress passed the Articles of Confederation (15 th
of November 1777) and received news of the American victory
at Saratoga and of the signing of treaties between the United
States and France. The Conway cabal came to an end here,
and the arrival here of Baron Steuben and of Lafayette in 1777
helped the American cause. In September 1778, $1,500,000 in
silver lent by France to the United States was brought to York ;
and Benjamin Franklin's press, removed from Philadelphia,
issued $10,000,000 of Continental money. Thomas Paine here
wrote part of his Fifth Crisis. Philip Livingston, a signer of
the Declaration of Independence, is buried here. In the Civil
War, Confederate troops under General John B. Gordon entered
York on the 28th of June 1863, and a small Federal force retreated
before them; and the battle of Gettysburg was fought about
28 m. E. York was incorporated as a borough in 1787 and was
chartered as a city in 1887.
See G. R. Prowell, The City of York, Past and Present (York,
1904), and C. A. Hawkins and H. E. Landis, York and York County
(ibid. 1901).
YORKE, CHARLES (1722-1770), English lord chancellor,
second son of Philip Yorke, ist earl of Hardwicke, was born in
London on the 3oth of December 1722, and was educated at
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. His literary abilities were
shown at an early age by his collaboration with his brother
Philip in the Athenian Letters. In 1745 he published an able
treatise on the law of forfeiture for high treason, in defence of
his father's treatment of the Scottish Jacobite peers; and in
the following year he was called to the bar. His father being
at this time lord chancellor, Yorke obtained a sinecure appoint-
ment in the Court of Chancery in 1747, and entered parliament
as member for Reigate, a seat which he afterwards exchanged
for that for the university of Cambridge. He quickly made
his mark in the House of Commons, one of his earliest speeches
being in favour of his father's reform of the marriage law. In
1751 he became counsel to the East India Company, and in
1756 he was appointed solicitor-general, a place which he re-
tained in the administration of the elder Pitt, of whose foreign
policy he was a powerful defender. He resigned with Pitt in
1761, but in 1762 became attorney-general under Lord Bute.
He continued to hold this office when George Grenville became
prime minister (April 1763), and advised the government on
the question raised by Wilkes's North Briton. Yorke refused to
describe the libel as treasonable, while pronouncing it a high
misdemeanour. In the following November he resigned office.
Resisting Pitt's attempt to draw him into alliance against the
ministry he had quitted, Yorke maintained, in a speech that
extorted the highest eulogy from Walpole, that parliamentary
privilege did not extend to cases of libel; though he agreed
with Pitt in condemning the principle of general warrants.
Yorke, henceforward a member of the Rockingham party,
was elected recorder of Dover in 1764, and in 1765 he again
became attorney-general in the Rockingham administration,
whose policy he did much to shape. He supported the repeal
of the Stamp Act, while urging the simultaneous passing of
the Declaratory Act. His most important measure was the
constitution which he drew up for the province of Quebec, and
which after his resignation of office became the Quebec Act of
1774. On the accession to power of Chatham and Graf ton in
1767, Yorke resigned office, and took little part in the debates
in parliament during the next four years. In 1770 he was
invited by the duke of Graf ton, whep Camden was dismissed
from the chancellorship, to take his seat on the woolsack. He
had, however, explicitly pledged himself to Rockingham and
his party not to take office with Grafton. The king exerted
all his personal influence to overcome Yorke's scruples, warning
him finally that the great seal if now refused would never again
be within his grasp. Yorke yielded to the king's entreaty,
went to his brother's house, where he met the leaders of the
Opposition, and feeling at once overwhelmed with shame, fled
to his own house, where in three days he was a dead man
(January 20, 1770). The patent raising him to the peerage as
Baron Morden had been made out, but his last act was to
refuse bis sanction to the sealing of the document.
Charles Yorke was twice married. His son by his first marriage
became earl of Hardwicke; his eldest son by his second
marriage, Charles Philip Yorke (1764-1834), member of parlia-
ment for Cambridgeshire and afterwards for Liskeard, was
secretary of state for war in Addington's ministry in 1801, and
was a strong opponent of concession to the Roman Catholics.
He made himself exceedingly unpopular in 1810 by bringing
afjout the exclusion of strangers, including reporters for the
press, from the House of Commons under the standing order,
which led to the imprisonment of Sir Francis Burdett in the
Tower and to riots in London. In the same year Yorke
joined Spencer Perceval's government as first lord of the
admiralty; he retired from public life in 1818, and died in
1834. Charles Yorke's second son by his second marriage was
Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768-1831), an admiral in the navy,
whose son succeeded to the earldom of Hardwicke.
See under HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE, 1st Earl of.
YORKSHIRE, a north-eastern county of England, bounded
N. by Durham, E. by the North Sea, S.E. by the Humber
estuary (separating it from Lincolnshire), S. by Nottingham-
shire and Derbyshire, S.W. for a short distance by Cheshire,
W. by Lancashire and N.W. by Westmorland. It is the
largest county in England, having an area of 6066- 1 sq. m.,
and being more than double the size of Lincolnshire, which
ranks next to it. In a description of the county it is con-
stantly necessary to refer to its three great divisions, the North
Riding, East Riding and West Riding (see RIDING, and map of
ENGLAND, Sections I., II.).
The centre of the county is a plain, which in the S., about the
head of the Humber, resembles the Fens in character. The hills
W. of the central plain, covering nearly the whole of the W. Riding
and the N.W. of the N. Riding, are part of the great Pennine
Chain (?..). These hills consist of high-lying moorland, and are
YORKSHIRE
not generally remarkable for great beauty of outline. The higher
parts are bleak and wild, and the slope towards the central plain
is gradual. The chief beauty of the district is to be found
in the numerous deeply scored valleys or dales, such as Teesdale,
Swaledale, Wensleydale (g.r.), Nidderdale, Wharfedale and Aire-
dale, in which the course of the streams is often broken by water-
falls, such as High Force in Teesdale and Aysgarth Force in Wensley-
dale.
The hills E. of the central plain cannot be similarly considered
as a unit. In the N., wholly within the N. Riding, a line of heights
known as the Cleveland Hills, forming a spur of the N. Yorkshire
Moors, ranges from 1000 to nearly 1500 ft., and overlooks rather
abruptly the lowest part ol the Tees valley. The line of greatest
elevation approaches the central plain, and swings sharply S. in
the Hambleton Hills to overlook it, while to the S. of the line
long deep dales carry tributary streams S. to the river Derwent,
thus draining to the Ouse. Eastward the N. Yorkshire moors
give immediately upon the coast. Their higher parts consist
of open moorland. The remarkable upper valley of the Derwent
(q.v.) marks off the N. Yorkshire moors from the Yorkshire wolds
of the E. Riding, the river forming the boundary between the N.
and E. Ridings. The wolds superficially resemble the moors,
inasmuch as they abut directly on the coast E., run thence W.,
and swing S. to overlook the central plain. At the S. extremity
they sink to the shore of the Humber. Their greatest elevation is
found near the W. angle (Howardian Hills), but hardly reaches
800 ft. Eastward they encircle a low-lying fertile tract bounded
S. by the Humber and E. by the North Sea. The name of
Holderness is broadly applied to this low tract, though the
wapentake of that name includes properly only the E. of it.
The diverse character of the coast may be inferred from the
foregoing description. In the north, S. of Teesmouth, it is low for
a short distance; then the E. abutments of the Cleveland Hills
form fine cliffs, reaching at Boulby the highest elevation of sea-
cliffs in England (666 ft.). Picturesque valleys bearing short
streams break the line, notably that of the Esk, reaching the sea at
Whitby. The trend of the coast is at first S.E. and then S. South
of Scarborough it sinks with the near approach of the Derwent
valley, begins to rise again round the shallow sweep of Filey Bay,
and then springs seaward in the fine promontory of Flamborough
Head (see BRIDLINGTON). South of this, after the sharp incurve of
Bridlington Bay, the low coast-line of Holderness succeeds, long and
unbroken, as far as Spurn Point, which encloses the mouth of the
Humber. Encroachments of the sea are frequent, but much land
has been reclaimed.
There are several watering-places on the coast in high favour
with visitors from the manufacturing districts. The principal, from
N. to S. are Redcar, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Whitby, Robin Hood's
Ba'y, Scarborough (the largest of all), Filey, Bridlington and Horn-
sea. There are numerous mineral springs in Yorkshire, the principal
being those at Harrogate. There is also a spa at Scarborough, and
others are Askern near Doncaster, Boston Spa near Harrogate,
Croft on the Tees near Darlington, Hovingham, near Malton,
Guisbrough in Cleveland and Slaithwaite near Huddersfield. The
springs are chiefly sulphurous and chalybeate.
By far the greater part of Yorkshire is within the drainage basin
of the Ouse, which with the Trent makes the estuary of the Humber
(q.v.). It is formed in the central plain by the junction of the Ure
and Swale, both rising in the Pennine hills; but whereas the Swale
drains the N. of the plain, the Ure, traversing Wensleydale, is
enclosed by the hills over the greater part of its course. The Ouse
also receives from the Pennine district the Nidd, traversing Nidder-
dale, the Wharfe, the Aire, with its tributary the Calder, and the
Don. The Aire rises in the fine gorge of Malham Cove, from the
subterranean waterways in the limestone. None of these tribu-
taries is naturally navigable, but the Aire, Calder and Don are in
part canalized. From the E. the principal tributary is the Derwent,
which on entering the central plain follows a course roughly parallel
to that of the Ouse, and joins it in its lower part, between Selby and
Howden. The Foss joins the Ouse at York. In the W. the county
contains the headwaters of several streams of the W. slope of the
Pennines, draining to the Irish Sea; of these the principal is the
Ribble. In the N. the Tees forms most of the boundary with the
county of Durham, but receives no large tributary from Yorkshire.
In the S. of the W. Riding a few streams drain to the Trent. In
Holderness, debarred by the wolds from the general drainage
system of the county, the chief stream is the Hull. The only
sheets of water of any size are Semmer Water, in a branch of Wensley-
dale ; Malham Tarn, near the head of Airedale, the effluent of which
quickly disappears into an underground channel; and Hornsea
Mere, near the flat seacoast at Hornsea.
Geology. The great variety in the scenery of Yorkshire is but a
reflection of the marked differences in the geological substructure.
The stratification is for the most part regular, but owing to a great
line of dislocation nearly coincident witn the W. boundary of the
county the rocks dip towards the E., while the strike of the strata
is from N. to S. The bold and picturesque scenery of the western
hills and dales is due to the effects of denudation among the harder
rocks, which here come to the surface. The strata in the Pennines
consist of (i) older Palaeozoic rocks, viz. a faulted inlier of Silurian
and Ordovician at Horton in Ribblesdale, and a small patch of
Silurian at Sedbergh with inliers of Coniston limestone; (2) the
Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone, which has been subjected to
great dislocations, the more important of which are known as the
N. and S. Craven faults; (3) the Voredale series, consisting of shales,
flagstones, limestones and thin seams of coal; and (4) the Millstone
Grit, forming part of the hilly moorlands, and capping many of the
loftier eminences. In the W. Riding the Pennine range forms part
of the elevated country of Craven and Dent. The scenery in the
W. of the N. Riding is somewhat similar to that in Craven, except
that the lower hills are of sharper outline owing to the perpendicular
limestone scars. To the intermingling of the limestone with the
softer rocks are due the numerous "forces" or waterfalls, which
are one of the special features of the scenery of this district. The
action of water on the limestone rocks assisted by joints and faults
has given rise to extensive caverns, of which the best examples are
those of Clapham and Ingle-ton in the W. Riding, as well as to
subterranean watercourses. At Brimham, Plumpton and elsewhere
there are fantastic masses of rocks due to irregular weathering of
the Millstone Grit. The Pennine region is bounded on the S.E.
by the Coal Measures, forming the N. of the Derbyshire, Nottingham
and Yorkshire coal-field, which in Yorkshire extends from Sheffield
N. to Leeds. The noted fireclays of the Leeds district are obtained
from this formation. To the E. the Coal Measures dip beneath the
unconformable Permian beds, with magnesian limestone and marl
slate, of which a narrow band crops up from Masham southwards.
The Permian strata are overlain to the E. by the Trias or New
Red Sandstone, scarcely ever exposed, but having been partly worn
away is covered with Glacial deposits of clay and gravel, forming
the low-lying Vale of York, extending from the Tees S. to Tadcaster
and E. beyond York to Market Weighton. Near Middlesbrough
red rock with gypsum and rock-salt (100 ft.) have been proved.
Farther E. the Triassic beds are overlain by Lias and Oolite;
Rhaetic beds have been recorded from near Northallerton. The
Lias crops to the surface in a curve extending from Redcar to the
Humber. In the Middle Lias there is a seam of valuable iron ore,
the source of the prosperity of the Cleveland region. The moorlands
extending from Scarborough and Whitby are formed of Liassic
strata, topped with the estuarine beds of Lower Oolite, rising
gradually to the N.E. and attaining at Burton Head a height of
1489 ft., the greatest elevation of the Oolite formation in England.
In the Oolitic " Dogger " series the magnetic iron ore of Rosedale is
worked. Corallian rocks form the scarp of the Hambleton hills
and extend E. on the N. of the Vale of Pickering through Hackness
to the coast, and S.W. of the vale to the neighbourhood of Malton.
The Vale of Pickering is underlaid by faulted Kimeridge Clay.
Lias and Oolites fringe the E. of the Vale of York to Ferriby on the
Humber. In the S.E. of the county, Cretaceous rocks cover up the
older strata, N. to the Vale of Pickering and W. to the Vale of York.
The Chalk forms the Yorkshire wolds and the country S. through
Driffield, Beverley and Holderness.
The Yorkshire coast between Redcar and Flamborough presents
a continuous series of magnificent exposures of the strata from the
Lower Lias to the Chalk. The Upper Lias fossils and jet of Whitby
and alum shale of Saltwick are well known. At Scarborough the
Corallian, Oxford Clay, Kellaways Rock, Cornbrash and Upper
Estuarine beds are well exposed in the cliffs. In Filey Bay the
Kimeridge Clay appears on the coast, but it is covered farther S.
by the historic beds of Speeton, representing the marine equivalents
of Portland, Purbeck, Wealden, and Lower Greensand of S. England.
Over the Speeton beds lies the Red Chalk, the Yorkshire equivalent
of the Upper Greensand and Gault. The evidences of glacial action
are of unusual interest and variety; the great thickness of boulder
clay on the coast is familiar to all, but inland also great deposits of
glacial clay, sand and gravel obscure the older geology. The Vale of
Pickering and many of the smaller northern valleys were at one
period the sites of Glacial lakes, and the " warp " which covers much
of the Vale of York is a fluvio-glacial deposit. The Cleveland Dike
is an intrusive igneous dike of augite-andesite of Tertiary age which
can be traced across the country in a N.W. direction from the
neighbourhood of Fylingdales Moor.
Minerals. The coal-field in the W. Riding is one of the chief
sources of mineral wealth in Yorkshire, the most valuable seams
being the Silkstone, which is bituminous and of the highest reputa-
tion as a house coal, and the Barnsley Thick Coal, the great seam of
the Yorkshire coal-field, which is of special value, on account of its
semi-anthracitic quality, for use in iron-smelting and in engine
furnaces. Associated with the Upper Coal Measures there is a
valuable iron ore, occurring in the form of nodules. Large quantities
of fireclay are also raised, as well as of gannister _and oil-shale.
Middlesbrough is the most important centre of pig-iron manu-
facture in the kingdom. Lead ore is obtained in the Yoredale beds
of the Pennine range in Wharfedale, Airedale, Nidderdale, Swale-
dale, Arkendale and Wensleydale. Slates and flagstones are
quarried in the Yoredale rocks. In the Millstone Grit there are
several beds of good building stone, but that most largely quarried is
the magnesian limestone of the Permian series, which, however, is
of somewhat variable quality.
932
YORKSHIRE
Agriculture. Nearly nine-tenths of the E. Riding is under
cultivation, but of the N. and W. Ridings only from three-
fifths to seven-tenths proportions explained by the different
physical conditions. The till or boulder clay of Holderness
is the richest soil in Yorkshire, and the chalk wolds, by careful
cultivation, form one of the best soils for grain crops. The
central plain bears all kinds of crops excellently. Wheat is
grown in the E. and W. Ridings, but oats are the principal
grain crop in these ridings, and barley exceeds wheat in all
three. The bulk of the acreage under green crops is devoted
to turnips and swedes. A little flax is grown, and liquorice
is cultivated near Pontefract. The proportion of hill pasture
is greatest in the N. Riding and least in the E., and the
N. and W. Ridings are among the principal sheep-farming
districts in England. Cattle, for the rearing of which the
W. Riding is most noted, do not receive great attention. The
Teeswater breed, however, is increasing in Yorkshire, and in
Holderness there is a short-horned breed, chiefly valuable for
its milking qualities. Cheese-making is largely carried on in
some districts. Of sheep perhaps the most common breeds are
the Leicester, Lincoln and South Down, and crosses between
the Cheviot and the Leicester. Large numbers of pigs are
kept at the dairy farms and fed mainly on whey. The small
breed is that chiefly in favour. Yorkshire bacon is famous.
Draught horses are generally of a somewhat mixed breed, but
the county is famed for its hunters and carriage and saddle
horses. The breed of Cleveland bays is much used for carriages.
Manufactures. The industrial district of south Yorkshire
occupies the S. of the W. Riding, and may be taken as marked
off approximately by the watershed from the similar district
in S. Lancashire. The W. Riding is now the chief seat of the
woollen manufacture of the United Kingdom, and has almost
a monopoly in the production of worsted cloths. The early
development of the industry was in part due to the abundance
of water-power, while later the presence of coal helped to
maintain it on the introduction of steam-power. In this in-
dustry nearly all the most important towns are engaged, while
the names of several of the largest are connected with various
specialities. Thus, while almost every variety of woollen and
worsted cloth is produced at Leeds, Bradford is especially
concerned with yarns and mixed worsted goods, Dewsbury and
Batley with shoddy, Huddersfield with fancy goods and Halifax
with carpets. The cotton industry of Lancashire has also
penetrated to the neighbourhood of Halifax. Among the
characteristics of the industrial population, the love of music
should be mentioned. Choral societies are numerous, and the
work of some of those in the larger towns, such as Sheffield,
Leeds and Bradford, has attracted wide notice. Next to the
woollen industry comes the manufacture of iron and steel
machinery and implements of every variety, which is common
to most of the larger centres in the district. Sheffield is especi-
ally famous for iron-work, fine metal-work and cutlery. The
development of the iron ore deposits of Cleveland dates only
from the middle of the ipth century. About two and a half
million tons of pig-iron are produced in this district annually,
and there are considerable attendant industries, such as the
production of steel, and shipbuilding. The chemical manu-
facture is important both here and in the W. Riding, where
also a great variety of minor industries have sprung up. Such
are leather working (at Leeds), the manufacture of clothing,
printing and bleaching, and paper-making. Besides coal and
iron ore, great quantities of clay, limestone and sandstone are
raised. Excellent building-stone is obtained at several places
in the W. Riding. The sea-fisheries are of some importance,
chiefly at Hull, Scarborough, Whitby and Filey.
Communications. N. and E. of Leeds communications are
provided almost wholly by the North-Eastern railway, the main
line of which runs from Leeds and from Doncaster N. by York,
Thirsk and Nprthallerton. The main junction with the Great
Northern line is effected immediately N. of Doncaster, at which
town are the Great Northern works. This company serves the chief
centres of the W. Riding, as do also the Midland, Great Central,
London & North-Western, Lancashire & Yorkshire, and North-
Eastern companies, the trains working over a close network of
lines, while the system of running-powers held by one or more
companies over the lines of another assists intercommunication.
The Midland main line to Carlisle runs by Leeds, Skipton and
Settle through the hilly country of the W. The Hull & Barnsley
line runs from Hull to Barnsley. A complete system of canals
links the centres of the southern W. Riding with the sea both E.
and W., the Aire & Calder Navigation communicating with the
Ouse at Goole; the Huddersfield canal runs S.W. into Lancashire,
crossing the watershed by the long Stanedge tunnel, and other
canals are the Leeds & Liverpool, Calder & Nebble Navigation,
and the Sheffield & South Yorkshire Navigation, which gives
access from Sheffield to the Trent. The Aire & Calder Naviga-
tion, the most important of these canals, which has branches from
Castleford to Leeds and Wakefield, and other branches to Barnsley,
Bradford and Selby, has a total length of 85 m., and has been much
improved since its construction. It was projected by John Rennie
and opened in 1826, with a depth of 7 ft. and locks measuring 72
by 1 8 ft. Its depth now varies from 8 ft. 6 in. to 10 ft., and over
a distance of 28 m., between Goole and the collieries, the locks
have been enlarged to 460 by 25 ft., and the width of the canal to
90 ft. The chief ports are Middlesbrough on the Tees, Hull on
the Humber, and Goole on the Ouse.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 3,882,328 acres. Its population in 1891 was 3,208,521,
and in i9Oi,*3, 584,762. The population increased over fivefold
between 1801 and 1901; the increase in the W. Riding ex-
ceeding sevenfold. The manner in which the population is
distributed may be inferred from the following statement of
the parliamentary divisions, parliamentary, county and muni-
cipal boroughs, and urban districts in the three ridings. It
should be premised that each of the three ridings is a dis-
tinct administrative county; though there is one high sheriff
for the whole county. The city of York (pop. 77,914) is situated
partly in each of the three ridings.
The West Riding has an area of 1,771,562 acres, with a popula-
tion in 1891 of 2,445,033, and in 1901 of 2,750,493. Of this area
the S. industrial district, considered in the broadest application
of the term as extending between Sheffield and Skipton, Sheffield
and Doncaster, and Leeds and the county boundary, covers rather
less than one-half. The area thus defined includes the parliamen-
tary divisions of Barnsley, Colne Valley, Elland, Hallamshire,
Holmfirth, Keighley, Morley, Normanton, Pudsey, Rotherham,
Shipley, Sowerby, Spen Valley. It also includes parts of the
divisions of Barkston Ash, Doncaster, Osgoldcross, Otley and
Skipton (a small part). The remaining parts of these last divisions,
with that of Ripon, cover the rest of the riding. Each division
returns one member. The following are parliamentary boroughs:
Bradford, returning 3 members, Dewsbury I, Halifax I, Hudders-
field I, Leeds 5, Pontefract I, Sheffield 5, Wakefield I. All these
are within the industrial district. Within this district are the
following municipal boroughs (pops, in 1901): Barnsley (41,086),
Batley (30,321), Bradford, city and county borough (279,767),
Brighouse (21,735), Dewsbury (28,060), Doncaster (28,932), Halifax,
county borough (104,936), Huddersfield, county borough (95,047),
Keighley (41,564), Leeds, city and county borough (428,968),
Morley (23,636), Ossett (12,903), Pontefract (13,427), Pudsey
(14,907), Rotherham (54,349), Sheffield, city and county borough
(409,070), Todmorden (partly in Lancashire, 25,418), Wakefield,
city (41,413). The only municipal boroughs elsewhere in the
riding are Harrogate (28,423) and Ripon (cathedral city, 8230).
Within the industrial region there are 113 other urban districts,
those with populations exceeding 10,000 being Bingley (18,449),
Castleford (17,386), Cleckheaton (12,524), Elland (10,412), Feather-
stone (12,093), Handsworth (13,404), Hoyland Nether (12,464),
Liversedge (13,980), Mexborough (10,430), Mirfield (11,341), Nor-
manton (12,352), Rawmarsh (14,587), Rothwell (11,702), Saddle-
worth (12,320), Shipley (25,573), Skipton (11,986), Sowerby Bridge
(pi,477), Stanley (12,290), Swinton (12,127), Thornhill (10,290),
Wombwell (13,252), Worsborough (10,336). The only urban dis-
tricts in the West Riding not falling within the industrial region
are Goole (16,576), Ilkley (7455), Knaresborough (4979) and Selby
(7786).
The North Riding has an area of 1,362,378 acres, with a popu-
lation in 1891 of 359,547 and in 1901 of 377,338. It comprises
the parliamentary divisions of Richmond, Cleveland, Whitby, and
Thirsk and Malton, each returning one member; and the parlia-
mentary boroughs of Middlesbrough (one member), Scarborough
(one member), and parts of Stockton-on-Tees and York. The
municipal boroughs are Middlesbrough, county borough (91,302),
Richmond (3837), Scarborough (38,161) and Thornaby-on-Tees
(16,054). The urban districts are Eston (11,199), Guisborough
(5 6 45). Hinderwell (1937), Kirklington-cum-Upsland (255), Loftus
(6508), Malton (4758), Masham (1955), Northallerton (4009),
Ormesby (9482), Pickering (3491), Redcar (7695), Saltburn-by-the-
Sea (2578), Scalby (1350), Skelton and Brotton (13,240), South
YORKSHIRE
933
Longitude West i of Greenwich
Bank in Normanby (9645), Whitby (n,755). O( these, all ex- I
cept Kirklington, Malton, Masham, Northallerton, Pickering and '
Whitby are in the populous Cleveland district. Besides Pickering,
there lie at the S. of the Cleveland hills the small towns of Kirkby
Moorside (1550) and Helmsley (1363). South of the last-named
is the village of Ampleforth, with its large Roman Catholic college,
founded in 1802, and accommodating, in fine modern buildings,
about 1 20 students.
The Blast Riding has an area of 750,039 acres, with a population
in 1891 of 341,560 and in looi of 385,007. It comprises the
parliamentary divisions of Buckrose, Howdenshire and Holderness,
each returning one member; and contains the parliamentary
borough of Hull, returning three members, and part of that of
York. The municipal boroughs are Beverley (13,183), Bridlington
(12,482), Hedon (1010), and Hull, or Kingston-upon-Hull, a city
and county of a city and county borough (240,259). The urban
districts are Cottingham, near Hull (3751), Filey (3003), Driffield
(5766), Hessle, near Hull (3754), Hornsea (2381), Norton, near
Malton (3842), Pocklington (2463) and Withernsea (1426).
The West Riding comprises 9 wapentakes and the liberty of
Ripon. It has one court of quarter sessions and is divided into
tlr.-ryW.ULCT ft.
26 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bradford, Doncaster,
Leeds, Pontefract, Rotherham and Sheffield, and the liberty of
Ripon, have separate courts of quarter sessions and commissions
of the peace; and Barnsley, Batley, Brighouse, Dewsbury, Hali-
fax, Harrogate, Huddersfield, Keighley, Morley, Ossett and Wake-
field have commissions of the peace. The liberty and borough of
Ripon are rated separately from the West Riding for the purposes
of the county rate.
The North Riding comprises n wapentakes, and the liberties
of E. and W. Langbaurgh and of Whitby Strand. It has one
court of quarter sessions and is divided into 19 petty sessional
divisions. The boroughs of Richmond and Scarborough have
separate courts of quarter sessions and commissions of the peace,
and the borough of Middlesbrough has a commission of the peace.
The East Riding comprises 6 wapentakes and has one court of
quarter sessions, and is divided into 12 petty sessional divisions,
while Hull has a separate court of quarter sessions and commis-
sion of the peace, and Beverley has a separate commission of the
peace. The city of York has a separate court of quarter sessions
and commission of the peace. Yorkshire is in the N.E. circuit.
The total number of civil parishes is 1586. The county contains
934
YORKSHIRE
1178 ecclesiastical parishes and districts wholly or in part. It
is divided between the dioceses of York, Ripon and Wakefield,
with small parts in those of Manchester, Southwell, Durham and
Lincoln. York is the seat of the northern archdiocese.
History. The kingdom of Deira (<?..), which was afterwards
to include the whole of the modern Yorkshire, is first known to
us in the 6th century, an Anglian tribe having seized the pro-
montory at the mouth of the Humber, named ~by the invaders
Holderness, followed by the gradual subjugation of the whole
district now known as the East Riding. The wolds between
Weighton and Flamborough Head were then mere sheep-walks,
and the earliest settlements were chiefly confined to the rich
valley of the lower Derwent, but the district around Weighton
became the Deiran sacred ground, and Goodmanham is said to
mark the site of a temple. The area computed in the modern
West Riding constituted the British kingdom of Elmet, and
at this date presented a desolate and unbroken tract of moor-
land in the N.; in the central parts about [Leeds stretched a
forest region where the last wolf seen in Yorkshire is said to
have been slain by John of Gaunt; while in the S. the forest
and fen of Hatfield Chase presented a barrier to invasion
broken only by the line of Watling Street, which crossed the
Don at Doncaster, the Aire at Castleford and the Wharfe at
Tadcaster. The N. continuation of the road from York through
Catterick to the Tees opened the way to the fertile plain in
the heart of the modern North Riding, the S.E. of which offered
an unbroken forest area, later known as the forest of Galtres,
which in the middle ages stretched from York N. to Easing-
wold and Craike and E. to Castle Howard, and as late as the
1 6th century lay a waste and unfrequented region abounding
only in deer. Ella, the first king of Deira, extended his ter-
ritory N. to the Wear, and his son Edwin completed the conquest
of the district which was to become Yorkshire by the subjuga-
tion of Elmet, prompted thereto by vengeance on its king,
Cerdic, for the murder of his uncle Hereric. Traces of the
" burhs " by which Edwin secured his conquests are perhaps
visible in the group of earthworks at Barwick and on the site
of Cambodunum, but the district long remained scantily popu-
lated, and as late as the lyth century deer were said to be as
plentiful in Hatfield Chase as " sheep upon a hill," for Prince
Henry in 1609 was asserted to have killed 500 in one day's
hunting. The defeat of Edwin at Hatfield in 633 was followed
by a succession of struggles between Mercia and Northumbria
for the supremacy over Deira, during which the boundaries
underwent constant changes. After the Danish conquest of
Deira, Guthrum in 875 portioned the district among his fol-
lowers, under whose lordship the English population were for the
most part allowed to retain their lands. Cleveland came under
Scandinavian influence, and the division into tithings probably
originated about this date, the boundaries being arranged to
meet at York, which, as the administrative and commercial
centre of the district, rapidly increased in importance, and it has
been estimated that in A.D. 1000 it had a population of over
30,000. At the battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 Harold
Hardrada, who had seized York, and Earl Tosti were both
defeated and slain by Harold of England. The merciless
harrying with which the Conqueror punished resistance to his
claims is proved by the reiterated entries of waste land in the
Domesday Survey, and for many years all the towns between
York and Durham lay uninhabited. In 1138 the forces of David
of Scotland were defeated near Northallerton in the Battle of the
Standard. In the barons' wars of the reign of Henry II. Thirsk
and Malgeard Castles, which had been garrisoned against the
king by Roger dc Mowbray, were captured and demolished. In
the harrying of the northern counties by the forces of Robert
Bruce in 1318, Northallerton, Boroughbridge, Scarborough and
Skipton were reduced to ashes. In 1322, at the battle of
Boroughbridge, the rebel barons were defeated by the forces of
Edward II. In 1399 Richard II. was murdered in Pontefract
Castle. In 1405 Archbishop Scrope and Thomas Mowbray
joined in the insurrection against Henry IV., and led the citizens
of York to Skipton Moor, where, after a defeat by the earl of
Westmorland, the leaders were beheaded under the walls of
York. In 1408 the rebel forces of the earl of Northumberland
were defeated by Sir Thomas Rokesby, high sheriff of Yorkshire,
at Bramham Moor near Tadcaster. In 1453 a skirmish between
the Percies and the Nevilles at Stamford Bridge was the opening
event in the struggle between the houses of York and Lancaster;
in 1460 the duke of York was defeated and slain at Wake-
field; in 1461 the Lancastrians were defeated at Towton. The
suppression of the monasteries roused deep resentment in
Yorkshire, and the inhabitants flocked to join the Pilgrimage of
Grace, Skipton Castle being the only place immediately N. of the
Humber which remained loyal to Ihe king. On the outbreak of
the Civil War of the i7th century, opinion was divided in York-
shire, the chief parliamentary families being the Fairfaxes and
the Hothams, while the Puritan clothing-towns of the West
Riding also sided with the parliament. Sir William Savile
captured Leeds and Wakefield for the king in 1642, and in 1643
Newcastle, having defeated the Fairfaxes at Adwalton Moor,
held all Yorkshire except Hull, which the Hothams, moved by
jealousy of the Fairfaxes, had already designed to give up. In
1644, however, the Fairfaxes secured the East and West Ridings,
while Cromwell's victory at Marston Moor was followed by the
capture of York, and in the next year of Pontefract and Scar-
borough.
On the redistribution of estates after the Norman Conquest,
Alan of Brittany, founder of Richmond Castle, received a vast
fief which became the honour of Richmond; Ilbert de Laci was
rewarded with lands which afterwards constituted the honour
of Pontefract. Earl Harold's estate at Coningsburgh passed to
William de Warenne, earl of Surrey, together with Sandal Castle,
which on the expiration of the Warenne line in the I4th century
was bestowed on Edmund Langley, duke of York. Other
great Domesday landholders were William de Percy, founder of
the abbey of Whit by; Robert de Bruce, ancestor of the royal
line of Scotland, the head of whose fief in Cleveland was trans-
ferred in the i2th century from Danby Castle to Skelton; Roger
de Busli owned a large tract in S. Yorkshire, of which Tickhill
was the head; the archbishop of York enjoyed the great lordship
of Sherburn, and Howdenshire was a liberty of the bishop of
Durham. Among the great lordships of the middle ages for
which Yorkshire was distinguished were: Topcliffe, the honour
of the Percies; Thirsk, of the Mowbrays; Tanfield, of the
Marmions; Skipton, of the Cliffords; Middleham, of the Fitz-
Hughes and Nevilles; Helmsley, of the de Roos; Masham and
Bolton, of the Scropes; Sheffield, of the Furnivalls and Talbots;
Wakefield, of the duke of York. The Fairfaxes were settled in
Yorkshire in the i3th century, and in the i6th century Denton
became their chief seat.
The shire court for Yorkshire was held at York, but extensive
privileges were enjoyed by the great landholders. In the I3th
century Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, claimed to hold the
sheriff's tourn at Bradford and Leeds; his bailiff administered
the wapentake of Stainclif in his court at Bacskalf and Slaidburn;
and his steward judged cases of felony in his court at Almond-
bury. The archbishop of York held the sheriff's tourn at Otley,
and had his own coroners at York, Hull, Beverley and Ripon.
Eudo la Zouche held the sheriff's tourn at Bingley, and Thomas
de Furnivall in Hallamshire. The bailiffs of Tickhill Castle also
held tourns in place of the sheriff. The bishop of Durham had
a court at Hoveden, and the king's bailiffs were excluded from
executing their office in his estates of Howdenshire and Allerton-
shire. The abbot of St Mary's York had his own coroners in the
wapentake of Ryedale, and the abbot of Bella Landa in Sutton.
The prior of Bradenstoke held a court in his manor of Wales.
The archbishop of York, Robert de Ros, and the abbot of
St Mary's York judged felonies at their courts in Holderness.
The liberty of Ripon (q.v.), city of Ripon, still constitutes a
franchise of the archbishops of York.
In the 1 3th century the diocese of York included in this
county the archdeaconry of York, comprising the deaneries of
York, Pontefract, Doncaster and Craven; the archdeaconry
of Cleveland, comprising the deaneries of Bulmer, Cleveland
YORKSHIRE
935
and Ryedale; the archdeaconry of East Riding, comprising the
deaneries of Harthill (Hull), Buckrose, Dickering and Holder-
ness; and the archdeaconry cf Richmond, comprising the
deaneries of Richmond, Catterick, Boroughbridge and Lonsdale.
In 1541 the deaneries of Richmond were transferred to Henry
VIII. "s new diocese of Chester. Ripon was created an episcopal
see by act of parliament in 1836, and the deaneries of Craven and
Pontefract were formed into the archdeaconry of Craven within
its jurisdiction, together with the archdeaconry of Richmond.
The archdeaconry of Sheffield was created in 1884 to include the
deaneries of Sheffield, Rotherham, Ecclesfield and Wath. In
1888 the area of the diocese of Ripon was reduced by the creation
of the see of Wakefield, including the archdeaconry of Halifax
with the deaneries of Birstall, Dewsbury, Halifax, Silkstone and
Wakefield, and the archdeaconry and deanery of Huddersfield.
The diocese of Ripon now includes in this county the arch-
deaconries of Craven with three deaneries, Richmond with three
deaneries and Ripon with seven deaneries. The diocese of York
includes the archdeaconries of York with six deaneries, Sheffield
with four deaneries, East Riding with thirteen deaneries and
Cleveland with nine deaneries.
The great woollen industry of Yorkshire originated soon after
the Conquest, and the further development of this and other
characteristic industries may be traced in the articles on the various
industrial centres. The time of the American War marked the
gradual absorption by Yorkshire of the clothing trade from the
E. counties. Coal appears to have been used in Yorkshire by the
Romans, and was dug at Leeds in the 1 3th century. The early
fame of Sheffield as the centre cf the cutlery and iron trade is
demonstrated by the line in Chaucer, " a Sheffield whitel bore he
in his hose." In the lath century a forge is mentioned at Rosedale,
and the canons of Gisburn had four " fabricae " in blast in
Glaisdale in Cleveland. In the i6th century limestone was dug
in many parts of Elmet, and Huddlestone, Hesselwood and Tad-
caster had famous quarries ; Pontefract was famous for its liquorice,
Aberford for its pins, Whitby for its jet. Alum was dug at
Guisborough, Sandsend, Dunsley and Whitby in the iyth century,
and a statute of 1659 forbade the importation of alum from abroad,
in order to encourage its cultivation ia this country. Bolton
market was an important distributive centre for cotton materials
in the I7th century, and in 1787 there were eleven cotton mills in
the county.
Parliamentary Representation. The county of York was repre-
sented by two knights in the parliament of 1295, and the boroughs
of Beverley, Hedon, Malton, Pickering, Pontefract, Ripon, Scar-
borough, Thirsk, Tickhill, Yarm and York each by two burgesses.
Northallerton acquired representation in 1298, Boroughbridge in
1300, King=ton-on-Hull and Ravensburgh in 1304. In most of the
boroughs the privilege of representation was allowed to lapse, and
from 1328 until 1547 only York, Scarborough and Kingston-on-Hull
returned members. Hedon, Thirsk, Ripon and Beverley regained
the franchise in the l6th century, and Boroughbridge, Knares-
borough, Aldborough and Richmond also returned members.
Pontefract was represented in 1623, New Malton and Northallerton
in 1640. In 1826 two additional knights were returned for the shire
of York, and 14 boroughs were represented. Under the Reform
Act of 1832 the county returned 6 members in 3 divisions 2 for
each riding; Aldborough, Boroughbridge and Hedon were dis-
franchised; Northallerton and Thirsk lost I member each;
Bradford, Halifax, Leeds and Sheffield acquired representation by
2 members each, and Wakefield and Whitby by I member each.
Under the act of 1868 the representation of the West Riding division
was increased to 6 members in 3 divisions; Dewsbury and Middles-
brough were enfranchised, returning I member each; Leeds now
returned 3 members; Knaresborough, Malton, Richmond and
Ripon lost i member each. Beverley was disfranchised in 1870.
(For arrangements under the act of 1885 see Administration.)
Antiquities. Of ancient castles Yorkshire retains many interesting
examples. The fine ruins at Knaresborough, Pickering, Pontefract,
Richmond, Scarborough and Skipton are described under their
respective headings. Barden Tower, picturesquely situated in
upper Wharfedale, was built by Henry de Clifford (d. 1523), called
the " shepherd lord " from the story that he was brought up as a
shepherd. He was a student of astronomy and astrology. Bolton
Castle, which rises majestically above Wensleydale, was pronounced
by Leland " the fairest in Richmondshire." ft is a square building
with towers at the corners, erected in the reign of Richard II. by
Richard Scrope, chancellor of England. It was occupied by Queen
Mary while under the charge of Lord Scrope, was besieged during
the civil wars, and rendered untenable in 1647. Of Bowes Castle,
in the North Riding near Barnard Castle, there remains only the
square keep, supposed to have been built by Alan Niger, 1st earl of
Richmond, in the I2th century, but the site was occupied by the
Romans. Cawood Castle, on the Ouse near Selby, retains its gate-
way tower erected in the reign of Henry VI. The castle, said to
have been founded by /Kthelstan in 620, was the palace of the
archbishops of York, and Wolsey resided in it. Cqnisborough
Castle stands by the Don between Rotherham and Doncaster. Us
origin is uncertain, but dates probably from Saxon times. The
keep and portions of the walls remain; and the ruin possesses
additional interest from its treatment in Scott's Ivanhoe. The
ruins of Danby Castle, which is supposed to have been built shortly
after the Conquest by Robert de Bruce or Brus, are of various dates.
Harewood Castle in lower Wharfedale was founded soon after the
Conquest, but contains no portions earlier than the reign of Edward
III. The keep of Helmsley Castle was built late in the I2th century
probably by Robert de Ros, surnamed Fursan; the earthworks are
apparently of much earlier date. There are picturesque remains
of the quadrangular fortress of Middleham in Wensleydale, built
in the I2th century by Robert FitzRanulph, afterwards possessed
by the Nevilles, and rendered untenable by order of parliament in
1647. Mulgrave Castle, near the modern residence of the same
name in the Whitby district, is said to have been founded two
centuries before the Conquest by a Saxon giant named Wade or
Wadda. Parts are clearly Norman, but some of the masonry
suggests an earlier date. The castle was dismantled after the
civil wars. There are slight remain, of the I5th century, of
Ravensworth Castle, near Richmond. This was probably an early
foundation of the family of Fitz Hugh. Sheriff Hutton Castle,
between York and Malton, was the foundation of Bertram de Bulmcr
in the reign of Stephen; the remains are of the early part of the
I5th century, when the property passed to the Nevilles. Spofforth
Castle, near Harrogate, was erected by Henry de Percy in 1309.
Its ruins range from the period of foundation to the isth century.
Of Tickhill Castle, near Doncaster, built or enlarged by Roger de
Busli in the nth century, there are foundations of the keep and
fragments of the walls. Of Whorlton Castle in Cleveland, the
Perpendicular gatehouse is very fine. One side remains of the
great quadrangular fortress of Wressell, E. of Selby, built by Thomas
Percy, earl of Worcester, in the reign of Richard II. Some of the
mansions in the county incorporate remains of ancient strongholds,
such as those at Gilling, under the Hambleton Hills in the North
Riding, Ripley near Harrogate, and Skelton in Cleveland. Medieval
mansions are numerous, a noteworthy example being the Eliza-
bethan hall of Burton Agnes, in the N. of Holderness.
In ecclesiastical architecture Yorkshire is extraordinarily rich.
At the time of the Dissolution there were 28 abbeys, 26 priories,
23 nunneries, 30 friaries, 13 cells, 4 commandenes of Knights
Hospitallers and 4 preceptpries of Knights Templars. The principal
monastic ruins are described under separate headings and else-
where. These are Bolton Abbey (properly Priory), a foundation of
Augustinian canons; Fountains Abbey, a Cistercian foundation,
the finest and most complete of the ruined abbeys in England;
the Cistercian abbey of Kirkstall near Leeds (q.v.) ; the Cistercian
abbey of Rievaulx, and the Benedictine abbey of St Mary, at York.
For the plans and buildings of Fountains, Kirkstall and St Mary's,
York, see ABBEY. Separate reference is also made to the ruins
of Jervaulx (Cistercian) and Coverham (Premonstratensiar.) in
Wensleydale, and to the remains at Bridlington, Guisborough,
Malton, Whitby, Easby near Richmond, Kirkham near Malton,
Monk Bretton near Barnsley, and Mount Grace near Northallerton.
There are fine though scanty remains of Byland Abbey, of Early
English date, between Thirsk and Malton ; the abbey was founded
for Cistercian monks in the I2th century, and was previously
established at Old Byland near Rievaulx. There was a house of
Premonstratensians at Egglestone above the Tees near Barnard
Castle. Other ruins are the Cistercian foundations of the I2th
century at Meaux in Holderness, Roche, E. of Rotherham, and
Sawley in Ribblesdale; the Benedictine nunneries of Manic!;
in upper Swaledale, and Rosedale under the high moors of the
N.E. ; and the Gilbertine house of Watton in Holderness, of the
I2th century, converted into a dwelling.
Descriptions are given in the articles on the respective cities and
towns of the cathedral or minster at York, and of the numerous
churches in that city; of the cathedral churches at Ripon and
Wakefield ; of the minster and the church of St Mary at Beverley ;
and of the fine parish churches at Bradford, Bridlington (the old
priory church), Hedon, Hull, Rotherham, Selby (abbey church),
Sheffield and Thirsk. In Holderness are the splendid churches
of Howden and Patrington, both in the main Decorated ; .and the
fine late Norman building at Kirkburn. A very perfect though
small example of a Norman church is seen at Birkin on the Aire
below Pontefract. At Nun Monkton near York is a beautiful
Early English church, formerly belonging to a Benedictine nunnery.
Goodmanham in the S. Wolds is the scene, in all probability, of
the conversion by Paulinus of Edwin of Northumbna in 625, who
was afterwards baptized at York. At Kirkdale near Kirkby
Moorside in the N. Riding is a singular example of an inscribed
sundial of pre-Conquest date. At Lastingham in the same district
is a very fine and early Norman crypt.
See Victoria County History, Yorkshire: T. Allen, History of
the County of York (3 vols., London, 1828-31); T. Baines, York'-
shire Past and Present, including an account of the woollen trade
936
YORKTOWN YORUBAS
of Yorkshire by E. Baines (2 vols., London, 1871-77); John
Burton, Monasticon Eboracense (London, 1758-59); W. Smith,
Old Yorkshire (London, 1881); G. Frank, Ryedale and North
Yorkshire 'Antiquities (York, 1888); G. R. Park, Parliamentary
Representation of Yorkshire (Hull, 1886); A. D. H. Leadman,
Proelia Eboracensia, Battles fought in Yorkshire (London, 1891);
T. D. Whitaker, History of Richmondshire (London, 1823), History
of Craven (London, 1878), History of Leeds and Elmet (2 vols., Leeds,
1816); J. Wainwright, Yorkshire; Wapentake of Strafford and
Tickhill, vol. i. (Sheffield, 1826); W. Grainge, Castles and Abbeys
of Yorkshire (York, 1855); J. Hunter, South Yorkshire (2 vols.,
London, 1828-31); J. J. Sheahan and T. Whellan, History of the
City of York, the Amsty Wapentake, and the East Riding of York-
shire (3 vols., Beverley, 1855-57); T. Langdale, Topographical
Dictionary of Yorkshire (Northallerton, 1809); G. H. de S. N.
Plantagenet Harrison, History of Yorkshire (London, 1879, &c.);
see also publications of the Yorkshire Archaeological and Topo-
graphical Society.
YORKTOWN, a town and the county-seat of York county,
Virginia, U.S.A., on the York river 10 m. from its mouth, and
about 60 m. E.S.E. of Richmond. Pop. (1910) 136. It is
served by the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Richmond steamship
line, and about 6 j m. distant is Lee Hall, a station on the Chesa-
peake & Ohio railway. Large deposits of marl near the town
are used for the manufacture of cement. In the main street
is the oldest custom-house in the United States, and the house
of Thomas Nelson (1738-1789), a signer of the Declaration of
Independence. In commemoration of the surrender of Lord
Cornwall's in October 1781, there is a monument of Maine granite
(100 ft. 6 in. high) designed by R. M. Hunt and J. Q. A. Ward;
its corner-stone was laid in 1881 during the centennial celebra-
tion of the surrender, and it was completed in 1883. Yorktown
was founded in 1691, as a port of entry for York county. It
became the county-seat in 1696, and although it never had more
than about 200 houses its trade was considerable until it was
ruined by the War of Independence. In that war the final
victory of the Americans and their French allies took place at
Yorktown.
Baffled -by General Nathanael Greene in his campaign in the
Carolinas, his diminished force (fewer than 1400) sadly in need of
reinforcement, and persuaded that the more southern colonies could
not be held until Virginia had been reduced, Lord Cornwallis
marched out of Wilmington, N. Carolina, April 25th, 1781, arrived
at Petersburg, Virginia, on May 2pth, and there with the troops
which had been under William Phillips and Benedict Arnold and
with further reinforcements from New York raised his army to
more than 7000 men. Facing him in Richmond was Lafayette,
whom Washington had sent earlier in the year with a small force
of light infantry to check Arnold, and who had now been placed
in command of all the American troops in Virginia. Cornwallis's
first attempt was to prevent the union of Lafayette and General
Anthony Wayne, failing in this, he retired down the James in
the hope, it is thought, of receiving further reinforcements from
General Henry Clinton. Clinton, who had not approved Cornwallis's
plan against Virginia, at first ordered him to send a portion of
his troops to aid in the defence of New York; but as other rein-
forcements came to New York, and as the home government ap-
proved Cornwallis's plan, Clinton resolved to establish a permanent
base in the Chesapeake and directed Cornwallis to fortify a post
for the protection of the British navy. Cornwallis seized Yorktown
and Gloucester early in August and immediately began to fortify
them. While Cornwallis was marching from N. Carolina to
Virginia, Washington learned that a large French fleet under
Count de Grasse was to come up from the West Indies in the summer
and for a brief period co-operate with the American and French
armies. At a conference (May 2ist) at Wethersfield,
* Connecticut, with the French commanders, Washington
'mf ' favoured a plan for a joint attack on New York when
De Grasse should arrive. An attack on the British in
Virginia was, however, considered, and the minutes of the con-
ference "with some suggestions from Rochambeau having been sent
to De Grasse, he announced in a letter received the I4th of August
that he should sail for the Chesapeake for united action against
Cornwallis. About the same time Washington learned from
Lafayette that Cornwallis was fortifying Yorktown. Sir Samuel
Hood with 14 ships-of-the-line arrived at the Chesapeake from
the West Indies three days ahead of De Grasse, and proceeding
to New York warned Admiral Thomas Graves of the danger.
Graves took command of the combined fleet, 19 ships-of-the-line,
and on the gist of August sailed for the Chesapeake in the hope
of preventing the union of the French fleet from Newport, under
Count de Barras, with that under De Grasse. He arrived at the
Chesapeake ahead of De Barras, but after an encounter with De
Grasse alone (September 5th), who had 24 ships-of-the-line, he
was obliged to return to New York to refit, and the French were
left in control of the coast. Leaving only about 4000 men to
guard the forts on the Hudson, Washington set out for Virginia
with the remainder of his army immediatelv after learning of De
Grasse's plan, and the French land forces followed. The French
fleet transported the allied army from the head of the Chesapeake
to the vicinity of Williamsburg, and on the 28th of September
it marched to Yorktown. Receiving, on the same day, a despatch
from Clinton promising relief, and fearing the enemy might out-
flank him, Cornwallis abandoned his outposts during the following
night and withdrew to his inner defences, consisting of seven
redoubts and six batteries connected by intrenchments, besides
batteries along the river bank. The allies, 16,000 strong, took
possession of the abandoned posts and closed in on the town in
a semicircle extending from Wormley Creek below it to about
a mile above it, the Americans holding the right and the French
the left. On the night of October 5ih-6th the allies opened the
first parallel about 600 yds. from the British works, and extend-
ing from a deep ravine on the N.W. to the river bank on the
S.E., a distance of nearly 2 m. Six days later the second parallel
was begun within 300 yds. of the British lines, and it was practically
completed on the night of the I4th and isth, when two British
redoubts were carried by assault, one by the Americans led by
Alexander Hamilton and one by the French led by Lieut. -Colonel
G. de Deux-Ponts. In the morning of the i6th Cornwallis ordered
Lieut.-Colonel Abercrombie to make an assault on two French
batteries. He carried them and spiked eleven guns, but they were
recovered and the guns were ready for service again twelve hours
later. On the night of the i6th and I7th Cornwallis attempted
to escape with his army to Gloucester on the opposite side of the
river, but a storm ruined what little chance of success there was
in this venture. In grave danger of an assault from the allies,
Cornwallis offered to surrender on the I7th; two days later his
whole army, consisting of 7073 officers and men, was surrendered,
and American Independence was practically assured. The British
loss during the siege was about 156 killed and 326 wounded; the
American and French losses were 85 killed and 199 wounded.
In 1862 the Confederate defences about Yorktown were
besieged for a month (April 4-May 3) by the Army of the
Potomac under General M'Clellan. There was no intention on
the part of the Confederate commander-in-chief , Joseph Johnston,
to do more than gain time by holding Yorktown and the line
of the Warwick river as long as possible without serious fighting,
and without imperilling the line of retreat en Richmond; and
when after many delays M'Clellan was in a position to assault
with full assistance from his heavy siege guns, the Confederates
fell back on Williamsburg.
SeeT. N. Page, " Old Yorktown," in Scribner's Magazine (October,
1881) ; H. P. Johnston, The Yorktown Campaign and the Surrender of
Cornwallis (New York, 1881); A. S. Webb, The Peninsular Cam-
paign (New York, 1882); and J. C. Ropes, Story of the Civil War,
vol. ii.
YORUBAS; YORUBALAND. The Yoruba, a group of Negro
tribes, have given their name to an extensive area in West
Africa, in the hinterland of Lagos. The Yoruba are of true
Negro stock, in many respects typical of the race, but among
them are found persons with lighter skins and features recalling
the Hamitic or Semitic peoples. This arises, in all probability,
from an infiltration of Berber and Arab blood through the Fula
(q.v.). The Yoruba themselves have traditions of an Oriental
origin. They are divided into many tribes, among the best
known being the Oyo = Yoruba proper, the Egba, Jebu, Ife and
Ibadan. They are sometimes called by the French Nago, and
are known to the Sierra Leonis, many of whom are of Yoruba
descent, as Aku. A considerable proportion of the American
negroes are also said to be of Yoruba origin. For a long period
the Yoruba were raided by the Dahomeyans and other coast
tribes, to sell as slaves to the white traders. They are both
an urban and agricultural people. Pottery, weaving^ tanning,
dyeing, and forging are among their industries. The houses of
chiefs, often containing fifty rooms, are well built, and decorated
with carvings representing symbolic devices, fabulous animals
and scenes of war or the chase.
The Yoruba have considerable administrative ability. Their
system of government places the power in a council of elders pre-
sided over by a chief who owes his position to a combination of
the principles of heredity and election. 1 The ruling chief must
1 R. E. Dennett states that the government is based on the rule
of four great chiefs who respectively represent the phases of family
life, namely, (i) the deified head of the family, called Orisha; (2) the
YOSAI YOSEMITE
937
always be taken from the members of one of two families, the
succession in many cases passing from one to the other family
alternately. Primogeniture is not necessarily considered.
Before the introduction of letters the Yoruba are said to have
employed knotted strings for recording events. Their language,
which has been reduced to writing and carefully studied, has pene-
trated as far E. as Kano in the Hausa country. The best known
dialectic varieties are those of Egba, Jebu, Ondo, Ife, Illonn and
Oyo (Yoruba proper, called also Nago) ; but the discrepancies are
slight. The most marked feature, a strong tendency towards
monosyllabism produced by phonetic decay has given rise to
the principle of intonation, required to distinguish words originally
different but reduced by corruption to the condition of homophones.
Besides the tones, of which there are three, high, low and middle,
Yoruba has also developed a degree of vocalic harmony, in which the
vowels of the affixes are assimilated to that of the root. Inflexion,
as in Bantu, is effected chiefly by prefixes; and there is a remarkable
power of word-formation by the fusion of several relational elements
in a single compound term. The Bible and several other books
have been translated into Yoruba, which as a medium of general
intercourse in West Africa ranks in importance next to Hausa
and Mandingan. The Yoruba religion is that usually known as
fetishism.
The Yoruoa country extends from Benin on the E. to Dahomey
on the W. (where it somewhat overlaps the French frontier),
being bounded N. by Borgu and S. by the coastlands of Lagos.
It covers about 25,000 sq. m. Most of it is included in the
British protectorate of Southern Nigeria. The land is moder-
ately elevated and a large part of it is densely forested. It is
well watered; the rivers belong mainly to the coast systems,
though some drain to the Niger. The history of Yorubaland, as
known to Europeans, does not go back beyond the close of the
1 7th century. At that time it was a powerful empire, and had
indirectly come through its connexion with Benin and Dahomey
to some extent under European influence. There was also a
much slighter Moslem influence. One tradition brought the
founder of the nation from Bornu. The Yoruba appear to have
inhabited their present country at least as early as A.D. 1000.
In the i8th century the Yoruba were constantly engaged in
warfare with their Dahomeyan neighbours, and in 1738
they captured Kana, the sacred city of the kings of Dahomey.
From 1747 to the time of King Gezo (1818) the Dahomeyans
paid tribute to Yoruba. It was not until the early years of the
igth century that the Yoruba came as far S. as the sea, when
they founded a colony at Lagos. About 1825 the province of
Illorin, already permeated by Moslem influences from the north,
declared itself independent of the Yoruba, and shortly afterwards
Yorubaland was overrun by Fula invaders. From this time
(1830-35) the Yoruba empire there had_been six confederate
kingdoms was broken up into a number of comparatively weak
states, who warred with one another, with the Dahomeyans and
with their Moslem neighbours. The advent of the British at
first led to further complications and fighting, but gradually
the various tribes gained confidence in the colonial government
and sought its services as peacemaker. A treaty placing their
country under British protection was signed by the Egba in
January 1893, and the subsequent extension of British control
over the other portions of Yorubaland met with no opposition.
Though divided into semi-independent states, the Yoruba
retain a feeble sense of common nationality. The direct repre-
sentative of the old Yoruba power is the alafin or king of Oyo
occupying the N. and central parts of the whole region. Round
this central state, which has lost much of its importance, are
grouped the kingdoms of Illorin, Ijesa, Ife and Ondo in the E.,
Mahin and Jebu in the S. and Egba in the W. The ruler of
each of these states has a title characteristic of his office. Thus
the chief of Ife bears the title of oni (a term indicating
spiritual supremacy). To the oni of Ife or the alafin of Oyo all
the other great chiefs announce their succession. The oni,
says Sir William MacGregor, is regarded as the fountain of
honour, and without his consent no chief can assume the privi-
lege of wearing a crown. The most important of the Yoruba
fatherhood; (3) motherhood; (4) sonship. The chief representing
motherhood is brother to the mother, and in the developed state has
become the Balogun or war lord.
states is Egba, the ruling chief of which is the alake of Abeokuta
(see ABEOKUTA).
Yorubaland is a country of comparatively large cities. The
alafm resides at Oyo, on a headstream of the Oshun, a place
which has succeeded the older capitals, Bohu and Katunga,
lying farther N. and destroyed during the wars with the Fula.
Oyo is exceeded in size by several other places in Yorubaland,
where the inhabitants have grouped themselves together for
mutual protection in walled towns. Thus have sprung up the
important towns of Abeokuta on the Ogun, due N. of Lagos;
Ibadan on a branch of the Omi, 30 m. S. of Oyo; and Illorin,
capital of the Illorin state, besides several other towns with a
population of some 40,000.
See A. Dalzell, The History of Dahomey (London, 1793); A. B.
Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa
(London, 1894); R. E. Dennett, Nigerian Studies, or the Religions
and Political System of the Yoruoa (London, 1910); C. F. Hanord-
Battersby, Niger and Yoruba Routes (London, 1895-96) ; and LAGOS
and NIGERIA.
YOSAI [Kikuchi] (1781-1878), Japanese painter, was the
son of a samurai named Kawara, of Yedo. He was adopted
by the Kikuchi family, who were old hereditary retainers of
the Tokugawa clan. When eighteen, he became a pupil of
Takata Enjo; but, after studying the principles of the Kano,
Shijo, and Maruyama schools in the latter, perhaps, under
Ozui, a son of Okyo he developed an independent style,
having some affinities with that of Tani Buncho. He was
one of the last of the great painters of Japan; and his illustrated
history of Japanese heroes, the Zenken Kojitsu, is a remarkable
specimen of his power as a draughtsman in black and white.
YOSEMITE, a famous valley on the W. slope of the Sierra
Nevada of California, about 150 m. E. of San Francisco and
4000 ft. above the sea. It is 7 m. long, half a mile to a mile wide,
and nearly a mile deep, eroded out of hard massive granite by
glacial action. Its precipitous walls present a great variety
of forms, and the bottom, a filled-up lake basin, is level and
park-like. The most notable of the wall rocks are: El
Capitan, 3300 ft. high, a sheer, plain mass of granite; the
Three Brothers, North Dome, Gkcier Point, the Sentinel,
Cathedral, Sentinel Dome and Cloud's Rest, from 2800 to
nearly 6000 ft. high; and Half Dome, the noblest of all, which
rises at the head of the valley to the height of 4740 ft. These
rocks illustrate on a grand scale the action of ice in mountain
sculpture. For here five large glaciers united to form the
grand trunk glacier that eroded the valley and occupied it
as its channel. Its moraines, though mostly obscured by
vegetation and weathering, may still be traced; while on the
snowy peaks at the headwaters of the Merced a considerable
number of small glaciers, once tributary to the main Yosemite
glacier, still exist. The Bridal Veil Fall, ooo ft. high, is one
of the most interesting features of the lower end of the valley.
Towards the upper end the great Yosemite Fall pours from a
height of 2600 ft. The valley divides at the head into three
branches, the Tenaya, Merced and South Fork canyons. In
the main (Merced) branch are the Vernal and Nevada Falls,
400 and 600 ft. high. The Nevada is usually ranked next
to the Yosemite among the five main falls of the valley, and
is the whitest of all the falls. The Vernal, about half a mile
below the Nevada, is famous for its afternoon rainbows, At
flood-time it is a nearly regular sheet about 80 ft. wide, changing
as it descends from green to purplish-grey and white. In
the S. branch, a mile from the head of the main valley, is the
Illilouette Fall, 600 ft. high, one of the most beautiful of the
Yosemite choir.
Considering the great height of the snowy mountains about
the valley, the climate of the Yosemite is remarkably mild.
The vegetation is rich and luxuriant. The tallest pines are over
200 ft. high; the trunks of some of the oaks are from 6 to 8
ft. in diameter; violets, lilies, golden-rods, ceanothus, man-
zanita, wild rose and azalea make broad beds and banks of
bloom in the spring; and on the warmest parts of the walls
flowers blossom in every month of the year.
938
YOUGHAL YOUNG, A.
The valley was discovered in 1851 by a military company
in pursuit of marauding Indians; regular tourist travel began
in 1856. The first permanent settler in the valley was Mr J. C.
Lamon, who built a cabin in the upper end of it in 1860 and
planted gardens and orchards. In 1864 the valley was granted
to the state of California by act of Congress on condition
that it should be held as a place of public use, resort and
recreation inalienable for all time, was re-ceded to the United
States by California on the 3rd of March 1905, and is now
included in the Yosemite National Park.
In the number and height of its vertical falls and in the massive
grandeur of El Capitan and Half Dome rocks Yosemite is unrivalled.
But there are many other valleys of the same kind. The most noted
of those in the Sierra, visited every summer by tourists, hunters and
mountaineers, are the Hetch Hetchy Valley, a wonderful counter-
part of Yosemite in the Tuolumne canyon; Tehipitee Valley, in
the Middle Fork canyon of King's river; and the King's river
Yosemite in the South Fork canyon, the latter being larger and
deeper than the Merced Yosemite. All are similar in their trends,
forms, sculpture and vegetation, and are plainly and harmoniously
related to the ancient glaciers. The Romsdal and Naerodal of
Norway and Lauterbrunnen of the Alps are well characterized
glacial valleys of the Yosemite type, and in S.E. Alaska many may
be observed in process of formation.
See the Annual Reports (Washington, 1891 sqq.) of the Super-
intendent of the Park; the Guide to the Yosemite published by the
California Geological Survey; John Muir, Our National Parks
(Boston, 1901); and Bunnell's Discovery of the Yosemite (New
York, 1893). ' 0- Mu.*)
YOUGHAL (pronounced Yawl), a seaport, market town and
watering-place of county Cork, Ireland, on the W. side of the
Blackwater estuary, and on the Cork & Youghal branch of
the Great Southern & Western railway, 26f m. E. of Cork.
Pop. (1901) 5393. The collegiate church of St Mary, in the
later Decorated style, was erected in the nth century, but
rebuilt in the I3th, and since that time frequently restored.
It contains a beautiful monument to the ist earl of Cork.
The college was founded by an earl of Desmond in 1464.
There are still a few fragments of the Dominican friary founded
in 1269. The Clock Gate (1771) is noticeable, and portions of
the old walls are to be seen. Myrtle Grove was formerly the
residence of Sir Walter Raleigh. He was mayor of Youghal
in 1588-89, and is said to have first cultivated the potato here.
The harbour is safe and commodious, but has a bar at the
mouth. At the N. extremity of the harbour the river is
crossed by a bridge on wooden piles. The principal exports
are corn and other agricultural produce; the imports are
coal, culm, timber and slate. Coarse earthenware and bricks
are manufactured. Fine point-lace commanding high prices
is made by the Presentation Sisters. The Blackwater is
famous for salmon, and sea-fishing is important. The Strand,
the modern portion of the town, has all the attributes of a
seaside resort.
Youghal (Eschaitt, " the Yew wood ") was made a settlement
of the Northmen in the 9th century, and was incorporated
by King John in 1209. The Franciscan monastery, founded
at Youghal by FitzGerald in 1224, was the earliest house of
that order in Ireland. Sir Roger Mortimer landed at Youghal
in 1317. The town was plundered by the earl of Desmond
in 1579. In 1641 it was garrisoned and defended by the earl
of Cork. In 1649 it declared for the parliament, and was
occupied as his headquarters by Cromwell. It sent two
members to parliament from 1374 till the Union, after that
only one down to 1885.
YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820), English writer on agriculture
and social economy, second son of the Rev. Arthur Young,
rector of Bradfield, in Suffolk, chapkin to Speaker Onslow, was
born on the nth of September 1741. After being at a school
at Lavenham, he was in 1758 placed in a mercantile house
at Lynn, but showed no taste for commercial pursuits. He
published, when only seventeen, a pamphlet On the War in
North America, and in 1761 went to London and started a
periodical work, entitled The Universal Museum, which was
dropped by the advice of Samuel Johnson. He also wrote
four novels, and Reflections on the Present State of Affairs at Home
and Abroad in 1759. After his father's death in 1759, his mother
had given him the direction of the family estate at Bradfield
Hall; but the property was small and encumbered with debt.
From 1763 to 1766 he devoted himself to farming on his
mother's property. In 1765 he married a Miss Allen; but the
union is said not to have been happy, though he was of domestic
habits and an affectionate father. In 1767 he undertook on
his own account the management of a farm in Essex. He
engaged in various experiments, and embodied the results of
them in A Course of Experimental Agriculture (1770). Though
Young's experiments were, in general, unsuccessful, he thus
acquired a solid knowledge of agriculture. He had already
begun a series of journeys through England and Wales, and
gave an account of his observations in books which appeared
from 1768 to 1770 A Six Weeks' Tour through the Southern
Counties of England and Wales, A Six Months' Tour through the
North of England and the Farmer's Tour through the East of
England. He says that these books contained the only extant
information relative to the rental, produce and stock of England
that was founded on actual examination. They were very
favourably received, being translated into most European lan-
guages by 1792.
In 1768 he published the Farmer's Letters to the People of
England, in 1771 the Farmer's Calendar, which went through a
great number of editions, and in 1774 his Political Arithmetic,
which was widely translated. About this time Young acted
as parliamentary reporter for the Morning Post. He made a
tour in Ireland in 1776, publishing his Tour in Ireland in 1780.
In 1784 he began the publication of the Annals of Agriculture,
which was continued for 45 volumes: this work had many con-
tributors, among whom was George III., writing under the nom
de plume of : ' Ralph Robinson." Young's first visit to France
was made in 1787. Traversing that country in every direction
just before and during the first movements of the Revolution,
he has given valuable notices of the condition of the people
and the conduct of public affairs at that critical juncture. The
Travels in France appeared in 2 vols. in 1792. On his return
home he was appointed secretary of the Board of Agriculture,
then (1793) just formed under the presidency of Sir John Sinclair.
In this capacity he gave most valuable assistance in the collection
and preparation of agricultural surveys of the English counties.
His sight, however, failed, and in 1811 he had an operation for
cataract, which proved unsuccessful. He suffered also in his
last years from stone. He died on the 2oth of April 1820.
He left an autobiography in MS., which was edited (1898) by
Miss M. Betham-Edwards, and is the main authority for his
life; and also the materials for a great work on the " Elements
and practice of agriculture."
Arthur Young was the greatest of all English writers on agri-
culture; but it is as a social and political observer that he is best
known, and his Tour in Ireland and Travels in France are still full
of interest and instruction. He saw clearly and exposed unsparingly
the causes which retarded the progress of Ireland. He strongly
urged the repeal of the penal laws which pressed upon the Catholics ;
he condemned the restrictions imposed by Great Britain on the
commerce of Ireland, and also the perpetual interference of the
Irish parliament with industry by prohibitions and bounties. He
favoured a legislative union of Ireland with Great Britain, though
he did not regard such a measure as absolutely necessary, many of
its advantages being otherwise attainable.
The soil of France he found in general superior to that of England,
and its produce less. Agriculture was neither as well understood
nor as much esteemed as in England. He severely censured the
higher classes for their neglect of it. " Banishment (from court)
alone will force the French nobility to execute what the English do
for pleasure reside upon and adorn their estates." Young saw
the commencement of violence in the rural districts, and his sym-
pathies began to take the side of the classes suffering from the
excesses of the Revolution. This change of attitude was shown by
his publication in 1793 of a tract entitled The Example of France a
Warning to England. Of the profpunder significance of the French
outbreak he seems to have had little idea, and thought the crisis
would be met by a constitutional adjustment in accordance with the
English type. He strongly condemned the metayer system, then
widely prevalent in France, as " perpetuating poverty and exclud-
ing instruction " as, in fact, the ruin of the country. Some of
his phrases have been often quoted by the advocates of peasant
YOUNG, B. YOUNG, E.
939
proprietorship as favouring their view. " The magic of property turns
sand to gold. ' " Give a man the secure possession of a bleak rock,
and he will turn it into a garden; give him a nine years' lease of a
garden, and he will convert it into a desert." But these sentences,
in which the epigrammatic form exaggerates a truth, and which
might seem to represent the possession of capital as of no importance
in agriculture, must not be taken as conveying his approbation of
the system of small properties in general. He approved it only
when the subdivision was strictly limited, and even then with great
reserves; and he remained to the end what J. S. Mill calls him,
" the apostle of la grande culture."
The Directory in 1801 ordered his writings on the art to be trans-
lated and published at Paris in 20 volumes under the title of Le
Cultivateur anglais. His Travels in France were translated in
1793^94 by Soules; a new version by M. Lesage, with an intro-
duction by M. de Lavergne, appeared in 1856. An interesting
review of the latter publication, under the title of Arthur Young
et la France de 1789, will be found in M. Baudrillart's Publicises
modcrnes (2nd ed., 1873).
YOUNG, BRIGHAH (1801-1877), second president of the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, was born in
Whittingham, Vermont, on the ist of June 1801. He died in
Salt Lake City, Utah, on the 29th of August 1877. (See MORMONS.)
YOUNG. CHARLES MAYNE (1777-1856), English actor, was
the son of a surgeon. His first stage appearance was in Liver-
pool in 1798 as Douglas, in Home's tragedy. His first London
appearance was in 1807 as Hamlet. With the decline of John
Philip Kemble, and until the coming of Kean and Macready,
he was the leading English tragedian. He retired in 1832.
YOUNG, EDWARD (1683-1765), English poet, author of
Night Thoughts, son of Edward Young, afterwards dean of
Salisbury, was born at his father's rectory at Upham, near
Winchester, and was baptized on the 3rd of July 1683. He was
educated on the foundation at Winchester College, and matri-
culated in 1702 at New College, Oxford. He soon removed to
Corpus Christi, and in 1 708 was nominated by Archbishop Tenison
to a law fellowship at All Souls', for the sake of Dean Young, who
died in 1705. He took his degree of D.C.L. in 1719. His first
publication was an Epistle to . . . . Lord Lansdoune (1713). It
was followed by a Poem on the Last Day (1713), dedicated to Queen
Anne; The Force of Religion: or Vanquished Love (1714), a poem
on the execution of Lady Jane Grey and her husband, dedicated
to the countess of Salisbury; and an epistle to Addison, On the
late Queen's Death and His Majesty's Accession to the Throne (1714),
in which he made indecent haste to praise the new king. The
fulsome style of these dedications ill accords with the pious tone
of the poems, and they are omitted in the edition of his works
drawn up by himself. About this time began his connexion with
Philip, duke of Wharton, whom he accompanied to Dublin in
1717. In 1719 his play of Busiris was produced at Drury Lane,
and in 1721 his Revenge. The latter play was dedicated to
Wharton, to whom it owed, said Young, its " most beautiful
incident." Wharton promised him two annuities of 100 each
and a sum of 600 in consideration of his expenses as a candidate
for parliamentary election at Cirencester. In view of these
promises Young said that he had refused two livings in the gift
of All Souls' College, Oxford, and had also sacrificed a life
annuity offered by the marquess of Exeter if he would act as
tutor to his son. Wharton failed to discharge his obligations,
and Young, who pleaded his case before Lord Chancellor
Hardwicke in 1740, gained the annuity but not the 600.
Between 1725 and 1728 Young published a series of seven satires
on The Universal Passion. They were dedicated to the duke
of Dorset, Bubb Dodington (afterwards Lord Melcombe), Sir
Spencer Compton, Lady Elizabeth Germain and Sir Robert
Walpole, and were collected in 1728 as Love of Fame, the
Universal Passion. This is qualified by Samuel Johnson as a
" very great performance," and abounds in striking and pithy
couplets. Herbert Croft asserted that Young made 3000 by
his satires, which compensated losses he had suffered in the
South Sea Bubble. In 1726 he received, through Walpole, a
pension of 200 a year. To the end of his life he continued to
urge on the government his claims to preferment, but the
king and his advisers persisted in regarding this sum as an
adequate settlement.
Young was nearly fifty when he decided to take holy orders.
It was reported that the author of Night Thoughts was not, in his
earlier days, " the ornament to religion and morality which he
afterwards became," and his intimacy with the duke of Wharton
and with Lord Melcombe did not improve his reputation. A
statement attributed toPope probably gives the correct view.
" He had much of a sublime genius, though without common
sense; so that his genius, having no guide, was perpetually
liable to degenerate into bombast. This made him pass a foolish
youth, the sport of peers and poets; but his having a very good
heart enabled him to support the clerical character when he
assumed it, first with decency and afterwards with honour "
(O. Ruffhead, Life of A. Pope, p. 291). In 1728 he was made one
of the royal chaplains, and in 1730 was presented to the college
living of Welwyn, Hertfordshire. He married in 1731 Lady
Elizabeth Lee, daughter of the ist earl of Lichfield. Her
daughter, by a former marriage with her cousin Francis Lee,
married Henry Temple, son of the ist viscount Palmerston.
Mrs Temple died at Lyons in 1736 on her way to Nice. Her
husband and Lady Elizabeth Young died in 1740. These
successive deaths are supposed to be the events referred to in
the Night Thoughts as taking place " ere thrice yon moon had
filled her horn " (Night i.). In the preface to the poem Young
states that the occasion of the poem was real, and Philander
and Narcissa have been rather rashly identified with Mr and
Mrs Temple. M. Thomas suggests that Philander represents
Thomas Tickell, who was an old friend of Young's, and died three
months after Lady Elizabeth Young. It was further supposed
that the infidel Lorenzo was a sketch of Young's own son, a
statement disproved by the fact that he was a child of eight years
old at the time of publication. The Complaint, or Night Thoughts
on Life, Death and Immortality, was published in 1742, and
was followed by other " Nights," the eighth and ninth appearing
in 1 745. In 1 7 53 his tragedy of The Brothers, written many years
before, but suppressed because he was about to enter the Church,
was produced at Drury Lane. Night Thoughts had made him
famous, but he lived hi almost uninterrupted retirement, although
he continued vainly to solicit preferment. He was, however, made
clerk of the closet to the princess dowager in 1761. He was
never cheerful, it was said, after his wife's death. He disagreed
with his son, who had remonstrated, apparently, on the excessive
influence exerted by his housekeeper Miss (known as Mrs)
Hallows. The old man refused to see his son before he died, but
is said to have forgiven him, and left him his money. A descrip-
tion of him is to be found in the letters of his curate, John Jones, to
Dr Samuel Birch. He died at Welwyn on the sth of April 1765.
Young is said to have been a brilliant talker. He had an
extraordinary knack of epigram, and though the Night Thoughts
is long and disconnected it abounds in brilliant isolated passages.
Its success was enormous. It was translated into French,
German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Swedish and Magyar.
In France it became one of the classics of the romantic school.
The suspicion of insincerity that damped the enthusiasm of
English readers acquainted with the facts of his career did not
exist for French readers. If he did not invent " melancholy and
moonlight " in literature, he did much to spread the fashionable
taste for them. Madame Klopstock thought the king ought to
make him archbishop of Canterbury, and some German critics
preferred him to Milton. Young wrote good blank verse, and
Samuel Johnson pronounced Night Thoughts to be one of " the
few poems " in which blank verse could not be changed for
rhyme but with disadvantage.
Other works by Young are: The Instalment (to Sir R. Walpole,
1726); Cynthio (1727); A Vindication of Providence . . . (1728),
a sermon; An Apology for Punch (1729), a sermon; Imperium
Pelagi, a Naval Lynck . . . (1730); Two Epistles to Mr Pope
concerning the Authors of the Age (1730); A Sea-Piece . . . (1733);
The Foreign Address, or The Best Argument for Peace (1734);
The Centaur not Fabulous; in Five Letters to a Friend (1755); An
Argument . . . for the Truth of His {Christ's) Religion (1758), a
sermon preached before the king; Conjectures on Original Composi-
tion . . . (1759). addressed to Samuel Richardson; and Resignation
. . . (1762), a poem.
940 YOUNG, J. YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION
Night Thoughts was illustrated by William Blake in 1797, and by
Thomas Stothard in 1799. The Poetical Works of the Rev. Edward
Young . . . were revised by himself for publication, and a com-
pleted edition appeared in 1778. The Complete Works, Poetry and
Prose, of the Rev. Edward Young . . ., with a life by John Doran,
appeared in 1854. His Poetical Works are included in the Aldine
Edition of the British Poets, with a life by J. Mitford (1830-1836, 1857
and 1866). Sir Herbert Croft wrote thelife included in Johnson's
Lives of the Poets, but the critical remarks are by Johnson. For
Young s influence on foreign literature see Joseph Texte, Jean
Jacques Rousseau, A Study of the Literary Relations between France
and England during the Eighteenth Century (Eng. trans., 1889), pp.
304-14; and J. Barnstoff, Young's Nachtgedanken und ihr Einfluss
auf die deutsche Litteratur (1895). See also W. Thomas, Le Poete
Edward Young (Paris, 1901), who gives an exhaustive study of
Young's life and work.
YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883), Scottish industrial chemist,
was born in Glasgow on the I3th of July 1811. During his
apprenticeship to his father, a carpenter, he attended evening
classes at Anderson's College, where he had Lyon Playfair and
David Livingstone for fellow-pupils; and the ability he showed
was such that Thomas Graham, the professor of chemistry,
chose him as lecture assistant in 1832. About 1839, on the
recommendation of Graham, whom in 1837 he had accom-
panied to University College, London, he was appointed
chemist at James Muspratt's alkali works in Lancashire; in
connexion with alkali he showed that cast-iron vessels could
be satisfactorily substituted for silver in the manufacture of
caustic soda, and worked out improvements in the production
of chlorate of potash. But his name is best known in connexion
with the establishment of the Scottish mineral-oil industry.
In 1847 Lyon Playfair informed him of a spring of petroleum
which had made its appearance at Ridding's Colliery at
Alfreton in Derbyshire, and in the following year he began
to utilize it for making both burning and lubricating oils.
This spring was practically exhausted by 1851. It had served
to draw Young's attention to the question of oil-production,
and in 1850 he took out his fundamental patent for the dis-
tillation of bituminous substances. This was soon put into
operation in Scotland, first with the Boghead coal or Torbane-
hill mineral, and later with bituminous shales, and though
he had to face much litigation Young successfully employed
it in the manufacture of naphtha and lubricating oils, and
subsequently of illuminating oils and paraffin wax, until in
1866, after the patent had expired, he transferred his works to
a limited company. In 1872 he suggested the use of caustic
lime to prevent the corrosion of iron ships by the bilge water,
which he noticed was acid, and in 1878 he began a determina-
tion of the velocity of white and coloured light by a modifica-
tion of H. L. Fizeau's method, in collaboration with Professor
George Forbes (b. 1849), at Pitlochry. The final results were
obtained in 1880-81 across the Firth of Clyde from Kelly,
his house at Wemyss Bay, and a hill above Inellan, and gave
values rather higher than those obtained by M. A. Cornu and
A. A. Michelson. Young was a liberal supporter of David
Livingstone, and also gave 10,500 to endow a chair of technical
chemistry at Anderson's College. He died at Wemyss Bay on
the uth of May 1883.
YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1859), English man of science,
belonged to a Quaker family of Milverton, Somerset, where
he was born on the I3th of June 1773, the youngest of ten
children. At the age of fourteen he was acquainted with
Latin, Greek, French, Italian, Hebrew, Persian and Arabic.
Beginning to study medicine in London in 1792, he removed
to Edinburgh in 1794, and a year later went to Gottingen, where
he obtained the degree of doctor of physic in 1796. In 1797
he entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In the same year
the death of his grand-uncle, Richard Brocklesby, made him
financially independent, and in 1799 he established himself
as a physician in Welbeck Street, London. Appointed in 1801
professor of physics at the Royal Institution, in two years he
delivered ninety-one lectures. These lectures, printed in 1807
(Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy), contain a remark-
able number of anticipations of later theories. He resigned
his professorship in 1803, fearing that its duties would interfere
with his medical practice. In the previous year he was ap-
pointed foreign secretary of the Royal Society, of which he had
been elected a fellow in 1794. In 1811 he became physician
to St George's Hospital, and in 1814 he served on a committee
appointed to consider the dangers involved by the general
introduction of gas into London. In 1816 he was secretary
of a commission charged with ascertaining the length of
the seconds pendulum, and hi 1818 he became secretary to
the Board of Longitude and superintendent of the Nautical
Almanac. A few years before his death he became interested
in life assurance, and in 1827 he was chosen one of the eight
foreign associates of the French Academy of Sciences. He
died in London on the loth of May 1829.
Young is perhaps best known for his work in physical optics,
as the author of a remarkable series of researches which did
much to establish the undulatory theory of light, and as the
discoverer of the interference of light (see INTERFERENCE).
He has also been called the founder of physiological optics.
In 1 793 he explained the mode in which the eye accommodates
itself to vision at different distances as depending on change
of the curvature of the crystalline lens; in 1801 he described
the defect known as astigmatism; and in his Lectures he
put forward the hypothesis, afterwards developed by H. von
Helmholtz, that colour perception depends on the presence
in the retina of three kinds of nerve fibres which respond
respectively to red, green and violet light. In physiology he
made an important contribution to haemadynamics in the
Croonian lecture for 1808 on the " Functions of the Heart and
Arteries," and his medical writings included An Introduction to
Medical Literature, including a System of Practical Nosology
(1813) and A Practical and Historical Treatise on Consumptive
Diseases (1815).
In another field of research, he was one of the first successful
workers at the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscrip-
tions; by 1814 he had completely translated the enchorial
(demotic) text of the Rosetta stone, and a few years later had
made considerable progress towards an understanding of the
hieroglyphic alphabet (see EGYPT, Language and Writing).
In 1823 he published an Account of the Recent Discoveries in
Hieroglyphic Literature and Egyptian Antiquities. Some oj his
conclusions appeared in the famous article of Egypt which
in 1818 he wrote for the Encyclopedia Britannica.
His works were collected, with a Life by G. Peacock, in 1855.
YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION, 1 an organization
for social and religious work among young men, founded in
England by Sir George Williams (1821-1905), a merchant of
London. WiUiams's organization grew out of meetings he
held for prayer and Bible-reading among his fellow-workers
in a dry goods business in the city of London, and was founded
in 1844; on the occasion of its jubilee its originator was
knighted. Similar associations, indeed, had been in existence
in Scotland at a much earlier date. In 1824 David Naismith,
who also founded city missions in London and Glasgow, started
the Glasgow Young Men's Society for Religious Improvement,
a movement which spread to various parts of the United
Kingdom, France and America: later the name was changed
to the Glasgow Young Men's Christian Association. The
object of such associations is to provide in large towns a
rendezvous for young men who are compelled to live in lodgings
or in the apartments provided by the great business houses.
An associate of the Y.M.C.A. must not only be of good
moral character, but must also express his adherence to the
objects and principles of the association. To be a member
means a definite acceptance of the doctrines of the Evangelical
Christian faith. In 1910 there were about 400 associations
in Engfand, Ireland and Wales, and 226 in Scotland besides
various soldiers' and other auxiliaries. The total membership
was about 146,000. Some of the buildings, notably in the
Midlands and the north of England, are very fine. The
London Association, which from 1880 until shortly before its
demolition in 1908 used Exeter Hall, Strand, has erected a
1 Commonly abbreviated Y.M.C.A.
YOUNGSTOWN--YPSILANTI (FAMILY)
handsome block of buildings in Tottenham Court Road, de-
signed to provide, in addition to the usual features, bedrooms
at a reasonable rent.
The Young Men's Christian Association is seen at its best
in the United States. It is true that Germany has more
associations than any other country, but of its 2129 branches
only 142 have their own buildings, and the total member-
ship is only 125,000. In America, however, the associations
have been built on a broad basis and worked with enterprise
and business skill. Thus they have been able to secure the
generous support of many of the leaders of commerce. America
has over 1900 associations, and the total membership is 456,000.
In Greater Britain the associations are numerous and flourishing,
and Canada has 35,000 members. There are many active
associations in Switzerland, Norway, Denmark and the Nether-
lands, and indeed the Y.M.C.A. is now well known all over the
world. Even in Japan, China and Korea there are 150 branches
with a membership of nearly 12,000. The value of associa-
tion buildings all over the world is 11,940,000 (America,
8,900,000; Greater Britain, 1,912,000; United Kingdom,
1,128,000).
The Young Women's Christian Association was founded in 1855,
by two ladies simultaneously. In the south of England Miss
Robarts started a Prayer Union with a purely spiritual aim; in
London Lady Kinnaird commenced the practical work of opening
homes and institutes for young women in business. In 1877 the
two branches united in the Young Women's Christian Association,
which seeks to promote the all-round welfare of young women by
means of residential and holiday homes, club rooms, restaurants,
noon rest rooms, classes and lectures, and other useful departments.
The Young Women's Christian Association has spread all over the
world, and the total membership is about half a million.
YOUNGSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Mahoning
county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Mahoning river, about 60 m. S.E.
of Cleveland. Pop. (1900) 44,885 (12,207 being foreign-born
especially English, Irish and German); (1910 census) 79,066. It
is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Erie, the Lake Shore &
Michigan Southern, the Pennsylvania, and the Pittsburg & Lake
Erie railways, and by interurban electric lines. The Rayen High
School (incorporated 1856) was endowed under the will of
Judge William Rayen (1776-1854). The Reuben McMillan
Public Library (about 25,000 volumes in 1910) is housed in
a building finished in 1910 and is named in honour of Reuben
McMillan (1820-1898), formerly superintendent of schools.
Among other public buildings are the post office and Federal
court house, the county court house, the city and the Mahoning
Valley hospitals, and the Y.M.C.A. building. The business
district lies in the valley on the N. of the river; the resi-
dential districts are chiefly on the neighbouring hills. Youngs-
town has four parks' including Mill Creek (483 acres), East
End (60 acres) and Wick (48 acres), presented to the city by
the Wick family, descendants of the merchant Henry Wick
(1771-1845). The value of its factory products increased from
$33,908,459 in 1000 to $48,126,885 in 1905. The most im-
portant establishments are blast-furnaces, iron and steel works
(of the U.S. Steel Corporation) and rolling mills.
Youngstown was named in honour of John Young (1763-
1825), a native of Petersborough, New Hampshire, who in 1796
bought from the Connecticut Land Company a tract of land
upon which the city now stands, and lived there from 1799
until 1803. The first permanent settlement was made prob-
ably in 1796 by William Hillman. The tract was set off as a
township in 1800, and the first township government was
organized in 1802; the town was incorporated in 1848, and
was chartered as a city of the second class in 1867. The county-
seat of Mahoning county was removed from Canfield to Youngs-
town in 1876, and after much litigation the legality of this
removal was confirmed by the United States Supreme Court in
1879. The first iron-mining in the region was done in 1803 by
Daniel Eaton, who in 1804 built the first blast-furnace W. of
Pennsylvania and N. of the Ohio river. Eaton also built in
1826 the first blast-furnace within the present limits of Youngs-
town.
941
YPRES (Flemish Yperen), a town of Belgium, in the province
of West Flanders, of which it was formerly considered the
capital. Pop. (1004) 17,073. It is situated 35 m. S. of Ostend
and 12 m. W. of Courtrai, on the YperlSe, a small river flowing
into the Yser, both of which have been canalized. In the
I4th century it ranked with Bruges and Ghent, and its popula-
tion in its prime reached 200,000. It is remarkable chiefly for
its fine Halles or cloth market, with a facade of over 150 yds.
in length. The main building was begun in 1201 and com-
pleted in 1304. The cathedral of St Martin dates from the
1 3th century, with a tower of the isth century. Jansen,
bishop of Ypres and the founder of the Jansenist school, is
buried in the cathedral. The Butchers' Hall is also of interest
and dates from the isth century. Although Ypres is unlikely
to regain the importance it possessed when its " red-coated "
contingent turned the day in the great battle of Courtrai (1302),
it has an important linen and lace trade and a great butter
market. The Belgian cavalry training-school is established at
Ypres.
YPSILANTI, or HYPSILANTI, the name of a family of Phan-
ariot Greeks claiming descent from the Comneni. ALEXANDER
YPSILANTI (1725-1805) was dragoman of the Porte, and from
1774 to 1782 hospodar of Wallachia, during which period he
drew up a code for the principality. He was again appointed
hospodar just before the outbreak of the war with Austria and
Russia in 1790. He allowed himself to be taken prisoner by
the Austrians, and was interned at Briinn till 1792. Returning
to Constantinople, he fell under the suspicion of the sultan
and was executed in 1805. His son CONSTANTINE (d. 1816),
who had joined in a conspiracy to liberate Greece and, on its
discovery, fled to Vienna, had been pardoned by the sultan
and in 1799 appointed by him hospodar of Moldavia. Deposed
in 1805, he escaped to St Petersburg, and in 1806, at the head
of some 20,000 Russians, returned to Bucharest, where he set
to work on a fresh attempt to liberate Greece. His plans were
ruined by the peace of Tilsit; he retired to Russia, and died
at Kiev. He left five sons, of whom two played a conspicuous
part in the Greek war of independence.
ALEXANDER YPSILANTI (1792-1828), eldest son of Constantino
Ypsilanti, accompanied his father in 1805 to St Petersburg,
and in 1809 received a commission in the cavalry of the Imperial
Guard. He fought with distinction in 1812 and 1813, losing
an arm at the battle of Dresden, and in 1814 was promoted
colonel and appointed one of the emperor's adjutants. In this
capacity he attended Alexander I. at the congress of Vienna,
where he was a popular figure in society (see La Garde-Cham-
bonas, Souvenirs). In 1817 he became major-general and com-
mander of the brigade of hussars. In 1820, on the refusal of
Count Capo d'Istria to accept the post of president of the
Greek Hetairia Pkilike, Ypsilanti was elected, and in 1821 he
placed himself at the head of the insurrection against the Turks
in the Danubian principalities. Accompanied by several other
Greek officers in the Russian service he crossed the Pruth on
the 6th of March, announcing that he had the support of a
" great power." Had he advanced on Ibraila he might have
prevented the Turks entering the principalities and so forced
Russia to accept the fait accompli. Instead, he remained at
Jassy, disgracing his cause by condoning the massacres of
Turkish merchants and others. At Bucharest, whither he
advanced after some weeks' delay, it became plain that he
could not rely on the Vlach peasantry to rise on behalf of the
Greeks; even the disconcerting expedient of his Vlach ally
Theodore Vladimiresco, who called on the peasants to present
a petition to the sultan against Phanariot misrule, failed to
stir the people from their apathy. Then, wholly unexpectedly,
came a letter from Capo d'Istria upbraiding Ypsilanti for mis-
using the tsar's name, announcing that his name had been
struck off the army list, and commanding him to lay down his
arms. Ypsilanti's decision to explain away the tsar's letter
could only have been justified by the success of a cause which
was now hopeless. There followed a series of humiliating
defeats, culminating in that of Dragashan on the ioth of June.
942
Alexander, accompanied by his brother Nicholas and a remnant
of his followers, retreated to Rimnik, where he spent some days
in negotiating with the Austrian authorities for permission to
cross the frontier. Fearing that his followers might surrender
him to the Turks, he gave out that Austria had declared war
on Turkey, caused a Te Deum to be sung in the church of
Kosia, and, on pretext of arranging measures with the Austrian
commander-in-chief, crossed the frontier. But the Austria of
Francis I. and Metternich was no asylum for leaders of revolts
in neighbouring countries. Ypsilanti was kept in close con-
finement for seven years, and when released at the instance of
the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia, retired to Vienna, where he
died in extreme poverty and misery on the 3ist of January 1828.
DEMETRIOS YPSILANTI (1793-1832), second son of Prince
Constantine, distinguished himself as a Russian officer in the cam-
paign of 1814, and in the spring of 1821 went to the Morea, where
the war of Greek independence had just broken out. He was
one of the most conspicuous of the Phanariot leaders during the
earlier stages of the revolt, though he was much hampered by
the local chiefs and by the civilian element headed by Mavro-
cordato. In January 1822 he was elected president of the
legislative assembly; but the ill-success of his campaign in
central Greece, and his failure to obtain a commanding position
in the national convention of Astros, led to his retirement
early in 1823. In 1828 he was appointed by Capo d'Istria
commander of the troops in East Hellas. He succeeded, on the
25th of September 1829, in forcing the Turkish commander
Asian Bey to sign a capitulation at the Pass of Petra, which
ended the active operations of the war. He died at Vienna on
the 3rd of January 1832.
Gregory Ypsilanti (d. 1835), third son of Prince Constantine,
founded a princely family still settled near Briinn. Nicholas
Ypsilanti wrote M&noires valuable as giving material for the
antecedents of the insurrection of 1820 and the part taken in
them by Alexander I. of Russia. They were published at Athens
in 1901.
See the works cited in the bibliography of the article GREEK
INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF, especially the Awci/woK iaropiK&v of J.
Philemon.
YPSILANTI, a city of Washtenaw county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
on the Huron river, 30 m. W. by S. of Detroit. Pop. (1900) 7378;
(1904) 7587; (1910) 6230. It is served by the Michigan Central
and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and is the
seat of the Michigan State Normal College (1849). There are
various manufactures. Ypsilanti was laid out and named in
honour of Demetrius Ypsihinti, the Greek patriot, in 1825; it was
incorporated as a village in 1832, and chartered as a city in 1858.
YSAYE, EUGENE (1858- ), Belgian violinist, was born at
Liege, where he studied with his father and under R. Massart,
at the Conservatoire, until he was fifteen; he had some lessons
from Wieniawski, and later from Vieuxtemps. In 1879 Ysaye
played in Germany, and next year acted as leader of Bilse's
orchestra in Berlin; he appeared in Paris in 1883, and for the
first time in London at a Philharmonic concert hi 1889. He
was violin professor at the Brussels Conservatoire from 1886 to
1898, and instituted the celebrated orchestral concerts of which
he was manager and conductor. Ysaye first appeared as con-
ductor before a London audience in 1900, and in 1907 conducted
Fidelia at Covent Garden. The sonata concerts in which he
played with Raoul Pugno (b. 1852), the French pianist, became
very popular in Paris and Brussels, and were notable features
of several London concert seasons. As a violinist he ranks with
the finest masters of the instrument, with extraordinary tempera-
mental power as an interpreter. His compositions include a
Programme Symphony (played in London, 1905), a Piano
Concerto, and a " Suite Wallonne."
YSTAD, a seaport of Sweden on the S. Baltic coast, in the
district (Ian) of Malmohus, 39 m. E.S.E. of Malmo by rail.
Pop. (1900) 9862. Two of its churches date from the I3th
century. Its artificial harbour, which admits vessels drawing
19 ft., is freer from ice in winter than any other Swedish Baltic
port. Apart from a growing import trade in coal and machinery,
YPSILANTI (CITY) YUCATAN
its commerce has declined; but it is among the first twelve
manufacturing places in Sweden, having large mechanical
workshops.
YTTERBIUM (NEO- YTTERBIUM) [symbol, Yb; atomic weight,
172-0 (O = i6)], a metallic chemical element belonging to the
rare earth group. Mixed with scandium it was discovered by
Marignac in gadolinite in 1878 (see RARE EARTHS). The oxide,
YbjOs, is white and forms colourless salts; the crystallized
chloride, YbClr6H 2 O, forms colourless, deliquescent crystals;
the anhydrous chloride sublimes on heating (C. Matignon,
Ann. chim. phys., 1906 (8), 8, p. 440). In 1907 G. Urbain
separated ytterbium into two new elements, neo-ytterbium and
lutecium (atomic weight, 174-0) ; and in 1908 C. A. von Welsbach
published the same result, naming his elements aldebaranium
and cassiopeium (on the question of priority see F. Wenzel,
Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1909, 64, p. 119).
YTTRIUM [symbol, Y; atomic weight, 89-0 (O= 16)], a metallic
chemical element. In its character yttrium is closely allied to,
and in nature is always associated with, cerium, lanthanum,
didymium and erbium (see RARE EARTHS). For the prepara-
tion of yttrium compounds the best raw material is gadolinite,
which, according to Konig, consists of 22-61% of silica, 34-64
of yttria, Y 2 Os, and 42-75 of the oxides of erbium, cerium, didy-
mium, lanthanum, iron, beryllium, calcium, magnesium and
sodium. The extraction (as is the case with all the rare earths)
is a matter of great difficulty. Metallic yttrium is obtainable as
a dark grey powder by reducing the chloride with potassium,
or by electrolysing the double chloride of yttrium and sodium.
It decomposes water slowly in the cold, and more rapidly on heat-
ing. Yttria, Y 2 O 3 , is a yellowish white powder, which at high
temperatures radiates out a most brilliant white light It is
soluble, slowly but completely, in mineral acids. It is recog-
nized by its very characteristic spark spectrum. Solutions of
yttria salts in their behaviour to reagents are not unlike those of
zirconia. The atomic weight was determined by Cleve.
YUCATAN, a peninsula of Central America forming the S.E.
extremity of the republic of Mexico and including the states
of Campeche and Yucatan and the territory of Quintana Roo.
Small parts of British Honduras and Guatemala are also in-
cluded in it. The natural boundary of the peninsula on the S.
is formed in part by the ridges extending across N. Guatemala,
the line terminating E. at the lower part of Chetumal Bay, and
W. at Laguna de Terminos. From this base the land extends
N. between the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea in nearly
rectangular form for about 280 m., with about the same extreme
width in longitude. It has a mean breadth of about 200 m.,
a coast-line of 700 m. and an area of about 55,400 sq.m.
The coast on the N. and W. is low, sandy and semi-barren,
and is made dangerous by the Campeche banks, a northward
extension of the peninsula, covered with shifting sands. The
outer shore-line on the N. for nearly 200 m. consists of a narrow
strip of low sand dunes, within which is a broad channel terminat-
ing to the E. in a large lagoon. There are a number of openings
through the outer bank and several small towns or ports have
been built upon it. The E. coast consists of bluffs, indented with
bays and bordered by several islands, the larger ones being
Cozumel (where Cortes first landed), Cancum, Mujeres and
Contoy. There is more vegetation on this coast, and the bays
of Chetumal, Espiritu Santo, Ascencion and San Miguel (on
Cozumel Island) afford good protection for shipping. It is,
however, sparsely settled and has little commerce.
The peninsula is almost wholly composed of a bed of coralline and
porous limestone rocks, forming a low tableland, which rises
gradually toward the S. until it is merged in the great Central
American plateau. It is covered with a layer of thin, dry soil,
through the slow weathering of the coral rocks. The surface is
not so level and monotonous as it appears on many maps; for,
although there are scarcely any running streams, it is diversified
by a few lakes, of which Bacalar and Chichankanab are the largest,
as well as by low isolated hills and ridges in the W., and in the E.
by the Sierra Alta, a range of moderate elevation traversing the
whole peninsula from Catoche Point S. to the neighbourhood of
Lake Peteu in Guatemala. The culminating points o? the W. ridges
do not exceed 900 ft., and some authorities estimate it at 500 ft.
YUCCA
943
The climate of Yucatan is hot and dry; the Gulf Stream, which
sweeps by its N. shores, adds to its naturally high temperature,
and the absence of high mountainous ridges to intercept the
moisture-bearing clouds from the Atlantic gives it a limited rainfall.
The temperature ranges from 75 to 98 F. in the shade, but the
heat is modified by cool sea winds which prevail day and night
throughout the greater part of the year. The atmosphere is also
purified by the fierce temporales, or northers," which occasionally
sweep down over the Gulf and across this open region. The dry
season lasts from October to May, the hottest months appear to be
in March and April, when the heat is increased by the burning of
the corn and henequen fields. The rains are quickly absorbed by
the light porous soil and leave only temporary effects on the surface,
where arboreal growth is stunted and grasses are commonly thin
and harsh. For the most part the climate of Yucatan is healthy,
though enervating. There are undrained, swampy districts in
Campeche, in the vicinity of the Terminos Lagoon, where malarial
diseases are prevalent, and the same conditions prevail along the
coast where mangreve swamps are found. Yellow fever epidemics
are common on the Campeche coast, and sometimes appear at
Progreso and Merida. The sites of some of the old Maya cities are
also considered dangerous at certain seasons.
All the N. districts, as well as the greater part of the Sierra Alta,
are destitute of large trees; but the coast-lands on_ both sides
towards Tabasco and British Honduras enjoy a sufficient rainfall
to support forests containing the mahogany tree, several valuable
cabinet woods, vanilla, logwood and other dye-woods. Logwood
forests fringe all the lagoons and many parts of the seaboard, which
are flooded during the rainy season. The chief cultivated plants are
maize, the sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, coffee and especially hene-
quen, the so-called " Sisal hemp," which is a strong, coarse fibre
obtained from the leaves of the Agave rigida, var. elongata. It
requires very little moisture, grows luxuriantly on the thin calcareous
soil of Yucatan and is cultivated almost exclusively by the large
landowners. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of coarse sack-
cloth, cordage and hammocks, and is exported in large quantities.
The labour needed in this industry is supplied by Indian peons, who
live in a state of semi-servitude and are paid barely enough to
sustain life.
History and Antiquities. The modern history of Yucatan
begins with the expedition of Francisco Hernandez de Cordova,
a Spanish adventurer settled in Cuba, who discovered the E.
coast of Yucatan in February 1517, when on a slave-hunting
expedition. He followed the coast round to Campeche, but
was unable to penetrate the interior. In 1518 Juan de Grijalva
followed the same coast, but added nothing to the information
sought by the governor of Cuba. In 1519 a third expedition,
under Hernando Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, came into
collision with the natives of the island of Cozumel. In 1525
the inland part of the peninsula was traversed by Cort6s during
an expedition to Honduras. The conquest of the peninsula
was undertaken in 1527 by Francisco de Montejo, who en-
countered a more vigorous opposition than Cortes had on the
high plateau of Anahuac. In 1549 Montejo had succeeded in
establishing Spanish rule over barely one-half of the peninsula,
and it was never extended further. The Spaniards found here
the remains of a high aboriginal civilization which had already
entered upon decline. There were deserted cities falling into
ruins, and others, like Chichen-itza, Uxmal and Tuloom, which
were still inhabited by remnants of their former Maya popula-
tions. The Mayas have left no record of their institutions
or of the causes of their decline, beyond what may be deduced
from their ruined structures. The number and extent of these
ruins (temples, palaces, ball courts, market-places, &c.) indicate
large towns in the midst of thickly settled, productive districts,
for there were then, so far as can be determined, no means
of supporting large urban populations through commercial
exchanges. The exhaustion of the soil in the vicinity of towns,
or epidemics brought on by insanitary habits, might easily
cause depopulation in so hot a climate. Other remains which
bear witness to the civilization of the Mayas are the paved
highways and the artificial reservoirs (aguadas) designed for
the preservation of water for towns through the long dry
season. These aguadas were huge basins, paved and cemented,
with underground cisterns, also lined with stone and cement,
which may have been used for the protection of water against
heat when the principal supply had become exhausted. The
great problem in all the Maya settlements of Yucatan was
that of securing and preserving a water supply for the dry
season. Some of their towns were built near large under-
ground reservoirs, called cenotes, that afforded a perennial
supply. Since the Spanish conquest, the Mayas have clung
to the semi-barren, open plains of the peninsula, and have
more than once revolted. They seceded in 1839 and maintained
their independence until 1843. In 1847 another revolt fol-
lowed, and the Indians were practically independent through-
out the greater part of the peninsula until near the beginning
of the Diaz administration. In 1910 there was another revolt
with some initial successes, such as the capture of Valladolid,
but then the Indians withdrew to the unknown fastnesses of
Quintana Roo.
The Mexican STATE OF YUCATAN is bounded N. by the
Gulf of Mexico, E. and S. by the territory of Quintana Roo,
S. and W. by the state of Campeche. Pop. (1900) about
306,000. The railways include the three lines of the United
Railways of Yucatan (373 m.), and a line from Merida to Peto
(145 m.). The capital is M6rida, and its principal towns,
inhabited almost exclusively by Indians and mestizos, are
Valladolid, Acanceh, Tekax, Motul, Temax, Espita, Maxcanu,
Hunucma, Tixkokob, Peto and Progreso, the port of Merida,
Quintana Roo was separated irom the state of Yucatan in
1902 and received a territorial government under the imme-
diate supervision of the national executive. It comprises the
sparsely settled districts along the E. coast of the peninsula,
and the wooded sections of the S., which have not been
thoroughly explored. Its population is estimated at 3000, but
as its inhabitants never submitted to Spanish and Mexican
rule, and have maintained their independence against over-
whelming odds for almost four centuries, this estimate should
be accepted as a conjecture. Little is known of the wild tribes
of the territory.
YUCCA, 1 a genus of the order Liliaceae (<?.>.), containing about
thirty species. They occur in greatest frequency in Mexico and
Yucca gloriosa in flower, much reduced. I, flower, half nat. size;
2, diagram showing arrangement of the parts of the flower in
horizontal plan.
the S.W. United States, extending also into Central America, and
occurring in such numbers in some places as to form straggling
1 A Spanish word meaning " bayonet," recalling the form and
character of the leaves.
944
YUE-CHI
forests. They have a woody or fibrous stem, sometimes short,
and in other cases attaining a height of 1 5 to 20 ft., and branching
at the top into a series of forks. The leaves are crowded in
tufts at the ends of the stem or branches, and are generally stiff
and sword-shaped, with a sharp point, sometimes flaccid and in
other cases fibrous at the edges. The numerous flowers are
usually white, bell-shaped and pendulous, and are borne in
much-branched terminal panicles. Each flower has a perianth
of six regular pieces, and has as many hypogynous stamens, with
dilated filaments, bearing relatively small anthers. The three-
celled ovary is surmounted by a short thick style, dividing above
into three stigmas, and ripens into a succulent berry in some of
the species, and into a dry three-valved capsule in others. The
flowers are fertilized by the agency of moths.
A coarse fibre is obtained by the Mexicans from the stem and
foliage, which they utilize for cordage, and in the S.E. United
States the leaves of some species, under the name " bear-grass,"
are used for seating chairs; &c. The fruits, which resemble
small bananas, are cooked as an article of diet; and the roots
contain a saponaceous matter used in place of soap.
Many of the species are hardy in Great Britain, and their striking
appearance renders them attractive in gardens even when not in
flower. They thrive in a rich, light soil, and are propagated by
divisions planted in the open ground, or by pieces of the thick,
fleshy roots in sandy soil under heat. Their rigid foliage, invested
by thick epidermis, enables them to resist the noxious air of towns
better than most plants. A popular name for the plant is " Adam's
needle." The species which split up at the margins of their leaves
into filaments are called " Eve's thread."
YUE-CHI (or YUEH-CHIH), the Chinese name of a central
Asiatic tribe who ruled in Bactria and India, are also known as
Kushans (from one of their subdivisions) and Indo-Scythians.
They appear to have been a nomad tribe, inhabiting part of the
present Chinese province of Kan-suh, and to have been driven W.
by Hiung-nu tribes of the same stock. They conquered a tribe
called the Wusun, who lived in the basin of the Hi river, and
settled for some time in their territory. The date of these events
is placed between 175 and 140 B.C. They then attacked another
tribe known as Sakas, and drove them to Persia and India.
For about twenty years it would seem that the Yue-Chi were
settled in the country between the rivers Chu and Syr-Darya,
but here they were attacked again by the Hiung-nu, their old
enemies, with whom was the son of the defeated Wusun chieftain.
The Yue-Chi then occupied Bactria, and little is heard of them
for a hundred years. During this period they became a united
people, having previously been a confederacy of five tribes,
the principal of which, the Kushans (or Kwei-Shwang) , supplied
the new national name. They also to some extent gave up their
nomadic life and became civilized. Bactria about this time was
said to contain a thousand cities, and though this may be an
exaggeration it was probably a meeting-place of Persian and
Hellenic culture: its kings Demetrius and Eucratides had invaded
India. It is therefore not surprising to find the warlike and
mobile Yue-Chi following the same road and taking fragments
of Persian and Greek civilization with them.
The chronology of this invasion and of the history of the
Kushans in India must be regarded as uncertain, though we know
the names of the kings. Indian literature supplies few data for
the period, and the available information has been collected
chiefly from notices in Chinese annals, from inscriptions found in
India, and above all from coins. From this evidence it has been
deduced that a king called Kozulokadphises, Kujulakasa or
Kieu-tsieu-k'io (? A.D. 45-85) united the five tribes, conquered
the Kabul valley and annihilated the remnants of Greek dominion.
He was succeeded, possibly after an interval, by Ooemokadphises
(Himakapisa or Yen-kao-tsin-tai),who completed the annexation
of N. India. Then followed Kanishka (? c. A.D. 123-53), who is
celebrated throughout eastern Asia as a patron of the Buddhist
church and convener of the third Buddhist council. He is also
said to have conquered Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan. His
successors were Huvishka and then Vasudeva, who may have
died c. A.D. 225. After Vasudeva's reign the power of the
Kushans gradually decayed, and they were driven back into the
valley of the Indus and N.E. Afghanistan. Here, according to
Chinese authorities, their royal family was supplanted by a
dynasty called Ki-to-lo (Kidara), who were also of Yue-Chi stock,
but belonged to one of the tribes who had remained in Bactria
when the Kushans marched to India. The subsequent migration
of the Kitolo S. of the Hindu Kush was due to the movements
of the Jwen-Jwen, who advanced W. from the Chinese frontier.
Under this dynasty a state known as the Little Kushan kingdom
flourished in Gandhara (E. Afghanistan) about A.D. 430, but was
broken up by the attacks of the Huiias.
Some authorities do not accept the list of Kushan kings as given
above, and think that Kanishka must be placed before Christ and
perhaps as early as 58 B.C.: also that there was another king
with a name something like Vasushka before or after Huvishka.
In any case the invasion of the Yue-Chi cannot have been very
long before or very long after the Christian era, and had an im-
portant influence on Indian civilization. Their coins show a
remarkable union of characteristics, derived from many nations.
The general shape and style are Roman: the inscriptions are in
Greek or in a Persian language written in Greek letters, or in
Kharoshthi: the reverse often bears the figure of a deity, either
Greek (Herakles, Helios, Selene) or Zoroastrian (Mithra, Vata,
Verethraghna) or Indian (generally Siva or a war god). One
figure called Sarapo appears to be the Egyptian Serapis, and others
are perhaps Babylonian deities. On the obverse is generally the
king, who, in the earlier coins at any rate, wears a long open coat,
knee boots and a tall cap clearly the costume of a nomad from
the north. The Gandhara school of sculpture, of which the best
specimens come from the neighbourhood of Kanishka's capital,
Purushpura (the modern Peshawar), is a branch of Graeco-Roman
art adapted to Oriental religious subjects. The Yue-Chi were
probably the principal means of disseminating it in India, though
all movements which kept open the communications between
Bactria and Persia and India must have contributed, and the first
introduction was due to the short-lived Graeco-Bactrian conquest
(180-130 B.C.). The importance of the Gandharan influence on
the art of India and all Buddhist Asia is now recognized. Further,
it is probably in the mixture of Greek, Persian and Indian deities
which characterizes the pantheon of the Kushan kings that are
to be sought many of the features found in Mahayanist Buddhism
and Hinduism (as distinguished from the earlier Brahmanism).
Kanishka and other monarchs were zealous but probably by no
means exclusive Buddhists, and the conquest of Khotan and
Kashgar must have facilitated the spread of Buddhist ideas to
China. It is also probable that the Yue-Chi not only acted as
intermediaries for the introduction of Greek and Persian ideas
into India, and of Indian ideas into China, but left behind them
an important element in the population of N. India.
It is hard to say whether the Yue-Chi should be included in any
of the recognized divisions of Turanian tribes such as Turks or
Huns. Nothing whatever is known of their original language.
Such of the inscriptions on their coins as are not in Greek or an
Indian language are in a form of Persian written in Greek uncials.
In this alphabet the Greek letter /> (or rather a very similar letter
with the loop a little lower down) is used to represent sh, and
there are some peculiarities in the use of o apparently connected
with the expression of the sounds h and w. Thus PAONANO PAO
KANHPKI KOPANO is to be read as something like ShAhanan ShAh
Kanishki Koshan : Kanishka the Kushan, king of kings. This
Persian title became in later times the special designation of the
Kushan kings and is curiously parallel to the use of Arabic and
Persian titles (padishah, sultan, &c.) by the Ottoman Turks. The
physical type represented on these coins has a strong prominent
nose, large eyes, a moderately abundant beard and somewhat
thick or projecting lips. Hence, as far as any physical characters
can be formulated for the various tribes (and their validity is very
doubtful) the Yue-Chi type is Turkish rather than Mongol or
Ugro-Finnic. In such points of temperament as military ability
and power of assimilating Indian and Persian civilization, the Yue-
Chi also resemble the Turks, and some authorities think that the
name Turushka or Turukha sometimes applied to them by Indian
writers is another evidence of the connexion. But the national
existence and name of the Turks (q.v.) seem to date from the sth
century A.D., so that it is an anachronism to speak of the Yue-Chi
as a division of them. The Yue-Chi and Turks, however, may both
represent parallel developments of similar or even originally
identical tribes. The Mahommedan writer Alberuni states that
in former times the kings of the Hindus (among whom he mentions
Kanik or Kanishka) were Turks by race, and this may represent
a native tradition as to the affinities of the Yue-Chi. Some authors
consider that the Yue-Chi are the same as the Getae 'and that the
original form of the name was Yut or Get, which is also supposed
to appear in the Indian Jat.
See Vincent Smith, Early History of India (1908) ; Hoernle and
Stark, History of India (1905); Rapson, Indian Coins (1898);
Gardner, Coins of Greek and Scythian Kings in India (1886) ; Franke,
Beitrage aus Chinesischen Quellen zur Kenntnis der Turkvolker und
YUKON YUKON TERRITORY
945
Skythen (1904), and numerous articles by Cunningham, Fleet,
A. Stein, Vincent Smith, Sylyian Leyi, E. H. Parker and others in
the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Journal asiatique, Asiatic
Quarterly, &c. Owing to the new evidence which is continually
being brought forward, the most recent writings on this subject
are generally to be preferred. (C. EL.)
YUKON, the largest river in Alaska, and the fifth largest in
N. America. With its longest tributaries not in Alaska, the Lewes
and the Teslin (or Hootalinqua), its length is about 2300 m., in
the form of a great arc, beginning in the Yukon District of British
Columbia, near the Pacific Ocean, and ending at the Bering Sea
coast. Its catchment area is about 330,000 sq. m., more than
one-half of which lies in Canada. The Lewes river rises in Lake
Bennet (Yukon District) on the N. slope of the Coast Range,
about 25m. inland from the Lynn Canal (at the head of Chatham
Strait), and flows N. through a chain of lakes, its confluence with
the Felly river, at Selkirk, Yukon District, about 120 m. due E.
of the Alaskan-Canadian boundary, forming the headwaters of
the Yukon. Flowing thence N.W., the Yukon turns abruptly
to the S.W. near Fort Yukon, Alaska, on the Arctic Circle, and
continues nearly at right angles to its former course to a point
S. of the head of Norton Sound, where it turns again and flows
in a N.W. direction, emptying into the Sound from its S. shore.
The length of the river, from its headwaters to its mouth, is
about 1500 m.
The Yukon Valley comprises four sub-provinces, or physiographic
divisions; in their order from the headwaters of the river these
divisions have been called the " Upper Yukon," " Yukon Flats,"
" Rampart Region " and " Lower Yukon." The " Upper Yukon "
Valley is about 450 m. long and from I to 3 m. broad, and is flanked
by walls rising to the plateau level from 1500 to 3000 ft. above
the stream. In this part of its course the Yukon receives from
the S. the Selwyn river (about 40 m. below the junction of the
Lewes and Pelly rivers) ; from the W. the White river (about
60 m. below the Selwyn); from the N. the Stewart river (about
10 m. below the White), one of the largest tributaries of the Yukon;
from the E. the Klondike river (near 64 N.) ; from the W. Forty-
mile Creek (about 40 m. above the Alaskan-Canadian boundary
line), and many other smaller streams. The " Yukon Flats
flank the river for about 200 m. and are from 40 to 100 m. wide.
Here the stream varies in width from 10 to nearly 20 m., and
involves a confused network of constantly changing channels.
Here, too, the river makes its great bend to the S.W., and its channels
are constantly changing. The " Flats " are monotonous areas of
sand bars and low islands, thickly wooded with spruce. The
principal tributaries here are the Porcupine river (an important
affluent, which enters the main stream at the great bend about
3 m. N. of the Arctic Circle); the Chandlar river, also confluent
at the great bend, from the N., and, near the W. edge of the Flats,
the Dall river, also from the N. Ths " Rampart Region " begins
near 66 N., where the " Flats " end abruptly, and includes about
no m. of the valley, from I to 3 m. wide, and extending to the
mouth of the Tanana. No large tributaries are received in this
part of the river. The Lower Yukon includes that portion between
the Ramparts and the sea, a stretch of about 800 m. At the
mouth of the Tanana (which enters the main stream from the S.)
the gorge opens into a lowland from 15 to 20 m. wide. Along the
N.W. boundary of the valley are low mountains whose base the
Yukon skirts, and it continues to press upon its N. bank until
the delta is reached. The valley is never less than 2 or 3 m., and
the river has many channels and numerous islands; it has walls
nearly to the head of the delta, though about loo m. above the
delta the S. wall merges into the lowland coastal plain; the relief
is about 1000 ft.
At the W. edge of the Ramparts the Yukon receives the Tanana
river, its longest tributary lying wholly within Alaska. The Tanana
Valley is about 400 m. long, nearly parallel to the Yukon from
about due W. of its headwaters to the great bend, and drains
about 25,000 sq. m. Its sources are chiefly glaciers in the Alaskan
Range, and it receives many tributaries. The Yukon delta begins
near 63 N. Here the main stream branches into several channels
which follow N. or N.W. courses to Norton Sound. The northern-
most of these channels is the Apoon Pass, and the most southerly
is Kwikluak Pass; their outlets are about 75 m. apart on the
coast, and from 40 to 50 m. from the head of the delta. Between
them is a labyrinth of waterways, most of the intervening land
being not more than 10 ft. above low tide. The stream is mud-
laden throughout its course, and though the sediment is heavier
above the ' Flats " than below them (where the slower current
permits the settling of much of the silt), so much of it is carried
to the river's mouth that the delta is being steadily extended.
Immediately S. of the Yukon delta proper is that of the Kush-
kowim, into which undoubtedly the Yukon's waters once found
their way.
The Yukon is navigable from May till September, and steamers ply
on several of its larger tributaries, making the aggregate navigaole
waters about 3500 m., about three-fourths of which are in Alaska.
The nearest harbour for ocean-going vessels is a poor one at
St Michael's Island, about 60 m. N.E. of the delta; here freight
and passengers are transferred to flat-bottomed river steamers.
These enter the delta and the river by the Apoon Pass, which is
about 4 ft. deep at mean low water, the current varying from I J to
4 m. an hour. The Lewes (about 400 m. long) is navigable (with
some difficulty, during low water, at Lake Lebarge) as far as
White Horse Rapids, which, with Miles Canyon, obstruct the river
for a few miles; above them the stream is again navigable in its
source, about lop m. beyond. The Pacific & Arctic railway from
Skagway to White Horse (ill m.) overcomes these obstructions,
however, for traffic and travel; and even the dangerous White
Horse Rapids may be run by a skilful pilot in a small boat, as was
done repeatedly by the gold-seekers in 1896-97. The Stewart
river, seldom less than 150 yds. wide, is navigable by light-draught
steamers to Frazer Falls, a distance of nearly 200 m. The Porcu-
pine is navigable, in high water, to about the Alaska-Yukon
boundary line (c. 90 m.); the Chandlar for a few miles; the Tanana
(which is about 500 m. long) for about 225 m. to the Chena river
(which is navigable for about 100 m.) ; and the Tolovana, another
affluent of the Tanana, is also navigable for about 100 m.
In 1842-43 the Yukon was explored by the Russian Lieu-
tenant Zagoskin, who built a trading post at Nulato, ascended
the river (which he called the Kwikpak) as far as the Tanana,
made a track survey of the stream to that point and reported
that it was not navigable beyond there. In 1861 Robert
Kennicott made his way overland by the Hudson Bay route from
the Mackenzie river down the Yukon to Fort Yukon, and in
1865 he and Captain Charles S. Bulkley led the expedition sent out
by the Western Union Telegraph Company to survey a route for a
land telegraph line tc Europe by way of Alaska and Siberia.
Kennicott died at Nulato in 1866, and the expedition was
abandoned in that year, but explorations were continued by
other members, notably Dr William H. Dall, 1 with the result
that valuable surveys were made and the Yukon identified as
the Kwikpak of the earlier Russian surveys. Captain C. W. Ray-
mond made a reconnoissance of the Yukon in 1869; the Indian
route by the Lewes to the headwaters of theYukon was used by gold
prospectors as early as 1881, while in 1883 Lieutenant Frederick
Schwatka (1840-1892) crossed the Chilkoot Pass (which he
called " Perrier Pass "), descended the Lewes to Fort Selkirk, and
down the river to the sea. Charles W. Homan, who accompanied
Schwatka, made the first sketch survey of the great system;
since then it has been frequently explored, but much of the
region has not been mapped.
See Alfred H. Brooks, The Geography and Geology of Alaska,
U.S. Geol. Survey, Document No. 201 (Washington, 1906); also
G. M. Dawson, Yukon District and British Columbia, Annual Report
of the Geol. and Natural History Survey of Canada, vol. 3, pt. I
(1889); William Ogilvie, The Klondike Official Guide (Buffalo.
N.Y., 1808); C. W. Haynes, "An Expedition through the Yukon
District, Nat. Geog. Mag. vol. 4 (1892); R. G. McConnell, Salmon
River Gold Fields, Summary of Report of Geol. Survey of Canada
(1901); idem, The Macmillan River, Yukon District, Summary of
Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1902; A. H. Brooks,
A Reconnaissance in the Tanana and White River Basins in 1898,
Twentieth Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey (Washington, 1900);
and A Reconnaissance from Pyramid Harbor to Eagle City. Alaska,
Twenty-first Annual Report, ibid. (Washington, 1900), and other
sources cited by Brooks in the first-named work.
YUKON TERRITORY, the most westerly of the northern
territories of Canada, bounded S. by British Columbia, W. by
Alaska, N. by the Arctic Ocean and E. by the watershed of
Mackenzie river. It has an area of 207,076 sq. m. The territory
is chiefly drained by the Yukon river and its tributaries, though
at the S.E. corner the headwaters of the Liard river, flowing
into the Mackenzie, occupy a part of its area. The margins of
the territory are mountainous, including part of the St Elias
'William Healey Dall (1845- ), American naturalist, was
born in Boston, Massachusetts, served with the United States
Coast Survey of Alaska from 1871 to 1884, became honorary
curator of the United States National Museum in i88o,and in 1893
was appointed professor of invertebrate palaeontology at the Wagner
Institute of Science, Philadelphia. He was palaeontologist to the
United States Geological Survey in 1884-ioxx). The white moun-
tain sheep, or Dall's sheep (Ovis dallf), discovered in 1884, was
named in his honour.
946
YULE, SIR H. YUN-NAN
range with the highest mountains in Canada at the S.W. corner
(Mount Logan and Mount St Elias), and the N. extension of the
Rocky Mountains along the S. and N.E. sides; here, however,
not very lofty. The interior of the territory is high toward the
S.E. and sinks toward the N.W., and may be described as a much-
dissected peneplain with low mountains to the S. The most
important feature of the hydrography is the Yukon (q.v.) and the
rivers which flow into it. The Klondike gold mines are reached
by river boats, either coming up from St Michael at its mouth,
or down 460 m. from White Horse. The White Horse route is
now used almost entirely, since the White Pass railway, mm.
long, was constructed from Skagway, on Lynn Canal, an inlet of
the Pacific. As the voyage up the Pacific coast from Vancouver
or Victona is almost entirely through sheltered waters, the
journey to the Klondike is very attractive in summer. Com-
paratively little snow is seen in crossing White Pass during
summer, though there are patches on the low mountains on each
side. The Rocky Mountains, N.E. of the interior plateau,
are somewhat snowy, but apparently with no large glaciers;
but the St Elias range to the S.W. is buried under immense
snowfields, from which great glaciers project into the valleys.
The rocks are largely ancient schists and eruptives, Palaeozoic or
Archean, but considerable areas are covered with Mesozoic and
Tertiary rocks, some of which include important seams of lignite
or coal, the latter especially in the neighbourhood of White
Horse. There have been comparatively recent volcanic eruptions
in the region, as shown by a layer of white ash just beneath the
soil for many miles along the river, and by a quite perfect
cone with a crater and lava stream; but there are no records
of volcanic outbreaks within the short modern history of the
territory.
Before the discovery of gold on the Forty Mile and other
rivers flowing into the Yukon the region was inhabited only
by a few Indians, but the sensational finds of rich placers in the
Klondike (q.v.) in 1896 brought in a vigorous population centred
in the mines and at Dawson City, which was made the capital of
the newly constituted Yukon Territory. When the White Pass
railway was built, White Horse at its N. terminus became of
importance, and since then a fluctuating body of prospectors
and miners has been at work, not only in the Klondike but at
various points along the other rivers. The territory is ruled by a
governor and council, partly elective, seated at Dawson, and has
a representative in the parliament of the Dominion. Almost
the only economic product of the territory was at first gold, but
copper and other ores later began to attract attention in the S.
near White Horse. Though so near the Pacific the Yukon
territory has a rigorous continental climate with very cold
winters seven months long, and delightful sunny summers.
Owing to the lofty mountains to the W. the amount of rain and
snow is rather small, and the line of perpetual snow is more
than 4000 ft. above sea-'.evel, so that glaciers are found only on
the higher mountains; but the moss-covered ground is often
perpetually frozen to a depth of 100 or 200 ft. Vegetation
is luxuriant along the river valleys, where fine forests of spruce
and poplar are found, and the hardier grains and vegetables are
cultivated with success. (A. P. C.)
YULE, SIR HENRY (1820-1889), British Orientalist, was
born on the ist of May 1820, at Inveresk, near Edinburgh,
the son of Major William Yule (1764-1839), translator of the
Apothegms of Ali. He was educated at Edinburgh. Addiscombe
and Chatham, and joined the Bengal Engineers in 1840. He
served in both the Sikh wars, was secretary to Colonel (afterwards
Sir) Arthur Phayre's mission to Ava (1855), and wrote his
Narrative of the Mission to the Court of Ava (1858). He retired
in 1862 with the rank of colonel, and devoted his leisure to the
medieval history and geography of Central Asia. He published
Cathay and the Way Thither (1866), the Book of Ser Marco Polo
1871-75), for which he received the gold medal of the Royal
Geographical Society, and brought out with Dr Arthur C.
Burnell Hobson-Jobson (1886), a dictionary of Anglo-Indian
colloquial phrases. For the Hakluyt Society, of which he was
for some time president, he edited (1863) the Mirabilia descripta
of Jordanus and The Diary of William Hedges (1887-89). The
latter contains a biography of Governor Pitt, grandfather of
Chatham. From 1875 to 1889 Yule was a member of the Council
of India, being appointed K. C.S.I, on his retirement. He died
on the 30th of December 1889.
See Memoir by his daughter, prefixed to the posthumous third
edition ol_Marco Polo (1903).
YULE, the season of Christmas (q.v.). This word is chiefly
used alone as an archaism or in poetry or poetical language,
but is more common in combination, as in " yule-tide," " yule-
log," &c. The Old English word appears in various forms,
.g. geola, iula, geol, gehhol, gehhel; cognate forms are Icel, jol;
Dan. juul; Swed. jul. It was the name of two months of
the year, December and January, the one the " former yule "
(se aerra geola), the other the " after yule " (se aeftera gedla),
as coming before and after the winter solstice (Cotton MS.
Tib. B. i. ; and Bede, De Temporum Ratione, 13, quoted in
Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1898). According to A. Fick (Vergleichetides
Worterbuch der Indogermanischen Sprachen, vol. iii. 245, 1874)
in proper meaning is noise, clamour, the season being one of
rejoicing at the turning of the year among Scandinavian peoples
before Christian times.
YUN-NAN (i.e. Cloudy South), a S.W. province of China,
bounded N. by Sze-ch'uen, E. by Kwei-chow and Kwang-si,
S. by Burma and the Lao tribes and W. by Burma and Tibet;
area estimated at from 122,000 to 146,000 sq. m. Though the
second largest province of the empire, its population is esti-
mated at only 12,000,000. The inhabitants include many
races besides Chinese, such as Shans, Lolos and Maotsze. The
Musus, in N.W. Yun-nan, once formed an independent kingdom
which extended into E. Tibet. Many of the inhabitants are
nominally Moslems. The greater part of the province may be
said to consist of an extensive plateau, generally from 5000 to
7000 ft. in altitude, containing numerous valley plains, which is
divided in the N. by mountain ranges that enter at the N.W.
corner and separate the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang, the
Mekong and the Salween. The mountains attain heights of
16,000 ft. The climate is generally healthy and equable; on the
plateau the summer heat seldom exceeds 86, and in winter
there is little snow. The principal rivers are the Yangtsze-
kiang (locally known as the Kinsha-kiang = Golden Sand river),
which enters Yun-nan at its N.W. corner, flows first S.E. and
then N.E., forming for a considerable distance the N. boundary
of the province; the Mekong, which traverses the province from
N. to S. on its way to the sea through Annam; the Salween,
which runs a parallel course through its W. portion; and the
headwaters of the Songkoi, which rises in the S.E. of the province.
This last-named river is navigable from the Gulf of Tongking to
Man-hao, a town ten days' journey from Yun-nan Fu. There
are two large lakes one in the neighbourhood of Ta-li Fu, which
is 24 m. long by 6 m. broad, and the other near Yun-nan Fu,
which measures from 70 to 80 m. in circumference.
Besides Yun-nan Fu, the capital, the province contains thirteen
prefectural cities, several of which Teng-ch'uen Fu, Ta-li Fu,
Yung-ch'ang Fu, Ch'u-siung Fu and Lin-gan Fu, for example-^-
are situated in the valley plains. Mengtsze, Szemao and Momein
(or T6ng-yueh) are open to foreign trade. Yun-nan Fu is connected
by railway (1910) with Tongking. The line y.-hich starts from
Haiphong runs, in Yun-nan, via Mengtsze hsien (a great com-
mercial centre), to the capital. Several important roads intersect
the province; among them are I. The road from Yun-nan Fu
to Bhamo in Burma via Ta-li Fu (12 days), T6ng-yueh Chow or
Momein (8 days) and Manwyne beyond Ta-li Fu it is a difficult
mountain route. 2. The road from Ta-li Fu N. to Patang via
Li-kiang Fu, which thus connects W. Yun-nan with Tibet. 3. The
ancient trade road to Canton, which connects Yun-nan Fu with
Pai-s6 Fu, in Kwang-si, on the Canton West River, a land journey
which occupies about twenty days. From this point the river is
navigable to Canton.
Agricultural products include rice and maize (the principal
crops), wheat, barley and oats. The poppy was formerly ex-
tensively cultivated, but after the anti-opium edict of 1906 vigorous
measures were taken to stamp out the cultivation of the plant.
In certain localities the sugar-cane is grown. Tea from Pu-6rh
Fu in S. Yun-nan is appreciated throughout the empire. Fruits
and vegetables are plentiful, and there are large herds of buffaloes.
YUN-NAN FU YVETOT
947
goats and sheep: Silkworms are reared. The chief wealth of
Yun-nan consists, however, in its minerals. Copper is the most
important of the minerals worked. Silver and gold are produced,
but they are not known to exist in any large quantities. Lead is
of frequent occurrence, and indeed the area through which copper,
silver, lead, tin and zinc are distributed in sufficient quantities
to make mining answer, comprises at least 80,000 sq. m. Coal
is also found and several salt mines are worked. The ores are
generally of good quality, and are easy of extraction. Cotton
yarn and clothi petroleum, timber and furs are among the chief
imports; copper, tin, hides and tea are important exports;
medicines in the shape not only of herbs and roots, but also of
los>ils, shells, bones, teeth and various products of the animal
kingdom; and precious stones, principally jade and rubies, are
among the other exports.
Yun-nan, long independent, was subdued by Kublai Khan,
but was not finally incorporated in the empire until the i;th
century. It was the principal centre of the great Mahommedan
rebellion, which lasted sixteen years and was suppressed in 1872.
Even in 1910 the province had not wholly recovered from the
effects of that struggle and the barbarity with which it was
stamped out. The opening of Christian (Protestant) mission
work in Yun-nan began in 1877, and was one result of the
murder of Mr Margary (see CHINA, History, D).
See H. R. Davies, Yun-nan, the Link between India and the
Yangtze (Cambridge, 1909) ; A. Little, Across Yunnan (London,
1910); Rev. J. M'Carthy, "The Province of Yunnan," in The
Chinese Empire (London, 1907) ; L. Richard, Comprehensive
Geography of the Chinese Empire (Shanghai, 1908).
YUN-NAN FU, the capital of the province of Yun-nan, China,
in 25 6' N., 102 52' E. It is about 500 m. by rail N.N.W.
of the port of Haiphong, Tongking. The population was
returned in 1907 at 45,000. Originally the surrounding district
was known as the " land of the southern barbarians." The
city is situated on a plain, and is surrounded by fortified
walls, 6J m. in circuit. For many years Mahommedans have
been numerous in the city and neighbourhood; and in
1855 a Mahommedan rising occurred. Before the rebellion
Yun-nan Fu had a prosperous aspect; the shops were large
and well supplied with native silken goods, saddlery, &c.,
while English cotton, Russian cloths and raw cotton from
Burma constituted the main foreign merchandise. Employ-
ment for large numbers of work-people was found in the copper
factories. A mint at Yun-nan Fu issued annually 101,000,000
cash. Nearly ruined by the rebellion, the city took many years
to recover its prosperity. A fresh impetus to commerce was
given by the opening in 1910 of the railway from Tongking, a
line built by French engineers and with French capital. The
construction of a British railway to connect Burma with
Yun-nan Fu and onwards to the Yangtsze-kiang has been in
contemplation.
YURIEV (formerly DORPAT, also Dorpl; Russian, Derpt;
Esthonian, Tarto and Tarlolin; in Lettish, Tehrbatd), a town of
W. Russia, in the government of Livonia, situated on the
Embach, 158 m. by rail N.E. of Riga, in 58 23' N. and 26 23' E.
Pop. 42,421. The principal part of the town lies S. of the river,
and the more important buildings are clustered round the two
eminences known as the Domberg (cathedral hill) and the
Schlossberg (castle hill), which in the middle ages were occupied
by the citadel, the cathedral and the episcopal palace. Owing
to a great fire in 1777, the town is almost entirely modern;
and its fortifications have been transformed into promenades.
Besides a good picture gallery in the Ratshof, and the 13th-
century church of St John, Yuriev possesses a university, with
an observatory, an art museum, a botanical garden and a
library of 250,000 volumes, which are housed in a restored
portion of the cathedral, burned down in 1624. The university
was founded by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632; but in
1699 teachers and students removed to Pernau on the advance
of the Russians, and on the occupation of the country by Peter
the Great again took flight to Sweden. In spite of the treaty
of 1710 and the efforts of the Livonian nobles, it was not till
1802 that its restoration was effected under the patronage of
Alexander I. Down to 1895, in which year it was thoroughly
Russified, the university was German in spirit and in sentiment.
It is now attended by some 1700 students annually. The
astronomical department is famous, owing partly to the labours
of F. G. W.'von Struve (1820-39), and partly to Fraunhofer's
great refracting telescope, presented by the emperor Alexander I.
There are monuments to the naturalist K. E. von Baer (1886)
and Marshal Barclay de Tolly (1849), and the town is the
headquarters of the XVIII. army corps.
The foundation of Dorpat is ascribed to Yaroslav, prince
of Kiev, and is dated 1030. In 1224 the town was seized by
the Teutonic Knights, and in the following year Bishop Her-
mann erected a cathedral on the Domberg. From that date
till about 1558 the town enjoyed great prosperity, and the
population reached 50,000. In 1558 it was captured by the
Russians, but in 1582 was yielded to Stephen Bathori, king
of Poland. In 1600 it fell into the hands of the Swedes, in
1603 reverted to the Poles, and in 1625 was seized by Gustavus
Adolphus of Sweden. The Russians again obtained temporary
possession in 1666, but did not effect a permanent occupation
till 1704. In 1708 the bulk of the population were removed
to the interior of Russia.
YUSAFZAI, a large group of Pathan tribes, originally
immigrants from the neighbourhood of Kandahar, which
includes those of the Black Mountain, the Bunerwals, the
Swatis, the people of Dir and the Panjkora valley, and also
the inhabitants of the Yusafzai plain in Peshawar district of
the North-West Frontier Province of India. Three sections
of the tribe, the Hassanzais, Akazais and Chagarzais, inhabit
the W. slopes of the Black Mountain, and the Yusafzai country
stretches thence to the Utman Khel territory. The trans-border
Yusafzais are estimated at 65,000 fighting men, giving a total
population of about 250,000. The Yusafzais are said to be
descended from one Mandai, who had two sons, Umar and
Yusaf. Umar died, leaving one son, Mandan; from Mandan
and Yusaf come the two primary divisions of the Yusafzais,
which are split into numerous subdivisions, including the
Isazais, Malizais, Akazais, Ranizais and Utmanzais.
YUZGAT, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in
the Angora vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 4380 ft., situated
105 m. E. of Angora, near the head of a narrow valley through
which the Angora-Sivas road runs. The town was built
largely out of the ruins of Nefez Keui (anc. Tavium) , by Chapan
Oghlu, the founder of a powerful Dere Bey family. There is
a trade in yellow berries and mohair. The sanjak is very
fertile, and contains good breeding-grounds, upon which horses,
camels and cattle are reared. The population, about 15,000,
includes a large Armenian community.
YVETOT, a town of N. France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Seine-Inferieure, 24 m. N.W. of Rouen
on the railway to Havre. Pop. (1906) 6214. Cotton goods
of various kinds and hats are made here, and trade is carried
on in agricultural products. The church (i8th century) con-
tains a marble altar from the Carthusian monastery at Rouen,
fine woodwork of the I7th century from the abbey of St
Wandrille, and a handsome pulpit. The town is the seat of a
sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
and a chamber of arts and manufactures. The lords of Yvetot
bore the title of king from the isth till the middle of the i6th
century, their petty monarchy being popularized in one of
B6ranger's songs. In 1592 Henry IV. here defeated the troops
of the League.
948
Z ZACATECAS
Zthe twenty-sixth letter of the English alphabet and
the last, although till recent times the alphabets used
by children terminated not with z but with &, or &.
For & the English name is ampersand, i.e. " and per se
and," though the Scottish name epershand, i.e. "Et, per se and," is
more logical and also more clearly shows its origin to be the Latin
el, of which it is but the manuscript form. To the following of z
by & George Eliot refers when she makes Jacob Storey say, " He
thought it (z) had only been put to finish off th' alphabet like,
though ampusand would ha' done as well, for what he could
see." Z is put at the end of the alphabet because it occupied
that position in the Latin alphabet. In early Latin the sound
represented by 2 passed into r, and consequently the symbol
became useless. It was therefore removed from the alphabet
and G (g.v.) put in its place. In the ist century B.C. it was,
like y, introduced again at the end, in order to represent more
precisely than was before possible the value of the Greek Z,
which had been previously spelt with s at the beginning and 55
in the middle of words: sona^uvri, "belt"; tarpessita = rpa-
TreftTTjj, "banker." The Greek form was a close copy of the
Phoenician symbol X, and the Greek inscriptional form remained
in this shape throughout. The name of the Semitic symbol was
Zayin, but this name, for some unknown reason, was not adopted
by the Greeks, who called it Zeta. Whether, as seems most likely,
Zeta was the name of one of the other Semitic sibilants Zade
(Tzaddi) transferred to this by mistake, or whether the name is a
new one, made in imitation of Eta (ij) and Theta (6), is disputed.
The pronunciation of the Semitic letter was the voiced s, like
the ordinary use of z in English, as in zodiac, raze. It is
probable that in Greek there was a considerable variety of pro-
nunciation from dialect to dialect. In the earlier Greek of
Athens, North-west Greece and Lesbos the pronunciation seems
to have been zd, in Attic from the 4th century B.C. onwards it
seems to have been only a voiced s, and this also was probably
the pronunciation of the dialect from which Latin borrowed
its Greek words. In other dialects, as Elean and Cretan, the
symbol was apparently used for sounds resembling the English
voiced and unvoiced th (5, J>). In the common dialect (KOIVTJ)
which succeeded the older dialects, f became a voiced s, as
it remains in modern Greek. In Vulgar Latin the Greek Z
seems to have been pronounced as dy and later y; di being
found for z in words like baptidiare for baplizare, " baptize,"
while conversely z appears for di in forms like zaconus, zabulus,
for diaconus, " deacon," diabulus, " devil." Z also is often
written for the consonantal I (J) as in zunior for iunior, " younger "
(see Grandgent, Introduction to Vulgar Latin, 272, 339).
Besides this, however, there was a more cultured pronunciation
of 2 as dz, which passed through French into Middle English.
Early English had used 5 alone for both the unvoiced and the
voiced sibilant; the Latin sound imported through French was
new and was not written with 2 but with g or i. The successive
changes can be well seen in the double forms from the same
original, jealous and zealous. Both of these come from a late
Latin zelosus, derived from the imported Greek fijXos. Much
the earlier form is jealous; its initial sound is the dz which in
later French is changed to 2 (voiced s). It is written gelows or
ielous by' Wycliffe and his contemporaries, the form with * is
the ancestor of the modern form. The later word zealous was
borrowed after the French dz had become 2. At the end of
words this z was pronounced ts as in the English assets, which
comes from a late Latin ad satis through an early French asez,
" enough." With 2 also is frequently written zh, the voiced
form of sh, in azure, seizure. But it appears even more fre-
quently as i before u, and as si or ti before other vowels in
measure, decision, transition, &c., or in foreign words as g, as in
rouge. For the 3 representing g and y in Scottish proper names
see under Y. (P. Gi.)
ZAANDAM (incorrectly SAARDAM), a town of Holland, in
the province of North Holland, on the river Zaan, 6| m. N.W.
of Amsterdam, with which it is connected by railway and
steamer. Pop. (1905) 23,773. It is of typically Dutch appear-
ance, with low, brightly coloured houses. It has an important
trade in timber, and numerous windmills in the vicinity provide
power for oil, cement and paper works, timber-sawing and
corn-grinding. At Zaandam is preserved the wooden hut
which Peter the Great occupied for a week in 1697 while studying
shipbuilding and paper-making.
ZABERN (French, Saverne), a town of Germany, in the
imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, district of Lower Alsace,
situated on the Rhine-Marne canal at the foot of a pass over
the Vosges, and 27 m. N.W. of Strassburg by the railway to
Deutsch Avricourt. Pop. (1900) 8499. Its principal building,
the former episcopal residence, rebuilt by Cardinal de Rohan
in 1779, is now used as barracks. There are also a 15th century
church and an antiquarian museum. In the vicinity are the
ruined castles of Hoch-barr, Grossgeroldseck, Ochsenstein and
Greifenstein. Hence a beautiful road, immortalized by Goethe
in Dichtung und Wahrheit, leads across the Vosges to Pfalzburg.
Zabern (Tres Tabcrnae) was an important place in the times
of the Romans, and, after being destroyed by the Alamanni,
was rebuilt by the emperor Julian. During the Peasants' War
the town was occupied, in 1525, by the insurgents, who were
driven out in their turn by Duke Anton of Lorraine. It suffered
much from the ravages of the Thirty Years' War, but the epis-
copal castle, then destroyed, was subsequently rebuilt, and in
1852 was converted by Louis Napoleon into a place of residence
for widows of knights of the Legion of Honour.
See Fischer, Geschichte der Stadt Zabern (Zabern, 1824).
ZABRZE, a town of Germany, in the extreme S.E. of Prussian
Silesia, on the railway between Gleiwitz and Konigshutte.
Pop. (1905) 55,634. Like other towns in this populous region, it
is an important manufacturing centre, having coal-mines, iron,
wire, glass, chemical and oil works, breweries, &c.
ZACATECAS, a 'state of Mexico, bounded N. by Durango
and Coahuila, E. by San Luis Potosi, S. by Aguascalientes and
Jalisco, and W. by Jalisco and Durango. Area, 24,757 sq. m.
Pop. (1900) 462,190. It belongs wholly to the great central
plateau of Mexico, with an average elevation of about 7700 ft.
The state is somewhat mountainous, being traversed in the W.
by lateral ranges of the Sierra Madre Occidental, and by
numerous isolated ranges in other parts Mazapil, Norillos,
Guadalupe and others. There are no large rivers, only the
small head-streams of the Aguanaval in the N., and of the
Guazamota, Bolanos and Juchipila in the W., the last three
being tributaries of the Rio Grande de Santiago. As the rain-
fall is light this lack of streams suitable for irrigation is a draw-
back to agriculture. The climate is dry and generally healthy,
being warm in the valleys and temperate in the mountains.
The agricultural products are cereals, sugar and maguey, the
first being dependent on the rainfall, often failing altogether,
the second on irrigation in the lower valleys, and the latter
doing best in a dry climate on a calcareous soil with water not
far beneath the surface. There is also a considerable produc-
tion of peaches, apricots and grapes, the last being made into
wine. A few cattle are raised, and considerable attention is
given to the rearing of sheep, goats and swine. A natural
product is guayule, a shrub from which rubber is extracted.
The chief industry of Zacatecas, however, is mining for silver,
gold, mercury, copper, iron, zinc, lead, bismuth, antimony and
salt. Its mineral wealth was discovered soon after the conquest,
and some of its mines are among the most famous of Mexico,
dating from 1546. One of the most productive of its silver
mines, the Alvarado, has records which show a production of
nearly $800,000,000 in silver between 1548 and 1867. The
state is traversed by the Mexican Central and the Mexican
National railways. Its manufactures are limited chiefly to the
ZACATECAS ZACHARIAE
949
reduction of mineral ores, the extraction of rubber from guayule,
the making of sugar, rum, mescal, pulque, woollen and cotton
fabrics, and some minor industries of the capital. The capital
is Zacatecas, and the other principal towns are Sombrerete
(pop. 10,000), an important silver-mining town 70 m. N.W. of
the capital (elevation 8430 ft.); Ciudad Garcia (about 9500);
Guadalupe (9000); Pinos (8000), a mining town; San Juan de
Mezquital (7000); and Fresnillo (6300), an important silver-
and copper-mining centre.
ZACATECAS, a city of Mexico, capital of the state of
Zacatecas, 442 m. by the Mexican Central railway N.W. of
Mexico city. Pop. (1900) 39,912. It is built in a deep, narrow
ravine, 8050 ft. above sea-level, with narrow, crooked streets
climbing the steep hillsides, and white, flat-roofed houses of
four and five storeys overtopping each other. Its streets are
well paved, and are lighted with electricity. The city is well
drained and has a fine aqueduct for its water supply. The
cathedral is an elaborately carved red-stone structure with un-
finished towers and richly decorated interior. Several domed
churches occupy prominent sites. The National College and the
Colegio de Nuesta Senora de Guadalupe with its fine library
may be noticed. Overlooking the city from an elevation of
500 ft. is the Bufa Hill, which is crowned by a chapel and is a
popular pilgrimage resort. The Guadalupe chapel near the
city has elaborate decorations, including frescoes, onyx steps,
silver rails and paintings, and a curious tiled dome. The in-
dustries comprise carriage building, weaving and the manu-
facture of coarse pottery. The town is an important com-
mercial centre.
Zacatecas was founded in 1546 and was built over a rich vein
of silver discovered by Juan de Tolosa in the same year. This
and other mines in the vicinity attracted a large population,
and it soon became one of the chief mining centres of Mexico.
It was made a city in 1585 by Philip II.
ZACH, FRANZ XAVER, BARON VON (1754-1832), German
astronomer, was born at Pesth on the 4th of June 1754. He
served for some time in the Austrian army, and afterwards lived
in London from 1783 to 1786 as tutor in the house of the Saxon
minister, Count Briihl. In 1786 he was appointed by Ernest II.
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha director of the new observatory on the
Seeberg at Gotha, which was finished in 1791. From 1806
Zach accompanied the duke's widow on her travels in the south
of Europe. He died in Paris on the 2nd of September 1832.
Zach published Tables oftheSun (Gotha, 1792; new and improved
edition, ibid., 1804), and numerous papers on geographical subjects,
particularly on the geographical positions of many towns and
places, which he determined on his travels with a sextant. His
principal importance was, however, as editor of three scientific
journals of great value: Allgemeine Geographische Ephemeriden
(4 vols., Gotha, 1798-99), Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beforderung
der Erd- und Himmels-Kunde (28 vols., Gotha, 1800-13, from 1807
edited by B. von Lindenau), and Correspondence astronomiquc, geo-
graphique, hydrographique, et statistique (Genoa, 1818-26, 14 vols.,
and one number of the 15th suppressed at the instigation of the
Jesuits).
ZACHARIAE VON LINGENTHAL, KARL SALOMO (1760-
1843), German jurist, was born on the i4th of September 1769
at Meissen in Saxony, the son of a lawyer, and received his early
education at the famous public school of St Afra in that town.
He afterwards studied philosophy, history, mathematics and
law at the university of Leipzig. In 1792 he went to Wittenberg
University as tutor to one of the counts of Lippe, and con-
tinued his legal studies. In 1794 he became privaldozent,
lecturing on canon law, in 1798 extraordinary professor, and
1802 ordinary professor of feudal law. From that time to his
death in 1843, with the exception of a short period in which
public affairs occupied him, he poured out a succession of works
covering the whole field of jurisprudence, and was a copious
contributor to periodicals. In 1807 he received a call to
Heidelberg, then beginning its period of splendour as a school
of law. There, resisting many calls to G6ttingen, Berlin and
other universities, he remained until his death. In 1820 he
took his seat, as representative of his university, in the upper
house of the newly constituted parliament of Baden. Though
he himself prepared many reforms notably in the harsh
criminal code he was, by instinct and conviction, conservative
and totally opposed to the violent democratic spirit which
dominated the second chamber, and brought it into conflict
with the grand-duke and the German federal government.
After the remodelling of the constitution in a " reactionary "
sense, he was returned, in 1825, by the district of Heidelberg
to the second chamber, of which he became the first vice-
president, and in which he proved himself more " loyal " than
the government itself. With the growth of parliamentary
Liberalism, however, he grew disgusted with politics, from which
he retired altogether in 1829. He now devoted himself wholly
to juridical work and to the last days of his life toiled with
the ardour of a young student. His fame extended beyond
Germany. The German universities then enjoyed, in regard
to legal questions of international importance, a jurisdiction
dating from the middle ages; and Zachariae was often con-
sulted as to questions arising in Germany, France and England.
Elaborate " opinions," some of them forming veritable treatises
e.g. on Sir Augustus d'Este's claim to the dukedom of Sussex,
Baron de Bode's claim as an English subject to a share in the
French indemnity, the dispute as to the debts due to the elector
of Hesse-Cassel, confiscated by Napoleon, and the constitutional
position of the Mecklenburg landowners were composed by
Zachariae. Large fees which he received for these opinions
and the great popularity of his lectures made him rich, and he
was able to buy several estates; from one of which, Lingenthal,
he took his title when, in 1842, he was ennobled by the grand-
duke. He died on the 27th of March 1843. He had married
in 1811, but his wife died four years later, leaving him a son,
Karl Eduard.
Zachariae's true history is in his writings, which are efrtremely
numerous and multifarious. They deal with almost every branch
of jurisprudence; they are philosophical, historical and practical,
and relate to Roman, Canon, German, French and English law.
The first book of much consequence which he published^ was Die
Einheit des Stoats und der Kirche mil Riicksicht auf die Deutsche
Reichsverfassunq (1797), a work on the relations of church and
state, with special reference to the constitution of the empire, which
displayed the writer's power of analysis and his skill in making a
complicated set of facts appear to be deductions from a few prin-
ciples. In 1805 appeared Versuch einer attgemeinen Hermeneulik
des Rechts; and in 1806 Die Wissenschaft der Gesetzgebung, an
attempt to find a new theoretical basis for society in place of the
opportunist politics which had led to the cataclysm of the French
Revolution. This basis he seemed to discover in something re-
sembling Bentham's utilitarianism. Zachariae's last work of
importance was Vierzig Bucher vom Staate (1839-42), to which his
admirers point as his enduring monument. It has been compared
to Montesquieu's L'Esprit des lois, and covers no small part of the
field of Buckle's first volume of the History of Civilization. But
though it contains proof of vast erudition and many original ideas
as to the future of the state and of law, it lacks logical sequence,
and is,_ consequently, full of contradictions. Its fundamental
theory is, that the state had its origin, not in a contract (Rousseau-
Kant), but in the consciousness of a legal duty. What Machiavelli
was to the Italians and Montesquieu to the French, Zachariae
aspired to become to the Germans; but he lacked their patriotic
inspiration, and so failed to exercise any permanent influence on
the constitutional law of his country. Among other important
works of Zachariae are his Staatsrecht, and his treatise on the Code
Napoleon, of which several French editions were published, and
which was translated into Italian. Zachariae edited with Karl
Joseph Mittermaier the Kritische Zeitschrift fur Rechtstnssenschaft
und Gesetzgebung des Auslandes, and the introduction which he
wrote illustrates his wide reading and his constant desire for new
light upon old problems. Though Zachariae's works have been
superseded, they were in their day epoch-making, and they have
been superseded by books which, without them, could not have been
written.
For an account of Zachariae and his works, see Robert von
Mohl, Geschichte u. Literatur der Staatswissenschaften (1855-58),
and Charles Brocher, K. S. Zachariae, sa vie et ses teuvres (1870);
cf. also his biography in Allgem. Deutsche Biographie (vol. 44) by
Wilhelm Fischer, and Holtzendorff, Rechts-Lexicon, Zachariae von
Lingenthal.
His son, KARL EDUARD ZACHARIAE (1812-1894), also an
eminent jurist, was born on the 24th of December 1812, and
studied philosophy, history, mathematics and languages, as
well as jurisprudence, at Leipzig, Berlin and Heidelberg. Having
950
ZACHARIAS, ST ZAIMUKHT
made Roman and Byzantine law his special study, he visited
Paris in 1832 to examine Byzantine MSS., went in 1834 to
St Petersburg and Copenhagen for the same purpose, and in
1835 worked in the libraries of Brussels, London, Oxford,
Dublin, Edinburgh and Cambridge. Alter a few months as a
practising lawyer and privatdozent at Heidelberg, he went in
1837, in search of materials, to Italy and the East, visiting
Athens, Constantinople and the monasteries of Mount Athos.
Having a taste for a country life, and none for teaching, he gave
up his position as extraordinary professor at Heidelberg, and
in 1845 bought an estate in the Prussian province of Saxony.
Here he lived, engaged in scientific agriculture and interested
in Prussian politics, until his death on the 3rd of June 1894.
He produced an enormous mass of works of great importance
for students of Byzantine law. The task to which he devoted his
life was, to discover and classify the sources of Byzantine law
hidden away in the libraries of the East and West; to re-edit, in
the light of modern criticism, those sources which had already
been published; to write the history of Byzantine law on the basis
of this hitherto undiscovered material ; and finally, to apply the
results to the scientific elucidation of the Justinian law. His Jus
Graeco-Romanum, of which the first part was published in 1856,
the last in 1891, is the best and most complete collection of the
sources of Byzantine law and of the Novels from the time of
Justin II. to 1453. On the general history of the subject he wrote
two epoch-making works, the Historiae Graeco-Romani juris de-
lineatip, cum appendice ineditorum (Heidelberg, 1839), and Innere
Geschichte des grieschisch-romischen Rechts. I. Personalrecht;
II. Erbrscht; III. Die Geschichte des Sachenrechts und Obligations-
recht (Leipzig, 1856), the third edition of which appeared under
the title Geschichte des griechisch-romischen Rechts (1892). In this
last work, which covered ground hitherto unexplored, Byzantine is
treated as a development of Justinian law, and incidentally many
obscure points in the economic and agrarian conditions of the
Eastern empire are elucidated. For a list of Zachariae's other works,
see Attgem. Deutsche Biogr., art. by Wilhelm Fischer.
ZACHARIAS, ST, pope from 741 to 752, was a Greek by birth,
and appears to have been on intimate terms with Gregory III.,
whom he succeeded (November 741). Contemporary history
dwells chiefly on his great personal influence with the Lombard
king Luitprand, and with his successor Rachis; it was largely
through bis tact in dealing with these princes in a variety of
emergencies that the exarchate of Ravenna was rescued from
becoming part of the Lombard kingdom. A correspondence,
of considerable extent and of great interest, between Zacharias
and St Boniface, the apostle of Germany, is still extant, and
shows how great was the influence of this pope on events then
passing in France and Germany: he encouraged the deposition
of Childeric, and it was with his sanction that Boniface crowned
Pippin as king of the Franks at Soissons in 752. Zacharias is
stated to have remonstrated with the emperor Constantine
Copronymus on the part he had taken in the iconoclastic con-
troversy. He died on the i4th of March 752, and was succeeded
by Stephen II.
The letters and decrees of Zacharias are published in Migne,
Patrolog. lat. Ixxxix. p. 917-960.
ZA6AZIG (Zakazlk), a town of Lower Egypt, capital of the
province of Sharkia. Pop. (1907) 34,999, including 2617 Copts
and 1355 Greeks. It is built on a branch of the Fresh Water
or Ismailia canal, and on the Al-Mo'izz canal (the ancient
Tanitic channel of the Nile), and is 47 m. by rail N.N.E. of
Cairo. Situated on the Delta in the midst of a fertile district,
Zagazig is a great centre of the cotton and grain trade of Egypt.
It has large cotton factories and the offices of numerous European
merchants. About a mile south of the town are the ruins of
Bubastis (q.v.).
ZAHRINGEN, the name of an old and influential German
family, taken from the castle and village of that name near
Freiburg-im-Breisgau. The earliest known member of the
family was probably one Bezelin, a count in the Breisgau, who
was living early in the nth century. Bezelin's son Bertold I.
(d. 1078) was count of Zahringen and was related to the Hohen-
staufen family. He received a promise of the duchy of Swabia,
which, however, was not fulfilled, but in 1061 he was made
duke of Carinthia. Although this dignity was a titular one only
Bertold lost it when he joined a rising against the emperor
Henry IV. in 1073. His son Bertold II. (d. nn), who like his
father fought against Henry IV., inherited the land of the
counts of Rheinfelden in 1090 and took the title of duke of
Zahringen; he was succeeded in turn by his sons, Bertold III.
(d. 1122) and Conrad (d. 1152). In 1127 Conrad inherited some
land in Burgundy and about this date he was appointed by the
German king, Lothair the Saxon, rector of the kingdom of
Burgundy or Aries. This office was held by the Zahringens
until 1218 and hence they are sometimes called dukes of
Burgundy. Bertold IV. (d. 1186), who followed his father
Conrad, spent much of his time in Italy in the train of the
emperor Frederick I.; his son and successor, Bertold V.,
showed his prowess by reducing the Burgundian nobles to order.
This latter duke was the founder of the town of Bern, and when
he died in February 1218 the main line of the Zahringen family
became extinct. By extensive acquisitions of land the Zah-
ringens had become very powerful in the districts now known
as Switzerland and Baden, and when their territories were
divided in 1218 part of them passed to the counts of Kyburg
and thence to the house of Habsburg. The family now ruling
in Baden is descended from Hermann, margrave of Verona
(d. 1074), a son of duke Bertold I., and the grand-duke is thus
the present representative of the Zahringens.
See E. J. Leichtlen, Die Zahringer (Freiburg, 1831); and E.
Heyck, Geschichte der Herzoge von Zahringen (Freiburg, 1891), and
Urkunden, Siegel und Wappen der Herzoge von Zahringen (Freiburg,
1892).
ZAHRINGEN, a village of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Baden, situated under the western slope of the Black Forest,
2 m. from Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and on the railway from
Heidelberg to Basel. Pop. (1900) 1200. Above the village on
a spur of the mountains, 1500 ft. above the sea, lie the ruins of
the castle of Zahringen, formerly the stronghold of the ducal
line of that name (see above).
See Schopfiin, Historic, Zaringo-Badcnsis (Karlsruhe, 1763-66,
yvols.).
ZAILA, or ZETLA; a town on the African coast of the Gulf of
Aden, 124 m. S.W. of Aden and 200 m. N.N.E. of Harrar.
Zaila is the most western of the ports of the British Somaliland
protectorate, being 170 m. N.W. of Berbera by the coast caravan
track. The town is surrounded on three sides by the sea; land-
ward the country is unbroken desert for some fifty miles. The
principal buildings, which date from the (lays of Egyptian
occupation (1875-1884) are of white (coral) stone; the Somali
dwellings are made of grass. Zaila has a good sheltered
anchorage much frequented by Arab sailing craft, but heavy
draught steamers are obliged to anchor a mile and a half from
the shore. Small coasting boats lie off the pier and there is no
difficulty in loading or discharging cargo. The water supply of
the town is drawn from the wells of Takosha, about three miles
distant; every morning camels, in charge of old Somali .women
and bearing goatskins filled with water, come into the town in
picturesque procession. The population varies from 3000 to
7000, the natives, who come in the cool season to barter their
goods, retiring to the highlands in hot weather. The chief
traders are Indians, the smaller dealers Arabs, Greeks and
Jews. The imports, which reach Zaila chiefly via Aden, are
mainly cotton goods, rice, jowaree, dates and silk; the exports
of which 90 per cent, are from Abyssinia are principally
coffee, skins, ivory, cattle, ghee and mother-of-pearl.
Zaila owed its importance to its proximity to Harrar, the
great entrepdt for the trade of southern Abyssinia. The trade
of the port received, however, a severe check on the opening
(1901-2) of the railway to Harrar from the French port of
Jibuti, which is 35 m. N.W. of Zaila. A steamer from Aden to Zaila
takes fifteen hours to accomplish the journey ; caravans proceeding
from Zaila to Harrar occupy from ten days to three weeks on
the road.
For history and trade statistics, see SOMALILAND, BRITISH.
ZAIMUKHT, the name of a small Pathan tribe on the Kohat
border of the North-West Frontier Province of India. The
Zaimukhts inhabit the hills to the south of the Orakzais
ZAIRE ZAMBEZI
between the Miranzai and Kurram valleys. Their country may be
described as a triangle, with the range of hills known as the
Samana as its base, and the village of Thai in the Kurram
valley as its apex. This includes a tract on its western side
occupied by an Orakzai clan. The total area is about 400 sq. m.,
of which the Orakzais occupy a fourth. The Zaimukhts are a
fine-looking powerful race, with a fighting strength of some
3000 men.
ZAIRE, a name by which the river Congo was formerly
known. Zaire is a Portuguese variant of a Bantu word (nzari}
meaning river. In the i6th and xyth centuries the powerful
native kingdom of Congo possessed both banks of the lower
river, and the name of the country was in time given to the
river also. Until, however, the last quarter of the igth century
" Zaire " was frequently used to designate the stream. It is
so called by Camoens in the Lusiads. Since H. M. Stanley's
discoveries " Congo " has become the general name for the
river from its mouth to Stanley Falls, despite an effort on the
part of Stanley to have the stream re-named Livingstone. (See
CONGO, river.)
ZAISAN, or ZAISANSK, a town of Russian Central Asia, in
the province of Semipalatinsk, near the Chinese frontier, at an
altitude of 2200 ft. and near the S.E. corner of Lake Zaisan.
Pop. (1897) 4471. Lake Zaisan, situated in an open valley
between the Altai range on the north-east and the Tarbagatai
on the south, lies at an altitude of 1355 ft. It has a length of
65m., a width of 14 to 30 m., an area of 707 sq. m., and a
maximum depth of 50 ft. Its water i$ fresh, as it receives
the Black Irtysh and the Kendyrlyk from the east, and several
small streams from the west, all of which leave the lake at its
north-west extremity by the White Irtysh. The fisheries,
which yield abundantly, are in the hands of the Siberian
Cossacks. The lake is generally frozen from the beginning of
November to the end of April.
ZALEUCUS, of Locri Epizephyrii in Magna Graecia, Greek
lawgiver, is supposed to have flourished about 660 B.C. The
statement that he was a pupil of Pythagoras is an anachronism.
Little is known of him, and Timaeus even doubted his existence,
but it is now generally agreed that this is an error. He is said
to have been the author of the first written code of laws amongst
the Greeks. According to the common story, the Locrians
consulted the Delphic oracle as to a remedy for the disorder
and lawlessness that were rife amongst them. Having been
ordered to make laws for themselves, they commissioned one
Zaleucus, a shepherd and slave (in later tradition, a man of
distinguished family) to draw up a code. The laws of Zaleucus,
which he declared had been communicated to him in a dream
by Athena, the patron goddess of the city, were few and simple,
but so severe that, like those of Draco, they became proverbial.
They remained essentially unchanged for centuries, and the
Locrians subsequently enjoyed a high reputation as upholders
of the law. One of the most important provisions was that the
punishment for different offences was definitely fixed, instead
of being left to the discretion of the judge before whom a case
was tried. The penalty for adultery was the loss of the eyes,
and in general the application of the lex lalionis was enjoined
as the punishment for personal injuries. Special enactments
concerning the rights of property, the alienation of land, settle-
ment in foreign countries, and various sumptuary laws (e.g.
the drinking of pure wine, except when ordered medicinally,
was forbidden) are attributed to him. After the code was
firmly established, the Locrians introduced a regulation that,
if a citizen interpreted a law differently from the cosmopolis
(the chief magistrate), each had to appear before the council
of One Thousand with a rope round his neck, and the one against
whom the council decided was immediately strangled. Any
one who proposed a new law or the alteration of one already
existing was subjected to the same test, which continued in
force till the 4th century and even later. Zaleucus is often
confused with Charondas, and the same story is told of their
death. It is said that one of Zaleucus's laws forbade a citizen,
under penalty of death, to enter the senate-house bearing a
weapon. During the stress of war, Zaleucus violated this law;
and, on its being pointed out to him, he committed suicide by
throwing himself upon the point of his sword, declaring that the
law must be vindicated.
See Bentley, Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris; F. D.
Gerlach, Zaleukos, Charondas, Pythagoras (1858); G. Busolt,
Griechische Geschichte, \.\ Schol. on Pindar, Ol. x. 17; Strabo vi.
p. 259; Diod. Sic. xii. 20, 21; Demosthenes, In Timocratem,
p. 744; Stobaeus, Florilegium, xliv. 20, 21, where the supposed
Preface of Zaleucus and the collection of laws as a whole is spurious;
u'idas, s.v., who makes him a native of Thurii; Cicero, De Legibus,
ii. 6. See also article GREEK LAW.
ZALMOXIS, or ZAMOLXIS, a semi-mythical social and re-
ligious reformer, regarded as the only true God by the Thracian
Getae. According to Herodotus (iv. 94), the Getae, who be-
lieved in the immortality of the soul, looked upon death merely
as going to Zalmoxis. Every five years they selected by lot
one of the tribesmen as a messenger to the god. The man was
thrown into the air and caught upon the points of spears. If
he did not die, he was considered unfit to undertake the mission
and another was chosen. By the euhemeristic Hellespontine
Greeks Herodotus was told that Zalmoxis was really a man,
formerly a slave of Pythagoras at Samos, who, having obtained
his freedom and amassed great wealth, returned to Thrace, and
instructed his fellow-tribesmen in the doctrines of Pythagoras and
the arts of civilization. He taught them that they would pass
at death to a certain place, where they would enjoy all possible
blessings for all eternity, and to convince them of this he had a
subterranean chamber constructed, to which he withdrew for
three years. Herodotus, who declines to commit himself as to
the existence of Zalmoxis, expresses the opinion that in any case
he must have lived long before the time of Pythagoras. It
is probable that Zalmoxis is Sabazius. the Thracian Dionysus
or Zeus; Mnaseas of Patrae identified him with Cronus. In
Plato (Charmides, 1 58 B) he is mentioned with Abaris as skilled
in the arts of incantation. No satisfactory etymology of the
name has been suggested.
ZAMAKHSHARl [Abu-1 Qasim Mahmfld ibn 'Umar uz-
Zamakhsharl] (1074-1143), Arabian theologian and grammarian,
was born at Zamakhshar, a village of Khwarizm, studied at
Bokhara and Samarkand, and enjoyed the fellowship of the
jurists of Bagdad. For many years he stayed at Mecca, from
which circumstance he was known as Jar-tdlah (" God's client ")
Later he returned to Khwarizm, where he died at the capital
Jurjanlyya. In theology he was a pronounced Mo'tazilite (see
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION: section Sects). Although he used
Persian for some of his works he was a strong supporter of the
superiority of the Arabic language and an opponent of the
Shu'ubite movement. Zamakhshari's fame as a commentator
rests upon his commentary on the Koran, called al-Kashshaf
(" the Revealer "). In spite of its Mo'tazilite theology it was
famous among scholars and was the basis of the widely-read
commentary of Baidhawi (q.v.). It has been edited by W.
Nassau Lees (Calcutta, 1856), and has been printed at Cairo
(1890). Various glosses on it have been written by different
authors. His chief grammatical work is the Kitdb td-mufa^al,
written about 1120 and edited by J. P. Broch (2nd ed.,
Christiania, 1879). Many commentaries have been written on
this work, the fullest being that of Ibn Ya'ish (d. 1245), edited
by G. Jahn (2 vols., Leipzig, 1876-36).
Of his lexicographical works the Kitdb Muqaddimat ul-Adab was
edited as Samachscharii Lexicon Arab. Pers. (ed. I. G. Wetzstein,
2 vols., Leipzig, 1844), and the Asds ul-baldgha, a lexicon of choice
words and phrases, was printed at Bulaq, 1882. Of his adab works
the Nawabigh ul-kalim, an anthology, was edited by H. A. Schultens
(Leiden, 1772), by B. de Meynard in the Journal asiatique, ser. 7,
Fleischer (Leipzig, 1835); by G. Weil (Stuttgart, 1863); and by
B. de Meynard (Paris, 1876 ; cf. de Goeje as above). (G. W. T.)
ZAMBEZI, the fourth in size of the rivers of Africa, and the
largest of those flowing eastwards to the Indian Ocean. Its
length (taking all curves into consideration) is about 2200 m.
The area of its basin, according to Dr Bludau, is 513,500 sq. m.,
952
ZAMBEZI
or rather less than half that of the Nile. The main channel is
clearly marked from beginning to end. The river takes its
rise in 1 1 21' 3* S., 24 22' E. The source lies in British territory
in a depression of an undulating country 5000 ft. above the
sea, covered with bracken and open forest. The water, like
that of all the rivers of the neighbourhood, issues from a black
marshy bog, and quickly collects into a well-defined stream.
In the first hundred miles of its course the river is known as the
Yambeshe in sound almost identical with its name in its
lower course, though intervening sections are known as Liam-
beshe, Liambai, &c. Eastward of the source the water-
parting between the Congo and Zambezi basins is a well-marked
belt of high ground, falling abruptly north and south, and
running nearly east and west between 11 and 12 S. This
distinctly cuts off the basin of the Luapula (the main branch
of the upper Congo) from that of the Zambezi. In the neighbour-
hood of the source, however, the water-parting is not so clear,
but the two river systems do not connect.
The Upper River. The infant Zambezi, after pursuing a south-
westerly course for about 150 m., turns more directly south and,
soon after the 12 S. is crossed, is joined by a stream (coming from
the north-west) whose source is near a marshy lake called Dilolo,
4600 ft. above sea-level in 11 50' S., 22 10' E. Lake Dilolo was
at one time believed to communicate with the Kasai river, one of
the great affluents of the Congo flowing north-west, but this is not
the case. Dilolo belongs to the Zambezi system only, sending water
to that river after heavy rain. The Zambezi as it flows southward
receives on either side numerous small tributaries. A few miles
above Kakengi (in 12 24' S.), the Zambezi, narrow, picturesque
and tortuous, suddenly widens from 100 to 350 yds. Below
Kakengi are a number of rapids ending (13 7' S.) in the Sapuma
cataracts. At this point the river flows tumultuously through a
rocky fissure.
The first of its large tributaries to enter the Zambezi is the
Kabompo, a left-hand affluent. It joins the main stream in
14 26' S. A little lower down (in 14 18' S.) the Zambezi receives
from the west the waters of a much larger stream than the Kabompo,
namely, the Lungwebungu. (For details concerning these and the
other chief tributaries of the Zambezi, see below.) The savannah
forest, which has hitherto characterized the country, now gives
place to a more open bush valley, studded with Borassus palms.
Dense vegetation is confined to narrow strips of matted forest which
skirt the first few hundred yards of the sources of the Zambezi
and its tributaries during the first 100 m. or so. The land, from
5000 ft. at the source, falls gradually to 3600 ft. at Kakengi a
distance of 220 m. From this point until the Victoria Falls are
reached 500 m. the level of the Zambezi basin is very uniform,
the fall being in this distance 600 ft. only.. Twenty miles below
the confluence of the Lungwebungu the country becomes flat, and
in the rainy seasons is largely covered by floods. Some 50 m.
farther down, the Luanginga, which with its tributaries drains a
large area to the westward, joins the Zambezi. A few miles higher
up on the east the main stream is reinforced by the waters of the
Luena. On the same (eastern) side a little below the junction of
the Luanginga and the Zambezi stands Lialui, the capital of the
Barotse (g.t>.). The river, which for some distance has had a slight
western as well as southern trend, now turns distinctly south-east.
From the east the Zambezi continues to receive numerous small
streams, but on the west is without tributaries for 150 m., when
the great river formerly misnamed the Chobe, but known to the
natives as Kwando or Linyante, joins it (in 17 47' S.). Before
this junction is effected, the Gonye Falls, the work of erosion
(16 40' S.), offer an interruption to navigation, whilst below the
falls are numerous rapids. The western bank of the Zambezi,
which in this part of its course is very tortuous, is German territory
from the most southern of these rapids Katima Molilo (17 28' S.)
to the confluence of the Kwando, including the right or northern
bank of the lower course of the last-named river; this narrow strip
of land projecting from the main portion of German South-West
Africa expressly to allow Germany access to the Zambezi.
Below the junction of the Kwando and the Zambezi the river
bends almost due east. The stream has hitherto flowed, in the
main, in a gentle steady current, the depth of water, owing to the
breadth of the channel, not being great. But its character is about
to change. As it flows eastward towards the border of the great
central plateau of Africa it reaches a tremendous chasm in the floor
of the earth, and thus the Victoria Falls (q.v.), the largest waterfalls
in the world, are formed.
The Middle Zambezi. The yictoria Falls are reached some 60 m.
after the Kwando confluence is passed, and below them the river
continues to flow due east for about 120 m. It then cuts its way
through perpendicular walls of basalt from 60 to 100 ft. apart.
This dismal canyon, named by Major St Hill Gibbons " The Devil's
Gorge," is 8 m. long. Towering over the rocks which form the
banks of the river are precipitous hills, 700 to 800 ft. high. The
river flows swiftly through the gorge, the current being continually
interrupted by reefs. Beyond the gorge are a succession of rapids,
ending with those called Molele, which is 146 m. below the Victoria
Falls. In this distance the fall of the river is 800 ft. From the
Devil's Gorge the Zambezi takes a decided trend north whilst still
pursuing its general easterly course. For the next 700 m. until
the Kebrabasa Rapids are reached, the river flows through well-
defined and occasionally rocky banks. Besides the rapids already
mentioned there are several others in the middle stretch of the
river, forming impediments to navigation at low water. One of
the most difficult passages is that of a grand gorge a little above the
mouth of the Loangwa, in abcut 30 E., named by Major Gibbons
Livingstone's Kariba, in distinction from a second Kariba
(= "gorge") a little beyond the Kafukwe confluence. Between
the two gorges the river is generally unobstructed, but at the
western end of the second Kariba navigation is dangerous at low
water. Exclusive of the Shire (q.v.) the Loangwa and the Kafukwe
(also called Kafue) just mentioned are the two largest left-hand
tributaries of the Zambezi. The Kafukwe joins the main river in
I 5 57' s - in a quiet deep stream about 200 yds. wide. From this
point the northward bend of the Zambezi is checked and the stream
continues due east. At the confluence of the Loangwa (15 37' S.)
it enters Portuguese territory, and from this point to the sea both
banks of the river belong to that kingdom. At the Kebrabasa
Rapids 800 rn. below the Victoria Falls the Zambezi is sharply
deflected to the south, the river at this point breaking through the
continental escarpment to reach the sea. The Kebrabasa Rapids,
which extend about 45 m. the road taking a detour of 70 m.
are absolutely unnavigable, and with them the middle stretch of
the Zambezi as definitely ends as does the upper river at the
Victoria Falls.
The Lower River. The lower Zambezi 400 m. from Kebrabasa
Rapids to the sea presents no obstacles to navigation save the
shallowness of the stream in many places in the dry season. This
shallowness arises from the different character of the river basin.
Instead of, as in the case of the middle Zambezi, flowing mainly
through hilly country with well-defined banks, the river traverses
a broad valley and spreads out over a large area. Only at one point,
the Lupata Gorge, 200 m. from its mouth, is the river confined be-
tween high hills. Here it is scarcely 200 yds. wide. Elsewhere it
is from 3 to 5 m. wide, flowing gently in many streams. The river-
bed is sandy, the banks are low and reed-fringed. At places,
however, and especially in the rainy season, the streams unite into
one broad swift-flowing river. About 100 m. from the sea the
Zambezi receives the drainage of Lake Nyasa through the river
ShinS. On approaching the ocean, which it reaches in 18 50' S.
the Zambezi splits up into a number of branches and forms a wide
delta. Each of the four principal mouths Milambe, Kongone,
Luabo and Timbwe is obstructed by a sand-bar. A more northerly
branch, called the Chinde mouth, has a minimum depth at low
water of 7 ft. at the entrance, and of 12 ft. farther in, and is the
branch used for navigation. Sixty miles farther north is a river
called the Qua-Qua or Quilimane, from the town founded by the
Portuguese at its mouth. This stream, which is silting up, re-
ceives in the rainy season the overflow of the Zambezi.
The region drained by the Zambezi may be represented as a vast
broken-edged plateau 3000 or 4000 ft. high, composed in the
remote interior of metamorphic beds and fringed with the igneous
rocks of the Victoria Falls. At Shupanga, on the lower Zambezi, thin
strata of grey and yellow sandstones, with an occasional band of
limestone, crop out on the bed of the river in the dry season, and
these persist beyond Tete, where they are associated with extensive
seams of coal. Coal is also found in the district just below the
Victoria Falls. Gold-bearing rocks occur in several places.
Four Thousand Miles of Navigable Water. As a highway into the
interior of the continent the Zambezi, like all other large African
rivers, in greater or less degree, suffers on account of the bar at its
mouth, the shallowness of its stream, and the rapids and cataracts
which interrupt its course. Nevertheless its importance to com-
merce is great, as the following recapitulation of its navigable
stretches will show. (l) From the sea to the Kebrabasa Rapids,
400 m. (2) From Chikoa (above Kebrabasa) to within 140 m. of
the Victoria Falls, 700 m. (3) From the rapids above the Victoria
Falls to the Katima Molilo Rapids, 100 m. (4) Above the Gonye
Falls to the Supuma cataract, 300 m. (5) Above the Supuma
cataract, 120 m. Thus for 1620 m. of its course the Zambezi is
navigable for steamers with a draught of from 18 to 28 in. Were
the obstruction caused by the Kebrabasa Rapids removed, there
would be a clear passage from the sea almost to the foot of the
cataracts below the Victoria Falls. The difficulty at Kebrabasa
might be removed either by the cutting of a side channel or the
building of a dam to convert the gorge into a lake, to be connected
with the river below by a lock and weir.
Several of the Zambezi affluents are also navigable for many
miles. The Lungwebungu, which enters the upper river, is navigable
for a long distance, thus supplying communication with the extreme
north-west corner of the Zambezi basin. Parts at least of the
Luena, Kafukwe, Loangwa and the Kwando tributaries are also
capable of being navigated. The possibility of connecting the
ZAMBOANGA ZAMINDAWAR
953
Kwando with the navigable waters of the Okavango, at the point
where the overflow mentioned below takes place, has likewise been
suggested. The Shire is also navigable for a considerable distance.
The sum of such navigable reaches within the Zambezi basin as
exceed 100 m. is nearly 4000 m.
Tributaries. The tributaries of the Zambezi are very numerous.
The course of the more important streams is as follows: The
Kabompo, which flows in from the east in about 14 8' S., rises not
far from n 34' S., 25 if E. in the high land which forms the
eastern watershed between the Zambezi and Congo systems. In
13 j S. it receives on the right bank a tributary, the Lunga, said
to be more important than the upper Kabompo itself, and rising
somewhat farther north. The Lungwebungu, which enters the
Zambezi from the west in 14 35' S., is a strong, deep stream 200 yds.
wide in its upper course, flowing in a valley bordered by undula-
tions of white sand covered by thin forest, its floor forming at times
an inundated plain 2 to 3 m. wide.
The Kwando, largest of the western affluents of the Zambezi,
formerly known as the Chobe and frequently spoken of as the
Linyante from the ruined capital of the Makololo, situated on its
lower course, rises in about 12 40' S., 18 50' E., and flows in _a
generally straight course south-east to 17 30' S., at which point it
makes a sudden bend to the south before flowing east to the
Zambezi. In this eastward stretch the Kwando for some 70 m.
flows through a vast reedy swamp or lake studded with alluvial
islands. Apart from its head-streams, it receives most of its tribu-
taries from the west, and at its most southern bend is joined by the
Magwe'-kwana, which in time of flood receives some of the surplus
water of the Okavango (see NGAMI). This surplus water, received
after most of the flood water of the Kwando has passed, raises the
level of the lake and holds up the waters of the Kwando for some
miles above it.
Of the streams which enter the upper Zambezi from the east, the
largest, after the Kabompo, is the Luena, which rises in 16 S.,
26 E., and flows first north-west, afterwards west-south-west,
joining the main river a little north of 15 S. Others are the Njoko
joining in 17 8' S., the Machili, which enters in about 25 E., the
Lumbi, 16 45' S., and the Umgwezi, 17 37' S. The largest
tributary of the middle Zambezi the Kafukwe rises in about
11 35' S. at an elevation of 4400 ft. in thick forest country. The
main head-stream,, which flows first south-east, afterwards south-
west, is joined in 14 35' S. by the Lunga or Luanga, an important
right-bank tributary, the united stream then flowing first south,
afterwards due east. The lower Kafukwe is a large navigable
river until about 40 m. from its mouth, but it then descends from
the plateau by a series of falls and cataracts, the drop being over
looo ft. in 15 m., one very high fall occurring in a stupendous
chasm. The next great tributary to the east is the Loangwa (also
called Luangwa) which in its upper course runs parallel to the
western shores of Lake Nyasa, having its source not far from the
north-west corner of the lake. The main stream flows in a generally
level valley, bounded by steep plateau escarpments, and is for the
most part shallow and rapid, though fairly wide. In 14 30' S.,
however, it passes through narrow gorges with a speed of 8 or 9 m.
an hour. In 15 5' S. it is joined by the Lunsefwa, which, with its
tributary, the Lukosasi, drains a large extent of the western plateau,
its basin being separated by the Mchinga mountains from that of
the Loangwa. The Loangwa joins the Zambezi a little above the
town of Zumbo. For some distance its lower course forms the
frontier between Portuguese and British territory. From the south
the middle Zambezi receives various rivers which water northern
Matabele and Mashpna lands namely, the Shangani, Sanyati.and
Hanyani, besides minor streams. The Mazoe, which also rises in
Mashonaland, joins the Zambezi below the Kebrabasa Rapids.
Exploration of the River. The Zambezi region was known to
the medieval geographers as the empire of Monomotapa and
the course of the river, as well as the position of Lakes Ngami
and Nyasa, was filled in with a rude approximation to accuracy
in the earlier maps. These were probably constructed from
Arab information. The first European to visit the upper
Zambezi was David Livingstone in his exploration from Bechu-
analand between 1851 and 1853. Two or three years later he
descended the Zambezi to its mouth and in the course of this
journey discovered the Victoria Falls. During 1858-60, accom-
panied by Dr (afterwards Sir) John Kirk, Livingstone ascended
the river by the Kongone mouth as far as the Falls, besides
tracing the course of its tributary the Shirfi and discovering Lake
Nyasa. For the next thirty-five years practically no additions
were made to our knowledge of the river system. In 1889 the
entrance of vessels from the sea was much facilitated by the
discovery by Mr D. J. Rankin of the Chinde channel north of
the main mouths of the river. Major A. St Hill Gibbons and
his assistants, during two expeditions, in 1805-96 and 1898-1900,
ably continued the work of exploration begun by Livingstone
in the upper basin and central course of the river. Of non-
British travellers Major Serpa Pinto examined some of the
western tributaries of the river and made measurements of
the Victoria Falls (1878). Steamers had been used on the lower
river the "Ma-Robert" and the "Pioneer" by the Livingstone
expedition of 1858-61, but the utilization of the Zambezi as a
commercial highway was inconsiderable until after the discovery
of the Chinde mouth. The first steamer placed on the river
above the Kebrabasa Rapids was the "Constance" launched
by the Gibbons expedition at Chikoa in September 1898. She
steamed to beyond the Guay confluence, and being ultimately
sold to a commercial company, was used to carry goods on the
middle Zambezi. The first steamer placed on the river above
the Victoria Falls was the " Livingstone," launched in August
1902.
See David and Charles Livingstone, Narrative of an Expedition
to the Zambesi and its Tributaries (1865); A. de Serpa Pinto, How I
Crossed Africa (1881); D. J. Rankin in Proc. R. G. S. (March,
1890); A. Sharpe, ibid. (December, 1890); H. S. Bivar, " Curso
medio do Zambeze," B. S. G. Lisboa, vol. xxiv. (1906); G. W.
Lamplugh in Geo. Jnl., vol. xxxi. (1908); F. Coillard, On the
Threshold of Central Africa (London, 1897), and A. St H. Gibbons.
Africa from South to North through Marotseland (2 yols., London,
1904), which gives the results of a detailed examination of the
upper Zambezi valley (with map). The last-named author has
kindly revised the account given above. (F. R. C.)
ZAMBOANGA, the capital of the Moro Province, and of the
District (or Comandancia) of Zamboanga, and a port of entry,
on the island of Mindanao, Philippine Islands, at the S. ex-
tremity of the western peninsula. Pop. (1903) 3281; of the
comandancia, 20,692. Zamboanga has one of the most health-
ful sites in the islands, its climate being decidedly cooler than
that of Manila. Since the American occupation the trade has
greatly increased and various improvements have been planned
or are under way, including a new custom-house, better facilities
for docking, pavements, bridges, and public parks. The Pro-
vincial Capitol, one of the finest government buildings in the
Philippines, was completed in 1908. There is considerable "
valuable timber in the vicinity, live-stock is extensively raised,
and rice, copra, hemp, sugar-cane, tobacco, and sweet, potatoes
are other important products. Zamboanga was one of the
oldest Spanish settlements in the islands, it having been taken
and fortified as a base against the Moros, and it still contains
an old stone fort. Many of the inhabitants are descendants
of slaves who escaped from the Moros and sought Spanish
protection. A Spanish patois, called " Zarnboangueno," is
spoken by most of the native inhabitants.
ZAMINDAR, or ZEMINDAK (from Persian zamin= "land"),
an Indian landholder. In official usage the term is applied to
any person, whether owner of a large estate or cultivating
member of a village community, who is recognized as possessing
some property in the soil, as opposed to the ryot (q.v.), who is
regarded as having only a right of occupancy, subject in both
cases to payment of the land revenue assessed on his holding.
The zamindari system obtains throughout northern and
central India, and also in the permanently settled estates
of Madras.
The raja of Benares had certain special rights as zamindar,
and in 1910 it was arranged to make part of his " family
domain" a new native state with an area of 887 sq. m. (pop.
362,000).
ZAMINDAWAR, a district of Afghanistan, situated on the
right bank of the Helmund river to the N.W. of Kandahar,
bordering the road which leads from Kandahar to Herat via
Farah. Zamindawar is a district of hills, and of wide, well
populated, and fertile valleys watered by important affluents
of the Helmund. The principal town is Musa Kala, which
stands on the banks of a river of the same name, about 60 m.
N. of Girishk. The whole of this region is a well-known hot-
bed of fanaticism, the headquarters of the Achakzais, the most
aggressive of all Durani tribes. It was from Zamindawar that
much of the strength of the force which besieged Kandahar
under Ayub Khan in 1880 was derived; and it was the Zamin-
954
ZAMORA ZAMOYSKI
dawar contingent of tribesmen who so nearly defeated Sir
Donald Stewart's force at Ahmad Khel previously. The control
of Zamindawar may be regarded as the key to the position for
safeguarding the route between Herat and Kandahar.
ZAMORA, an inland province of north-western Spain, one
of the three into which the former province of Leon has since
1833 been divided; bounded on the W. by Portugal and Orense,
N. by Leon, E. by Valladolid, and S. by Salamanca. Pop.
(1900) 275,545; area, 4097 sq. m. Zamora is traversed from
east to west by the river Duero or Douro (q.v.), which receives
within the province the Valderaduey and the Esla on the right
and the Guarena on the left; the Tormes also skirts the south-
western boundary for some 25 m. Except in the north-west,
where it is entered by two outlying ridges of the Cantabrian
Mountains, the Sierra de la Culebra and Sierra de Pefia Negra,
the surface consists of a level or slightly undulating plateau;
its lowest point is 1070 ft. above sea-level. Its plains, especially
the valley of the Esla, yield large quantities of grain and pulse;
wine and flax are also produced; and on the higher grounds
large numbers of merino sheep and goats are reared, chiefly
for export to Portugal. The manufactures of Zamora are
unimportant. Three lines of railway, from Astorga on the N.,
Salamanca on the S., and Medina del Campo on the E., traverse
the province and meet at the city of Zamora; there is a lack
of good roads, and it is largely for this reason that the mines
and extensive forests are neglected. The only towns with more
than 5000 inhabitants are Zamora (pop., 1900, 16,287) an d Toro
(8379), which are described in separate articles. The people
of the province are very poor, badly educated, and lacking in
enterprise. (See also LEON.)
ZAMORA, an episcopal city, and the capital of the Spanish
province of Zamora; on the right bank of the river Duero
(Douro), and at the junction of railways from Salamanca,
Medina del Campo and Astorga. Pop. (1900) 16,283. Zamora
occupies a rocky height overlooking the Duero, a little below
its confluence with the Valderaduey. The river is crossed by a
fine 14th-century bridge of sixteen pointed arches. The citadel
of Zamora dates from the 8th century. The small but beautiful
cathedral, one of four 12th-century churches in the city, is a
Romanesque building, with a square tower, a dome above the
crossing, and an elaborately-decorated interior. It was com-
pleted about 1175, and contains some interesting medieval
tombs, and paintings by Fernando Gallegos (1475-1550). The
other principal buildings are the 17th-century town-hall, the
palace of the provincial assembly, a hospital with curious
Gothic windows, an ecclesiastical seminary, and a school of
engineering. The trade is chiefly agricultural, but linen and
woollen goods, pottery, hats, leather, and spirits are manu-
factured in small quantities.
In the early period of the Christian re-conquest Zamora,
from its position on the north bank of the Duero, was a place
of considerable strategic importance. It was taken from the
Moors by Alphonso I. of Leon in 748, but was again held by
them for short periods in 813, 939, 963, 984 and 986. It was
entirely repaired by Ferdinand I. of Castile and Leon, who in
1 06 1 gave it to his daughter Dona Urraca. After his death in
1065 his son Sancho II. disputed possession with Urraca and
laid siege to the city, but without success, although the famous
Ruy Diaz de Bivar was among his warriors, and indeed at this
time received his title of " The Cid." Zamora became subject
to Alphonso VI. in 1073.
ZAMOYSKI, JAN (1541-1605), Polish statesman, was the
son of Stanislaw, Castellan of Chelm, and Anna Herburtowna,
who belonged to one of the most ancient and illustrious families
in Poland. After completing his education at Paris, Strassburg,
and at Padua, where as rector of the academy he composed his
celebrated work De senalu romano (Venice, 1563), he returned
home in 1565, one of the most consummate scholars and jurists
in Europe. His essentially bold and practical genius sought
at once the stormy political arena. He was mainly instru-
mental, after the death of Sigismund II., in remodelling the
Polish constitution and procuring the election of Henry of
Valois. After the flight of that prince Zamoyski seems to have
aimed at the throne himself, but quickly changed his mind and
threw all his abilities into the scale in favour of Stephen Bathory
and against the Austrian influence. By his advice, at the
beginning of January 1576 a diet was summoned to Jedrzejow
to confirm the election of Bathory, and from the time of that
monarch's arrival in Poland till his death ten years later
Zamoyski was his foremost counsellor. Immediately after the
coronation, on the ist of May 1576, Zamoyski was appointed
chancellor, and in 1 580 wielki hetman, or commander-in-chief ,
so that he was now the second highest dignitary in the kingdom.
He strenuously supported Stephen during his long struggle
with Ivan the Terrible, despite the obstruction and parsimony
of the diet. H also enabled the king in 1585 to bring the
traitorous Samuel Zborowski to the scaffold in the face of a
determined resistance from the nobility. On the death of
Stephen, the Zborowski recovered their influence and did their
utmost to keep Zamoyski in the background. Their violence
prevented " the pasha," as they called him, from attending
the convention summoned to Warsaw on the death of Bathory;
but at the subsequent election diet, which met at Warsaw on
the 9th of July 1587, he appeared at the head of 6000 veterans
and intrenched himself with his partisans in what was called
" the Black Camp " in contradistinction to " the General
Camp " of the Zborowski. Zamoyski was at first in favour of a
member of the Bathory family, with which he was united by
ties of amity and mutual interest; but on becoming convinced
of the impossibility of any such candidature, he pronounced
for a native Pole, or for whichever foreign prince might be found
most profitable to Poland. The Habsburgs, already sure of the
Zborowski, bid very high for the support of Zamoyski. But
though he was offered the title of prince, with the Golden Fleece
and 200,000 ducats, he steadily opposed the Austrian faction,
even at the imminent risk of a civil war; and on the igth of
August procured the election of Sigismund of Sweden, whose
mother was Catherine Jagiellonica. The opposite party imme-
diately elected the Austrian Archduke Maximilian, who there-
upon made an attempt upon Cracow. But Zamoyski traversed
all the plans of the Austrian faction by routing the archduke
at the battle of Byczyna (January 24, 1588) and taking him
prisoner. From the first there was a certain coldness between
the new king and the chancellor. Each had his own plan for
coping with the difficulties of the situation; but while Zamoyski
regarded the Habsburgs with suspicion, Sigismund III. was
disposed to act in concert with them as being the natural and
strongest possible allies for a Catholic power like Poland.
Zamoyski feared their influence upon Poland, which he would
have made the head of the Slavonic powers by its own en-
deavours. Zamoyski was undoubtedly most jealous of his
dignity; his patriotism was seldom proof against private
pique; and he was not always particular in his choice of means.
Thus at the diet of 1589 he prevailed over the king by threaten-
ing to leave the country defenceless against the Turks, if the
Austrians were not excluded from the succession. In general,
however, his Turkish policy was sound, as he consistently
adopted the Jagiellonic policy of being friendly with so dangerous
a neighbour as the Porte. His views on this head are set out
with great force in his pamphlet, La deffaicte des Tartares et
Turcs (Lyons, 1590). The ill-will between the king and the
chancellor reached an acute stage when Sigismund appointed
an opponent of Zamoyski vice-chancellor, and made other
ministerial changes which limited his authority; though ulti-
mately, with the aid of his partisans and the adoption of such
desperate expedients as the summoning of a confederation to
annul the royal decrees in 1592, Zamoyski recovered his full
authority. In 1595 Zamoyski, in his capacity of commander-
in-chief, at the head of 8000 veterans dethroned the anti-Polish
hospodar of Moldavia and installed in his stead a Catholic
convert, George Mohila. On his return he successfully sustained
in his camp at Cecora a siege by the Tatar khan. Five years
later (October 20, 1600) he won his greatest victory at Ter-
goviste, when with a small well-disciplined army he routed
ZANARDELLI ZANESVILLE
955
Michael the Brave, hospodar of Walachia and Moldavia. But
beyond securing the Polish frontier Zamoyski would never go.
He refused to wage war with Turkey even under the most favour-
able circumstances, nor could he be drawn into the Holy League
against the Ottomans in 1600. When pressed by the papal
legate and the Austrian envoys to co-operate at the head of all
the forces of the league, he first demanded that in case of
success Moldavia, Walachia and Bessarabia should fall to
Poland, and that she should in the meantime hold Olmutz
and Breslau as guarantees. The refusal of the Austrians to
accept these reasonable terms justified Zamoyski's suspicion
that the league would use Poland as a cat's-paw, and the
negotiations came 'to nothing. Statesman though he was,
Zamoyski cannot, however, be called a true patriot. Polish
historians, dazzled by his genius and valour, are apt to over-
look his quasi-treasonable conduct and blame Sigismund III.
for every misadventure; but there can be no doubt that the
king took a far broader view of the whole situation when he
attempted to reform the Polish constitution in 1605 by streng-
thening the royal power and deciding all measures in future by
a majority of the diet. These reforms Zamoyski strenuously
opposed. The last speech he delivered was in favour of the
anarchic principle of free election. He died suddenly at
Zamosc on the 3rd of June 1605.
See Vincent Laureo, 1 574-78, el ses depeches inedites (Ital.) (Warsaw,
1877) ; Augustin Theiner, Vetera monumenta Poloniae et Lituaniae
vol. ii. (Rome, 1862); Adam Tytus Dzialynski, Collectanea vitam
resque gestas J. Zamoyocil illustrantia (Posen, 1881). (R. N. B.)
ZANARDELLI, GIUSEPPE (1826-1003), Italian jurisconsult
and statesman, was born at Brescia on the 2Qth of October
1826. A combatant in the volunteer corps during the war of
1848, he returned to Brescia after the defeat of Novara, and for
a time earned a livelihood by teaching law, but was molested
by the Austrian police and forbidden to teach in consequence
of his refusal to contribute pro-Austrian articles to the press.
Elected deputy in 1859, he received various administrative
appointments, but only attained a political office in 1876 when
the Left, of which he had been a prominent and influential
member, came into power. Minister of public works in the
first Depretis cabinet of 1876, and minister of the interior in
the Cairoli cabinet of 1878, he in the latter capacity drafted the
franchise reform, but created dissatisfaction by the indecision
of his administrative acts, particularly in regard to the Irre-
dentist agitation, and by his theory of repressing and not in
any way preventing crime, which led for a time to a perfect
epidemic of murders. Overthrown with Cairoli in December
1878, he returned to power as minister of justice in the Depretis
cabinet of 1881, and succeeded in completing the commercial
code. Abandoned by Depretis in 1883, he remained in opposi-
tion until 1887, when he again joined Depretis as minister of
justice, retaining his portfolio throughout the ensuing Crispi
ministry until the 3ist of January 1891. During this period
he promulgated the Criminal Code, and began the reform of the
magistracy. After the fall of the Giolitti cabinet in 1893,
Zanardelli made a strenuous but unsuccessful attempt to form
an administration. Elected president of the chamber in 1894
and 1896, he exercised that office with ability until, in December
1897, he accepted the portfolio of justice in the Rudini cabinet,
only to resign in the following spring on account of dissensions
with his colleague, Visconti-Venosta, over the measures necessary
to prevent a recurrence of the tumults of May 1898. Returning
to the presidency of the chamber, he again abandoned his post
in order to associate himself with the obstructionist campaign
against the Public Safety Bill (1899-1900), and was rewarded
by being enabled to form an administration with the support
of the Extreme Left upon the fall of the Saracco cabinet in
February 1001. He was unable to achieve much during his
last term of office, as his health was greatly impaired; his
Divorce Bill, although voted in the chamber, had to be with-
drawn on account of the strong opposition of the country. He
retired from the administration on the 2nd of November 1003,
and died on the 2ist of December following.
ZANELLA, GIACOMO (1820-1888), Itab'an poet, was born
at Chiampo, near Vicenza, on the 9th of September 1820, and
was educated for the priesthood. After his ordination he be-
came professor at the lyceum of his native place, but his patriotic
sympathies excited the jealousy of the Austrian authorities,
and although protected by his diocesan, he was compelled to
resign in 1853. After the liberation of Venetia, the Italian
government conferred upon him a professorship at Padua, and
he achieved distinction as a poet on the publication of his first
volume of poems in 1868. In 1872 grief for the death of his
mother occasioned a mental malady, which led to the resigna-
tion of his professorship. After his complete and permanent
recovery he built himself a villa on the bank of his native river,
the Astichello, and lived there in tranquillity until his death on
the 1 7th of May 1888. His last published volume contains a
series of sonnets of singular beauty, addressed to the river,
resembling Wordsworth's " Sonnets to the Duddon," but more
perfect in form; and a blank verse idyll, "II Pettirosso "
(" The Redbreast "), bearing an equally strong, though equally
accidental, resemblance to the similar compositions of Coleridge.
His ode to Dante, and that on the opening of the Suez Canal,
are distinguished by great dignity. Of his other compositions,
the most individual are those in which, deeply impressed by the
problems of his day, he has sought to reconcile science and
religion, especially the fine dialogue between Milton and Galileo,
where the former, impressed by Galileo's predictions of the
intellectual consequences of scientific progress, resolves " to
justify the ways of God to man." Zanella was a broad-minded
and patriotic ecclesiastic, and his character is justly held in
equal honour with his poetry, which, if hardly to be termed
powerful, wears a stamp of peculiar elegance and finish, and
asserts a place of its own in modern Italian literature.
ZANESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Muskingum
county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Muskingum river, at the mouth of
the Licking river, about 60 m. E. cf Columbus. Pop. (1890)
21,009; (190) 23,538, of whom 1435 were foreign-born; (1910,
census) 28,026. Zanesville is served by the Baltimore &
Ohio, the Pennsylvania, the Cleveland, Akron & Columbus,
the Ohio River & Western, the Wheeling & Lake Erie, the
Zanesville & Western, and the Ohio & Little Kanawha
(B. and O. system) railways, by a belt line around the city, and
by the Ohio Electric and the South-Eastern Ohio electric inter-
urban lines. By a series of locks and dams the Muskingum
river has been made navigable for small vessels to the Ohio
and above Zanesville to Dresden, where connexion is made with
the Ohio Canal extending north to Cleveland. Within the city
limits the Muskingum is crossed by seven bridges (including a
notable concrete Y bridge) and the Licking by two. The
business districts of the city lie on both sides of the two rivers;
the residential districts being chiefly on the hills to the north
and west. Among the principal buildings are the Federal
building, the county court-house, the Soldiers and Sailors'
Monumental Building, containing a large auditorium, the
Masonic and Oddfellows' temples, the Market building, con-
taining city offices, a National Guard armoury, the John Mclntire
public library, the John Mclntire Children's Home (1880), the
Helen Purcell home for women, the county infirmary, the
Bethesda Hospital (1890), and the Good Samaritan hospital
(1902; under the Franciscan Sisters). The John Mclntire
public library (about 20,000 volumes) is a consolidation of the
Zanesville Athenaeum (1827) and the Eunice Buckingham
library of the former Putnam Female Seminary (1835) here;
Andrew Carnegie contributed $50,000 for the erection of the
building. John Mclntire (1750-1815), one of the early settlers,
provided by will for the maintenance of a school for poor
children, and such a school was maintained from 1836 to 1856,
when it was transferred to the city school system, annual con-
tributions being made from the fund for poor children; later
the Mclntire Home was founded, and in 1902 donations to the
city school system were discontinued and the entire jevenues
of the estate devoted to the maintenance of the Home, which is
a -model of its kind. Zanesville is an important centre for the
ZANGWILL ZANY
manufacture of art and domestic pottery, plain and ornamental
tile, building and paving bricks, and other clay products. In
1905 it ranked sixth among the cities of the country in the
amount of pottery produced, and third in the degree of the
specialization of that industry. In 1905 the value of all factory
products was $7,047,637, of which $1,144,384 (16-2 per cent.)
represented pottery, terra-cotta, and fireclay products.
Zanesville was first platted in 1800 by Ebenezer Zane (1747-
1811) of Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia), his brother
Jonathan, and John Mclntire, his son-in-law, of Alexandria, Va.,
who under an act of Congress of 1796 surveyed a road from
Wheeling* to what is now Maysville, Kentucky, and received for
this service three sections of land. Jonathan Zane and Mclntire
selected the land at the point where the new road crossed the
Muskingum river. The settlement was first called Westbourne
and later was named Zanesville; a post office was established
in 1802. Zanesville became the county-seat upon the creation
of Muskingum county in 1804, was the capital of the state from
1810 to 1812, was incorporated as a town in 1814, and was
chartered as a city in 1850.
ZANGWILL, ISRAEL (1864- ), Jewish man of letters,
was born in London on the I4th of February 1864. His early
childhood was spent in Plymouth and at Bristol, where he
received his first schooling. He was in his ninth year when his
parents settled in Spitalfields, and he entered the Jews' Free
School, where eventually he became a teacher. Concurrently
*vith his teaching work he took his degree with honours at London
University. He had already written a fantastic tale entitled
The Premier and the Painter in collaboration with Louis Cowen,
when he resigned his position as a. teacher owing to differences
with the school managers and ventured into journalism. He
founded and edited Ariel, The London Puck, and did much
miscellaneous work on the London press. He made his literary
reputation with a novel, The Children of the Ghetto (1892), which
was followed by Ghetto Tragedies (1893); The Master (1895);
Dreamers of the Ghetto (1898); The Mantle of Elijah (1901);
and other tales and novels of great interest dealing with Jewish
life. Children of the Ghetto was produced in a play in New York
with success in 1899, and has since been extensively played both
in English and Yiddish. Others of his plays are: Merely Mary
Ann, played at the Duke of York's theatre, and The Serio-
Comic Governess; Nurse Marjorie; and The Melting Pot, all
produced in New York. Mr Zangwill was the founder of the
International Jewish Territorial Organization (see ZIONISM).
ZANTE (anc. Zacynlhus), an island of Greece, one of the
Ionian group, in the Ionian Sea, in 37 40' N. lat. and 21" J2.
long., is 25 m. long, about 12 broad, and 64 m. round, with an
area of 277 sq. m., and a population in 1907 of 42,502. Zante
lies 8 m. S. of Cephalonia, forming with it, Leucas and Ithaca
a crescent-shaped insular group, which represents the crests of a
submerged limestone ridge facing the Gulf of Patras. Zante is
of somewhat irregular oval shape, with its main axis disposed
in the direction from north-west to south-east, and indented by
a deep inlet at its southern extremity. The surface is mainly
occupied by an extensive and highly productive central plain,
skirted on the west side by a range of bare limestone hills from
1000 to 1 200 ft. high, which fall gently landwards, but present
bold steep cliffs towards the sea, and which culminate north-
wards in Mount Skopos, the ancient Elatos (1600 ft.), the highest
point in the island. On the east side the plain is also limited
by a low ridge, which still justifies the epithet of nemorosa, or
the " wooded," applied by Virgil to Zacynthus. These hills
are densely clothed to their summits with an exuberant growth
of olives, figs, myrtles, laurels, oranges, aloes, vines and other
sub-tropical plants. The central plain is highly cultivated,
forming an almost continuous stretch of gardens and vineyards,
varied here and there with a few patches of cornfields and pasture
lands. Here is grown a peculiar dwarf vine, whose fruit, the
" currant " (from " Corinth ") of commerce, forms the chief
resource* and staple export of Zante, as well as of the neigh-
bouring mainland. The vine, which grows to a height of 3 ft.,
begins to yield in seven years and lasts for over a century. From
the grape, which has a pleasant bitter-sweet taste, a wine is
also extracted, which is said to excel all others in flavour, fire
and strength. Besides this species, there are nearly forty
different kinds of vine and ten of the olive, including the karu-
dolia, which yields the best edible olive berry. For size, vigorous
growth and productiveness the olive tree of Zante is rivalled
only by that of Corfu.
The island enjoys a healthy climate; and, although there are
no perennial streams, an abundant supply of good water is
obtained from the numerous springs, occurring especially in
the eastern and central districts. But earthquakes are frequent
and at times disastrous. During recent times the most de-
structive were those of 1811, 1820, 1840 and 1893; and,
although the prevailing geological formations are sedimentary,
chiefly calcareous, there seems no doubt that these disturbances
are of igneous origin. Other indications of volcanic agency
are the oil springs occurring on the coast, and even in the bed of
the sea near Cape Skinari on the north side, and especially the
famous pitch or bituminous wells already mentioned by Hero-
dotus (Hist., bk. iv.). These have been productive throughout
the historic period and still yield a considerable supply of pitch.
They are situated in a swamp near the coast village of Chieri,
and comprise two basins, with alternate layers of water and
bitumen, the lower sheet of water apparently communicating
with the sea.
Z?,nte, capital of the island, is a considerable seaport on the
east side, with a population in 1907 of 13,501. It occupies the
site of the ancient city of Zacynthus, said to have been founded
by Zacynthus, son of a legendary Arcadian chief, Dardanus, to
whom was also attributed the neighbouring citadel of Psophis.
But of this, as well as of the temple of Artemis that formerly
crowned Mount Skopos, no vestiges can now be discovered.
Traditionally the island formed part of the territory of
Ulysses, king of Ithaca. It was peopled in ancient times by
settlers variously represented as coming from Achaea or Arcadia.
It figures occasionally in history as a base for belligerents in
the Ionian Sea. Thus during the Peloponnesian War it served
as a naval station for the Athenians, who again in 374 B.C.
endeavoured to acquire it for a similar purpose; in 357 it
became the headquarters of Dion on his expedition against
Syracuse. In 217 it was seized by Philip V. of Macedon. The
Romans captured it in 211, but restored it temporarily to
Philip; in 191, wishing to keep it out of the hands of ambitious
Greek powers, they definitely annexed it. In 86 it was raided
by Mithradates' admiral Archelaus during a short foray into
Ionian waters. Under the Roman Empire Zante was included
in the province of Epirus. In the nth century it passed to
the Norman kings of Sicily; after the Fourth Crusade it be-
longed at various times to the despots of Epirus, the emperors
of Constantinople, and the Orsini, counts of Cephalonia. After
remaining from 1357 to 1482 in the hands of the Tocco family
it became a Venetian possession. In 1797 it was ceded to
France, and after a short occupation by .the Russians was
brought under British protection; in 1864 it was ceded with
the other Ionian islands to the Greek kingdom.
The long Venetian occupation is reflected in the appearance,
character, and to some extent even the language and religion
of the Zantiots. Nearly all the aristocracy claim Venetian
descent; most of the upper classes are bilingual, speaking both
Greek and Italian; and a considerable section of the popula-
tion are Roman Catholics of the Latin rite. Even the bulk of
the people, although mainly of Greek stock, form in their
social usages a connecting link between the Hellenes, whose
language they speak, and the Western nations by whom they
were so long ruled.
See B. Schmidt, Die Insel Zakynthos (Freiburg, 1899); B. V.
Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 359-60.
ZANY, a fool or silly person. The word came into English
in the i6th century from Ital. Zane, mod. Zanni, an abbrevia-
tion of the name Giovanni (John). This familiar form of the
name was given by Italians to a special type of clown or
buffoon who acted as an attendant or follower of the regular
ZANZIBAR
957
professional clown on the stage and made clumsy and ludicrous
attempts to mimic his performance.
ZANZIBAR, a sultanate and British protectorate of East
Africa. The sultanate, formerly of much larger extent (see
below, History), was reduced in 1890 to the islands of Zanzibar
and Pemba, some adjacent islets, the nominal sovereignty of
the coast line for ten miles inland of the protectorate of
British East Africa (q.v.), and the possession, also nominal, of
five ports on the Benadir coast, leased to Italy. (In 1905 the
sultan of Zanzibar sold his sovereign rights to these ports to
Italy. See SOMALILAND: Italian.) The islands of Pemba and
Zanzibar have a collective area of 1020 sq. m. and an estimated
population (1909) of 250,000.
Topography, fife. The political and commercial, as well as the
geographical, centre of the state is the fertile and densely peopled
island of Zanzibar, which lies at a mean distance of 20 m. from the
mainland, between 5 40' and 6 30' S. Pemba (q.v.) to the north
and the more distant Mafia (to the south) form with Zanzibar an
independent geological system, resting on a foundation of coralline
reefs, and constituting ' a sort of outer coast-line, which almost
everywhere presents a rocky barrier to the Indian Ocean. All
three are disposed parallel to the mainland, from which they are
separated by shallow waters, mostly under thirty fathoms, strewn
with numerous reefs dangerous to navigation, especially in the
Mafia channel opposite the Rufiji delta. (For Mafia, see GERMAN
EAST AFRICA.) Some 6 m. N. of Zanzibar and forming part of
the coral reef is the small, densely wooded island of Tumbatu. Its
inhabitants are excellent sailors.
Zanzibar island is 47 m. long and 20 broad at its greatest breadth.
It has an area of 640 sq. m. The island, called Unguja in Swahili,
is not exclusively of coralline formation, several heights of a reddish
ferruginous clay rising in gentle slopes 400 to 450 ft. in the centre
and double that in the north. There are several tolerable natural
harbours, used only by Arab dhows, the port of Zanzibar sufficing
for the general trade. The forests which formerly covered the
island have largely disappeared; the eastern half is now mostly
covered with low scrub. The western part is noted for the luxuri-
ance and variety of its flora, notwithstanding the absence of timber
trees. Among fruit-trees the coco-nut palm is conspicuous. Each
tree yields 100 to 120 nuts a year. In places there are extensive
groves of these trees, elsewhere the palms grow indiscriminately
among other trees, which include the mangrove (in swampy
districts), lemons, sweet and sour limes, the bread fruit, papaw,
pomegranate, tamarind, the orange and mango trees. The two
last-named and plantains and bananas are abundant. The mango
trees attain a great size. Many of the fruit-trees and plants have
been introduced from India and Malaysia, such as the mangosteen,
guava, durian, cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves, all of which thrive
well. The soil seems specially suited for the clove, which, although
nearly destroyed by a terrible cyclone in 1872, completely recovered
from that disaster.
Although the fauna is almost exclusively continental, Zanzibar
till recently possessed a distinct variety of monkey (Colobus kirkii),
which appears to be now extinct. Other varieties of monkeys are
fairly numerous. Hippopotami have occasionally swum to the island.
Wild boars and servals are common, pythons are found in the
swamps. Camels and bullocks are used as draught animals.
Climate. The great heat and the excessive moisture of the atmos-
phere render the climate very trying, especially to Europeans. The
year is divided intcj two seasons, according to the direction of the
monsoons. The north-east monsoon sets in about the end of
November, the south-west monsoon in April. The " hot season "
corresponds with the north-east monsoon, when the minimum
readings of the thermometer often exceed 80 F. In June to
September the minimum readings drop to 72, the mean annual
temperature being about 80. Rain falls in every month of the
year. December, April and May are the rainiest months, August
to October the driest. The average annual rainfall (18 years'
observations) is 65 in. (In 1859 as much as 170 in. were registered.)
Inhabitants. On the east side of the island the inhabitants,
a Bantu-speaking race of low development, probably represent
the aboriginal stock. They are known as Wahadimu and are
noted as good fishermen, cattle raisers, and skilled artisans.
In the west, and especially in the capital (for which, see below),
the population is of an extremely heterogeneous character,
including full-blood and half-caste Arabs, Goanese, Parsis,
Hindus, Comoro Islanders, Swahili (q.v.) of every shade, and
representatives of tribes from all parts of East Africa. The
Arabs number about 7000; Asiatics (mostly British Indians),
20,000; whites (chiefly British) , 2 50. Besides the port of Zanzibar
there are no large towns. Chuaka is a pleasant health resort on
the eastern shore facing the Indian Ocean.
Production. Cloves and copra are the chief products of
the island. There are also extensive chilli and rubber planta-
tions. The muhogo (cassava), the tobacco plant and vanilla
are cultivated on a smaller scale; experiments in cotton-grow-
ing proved unsuccessful. The shambas (plantations) are mostly
the property of Arabs. The labourers are chiefly Swahilis, and
were formerly slaves. The labour available at harvest time is
often inadequate, and year after year a large proportion of the
clove crop has remained unpicked. As its prosperity depended
much more on its transit trade (Zanzibar being the entrepot
for all the East African ports as far south as the Zambezi) than
on agriculture the resources of the island were somewhat
neglected; but when in the early years of the 2oth century
the competition of Mombasa and Dar-es-Salaam was felt, efforts
were made to increase the number and productiveness of the
crops and also to decrease costs by providing better means of
transport. Good roads were made by the government, and
an American company built a 3-ft. gauge railway from Zanzibar
town to fhe north of the island, where are the chief plantations.
Rice is imported in large quantities from Rangoon and Bombay.
Besides rice, cassava, grown on the island, and fish (which is
abundant) are the chief foods of the natives. The pigeon pea
(cajanus Indicus) is commonly grown, and the Wahadimu and
Watumbata cultivate the betel-nut creeper.
Revenue and Currency. Custom duties are the chief source of
revenue. Other sources are registration and market fees, hut tax
(one dollar per hut) on government ground, post office receipts, &c.,
and the produce of crown shambas. A sum of 17,000 a year is
paid to the government by the British East Africa Protectorate
for the right to administer the mainland portion of the sultanate;
the Zanzibar government also receives some 10,000 a year interest
on the purchase money paid by Germany and Italy for the part
of Zanzibar territory acquired by those Powers. In 1900 the revenue
was 123,000 and the expenditure 131,000. In 1902 the sultan,
on the advice of the British government, appointed a financial
adviser, under whose care the finances steadily improved. In 1906
the revenue was 191,000, the expenditure 156,000. In the last-
named year there was a public debt of 88,000. The principal
items of expenditure come under the heads of administration,
public works, civil list and military police.
The coinage system is somewhat complicated. The Maria Theresa
dollar (equalling approximately 35. 90.) is used as a standard of
value in price quotations, but the coin is not in circulation. The
Indian rupee is in universal currency and the British sovereign
is legal tender at the fixed rate of 15 rupees to i. The division
of the rupee into annas and pice was abolished in 1908 and the
rupee divided into loo cents. In the same year the government
issued notes of 5, 10, 20, 50 and loo rupees. British weights and
measures are used in wholesale transactions, with the exception
of the frasila, which equals 35 ft avoir.
Religion, 'Education and Justice. Mahommedanism is the
dominant religion. Most of the inhabitants are Sunnis of the
Shafi school, but the sultan and his relatives are schismatics of
the Ibadhi sect. There are several Protestant and Roman Catholic
missions with branches on the mainland. These missions maintain
schools. The government supports kuttabs in which elementary
education is given in Arabic and the vernacular, and more advanced
schools in which English, geography and arithmetic are taught.
In December 1892 the sultan delegated to the British agent and
consul-general his right to try all cases in which a British subject
is plaintiff or accuser, and the defendant or accused is a Zanzibar
subject. The British court also tries all cases in which other
Europeans (and Americans) are concerned, the consular jurisdiction
exercised by other Powers having been finally abolished in 1907.
Cases between natives are tried by Moslem tribunals. There is a
military police force under a British officer.
History. From the earliest times of which there is any
record the African seaboard from the Red Sea to an unknown
distance southwards was subject to Arabian influence and
dominion. Egyptians, Chinese and Malays also appear to have
visited the coast. At a later period the coast towns were founded
or conquered by Persian and Arab Mahommedans who, for
the most part, fled to East Africa between the 8th and nth
centuries on account of the religious differences of the times,
the refugees being schismatics. Various small states thus grew
up along the coast, Mombasa seeming to be the most important.
These states are sometimes spoken of as the Zenj empire,
though they were never, probably, united under one ruler.
Kilwa (q.v.) was regarded as the capital of the " empire." The
ZANZIBAR
seaboard itself took the name of Zanquebar (corrupted to
Zanzibar by the Banyan traders), the Balid ez-Zenj, or " Land
of the Zenj " of the Arabs, a term which corresponds to the
Hindu-bar, or " land of the Hindu," formerly applied to the
west coast of India. By Ibn Batuta, who visited the coast in
1328, and other Arab writers the Zenj people are referred to in
a general way as Mahommedan negroes; and they are no doubt
still represented by the semi-civilized Mahommedan Bantus
now collectively known as the Swahili or " coast people," and
in whose veins is a large admixture of Asiatic blood. The Zenj
" empire " began tc decline soon after the appearance of the
Portuguese in East African waters at the close of the ijth
century. To them fell in rapid succession the great cities of
Kilwa with its 300 mosques (1505), Mombasa the " Magnificent "
(1505), and soon after Malindi and Mukdishu the " Immense "
(Ibn Batuta). The Portuguese rule was troubled by many
revolts, and towards the end of the i6th century the chief cities
were ravaged by the Turks, who came by sea, and by the
Zimbas, a fierce negro tribe, who came overland from south of
the Zambezi. On the ruins of the Portuguese power in the i7th
century was built up that of the Imams of Muscat. Over their
African dominions the Imams placed valis or viceroys, who in
time became independent of their overlord. In Mombasa
power passed into the hands of the Mazrui family. The island
of Zanzibar, conquered by the Portuguese in 1503-8, was occupied
by the Arabs in 1730, and in 1832 the town of Zanzibar,
then a place of no note, was made the capital of his dominions
by the Sayyid Said of Muscat, who reconquered all the towns
formerly owning allegiance to the Imams, Mombasa being
taken by treachery in 1837. On the death of Said in 1856 his
dominions were divided between his two sons, the African
section falling to Majid, who was succeeded in 1870 by his
younger brother Bargash ibn Said, commonly known as sultan
of Zanzibar. Bargash witnessed the dismemberment of his
dominions by Great Britain, Germany and Italy (see AFRICA,
5), and in March 1888 left to his successor, Sayyid Khalifa,
a mere fragment of the territories over which he had once ruled.
The Sayyids Majid and Bargash acted largely under the influence
of Sir John Kirk (q.v.), who from 1866 to 1887 was consular
representative of Great Britain at Zanzibar. By Sir John's
efforts a treaty for the suppression of the slave trade throughout
the sultanate had been concluded in 1873.
In the negotiations between the Powers for the partition
of Africa the supremacy of British interests in the island was
acknowledged by Germany and France, thus rendering a treaty
made in 1862 between France and Great Britain recognizing
the " indapendence " of Zanzibar of no effect. On the 4th of
November 1890 the sultanate was proclaimed a British pro-
tectorate, in conformity with conventions by which Great
Britain on her part ceded Heligoland to Germany and renounced
all claims to Madagascar in favour of France. 1 Sultan (Sayyid)
All, who had succeeded his brother Sayyid Khalifa in February
1890, in August following issued a decree which resulted in the
liberation *of large numbers of slaves. Sayyid Ali was succeeded
in March 1893 by Hamed bin Thwain, on whose death in August
1896 his cousin, Sayyid Khalid, proclaimed himself sultan, and
seized the palace. The British government disapproved, and
to compel Khalid's submission the palace was bombarded by
warships. Khalid fled to the German consulate, whence he
was removed to the mainland, and Hamed bin Mahommed,
brother of Hamed bin Thwain, was installed sultan by the
British representative (27th of August 1896). The government
was reconstituted under British auspices in October 1891, when
Sir Lloyd Mathews 2 was appointed prime minister, and the
'By the Zanzibar Order in Council, 1906, the protectorate of
Zanzibar was limited to the islands of Zanzibar and Peraba, includ-
ing the territorial waters thereof and any islets within those waters.
1 Sir Lloyd Mathews (1850-1901) was a British naval officer.
He served in Ashanti 1873-74 and went to Zanzibar in 1875 as
lieutenant on a ship engaged in the suppression of the slave trade.
In 1877 he was selected to command the military force being raised
by Sayyid Bargash and thereafter devoted his services entirely to
the Zanzibar government. He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1894.
sultan made virtually a crown pensioner, with a civil list of
1 20,000 rupees. In 1 897 the legal status of slavery was abolished,
compensation being given to slave owners. In July 1902
Hamed bin Mahommed died, and was succeeded by his son Ali
bin Hamud, bom in 1885. The British government is repre-
sented by an agent and consul-general, without whose sanction
no important steps can be undertaken. This officer also ad-
ministered the East Africa Protectorate, but the dual appoint-
ment was found to hamper the progress of both protectorates,
and in 1904 when Mr Basil S. Cave was given charge of the
Zanzibar protectorate another officer was appointed for the
mainland. In 1906 the British agent assumed more direct
control over the protectorate and again reorganized the adminis-
tration, Capt. (locally general) A. E. H. Raikes being appointed
prime minister. These changes, together with the abolition
of foreign consular jurisdiction, led to many reforms in the
government and the increased prosperity of the Zanzibari.
AUTHORITIES. J. L. Krapf, Travels . . . in Eastern Africa
(London, 1860); Precis of Information concerning . . . Zanzibar
(War Office, London. 1902); W. W. A. Fitzgerald, Travels in . . .
the island of Zanzibar (London, 1898); H. S. Newman, Banani,
the Transition from Slavery to Freedom in Zanzibar (London, 1898);
Sir C. Eliot, The East Africa Protectorate (London, 1905) ; R. N.
Lyne, Zanzibar in Contemporary Times (London, 1905), a useful
historical summary, with bibliography of British Blue Books;
Drumkeys' Year Book for East Africa (annually since 1908) ; and
the annual reports to the British Foreign Office.
ZANZIBAR, an East African seaport, capital of the island
and sultanate of the same name, in 6 9' S., 39 15' E. The town
is situated on the western side of the island, 26 m. N.E. of the
mainland port of Bagamoyo, which is visible from Zanzibar
in very clear weather. Zanzibar is built on a triangular-shaped
peninsula about a mile and a half long which runs from east
to west, forming a safe and spacious roadstead or bay with
a minimum depth of water exceeding five fathoms. Ocean
steamers anchor in the roadstead and are loaded and discharged
by lighters. The harbour, frequented by British, German and
French steamers, warships and Arab dhows, affords a constant
scene of animation. Viewed from the sea, the town presents a
pleasant prospect with its mosques, white flat-topped houses,
barracks, forts, and round towers. The most prominent
buildings are the Sultan's palace and the Government offices
(formerly the British consulate), the last-named situated at the
Point, the south-west horn of the bay. To the left of the
palace viewed from the sea is the " stone ship," a series of
water tanks (now disused) the front of which is cleverly carved
to resemble a ship. The town consists of two quarters
Shangani, the centre of trade and residence of the sultan, and
the eastern suburb, formerly separated from the rest of the
town by the Malagash lagoon, an inlet of the sea, now drained.
For the most part Zanzibar consists of a labyrinth of narrow
and dirty streets, in which live the Banyans, Singalese, the
negro porters, fishermen and half-castes. There are numerous
markets. In Shangani are the houses of the European merchants
and the chief Arabs, and the headquarters of various Protestant
and Roman Catholic missions. Characteristic of the streets are
the carved and massive wooden doors, whose blackness con-
trasts with the white stone of the houses, and the bright red of
the acacias in the garden enclosures. Ndia Kun or Main Road
extends from the Sultan's palace to the (new) British Agency
at Mnazi Moja, a castellated building situated in beautiful
grounds. Along this thoroughfare are the custom house, the
post office buildings (an imposing edifice) and several con-
sulates. In a turning off Main Street is the residence of Tippoo
Tib (now an hotel). Next to this house is the English Club, and
in the same street are the law courts (built 1909-10). The
Anglican cathedral (built 1873-79) a semi-Gothic coral building,
occupies the site of the old slave market. The Roman Catholic
cathedral in the Renaissance style is one of the finest build-
ings in East Africa. On the outskirts of the town at Mnazi
Moja is a public park, a golf course and cricket ground. Zanzibar
is well suoplied with pure water brought from the neighbouring
hills.
ZAPAROS ZARHON
959
Submarine cables connect Zanzibar with all parts of the world;
whilst lines of steamships from Europe and India make it a
regular port of call. It was not, however, until 1910 that direct
steamship communication with London was established. The
average annual value of the external trade for the five years
1902-6 was: imports, 1,075,580; exports, 1,084,224. In 1907
the imports were valued at 1,232,957, the exports at 1,070,067.
The figures for 1908 were: imports, 969,841; exports, 977,628.
Many of the imports brought from the neighbouring mainland
also figure as exports. Of these the most important are ivory,
and rhinoceros horn, gum copal, hides and skins. Cloves,
clove stems and copra are the chief exports, the production of
the island. The bulk of the articles named, with the exception
of copra, are sent to the United Kingdom; India, however,
has a larger trade with Zanzibar than any other country.
From it are imported food stuffs (rice, grain, flour, ghee, groceries)
and piece goods. The copra is sent almost exclusively to
Marseilles. The most valuable articles of import are piece
goods and rice. The piece goods corne chiefly from the United
Kingdom, India, America and the Netherlands, the rice entirely
from India. Other imports of value are building material,
coal, petroleum and sugar.
The motley population of Zanzibar is indicative of the com-
mercial importance of the city. Its geographical position has
made it the key of East Africa from Cape Guardafui to Delagoa
Bay. " When you play on the flute at Zanzibar " (says an
Arab proverb) " all Africa as far as the lakes dances." From
the time (1832) when Seyyid Said of Muscat fixed on the town
as the capital of his empire, Zanzibar became the centre of the
trade between the African continent, India, Arabia and the
Persian Gulf, as well as Madagascar and the Mauritius. It
also speedily obtained a large trade with Europe and America.
The Americans were the first among white merchants to realize
the possibilities of the port, and a United States consulate was
established as early as 1836. The name Merikani, applied to
cotton goods and blankets on the east coast, is a testimony to
the enterprise of the American trader. Zanzibar is to a greater
degree than any other city the capital of negro Africa; made so,
however, not by the negroes but by Arab conquerors and traders.
The aspect of the city has changed since the establishment of
the British protectorate, the suppression of the slave market
and of slavery itself, and the enforcement of sanitation; but
Professor Henry Drummond in Tropical Africa (1888) aptly
sketched the characteristics of Zanzibar in pre-protectorate days
when he wrote of it as a " cesspool of wickedness Oriental in
its appearance, Mahommedan in its religion, Arabian in its
morals ... a fit capital for the Dark Continent." Neverthe-
less Zanzibar in those days was the focus of all exploring and
missionary work for the interior, the portal through which
civilizing influences penetrated into the eastern section of
equatorial Africa. The growth of the British and German
protectorates on the neighbouring shores led in the early years
of the 20th century to considerable trade which had hitherto
gone through Zanzibar being diverted to Mombasa and Dar-es-
Salaam, but Zanzibar maintains its supremacy as the great
distributing centre for the eastern seaboard.
ZAPAROS, a tribe or group of tribes of South American
Indians of the river Napo. They occupy some 12,000 sq. m.
between the Napo and the Pastaza. Their only industries
are hammock plaiting and fishing-net weaving. Polygamy is
general. They wear a long skirt of bark fibre.
ZARA (Serbo-Croatian Zadar), the capital of Dalmatia,
Austria. Pop. (1900), of town and commune, 32,506: includ-
ing a garrison of 1330. Zara is situated on the Adriatic Sea,
52 m. S.E. of Trieste, and opposite the islands of Ugliano and
Pasman, from which it is separated by the narrow Channel of
Zara. It is the meeting-place of the provincial diet, and the seat
of a Roman Catholic archbishop and an Orthodox bishop.
The promontory on which it stands is separated from the main-
land by a deep moat, practically making an island of the city.
In 1873 the ramparts of Zara were converted into elevated
' promenades commanding extensive views to seaward and to
landward. Of its four old gates one, the Porta Marina, in-
corporates the relics of a Roman arch, and another, the Porta
di Terraferma, was designed in the i6th century by the Veronese
artist Sanmichele. The chief interest of Zara lies in its churches,
the most remarkable of which is the cathedral of St Anastasia, a
fine Romanesque basilica, built between 1202 and 1205. The
churches of St Chrysogonus and St Simeon are also in the
Romanesque style, and St Mary's retains a fine Romanesque
campanile of 1105. The round church of St Donatus, tradi-
tionally but erroneously said to have been erected in the
9th century on the site of a temple of Juno, is used for
secular purposes. The church treasuries contain some of the
finest Dalmatian metal- work; notably the silver ark or re-
liquary of St Simeon (1380), and the pastoral staff of Bishop
Valaresso (1460). Most of the Roman remains were used in
the construction of the fortifications. But two squares are
embellished with lofty marble columns; a Roman tower stands
on the east side of the town; and some remains of a Roman
aqueduct may be seen outside the ramparts. Among the other
chief buildings are the Loggia del Comune, rebuilt in 1565, and
containing a public library; the old palace of the priors, now
the governor's residence; and the episcopal palaces. The
harbour, to the north-east of the town, is safe and spacious,
and it is annually entered by about 2500 small vessels, mainly
engaged in the coasting trade. Large quantities of maraschino
are distilled in Zara; and the local industries include fishing,
glass-blowing, and the preparation of oil, flour and wax.
In the early days of the Roman empire Zara was a flourishing
Roman colony under the name of Jadera, subsequently changed
to Diadora. It remained united with the eastern empire down
to 998, when it sought Venetian protection. For the next four
centuries it was always under Venetian or Hungarian rule,
changing hands repeatedly. It was occupied by the Hungarians
at the end of the I2th century, but was recaptured by the
Venetians in 1202, with the aid of French crusaders on their
way to Palestine. In 1409 it was finally purchased from
Hungary by Venice for 100,000 ducats. In 1792 it passed into
the possession of Austria. From 1809 to 1813 it belonged to
France.
About 15 m. S.E. is Zara Vecchia, or Old Zara, an insignificant
village on the site of Biograd, the former residence of the
Croatian kings, which was destroyed during the wars between
Venice and Hungary.
See Angelo Nani, Zara, e suoi Dintorni (Zara, 1878), and Notizie
Storiche della Cilia di Zara, (Zara, 1883).
ZARCILLO Y ALCARAZ, FRANCISCO (1707-1781), Spanish
sculptor, was born in Murcia on the I2th of May 1707. At the
age of twenty he completed the statue of St Ines of Monte-
pulciano, which had been begun for the Dominicans at Murcia
by his father. On the death of the latter the care of the family
fell upon Francisco, who with the help of his brothers and sisters
organized a workshop. In 1765 he also founded a small
academy, which, however, was speedily dissolved owing to dis-
union among the members. In the Ermita de Jesus in Murcia
may be seen Zarcillo's scenes from the Passion of Our Lord, a
vast work in which all the sculptor's qualities and defects are
revealed. In the church of St Miguel are an Immaculate
Conception and a St Francis. Mention should also be made
of the Christ at the Well in the church of Santa Maria dellas
Gracias in Murcia, and of the sculptures in San Pedro and in
the Capucine monastery in Murcia. Zarcillo worked in wood,
which was coloured. The ascription of the stone sculptures
on the facade of the St Nicolas Church in Murcia to him rests on
conjecture. He died at Murcia in 1781.
See B. Haendcke, Studien tur Geschickte der spanischen Plastik
(Strassburg, 1900).
ZARH6N, a mountain in Morocco, 9! m. N. of Mequinez, on
whose hillside is the town Mulai Idris Zarh6n. so called after
Mulai Idrls I., the founder of the Moorish empire, who was
buried there in A.D. 791. The whole town is considered as a
sanctuary, pays no taxes, provides no soldiers and is never
visited save by Mahommedans. Near the town are the ruins
960
ZARIA ZARLINO
of Volubilis Kasar Fara'on or Pharaoh's Castle, once the
Roman capital, and the first home of Idris.
ZARIA, a province of the British protectorate of Northern
Nigeria. It lies approximately between 5 50' and 8 30' E.
and 9" 20' and 11 30' N. It has an area of 22,000 sq. m. and
an estimated population of about 250,000. The province, of
which a great portion consists of open rolling plains, is watered
by the Kaduna affluent of the Niger and its many tributaries,
and is generally healthy and suitable for cultivation. The
chief towns are Zaria, the capital of the emirate, 87 m. S.W. of
Kano, and Zungeru, the headquarters of the British adminis-
tration for the whole of Northern Nigeria. The British station
at Zaria town, with an elevation of 2150 ft., has so far proved
the healthiest and most agreeable point of occupation in the
protectorate. The climate here for a great portion of the year
is bracing, and in the cold season there is frost at night.
The British capital at Zungeru, in the south-western corner
of the province, less fortunate than Zaria, has only an elevation
of about 450 ft. above the sea. The climate, though better than
that of Lokoja, is still relaxing and trying for Europeans. The
site of Zungeru, 6 9' 40" E. 9 48' 32" N., was selected in 1901.
By the summer of 1902 brick houses for the public departments,
a residency, a hospital, barracks and a certain number of
houses for the civilian staff had been erected, and the town is
now a flourishing settlement, having all the appearance of an
English suburban town with shaded avenues and public gardens
clustering on either side of the river Dago, over which several
bridges have been thrown.
Zaria is not a great grain-producing province. Its principal
crop is cotton, of which the surplus is available for purposes of
trade, and among the Mahommedan population there is a grow-
ing demand for cloth, agricultural and culinary implements,
Birmingham goods, soap, oil, sugar and European provisions.
The construction of roads, telegraphs and other public works
consequent upon the British occupation of the province makes
somewhat heavy calls upon the local labour supply and ac-
centuates to some of the large landowners the inconvenience
resulting from the abolition of the slave trade, but the practice
of owning domestic slaves is not forbidden, and it is the policy
of the administration to render the transition from slave labour
to free labour as gradual as possible.
The ancient state of Zaria, also called Zeg-Zeg by the geo-
graphers and historians of the middle ages, was one of the
original seven Hausa states. It suffered all the fluctuations
of Hausa history, and in the I3th and early i4th centuries seems
to have been the dominating state of Hausaland. At later
periods it underwent many conquests and submitted in turn to
Kano, Songhoi and Bornu. At the end of the i8th century it
was an independent state living under its own Mahommedan
rulers; but, like the rest of northern Hausaland, it was con-
quered in the opening years of the igth century by the emissaries
of the Fula Dan Fodio. It remained a Fulani emirate paying
allegiance to Sokoto up to the period of the British occupation
of Nigeria, January 1000. Early in 1900 a British garrison
was placed at Wushishi, a town in the south-western corner of
the emirate which marks the limit of navigation of the Kaduna
river. The emir of Zaria professed friendliness to the British,
and at his own request British troops were quartered at his
capital, in order to protect him from the threatened attacks
of Kontagora. In March 1902 the province was taken under
British administrative control. Throughout that year it was
found that, notwithstanding his friendly professions, the emir
of Zaria was intriguing with Kano and Sokoto, then openly
hostile to Great Britain, while at the same time he continued,
contrary to his undertaking in return for British protection,
to raid for slaves and to perpetrate acts of brutal tyranny and
oppression. He was deposed in the autumn of 1902, and after
the Sokoto-Kano campaign of 1903, which assured the supremacy
of Great Britain in the protectorate, another emir was appointed
to Zaria. The new emir, Dan Sidi, took the oath of allegiance to
the British crown and accepted his appointment on the condi-
tions required of all the Nigerian native rulers. He afterwards
continued to act in loyal co-operation with the British ad-
ministration.
The province has been organized for administration on the
same system as the rest of the protectorate. It has been
divided into four administrative districts, each under a British
assistant resident. A good cart road suitable for wheeled
traffic has been constructed between Zungeru and Zaria, and
the Kaduna has been handsomely bridged at a point near
Wushishi, which is the meeting-point of main caravan roads,
and whence there is at certain seasons of the year uninterrupted
water carriage to the mouth of the Niger. The development of
trade was further facilitated in the early days of the British
occupation by the building of a light railway from Barijuko, a
point on the Kaduna river below Wushishi, to Zungeru. This
line was superseded by the construction, in 1907-1909, of a
3 ft. 6 in. railway from Baro, a port on the lower Niger, to
Zungeru, whence the line was continued to Zaria.
The taxation scheme introduced by the British administra-
tion works satisfactorily, and the revenue shows a regular
surplus. Courts of 'justice have been established in the
administrative districts. In 1904 Zaria suffered from the mis-
fortune of a famine, but excellent harvests restored prosperity
in the following year, and the province shows every sign of
contentment under existing rule. The main artery of commerce
which runs from Zaria to Wushishi has been rendered not only
safe and peaceful, but has been made so much more commodious
by the construction of a good road and by the bridging of the
river that the north and south trade is steadily increasing.
The local movements of trade throughout the province are also
greater.
A large portion of the province is occupied by pagan tribes,
especially in the south and the south-west. These districts
require more direct British supervision than the Fula districts,
in which the native administration, under British control, is
fairly efficient. The creation of an administrative division at
Kachia with a British station and garrison at Kachia town had
an excellent effect, and the resident was able to report in 1905
that " the inhabitants of the once dangerous pagan districts
now buy cloth, kolas and salt from the traders in exchange for
mats, rubber, palm oil and corn, instead of seizing these articles
as they formerly did." (F. L.L.)
ZARLINO, GIOSEFFO (1517-1590), Italian musical theorist,
surnamed from his birthplace ZARLINHS CLODIENSIS, was born
at Chioggia, Venetia, in 1517 (not 1540, as Burney and Hawkins
say). Studying in his youth for the Church, he was admitted
to the minor orders in 1539 and ordained deacon in 1541 at
Venice; but he soon devoted himself entirely to the study of
music under the guidance of Adrian Willaert, then choirmaster
at St Mark's. Willaert, dying in 1562, was succeeded by
Cipriano di Rore, on whose removal to Parma in 1565 Zarlino
was elected choirmaster. Though now remembered chiefly
for invaluable contributions to the theory of music, it is evident
that he must have been famous both as a practical musician and
as a composer; for, notwithstanding the limited number of his
printed works, consisting of a volume entitled Modvlationes Sex
Vocum (Venice, 1566), and a few motets and madrigals scattered
through the collections of Scotto and other contemporary pub-
lishers, he both produced and superintended the public per-
formance of some important pieces in the service of the republic.
First among these was the music written to celebrate the battle
of Lepanto (on the 7th of October 1571). Again, when Henry III.
cf France passed through Venice on his return from Poland in
1574, Zarlino directed on board the "Bucentaur" the per-
formance of an ode for which he himself had composed the
music, to verses supplied by Rocco Benedetti and Cornelio
Frangipani. The ode was followed by a solemn service in St
M.ark's, in which Zarlino's music formed a prominent feature,
and the festival concluded with the representation of a dramatic
piece entitled Orfeo composed by Zarlino. When the church
of S. Maria della Salute was founded in 1577 to commemorate
the plague, he composed a solemn mass for the occasion. No
one of these works is now known to be in existence; the only
ZARNCKE ZEALAND
961
example we possess of Zarlino's compositions on a grand scale
is a MS. mass for four voices, in the library of the Philharmonic
Lyceum at Bologna. He died at Venice on the I4th, or
according to some the 4th, of February 1590.
Zarlino's first theoretical work was the Istitutioni Armoniche
(Venice, 1558; reprinted 1562 and 1573). This was followed by
the Dimostrationi Armoniche (Venice, 1571; reprinted 1573) and
by the Sopplimenti Musicali (Venice, 1588). Finally, in a complete
edition of his works published shortly before his death Zarlino
reprinted these three treatises, accompanied by a Tract on Patience,
a Discourse on the True date of the Crucifixion of Our Lord, an essay
on The Origin of the Capuchins, and the Resolution of Some Doubts
Concerning the Correction of the Julian Calendar (Venice, 1589).*
The IsMutioni and Dimostrationi Armoniche deal, like most other
theoretical works of the period, with the whole science of music as
it was understood in the 1 6th century. The earlier chapters, treat-
ing chiefly of the arithmetical foundations of the science, differ
but little in their line of argument from the principles laid down
by Pietro Aron, Zacconi, and other early writers of the Boeotian
school ; but in bk. ii. of the Institutioni Zarlino boldly attacks the
false system of tonality to which the proportions of the Pytha-
gorean tetrachord, if strictly carried out in practice, must inevit-
ably lead. The fact that, so far as can now be ascertained, they
never were strictly carried out in the Italian medieval schools,
at least after the invention of counterpoint, in no wise diminishes
the force of the reformer's argument. The point at issue was,
that neitherjin the polyphonic school, in which Zarlino was educated,
nor in the later monodic school, of which his recalcitrant pupil,
Vincenzo Galilei, was the most redoubtable champion, could those
proportions be tolerated in practice, however attractive they might
be to the theorist in their mathematical aspect. So persistently
does the human ear rebel against the division of the tetrachord
into two greater tones and a leimma or hemitone, as represented
by the fractions |, j, Jjf, that, centuries before the possibility of
reconciling the demands of the ear with those of exact science was
satisfactorily demonstrated, the Aristoxenian school advocated the
use of an empirical scale, sounding pleasant to the sense, in pre-
ference to an unpleasing tonality founded upon immutable pro-
portions. Didymus, writing in the year 60, made the first step
towards establishing this pleasant-sounding scale upon a mathe-
matical basis, by the discovery of the lesser tone; but unhappily
he placed it in a false position below the greater tone. Claudius
Ptolemy (130) rectified this error, and in the so-called syntonous
or intense diatonic scale reduced the proportions of his tetrachord
to J, A, ff , i.e. the greater tone, lesser tone, and diatonic semi-
tone of modern music. 1 Ptolemy set forth this system as one of
eight possible forms of the diatonic scale. But Zarlino uncom-
promisingly declared that the syntonous or intense diatonic scale
was the only form that could reasonably be sung; and in proof
of its perfection he exhibited the exact arrangement of its various
diatonic intervals, to the fifth inclusive, in every part of the diapason
or octave. The proportions are precisely those now universally
accepted in the system called " just intonation." But this system
is practicable only by the voice and instruments of the violin class.
For keyed or fretted instruments a compromise is indispensable.
To meet this exigency, Zarlino proposed that for the lute the
octave should be divided into twelve equal semitones; and after
centuries of discussion this system of " equal temperament " has,
within the last thirty-five years, been universally adopted as the
best attainable for keyed instruments of every description.*
Again, Zarlino was in advance of his age in his classification
of he ecclesiastical modes. These scales were not, as is vulgarly
supposed, wholly abolished in favour of our modern tonality 'in the
1 7th century. Eight of them, it is true, fell into disuse; but the
medieval Ionian and Hypo-ionian modes are absolutely identical
with the modern natural scale of C; and the Aeolian and Hypo-
aeolian modes differ from pur minor scale, not in constitution, but
in treatment only. Medieval composers, however, regarded the
Ionian mode as the least perfect of the series and placed it last in
order. Zarlino thought differently and made it the first mode,
changing all the others to accord with it. His numerical table,
therefore, differs from all others made before or since, prophetically
assigning the place of honour to the one ancient scale now recog-
nized as the foundation of the modern tonal system.
These innovations were violently opposed by the apostles of the
monodic school. Vincenzo Galilei led the attack in a tract entitled
1 Ambros mentions an edition of the Istitutioni dated 1557, and
one of the Dimostrationi dated 1562. The present writer has never
met with either.
1 We have given the fractions in the order in which they occur
in the modern system. Ptolemy, following the invariable Greek
method, placed them thus }, f, A. This, however, made no
difference in the actual proportions.
1 It was first used in France, for the organ, in 1835; in England,
for the pianoforte in 1846 and for the organ in 1854. Bach had
advocated it in Germany a century earlier; but it was not gene-
rally adopted.
XXVIH. 31
Discorso Intorno alle Opere di Messer Gioseffe Zarlino, and followed
it up in his famous Dtalogo, defending the Pythagorean system in
very unmeasured language. It was in answer to these stricture*
that Zarlino published his Sopplementi.
ZARNCKE, FRIEDRICH KARL THEODOR (1825-1891),
German philologist, was born on the 7th of July 1825 at
Zahrenstorf, near Briiel, in Mecklenburg, the son of a country
pastor. He was educated at the Rostock gymnasium, and
studied (1844-1847) at the universities of Rostock, Leipzig and
Berlin. In 1848 he was employed in arranging the valuable
library of Old German literature of Freiherr Karl Hartwig von
Meusebach (1781-1847), and superintending its removal from
Baumgartenbriick, near Potsdam, to the Royal Library at
Berlin. In 1850 he founded at Leipzig the Literarisches Central-
blatt fur Deutschland. In 1852 he established himself as Privat-
dozent at the university of Leipzig, and published an excellent
edition of Sebastian Brant's Narrenschiff (1854), a treatise Zur
Nibelungenfrage (1854), followed by an edition of the Nibelungen-
lied (1856, i2th ed. 1887), and Beitritge zur Erlaulerung und
Geschichte des Nibelungenliedes (1857). In 1858 he was ap-
pointed full professor, and commenced a series of noteworthy
studies on medieval literature, most of which were published
in the reports (Berichte) of the Saxon Society of Sciences.
Among them were that on the old High German poem Mus-
pilli (1866); Gesang vom heiligen Georg (1874); the legend of
the Priester Johannes (1874); Der Graltempel (1876), and the
Annolied (1887). He also wrote a valuable treatise on Christian
Reuter (1884), on the portraits of Goethe (1884), and published
the history of Leipzig university, Die urkundlichen Quellen zur
Geschichte der UniversitiU Leipzig (1857) and Die deutschen
Universitaten im MiUelaller (1857). Two volumes of his Kleine
Sckrijten appeared in 1897.
See Zur Erinnerung an den Heimgang von Dr Friedrich Zarncke
(1891); Franz Vogt in Zeitschrift fur deutsche PhUologie; Eduard
Zarncke in Biographisches Jahrbuchfiir Altertumswissenschaft (1895) ;
and E. Sievers in AUgemeine deutsche Biographie.
ZEALAND (also SEALAND or SEELAND; Danish SjaeUand),
the largest island of the kingdom of Denmark. It is bounded
N. by the Cattegat, E. by the Sound, separating it from Sweden,
and the Baltic Sea, S. by narrow straits separating it from
Falster, Moen, and smaller islands, and W. by the Great Belt,
separating it from Funen. Its nearer point to Sweden is 3 m.,
to Fttnen n. Its greatest extent from N. to S. is 82 m., from
E. to W. 68 m., but the outline is very irregular. The area is
2636 sq. m. The surface is for the most part undulating, but
on the whole little above sea-level; the highest elevations are
in the south-east, where Cretaceous hills (the oldest geological
formation on the island) reach heights of upwards of 350 ft.
The coast is indented by numerous deep bays and fjords; the
Ise Fjord in the north, with its branches the Roskjlde Fjord on
the east and the Lamme Fjord on the west, penetrates inland
for about 25 m. There are no rivers of importance; but several
large lakes, the most considerable being Arre and Esrom, occur
in the north-east. The soil is fertile and produces grain,
especially rye and barley, in great abundance, as well as
potatoes and other vegetables, and fruit. The scenery, especi-
ally in the neighbourhood of the fjords, is pleasant, lacking the
barrenness of some portions of the kingdom.
Zealand is divided into five amter (counties). (l) Frederiksborg,
in the north, named from the palace of Frederiksborg. In the
north-east, where the coast approaches most nearly to Sweden, is
Helsingor or Elsinore. (2) Kjobenhavn, south of Frederiksborg.
The capital is that of the kingdom, Copenhagen (Kjfibenhavn).
The only other town of importance is the old cathedral city of
Roskilde on the fjord of that name. Off the little port of Kjoge
in the south the Danes under Nils Juel defeated the Swedes in 1677,
and in another engagement in 1710 the famous Danish commander
Hvitfeldt sank with his ship. (3) Holbaek, west of Kjobenhavn,
The chief town, Holbaek, lies on an arm of the Ise Fjord. In the
west is the port of Kallundborg, with regular communication by
steamer with Aarhus in Jutland. It has a singular Romanesque
church of the I2th century. The district is diversified with small
lakes, as the Tiis So. (4) Sor6, occupying the south-western part
of the island. The chief town, Soro, lies among woods on the
small Sori> lake. It was formerly the seat of a university, and
remains an important educational centre. Its church, of the
962
ZEBRA ZECHARIAH
I2th century, contains the tombs of the poet Holberg (d. 1754)
and of some of the Danish kings. Slagelse in the west, an agri-
cultural centre, is an ancient town dating back to the I2th century.
Here Hans Christian Andersen, the poet, received part of his
education. Korsor is an important seaport. (5) Praesto, the most
southerly county. The capital, Praesto, is a small port on the
inner lagoon of a bay of this name, on the east coast. In the
west is the ancient town of Naestved; in the south, Vordingborg,
with a ruined castle and a small harbour. The railway here crosses
a great bridge on to the small Masnedo, whence there is a ferry
to Orehoved on Falster island, a link in the direct route between
Copenhagen and Berlin.
ZEBRA, the name used for all the striped members of the
horse-tribe, although properly applicable only to the true or
mountain zebra. The latter species (Equus zebra) inhabits the
mountainous regions of the Cape Colony, where, owing to the
advances of civilized man into its restricted range it has become
very scarce, and is even threatened with extermination, but
it exists in the form of a local race in Angola. The second
species, Burchell's zebra (Equus burchelli), is represented by a
large number of local races, ranging from the plains north of
the Orange river to north-east Africa.
Equus zebra is the smaller of the two (about 4 ft. high at the
shoulders), and has longer ears, a tail more scantily clothed with
hair, and a shorter mane. The general ground colour is white,
and the stripes are black; the lower part of the face is bright
brown. With the exception of the abdomen and the inside of
the thighs, the whole of the surface is covered with stripes, the
legs having narrow transverse bars reaching quite to the hoofs,
and the base of the tail being also barred. The outsides of the
ears have a white tip and a broad black mark occupying the
greater part of the surface, but are white at the base. Perhaps
the most constant and obvious distinction between this species
and the next is the arrangement of the stripes on the hinder
part of the back, where there are a number of short transverse
bands reaching to the median longitudinal dorsal stripe, and
unconnected with the uppermost of the broad stripes which pass
obliquely across the haunch from the flanks towards the root
of the tail. There is often a median longitudinal stripe under
the chest.
Typically, Burchell's zebra, or the bonte-quagga (Equus
burchelli), is a rather larger and more robust animal, with
FIG. i. The True or Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra).
smaller ears, a longer mane, and fuller tail. The general ground-
colour of the body is pale yellowish brown, the limbs nearly
white, the stripes dark brown or black. In the typical form the
stripes do not extend on to the limbs or tail; but there is a
great variation in this respect, and as we proceed north the
striping increases, till in the north-eastern E. burchelli granti
the legs are striped to the hoofs. There is a strongly marked
median longitudinal ventral black stripe, to which the lower
ends of the transverse side stripes are usually united, but the
dorsal stripe (also strongly marked) is completely isolated in
its posterior half, and the uppermost of the broad haunch
stripes runs nearly parallel to it. A much larger proportion of
the ears is white than in the other species. In the middle of
the wide intervals between the broad black stripes of the flanks
and haunches fainter stripes are generally seen. It is closely
FIG. 2. Burchell's Zebra (E. burchelli).
allied to the quagga, but the typical form, in which the resem-
blance is closest, is extinct. The Abyssinian and Somali Grevy's
zebra (E. grevyi) is markedly distinguished by its enormous ears
and more numerous and narrower black stripes. The flesh of
Burchell's zebra (or quagga, as it is often called) is relished by
the natives as food, and its hide is very valuable for leather.
Although the many attempts that have been made to break in
and train zebras for riding and driving have sometimes been
rewarded with partial success, the animal has never been
domesticated in the true sense of the word (see HORSE).
(W. H. F.; R. L.*)
ZEBULUN, a tribe of Israel, named after Jacob's sixth " son "
by Leah. The narrator of Gen. xxx. 20 offers two etymologies of
the name, from the roots z-b-d, " give," and z-b-l, " exalt (?)." '
The country of Zebulun lay in the fertile hilly country to the
north of the plain of Jezreel, which forms the first step towards
the mountains of Asher and Naphtali, and included the goodly
upland plain of el-Battof. The description of its boundaries
is obscure, owing in some measure to its position between
Issachar and Naphtali, with one or the other of which it is fre-
quently combined. At one period Zebulun, like Dan and
Asher (Judges v. 17), would seem to have reached the sea and
bordered on Phoenician territory (Gen. xlix. 13, Deut. xxxiii.
1 8 seq.). In the latter passage allusion is made to a feast upon
a sacred mountain held by Zebulun and Issachar in common,
and to the wealth these tribes derived from commerce by sea.
Zebulun had a chief part in the war with Sisera (Judges iv. 6,
v. 18; see DEBORAH); it is said to have furnished at least one of
the "judges," Elon the Zebulonite (Judges xii. n seq.); and
the prophet Jonah, who foretold the victories of Jeroboam II.,
came from the border town of Gath-hepher (probably the
modern el-Meshhed) (2 Kings xiv. 25). The deportation of the
northern tribes under Tiglath Pileser IV. (2 Kings xv. 29)
appears to have included Zebulun (Isa. ix. i). Nazareth lay
within the territory of Zebulun but is not mentioned in the
Old Testament. (S. A. C.)
ZECHARIAH, son of Berechiah, son of Iddo (or by contrac-
tion, son 'of Iddo), a prophet of the Old Testament. He
appeared in Jerusalem along with Haggai (q.v.), in the second
year of Darius Hystaspis (520 B.C.), to warn and encourage the
*A connexion with a divine name (cf. Baal-Zebul) is not im-
probable; see H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib., art. " Zebulun."
ZECHARIAH
9 6 3
Jews to address themselves at length to the restoration of the
Temple. 1 Supported by the prophets, Zerubbabel and Joshua
set about the work, and the elders of Judah built and the work
went forward (Ezra v. i seq., vi. 14). The fiist eight chapters
of the book of Zechariah exactly fit into this historical setting.
They are divided by precise chronological headings into three
sections (a) chap. i. 1-6, in the eighth month of the second
year of Darius; (6) chap. i. 7~vi. 15, on the twenty-fourth day
of the eleventh month of the same year; (c) chap, vii.-viii.,
on the fourth day of the ninth month of the fourth year of
Darius. The first section is a preface containing exhortation
in general terms. The main section is the second, containing
a series of night visions, the significant features of which are
pointed out by an angel who stands by the prophet and answers
his questions.
i. 7-17. The divine chariots and horses that make the round of
the world by Yahweh's orders return to the heavenly palace and
report that there is still no movement among the nations, no sign
of the Messianic crisis. Seventy years have passed, and Zion and
the cities of Judah still mourn. Sad news! but Yahweh gives a
comfortable assurance of His gracious return to Jerusalem and the
rebuilding of His temple.
i. 18-21 (Heb. ii. 1-4). Four horns, representing the hostile
world-power that oppresses Israel and Jerusalem, are cast down
by four smiths.
ii. 1-13 (Heb. ii. 5-17). The new Jerusalem is laid out with the
measuring line. It is to have no walls, that its population may not
be limited, and it needs none, for Yahweh is its protection. The
catastrophe of " the land of the north " is near to come; then the
exiles of Zion shall stream back from all quarters, the converted
heathen shall join them, Yahweh Himself will dwell in the midst
of them, and even now He stirs Himself from His holy habitation.
iii. i-io. The high priest Joshua is accused before Yahweh by
Satan, but is acquitted and given rule in Yahweh's house and
courts, with the right of access to Yahweh in priestly intercession.
The restoration of the temple and its service is a pledge of still
higher things. The promised " branch " (or " shoot," $emal}), the
Messiah, will come; the national kingdom is restored in its old
splendour; and a time of general felicity dawns, when every man
shall sit happy under his vine and under his fig tree. As by rights
the Messianic kingdom should follow immediately on the exile,
it is probable that the prophet designs to hint in a guarded way
that Zerubbabel, who in afl other places is mentioned along with
Joshua, is on the point of ascending the throne of his ancestor
Uavid. The jewel with seven facets is already there, the inscrip-
tion only has still to be engraved on it (iii. 9). The charges brought
against the high priest consist simply in the obstacles that have
hitherto impeded the restoration of the temple and its service;
and in like manner the guilt of the land (iii. 9) is simply the still
continuing domination of foreigners.
iv. 1-14. Beside a lighted golden candlestick of seven branches
stand two olive trees Zerubbabel and Joshua, the two anointed
ones specially watched over by Him whose seven eyes run through
the whole earth. This explanation of the vision is separated from
the description by an animated dialogue, not quite clear in its
expression, in which it is said that the mountain of obstacles shall
disappear before Zerubbabel, and that, having begun the building
of the temple, he shall also bring it to an end in spite of those who
now mock at the day of small beginnings.
v. 1-4. A written roll flies over the Holy Land; this is a con-
crete representation of the curse which in future will fall of itself
on al! crime, so that, e.g., no man who has suffered theft will have
occasion himself to pronounce a curse against the thief (cf. Judges
xvii. 2).
v. 5-11. Guilt, personified as a woman, is cast into an ephah-
measure with a heavy lid and carried from Judah to Chaldaea,
where tt is to have its home for the future.
vi. 1-8. The divine teams, four in number, again traverse the
world toward the four winds, to execute Yahweh's commands.
That which goes northward is charged to wreak His anger on the
north country. The series of visions has now reached its close,
returning to its starting-point in i. 7 sqq.
1 The alleged foundation of the second temple in 536 (Ezra iii.
8-13; cf. iv. 1-5, 24) is open to doubt, because (a) the statements
of the compiler of Ezra are not contemporary evidence, (b) the
contemporary Haggai and Zechariah seem to imply that this work
first began in 520 (Hag. ii. 18; Zech. viii. 9; cf. Ezra v. 2). If,
on the ground of Ezra v. 16, we accept the truth of an original
'oundation in 536 (so Driver, Minor Prophets, p. 148), that event
"as admittedly formal only and without success, so that the real
ginning was made in 520. Wellhausen (/jr. und Jud. Gesch., 3rd
., p. 160) rejects the earlier foundation; on the other hand, he
nsists, with the majority of scholars and against Kosters, on the
ctual return of exiles in 537 to form the nucleus of the post -exilic
immunity (loc. cit., p. 157 n.).
An appendix follows (vi. 9-15). Jews from Babylon have
brought gold and silver to Jerusalem; of these the prophet nvist
make a crown designed for the " branch " who is to build Yahweh'e
house and sit king on the throne, but retain a good understanding
with the high priest. Zerubbabel is certainly meant here, and, if
the received text names Joshua instead of him (vi. ii), this is only
a correction, made for reasons easy to understand, which breaks
the context and destroys the sense and the reference of " them
both " in verse 13.
The third section (chaps, vii.-viii.), dated from the fourth
year of Darius, contains an inquiry whether the fast days that
arose in the captivity are still to be observed, with a comforting
and encouraging reply of the prophet.
Thus throughout the first eight chapters the scene is Jeru-
salem in the early part of the reign of Darius. 1 Zerubbabel and
Joshua, the prince and the priest, are the leaders of the com-
munity. The great concern of the time and the chief practical
theme of these chapters is the building of the temple; but its
restoration is only the earnest of greater things to follow, viz.,
the glorious restoration of David's kingdom. The horizon of
these prophecies is everywhere limited by the narrow con-
ditions of the time, and their aim is clearly seen. The visions
hardly veil the thought, and the mode of expression is usually
simple, except in the Messianic passages, where the tortuous-
ness and obscurity are perhaps intentional. Noteworthy is the
affinity between some notions evidently not first framed by the
prophet himself and the prologue to Job the heavenly hosts
that wander through the earth and bring back their report to
Yahweh's throne, the figure of Satan, the idea that suffering
and calamity are evidences of guilt and of accusations pre-
sented before God.
Passing from chaps, i.-viii. to chaps, ix. seq., we at once feel
ourselves transported into a different world.
(1) Yahweh's word is accomplished on Syria-Phoenicia and
Philistia; and then the Messianic kingdom begins in Zion, and
the Israelites detained among the heathen, Judah and Ephraim
combined, receive a part in it. The might of the sons of Javan
is broken in battle against this kingdom (ch. ix.). After an inter-
mezzo of three verses (x. 1-3: "Ask rain of Yahweh, not of the
diviners ") a second and quite analogous Messianic prophecy follows.
The foreign tyrants fall; the lordship of Assyria and Egypt has
an end; the autonomy and martial power of the nation are restored.
The scattered exiles return as citizens of the new theocracy, all
obstacles in their way parting asunder as when the waves of the
Red Sea gave passage to Israel at the founding of the old theocracy
(x. 3-12). Again there is an interlude of three verses (xi. 1-3):
fire seizes the cedars of Lebanon and the oaks of Bashan.*
(2) The difficult passage about the shepherds follows. The
shepherds (rulers) of the nation make their flock an article of trade
and treat the sheep as sheep for the shambles. Therefore the
inhabited world shall fall a sacrifice to the tyranny of its kings,
while Israel is delivered to a shepherd who feeds the sheep for
those who make $ trade of the flock ([rfvp :;, xi. 7, n = " they
that sell them," ver. 5) and enters on his office with two staves,
" Favour " and " Union." He destroys " the three shepherds "
in one month, but is soon weary of his flock and the flock of him.
He breaks the staff " Favour," i.e. the covenant of peace with the
nations, and asks the traders for his hire. Receiving thirty pieces
of silver, he casts it into the temple treasury and breaks the staff
" Union," i.e. the brotherhood between Judah and Israel. He is
succeeded by a foolish shepherd, who neglects his flock and lets
it go to ruin. At length Yahweh intervenes ; the foolish shepherd
falls by the sword; two-thirds of the people perish with him in
the Messianic crisis, but the remnant of one-third forms the seed
of the new theocracy (xi. 4-17 taken with xiii. 7-9, according to
the necessary transposition proposed by Ewald). All this must be
an allegory of past events, the time present to_the author and his
hopes for the future beginning only at xi. 17, xiii. 7-9.
(3) Chap. xii. presents a third variation on the Messianic promise.
All heathendom is gathered together against Jerusalem and perishes
there. Yahweh first gives victory to the countryfolk of Judah
and then they rescue the capital. After this triumph the noblest
houses of Jerusalem hold, each by itself, a great lamentation over
a martyr " whom they have pierced " (or " whom men have
'The historical occasion of the emergence of Haggai and
Zechariah was supplied by the series of revolts following the suc-
cession of Darius in 522 (cf. Driver, op. cit., p. 150). His recon-
quest of Babylon in 520 may, in particular, have seemed the
prelude to the Messianic age (Wellhausen, Gesch., p. 161 .).
1 " The cedars of Lebanon, the oaks of Bashan, the forest of
Jordan represent the national might of the heathen kingdoms "
(Wellh., Die Kl. Proph., 3rd ed., p. 192).
9 6 4
ZEDEKIAH ZEEHAN
pierced "). It is taken for granted that the readers will know who
the martyr is, and the exegesis of the Church applies the passage
to our Lord. Chap. xiii. 1-6 is a continuation of chap. xii. ; the
dawn of the day of salvation is accompanied by a general purging
away of idolatry and the enthusiasm of false prophets.
(4) Yet a fourth variation of the picture of the incoming of the
Messianic deliverance is given in chap. xiv. The heathen gather
against Jerusalem and take the city, but do not utterly destroy
the inhabitants. The Yahweh, at a time known only to Himself,
shall appear with all His saints on Mount Olivet and destroy the
heathen in battle, while the men of Jerusalem take refuge in their
terror in the great cleft, that opens where Yahweh sets His foot.
Now the new era begins, and even the heathen do homage to Yahweh
by bringing due tribute to the annual feast of tabernacles. All
In Jerusalem is holy down to the bells on the horses and the cook-
ing-pots.
There is a striking contrast between chaps, i.-viii. and chaps,
ix.-xiv. The former prophecy is closely linked to the situation
and wants of the community of Jerusalem in the second year of
Darius I., and relates to the restoration of the temple and,
perhaps, the elevation of Zerubbabel to the throne of David.
In chaps, ix.-xiv., however, " there is nothing about the restora-
tion of the temple, or about Joshua and Zerubbabel; but we
read of the evil rulers, foreign and native alike, who maltreat
their subjects, and enrich themselves at their expense. 1 There
are corresponding differences in style and speech, and it is
particularly to be noted that, while the superscriptions in the
first part name the author and give the date of each oracle
with precision, those in the second part (ix. i., xii. i) are with-
out name or date. That both parts do not belong to the same
author is now generally admitted, as is also the fact that
chaps, ix.-xiv. are of much later date. 2 The predictions of
these chapters have no affinity either with the prophecy of
Amos, Hosea and Isaiah, or with that of Jeremiah. The kind
of eschatology which we find in Zech. ix.-xiv. was first intro-
duced by Ezekiel, who in particular is the author of the con-
ception that the time of deliverance is to be preceded by a joint
attack of all nations on Jerusalem, in which they come to final
overthrow (Ezek. xxxviii. seq.; Isa. Ixvi. 18-24; Joel). The
importance attached to the temple service, even in Messianic
times (Zech. xiv.), implies an author who lived in the ideas of
the religious commonwealth of post-exile times. A future king
is hoped for; but in the present there is no Davidic king, only
a Davidic family standing on the same level with other noble
families in Jerusalem (xii. 7, 12). The " bastard " (mixed race)
of Ashdod reminds us of Neh. xiii. 23 sqq.; and the words of
ix. 12 (" to-day, also, do I declare that I will render double
unto thee ") have no sense unless they refer back to the deliver-
ance from Babylonian exile. But the decisive argument is that
in ix. 13 the sons of Javan, i.e. the Greeks, appear as the
representatives "of the heathen world-power. -This part of the
prophecy, therefore, is later than Alexander, who overthrew the
Persian empire in 333. Egypt and Assyria (x. 10, n) must be
taken to represent the Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms, which
together made up for the Jews the empire of the sons of Javan. 8
The whole prophecy, however, is not a unity. By reference to
the analysis given above, it will be seen that there are four sections
in Zech. ix.-xiv., viz. (i) ix., x. (xi. 1-3); (2) xi. 4-17, xiii. 7-9;
(3) xii., xiii. 1-6; (4) xiv., which are more or less independent of
each other. Of these (3) and (4) are of marked eschatological
character, and show little contact with definite historical events
1 Driver, op. cit., p. 229, who also refers to the differences of
Messianic outlook, and the substitution of an atmosphere of war
for one of peace.
1 Earlier critics made the second part the older. Chaps, ix.-xi.
were ascribed to a contemporary of Amos and Hosea, about the
middle of the 8th century B.C., because Ephraim is mentioned as
well as Judah, and Assyria along with Egypt (x. 10), while the
neighbours of Israel appear in ix. I sq. in the same way as in Amos
i.-ii. That chaps, xii.-xiv. also were pre-exilic was held to appear
especially in the attack on idolatry and lying prophecy (xiii. 1-6) ;
but, as this prophecy speaks only of Judah and Jerusalem, it was
dated after the fall of Samaria, and assigned to the last days of
the Judaean kingdom on the strength of xii. n, where an allusion
is seen by some to the mourning for King Josiah, slain in battle
at Megiddo.
3 What follows is summarized from Wellhausen, Die Kleinen
Propheten, pp. 190, 192, 195-197.
(except xii. 7, which suggests the Maccabean age). On the other
hand (i) implies a period when the Jews were governed by the
Seleucids, since it is against these that the anger of Yahweh is
first directed (ix. I, 2). 4 This section, therefore, belongs to the
first third of the 2nd century B.C., when the Jews were first held
in the power of the Seleucids. 6 The same date may be assigned to
(2), where the traffickers in the sheep may be regarded as the
Seleucid rulers, and the shepherds as the Jewish high priests and
ethnarchs; the prelude to the Maccabean revolt largely consisted
of the rapid and violent changes here figured. In particular, the
evil shepherd of xi. 15 f. may be Menelaus; whilst the disinterested
speaker may be Hyrcanus ben Tobias (cf. xi. 13 and II. Mace,
iii. n).
Recent criticism (for further details see G. A. Smith, The Book
of the Twelve Prophets, ii. pp. 450 f., and Driver, Minor Prophets,
pp. 232-234) shows some difference of opinion as to the question
of unity, and also 'of actual date within the Greek period. Whilst
G. A. Smith (following Stade) and Marti find no adequate ground
for the further division of Zech. ix.-xiv., Driver (following Nowack)
accepts the fourfold division indicated above (" Four anonymous
Prophecies, perhaps the work of four distinct Prophets," op. cit.,
p. 235). In regard to date, G. A. Smith (here also following Stade)
accepts the earlier part of the Greek period (306-278). With this
Driver provisionally agrees, whilst Nowack thinks no more can be
said than that (i) belongs to the Greek and (2)-(4) to the post-
exilic period in general. On the other hand, Marti assigns the
whole to 160 B.C. (Maccabean period; a little later than Well-
hausen) and sees a number of references to historical personages of
that age. The chief arguments to be urged against this late date
are the character of the Hebrew style (Driver, op. cit., p. 233) and
the alleged close of the prophetic canon by 200; but perhaps
neither of these can be regarded as very convincing.
RECENT LITERATURE. Nowack, Die Kleinen Propheten (1897;
ed. 2, 1903); Wellhausen, Die Kleinen Propheten, 3 (1898); G. A.
Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets (in The Expositor's Bible),
vol. ii. (pp. 253-328, 447-490) (1898); Marti, Dodekapropheton,
ii. (1904); Driver, Minor Prophets, ii. (in The Century Bible, 1906;
the most useful for the general reader). The article in Hastings's
Dictionary of the Bible (vol. iv., pp. 967-970) (1902), by Nowack,
is a reproduction from his work cited above; the article in the
Ency. Bibl. by Wellhausen is a revision of his article in the 9th
edition of the Ency. Brit., and the present independent revision
is in some points indebted to it. (J. WE.; H. W. R.*)
ZEDEKIAH (Hebrew for " righteousness of Yah[weh]"), son
of Josiah, and the last king of Judah (2 Kings xxiv. 17 sqq.;
2 Chron. xxxvi. 10 seq.). Previously known as Mattaniah
(" gift of Yah[weh] "), he was appointed king by Nebuchadrezzar
after the capture of Jerusalem (507 B.C.) and his name changed
to Zedekiah. He held his position under an oath of allegiance,
but after three years (cf. Jehoiakim, 2 Kings xxiv. i) began an
intrigue with Moab, Edom, Ammon, Tyre and Sidon, which the
prophet Jeremiah vigorously denounced (Jer. xxvii. seq. ; cf . also
Ezek. xvii. 11-21). It is possible that he was summoned to
Babylon to explain his conduct (Jer. Ii. 59; the Septuagint reads
"from Zedekiah"; see also xxix. 3). Nevertheless, relations
were maintained with Egypt and steps were taken to revolt.
The Babylonian army began to lay siege to Jerusalem in the
ninth year of his reign, and a vain attempt was made by Pharaoh
Hophra to cause a diversion. The headings to the prophecies
in Ezek. xxix. sqq. suggest that fuller details of the events
were once preserved, and the narratives in Jer. xxxii.-xxxiv.,
xxxvii. give some account of the internal position in Jerusalem
at the time. After six months a breach was made in the city,
Zedekiah's flight was cut off in the Jordan Valley and he was
taken to Nebuchadrezzar at Riblah. His sons were killefl, and
he was blinded and carried to Babylon in chains (cf. Ezek. xii.
10-14). Vengeance was taken upon Jerusalem, and, on the
seventh day of the fifth month, 586 B.C., Nebuzaradan sacked
the temple, destroyed the walls and houses, and deported the
citizens, only the poorest peasantry of the land being left behind.
See JEWS (HISTORY), 17 seq. (S. A. C.)
ZEEHAN, a town of Montagu county, Tasmania, 225 m.
direct N.W. of Hobart, on the Little Henty river. Pop. (1901)
5014. It is an important railway centre, and from it radiate
lines to Strahan, its port on the Macquarie Harbour, to Dundas,
to Williamsford, and to Burnie, where connexion is made to
4 Hadrach, i.e. the Assyrian Hatarika, apparently denotes a
district S. of Hamath (between Palmyra and the Mediterranean).
6 Wellhausen, Sketch of the History of Israel and Judah, pp. 137,
139-
ZEELAND ZEITUN
9 6 5
Launceston and Hobart. Th% town is lighted by electricity
and has an academy of music and a state-aided school of mines.
It is the principal centre of the silver-lead mining district, and
has large smelting works.
ZEELAND (or ZEALAND), a province of Holland, bounded S.E.
and S. by Belgium, W. by the North Sea, N. by South Holland,
and . by North Brabant. It has an area of 690 sq. m. and a
population (1905) of 227,292. Zeeland consists of the delta
islands formed about the estuaries of the Maas and Scheldt
with its two arms, the Honte or Western Scheldt, and the
Ooster Scheldt, together with a strip of mainland called Zeeland-
Flanders. The names of the islands are Schouwen and Duive-
land, St Filipsland, Tolen, North Beveland, South Beveland
and Walcheren. The history of these islands is in every case
one of varying loss and gain in the struggle with the sea. They
were built up by the gradual accumulation of mud deposits
in a shallow bay, separated by dunes from the North Sea. As
late as the i2th and ijth centuries each of these islands con-
sisted of several smaller islands, many of whose names are still
preserved in the fertile polders which have taken their place.
Lying for the most part below sea-level, the islands are pro-
tected by a continuous line of artificial dikes, which hide them
from view on the seaward side, whence only an occasional
church steeple is seen. The islands of Schouwen and Duive-
land are united owing to the damming of the Dykwater; St
Filipsland, or Philipsland, and South Beveland are connected
with the mainland of North Brabant by naturally formed mud
banks.
The soil of Zeeland consists of a fertile sea clay which especi-
ally favours the production of wheat; rye, barley (for malting),
beans and peas, and flax are also cultivated. Cattle and swine
are reared, and dairy produce is largely exported; but the
sheep of the province are small and their wool indifferent. The
industries (linen, yarn-spinning, distilling, brewing, salt-refining,
shipbuilding) are comparatively unimportant. The inhabi-
tants, who retain many quaint and archaic peculiarities of
manner and dress, speak the variety of Dutch known as Low
Prankish.
The chief towns on the island of Schouwen are the ports of
Zieriksee and Brouwershaven. On the well-wooded fringe of the
dunes on the west side of the island are the two villages of
Renesse and Haamstede, the seats in former days of the two
powerful lordships of the same name. St Maartensdyk on the
adjoining island of Tolen was formerly the seat of a lordship
which belonged successively to the families of Van Borssele,
Burren and Orange-Nassau. There is a monument of the Van
Borsseles in the Reformed church. The castle built here in
the first half of the I4th century was demolished in 1819. The
island of South Beveland frequently suffered from inundations
and experienced a particularly disastrous one in 1530. In the
same century the flourishing walled town of Reimenswaal and
the island of Borsele or Borssele disappeared beneath the
waves; but the last-named was gradually recovered during the
1 7th century. This island gave its name to the powerful lord-
ship of the same name. Goes is the chief town on South
Beveland. Oyster-breeding is practised on the north coast of
the island, especially at Wemeldinge and lerseke or Yerseke.
lerseke was once a town of importance and the seat of a lord-
ship, while at Wemeldinge there was formerly an establishment
of the Templars. In 1866 South Beveland and Walcheren were
joined by a heavy railway dam, a canal being cut through the
middle of the former island to restore the connexion between
the East and West Scheldt. South Beveland is sometimes
called the " granary " and Walcheren the " garden " of Zeeland.
The principal towns in Walcheren are Middelburg, the chief
town of the province, Flushing and Veere ; all three connected
by a canal (1867-72) which divides the island in two. The
fishing village of Arnemuiden flourished as a harbour in the
1 6th century, but decayed owing to the silting up of the sand.
Domburg is pleasantly situated at the foot of the dunes on the
west side of the island, and in modern times has become a
popular but primitive watering-place. It is a very old town,
having received civic rights in the I3th century, and from time
to time Roman remains and other antiquities have been dug
out of the sands. Between Domburg and the village of West-
kapelle there stretches the famous Westkapelle sea-dike. The
mainland of Zeeland-Flanders was formerly also composed of
numerous islands which were gradually united by the accumula-
tion of mud and sand, and in this way many once flourishing
commercial towns, such as Sluis and Aardenburg, were reduced
in importance. The famous castle of Sluis, built in 1385, was
partly blown up by the French in 1794, and totally demolished
in 1818. Yzendyke represents a Hanse town which flourished
in the I3th century and was gradually engulfed by the sea.
Similarly the original port of Breskens was destroyed by in-
undations in the isth and i6th centuries. The modern town
rose into importance in the igth century on account of its good
harbour. The old towns of Axel and Halst were formerly
important fortresses, and as such were frequently besieged in
the i6th, 1 7th and i8th centuries. Ter Neuzen was strongly
fortified in 1833-39, and has a flourishing transit trade, as the
port of Ghent, by the canal constructed in 1825-27.
ZEERUST, a town of the Transvaal, 149 m. by rail, via
Krugersdorp, N.N.W. of Pretoria and 33 m. N.E. of Mafeking.
Pop. (1904) 1945. It was founded in 1868 and is the chief
town of the Marico district, one of the most fertile regions of
South Africa. In the neighbourhood are lead, zinc and silver
mines, and some 20 m. S. are the Malmani goldfields. The
Marico Valley was occupied early in the i9th century by Mata-
bele, who had come from Zululand. They were driven out by
Boer trekkers in 1837. To Boer cultivation the valley of the
Marico river owes its fertility. Wheat and oats are largely
cultivated and almost all sub-tropical fruits flourish. Follow-
ing the relief of Mafeking, i7th of May 1900, Zeerust was
occupied by the British under General R. S. S. Baden-Powell.
Railway connexion with Pretoria was established in 1907.
ZEISSBERG, HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1839-1899), Austrian
historian, was born in Vienna on the 8th of July 1839, and in
1865 became professor of history at the university of Lemberg.
In 1871 he removed to Innsbruck; in 1873 he was appointed
professor at the university of Vienna, and here he was historical
tutor to the crown prince Rudolph. In 1891 he was made
director of the Vienna institute for historical research, and in
1896 director of the imperial court library at Vienna. He
resigned his professorial chair in 1897 and died on the 27th
of May 1899.
Zeissberg's writings deal mainly with the history of Austria and
of Poland, and among them the following may be mentioned:
Die polnische Geschichtsschreibung des Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1873);
Arno, erster Erzbischof von Salzburg (Vienna, 1863); Dte Kriege
Kaiser Heinrichs II. mil Herzog Boleslaw I. von Polen (Vienna,
1868); Rudolf von Habsburg und der oslerreichische Staatsgedanke
(Vienna, 1882) ; Vber das Rechtsverfahren Rudolfs von Habsburg
gegen Ottokar von Bohmen (Vienna, 1887) ; and Der osterreichische
Erbfolgestreit nach dent Tode des Konigs Ladislaus Posthumus, 1457-58
(Vienna, 1879). Dealing with more recent times he wrote: Zur
deutschen Kaiserpolitik Oesterreichs: ein Beiirag zur Geschichte des
Revolutionsjahres i?Q5 (Vienna, 1899); Zwei Jahre belgischer
Geschichie 1791-92 (Vienna, 1891); Belgien unter der Generalstatt-
halterschaft Erzherzog Karls 1703-04 (Vienna, 1893-94); Erzherzog
Karl von Oesterreich. Lebensbild (Vienna, 1895); and Franz Josef f.
(Vienna, 1888). He edited three volumes of the Quellen zur
Geschichte der Deutschen Kaiserpolitik Oesterreichs wahrend der
franzosischen Revolutionskriege 1700-1801 (Vienna, 1882-1885,
1890).
ZEITUN ( = " olive"), the name of several places in Turkey
and Egypt, but principally an Armenian town in the Aleppo
vilayet, altitude about 4000 ft., situated in the heart of Mt.
Taurus, about 20 m. N.N.W. of Marash. The inhabitants,
about 10,000, all Christians, are of a singularly fine physical
type, though too much inbred, and are interesting from their
character and historical position as a remnant of the kingdom
of Lesser Armenia. The importance of Zeitun dates from the
capture of Leo VI. by the Egyptians in 1375, and it probably
became then a refuge for the more active and irreconcilable
Armenians; but nothing certain is known of the place till
300 years later. It long maintained practical independence as
9 66
ZEITZ ZEMARCHUS
a nest of freebooters, and it was only in 1878 that the Turks,
after a long conflict, were enabled to station troops in a fort
above the town. In 1890 there was a serious revolt, from the
worst consequences of which the town was saved by the inter-
cession of the British consul at Aleppo warned in time by the
devoted energy ot T. Christie, American missionary at Marash;
and in 1895, after the Armenian massacres had commenced
elsewhere, the people again rose, seized the fort, and, after
holding out for more than three months against a large Turkish
force, secured honourable terms of peace on the mediation of
the consuls of the Powers at Aleppo. The inhabitants seem to
be abandoning their robber customs and devoting themselves
to oil and silk culture. In consequence transit trade through
the passes of eastern Taurus (see MARASH), long almost anni-
hilated by fear of the Zeitunli marauders, revived considerably.
The governor must be a Christian, and certain other privileges
are secured to the Zeitunlis during their good behaviour.
(D.G.H.)
ZEITZ, a town of Germany, in the extreme south of the
Prussian province of Saxony, pleasantly situated on a hill on
the Weisse (White) Elster, 28 m. by rail S.S.W. of Leipzig on
the line to Gera, and with branches to Altenburg and Weissen-
fels. Pop. (1885) 19,797; ( I 9) 2 7)39!- The river is here
crossed by two iron bridges, and one stone and one timber
bridge, and the upper and lower towns are connected by a
funicular railway. The Gothic abbey church dates from the
15th century, but its Romanesque crypt from the iath. The
old Franciscan monastery, now occupied by a seminary, con-
tains a library of 20,000 volumes. Just outside the town rises
the Moritzburg, built in 1564 by the dukes of Saxe-Zeitz, on
the site of the bishop's palace; it is now a reformatory and
poorhouse. Zeitz has manufactures of cloth, cottons and other
textiles, machinery, wax-cloth, musical instruments, vinegar,
cigars, &c.; and wood-carving, dyeing and calico-printing are
carried on. In the neighbourhood there are considerable
deposits of lignite, and mineral-oil works.
Zeitz is an ancient place of Slavonic origin. From 968 till
1028 it was the seat of a bishopric, afterwards removed to
Naumburg, 155 m. to the N.W., and styled Naumburg-Zeitz.
In 1564 the last Roman Catholic bishop died, and his dominions
were thenceforward administered by princes of Saxony. From
1653 till 1718 Zeitz was the capital of the dukes of Saxe-Zeitz
or Sachsen-Zeitz. It thereafter remained in the possession of
the electors of Saxony until 1815, when it passed to Prussia.
See Rothe, A us der Geschichte der Stadt Zeitz (Zeitz, 1876); and
Lange, Chronik des Bisthums Naumburg (Naumburg, 1891).
ZELLER, EDUARD (1814-1908), German philosopher, was
born at Kleinbottwar in Wurttemberg on the 22nd of January
1814, and educated at the university of Tubingen and under
the influence of Hegel. In 1840 he was Privatdozent of
theology at Tubingen, in 1847 professor of theology at Bern,
in 1849 professor of theology at Marburg, migrating soon after-
wards to the faculty of philosophy as the result of disputes
with the Clerical party. He became professor of philosophy
at Heidelberg in 1862, removed to Berlin in 1872, and retired
in 1895. His great work is his Philosophic der Griechen (1844-
52). This book he continued to amplify and improve in the
light of further research; the last edition appeared in 1902.
It has been translated into most of the European languages
and became the recognized text-book of Greek philosophy. He
wrote also on theology, and published three volumes of philo-
sophical essays. He was also one of the founders of the
Theologische Jahrbucher, a periodical which acquired great im-
portance as the exponent of the historical method of David
Strauss and Christian Baur. Like most of his contemporaries
he began with Hegelianism, but subsequently he developed a
system on his own lines. He saw the necessity of going back
to Kant in the sense of demanding a critical reconsideration of
the epistemological problems which Kant had made but a
partially successful attempt to solve. None the less his merits
as an original thinker are far outshone by his splendid services
to the history of philosophy. It is true that his view of Greek
thought is somewhat warped by Hegelian formalism. He is
not alive enough to the very intimate relation which thought
holds to national life and to the idiosyncrasy of the thinker.
He lays too much stress upon the " concept," and explains
too much by the Hegelian antithesis of subjective and objective.
Nevertheless his history of Greek philosophy remains a noble
monument of solid learning informed with natural sagacity.
He received the highest recognition, not only from philosophers
and learned societies all over the world, but also from the
emperor and the German people. In 1894 the Emperor Wil-
liam II. made him a " Wirklicher Geheimrat " with the title of
" Excellenz," and his bust, with that of Helmholtz, was set
up at the Brandenburg Gate near the statues erected to the
Emperor and Empress Frederick. He died on the igth of
March 1908.
The Philosophic der Griechen has been translated into English
by S. F. Alleyne (2 vols., 1881) in sections: S. F. AUeyne, Hist,
of Gk. Phil, to the time of Socrates (1881); O. J. Reichel, Socrates
and the Socratic Schools (1868; 2nd ed. 1877); S. F. Alleyne and
A. Goodwin, Plato and the Older Academy (1876); Costelloe and
Muirhead, Aristotle and the Earlier Peripatetics (1897) ; O. J. Reichel,
Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics (1870 and 1880); S. F. Alleyne,
Hist, of Eclecticism in Gk. Phil. (1883). The Philosophic appeared
in an abbreviated form as Grundriss d. Gesch. d. Griech. Philos.
(1883; 5th ed. 1898); Eng. trans, by Alleyne and Evelyn Abbott
(1866), under the title, Outlines of the Hist, of Gk. Philos. Among
his other works are: Plalonische Studien (1839); Die Apostel-
geschichte krit. untersucht (1854; Eng. trans. J. Dare, 1875-76);
Entwickelung d. Monotheismus bei d. Griech. (1862); Gesch. d.
christlich. Kirche (1898); Gesch. d. deutsch. Philos. seit Leibniz
(1873, e d. 1875); Stoat und Kirche (1873); Strauss in seinen Leben
und Schriften (1874; Eng. trans. 1874); Vber Bedeutung und
Aufgabe d. Erkenntniss-Theorie (1862); uber teleolog. und mechan.
Nalurerkldrung (1876); Vortrdge und Abhandlungen (1865-84);
Religion und Philosophic bei den Romern (1866, ed. 1871) ; Philosoph.
Aufsdtze (1887).
ZEMARCHUS (fl. 568), Byzantine general and traveller. The
Turks, by their conquest of Sogdiana in the middle of the 6th
century, gained control of the silk trade which then passed
through Central Asia into Persia. But the Persian king,
Chosroes Nushirvan, dreading the intrusion of Turkish influ-
ence, refused to allow the old commerce to continue, and the
Turks after many rebuffs consented to a suggestion made by
their mercantile subjects of the Soghd, and in 568 sent an
embassy to Constantinople to form an alliance with the Byzan-
tines and " transfer the sale of silk to them." The offer was
accepted by Justin II., and in August 568, Zemarchus the
Cilician, " General of the cities of the East," left Byzantium
for Sogdiana. The embassy was under the guidance of Maniakh,
" chief of the people of Sogdiana," who had first, according to
Menander Protector, suggested to Dizabul (Dizaboulos, the Bu
Min khan of the Turks, the Mokan of the Chinese), the great
khan of the Turks, this " Roman " alliance, and had himself
come to Byzantium to negotiate the same. On reaching the
Sogdian territories the travellers were offered iron for sale, and
solemnly exorcised; Zemarchus was made to " pass through
the fire " (i.e. between two fires), and strange ceremonies were
performed over the baggage of the expedition, a bell being
rung and a drum beaten over it, while flaming incense-leaves
were carried round it, and incantations muttered in " Scythian."
After these precautions the envoys proceeded to the camp of
Dizabul (or rather of Dizabul's successor, Bu Min khan having
just died) " in a hollow encompassed by the Golden Mountain,"
apparently in some locality of the Altai. They found the khan
surrounded by astonishing barbaric pomp gilded thrones, golden
peacocks, gold and silver plate and silver animals, hangings
and clothing of figured silk. They accompanied him some way
on his march against Persia, passing through Talas or Turkestan
in the Syr Dana valley, where Hstian Tsang, on his way from
China to India sixty years later, met with another of Dizabul's
successors. Zemarchus was present at a banquet in Talas
where the Turkish kagan and the Persian envoy exchanged
abuse; but the Byzantine does not seem to have witnessed
actual fighting. Near the river Oekh (Syr Daria ?) he was sent
back to Constantinople with a Turkish embassy and with
ZENAGA ZEND-AVESTA
967
envoys from various tribes subject to the Turks. Halting by
the " vast, wide lagoon " (of the Ara4 Sea?), Zemarchus sent off
an express messenger, one George, to announce his return to
the emperor. George hurried on by the shortest route, " desert
and waterless," apparently the steppes north of the Black Sea:
while his superior, moving more slowly, marched twelve days
by the sandy shores of " the lagoon " ; crossed $e Emba,
Ural, Volga, and Kuban (where 4000 Persians vainly lay in
ambush to stop him); and passing round the western end of
the Caucasus, arrived safely at Trebizond and Constantinople.
For several years this Turkish alliance subsisted, while close
intercourse was maintained between Central Asia and Byzan-
tium; when another Roman envoy, one Valentines (O&aXej'Tiwj),
goes on his embassy in 575 he takes back with him 106 Turks
who had been visiting Byzantine lands; but from 579 this
friendship rapidly began to cool. It is curious that all this
travel between the Bosporus and Transoxiana seems not to
have done anything to correct, at least in literature, the wide-
spread misapprehension of the Caspian as a gulf of the Arctic
Ocean.
See Menander Protector, Uepl Uptafftav 'Paiialuv vpAs 'BSinj
(De Legat-ionibus Romanorum ad Gentes), pp. 295-302, 380-85,
397-404, Bonn edition (xix.), 1828 (=PP- 806-11, 883-87, 899-007,
in Migne, Patrolog. Graec., vol. cxiii., Paris, 1864); H. Yule, Cathay,
clx.-clxvi. (London, Hakluyt Society, 1866); L. Cahun, Introduc-
tion a I'histoire de I Asie, pp. 108-18 (Paris, 1896); C. R. Beazley,
Dawn of Modern Geography, i. 186-89 (London, 1897). (C. R. B.)
ZENAGA (SANHAjA, SENAJEH), a Berber tribe of southern
Morocco who gave their name to Senegal, once their tribal
home. They formed one of the tribes which, uniting under the
leadership of Yusef bin Tashfin, crossed the Sahara and gave a
dynasty to Morocco and Spain, namely, that of the Almoravides
(g..). The Zeirid dynasty which supplanted the Fatimites
in the Maghrib and founded the city of Algiers was also of
Zenaga origin. The Zenaga dialect of Berber is spoken in
southern Morocco and on the banks of the lower Senegal,
largely by the negro population.
ZENANA (Persian zanana), the apartments of an Eastern
house in which the women of the family are secluded (see
HAREM). This is a Mahommedan custom, which has been
introduced into India and has spread amongst the Hindus.
The zenana missions are missions to Indian women in their
own homes.
ZENATA, or ZANAxA, a Berber tribe of Morocco in the dis-
trict of the central Atlas. Their tribal home seems to have been
south of Oran in Algeria, and they seem to have early claimed
an Arab origin, though it was alleged by the Arabs that they
were descendants of Goliath, i.e. Philistines or Phoenicians
(Ibn Khaldun, vol. iii. p. 184 and vol. iv. p. S9?)- They were
formerly a large and powerful confederation, and took a pro-
minent part in the history of the Berber race. The Beni-
Marin and Wattasi dynasties which reigned in Morocco from
1213 to 1548 were of Zenata origin.
ZEND-AVESTA, the original document of the religion of
Zoroaster (q.v.), still used by the Parsees as their bible and
prayer-book. The name " Zend-Avesta " has been current in
Europe since the time of Anquetil Duperron (c. 1771), but the
Parsees themselves call it simply Avesta, Zend (i.e. " inter-
pretation ") being specially employed to denote the transla-
tion and exposition of a great part of the Avesta which exists
in Pahlavi. Text and translation are often spoken of together
in Pahlavi books as Avislak va Zand (" Avesta and Zend "),
whence through a misunderstanding our word Zend-Avesta.
The origin and meaning of the word " Avesta " (or in its older
form, Avistdk) are alike obscure; it cannot be traced further
back than the Sasanian period. The language of the Avesta is
still frequently called Zend; but, as already implied, this is
a mistake. We possess no other document written in it, and
on this account modern Parsee scholars, as well as the older
Pahlavi books, speak of the language and writing indifferently
as Avesta. .As the original home of the language can only be
very doubtfully conjectured, we shall do well to follow the
usage sanctioned by old custom and apply the word to both.
Although the Avesta is a work of but moderate compass
(comparable, say, to the Iliad and Odytsey taken together),
there nevertheless exists no single MS. which gives it in entirety.
This circumstance alone is enough to reveal the true nature of
the book: it is a composite whole, a collection of writings, as
the Old Testament is. It consists, as we shall afterwards see,
of the last remains of the extensive sacred literature in which
the Zoroastrian faith was formerly set forth.
Contents. As we now have it, the Avesta consists of five
parts the Yasna, the Vispered, the Vendidad, the Yashts,
and the Khordah Avesta.
1. The Yasna, the principal liturgical book of the Parsees, in
72 chapters (Haiti, ha), contains the texts that are read by the
priests at the solemn yasna (Izeshne) ceremony, or the general
sacrifice in honour of all the deities. The arrangement of the
chapters is purely liturgical, although their matter in part has
nothing to do with the liturgical action. The kernel of the whole
book, around which the remaining portions are grouped, consists
of the Gathas or " hymns " of Zoroaster (q.v.), the oldest and most
sacred portion of the entire canon. The Yasna accordingly falls
into three sections of about equal length: (a) The introduction
(chaps. 127) is, for the most part, made up of long-winded, mono- r
tonous, reiterated invocations. Yet even this section includes some
interesting texts, e.g. the Haoma (Horn) Yasht (9, n) and the
ancient confession of faith (12), which is of value as a document
for the history of civilization. (6) The Gathas (chaps. 28-54)
contain the discourses, exhortations and revelations of the prophet,
written in a metrical style and an archaic language, different in
many respects from that ordinarily used in the Avesta. As to the
authenticity of these hymns, see ZOROASTER. The Gathas proper,
arranged according to the metres in which they are written, fall
into five subdivisions (28-34, 43~46, 47-5, 51, 53). Between
chap. 37 and chap. 43 is inserted the so-called Seven-Chapter
Yasna (haptanghaiti) , a number of small prose pieces not far behind
the Gathas in antiquity, (c) The so-called Later Yasna (Aparo
Yasno) (chaps. 54-72) has contents of considerable variety, but
consists mainly of invocations. Special mention ought to be made
of the Sraosha (Srosh) Yasht (57), the prayer to fire (62), and the
great liturgy for the sacrifice to divinities of the water (63-69).
2. The Vispered, a minor liturgical work in 24 chapters (karde),
is alike in form and substance compjetely dependent on the Yasna,
to which it is a liturgical appendix. Its separate chapters are
interpolated in the Yasna in order to produce a modified or
expanded Yasna ceremony. The name Vispered, meaning " all
the chiefs " (vispe ratavo), has reference to the spiritual heads of
the religion of Ormuzd, invocations to whom form the contents
of the first chapter of the book.
3. The Vendidad, the priestly code of the Parsees, contains in
22 chapters (fargard) a kind of dualistic account of the creation
(chap, i), the legend of Yima and the golden age (chap. 2), and in
the bulk of the remaining chapters the precepts of religion with
regard to the cultivation of the earth, the care of useful animals,
the protection of the sacred elements, such as earth, fire and water,
the keeping of a man's body from defilement, together with the
requisite measures of precaution, elaborate ceremonies of purifica-
tion, atonements, ecclesiastical expiations and so forth. These
prescriptions are marked by a conscientious classification based on
considerations of material, size and number; but they lose them-
selves in an exaggerated casuistry. Still the whole of Zoroastrian
legislation is subordinate to one great point of view: the war
preached without intermission against Satan and his noxious
creatures, from which the whole book derives its name; for " Ycn-
didad " is a modern corruption for m-daevd-datem " the anti-
demonic Law." Fargard 18 treats of the true and false priest, of
the value of the house-cock, of the four paramours of the she-devil,
and of unlawful lust. Fargard 19 is a fragment of the Zoroaster
legend: Ahriman tempts Zoroaster; Zoroaster applies to Ormuzd
for the revelation of the law, Ahriman and the devils despair, and
flee down into hell. The three concluding chapters are devoted to
sacerdotal medicine.
The Yasna, Vispered and Vendidad together constitute the
Avesta in the stricter sense of the word, and the reading of them
appertains to the priest alone. For liturgical purposes the separate
chapters of the Vendidad are sometimes inserted among those of
the Yasna and Vispered. The reading of the Vendidad in this
case may, when viewed according to the original intention, be
taken as corresponding in some sense to the sermon, while that of
the Yasna and Vispered may be said to answer to the hymns and
prayers of Christian worship.
4. The Yashts, i.e. " songs of praise," in so far as they have not
been received already into the Yasna, form a collection by them-
selves. They contain invocations of separate Izads, or angels,
number 21 in all, and are of widely divergent extent and antiquity.
The great Yashts some nine or ten are impressed with a higher
stamp: they are cast almost throughout in a poetical mould, and
represent the religious poetry of the ancient Iranians. So far they
9 68
ZEND-AVESTA
may be compared to the Indian Rig-Veda. Several of them may
have been cemented together from a number of lesser poems or
songs. They are a rich source of mythology and legendary history.
Side by side with full, vividly coloured descriptions of the Zoroas-
trian deities, they frequently interweave, as episodes, stories from
the old heroic fables. The most important of all, the igth Yasht,
gives a consecutive account of the Iranian heroic saga in great
broad lines, together with a prophetic presentment of the end of
this world.
_ 5. The Khordah Avesta, i.e. the Little Avesta, comprises a collec-
tion of shorter prayers designed lor all believers the laity included
and adapted for the various occurrences of ordinary life. In
part, these brief petitions serve as convenient substitutes for the
more lengthy Yashts especially the so-called Nyaislies.
Over and above the five books just enumerated, there are a
considerable number of fragments from other books, e.g. the
Nirangistan, as well as quotations, glosses and glossaries.
The Larger Avesta and the Twenty-one Nasks. In its
present form, however, the Avesta is only a fragmentary rem-
nant of the old priestly literature of Zoroastrianism, a fact
confessed by the learned tradition of the Parsees themselves,
according to which the number of Yashts was originally thirty.
The truth is that we possess but a trifling portion of a very
much larger Avesta, if we are to believe native tradition, carry-
ing us back to the Sassanian period, which tells of a larger Avesta
in twenty-one books called nasks or nosks, as to the names of
which we have several more or less detailed accounts, parti-
cularly in the Pahlavi Dinkard (gth century A.D.) and in the
Rivayats. From the same sources we learn that this larger
Avesta was only a part of a yet more extensive original Avesta,
which is said to have existed before Alexander. We are told
that of a number of nasks only a small portion was found to be
extant " after Alexander." For example, of the seventh nask,
which " before Alexander " had as many as fifty chapters,
there then remained only thirteen; and similar allegations are
made with regard to the eighth, ninth, tenth and other nasks.
The Rivayats state that, when after the calamity of Alexander
they sought for the books again, they found a portion of each
nask, but found no nask in completeness except the Vendidad.
But even of the remains of the Avesta, as these lay before the
author of the gth century, only a small residue has survived
to our time. Of all the nasks one only, the nineteenth, has come
down on us intact the Vendidad. All else, considered as
wholes, have vanished in the course of the centuries.
It would be rash summarily to dismiss this old tradition of the
twenty-one nasks as pure invention. The number twenty-one
points, indeed, to an artificial arrangement of the material; for
twenty-one is a sacred number, and the most sacred prayer of the
Parsees, the so-called Ahuno Vairyo (Honovar) contains twenty-one
words; and it is also true that in the enumeration of the nasks
we miss the names of the books we know, like the Yasna and the
Yashts. But we must assume that these were included in such
or such a nask, as the Yashts in the seventeenth or Bakdn Yasht;
or, it may be that other books, especially the Yasna, are a com-
pilation extracted for liturgical purposes from various nasks.
Further, the statements of the Dinkard leave on us a very distinct
impression that the author actually had before him the text of the
nasks, or at all events of a large part of them: for he expressly
states that the eleventh nask was entirely lost, so that he is unable
to give the slightest account of its contents. And, besides, in other
directions there are numerous indications that such books once
really existed. In the Khordah Avesta, as we now have it, we
find two Srosh Yashts; with regard to the first, it is expressly
stated in old MSS. that it was taken from the Hadokht nask (the
twentieth, according to the Dinkard). From the same nask also
a considerable fragment (Yts. 21 and 22 in Westergaard) has been
taken. So, also, the Nirangistan is a portion of the seventeenth
(or Husparam) nask. Lastly, the numerous other fragments, the
quotations in the Pahlavi translation, the many references in the
Bundahish to passages of this Avesta not now known to us, all
presuppose the existence in the Sassanian period of a much more
extensive Avesta literature than the mere prayer-book now in our
hands. The existence of a larger Avesta, even as late as the o,th
century A.D., is far from being a mere myth. But, even granting
that a certain obscurity still hangs undispelled over the problem
of the old Avesta, with its twenty-one nasks, we may well believe
the Parsees themselves, when they affirm that their sacred litera-
ture has passed through successive stages of decay, the last of
which is represented by the present Avesta. In fact we can clearly
trace this gradual process of decay in certain portions of the Avesta
during the last few centuries. The great Yashts are not of very
frequent occurrence in the manuscripts: some of them, indeed,
are already met with but seldom, and MSS. containing all the
Yashts are of extreme rarity. Of the fifteenth, seventeenth and
nineteenth Yashts the few useful copies that we possess are derived
from a single MS. of the year 1591 A.D.
Origin and History. While all that Herodotus (i. 132) has
to say is that the Magi sang "the theogony " at their sacrifices,
Pausanias is able to add (v. 27. 3) that they read from a book.
Hermippus, in the 3rd century B.C., affirmed that Zoroaster,
the founder of the doctrine of the Magi, was the author of
twenty books, each containing 100,000 verses. According to
the Arab historian, Tabari, these were written on 12,000 cow-
hides, a statement confirmed by Masudi, who writes: " Zartusht
gave to the Persians the book called Avesta. It consisted of
twenty-one parts, each containing 200 leaves. This book, in
the writing which Zartusht invented and which the Magi called
the writing of religion, was written on 12,000 cowhides, bound
together by golden bands. Its language was the Old Persian,
which now no one understands." These assertions sufficiently
establish the existence and great bulk of the sacred writings.
Parsee tradition adds a number of interesting statements as
to their history. According to the Arda-Viraf-Nama the
religion revealed through Zoroaster has subsisted in its purity
for 300 years, when Iskander Rumi (Alexander the Great)
invaded and devastated Iran, and burned the Avesta which,
written on cowhides with golden ink, was preserved in the
archives at Persepolis. According to the Dinkard, there were
two copies, of which one was burned, while the second came
into the hands of the Greeks. One of the Rivayato relates
further: " After the villainy of Alexander, an assemblage of
several high-priests brought together the Avesta from various
places, and made a collection which included the sacred Yasna,
Vispered, Vendidad and other scraps of the Avesta." As to
this re-collection and redaction of the Avesta the Dinkard gives
various details. One of the Arsacid kings, Vologeses (I. or
III.?), ordered the scattered remnants of the Avesta to be
carefully preserved and recorded. The first of the Sassanian
kings, Ardashir Babagan (226-240), caused his high-priest,
Tanvasar, to bring together the dispersed portions of the holy
book, and to compile from these a new Avesta, which, as far
as possible, should be a faithful reproduction of the original.
King Shaptir I. (241-272) enlarged this re-edited Avesta by
collecting and incorporating with it the non-religious tractates
on medicine, astronomy, geography and philosophy. Under
Shapur II. (309-380) the nasks were brought into complete
order, and the new redaction of the Avesta reached its definitive
conclusion.
Historical criticism may regard this tradition, in many of its
features, as mere fiction, or as a perversion of facts made for
the purpose of transferring the blame for the loss of a sacred
literature to other persons than those actually responsible for
it. We may, if we choose, absolve Alexander from the charge
of vandalism of which he is accused, but the fact nevertheless
remains, that he ordered the palace at Persepolis to be burned
(Diod., xvii. 72; Curt., v. 7). Even the statement as to the
one or two complete copies of the Avesta may be given up as
the invention of a later day. Nevertheless the essential ele-
ments of the tradition remain unshaken, viz. that the original
Avesta, or old sacred literature, divided on account of its great
bulk and heterogeneous contents into many portions and a
variety of separate works, had an actual existence in numerous
copies and also in the memories of priests, that, although
gradually diminishing in bulk, it remained extant during the
period of foreign domination and ecclesiastical decay after the
time of Alexander, and that it served as a basis for the redaction
subsequently made. The kernel of this native tradition the
fact of a late collection of older fragments appears indisputable.
The character of the book is entirely that of a compilation.
In its outward form the Avesta, as we now have it, belongs to
the Sassanian period the last survival of the compilers' work
already alluded to. But this Sassanian origin of the Avesta must
not be misunderstood: from the remnants and heterogeneous
ZEND-AVESTA
969
fragments at their disposal, the diasceuast or diasceuasts com-
posed a new canon erected a new edifice from the materials
of the old. In point of detail, it is now impossible to draw a
sharp distinction between that which they found surviving
ready to their hand and that which they themselves added, or to
define how far they reproduced the traditional fragments with
verbal fidelity or indulged in revision and remoulding. It may
reasonably be supposed, not only that they constructed the
external framework of many chapters, and also made some
additions of their own a necessary process in order to weld
their motley collection of fragments into a new and coherent
book but also that they fabricated anew many formulae and
imitative passages on the model of the materials at their dis-
posal. In this consisted the " completion " of Tanvasar, ex-
pressly mentioned in the account of the Dinkard. All those
texts in which the grammar is handled, now with laxness and
want of skill, and again with absolute barbarism, may probably
be placed to the account of the Sassanian redactors. All the
grammatically correct texts, together with those portions of
the Avesta which have intrinsic worth, especially the metrical
passages, are indubitably authentic and taken ad verbum from
the original Avesta. To this class, above all, belong the
Gathas and the nucleus of the greater Yashts. Opinions differ
greatly as to the precise age of the original texts brought
together by subsequent redactors: according to some, they are
pre-Achaemenian; according to Darmesteter's former opinion,
they were written in Media under the Achaemenian dynasty;
according to some, their source must be sought in the east,
according to others, in the west of Iran. But to search for a
precise time or an exact locality is to deal with the question
too narrowly; it is more correct to say that the Avesta was
worked at from the time of Zoroaster down to the Sassanian
period. Its oldest portions, the Gathas, proceed from the prophet
himself. This conclusion is inevitable for every one to whom
Zoroaster is an historical personality, and who does not shun
the labour of an unprejudiced research into the meaning of
those difficult texts (cf. ZOROASTER). The rest of the Avesta,
in spite of the opposite opinion of orthodox Parsees, does not
even claim to come from Zoroaster. As the Gathas now con-
stitute the kernel of the most sacred prayer-book, viz. the
Yasna, so they ultimately proved to be the first nucleus of a
religious literature in general. The language in which Zoroaster
taught, especially a later development of it, remained as the
standard with his followers, and became the sacred language
of the priesthood of that faith which he had founded; as such
it became, so to speak, absolved from the ordinary conditions
of time and space. Taught and acquired as an ecclesiastical
language, it was enabled to live an artificial life long after it
had become extinct as a vernacular in this respect comparable
to the Latin of the middle ages or the Hebrew of the rabbinical
schools. The priests, who were the composers and repositories
of these texts, succeeded in giving them a perfectly general
form. They refrained from practically every allusion to
ephemeral or local circumstances. Thus we search vainly in
the Avesta itself for any precise data to determine the period
of its composition or the place where it arose. The original
country of the religion, and the seat of the Avesta language,
ought perhaps to be sought rather in the east of Iran (Seistan
and the neighbouring districts). But neither the spiritual
literature nor the sacred tongue remained limited to the east.
The geography of the Avesta points both to the east and the
west, particularly the north-west of Iran, but with a decided
tendency to gravitate towards the east. The vivid descrip-
tion of the basin of the Hilment (Yasht 19, 65-69) is peculiarly
instructive. The language of the Avesta travelled with the
Zoroastrian religion and with the main body of the priesthood,
in all probability, that is to say, from east to west; within the
limits of Iran it became international.
As has been already stated, the Avesta now in our hands is but
a small portion of the book as restored and edited under the
Sassanians. The larger part perished under the Mahommedan rule
and under the more barbarous tyranny of the Tatars, when through
conversion and extermination the Zoroastrians became a mere
remnant that concealed its religion and neglected the necessary
copying of manuscripts. A most meagre proportion only of the
real religious and ritual writings, the sacerdotal law and the liturgy,
has been preserved to our time. The great bulk over three-
fourths of the Sassanian contents especially the more secular
literature collected, has fallen a prey to oblivion. The under-
standing of the older Avesta texts began to die away at an early
period. The need for a translation and interpretation became
evident ; and under the Later Sassanians the majority of the books,
if not the whole of them, were rendered into the current Pahlavi.
A thorough use of this translation will not be possible until we
have it in good critical editions, and acquaintance with its lan-
guage ceases to be the monopoly of a few privileged individuals.
For the interpretation of the older texts it is of great value where
they are concerned with the fixed, formal statutes of the church.
But when they pass beyond this narrow sphere, as particularly in
the Gathas, the Pahlavi translator becomes a defective and un-
reliable interpreter. The Parsee priest, Neryosangh, subsequently
translated a portion of the Pahlavi version into Sanskrit.
The MSS. of the Avesta are, comparatively speaking, of recent
date. The oldest is the Pahlavi Vispered in Copenhagen, dated
1258. Next come the four MSS. of the Herbad Mihirapan Kai
Khusro at Cambay (1323 and 1324), two Vendidads with Pahlavi
in London and Copenhagen, and two Yasnas with Pahlavi in Copen-
hagen and formerly in Bombay (now Oxford). Generally speaking,'
the MSS. fall off in quality and carefulness in proportion to their
lateness; though an honourable exception must be made in favour
of those proceeding from Kirman and Yazd in Persia, mostly
dating from the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries.
The first European scholar to direct attention to the Avesta
was Hyde of Oxford, in his Historic Religionis Veterum Persarunt
eoramque Magorum (1700), which, however, failed to awake any
lasting interest in the sacred writings of the Parsees. The merit
of achieving this belongs to the enthusiastic orientalist Anquetil
Duperron, the fruit of whose prolonged stay in India (1755-1761)
and his acquaintance with the Parsee priests was a translation
(certainly very defective) of the Zend-Avesta. The foundation of a
scientific exegesis was laid by Burnouf. The interpretation of the
Avesta is one of the most difficult problems of oriental philology.
To this very day no kind of agreement has been reached by con-
flicting schools, even u^on some of the most important points.
The value of the Pahlavi interpretation was overrated by Spiegel,
Darmesteter, but wholly denied by Roth. The truth lies between
these two extremes. Opinion is divided also as to the significance
of the Avesta in the literature of the world. The exaggerated
enthusiasm of Anquetil Duperron has been followed, especially
since Spiegel's translation, by an excessive reaction. Upon the
whole, the Avesta is a monotonous book. The Yasna and many
Yashts in great part consist of formulae of prayer which are as
poor in contents as they are rich in verbiage. The book of laws
(Vendidad) is characterized by an arid didactic tone; only here
and there the legislator clothes his dicta in the guise of graceful
dialogues and tales, or of poetic descriptions and similitudes ; and
then the book of laws is transformed into a didactic poem. Nor
can we deny to the Yashts, in their depiction of the Zoroastrian
angels and their presentment of the old sagas, a certain poetic
feeling, at times, _ and a pleasant diction. The Gathas are quite
unique in their kind. As a whole, the Avesta, for profundity of
thought and beauty, stands on a lower level than the Old Testa-
ment. But as a religious book the most important document of
the Zoroastrian faith, and the sole literary monument of ancient
Iran the Avesta occupies a prominent position in the literature
of the world. At the present day its significance is decidedly
underrated. The future will doubtless be more just with regard
to the importance of the book for the history of religion in general
and even of Christianity.
EDITIONS. Zend-Avesta, ed. by N. L. Westergaard (Copenhagen
J852-54), complete; F. Spiegel, Avesta (Vienna, 1853-58), only
Vendidad, Vispered and Yasna, but with the Pahlavi translation;
K. Geldner (Stuttgart, 1886-96). Translations. Anquetil Duper-
ron, Zend-Avesta, Ouvrage de Zoroastre (Paris, 1771); Fr. Spiegel,
3 vols. (Leipzig, 1852-63), both completely antiquated. Avesta
traduit par C. de Harlez, ed. 2 (Paris, 1881); The Zend-Avesta,
Part I. Vendidad, Part II. Strozahs, Yashts and Nydyish, tr. by
T. Darmesteter, Part III. Yasna, Visparad, &c., by L. H. Mills
(Oxford, 1880-87), >n the Sacred Books of the East; Le Zend-Avesta,*
traduction nouvelle par J. Darmesteter, 3 vols. (Paris, 1892-93)
(Annales du MusSe Guimet) a most important work.
LITERATURE. Anquetil Duperron (see above) ; Haug, Essays on
the Sacred Language, &c., of the Parsis, especially in the new edition
by E. W. West (London, 1878); De Harlez, Introduction a I'etude
de I' Avesta (Paris, 1881); Max Duncker, Geschichte des Altertums,
vol. iv. ; Eduard Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, vol. i. (Stuttgart,
1884); J. Darmesteter, in the Introduction to his translation
(see above); K. Geldner, Avesta-Litteratur in the Grundriss
der iranischen Phtiolorie, by Geiger and Kuhn (Strassburg,
1896), vol. 2, i f.; E. W. West, Contents of the Nasks, S. B. E. 37
(Oxford, 1892). (K. G.)
970
ZENGG ZENO OF ELEA
ZEN66 (Hungarian, Zeng; Croatian, Senj; Italian, Segno),
a royal free town of Hungary, in the county of Lika-Krbava,
Croatia-Slavonia, 34 m. S.E. of Fiume, on the Adriatic Sea.
Pop. (1900) 3182. Zengg lies at the entrance to a long cleft
among the Velebit Mountains, down which the bora, or N.N.E.
wind, sweeps with such violence as often to render the harbour
unsafe, although the Austrian Lloyd steamers call regularly.
Apart from the cathedral of its Roman Catholic bishop, a
gymnasium, and some ancient fortifications, the town contains
little of interest. It carries on a small trade in tobacco, fish
and salt. The island of Veglia faces the town and the port
of San Giorgio lies 5 m. S.
The captaincy of Zengg was established, in the isth century,
by King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, as a check upon the
Turks; and subsequently, until 1617, the town became famous
as the stronghold of the Uskoks.
ZENITH (from the Arabic), the point directly overhead; its
direction is defined by that of the plumb-line.
ZENJAN, or ZANJAN, a town of Persia, capital of the Khamseh
province, about 205 m. N.W. of Teheran, on the high road thence
to Tabriz, at an elevation of 5180 ft. It has a population of
about 25,000 and post and telegraph offices, and was one of the
original strongholds of the Babi sectarians, who held it against
a large Persian force from May 1850 to the end of the year,
when most of them were massacred. It has extensive gardens,
well watered by the Zanjaneh river, which flows south of it.
The well-stocked bazaar supplies the neighbouring districts.
ZENO, East Roman emperor from 474 to 491, was an Isaurian
of noble birth, and originally bore the name of Trascalissaeus,
which he exchanged for that of Zeno on his marriage with
Ariadne, daughter of Leo I., in 468. Of his early life nothing
is known; after his marriage (which was designed by Leo to
secure the Isaurian support against his ambitious minister
Aspar) he became patrician and commander of the imperial
guard and of the armies in the East. While on a campaign in
Thrace he narrowly escaped assassination; on his return to
the capital he avenged himself by compassing the murder of
Aspar, who had instigated the attempt. In 474 Leo I. died
after appointing as his successor Leo the son of Zeno and
Ariadne; Zeno, however, with the help of his mother-in-law
Verina, succeeded in getting himself crowned also, and on the
death of his son before the end of the year became sole emperor.
In the following year, in consequence of a revolt fomented by
Verina in favour of her brother Basiliscus, and the antipathy
to his Isaurian soldiers and administrators, he was compelled
to take refuge in Isauria, where, after sustaining a defeat, he was
compelled to shut himself up in a fortress. The growing mis-
government and unpopularity of Basiliscus ultimately enabled
Zeno to re-enter Constantinople unopposed (476); his rival
was banished to Phrygia, where he soon afterwards died. The
remainder of Zeno's reign was disturbed by numerous other
less formidable revolts. Since 472 the aggressions of the two
Ostrogoth leaders Theodoric had been a constant source of
danger. Though Zeno at times contrived to play them off
against each other, they in turn were able to profit by his
dynastic rivalries, and it was only by offering them pay and
high command that he kept them from attacking Constanti-
nople itself. In 487 he induced Theodoric, son of Theodemir,
to invade Italy and establish his new kingdom. Zeno is de-
scribed as a lax and indolent ruler, but he seems to have
husbanded the resources of the empire so as to leave it appreci-
ably stronger at his death. In ecclesiastical history the name
of Zeno is associated with the Henoticon or instrument of union,
promulgated by him and signed by all the Eastern bishops,
with the design of terminating the Monophysite controversy.
See J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (London, 1889), i.
pp. 250-274; E. W. Brooks in the English Historical Review
(1893), pp. 209-238; W. Earth, Der Kaiser Zeno (Basel, 1894).
ZENO OF ELEA, son of Teleutagoras, is supposed to have
been born towards the beginning of the 5th century B.C. The
pupil and the friend of Parmenides, he sought to recommend
his master's doctrine of the existence of the One by contro-
verting the popular belief in the existence of the Many. In
virtue of this method of indirect argumentation he is regarded
as the inventor of " dialectic," that is to say, disputation having
for its end not victory but the discovery or the transmission of
truth. He is said to have been concerned in a plot against a
tyrant, and on its detection to have borne with exemplary
constancy the tortures to which he was subjected; but autho-
rities differ both as to the name and the residence of the tyrant
and as to the circumstances and the issue of the enterprise.
In Plato's Parmenides, Socrates, " then very young," meets
Parmenides, " an old man some sixty-five years of age," and
Zeno, " a man of about forty, tall and personable," and engages
them in philosophical discussion. But it may be doubted
whether such a meeting was chronologically possible. Plato's
account of Zeno's teaching (Parmenides, 128 seq.) is, however,
presumably as accurate as it is precise. In reply to those who
thought that Parmenides's theory of the existence of the One
involved inconsistencies and absurdities, Zeno tried to show
that the assumption of the existence of the Many, that is to
say, a plurality of things in time and space, carried with it
inconsistencies and absurdities grosser and more numerous. In
early youth he collected his arguments in a book, which, accord-
ing to Plato, was put into circulation without his knowledge.
Of the paradoxes used by Zeno to discredit the belief in plurality
and motion, eight survive in the writings of Aristotle and Simplicius.
They are commonly stated as follows. 1 (i) If the Existent is
Many, it must be at once infinitely small and infinitely great
infinitely small, because the parts of which it consists must be
indivisible and therefore without magnitude; infinitely great,
because, that any part having magnitude may be separate from
any other part, the intervention of a third part having magnitude
is necessary, and that this third part may be separate from the
other two the intervention of other parts having magnitude is
necessary, and so on ad infinitum. (2) In like manner the Many
must be numerically both finite and infinite numerically finite,
because there are as many things as there are, neither more nor
less; numerically infinite, because, that any two things may be
separate, the intervention of a third thing is necessary, and so on
ad infinitum. (3) If all that is is in space, space itself must be in
space, and so on ad infinitum. (4) If a bushel of corn turned out
upon the floor makes a noise, each grain and each part of each
grain must make a noise likewise; but, in fact, it is not so.
(5) Before a body in motion can reach a given point, it must first
traverse the half of the distance; before it can traverse the half
of the distance, it must first traverse the quarter; and so on ad
infinitum. Hence, that a body may pass from one point to another,
it must traverse an infinite number of divisions. But an infinite
distance (which Zeno fails to distinguish from a finite distance
infinitely divided) cannot be traversed in a finite time. Conse-
quently, the goal can never be reached. (6) If the tortoise has
the start of Achilles, Achilles can never come up with the tortoise;
for, while Achilles traverses the distance from his starting-point
to the starting-point of the tortoise, the tortoise advances a certain
distance, and while Achilles traverses this distance, the tortoise
makes a further advance, and so on ad infinitum. Consequently,
Achilles may run ad infinitum without overtaking the tortoise.
[This paradox is virtually identical with (5), the only difference
being that, whereas in (5) there is one body, in (6) there are two
bodies, moving towards a limit. The " infinity " of the premise
is an infinity of subdivisions of a distance which is finite; the
" infinity " of the conclusion is an infinity of distance. Thus Zeno
again confounds a finite distance infinitely divided with an infinite
distance. If the tortoise has a start of 1000 ft. Achilles, on the
supposition that his speed is ten times that of the tortoise, must
traverse an infinite number of spaces 1000 ft., 100 ft., 10 ft., &c.
and the tortoise must traverse an infinite number of spaces 100 ft.,
10 ft., I ft., &c. before they reach the point, distant from their
starting-points inij ft. and n i J ft. respectively, at which the tor-
toise is overtaken. In a word, iooo+ioo + io&c., in (6) and i + J+J
&c., in (5) are convergent series, and mij and i are the limits
to which they respectively approximate.] (7) So long as anything
is in one and the same space, it is at rest. Hence an arrow is at
rest at every moment of its flight, and therefore also during the
whole of its flight. (8) Two bodies moving with equal speed
traverse equal spaces in equal time. But, when two bodies move
with equal speed in opposite directions, the one passes the other
in half the time in which it passes it when at rest. These pro-
positions appeared to Zeno to be irreconcilable. In short, the
ordinary belief in plurality and motion seemed to him to involve
fatal inconsistencies, whence he inferred that Parmenides was
justified in distinguishing the mutable movable Many from the
1 See Zeller, Die Philosophie d. Griechen, i. 591 seq. ; Grundriss, 54.
ZENO OF ELEA
971
immutable immovable One, which alone is really existent. In
other words, Zeno re-affirmed the dogma, " The Ent is, the Non-ent
is not."
If tradition has not misrepresented these paradoxes of time, space
and motion, there is in Zeno's reasoning an element of fallacy. It
is indeed difficult to understand how so acute a thinker should
confound that which is infinitely divisible with that which is infinitely
great, as in (i), (2), (5), and (6); that he should identify space
and magnitude, as in (3) ; that he should neglect the imperfection
of the organs of sense, as in (4); that he should deny the reality
of motion, as in (7) ; and that he should ignore the relativity of
speed, as in (8): and of late years it has been thought that the
conventional statements of the paradoxes, and in particular of
those which are more definitely mathematical, namely (5), (6),
(7). (8), do less than justice to Zeno's acumen. Thus, several
French writers notably, Tannery and Noel regard _ them as
dilemmas advanced, with some measure of success, in refuta-
tion of specific doctrines attributed to the Pythagoreans. " One
of the most notable victims of posterity's lack of judgment,"
says Bertrand Russell, " is the Eleatic Zeno. Having invented
four arguments all immeasurably subtle and profound, the gross-
ness of subsequent philosophers pronounced him to be a mere
ingenious juggler, and his arguments to be one and all sophisms.
After two thousand years of continual refutation, these sophisms
were reinstated, and made the foundation of a mathematical renais-
sance, by a German professor, who probably never dreamed of any
connexion between himself and Zeno. Weierstrass, by strictly
banishing all infinitesimals, has at last shown that we live in an
unchanging world, and that the arrow at every moment of its
flight is truly at rest." " The interpretation of Zeno's last four
paradoxes given by Messrs. Noel and Russell," says G. H. Hardy,
may be oriefly stated as follows: The notion of time, which
seems at first sight to enter into (5) and (6), should be eliminated.
The former should be regarded as asserting that the whole is, not
temporally, but logically, subsequent to the part, and that there-
fore there is an infinite regress in the notion of a whole which is
infinitely divisible a view which at any rate demands a serious
refutation. The kernel of the latter lies in the perfectly valid
proof which it affords that the tortoise passes through as many
positions as Achilles a view which embodies an accepted doctrine
of modern mathematics. The paradox of the arrow (7), says
Mr Russell, is a plain statement of a very elementary fact: the
arrow is at rest at very moment of its flight: Zeno's only mistake
was in inferring (if he did infer) that it was therefore at the same
point at one moment as at another. Finally, the last paradox
may be interpreted as a valid refutation of the doctrine that space
and time are not infinitely divisible. How far this interpretation
of Zeno is historically justifiable, may be doubtful. But one may
well believe that there was in his mind at any rate a foreshadowing
of some of the ideas by which modern mathematicians have finally
laid to rest the traditional difficulties connected with infinity and
continuity."
Great as was the importance of these paradoxes of plurality
and motion in stimulating speculation about space and time,
their direct influence upon Greek thought was less considerable
than that of another paradox strangely neglected by historians
of philosophy the paradox of predication. We learn from
Plato (Parmenides, 127 D) that " the first hypothesis of the first
argument " of Zeno's book above mentioned ran as follows:
" If existences are many, they must be both like and unlike
[unlike, inasmuch as they are not one and the same, and like,
inasmuch as they agree in not being one and the same, Proclus,
On the Parmenides, ii. 143]. But this is impossible; for unlike
things cannot be like, nor like things unlike. Therefore exist-
ences are not many." That is to say, not perceiving that
the same thing may be at once like and unlike in different
relations, Zeno regarded the attribution to the same thing of
likeness and unlikeness as a violation of what was afterwards
known as the principle of contradiction; and, finding that
plurality entailed these attributions, he inferred its unreality.
Now, when without qualification he affirmed that the unlike
thing cannot be like, nor the like thing unlike, he was on the
high road to the doctrine maintained three-quarters of a century
later by the Cynics, that no predication which is not identical
is legitimate. He was not indeed aware how deeply he had
committed himself; otherwise he would have observed that his
argument, if valid against the Many of the vulgar, was valid
also against the One of Parmenides, with its plurality of attri-
butes, as well as that, in the absence of a theory of predication,
it was useless to speculate about knowledge and being. But
others were not slow to draw the obvious conclusions; and it
may be conjectured that Gorgias's sceptical development of
the Zenonian logic contributed, not less than Protagoras's
sceptical development of the Ionian physics, to the diversion
of the intellectual energies of Greece from the pursuit of truth
to the pursuit of culture.
For three-quarters of a century, then, philosophy was at a
standstill; and, when in the second decade of the 4th century
the pursuit of truth was resumed, it was plain that Zeno's
paradox of predication must be disposed of before the problems
which had occupied the earlier thinkers the problem of know-
ledge and the problem of being could be so much as attempted.
Accordingly, in the seventh book of the Republic, where Plato
propounds his scheme of Academic education, he directs the
attention of studious youth primarily, if not exclusively, to
the concurrence of inconsistent attributes; and in the Phaedo,
102 8-103 A, taking as an instance the tallness and the short-
ness simultaneously discoverable in Simmias, he offers his own
theory of the immanent idea as the solution of the paradox.
Simmias, he says, has in him the ideas of tall and short.
Again, when it presently appeared that the theory of the
immanent idea was inconsistent with itself, and moreover in-
applicable to explain predication except where the subject was
a sensible thing, so that reconstruction became necessary, the
Zenonian difficulty continued to demand and to receive Plato's
best attention. Thus, in the Parmenides, with the paradox of
likeness and unlikeness for his text, he inquires how far the
current theories of being (his own included) are capable of
providing, not only for knowledge, but also for predication,
and in the concluding sentence he suggests that, as likeness
and unlikeness, greatness and smaUness, &c., are relations, the
initial paradox is no longer paradoxical; while in the Sophist,
Zeno's doctrine having been shown to be fatal to reason,
thought, speech and utterance, the mutual KOLVWVLO. of (tSij
which are not airra KO&' oiirA is elaborately demonstrated. It
would seem then that, not to Antisthenes only, but to Plato
also, Zeno's paradox of predication was a substantial difficulty;
and we shall be disposed to give Zeno credit accordingly for
his perception of its importance.
In all probability Zeno did not observe that in his contro-
versial defence of Eleaticism he was interpreting Pannenides's
teaching anew. But so it was. For, while Parmenides had
recognized, together with the One, which is, and is the object
of knowledge, a Many, which is not, and therefore is not known,
but nevertheless becomes, and is the object of opinion, Zeno
plainly affirmed that plurality, becoming and opinion are one
and all inconceivable. In a word, the fundamental dogma,
" The Ent is, the Non-ent is not," which with Parmenides had
been an assertion of the necessity of distinguishing between
the Ent, which is, and the Non-ent, which is not, but becomes,
was with Zeno a declaration of the Non-ent's absolute nullity.
Thus, just as Empedocles developed Pannenides's theory of
the Many to the neglect of his theory of the One, so Zeno
developed the theory of the One to the neglect of the theory
of the Many. With the severance of its two members Eleaticism
proper, the Eleaticism of Parmenides, ceased to exist.
The first effect of Zeno's teaching was to complete the dis-
comfiture of philosophy. For the paradox of predication,
which he had used to disprove the existence of plurality, was
virtually a denial of all speech and all thought, and thus led
to a more comprehensive scepticism than that which sprang
from the contemporary theories of sensation. Nevertheless,
he left an enduring mark upon Greek speculation, inasmuch as
he not only recognized the need of a logic, and grappled, how-
ever unsuccessfully, with one of the most obvious of logical
problems, but also by the invention of dialectic provided a new
and powerful instrument against the time when the One and
the Many should be reunited in the philosophy of Plato.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. W. A. Mullach, Fragmenla Philosopliorum
Graecorum (Paris, 1860), i. 266 seq. ; Zeller, Die Philosophie d.
Griechen (Leipzig, 1876), i. 534-552; P. Tannery, Pour I'Histoire
de la Science Hellene (Paris, 1887), pp. 247-261 ; H. Diels, Die
Fraqmente der Vorsokratiker (Berlin, 1906, 1907). On the mathe-
matical questions raised by certain of Zeno's paradoxes, see G. Noel,
Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale, i. 107-125, and Hon. Bertrand
972
ZENO OF SIDON ZENODOTUS
Russell, Principles of Mathematics (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 346-354.
For histories of philosophy and other works upon Eleaticism see
PARMENIDES. (H. JA.)
ZENO OF SIDON, Epicurean philosopher of the first century
B.C., and contemporary of Cicero. In the De Natura Deorum
(i. 34), Cfcero states that he was contemptuous of other philo-
sophers and even called Socrates " the Attic Buffoon." Diogenes
Laertius and Cicero both speak of him with respect and describe
him as an accurate and polished thinker. He held that happi-
ness includes not merely present enjoyment and prosperity,
but also a reasonable expectation of their continuance. His
views were made the subject of a special treatise by Posidonius.
ZENO OF TARSUS, Stoic' philosopher and pupil of Chry-
sippus, belonged to the period of the Middle Stoa. He appears
to have accepted all the Stoic doctrines except that he denied
the final conflagration of the universe (see STOICS).
ZENOBIA (Gr. Zijvofiia), queen of Palmyra, one of the
heroines of antiquity. Her native name was Septimia Bath-
zabbai, a name also borne by one of her generals, Septimius
Zabbai. 1 This remarkable woman, famed for her beauty, her
masculine energy and unusual powers of mind, was well fitted
to be the consort of Odainatti (see ODAENATHUS) in his proud
position as Dux Orientis; during his lifetime she actively
seconded his policy, and after his death in A.D. 266-7 she not
only succeeded to his position but determined to surpass it
and make Palmyra mistress of the Roman Empire in the East.
Wahab-allath or Athenodorus (as the name was Graecized),
her son by Odainath, being still a boy, she took the reins of
government into her own hands. Under her general-in-chief
Zabda, the Palmyrenes occupied Egypt in A.D. 270, not without
a struggle, under the pretext of restoring it to Rome; and
Wahab-allath governed Egypt in the reign of Claudius as joint
ruler with the title of /WiXeus (king), while Zenobia herself
was styled /StwiXtovaT; (queen). In Asia Minor Palmyrcne
garrisons were established as far west as Ancyra in Galatia
and Chalcedon opposite Byzantium, and Zenobia still pro-
fessed to be acting in the interests of the Roman rule. In his
coins struck at Alexandria in A.D. 270 Wahab-allath is named
along with Aurelian, but the title of Augustus is given only to
the latter; a Greek inscription from Byblos, however, mentions
Aurelian (or his predecessor Claudius) and Zenobia together as
2/3aor6s and ZejScum? (i.e. Augustus and Augusta, C.I.G.
4503 b). When Aurelian became emperor in 270 he quickly
realized that the policy of the Palmyrene queen was endangering
the unity of the empire. It was not long before all disguises
were thrown off; in Egypt Wahab-allath began to issue coins
without the head of Aurelian and bearing the imperial title,
and Zenobia's coins bear the same. The assumption marked
the rejection of all allegiance to Rome. Aurelian instantly
took measures; Egypt was recovered for the Empire by Probus
(close of 270), and the emperor himself prepared a great expedi-
tion into Asia Minor and Syria. Towards the end of 271 he
marched through Asia Minor and, overthrowing the Palmyrene
garrisons in Chalcedon, Ancyra and Tyana, he reached Antioch,
where the main Palmyrene army under Zabda and Zabbai,
with Zenobia herself, attempted to oppose his way. The at-
tempt, however, proved unsuccessful, and after suffering con-
siderable losses the Palmyrenes retired in the direction of
Emesa (now Horns), whence the road lay open to their native
city. The queen refused to yield to Aurelian's demand for
surrender, and drew up her army at Emesa for the battle which
was to decide her fate. In the end she was defeated, and there
was nothing for it but to fall back upon Palmyra across the
desert. Thither Aurelian followed her in spite of the difficulties
of transport, and laid siege to the well-fortified and provisioned
city. At the critical moment the queen's courage seems to
have failed her; she and her son fled from the city to seek
*See the Palmyrene inscriptions given in Vogue 1 , Syrie centrale,
Nos. 28, 29 = Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions, Nos. 130, 131.
Zabbai, an abbreviation of some such form as Zabd-ila = dowry of
God, was a common Palmyrene name; it occurs in the Old Testa-
ment, Ezr. x. 28; Neh. iii. 20.
help from the Persian king; 2 they were captured on the bank
of the Euphrates, and the Palmyrenes, losing heart <tt this
disaster, capitulated (A.D. 272). Aurelian seized the wealth
of the city but spared the inhabitants; to Zenobia he granted
life; while her officers and advisers, among whom was the
celebrated scholar Longinus, were put to death. Zenobia
figured in the conqueror's splendid triumph at Rome, and by
the most probable account accepted her fall with dignity and
closed her days at Tibur, where she lived with her sons the life
of a Roman matron. A few months after the fall of Zenobia,
Palmyra revolted again; Aurelian unexpectedly returned,
destroyed the city, and this time showed no mercy to the
population (spring, 273).
Among the traditions relating to Zenobia may be mentioned
that of her discussions with the Archbishop Paul of Samosata
on matters of religion. It is probable that she treated the
Jews in Palmyra with favour; she is referred to in the Talmud,
as protecting Jewish rabbis (Talm. Jer. Ter. viii. 46 b).
The well-known account of Zenobia by Gibbon (Decline and
Fall, i. pp. 302-312 Bury's edition) is based upon the imperial
biographers (Histpria Augusta) and cannot be regarded as strictly
historical in detail. An obscure and distorted tradition of Zenobia
as an Arab queen survived in the Arabian story of Zabba, daughter
of 'Amr b. Zarib, whose name is associated with Tadmor and with
a town on the right bank of the Euphrates, which is no doubt the
Zenobia of which Procopius speaks as founded by the famous
queen. See C. de Perceval, Essai sur I'hist. des Arabes, ii. 28 f.,
197 f. ; Tabari, i. 757 f. See further PALMYRA. (G. A. C.*)
ZENOBIUS, a Greek sophist, who taught rhetoric at Rome
during the reign of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138). He was the author
of a collection of proverbs in three books, still extant in an
abridged form, compiled, according to Suidas, from Didymus
of Alexandria and " The Tarrhaean " (Lucillus of Tarrha in
Crete). Zenobius is also said to have been the author of a Greek
translation of Sallust and of a birthday poem (yfveS\iaj(6v)
on Hadrian.
Editions by T. Gaisford (1836) and E. L. Leutsch-F. W. Schneide-
win (1839), and in B. E. Miller, Melanges de litlerature grecque
(1868); see also W. Christ, Griechische Litteralurgeschichte (1898).
ZENODOCHIUH (Gr. faodaxtLOV, gvos, stranger, guest,
5ex70ai, to receive), the name given by the Greeks to a building
erected for the reception of strangers.
ZENODOTUS, Greek grammarian and critic, pupil of Philetas
(q.v.) of Cos, was a native of Ephesus. He lived during the
reigns of the first two Ptolemies, and was at the height of his
reputation about 280 B.C. He was the first superintendent of
the library at Alexandria and the first critical editor (Siop&o-nys)
of Homer. ' His colleagues in the librarianship were Alexander
of Aetolia and Lycophron of Chalcis, to whom were allotted
the tragic and comic writers respectively, Homer and other
epic poets being assigned to Zenodotus. Although he has
been reproached with arbitrariness and an insufficient know-
ledge of Greek, in his recension he undoubtedly laid a sound
foundation for future criticism. Having collated the different
MSS. in the library, he expunged or obelized doubtful verses,
transposed or altered lines, and introduced new readings. He
divided the Homeric poems into books (with capitals for the
Iliad, and small letters for the Odyssey), and possibly was the
author of the calculation of the days of the Iliad in the Tabula
Iliaca. He does not appear to have written any regular com-
mentary on Homer, but his Homeric 7Xer0m (lists of unusual
words) probably formed the source of the explanations of
Homer attributed by the grammarians to Zenodotus. He also
lectured upon Hesiod, Anacreon and Pindar, if he did not
publish editions of them. He is further called an epic poet by
Suidas, and three epigrams in the Greek Anthology are assigned
to him.
There appear to have been at least two other grammarians
of the same^name: (i) Zenodotus of Alexandria, surnamed
"Whether Shapur or his son Hormuzdi is not certain: Shapur's
death is variously placed in 269 and 272.
ZENTA ZEPHANIAH
973
6 kv ao-rei ; (2) Zenodotus of Mallus, the disciple of Crates,
who like his master attacked Aristarchus.
See F. A. Wolf, Prolegomena ad Homerum, section 43 (1859
edition); H. Diintzer, De Zenodoti studiis Homericis (1848);
A. Romer, Uber die Homerrecension des Zenodotus (Munich, 1885);
F. Susemihl, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur in der Alexan-
drinerzeit, i. p. 330, ii. p. 14; J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol.
(1906), ed. 2, vol. i. pp. 119-121.
ZENTA, a market town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs-
Bodrog, 133 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1000) 28,582.
It is situated on the right bank of the river Theiss, and is
historically known for the decisive victory won in its vicinity
by Prince Eugene of Savoy over the Turks on the nth of
September 1697.
ZEOLITES, a family of minerals consisting of hydrated
silicates of alumina with alkalis or alkaline earths or both.
The water they contain is readily lost, and before the blowpipe
it is expelled with intumescence; hence the name zeolite, from
the Greek feiv (to boil) and XMos (a stone), given by A. Cron-
stedt in 1758. In some other characters, as well as in their
origin and mode of occurrence, they have points in common.
Several species have been distinguished, of which the following
are the more important. Apophyllite (?..) and pectolite (see
PYROXENE) are also sometimes included.
Heulandite
Brewsterite
LEpistilbite
fWellsite .
I Phillipsite
| Harmotome
IStilbite .
Gismondite
Laumontite
/Chabazite
J Gmelinite
iLevynite
Analcite .
(Natro)ite .
Mesolite .
Scolecite .
Edingtonite
Thomsonite
Heulandite
Group.
Stilbite
Group.
Chabazite
Group.
H 4 CaAl 2 (SiO,).+3H,O.
H 4 (Sr, Ba,Ca)Al,(SiO,)+3H,O.
H 4 CaAl.(SiO,),+3H,O.
(Ba, Ca, K,)Al,Si,O,o+3H s O.
K,, Ca)Al,(SiO,),+4H,O.
H.(K 2 , Ba)Al,(SiO,) 6 +5H 2 O.
CaAl,(SiO,),+6H,O.
CaAl 2 (SiO,)4+4H,O.
H 4 CaAl,Si 4 Ou+2H,O.
(Ca, Na t )Al,(SiO 4 ),+4H,O, & c .
(Na,. Ca)Al 2 (SiO,) 4 +6H 2 O.
CaAI,Si,Oio+5H,O.
NaAl(SiO,),+H,O.
NajAljSi,Oio+2H,O.
(Ca, Na.)Al,Si^) 1 o+2HK).
CaAljSi,O, +3H,O.
BaAl,Si s Oio+3H 2 O.
(Na,, Ca)Al,(Si0 4 ),+2}H,0.
Some of the chemical formulae given above are only ap-
proximate, since in some species the composition varies between
certain limits and can be best expressed by the isomorphous
mixing of different molecules (see, for example, CHABAZITE).
They are all readily decomposed by hydrochloric acid, usually
with the separation of gelatinous silica. By the action of various
reagents several substitution products have been prepared
artificially: thus, crystallized products, in which the alkalis
or alkaline earths are replaced by ammonium or silver, &c.,
have been obtained.
The zeolites are often beautifully crystallized, and belong to
several crystal-systems. The crystals usually show evidences
of twinning, and when examined in polarized light they fre-
quently exhibit optical anomalies and a complex structure.
The hardness (H. = 3J-si) and specific gravity (2-0-2-4) are
comparatively low, and so are the indices of refraction and the
double refraction.
The water of zeolites presents many points of interest. Laumon-
tite loses water on exposure to air, and the crystals soon crumble
to powder unless they are kept in a moist atmosphere. All the
zeolites lose a portion of their " water of crystallization " in dry
air (over sulphuric acid), and a considerable portion at a tempera-
ture of 1 00 C., increasing in amount to 200 or 300; the actual
amount lost depending not only on the temperature, but also on
the tension of aqueous vapour in the surrounding atmosphere. In
some species the remaining water is expelled only at a red heat,
and is therefore to be regarded as " water of constitution." With
the progressive loss of water there is a progressive change in the
optical characters of the crystals. When a partially dehydrated
and opaque crystal is exposed to moist air the water is reabsorbed,
the crystal becoming again transparent and regaining its original
optical characters. Not only may water be reabsorbed, but such
substances as ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and alcohol may be
absorbed in definite amounts and with an evolution of heat. The
water of zeolites may therefore be partly driven off and reabsorbed
or replaced by other substances without destroying the crystalline
structure of the material, and it would thus seem to differ from the
water of crystallization of most other hydrated salts.
Zeolites are minerals of secondary origin and in most cases have
resulted by the decomposition of the felspars of basic igneous
rocks: in fact their chemical composition is somewhat analogous
to that of the felspars with the addition of water. Nepheline and
spdalite are often altered to zeolites. They usually occur as crystals
lining the amygdaloidal and other cavities of basalt, melaphyre, &c.
Usually two or more species are associated together, and often
with agate, calcite and some other minerals. Less frequently they
occur in cavities in granite and gneiss, and in metalliferous veins
(e.g. harmotome); while only exceptionally are they primary con-
stituents (e.g. analcite) of igneous rocks. Several species have been
observed in the Roman masonry at the hot springs of Bourbonne-
les-Bains in France: and phillipsite has been dredged from the
floor of the deep sea.
See ANALCITE, CHABAZITE, HARMOTOME, HEULANDITE, NATRO-
LITE, PHILLIPSITE, SCOLECITE, STILBITE. (L. J. S.)
ZEPHANIAH, the ninth of the minor prophets in the Bible.
The name (Yoh[weh] "hides" or "treasures"; there is a
similar Phoenician compound of Baal) is borne by various
individuals, in Jer. xxix. 25 (cf. lii. 24); Zech. vi. 10, 14;
i Chron. vi. 36, and among the Jews of Elephantine in Egypt
(sth century B.C.). The prophet's ancestry is traced through
Cushi (cf. Jer. xxxvi. 14) to his great-grandfather Hezekiah,
who may, in spite of 2 Kings xx. 18, xxi. i, be the well-known
king of Judah (c. 720-690). This would agree fairly with the
title (i. i) which makes the prophet a contemporary of King
Josiah (c. 637), and this in turn appears to agree (a) with the
internal conditions (i. 4-6, cf. 2 Kings xxiii. 4, 5, 12) which,
it is held, are evidently earlier than Josiah's reforms (620);
(b) with the denunciation of the royal household, but not of
the (young) king himself (i. 8, iii. 3); (c) with the apparent
allusion in ch. i. to the invasion of the Scythians (perhaps
c. 626), and (d) with the anticipated downfall of Assyria and
Nineveh (ii. 13, 607 B.C.). Zephaniah's prophecies are charac-
terized by the denunciation of Judah and Jerusalem and the
promise of a peaceful future, and these are interwoven with
the idea of a world-wide judgment resulting in the sovereignty
of a universally recognized Yahweh. The theme in its main
outlines is a popular one in biblical prophecy, but when these
53 verses are carefully examined and compared with pro-
phetical thought elsewhere, several difficult problems arise, an
adequate solution of which cannot as yet be offered.
After the'title (i. i) and the announcement of the entire destruc-
tion of every living thing (23), the fate of Judah and Jerusalem
is heralded (4-6). The name of Baal (so LXX. ; remnant implies
a date after Josiah's reforms) and of the idolatrous priests will be
cut off, together with them that worship the " host of heaven "
(condemned later than 620 in Jer. xix. 13, cf. xliv. 15-19) and
swear by the Ammonite god Milcom (or perhaps by their Moloch ;
for the persistence of his grim cult, see MOLOCH). Silence is enjoined
at the presence of Yahweh (v. 7, cf. Zech. ii. 13) and there follows
a fine description of " the Day of Yahweh " (n>. 7-I8). 1 The
inveterate popular belief in the manifestation of the warring deity
on behalf of his people (e.g. Isa. xxxiy. 8, Ixiii. 4; Jer. xlvi. 10;
Obad. 15; Ezek. xxx. 3) is treated (a) ethically, as a day of judgment
upon sin and pride (Amos v. 18 ; Isa. ii. 12-21) and (b) apocalyptically,
is bound up with ideas of a universal doom. Punishment will fall
upon an oppressive court, upon those who wear foreign apparel;
and who " leap over the threshold " (v. 9, cf . I Sam. v. 5, a Philis-
tine custom) a protest against heathen intercourse, for which
cf. Isa. ii. 6, and COSTUME, Oriental. The blow falls upon the
north side of Jerusalem (v. 10 seq., the merchant quarter (?), cf.
Zech. xiv. 21); the city will be ransacked and the indifferent or
apathetic, who thought that Yahweh could do neither good nor
evil (so, of the idols, Isa. xli. 23 ; Jer. x. 5) will be ruined. With
v. 13 contrast the promises Isa. Ixv. 21. " That day is a day of
wrath" (v. 15)* with celestial signs (cf. Amos v. 18, 20, viii. 9;
Isa. xiii. 10; Joel ii. 2, iii. 15), war and distress, when wealth shall
not avail (c. 18, cf. Isa. xiii. 17, of the Medes against Babylon, and
more generally Ezek. vii. 19). Thus Yahweh s jealousy fired by
the dishonour shown towards him in Judah will make an end of
all them that dwell in the earth (v. 18, cf. v. 2 seq., and see Isa. x. 23,
where a remnant is promised).
1 For " day " (i.e. of battle) cf. the Arab usage, W. R. Smith,
Proph. of Israel, p. 398. The victorious and divine kings of Egypt
in the XlXth and XXth Dynasties are likened to Baal in his ' ' hour "
(J. H. Breasted, Hist. Doc. Eg., iii. 312, 326, iv. | 106).
1 The Vulgate Dies irae dies ilia, whence the striking hymn by
Thomas of Celano (c. 1250).
974
ZEPHANIAH
Chap. ii. opens probably " Get you shame, and be ye ashamed,
O nation unabashed, before ye become as chaff that passeth away "
(the last two clauses of v. 2 are doublets). With this very general
call to repentance (cf. Amos v. 6, 15; Jer. iv. 14, &c.) is joined a
particular appeal to " the humble ones of the earth " (v. 3, cf. iii.
12; Isa. xi. 4; Ps. Ixxvi. 9) to seek righteousness and humility, per-
adventure (but LXX. so that) they may be hid in the day of Yahweh's
wrath (cf. Isa. xxvi. 20). " For " the cities of the Philistines shall
be destroyed (v. 4, cf. on i. 9 above), and an oracle of woe is uttered
against their land (. 5 seq.). With a sudden transition the
" remnant of the house of Judah " is promised the maritime coast
(v. 7, read by the sea for thereupon), and this is enhanced by the
tidings of the return of the captivity. This thought is developed
further. Yahweh has " heard ' (cf. Isa. xvi. 6, 13 seq.; Jer. xlviii.
29 sqq.; Ezek. xxxv., 12) " the reproach of Moab and the revilings
of the Ammonites," and the Lord of Hosts, the God of Israel,
swears by his life that both shall be destroyed for their hostility
towards his people, and the remnant of his nation shall possess
their territory (vv. 8-10). After turning aside to Yahweh's supre-
macy (v. ii, iii. 9 seq.) the chapter continues with a short and
vague doom " also " upon Cush (Ethiopia) " slain by my sword "
(cf. Isa. Ixvi. 16), and a more detailed prophecy upon Assyria and
Nineveh. The exulting and boastful city (cf. Babylon, Isa. xlvii. 8,
10, with xlv. 5 seq.) shall be a haunt of wild animals (cf. Babylon,
Isa. xiii. 20 sqq., and more especially Edom ibid, xxxiv. 11-13) ar "d
is pictured as shortly to be made desojate (v. 15, with the last
words cf. Jerusalem, Jer. xix. 8, Edom, xlix. 17).
In chap. iii. there are again changing situations. The defiant,
polluted and oppressive city is condemned for failing to regard the
warnings. Her secular and religious leaders are denounced, and
stress is laid, not upon foreign cults, but upon the rampant treachery
and profanation (cf. Mai. ii. II ; Isa. Ivi. 10-12, and especially Ezek.
xxii. 25-28). Yahweh in the midst of her is " righteous " (cf. Neh.
ix. 33, and especially the " Deutero-Isaiah," xl. sqq.), 1 but al-
though the nations round about have been cut off and destroyed,
Jerusalem, instead of taking warning in order to escape destruction,
has been persistently corrupt (vv. 1-7; v. 2, cf. Jer. ii. 30 and often).
" Therefore, wait ye for me, saith Yahweh, for the day when I
arise as a witness " (so read in v. 8, cf. Mic. i. 2; Mai. iii. 5). But
there is another sudden transition in that day Yahweh shall
assemble all nations and kingdoms to pour out upon them his
anger (v. 8). This judgment upon the world will be followed by a
universal conversion (v. 9, cf. u. n) and " from beyond the rivers
of Cush " (cf. ii. 12) tribute will be brought to Yahweh (cf. Isa. xlv.
14, and especially xviii. i, 7; some reference to a return of dispersed
Jews may be suspected in the now corrupt text). " In that day "
(i.e. after the judgment, implied by v. 7 seq.) there will be a puri-
fied Judah (cf. often in Isaiah, i. 24 sqq., iv. 2-6) and, with the
removal of the proud, there will be left an afflicted, poor and
trusting people (v. 12). " The remnant of Israel," also, shall dwell
in peace and piety (v. 13; cf. the corrupt people who are to be
" refined," Jer. ix. 3-9). Next, a noteworthy jubilant note is
struck when " the daughter of Zion " is bidden to exult (v. 14,
cf. Zech. ii. 10, ix. 9), for the " judgments " are removed, the
" enemy " is cleared away. Yahweh, the mighty deliverer, is in
her midst as " king of Israel " (Isa. xxiv. 23, xliv. 6), he will take
joy in her (cf. Isa. Ixii. 5, Ixv. 19), and she shall no more see evil.
In conclusion (w. 18-20), he will gather them that are in exile away
from the sacred festivals, who were a cause of " reproach " (cf.
Ezek. xxxvi. 15; Isa. liv. 4; Neh. i. 3); he will "deal with" all
oppressors and restore the outcast and the lame (cf . Mic. iv. 6 seq. ;
Ezek. xxxiv. 16). She shall become a praise and a name (cf. Jer.
xxxiii. 9) when Yahweh brings back the captivity " before your
eyes " (i.e. in your generation).
It is a natural assumption that prophecies have a practical
end and refer to existing or impending conditions. 2 But
although one single leading motive runs through the book of
Zephaniah there are abrupt transitions which do not concern
mere subjective considerations of logical or smooth thought,
but material and organic changes representing different groups
of ideas. The instruments of Yahweh's anger (ch. i.) are not
so real or prominent on the political horizon as, for example,
in Isaiah, Jeremiah or Habakkuk. The true date of the
Scythian inroad and its results for Judah and Philistia are less
important when it is observed that the doom upon Philistia,
the vengeance upon Moab and Ammon and the promises for
Judah (ch. ii.) belong to a large group of prophecies against
certain historic enemies (Edom included) who are denounced
for their contempt, hostility and intrusion. These prophecies
1 The idea of " righteousness " (j-<J-J), or loyalty, appears to have
implied the mutual bonds uniting the community and its deity, see
Journ. Theol. Stud., 1908, p. 632 n. i; Expositor, Aug. 1910, p. 120.
1 Material familiar to contemporary thought is naturally used
(see especially H. Gressmann, Ursprung d. israel-jud. Eschatologie;
J. M. P. Smith, Biblical World, 1910, pp. 223 sqq.).
are in large measure associated traditionally with the fall of
Jerusalem, and to such a calamity, and not to the inroad of the
Scythians, the references to the " remnant " and the " cap-
tivity " can only refer. 3 The anticipation of future, events is
of course conceivable in itself, but the promises (in ch. ii.)
presuppose events other and later than those with which the
Scythians were connected. On the other hand, it is entirely
intelligible that a prophecy relating to Scythians should have
been re-shaped to apply to later conditions, and on this view it
is explicable why the indefinite political convulsions should be
adjusted to the exile and why the gloom should be relieved by
the promise of a territory extending from the Mediterranean to
the Syrian desert (ii. 7, 9). After a period of punishment
(cf. Lamentations) Yahweh's jealousy against the semi-heathen
Judah has become a jealousy for his people, and we appear to
move in the thought of Haggai and Zechariah, where the
remnant are comforted by Yahweh's return and the dispersed
exiles are to be brought back (cf. Zech. i. 14-17, viii. 2-17).
But in ch. iii. other circles of thought are manifest. Israel's
enemies have been destroyed, her own God Yahweh has proved
his loyalty and has fulfilled his promises, but the city remains
polluted (m. 1-7, cf. Isa. Iviii. seq.; Malachi). Once more doom
is threatened, and once more we pass over into a later stage
where Yahweh has vindicated his supremacy and Zion is
glorified. Instead of the realities of history we have the
apocalyptical feature of the gathering of the nations (v. 8);
the thought may be illustrated from Zech. xii. i.-xiii. 6, where
Jerusalem is attacked, purged and delivered, and from Zech. xiv.
where the city is actually captured and half the people are
removed into captivity (cf. Zeph. iii. ii purging, 15 removal
of the enemy, 18-20 return of the captivity). The goal is the
vindication of Israel and of Israel's God, and the establishment
of universal monotheism (ii. n, iii. 9 seq.). The foe which
threatened Judah has become the chastiser of Ethiopia and
Assyria (ii.) and the prelude to the golden age (iii., cf. Ezek.
xxxviii. seq.). No longer does Yahweh contend for recognition
with Baal and the " host of heaven " (i. 4-6); the convulsions
of history are Yahweh's work for the instruction and amend-
ment of Israel (iii. 6 seq.); the heathen gods prove helpless
(ii. 1 1 ), but in what manner the conviction of Yahweh's great-
ness is brought home is not stated. 4
If Jer. iv. s-vi. 30 originally referred to the Scythians, it has
been revised to refer to the Chaldeans; also in Ezek. xxxviii. seq.
the northern foe has been associated with the great world-
judgment. The replacing of the sequel of Amos (q.ii.) by one
which presupposes a later historical background, the addendum
to the prophecy against Moab (Isa. xvi. 13 seq.), the pessimistic
glosses in Isa. xlviii., the variations in the Hebrew and Greek
text of Jeremiah, and the general treatment of prophecies of
judgment and promise, exemplify certain literary processes
which illustrate the present form of Zephaniah. In Isaiah
and Zechariah, notably, older and later groups of prophecies
are preserved, whereas here the new preludes and new sequels
suggest that the original nucleus has passed through the hands
of writers in touch with those vicissitudes of thought which
can be studied more completely elsewhere. It is not to be
supposed that the elimination of all later passages and traces
of revision will give us Zephaniah's prophecies in their original
extent. In fact the internal religious and social conditions in
i. 4-6 or iii. 1-4 do not compel a date before Josiah's reforms.
The doom of Cush is still in the future in Ezek. xxx. 4; and if
the impending fall of Nineveh (ii. 13) implies an early date,
yet it is found in writings which have later additions (Nahum),
or which are essentially later (Jonah, cf. Tobit xiv. 4 [LXX],
8, 10, 15); cf. also the use of Assyria for Babylon (Ezra vi. 22)
or Syria (Zech. x. 10). Historical references in prophecies are
8 The " humble " (ii. "3) can scarcely be identified with the
" remnant " and, as in iii. 12, are viewed as a small pious com-
munity such as we find in the Psalms (see Nowack's Comnt.).
* See further W. R. Smith, art. " Zephaniah," Ency. Brit., gth ed.,
who points out that " in the scheme of Isaiah it is made clear that
the fall of the power that shatters the nations cannot fail to be
recognized as Yahweh's work."
ZEPHYRINUS, ST ZEUS
975
not always decisive (Ezek. xxxii., for example, looks upon
Edom and Sidon as dead), and while the continued revision of
the book allows the presumption that the tradition ascribing
its inception to the time of Josiah may be authentic, it is doubt-
ful how much of the original nucleus can be safely recognized.
These are problems which concern not only the criticism of
biblical prophetical writings as a whole, but also the historical
vicissitudes of the period over which they extend (see JEWS;
PALESTINE: History).
According to late tradition Zephaniah, like Habakkuk, was of
the tribe of Simeon (cf. Micah of Mareshah and Obadiah of Beth-
haccerem, see Cheyne, Ency. Bib., col. 3455). The apocryphal
prophecy of Zeph. (Clement of Alex., Strom., v. II, 77; see Schiirer,
Gesch. Volk. Isr., iii. 271 seq.) merely illustrates the tendency to utilize
older traditions. See further on textual, metrical and literary de-
tails, W. R. Smith (note 4, previous page), reprinted in Ency. Bib.,
with additions by S. R. Driver, J. A. Selbie in Hastings's Diet. Bib.,
J. Lippl in Bibl. Studien (1910), and the commentaries on (all or
portions of) the Minor Prophets by A. B. Davidson (Camb. Bible,
1896); G. A. Smith (1898); W. Nowack (1903); K. Marti (1904;
especially valuable); Driver (Cent. Bib., 1906); Von Hoonacker
(1908). (S. A. C.)
ZEPHYRINDS, ST, bishop of Rome from about 198 to 217,
succeeded Victor I. He is described as a man of little intel-
ligence or strength of character, and the somewhat important
controversies on doctrine and discipline that marked his ponti-
ficate are more appropriately associated with the names of
Hippolytus and of Calixtus, his principal adviser and afterwards
his successor.
ZEPHYRUS, in Greek mythology, the west wind (whence the
English " zephyr," a light breeze), brother of Boreas, the north
wind, and son of the Titan Astraeus and Eos, the dawn. He
was the husband of Chloris, the goddess of flowers, by whom he
had a son, Carpus, the god of fruit (Ovid, Fasti, v. 197); by
the harpy Podarge he was also the father of Xanthus and Balius,
the horses of Achilles. Being spumed by Hyacinthus (?..),
he caused his death by accident at the hands of Apollo. He was
identified by the Romans with Favonius, and Chloris with
Flora.
ZERBST, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Anhalt,
situated on the Nuthe, n m. N.W. of Dessau and 27 m. S.E.
of Magdeburg by the railway Dessau-Leipzig. Pop. (1000)
17,095. It is still surrounded in part by old walls and bastions,
while other portions of the whilom fortifications have been
converted into pleasant promenades. It contains five churches,
one of which (St Nicholas), built in 1446-88, is a good example
of the late Gothic style as developed in Saxony, with its spacious
proportions, groined vaulting, and bare simple pillars. The
town hall dates from about 1480, but it was disfigured by addi-
tions in the beginning of the I7th century. It contains the
municipal museum, among the chief treasures of which is a
Luther Bible illustiated by Lucas Cranach the younger. The
palace (1681-1750) has been used as a depository of archives
since 1872. There are several quaint old houses, with high
gables, in the market-place, in the middle of which stand a
Roland column, of about 1445, and a bronze figure known as
the Butterjungjer (butter-girl), of uncertain origin and meaning,
but now regarded as the palladium of the town. The old
Franciscan monastery, with fine cloisters, founded in 1250,
contains the gymnasium; a Cistercian nunnery of 1214 has
been converted into barracks; and the Augustinian monastery
of 1390 has been a hospital since 1525. Gold and silver articles,
silk, plush, cloth, leather, soap, starch, chemicals and carriages
are among the chief manufactures. Iron-founding is carried
on; and several breweries are engaged in the preparation of
Zerbster bitter beer, which enjoys considerable repute.
Zerbst is an ancient town, mentioned in 949. In 1307 it
came into the possession of the Anhalt family, and from 1603
till i7<>3_was the capital of the collateral branch of Anhalt-
Zerbst. In 1793 it passed to Anhalt-Dessau.
ZERMATT, a mountain village at the head of the Visp valley
and at the foot of the Matterhorn, in the canton of the Valais,
Switzerland. It is 22$ m. by rail from Visp in the Rh6ne
valley, and there is also a railway from Zermatt past the Riffel
inns to the very top of the Gornergrat (10,289 ft.). The village
is 5315 ft- above the sea, and in 1900 had 741 permanent in-
habitants (all Romanists save 9, and all but 1 2 German-speaking),
resident in 73 houses. Formerly Zermatt was called " Pra-
borgne," and this name is mentioned in the Swiss census of
1888. Its originally Romance population seems to have been
Teutonised in the course of the isth century, the name " Matt "
(now written " Zermatt," i.e. the village on the meadows)
first occurring at the very end of that century. Zermatt was
long known to botanists and geologists only, and has an in-
teresting though very local history. De Saussure in 1789 was
one of the first tourists to visit it. -But it was not till the
arrival of M. Alexandre Seiler in 1854 that its fame as one of
the chief tourist resorts in the Alps was laid, for tourists abound
only where there are good inns. When M. Seiler 'died in 1891
he was proprietor of most of the great hotels in and around
Zermatt. The Matterhorn, which frowns over the village from
which it takes its name, was not conquered till 1865, Mr E.
Whymper and two guides then alone surviving the terrible
accident in which their four comrades perished. The easy
glacier pass of the St Th6odule (10,899 ft.) leads S. in six hours
from the village to the Val Toumanche, a tributary glen of the
valley of Aosta.
ZERO, the figure in the Arabic notation for numbers,
nought, cipher. The Arabic name k for the figure was sifr,
which meant literally an empty thing. The old Latin writers
on arithmetic translated or transliterated the Arabic word as
zephyrum; this in Ital. became zefiro, contracted to zero,
borrowed by F. zero, whence it came late into English. The
Spanish form cifra, more closely resembling the original Arabic,
gave O. Fr. cifre, mod. chiffre, also used in the sense of mono-
gram, and English " cipher " which is thus a doublet. In
physics, the term is applied to a point with which phenomena
are quantitatively .compared, especially to a point of a graduated
instrument between a positive and negative or ascending and
descending scale, as in the scales of temperature.
ZEULENRODA, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Reuss-the-Elder, situated on a high plateau in a well-wooded
and hilly country, 35 m. N. from Hof by the railway to Werdau.
Pop. (1900) 9419. The town contains a handsome town hall,
several churches and schools, and carries on an active industry
in cotton and woollen stocking manufacture. Zeulenroda is
mentioned as a village as early as 1399, and it obtained muni-
cipal rights in 1438. Since 1500 it has belonged to the Greiz
branch of the Reuss line of princes.
ZEUS, the Greek counterpart of the Roman god, Jupiter
(?.t>.). In the recorded periods of Hellenic history, Zeus was
accepted as the chief god of the pantheon of the Greeks; and
the religious progress of the people from lower to higher ideas
can be well illustrated by the study of his ritual and personality.
His name is formed from a root div, meaning " bright," which
appears in other Aryan languages as a formative part of divine
names, such as the Sanskrit Dydus, " sky "; Latin Diovis,
Jovis, Diespiter, ditus; Old English Tivi; Norse Tyr. The
conclusion that has been frequently drawn from these facts, that
all the Indo-Germanic stocks before their dispersal worshipped a
personal High God, the Sky-Father, has been now seen to be
hazardous. 1 Nevertheless, it remains probable that Zeus had
already been conceived as a personal and pre-eminent god by
the ancestors of the leading Hellenic tribes before they entered
the peninsula which became their historic home. In the first
place, his pre-eminence is obviously pre-Homeric; for Homer
was no preacher or innovator in religion, but gives us some at
least of the primary facts of the contemporary religious beliefs
prevailing about 1000 B.C.: and he attests for us the supremacy
of Zeus as a belief which was unquestioned by the average
Hellene of the time; and appreciating how slow was the process
of religious change in the earlier period, we shall believe that
the god had won this position long before the Homeric age.
In the next place, we cannot trace the origin of his worship
1 See, however, Schrader, Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan
Peoples (trans. Jevons), 416-419.
976
ZEUS
back to any special stock or particular locality; we cannot
find a single community that did not possess his worship or
that preserved any legend that suggests a late date for its
introduction. Doubtless, it has very ancient and close asso-
ciations with Thessaly; for most of the leading tribes must
have entered Hellas by this route, and remembered the moun-
tain Olympus that dominates this region as the earliest home
of his cult, and took with them to their most distant settlements
the cult-title 'OXi>/rios. Also, some of the prehistoric stocks
in Thessaly, like the Achaean Aeacidae, may have regarded
him as specially their ancestor. But to maintain therefore
that he originated in Thessaly as the special deity of a single
tribe, who were able to impose him upon the whole of Hellas,
is against the analogies offered by the study of the special
cults of Greek polytheism. But if we assume that he was the
aboriginal Hellenic High God, we must be quite ready to admit
that the separate communities were always liable to cherish
other divinities with a more ardent and closer devotion, whether
divinities that they brought with them or divinities that they
found powerfully established in the conquered lands, Athena
or Hera, for instance, in Attica or Argolis, or Poseidon in the
Minyan settlements. This in fact is a frequent fate of a " High
God " in polytheistic systems; he is vaguely praised and
reverenced, but lower divine powers are nearer to the people's
love or fear.
The Cretan legend of his birth and origin, which gave rise to
the Cretan cult of Zeus KpijTa-yevifa, 1 " Zeus born in Crete,"
may appear evidence against the theory just set forth. . But it
is not likely that any birth-legend belongs to the earliest stratum
of the Zeus-religion. The Aryan Hellenes found in many of
the conquered lands the predominant cult of a mother-goddess,
to whom they gradually had to affiliate their own High God:
and in Crete they found her cult associated with the figure of a.
male divinity who was believed to be born and to die at certain
periods; probably he was an early form of Dionysus, but owing
to his prominence in the island the Hellenic settlers may have
called him Zeus; and this would explain the markedly
Dionysiac character of the later Zeus-religion hi Crete.
We can now consider the question how the god was imagined
in the popular belief of the earliest and later periods. Homer
is our earliest literary witness; and the portrait that he presents
of Zeus is too well known to need minute description. To
appreciate it, we must distinguish the lower mythologic aspect
of him, in which he appears as an amorous and capricious deity
lacking often in dignity and real power, and the higher religious
aspect, in which he is conceived as the All-Father, the Father
of Gods and men in a spiritual or moral sense, as a God
omnipotent in heaven and earth, the sea and the realms below,
as a God of righteousness and justice and mercy, who regards
the sanctity of the oath and hears the voice of the suppliant
and sinner, and in whom the pious and the lowly trust. In
fact the later Greek religion did not advance much above the
high-water mark of the Homeric, although the poets and
philosophers deepened certain of its nobler traits. But Homer
we now know to be a relatively late witness in this matter.
How much of his sketch is really primitive, and what can we
learn or guess concerning the millennium that preceded him ?
His God is pronouncedly individual and personal, and probably
Zeus had reached this stage of character at the dawn of Hellenic
history. Yet traces of a pre-deistic and animistic period sur-
vived here and there; for instance, in Arcadia we find the
thunder itself called Zeus (Zei>s Kepauwis) in a Mantinean inscrip-
tion, 2 and the stone near Gythium in Laconia on which Orestes
sat and was cured of his madness, evidently a thunder-stone,
was named itself Zeiij Kewnrtiras, which must be interpreted as
"Zeus that fell from heaven"; 8 we here observe that the
personal God does not yet seem to have emerged from the divine
thing or divine phenomenon. Yet the Arcadians, like the
other Greeks, had probably long before Homer risen above
this stage of thought; for Greek religion was so strongly
1 Corp. Inscr. Groec. 2554.
Bull. Corr. Hell., 1878, p. 515. Pausan. iii. 22, I.
conservative that it preserved side by side the deposits of differ-
ent ages of thought sundered perhaps by thousands of years.
Again the Homeric Zeus is fully anthropomorphic; but in
many domains of Greek religion we discover the traces of therio-
morphism, when the deity was regarded as often incarnate in
the form of an animal or the animal might itself be worshipped
in its own right. We seem to find it latent in the Arcadian
worship of Zeus Awccuos and the legend of King Lycaon. The
latter offers a cannibal-meal to the disguised God, who turns
him into a wolf for his sins; and the later Arcadian ritual in
honour of this God betrays a hint of lycanthropy; some one
who partook of the sacrifice or who swam across a certain lake
was supposed to be transformed into a wolf for a certain time. 4
Robertson Smith 6 was the first to propose that we have here
the traces of an ancient totemistic sacrifice of a wolf-clan, who
offered the " tbeanthropic " animal " the man-wolf " to the
wolf-God. The totemistic theory in its application to Greek
religion cannot be here discussed; but we may note that there
is no hint in the story that the wolf was offered to Zeus and
that the name AUKCUOS could not originally have designated
the " wolf "-God: for from the stem Xiwo- we should get the
adjective Xuxeios, not XVKOIOS; the latter is better derived from
a word such as XUKTJ = . " light," and may allude to the God of
the clear sky; in fact the wolf, which was a necessary animal
in the ritual and legend of Apollo Awtioj, may have strayed
casually into association with Zeus AUKCUOS, attracted by a
false etymology. Another ritual, fascinating for the glimpse
it affords of very old-world thought, is that of the Diipolia, the
yearly sacrifice to Zeus Polieus on the Acropolis at Athens. 6
In this an ox was slaughtered with ceremonies unique in Greece;
the priest who slew him fled and remained in exile for a period,
and the axe that was used was tried, condemned and flung
into the sea; the hide of the slain ox was stuffed with hay,
and this effigy of the ox was yoked to the plough and feigned
to be alive. Again Robertson Smith saw here the " thean-
thropic " animal, the Ox-God-man, eaten sacramentally by an
ox-tribe, and so sacred that his death is a murder that must be
atoned for in other ways and by a feigned resurrection. We
recognize indeed the sacramental meal and the sanctity of the
ox; but the animal may have acquired this sanctity tempo-
rarily through contact with the altar; we need not suppose
an ox-clan the priest was merely /Swrrjs " the herdsman "-
nor assume the permanent sanctity of the ox, nor the belief
that the deity was permanently incarnate in the ox: the main
parts of the ceremony can be explained as cattle-magic intended
to appease the rest of the oxen or to' prevent them suffering
sympathetically through the death of one. We may indeed
with Mr Andrew Lang explain the many myths of the bestial
transformations of Zeus on the theory that the God was the
tribal ancestor and assumed the shape of the animal-totem in
order to engender the tribal patriarch; 7 but on the actual
cults of Zeus theriomorphism has left less trace than on those
of many other Hellenic deities. The animal offered to him
may become temporarily sacred; and its skin would have
magic properties: this explains his use of the aegis, the goat-
skin, as a battle-charm ; but of a Goat-Zeus, a Ram-Zeus, or a
Wolf-Zeus, there is no real trace.
The peculiar characteristic of his earliest ritual was the
human sacrifice; besides the legend of King Lycaon, we find
it in the story of the house of Athamas and in the worship of
Zeus A.a.<t>vcmos of Thessaly, 8 and other examples are recorded.
The cruel rite had ceased in the Arcadian worship before Pliny
wrote, but seems to have continued in Cyprus till the reign of
Hadrian. It was found in the worship of many other divinities
of Hellas in early times, and no single explanation can be
given that would apply to them all. A hypothesis favoured by
Dr Frazer, that the victim is usually a divine man, a priest-king
4 Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 82 ; Pausan. yiii. 2, 3 and 6.
6 Article on " Sacrifice " in Ency. Brit., 9th ed.
Cf. Porphyry, ii. 29, 30 (from Theophrastus) and Pausan. i.
24, 4.
7 Myth, Ritual and Religion, ii. 176. ' Herod, vii. 197.
ZEUS
977
incarnating the God, may be well applied to the Athamantid
sacrifice and to that of King Lycaon; for he derives his name
from the divinity himself, and according to one version 1 he
offers his own child; and the Lycaonid legend presents one
almost unique feature, which is only found elsewhere in legendary
Dionysiac sacrifice, the human flesh is eaten, and the sacrifice
is a cannibalistic-sacrament, of which the old Mexican religion
offers conspicuous example. Yet it is in this religion of Zeus
that we see most clearly the achievement of progressive morality;
Zeus himself punishes and abolishes the savage practice; the
story related by Plutarch, 1 how a kid was substituted miracu-
lously for Helen when she was led to the altar to be offered, is a
remarkably close parallel to the biblical legend of Abraham's
sacrifice of Isaac.
We can now consider the special attributes of the anthropo-
morphic God. His character and power as a deity of the sky,
who ruled the phenomena of the air, so clearly expressed in
Homer, explains the greater part of his cult and cult-titles.
More personal than Ouranos and Helios with whom he has
only slight associations he was worshipped and invoked as
the deity of the bright day ("A/idpioj, Aeu/caios, Au/caws),
who sends the rain, the wind and dew ("O/^pios, Nd'ios, 'Tertoj,
OCpios, Evavtfios, 'Ix/iaios), and such a primitive adjective
as SdVenJj, applied to things " that fall from heaven,"
attests the primeval significance of the name of Zeus. But the
thunder was his most striking manifestation, and no doubt
he was primevally a thunder-God, Ktpavvios, Kepawo/WXos,
'AorpewaTos. These cult-titles had originally the force of
magic invocation, and much of his ritual was weather-magic:
the priest of Zeus AUKCUOS, in time of drought, was wont to
ascend Mount Lycaeum and dip an oak-bough in a sacred
fountain, and by this sympathetic means produce mist.* A
god of this character would naturally be worshipped on the
mountain-tops, and that these were very frequently consecrated
to him is shown by the large number of appellatives derived
from the names of mountains. 4 But probably in his earliest
Hellenic period the power of Zeus in the natural world was not
limited to the sky. A deity who sent the fertilizing rains would
come to be regarded as a god of vegetation, who descended
into the earth and whose power worked in the life that wells
forth from the earth in plant and tree. Also the close special
association of the European Thunder-God and the oak-tree has
recently been exposed. 6 Homer calls the God of the lower
world Z*us KaraxftSwos," and the title of Zeus X06vios which
was known to Hesiod, occurred in the worship of Corinth ; 7 and
there is reason to believe that Eubouleus of Eleusis and Tro-
phonius of Lebadeia are faded forms of the nether Zeus; in
the Phrygian religion of Zeus, which no doubt contains primitive
Aryan elements, we find the Thunder-God associated also with
the nether powers. 8
A glimpse into a very old stratum of Hellenic religion is
afforded us by the records of Dodona. A Dodonean liturgy
has been preserved which, though framed in the form of an
invocation and a dogma, has the force of a spell-prayer " Zeus
was and is and will be, oh great Zeus: earth gives forth fruits,
therefore call on Mother Earth." 9 Zeus the Sky-God is seen
here allied to the Earth-Goddess, of whom his feminine counter-
part, Dione, may have been the personal form. And it is at
Dodona that his association with the oak is of the closest. His
prophet-priests the Selloi " with unwashed feet, couching on
the ground," w lived about the sacred oak, which may be re-
garded 11 as the primeval shrine of the Aryan God, and inter-
preted its oracular voice, which spoke in the rustling of its
leaves or the cooing of its doves. Achilles hails the Dodonean
God as IleXeuryuce, either in the sense of " Thessalian " or
1 Clemens, Protrept. p. 31 P.
1 ParaUela, 35.
4 Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, i. 154; ref. 66-89.
1 Pausan. viii. 38, 3.
.
'See Chadwick in Anthropological Journ., iqoo, on "The Oak
and the Thunder-God." II, ix. 457.
7 Works and Days, 456; Pausan. ii. 2, 8.
* Journ. Hetten. Stud, iii. 124; v. 257.
10 Horn. //. xvi. 233.
'Pausan. x. 12,10.
11 Chadwick, op. tit.
" primitive "; u and Zeus, we may believe, long remained at
Dodona such as he was when the Hellenic tribes first brought
him down from the Balkans, a high God supreme in heaven
and in earth.
We may also believe that in the earliest stages of worship
he had already acquired a moral and a social character. The
Homeric view of him as the All-Father is a high spiritual con-
cept, but one of which many savage religions of our own time
are capable. The family, the tribe, the city, the simpler and
more complex organisms of the Hellenic polity, were specially
under his care and direction. In spite of the popular stories
of his amours and infidelities, he is the patron-God of the mono-
gamic marriage, and his union with Hera remained the divine
type of human wedlock. " Reverence Zeus, the Father-God":
" all fathers are sacred to Zeus, the Father-God, and all brothers
to Zeus the God of the family ": these phrases of Aristophanes
and Epictetus 1 * express the ideas that engendered his titles
Tla.Tp$os, ra/^Xios, TeXtww, 'Qiibyvun. In the Eumenides of
Aeschylus" the Erinyes are reproached in that by aiding
Clytemnestra, who slew her husband, " they are dishonour-
ing and bringing to naught the pledges of Zeus and Hera, the
marriage-goddess "; and these were the divinities to whom
sacrifice was offered before the wedding, 16 and it may be that
some kind of mimetic representation of the " Holy Marriage,"
the 'lepos y&fjos, of Zeus and Hera formed a part of the Attic
nuptial ceremonies. 1 ' The " Holy Marriage " was celebrated in
many parts of Greece, and certain details of the ritual suggest
that it was of great antiquity: here and there it may have had
the significance of vegetation-magic, 17 like the marriage of the
Lord and Lady of May; but generally it seems to have been
only regarded as a divine counterpart to the human ceremony.
Society may have at one time been matrilinear in the com-
munities that become the historic Hellenes; but of this there
is no trace in the worship of Zeus and Hera. 18
In fact, the whole of the family morality in Hellas centred in
Zeus, whose altar in the courtyard was the bond of the kins-
men; ahd sins against the family, such as unnatural vice and
the exposure of children, are sometimes spoken of as offences
against the High God."
He was also the tutelary deity of the larger organization of
the phratria; and the altar of Zeus Qparpun was the meeting-
point of the phrateres, when they were assembled to consider
the legitimacy of the new applicants for admission into their
circle. 10
His religion also came to assist the development of certain
legal ideas, for instance, the rights of private or family pro-
perty in land; he guarded the allotments as Ztus KXdpioj, 11
and the Greek commandment " thou shall not remove thy
neighbour's landmark " was maintained by Zeus "Optos, the
god of boundaries, a more personal power than the Latin
Jupiter Terminus. 23
His highest political functions were summed up in the title
fo, a cult-name of legendary antiquity in Athens, and
frequent in the Hellenic world. 13
His consort in his political life was not Hera, but his daughter
Athena Polias. He sat in her judgment court M IIaXXa6iq>
where cases of involuntary homicide were tried. 14 With her he
shared the chapel in the Council-Hall of Athens dedicated to
them under the titles of BouXaTos and BovXoIa, " the inspirers
of counsel," by which they were worshipped in many parts of
11 //. xvi. 233.
13 Arist. Nub. 1468; Epict. Diatrib. iii. ch. 11.
"213-214. "Schol. Aristoph. Thesm. 973.
18 Photius, s.v. 'Itp&t yifiot.
" See Frazer's Golden Bough, 2nd ed. i. 226-227.
u The attempts to discover the traces of matrilinear society in
Greek religion may be regarded as mainly unsuccessful: ride
A. B. Cook, Class. Rev. 1906 (October, November), " Who was the
wife of Zeus?"
u Dio. Chrys. Or. 7 (Dind. i. 139).
* Demosth. Contra Macartatum, 1078, i.
1 Pausan. viii. 53, 9. Plate's Laws, 842 E.
"Vide Farnell, op. c\t. \. 159; ref. 107-109.
14 Corp. Inscr. Attic, iii. 71 and 273.
9/8
ZEUXIS
Greece. 1 The political assembly and the law-court were conse-
crated to Zeus 'Ayopaios, 2 and being the eternal source of justice
he might be invoked as Auccuoowos " The Just." 3 As the god
who brought the people under one government he might be
worshipped as YlavSruios; 4 as the deity of the whole of Hellas,
'EXXdptos, 5 a title that belonged originally to Aegina and to
the prehistoric tribe of the Aeacidae, and had once the narrower
application to the " Thessalian Hellenes," but acquired the
Pan-Hellenic sense, in fact expanded into the form HaveXMjvtos,
perhaps about the time of the Persian wars, when thanks-
giving for the victory took the form of dedications'and sacrifice
to " Zeus the Liberator " 'EXeufleptos. 6 Finally, in the for-
mulae adopted for the public oath, where many deities were
invoked, the name of Zeus was the masterword.
There is reason for thinking that this political character of
Zeus belongs to the earliest period of his religion, and it re-
mained as long as that religion lasted. Yet in one respect
Apollo was more dominant in the political life; for Apollo
possessed the more powerful oracle of Delphi. Zeus spoke
directly to his people at Dodona only, 7 and with authority only
in ancient times; for owing to historical circumstances and
the disadvantage of its position, Dodona paled before Delphi.
It remains to consider briefly certain moral aspects of his
cult. The morality attaching to the oath, so deeply rooted in
the conscience of primitive peoples, was expressed in the cult
of Zeus "Opioos, the God who punished perjury. 8 The whole
history of Greek legal and moral conceptions attaching to the
guilt of homicide can be studied in relation to the cult-appella-
tives of Zeus. The Greek consciousness of the sin of murder,
only dimly awakened in the Homeric period, and only sensitive
at first when a kinsman or a suppliant was slain, gradually
expands till the sanctity of all human life becomes recognized
by the higher morality of the people: and the names of Zeus
MetXixws, the dread deity, of the ghost-world whom the sinner
must make " placable," of Zeus 'Iiceaias and IIpoffTpewraZos, to
whom the conscience-striken outcast may turn for mercy and
pardon, play a guiding-part in this momentous evolution. 9
Even this summary reveals the deep indebtedness of early
Greek civilization to this cult, which engendered ideas of im-
portance for the higher religious thought of the race, and which
might have developed into a monotheistic religion, had a
prophet-philosopher arisen powerful enough to combat the
polytheistic proclivities of Hellas. Yet the figure of Zeus had
almost faded from the religious world of Hellas some time
before the end of paganism; and Lucian makes him complain
that even the Egyptian Anubis is more popular than he, and
that men think they have done the outworn God sufficient
honour if they sacrifice to him once in five years at Olympia.
The history of religions supplies us with many examples of the
High God losing his hold on the people's consciousness and
love. In the case of this cult the cause may well have been a
certain coldness, a lack of enthusiasm and mystic ardour, in
the service. These stimulants were offered rather by Demeter
and Dionysus, later by Cybele, Isis and Mithras.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For older authorities see Preller-Robert, Grie-
chische Mythologie, i. pp. 115-159; Welcker's Griechische Gotterlehre,
ii. pp. 178-216; among recent works, Gruppe's Griechische Mytho-
logte, ii. pp. 1100-1121; Farnell's Cults of the Greek States, vol. i.
pp. 35-1 78 ; Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques
et romaines, s.v., " Jupiter ; A. B. Cook's articles in Classical
Review, 1903-1904, "Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak": for cult-
monuments and art-representations, Overbeck, Kunst-Mytholoeie,
vol. i. (L. R. F.)
ZEUXIS, a Greek painter, who flourished about 420-390 B.C.,
and described himself as a native of Heraclea, meaning pro-
bably the town on the Black Sea. He was, according to one
1 Antiphon vi. p. 789 ; Pausan. i. 3, 5 : cf. Corp. Inscr. Attic iii. 683.
1 Farnell, op. ctt. vol. i. p. 162.
' Amer. Journ. Archaeol., 1905, p. 302.
4 C. I. A. 3, 7. Head, Hist. Num. p. 569.
5 Herod, ix. 7, 4; Find. Nem. v. 15 (Schol.).
Simonides, Frag. 140 (Bergk), Strab. 412.
7 There was a minor oracle of Zeus at Olympia. See ORACLE.
' Pausan. v. 24, 9. Farnell, op. cit. vol. i. pp. 64-69.
account, a pupil of Damophilus of Himera in Sicily, the other
statement being that he was a pupil of Neseus of Thasos. After-
wards he appears to have resided in Ephesus. His known
works are
1. Zeus surrounded by Deities.
2. Eros crowned with Roses.
3. Marsyas bound.
4. Pan.
5. Centatir family.
6. Boreas or Triton.
7. Infant Heracles strangling the
serpents in presence of his
parents, Alcmena and Am-
phitryon.
8. Alcmena, possibly another
name for 7.
9. Helena at Croton.
10. Penelope.
n. Menelaus.
12. Athlete.
13. An old Woman.
14. Boy with grapes.
15. Grapes.
16. Monochromes.
17. Plastic works in clay.
In ancient records we are told that Zeuxis, following the
initiative of Apollodorus; had introduced into the art of paint-
ing a method of representing his figures in light and shadow,
as opposed to the older method of outline, with large flat
masses of colour for draperies, and other details, such as had
been practised by Polygnotus and others of the great fresco
painters. The new method led to smaller compositions, and
often to pictures consisting of only a single figure, on which it
was more easy for the painter to demonstrate the combined
effect of the various means by which he obtained perfect round-
ness of form. The effect would appear strongly realistic, as
compared with the older method, and to this was probably due
the origin of such stories as the contest in which Zeuxis painted
a bunch of grapes so like reality that birds flew towards it,
while Parrhasius painted a curtain which even Zeuxis mistook
for real. It is perhaps a variation of this story when we are
told (Pliny) that Zeuxis also painted a boy holding grapes
towards which birds flew, the artist remarking that if the
boy had been as well painted as the grapes the birds would
have kept at a distance. But, if the method of Zeuxis led him
to real roundness of form, to natural colouring, and to pictures
consisting of single figures or nearly so, it was likely to lead
him also to search for striking attitudes or motives, which by
the obviousness of their meaning should emulate the plain
intelligibility of the larger compositions of older times. Lucian,
in his Zeuxis, speaks of him as carrying this search to a novel
and strange degree, as illustrated in the group of a female
Centaur with her young. When the picture was exhibited, the
spectators admired its novelty and overlooked the skill of the
painter, to the vexation of Zeuxis. The pictures of Heracles
strangling the serpents to the astonishment of his father and
mother (7), Penelope (10), and Menelaus Weeping (n) are
quoted as instances in which strong motives naturally presented
themselves to him. But, in spite of the tendency towards
realism inherent in the new method of Zeuxis, he is said to have
retained the ideality which had characterized his predecessors.
Of all his known works it would be expected that this quality
would have appeared best in his famous picture of Helena, for
this reason, that we cannot conceive any striking or effective
incident for him in her career. In addition to this, however,
Quintilian states (Inst. Oral. xii. 10, 4) that in respect of robust-
ness of types Zeuxis had followed Homer, while there is the
fact that he had inscribed two verses of the Iliad (iii 156 seq.)
under his figure of Helena. As models for the picture he was
allowed the presence of five of the most beautiful maidens of
Croton at his own request, in order that he might be able to
" transfer the truth of life to a mute image." Cicero (De
Invent, ii. i, i) assumed that Zeuxis had found distributed
among these five the various elements that went to make up a
figure of ideal beauty. It should not, however, be understood
that the painter had made up his figure by the process or com-
bining the good points of various models, but rather that he
found among those models the points that answered to the
ideal Helena in his own mind, and that he merely required the
models to guide and correct himself by during the process of
transferring his ideal to form and colour. This picture also is
said to have been exhibited publicly, with the result that
Zeuxis made much profit out of it. By this and other means,
ZHELESNOVODSK ZIEM
979
we are told, he became so rich as rather to give away his pic-
tures than to sell them. He presented his Alcmena to the
Agrigentines, his Pan to King Archelaus of Macedonia, whose
palace he is also said to have decorated with paintings. Accord-
ing to Pliny (N.H. xxxv. 62), he made an ostentatious display
of his wealth at Olympia in having his name woven in letters
of gold on his dress. Under his picture of an athlete (12) he
wrote that " It is easier to revile than to rival " (ptapiiaeTai TIS
na\\oi>fj funrjatTai). A contemporary, Isocrates (De Permut. 2),
remarks that no one would say that Zeuxis and Parrhasius
had the same profession as those persons who paint pinakia, or
tablets of terra-cotta. We possess many examples of the vase-
painting of the period circa 400 B.C., and it is noticeable on
them that there is great freedom and facility in drawing the
human form, besides great carelessness. In the absence of
fresco paintings of that date we have only these vases to fall
back upon. Yet, with their limited resources of colour and
perspective, they in a measure show the influence of Zeuxis,
while, as would be expected, they retain perhaps more of the
simplicity of older times.
ZHELESNOVODSK, a health resort of Russian Caucasia, in
the province of Terek, lying at an altitude of 1885 ft. on the
S. slope of the Zhelesnaya Gora (2805 ft.), n m. by rail N.N.W.
from Pyatigorsk. It possesses chalybeate springs of tempera-
ture 565-96 Fahr. ; the buildings over the springs were erected
in 1893. The season lasts from early in June to the middle of
September.
ZHITOMIR, or JITOMIR, a town of western Russia, capital
of the government of Volhynia, on the Teterev river, 83 m.
W.S.W. of Kiev. Pop. (1900) 80,787, more than one-third
Jews. It is the see of an archbishop of the Orthodox Greek
Church and of a Roman Catholic bishop. Two printing offices
in Zhitomir issue nearly one-half of all the Hebrew books printed
in Russia. The Jewish merchants carry on a considerable
export trade in agricultural produce, and in timber and wooden
wares from the forests to the north. Kid gloves, tobacco, dyes
and spirits are manufactured.
Zhitomir is a very old city, tradition tracing its foundation
as far back as the times of the Scandinavian adventurers,
Askold and Dir (gth century). The annals, however, mention
it chiefly in connexion with the invasions of the Tatars, who
plundered it in the i3th, i4th and i7th centuries (1606), or
in connexion with destructive conflagrations. It fell under
Lithuanian rule in 1320, and during the isth century was one
of the chief cities of the kingdom. Later it became part of
Poland, and when the Cossacks rose under their chieftain,
Bogdan Chmielnicki (1648), they sacked the town. It was
annexed to Russia along with the rest of the Ukraine in 1778.
ZHOB, a valley and river in the N.E. of Baluchistan. The
Zhob is a large valley running from the hills near Ziarat first
eastward and then northward parallel to the Indus frontier,
till it meets the Gomal river at Khajuri Kach. It thus becomes
a strategic line of great importance, as being the shortest route
between the North-West Frontier Province and Quetta, and
dominates all the Pathan tribes of Baluchistan by cutting
between them and Aighanistan. Up to the year 1884 it was
practically unknown to Europeans, but the Zhob Valley Expe-
dition of that year opened it up, and in 1889 the Zhob Valley
and Gomal Pass were taken under the control of the British
Government. The Zhob Valley was the scene of punitive
British expeditions in 1884 and 1890. In 1890 Zhob was
formed into a district or political agency, with its headquarters
at Fort Sandeman: pop. (1901) 3552. As reconstituted in
1903, the district has an area of 9626 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
69,718, mostly Pathans of the Kakar tribe.
See Sir T. H. Holdich's Indian Borderland (1901); Bruce's
Forward Policy (1900); McFall's With the Zhob Field Force (1895);
and Zhob District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1907).
ZIARAT (" a Mahommedan shrine "), the summer residence
of the chief commissioner of Baluchistan, and sanatorium for
the European troops at Quetta: 8850 ft. above the sea and
33 m. by cart-road from the railway. There is a good water-
supply, and the hills around are well-wooded and picturesque.
ZICHY (of Zich and Vasonykeo), the name of a noble Magyar
family, conspicuous in Hungarian history from the latter part
of the I3th century onwards. Its first authentic ancestor bore
the name of Zayk, and this was the surname of the family
until it came into possession of Zich in the isth century. It
first came into great prominence in the i6th century, being given
countly rank in 1679 in the person of the imperial general
Stefan Zichy (d. 1693). His descendants divided, first into two
branches: those of Zichy-Palota and Zichy-Karlburg. The
Palota line, divided again into three: that of Nagy-Lang, that
of Adony and Szent-Mikl6s, and that of Palota, which died out
in the male line in 1874. The line of Zichy-Karlburg (since
1811 Zichy-Ferraris) split into four branches: that of Vedrod,
that of Vezsony, and those of Daruvar and Csicso, now
extinct.
COUNT KAROLY ZICHY (1753-1826) was Austrian war minister
in 1809 and minister ot the interior in 1813-1814; his son,
COUNT FERDINAND (1783-1862) was the Austrian field-marshal
condemned to ten years' imprisonment for surrendering Venice
to the insurgents in 1848 (he was pardoned in 1851). COUNT
ODON [EDMUND] ZICHY (1800-1848), administrator of the
county of Veszprem, was hanged on the 30th of September
1848 by order of a Hungarian court-martial, presided over by
Gorge}, for acting as Jellachich's emissary to the imperial
general Roth. COUNT FERENC ZICHY (1811-1900) was secre-
tary of state for commerce in the Sz6chenyi ministry of 1848,
but retired on the outbreak of the revolution, joined the im-
perial side, and acted as imperial commissary; from 1874 to
1880 he was Austrian ambassador at Constantinople. COUNT
ODON ZICHY (1811-1894) was remarkable for his great activity
in promoting art and industry in Austria-Hungary; he founded
the Oriental Museum in Vienna. His son, COUNT EUGEN
ZICHY (b. 1837), inherited his father's notable collections, and
followed him in his economic activities; he three times visited
the Caucasus and Central Asia to investigate the original seat
of the Magyars, publishing as the result Voyages au Caucase
(2 vols., Budapest, 1897) and Drille asiatische Forschungsreise
(6 vols., in Magyar and German; Budapest and Leipzig, 1900-
1905). COUNT FERDINAND ZICHY (b. 1829), vice-president of
the Hungarian stadtholdership under the Mail&th regime, was
condemned jn 1863 under the press laws to the loss of his
titles and to imprisonment. In 1867 he was elected to the
Hungarian parliament, at first joining the party of Deak, and
subsequently becoming one of the founders and leaders of the
Catholic People's Party (see HUNGARY, History). His second
son, COUNT ALADAR ZICHY (b. 1864), also a member of the
Catholic People's Party, was made minister of the royal house-
hold in the Wekerle cabinet of 1906. COUNT JANOS ZICHY
(b. 1868), also from 1896 to 1006 a member of the Catholic
People's Party in the Lower House, and after 1906 attached
to Andrassy's Constitutional Party, was of importance as the
confidant of the heir to the throne, the Archduke Francis
Ferdinand. COUNT GEZA ZICHY (b. 1849), nephew of the
Count Ferenc mentioned above, studied under Liszt and be-
came a professional pianist; in 1891 he became intendant of
the Hungarian national opera-house, a member of the Hungarian
Upper House and head of the Conservatoire at Budapest.
COUNT MraALY ZICHY (b. 1829), one of the most conspicuous
Hungarian painters, was appointed court painter at St Peters-
burg in 1847 and accompanied the Russian emperors on their
various journeys. The National Gallery at Budapest possesses
some of his paintings, notably that of " Queen Elizabeth before
the coffin of Francis Deak "; but he is best known for his
illustrations of the works of the great Magyar writers (Petofy,
Arany, &c.).
ZIEH, FfiLIX FRANCOIS GEORGE PHILIBERT (1821- ),
French painter, was born at Beaune (C6te d'Or) in 1821.
Having studied at the art school of Dijon, where he carried off
the grand prix for architecture, he went to Rome in 1839 and
there continued his studies. The years from 1845 to 1848
980
ZIERIKSEE ZIMBABWE
were spent in travel in the south of France, Italy and the East,
where he found the glowing sunlight and the rich colour
peculiarly suited to his temperament. His reputation is, how-
ever, not based so much on his orientalist canvases as on his
pictures of Venice, which are generally characterized by the
intensity of the sunny glow on the red sails and golden-yellow
buildings under a deep blue sky. Many of his Venetian pic-
tures are purely imaginative, and their appeal is entirely due
to their qualities of colour, his architectural drawing being
frequently faulty and careless. After " Sunrise at Stamboul,"
which Theodore Gautier called " the finest picture of modern
times," he received the Legion of Honour in 1857, and was
made an officer in 1878. The majority of his paintings have
gone to American private collections, but two of his finest
pictures, " The Doge's Palace in Venice" (1852), and a marine-
painting, are at the Luxembourg Museum, and a " View of
Quai St Jean, Marseilles " at the Marseilles Gallery, whilst
many others are to be found in the leading private collections
of modern pictures in France, England and Germany. In
collaboration with Luc de Vos he illustrated The Death of
Paganini.
See Felix Ziem, by L. Roger-Miles (Librairie de I'art, Paris).
ZIERIKSEE, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on
the south side of the island of Schouwen. Pop. 6800. It is a
very old town, and formerly flourished exceedingly on account
of its trade and fishing, and important salt-making industry,
and now is the chief market centre and port in the island.
Among the principal buildings are the town-hall (isth century);
the Great Church, which was rebuilt after a fire in 1832, but
retains the lofty tower (1454) belonging to the earlier building;
the Little Church, the prison and the exchange. The chief
public square occupies the site of a residence of the counts of
Zeeland dating from 1048.
ZIETEN, HANS JOACHIM VON (1699-1786), Prussian
general-field-marshal, began his military career as a volunteer
in an infantry regiment. He retired after ten years' service,
but soon afterwards became a lieutenant of dragoons. Being
involved in some trade transactions of his squadron-commander,
he was cashiered, but by some means managed to obtain
reinstatement, and was posted to a hussar corps, then a new
arm. At that time light cavalry work was well known only
to the Austrians, and in 1735 Rittmeister von Zieten made the
Rhine campaign under the Austrian general Baronay. In
1741, when just promoted lieutenant-colonel, Zfeten met his
old teacher in battle and defeated him at the action of Roth-
schloss. The chivalrous Austrian sent him a complimentary
letter a few days later, and Winterfeld (who was in command at
Rothschloss) reported upon his conduct so favourably that
Zieten was at once marked out by Frederick the Great for high
command. Within the year he was colonel of the newly formed
Hussar regiment, and henceforward his promotion was rapid.
In the " Moravian Foray " of the following year Zieten and his
hussars penetrated almost to Vienna, and in the retreat to
Silesia he was constantly employed with the rearguard. Still
more distinguished was his part in the Second Silesian War.
In the short peace, the hussars, like the rest of the Prussian
cavalry, had undergone a complete reformation; to iron dis-
cipline they had added the dash and skirmishing qualities of
the best irregulars, and the hussars were considered the best
of their arm in Europe. Zieten fought the brilliant action of
Moldau Tein almost on the day he received his commission as
major-general. In the next campaign he led the famous
Zietenrilt round the enemy's lines with the object of delivering
the king's order to a distant detachment. At Hohenfriedberg-
Striegau and at Katholisch-Hennersdorf the hussars covered
themselves with glory. Hennersdorf and Kesselsdorf ended
the second war, but the Prussian army did not rest on its laurels,
and their training during the ten years' peace was careful and
unceasing. When the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756
Zieten had just been made lieutenant-general. At Reichen-
berg and at Prag he held important commands, and at the dis-
astrous battle of Kolin (i8th June 1757) his left wing of cavalry
was the only victorious corps of troops. At Leuthen, the most
brilliant battle of the i8th century, Zieten's cavalry began the
fighting and completed the rout of the Austrians. He continued,
during the whole of the war, to be one of Frederick's most trusted
generals. Almost the only error in his career of battles was
his misdirection of the frontal attack at Torgau, but he redeemed
the mistake by his desperate assault on the Siptitz heights,
which eventually decided the day. At the peace, General
Zieten went into retirement, the hero alike of the army and
the people. He died in 1786. Six 'years later Frederick's suc-
cessor erected a column to his memory on the Wilhelmsplatz in
Berlin.
See the Lives by his daughter, Frau von Blumenthal (Berlin.
1800), by Hahn (5th ed., Berlin, 1878), by Lippe-Weissenfeld
(and ed., Berlin, 1878), and by Winter (Leipzig, 1886).
ZIMBABWE, a Bantu name, probably derived from the two
words zimba (" houses ") and mabgi (" stones "), given to certain
ruins in South-East Africa. Its use is not confined to Southern
Rhodesia and should not properly be restricted to any one
particular site. For, as the medieval Portuguese stated, it is
merely a generic term for the capital of any considerable chief,
and it has been applied even by them to several distinct places.
From about 1550 onwards the Zimbabwe generally referred to
by Portuguese writers was at a spot a little north of the Afur
district, not far from the Zambezi. There is some reason,
however, to suppose that before this the capital of the Monomo-
tapa was situated much farther south, and it may plausibly
be identified with the most extensive ruins as yet known, viz.
those near Victoria (Mashonaland) to which popular usage has
now attached par excellence the name of Zimbabwe.
These ruins were discovered by Adam Renders in 1868 and
explored by Karl Mauch in 1871. They became well known
to English readers from J. T. Bent's account of the Ruined
Cities of Mashonaland, but the popularity of that work dis-
seminated a romance concerning their age and origin which
was only dispelled when scientific investigations undertaken in
1905 showed it to be wholly without historical warrant. Even
before this it had been clear to archaeologists and ethnologists
that there was no evidence to support the popular theory that
Zimbabwe had been built in very ancient days by some Oriental
people. Swan's measurements, which had misled Bent into
accepting a chronology based on a supposed orientation of the
" temple," had been shown to be inexact. There was no
authentic instance of any inscription having been found there
or elsewhere in Rhodesia. Numerous objects had been dis-
covered in the course of excavations, but not one of them could
be recognized as more than a few centuries old, while those
that were not demonstrably foreign imports were of African
type.
The explorations conducted in 1905 added positive evidence.
For it was proved that the medieval objects were found in
such positions as to be necessarily contemporaneous with the
foundation of the buildings, and that there was no super-
position of periods of any date whatsoever. Finally from a
comparative study of several ruins it was established that the
plan and construction of Zimbabwe are by no means unique,
and that this site only differs from others in Rhodesia in respect
of the great dimensions and the massiveness of its individual
buildings. It may confidently be dated to a period not earlier
than the i4th or isth century A.D., and attributed to the same
Bantu people the remains of whose stone-fenced kraals are found
at so many places between the Limpopo and the Zambezi.
There are three distinct though connected groups of ruins at
Zimbabwe, which are commonly known as the " Elliptical
Temple," the "Acropolis" and the "Valley Ruins." The
most famous is the first, which is doubly misnamed, since it is
not a temple and its contour is too unsymmetrical to be de-
scribed properly as elliptical. It is an irregular enclosure over
800 ft. in circumference, with a maximum length of 292 ft.
and a maximum breadth of 220 ft., surrounded by a dry-built
wall of extraordinary massiveness. This wall is in places over
30 ft. high and 14 ft. wide, but is very erratic in outline and
ZIMMERMANN ZINC
981
variable in thickness. The most carefully executed part is on
the south and south-east, where the wall is decorated by a row
of granite monoliths beneath which runs a double line of
chevron ornament. The interior has been much destroyed by
the ravages of gold-seekers and amateur excavators. Enough,
however, remains to show that the scheme was a combination
of such a stone kraal as that at Nanatali with the plan of a fort
like those found about Inyanga. The only unique feature is
the occurrence of a large and a small conical tower at the southern
end, which Bent and others considered to be representatives of
the human phallus. Their form, however, is not sufficiently
characteristic to warrant this identification, though it may be
noted that the nearest approximation to phallic worship is
found amongst the most typical of African peoples, viz. the
Ewe-speaking natives of the West Coast. The floor of the
enclosure is constituted as in the other Zimbabwe buildings
by a thick bed of cement which extends even outside the
main wall. This cement mass is heightened at many places so
as to make platforms and supports for huts. Groups of these
dwellings are enclosed by subsidiary stone walls so as to form
distinct units within the larger precinct.
The " Acropolis " is in some ways more remarkable than the
great kraal which has just been described. It is a hill rising
200 to 300 ft. above the valley, fortified with the minutest
care and with extraordinary ingenuity. The principles of con-
struction, the use of stone and cement are the same as in the
" elliptical " kraal; there is no definite plan, the shape and
arrangement of the enclosures being determined solely by the
natural features of the ground. Between this and the " ellip-
tical " kraal are the " Valley Ruins," consisting of smaller
buildings which may have been the dwellings of those traders
who bartered the gold brought in from distant mines. Zimbabwe
was probably the distributing centre for the gold traffic carried
on in the middle ages between subjects of the Monomotapa
and the Mahommedans of the coast.
Compare also the articles RHODESIA: Archaeology, and
MONOMOTAPA.
See D. Randall-Maclver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (London, 1906);
Journal of Anthrop. Inst., vol. xxxv. ; Geog. Journal (1906);
Mauch's report in Ausland (1872) is now only of bibliographical
interest, while Bent's Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (18*92) and
R. N. Hall's Great Zimbabwe (1905) are chiefly valuable for their
illustrations. 1 (D. R.-M.)
ZIMMERMANN, JOHANN GEORG, RITTER VON (1728-
i795)i Swiss philosophical writer and physician, was born at
Brugg, in the canton of Aargau, on the 8th of December 1728.
He studied at Gottingen, where he took the degree of doctor
of medicine; and he established his reputation by the disserta-
tion, De irritabUilale (1751). After travelling in Holland and
France, he practised as a physician in his native place, and
here he wrote t)ber die Einsamkeit (1756, emended and enlarged,
1784-85) and Vom Nalionalstolz (1758). These books made a
great impression in Germany, and were translated into almost
every European language. They are now only of historical
interest. In Zimmermann's character there was a strange
combination of sentimentalism, melancholy and enthusiasm;
and it was by the free and eccentric expression of these qualities
that he excited the interest of his contemporaries. Another
book by him, written at Brugg, Von der Erfahrung in der
Anneivnssenschaft (1764), also attracted much attention. In
1768 he settled at Hanover as private physician of George III.
with the title of Hofrat. Catherine II. invited him to the
court of St Petersburg, but this invitation he declined. He
attended Frederick the Great during that monarch's last illness,
and afterwards issued various books about him, of which the
chief were ffber Friederich den Grossen und meine Unterredung
mil ihm kurz nor seinem Tode (1788) and Fragmente tiber Friedrich
den Grossen (1790). These writings display extraordinary
1 [In 1909 Hall published another volume, Prehistoric Rhodesia,
in which-he maintained, in emphatic opposition to Dr Maclver's
conclusions, that the ruins were of ancient date and not the un-
aided work of Bantu negroes. See the review by Sir Harry Johnston
in the Geog. Jnl., Nov. 1909. ED.)
personal vanity, and convey a wholly false impression of
Frederick's character. Zimmermann died at Hanover on the
7th of October 1795.
See A. Rengger, Zimmermann's Briefe an einige seiner Freunde
in der Schweiz (1830); E. Bodemann, Johann Georg Zimmermann,
sein Leben und bisker ungedruckte Briefe an ihn (Hann., 1878);
and R. Ischer, Johann Georg Zimmermann's Leben und Werke
(Berne, 1893).
ZINC, a metallic chemical element; its symbol is Zn, and
atomic weight 65-37 (O=i6). Zinc as a component of brass
(xa\/c6s, opti-xaXxos) had currency in metallurgy long before
it became known as an individual metal. Aristotle refers to
brass as the " metal of the Mosynoeci," * which is produced as
a bright and light-coloured xahifa, not by addition of tin, but
by fusing up with an earth. Pliny explicitly speaks of a mineral
Kaofifia or cadmia as serving for the conversion of copper into
aurichalcum, and says further that the deposit (of zinc oxide)
formed in the brass furnaces could be used instead of the
mineral. The same process was used for centuries after Pliny,
but its rationale was not understood. Stahl, as late as 1702,
quoted the formation of brass as a case of the union of a metal
with an earth into a metallic compound; but he subsequently
adopted the view propounded by Kunckel in 1677, that " cadmia "
is a metallic calx, and that it dyes the copper yellow by giving
its metal up to it.
The word zinc (in the form zinken) was first used by Para-
celsus, who regarded it as a bastard or semi-metal; but the
word was subsequently used for both the metal and its ores.
Moreover, zinc and bismuth were confused, and the word
spiauler (the modern spelter) was indiscriminately given to
both these metals. In 1597 Libavius described a "peculiar
kind of tin " which was prepared in India, and of which a friend
had given him a quantity. From his account it is quite clear
that that metal was zinc, but he did not recognize it as the metal
of calamine. It is not known to whom the discovery of isolated
zinc is due; but we do know that the art of zinc-smelting was
practised in England from about 1730. The first continental
zinc-works were erected at Liege in 1807.
Occurrence. Zinc does not occur free in nature, but in com-
bination it is widely diffused. The chief ore is zinc blende, or
sphalerite (see BLENDE), which generally contains, in addition
to zinc sulphide, small amounts of the sulphides of iron, silver
and cadmium. It may also be accompanied by pyrites, galena,
arsenides and antimonides, quartz, calcite, dolomite, &c. It
is widely distributed, and is particularly abundant in Germany
(the Harz, Silesia), Austro-Hungary, Belgium, the United
States and in England (Cumberland, Derbyshire, Cornwall,
North Wales). Second in importance is the carbonate, cala-
mine (?..) or zinc spar, which at one time was the principal
ore; it almost invariably contains the carbonates of cadmium,
iron, manganese, magnesium and calcium, and may be con-
taminated with day, oxides of iron, galena and calcite; " white
calamine " owes its colour to much clay; " red calamine " to
admixed iron and manganese oxides. Calamine chiefly occurs
in Spain, Silesia and in the United States. Of less importance
is the silicate, ZniSiO^HjO, named electric calamine or hcmi-
morphite; this occurs in quantity in Altenburg near Aix-la-
Chapelle, Sardinia, Spain and the United States (New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Missouri, Wisconsin). Other zinc minerals are
willemite (?.t>.), ZnjSiO, hydrozincite or zinc bloom,
ZnCOj-2Zn(OH)t, zincite (?.t>.) or red zinc ore, ZnO, and frank-
linite, 3(Fe,Zn)O-(Fe,Mn)jO,.
Production. Until about 1833 the supply of zinc was almost
entirely obtained from Germany, but in this year Russia began
to contribute about 2000 tons annually to the 6000 to 7000
derived from Germany. Belgium entered >n 1837 with an output
of about 2000 tons; England in 1855 with 3000; and the United
States in 1873 with 6000 tons. The productions of Germany,
Belgium and the United States have enormously and fairly
regularly increased; the rise has been most rapid in the United
1 From the name of this tribe the German word Messing, brass,
is undoubtedly derived (see K. B. Hoffmann, Zeit. f. Berg, und
Huttenwesen, vol. 41).
982
ZINC
States. England, France, Spain and Austria have been fairly
constant producers. Germany produced 155,799 tons in 1900, and
198,208 in 1905; Belgium, 120,000 in 1900 and 143,165 in 1905;
the United States, 1 11,000 in 1900 and 183,014 in 1905. The world's
supply was 445,438 tons in 1900, and 654,367 in 1905.
METALLURGY
The principles underlying the extraction of zinc may be sum-
marized as: (i) the ore is first converted into zinc oxide; (2) the
oxide is distilled with carbon and the distillate of metallic zinc
condensed. Oxide of zinc, like most heavy metallic oxides, is
easily reduced to the metallic state by heating it to redness with
charcoal; pure red zinc ore may be treated directly; and the
same might be done with pure calamine of any kind, because the
carbon dioxide of the zinc carbonate goes off below redness and
the silica of zinc silicate only retards, but does not prevent, the
reducing action of the charcoal. Zinc blende, however, being zinc
sulphide, is not directly reducible by charcoal; but it is easy to
convert it into oxide by roasting: the sulphur goes off as sulphur
dioxide whilst the zinc remains in the (infusible) form of oxide,
ZnO. In practice, however, we never have to deal with pure
zinc minerals, but with complex mixtures, which must first of all
be subjected to mechanical operations, to remove at least part
of the gangue, and if possible also of the heavy metallic impurities
(see ORE-DRESSING).
As ores of zinc are usually shipped before smelting from widely
separated places Sweden, Spain, Algiers, Italy, Greece, Australia
and the Rocky Mountains region of North America it is important
that they be separated from their mixtures at the mines. The
difficulty in separating zinc blende from iron pyrites is well known,
and probably the most elaborate ore-dressing works ever built
have been designed with this end in view. The Wetherill system
of magnetic concentration has been remarkably successful in
separating the minerals contained in the well-known deposit in
Sussex county, N.J. Here very clean non-magnetic concentrate
of willemite, which is an anhydrous zinc silicate and a very high-
grade zinc ore, is separated from an intimate mixture of willemite,
zincite and franklinites, with calcite and some manganese silicates.
The magnetic concentrates contain enough zinc to be well adapted
to the manufacture of zinc oxide. Magnetic concentration is also
applied in the removal of an excess of iron from partially roasted
blende. Neither mechanical nor magnetic concentration can effect
much in the way of separation when, as in many complex ores,
carbonates of iron, calcium and magnesium replace the isomorphous
zinc carbonate, when some iron sulphide containing less sulphur
than pyrites replaces zinc sulphide, and when gold and silver are
contained in the zinc ore itself. Hence only in exceptional cir-
cumstances is it possible to utilize a large class of widely distri-
buted ores, carrying from 10 to 35 per cent, of zinc, in which the
zinc alone, estimated at 2d. a pound, is worth from about 2 to 7
per ton of ore. The ores of the Joplin district, in the Ozark uplift
in the Mississippi Valley, are remarkable in that they are specially
adapted to mechanical concentration. The material as mined will
probably not average over 10 per cent, of zinc, but the dressed
zinc ore as sold ranges from 45 to 62 per cent, of zinc. This region
now furnishes the bulk of the ore required by the smelters of Illinois,
Missouri and Kansas.
The ore, even if it is not blende, must be roasted or calcined in
order to remove all volatile components as completely as possible,
because these, if allowed to remain, would carry away a large
proportion of the zinc vapour during the "distillation. If the zinc
is present as blende, this operation offers considerable difficulties,
because in the roasting process the zinc sulphide passes in the
first instance into sulphate, which demands a high temperature
for its conversion into oxide. Another point to be considered in
this connexion is that the masses of sulphur dioxide evolved, being
destructive of vegetable life, are an intolerable nuisance to the
neighbourhood in which the operations take place. For the de-
sulphurization of zinc blende where it is not intended to collect
and save the sulphur there are many mechanical kilns, generally
classified as straight-line, horse-shoe, turret and shaft kilns; all
of these may be made, to do good work on moderately clean ores
which do not melt at the temperature of desulphurization. But
the problem of saving the sulphur is yearly becoming more im-
portant. In roasting a ton of rich blende containing 60 per cent,
of zinc enough sulphur is liberated to produce one ton of _ strong
sulphuric acid, and unless this is collected not only are poisonous
gases discharged, but the waste is considerable. When sulphuric
or sulphurous acid is to be collected, it is important to keep the
fuel gas from admixture with the sulphur gases, and kilns for this
purpose require some modification. If hot air is introduced into
the kiln, the additional heat developed by the oxidation of the
zinc and the sulphur is sufficient to keep up a part of the reaction;
but for the complete expulsion of the sulphur an externally-fired
muffle through which the ore is passed is found to be essential.
Distillation of the Oxide with Charcoal. The distillation process
in former times, especially in England, used to be carried out
" per descensum." The bottom of a crucible is perforated by a
pipe which projects into the crucible to about two-thirds of its
height. The mixture of ore and charcoal is put into the crucible
around the pipe, the crucible closed by a luted-on lid, and placed
in a furnace constructed so as to permit of the lower end of the
pipe projecting into the ash-pit. The zinc vapour produced
descends through the pipe and condenses into liquid zinc, which
is collected in a ladle held under the outlet end of the pipe. For
manufacturing purposes a furnace similar to that used for the
making of glass was employed to heat a circular row of crucibles
standing on a shelf along the wall of the furnace. This system,
however, has long been abandoned.
The modern processes may be primarily divided into two groups
according to the nature of the vessel in which the operation is
effected. These distilling vessels are called retorts if they are
supported only at the ends, and the furnace using them is termed
a Belgian furnace. If they are supported at intervals along a flat
side, they are called muffles, and the furnace is known as a Silesian
furnace. Various combinations and modifications of these two
types of furnace have given rise to distinctive names, and as each
system has its advantages and disadvantages local conditions
determine which is the better.
In the Belgian process the reduction and distillation are carried
out in cylindrical or elliptical retorts of fire-clay, from 3 ft. 3 in.
to 4 ft. 9 in. long and 6 to 10 in. internal diameter. Some forty-
six or more retorts, arranged in parallel horizontal, rows, are heated
in one furnace. The furnaces are square and open in front, to
allow the outlet ends of the retorts to project: they are grouped
together by fours; and their several chimneys are within the same
enclosure. Each retort is provided with two adapters, namely,
a conical pipe of fire-clay, about 15 in. long, which fits into the
retort end, and a conical tube of sheet iron, which fits over the
end of the fire-clay pipe, and which at its outlet end is only about
an inch wide. To start a new furnace, the front side is closed
provisionally by a brick wall, a fire lighted inside, and the tempera-
ture raised very gradually to a white heat. After four days' heating
the provisional front wall is removed piecemeal, and the retorts,
after having been heated to redness, are inserted in corresponding
sets. The charge of the retorts consists of a mixture of noo Ib
of roasted calamine and 550 ft of dry powdered coal per furnace.
A newly started furnace, however, is used for a time with smaller
charges. Supposing the last of these preliminary distillations to
have been completed, the residues left in the retorts are removed,
and the retorts, as they lie in the hot furnace, are charged by means
of semi-cylindrical shovels, and their adapters put on. The charging
operation being completed, the temperature is raised, and as a
consequence an evolution of carbon monoxide soon begins, and
becomes visible by the gas bursting out into the characteristic
blue flame. After a time the flame becomes dazzling white, snowing
that zinc vapour is beginning to escape. The iron adapters are
now slipped on, and left on for two hours, when, as a matter of
experience, a considerable amount of zinc has gone out of the
retort, the greater part into the fire-clay adapter, the rest into the
iron cone. The former contains a mixture of semi-solid and molten
metal, which is raked out into iron ladles and cast into plates of
66 to 77 ft weight, to be sold as " spelter." The contents of the
iron recipient consist of a powdery mixture of oxide and metal,
which is added to the next charge, except what is put aside to be
sold as " zinc dust." This dust may amount to 10 per cent, of the
total production. As soon as the adapters have been cleaeed of
their contents, they are replaced, and again left to themselves for
two hours, to be once more emptied and replaced, &c. The com-
plete exhaustion of the charge of a furnace takes about eleven
hours.
In the Silesian process the distillation is conducted in specially
constructed muffles of a prismatic shape arched above, which are
arranged in two parallel rows within a low-vaulted furnace, similar
to the pots in a glass furnace. As a rule every furnace accom-
modates ten muffles. Through an orifice in the outlet pipe (which
is closed during the distillation by a loose plug) a hot iron rod
can be introduced from time to time to clear away any solid zinc
that may threaten to obstruct it. As soon as the outlet pipe has
become sufficiently hot the zinc flows through it and collects in
conveniently placed receptacles. About six or eight hours after start-
ing the distillation is in full swing and in twenty-four hours it is
completed. A fresh charge is then put in at once, the muffles being
cleared only after three successive distillations. The distillate consists
of a conglomerate of drops (" drop zinc "). Itis fused up in iron basins
lined with clay, and cast out into the customary form of cakes.
The chief improvements in the plant of these processes are con-
cerned with the manufacture of the retorts or muffles, and especially
with the introduction of gas-firing. Even a machine of simple
type, like the ordinary drain-pipe machine, in which the retorts
are made by forcing the plastic clay mixture through a die, may
result in greater economy and uniformity than is possible when
retorts are made by hand. When hydraulic pressure to the amount
of 2000 to 3000 ft per square inch is applied, the saving is unques-
tioned, since less time is required to dry the pressed retort, its life
in the furnaces is longer, its absorption of zinc is less, and the
loss of zinc by passage through its walls in the form of vapour
is reduced.
ZINC
983
Three modes of gas-firing are to be noticed, each of which is
adapted to special local conditions, (a) The gas is made from the
fuel in a detached fireplace and conducted while hot into the com-
bustion chamber of the furnace, and the air for complete combustion
is heated by the products of combustion on their way to the chimney.
(6) Both the producer gas and the air are heated before they enter
the combustion chamber, as in the Siemens system of regenerative
firing, (c) Natural gas is piped to the furnace, where it meets
air heated by the chimney gase The primary advantages of gas-
firing are that less fuel is required, that there is better control of
the heat in the furnace, and that larger and more accessible furnaces
can be built. In Silesia the introduction of gas-firing has led to
the use of furnaces containing eighty muffles. In the United
States, Belgian furnaces of type (a) are built to contain 864 retorts;
of type (6), to contain 300 to 400 retorts; and of type (c), prefer-
ably about 600 retorts. The use of gas-fired furnaces greatly
simplifies manual labour. On a direct-fired furnace at least one
man, the brigadier, must be an expert in all the operations involved;
but with a gas furnace a division of labour is possible. One man
who understands the use of gaseous fuel can regulate the heat of
a thousand or more retorts. The men who charge and empty the
retorts, those who draw and cast the metal, and those who keep
the furnace in repair, need not know anything about the making
or using of gas, and the men who make the gas need not know
anything about a zinc furnace. Again, in direct-fired furnaces
there are commonly seven or eight rows of retorts, one above
another, so that to serve the upper rows the workman must stand
upon a table, where he is exposed to the full heat of the furnace
and requires a helper to wait upon him. With gas-firing the retorts
can be arranged in four horizontal rows, all within reach of a man
on the furnace-room floor. Furthermore, with the large furnaces
which gas-firing makes possible mechanical appliances may be
substituted for manual labour in many operations, such as removing
and replacing broken retorts, mixing and conveying the charge,
drawing and casting the metal, charging and emptying the retorts,
and removing the residues and products.
Refining. The specific effects of different impurities on the
physical properties of zinc have only been imperfectly studied.
Fortunately, however, the small amounts of any of them that are
likely to be found in commercial zinc are not for most purposes
very deleterious. It is generally recognized that the purest ores
produce the purest metal. Grades of commercial zinc are usually
based on selected ores, and brands, when they mean anything,
usually mean that the metal is made from certain ores. Chemical
control of the metal purchased is not nearly as common as it
should be, and the refining of zinc is at best an imperfect opera-
tion. To obtain the metal chemically pure a specially prepared
pure oxide or salt of zinc is distilled. A redistilled zinc, from an
ordinarily pure commercial zinc, is often called chemically pure,
but redistillation is seldom practised except for the recovery of
zinc from galvanizer's dross and from the skimmings and bottoms
of the melting furnaces of zinc rolling mills. The only other method
of refining is by oxidizing and settling. A bath, even of very
impure zinc, is allowed to stand at about the temperature of the
melting-point of the metal for forty-eight or more hours, where-
upon the more easily oxidizable impurities can be largely removed
in the dross at the top, the heavier metals such as lead and iron
settling towards the bottom. This method is rarely practised
except by the rollers of zinc. A certain amount of refined zinc
can be dipped from the furnace; a further amount, nearly free
from iron, can be liquated out of the ingots cast from the bottom
of the bath in a subsequent slow remelting, and it is sometimes
possible to eliminate a zinciferous lead which collects in the sump
of the furnace. Owing to the fact that at temperatures between
its melting and boiling point zinc has a strong affinity for iron,
it is often contaminated by the scraper while being drawn from
the condenser, as is shown by the fact that the scraper wears away
rapidly. As each retort in a furnace is in all essentials a separate
crucible, and as the metal from only a few of them goes into a
single ingot, there can be no uniformity either in the ingots made
from the same furnace during a day's run or in those made from
several furnaces treating the same ore. Some brassfounders break
from a single ingot the quantity of zinc required to produce the
amount of brass they wish to compound in one crucible, but when
perfect uniformity is desired the importance of remelting the zinc
on a large scale cannot be too strongly emphasized.
Electrolytic Separation of Zinc. The deposition of pure zinc is
beset with many difficulties. Zinc being more electro-positive even
than nickel, all the heavy metals must be removed before its deposi-
tion is attempted. Moreover, unless the conditions are closely
watched, it is liable to be thrown down in a spongy form. M.
Kiliani found that the sponge was produced chiefly when a weak
solution, or a low current-density, was used, and that hydrogen
was usually evolved simultaneously; sound deposits resulted from
the use of a current-density of 200 amperes, or more, per sq. ft.,
and strong solutions. The cause of the spongy deposit is variously
explained, some (Siemens and Halske) ascribing it to the existence
of a compound of zinc and hydrogen, and others, among whom
are G. Nahnsen, F. Mylius and A. Fromm, F. Foerster and
W. Borchers, trace it to the presence of oxide, produced, for example,
either by the use of a solution containing a trace of basic salt of
zinc (to prevent which the bath should be kept just almost imper-
ceptibly acid), or by the presence of a more electro-negative
metal, which, being co-deposited, sets up local action at the expense
of the zinc. Many processes have been patented, the ore being
acted upon by acid, and the resulting solution treated, by either
chemical or electrolytic means, for the successive removal of the
other heavy metals. The pure solution of zinc is then electrolysed.
E. A. Ashcroft patented a process of dealing with complex ores
of the well-known Broken Hill type, containing sulphides of silver,
lead and zinc, but the system was abandoned after a long trial
on a practical scale. A full account of the process (Trans. Inst.
Min. and Met., 1898, vol. vi. p. 282) has been published by the
inventor, describing the practical trial at the Cockle Creek Works.
The ore was crushed roasted, and leached with sulphuric acid
(with or without ferric sulphate) ; the solution was purified and
then electrolysed for zinc with lead anodes and with a current-
density of 5 amperes per sq. ft. at 2-75 volts when diaphragms
were used, or 2-5 volts when they were dispensed with, or with
10 amperes per sq. ft. at 3 or 2-5 volts respectively, the electrolyte
containing 1-2 ft of zinc in the form of sulphate, and J to} oz.
of sulphuric acid, per gallon. The current efficiency was about
83 per cent. Canvas diaphragms were used to prevent the acid
formed by electrolysis at the anode from mixing with the cathode
liquor, and so hindering deposition. C. Hoepfner has patented
several processes, in one of which (No. 13,336 of 1894) a rapidly
rotating cathode is used in a chloride solution, a porous partition
separating the tank into anode and cathode compartments, and
the chlorine generated by electrolysis at the anode being recovered.
Hoepfner's processes have been employed both in England and
in Germany. Nahnsen's process, with an electrolyte containing
alkali-metal sulphate and zinc sulphate, has been used in Germany,
and a process invented by Dieffenbach has also been tried in that
country. Siemens and Halske have proposed the addition of
oxidizing agents such as free halogens, to prevent the formation
of zinc hydride, to which they attribute the formation of zinc-
sponge. Borchers and others deposit zinc from the fused chloride,
rchers' process the chloride is heated partly by external
In
firing, partly by the heat generated owing to tfie use of a current-
density of 90 to loo amperes per sq. ft.
PROPERTIES
Zinc is a bluish-white metal, showing a high lustre when freshly
fractured. It fuses at 415 C. and under ordinary atmospheric
pressure boils at 1040 C. Its vapour density shows that it is
monatomic. The molten metal on cooling deposits crystals belong-
ing to the hexagonal system, and freezes into a compact crystal-
line solid, which may be' brittle or ductile according to circum-
stances. If zinc be cast into a mould at a red heat, the ingot
produced is laminar and brittle; if cast at just the fusing-point,
it is granular and sufficiently ductile to be rolled into sheet at the
ordinary temperature. According to some authorities, pure zinc
always yields ductile ingots. Commercial " spelter " always breaks
under the hammer; but at 100 to 150 C. it is susceptible of
being rolled out into even a very thin sheet. Such a sheet, if once
produced, remains flexible when cold. At about 200 C., the
metal becomes so brittle that it can be pounded in a mortar. The
specific gravity of zinc cannot be expected to be perfectly constant ;
according to Karsten, that of pure ingot is 6-915, and rises to
7-191 after rolling. The coefficient of linear expansion is 0-002,905
for 100 from o upwards (Fizeau). The specific heat is 0-09555
(Regnault). Compact zinc is bluish white; it does not tarnish
much in the air. It is fairly soft, and clogs the file. If zinc be
heated to near its boiling-point, it catches fire and burns with a
brilliant light into its powdery white oxide, which forms a reek
in the air (tana philosophica, "philosopher's wool "). Boiling water
attacks it appreciably, but slightly, with evolution of hydrogen
and formation of the hydroxide, Zn(OH)i. A rod of perfectly pure
zinc, when immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, is so very slowly-
attacked that there is no visible evolution of gas; but, if a piece
of platinum, copper or other more electro-positive metal be brought
into contact with the zinc, it dissolves readily, with evolution of
hydrogen and formation of the sulphate. The ordinary impure
metal dissolves at once, the more readily the less pure it is. Cold
dilute nitric acid dissolves zinc as nitrate, with evolution of nitrous
oxide. At higher temperatures, or with stronger acid, nitric oxide,
NO, is produced besides or instead of nitrous. Zinc is also soluble
in soda and potash solutions, but not in ammonia.
Applications. Zinc is largely used for "galvanizing" iron, sheets
of clean iron being immersed in a bath of the molten metal and
then removed, so that a coat of zinc remains on the iron, which
is thereby protected from atmospheric corrosion. It is also a con-
stituent of many valuable alloys; brass, Muntz-metal, pinchbeck,
tombac, are examples. In technological chemistry it finds applica-
tion as a reducing agent, e.g. in the production of aniline from
nitrobenzene, but the use of iron is generally preferable in view
of the cheapness of this metal.
9 8 4
ZINCITE
COMPOUNDS
Zinc forms only one oxide, ZnO, from which is derived a well-
characterized series of salts. It is chemically related to cadmium
and mercury, the resemblance to cadmium being especially well
marked; one distinction is that zinc is less basigenic. Zinc is
capable of isomorphously replacing many of the bivalent metals
magnesium, manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt and cadmium.
Zinc oxide, ZnO, is maufactured for paint by two processes
directly from the ore mixed with coal by volatilization on a grate,
as in the Wetherill oxide process, and by oxidizing the vapour
given off by a boiling bath of zinc metal. The oxide made by the
latter method has generally a better colour, a finer texture, and a
greater covering power._ It is also manufactured by the latter
process from the metallic zinc liquated out of galvanizer's dross.
It is an infusible solid, which is intensely yellow at a red heat, but
on cooling becomes white. This at least is true of the oxide pro-
duced from the metal by combustion; that produced from the
carbonate, if once made yellow at a red heat, retains a yellow
shade permanently. By heating the nitrate it is obtained as
hemimorphous pyramids belonging to the hexagonal system; and
by heating the chloride in a current of steam as hexagonal prisms.
It is insoluble in water; it dissolves readily in all aqueous acids,
with formation of salts. It also dissolves in aqueous caustic
alkalis, including ammonia, forming " zincates " [e.g. Zn(OK) 2 ].
Zinc oxide is used in the arts as a white pigment (zinc white) ;
it has not by any means the covering power of white lead, but
offers the advantages of being non-poisonous and of not becoming
discoloured in sulphuretted hydrogen. It is used also in medicine.
Zinc hydroxide, Zn (OH) 2 , is prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by
adding a solution of any zinc salt to caustic potash. The alkali
must be free from carbonate and an excess of it must be avoided,
otherwise the hydrate redissolves. It is a white powder, and is
insoluble in water. To acids and to alkalis it behaves like the
oxide, but dissolves more readily.
Zinc chloride, ZnCU, is produced by heating the metal in dry
chlorine gas, when it distils over as a white translucent mass, fusing
at 250 and boiling at about 400. Its vapour-density at 0,00 C.
corresponds to ZnClj. It is extremely hygroscopic and is used
in synthetical organic chemistry as a condensing agent. It dis-
solves in a fraction of its weight of even cold water, forming a
syrupy solution. A solution of zinc chloride is easily produced
from the metal and hydrochloric acid; it cannot be evaporated to
dryness without considerable decomposition of the hydrated salt
into oxychloride and hydrochloric acid, but it may be crystallized
as ZnCli-HjO. A concentrated solution of zinc chloride converts
starch, cellulose and a great many other organic bodies into soluble
compounds; hence the application of the fused salt as a caustic
in surgery and the impossibility of filtering a strong ZnClj solution
through paper (see CELLULOSE). At a boiling heat, zinc chloride
dissolves in any proportion of water, and highly concentrated
solutions, of course, boil at high temperatures; hence they afford
a convenient medium for the maintenance of high temperatures.
Zinc chloride solution readily dissolves the oxide with the forma-
tion of oxychlorides, some of which are used as pigments, cements
and for filling teeth in dentistry. A solution of the oxide in the
chloride has the property of dissolving silk, and hence is employed
for removing this fibre from wool.
Zinc bromide, ZnBr 2 , and Zinc iodide, Znlj, are deliquescent
solids formed by the direct union of their elements. With ammonia
and alkaline bromides and iodides double salts are formed.
Zinc sulphide, ZnS, occurs in nature as blende (y.v.), and is arti-
ficially obtained as a white precipitate by passing sulphuretted
hydrogen into a neutral solution of a zinc salt. It dissolves in
mineral acids, but is insoluble in acetic acid.
Zinc sulphate, ZnSO4+7H 2 O, or white vitriol, is prepared by
dissolving the metal in dilute sulphuric acid. If care be taken
to keep the zinc in excess, the solution will be free from all foreign
metals except iron and perhaps manganese. Both are easily
removed by passing chlorine through the cojd solution, to produce
ferric and manganic salt, and then digesting the liquid with a
washed precipitate of basic carbonate, produced from a small
portion of the solution by means of sodium carbonate. The iron
and manganese are precipitated as hydroxides, and are filtered off.
The filtrate is acidified with a little sulphuric acid and evaporated
to crystallization. The salt crystallizes out on cooling with 7 mole-
cules of water, forming colourless orthorhombic prisms, usually
small and needle-shaped. They are permanent in the air. Accord-
ing to Poggiale, 100 parts of water dissolve respectively of (7H 2 O)
salt, 115-2 parts at o, and 653-6 parts at 100. At 100 C. the
crystals lose 6 of their molecules of water; the remaining molecule
goes off at 250, a temperature which lies close to that at which
the salt begins to decompose. The anhydrous salt, when exposed
to a red heat, breaks up into oxide, sulphur dioxide and oxygen.
An impure form of the salt is prepared by roasting blende at a
low temperature. In the arts it is employed in the preparation of
varnishes, and as a mordant for the productio_n of colours on calico.
A green pigment known as Rinmann's green is prepared by mixing
100 parts of zinc vitriol with 2-5 parts of cobalt nitrate and heating
the mixture to redness, to produce a compound of the two oxides.
Zinc sulphate, like magnesium sulphate, unites with the sulphates
of the potassium metals and of ammonium into crystalline double
salts, ZnSO4-R2SO+6HjO, isomorphous with one another and the
magnesium salts.
Zinc carbonate, ZnCOs, occurs in nature as the mineral calamine
(q.v.), but has never been prepared artificially, basic carbonates,
ZnCO3.xZn(OH) 2 , where * is variable, being obtained by precipi-
tating a solution of the sulphate or chloride with sodium carbonate.
To obtain a product free of Cl or" SO<, there must be an excess of
alkali and the zinc salt must be poured into the hot solution of
the carbonate. The precipitate, even after exhaustive washing with
hot water, still contains a trace of alkali; but from the oxide,
prepared from it by ignition, the alkali can be washed away. The
basic carbonate is used as a pigment.
Of zinc phosphates we notice the minerals hopeite, Zn. (PO4) 2 .4H 2 O,
and tarbuttite, Zn>(PO4) 2 .Zn(OH) s , both found in Rhodesia.
Analysis. From neutral solutions of its salts zinc is precipitated
by sulphuretted hydrogen as sulphide, ZnS a white precipitate,
soluble, but by no means readily, in dilute mineral acids, but
insoluble in acetic acid. In the case of acetate the precipitation
is quite complete; from a sulphate or chloride solution the greater
part of the metal goes into the precipitate; in the presence of a
sufficiency of free HC1 the metal remains dissolved; sulphide of
ammonium precipitates the metal completely, even in the presence
of ammonium salts and free ammonia. The precipitate, when
heated, passes into oxide, which is yellow in the heat and white
after cooling; and, if it be moistened with cobalt nitrate solution
and re-heated, it exhibits a green colour after cooling.
Zinc may be quantitatively estimated by precipitating as basic
carbonate, which is dried and ignited to zinc oxide. It may also
be precipitated as zinc ammonium phosphate, NHZnPO4, which
is weighed on a filter tared at 100*. Volumetric methods have
also been devised.
PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS OF ZINC COMPOUNDS
Zinc chloride is a powerful caustic, and is prepared with plaster
of Paris in the form of sticks for destroying warts, &c. Its use
for this purpose at the present day is, however, very rare, the
knife or galvanocautery being preferred in most cases. The salt
is a corrosive irritant poison when taken internally. The treat-
ment is to wash out the stomach or give such an emetic as apo-
morphine, and, when the stomach has been emptied, to administer
demulcents such as white of egg or mucilage. Numerous other
salts of zinc, used in medicine, are of value as containing this metal.
Certain others are referred to in relation with the important radicle
contained in the salt. Those treated here are the sulphate, oxide,
carbonate, oleate and acetate. All these salts are mild astringents
when applied externally, as they coagulate the albumen of the
tissues and of any discharge which may be present. In virtue
of this property they are also mild haemostatics, tending to coagu-
late the albumens of the blood and thereby to arrest haemorrhage.
Lotw Rubra, the familiar " Red Lotion," a solution of zinc sulphate,
is widely used in many catarrhal inflammations, as of the ear,
urethra, conjunctiva, &c. There are also innumerable ointments.
These salts have been extensively employed internally, and
indeed they are still largely employed in the treatment of the
more severe and difficult cases of nervous disease. The sulphate
is an excellent emetic in cases of poisoning, acting rapidly and
without much nausea or depression. For these reasons it may
also be given with advantage to children suffering from acute
bronchitis or acute laryngitis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the history of zinc see Bernard Neumann,
Die Metatte (1904); A. Rossing, Geschichte der Metalle (1901).
For the chemistry see H. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmer, Treatise on
Inorganic Chemistry, vol. 2 (1897); H. Moissan, Traite de chimie
minerale; O. Dammer, Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie. For
the metallurgy see Walter Renton Ingalls, The Metallurgy of Zinc
and Cadmium; Production and Properties of Zinc; A. Lodin,
Metallurgie du zinc (1905); C. Schnabel, Handbook of Metallurgy,
English translation by H. Louis (1907). See also The Mineral
Industry (annual).
ZINCITE, a mineral consisting of zinc oxide (ZnO), crystalliz-
ing in the hemimorphic-hemihedral class of the rhombohedral
system. Distinct crystals are of rare occurrence; they have
the form of a hexagonal pyramid terminated at one end only by
a basal plane. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the basal
plane, and usually the mineral is found as platy foliated masses.
The blood-red colour and the orange-yellow streak are char-
acteristic features. The hardness is 4$, and the specific gravity
is 5-6. Some manganese is usually present replacing zinc. It
is found in the zinc mines at Sterling Hill and Franklin Fur-
nace in Sussex county, New Jersey, where it is associated with
frankHnite and willemite in crystalline limestone, and is mined as
an ore of zinc. Artificial crystals of a white or yellowish colour
are not infrequently formed by sublimation in zinc furnaces.
ZINDER ZINZENDORF
985
ZINDER, a town on the northern margin of the central
Sudan. Zinder is a great emporium of the trade across the
Sahara between the Hausa states of the south and the Tuareg
countries and Tripoli in the north. Its ruler was formerly
subordinate to Bornu, but with the decline of that kingdom shook
off the yoke of the sultan, and on the conquest of that country
by Rabah (q.v.) seems to have maintained his independence. The
country of which Zinder is the capital is known as Damerghu.
It is semi-fertile, and supports considerable numbers of horses
and sheep, besides troops of camels. By the Anglo-French
agreement of June 1898 it was included in the French sphere,
having already been the object of French political action. The
explorer Cazemajou was assassinated there in 1897, but the
town was occupied in July 1899, after a slight resistance, by
Lieutenant Pallier of the reconstructed Voulet-Chanoine
mission (see SENEGAL, country). A French post (named Fort
Cazemajou) was built outside the town on a mound of huge
granite blocks. Zinder was the first point in the Sudan reached
by F. Foureau after his great journey across the Sahara via
Air in 1899. Subsequently Commandant Gadel, from his head-
quarters at Zinder, mapped and pacified the surrounding
region, and sent out columns of meharistes (camel-corps) which
occupied the oasis of Air and Bilma in 1906. Zinder is a large
and fine town surrounded with high earthen walls, very thick
at the base and pierced with seven gates. Its houses, in part
built of clay, in part of straw, are interspersed with trees.
There is an important colony of Tuareg merchants, who occupy
the suburb of Zengu, and who deal in a variety of wares, from
cotton, silks, spices, ostrich feathers, &c., to French scent
bottles. Salt is a great article of merchandise. A busy market
is held outside one of the gates. Administratively Damerghu
is dependent on the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger.
See Cazemajou, in Bui. Com. de I'Afrique Franfaise (looo);
F. Foureau, in La Geographic (December 1900), D'Alger au Congo
par le Tchad (Paris, 1902); Joalland, in La Geographic, vol. iii.
(1901); E. Arnaud and M. Cortier, Nos Confins Scthariens (Paris,
1908) ; C. Jean, Les Tonarag du Sud-Est (Paris, 1909).
ZINGERLE, IGNAZ VICENZ (1825-1892), Austrian poet and
scholar, was born, the son of the Roman Catholic theologian
and orientalist, Pius Zingerle (1801-1881), at Meran on the 6th
of June 1825. He began his studies at Trient, and entered for
a while the Benedictine monastery at Marienberg. Abandoning
the clerical profession, he returned to Innsbruck, where, in 1848,
he became teacher in the gymnasium, and in 1859 professor of
German language and literature at the university. He died at
Innsbruck on the i7th of September 1892.
Zingerle is known as an author by his Zeitgedichte (Innsbruck,
1848); Von den Alpen (1850); Die Mullerin, a village tale (1853);
Der Bauer von Longvall (1874); and Erzahlungen aus dem Burg-
grafenamte (1884). His ethnographical writings and literary studies,
dealing especially with the Tirol, have, however, rendered him
more famous. Among them may be mentioned his editions of
Konig Laurin (1850), of the legend, Von den heyligcn drei Kunigen
(1855); Sagen aus Tirol (1850, and ed. 1891); Tirol. Natur,
Geschichte und Sage im Spiegel deutscher Dichtung (1851); Die
Personen- und Taufnamen Tirols (1855); Sitten, Brduche und
Meinungen des Tiroler-Volkes (2nd ed. 1871); Das deutsche Kinder-
spiel im Mittelalter (2nd ed. 1873); Schtldereien aus Tirol (1877,
new series, 1888). With E. Inama-Sternegg, he edited Tirolische
Weistumer (5 vols., 1875-1891).
ZINNIA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Compositae,
containing about a dozen species of half-hardy annual or per-
ennial herbs or undershrubs, natives of the southern United
States and Mexico. The numerous single and double garden
forms are mostly derived from Zinnia elegans, and grow about
a ft. high, producing flowers of various colours, the double
ones being about the size of asters, and very handsome. The
colours include white, yellow, orange, scarlet, crimson and
purple. Zinnias do best in a rich deep loamy soil, in a sunny
position. They should be sown on a gentle hotbed at the end
of March or in April and planted out early in June.
ZINZENDORF, NICOLAUS LUDW1G. COUNT OF ZINZENDORF
AND POTTENDORF (1700-1760), German religious and social re-
former, was born on the 26th of May 1700 at Dresden. His
ancestors belonged to Lower Austria, but had taken the Pro-
testant side in the Reformation struggle, and settled near
Nuremberg. Both his parents belonged to the Pietist circle
and the lad bad Philipp Jakob Spener for his godfather. His
father died six weeks after he was born. His mother married
again when he was four years old, and he was educated under
the charge of his pious and gifted grandmother, 1 Catherine von
Gersdorf, who did much to shape bis character. His school
days were spent at Halle amidst Pietist surroundings, and in
1716 he went to the university of Wittenberg, to study law and
fit himself for a diplomatic career. Three years later he was
sent to travel in Holland, in France, and in various parts of
Germany, where he made the personal acquaintance of men
distinguished for practical goodness and belonging to a variety
of churches. On his return he visited the branches of his family
settled at Oberbirg and at Castell. During a lengthened visit at
Castell he fell in love with his cousin Theodora; but the- widowed
countess, her mother, objected to the marriage, and the lady
afterwards became the wife of Count Henry of Reuss. Zinzen-
dorf seems to have considered this disappointment to be a call
to betake himself to some special work for God. He had
previously, in deference to his family, who wished him to become
a diplomatist, rejected the invitation of August Francke to take
Baron von Canstein's place in the Halle orphanage; and he now
resolved to settle down as a Christian landowner, spending his
life on behalf of his tenantry. He bought Berthelsdorf from his
grandmother, and selected John Andrew Rothe for pastor and
John George Heiz for factor; he married Erdmute Dorothea,
sister of Count Henry of Reuss, and began living on his estate.
His intention was to carry out into practice the Pietist ideas
of Spener. He did not mean to found a new church or religious
organization distinct from the Lutheranism of the land, but to
create a Christian association the members of which by preach-
ing, by tract and book distribution and by practical benevolence
might awaken the somewhat torpid religion of the Lutheran
Church. The "band of four brothers" (Rothe, pastor at
Berthelsdorf; Melchior Schaffer, pastor at Gorlitz; Francis
von Wattewille, a friend from boyhood; and himself) set them-
selves by sermons, books, journeys and correspondence to
create a revival of religion, and by frequent meetings for prayer
to preserve in their own hearts the warmth of personal trust in
Christ. From the printing-house at Ebersdorf large quantities
of books and tracts, catechisms, collections of hymns and cheap
Bibles were issued; and a translation of Johann Arndt's True
Christianity was published for circulation in France. A dislike
of the high and dry Lutheran orthodoxy of the period gave
Zinzendorf some sympathy with that side of the growing
rationalism which was attacking dogma, while at the same time
he felt its lack of earnestness, and of a true and deep under-
standing of religion and of Christianity, and endeavoured to
counteract these defects by pointing men to the historical
Christ, the revelation of the Father. He seems also to have
doubted the wisdom of Spener's plan of not separating from the
Lutheran Church, and began to think that true Christianity
could be best promoted by free associations of Christians, which
in course of time might grow into churches with no state con-
nexion. These thoughts took a practical turn from his connexion
with the Bohemian or Moravian Brethren. Zinzendorf offered
an asylum to a number of persecuted wanderers from Moravia
(see MORAVIAN BRETHREN), and built for them the village of
Hermhut on a corner of his estate of Berthelsdorf. The re-
fugees who came to this asylum (between 1722 and 1732 the
first detachment under Christian David) from various regions
where persecution raged, belonged to more than one Protestant
organization. Persecution had made them cling pertinaciously
to small peculiarities of creed, organization and worship, and
they could scarcely be persuaded to live in peace with each other.
Zinzendorf devoted himself to them. He, with his wife and
children, lived in Herrnhut and brought Rothe with him. He
had hard work to bring order out of the confusion. He had to
1 A volume of Spiritual Songs, written by Zinzendorf s grand-
mother Catherine, was published in 1729 by Paul Anton.
9 86
ZION ZIONISM
satisfy the authorities that his religious community could be
brought under the conditions of the peace of Augsburg; he had
to quiet the suspicions of the Lutheran clergy; and, hardest of
all, he had to rule in some fashion men made fanatical by perse-
cution, who, in spite of his unwearied labours for them, on
more than one occasion, it is said, combined in his own house to
denounce him as the Beast of the Apocalypse, with Rothe as
the False Prophet. Patience had at last its perfect work, and
gradually Zinzendorf was able to organize his refugees into
something like a militia Christi, based not on monastic but on
family life. He was able to establish a common order of worship
in 1727, and soon afterwards a common organization, which has
been described in the article MORAVIAN BRETHREN. Zinzendorf
took the deepest interest in the wonderful missionary enterprises
of the Brethren, and saw with delight the spread of this Protestant
family order in Germany, Denmark, Russia and England. He
travelled widely in its interests, visiting America in 1741-42
and spending a long time in London in 1750. Missionary
colonies had by this time been settled in the West Indies (1732),
in Greenland (1733), amongst the North American Indians
(!73S); and before Zinzendorf 's death the Brethren had sent
from Herrnhut missionary colonies to Livonia and the northern
shores of the Baltic, to the slaves of North Carolina, to Surinam,
to the Negro slaves in several parts of South America, to
Travancore in the East Indies, to the Copts in Egypt and to the
west coast of South Africa. The community in Herrnhut, from
which almost all these colonies had been sent out, had no money
of its own, and its expenses had been almost exclusively furnished
by Zinzendorf. His frequent journeyings from home made it
almost impossible for him to look after his private affairs; he
was compelled from time to time to raise money by loans, and
about 1750 was almost reduced to bankruptcy. This led to the
establishment of a financial board among the Brethren, on a
plan furnished by a lawyer, John Frederick Kober, which worked
well. In 1752 Zinzendorf lost his only son, Christian Renatus,
whom he had hoped to make his successor; and four years
later he lost his wife Erdmute, who had been his counsellor
and confidante in all his work. Zinzendorf remained a widower
for one year, and then (June 1757) contracted a second marriage
with Anna Nitschmann, on the ground that a man in his official
position ought to be married. Three years later, overcome with
his labours, he fell ill and died (on the gth of May 1760), leaving
John de Wattewille, who had married his eldest daughter
Benigna, to take his place at the head of the community.
Zinzendorf had a naturally alert and active mind, and an
enthusiastic temperament that made his life one of ceaseless
planning and executing. Like Luther, he was often carried
away by strong and vehement feelings, and he was easily upset
both by sorrow and joy. He was an eager seeker after truth,
and could not understand men who at all costs kept to the
opinions they had once formed; yet he had an exceptional
talent for talking on religious subjects even with those who
differed from him. Few men have been more solicitous for
the happiness and comfort of others, even in little things. His
activity and varied gifts sometimes landed him in oddities and
contradictions that not infrequently looked like equivocation
and dissimulation, and the courtly training of his youth made
him susceptible about his authority even when no one disputed
it. He was a natural orator, and though his dress was simple
his personal appearance gave an impression of distinction and
force. His projects were often misunderstood, and in 1736 he
was even banished from Saxony, but in 1749 the government
rescinded the decree and begged him to establish within its
jurisdiction more settlements like that at Herrnhut.
He wrote a large number of hymns, of which the best known
are " Jesus, Thy blood and righteousness," and " Jesus, still lead
on." A selection of his Sermons was published by G. Clemens in
10 vols., his Diary (1716-1719) by G. Reichel and J. Th. Muller
(Herrnhut, 1907), and his Hymns, &c., by H. Bauer and G. Burk-
hardt (Leipzig, 1900).
See A. G. Spangenberg, Leben des Graten von Zinzendorf (Barby,
1772-1775) ; L. von Schrautenbach, Der Graf v. Zinzendorf (Gnadau,
1871; written in 1782, and interesting because it gives Zinzendorf's
relations to such Pietist rationalists as J. K. Dippel) ; F. Bovet,
Le Cotnte de Zinzendorf (Paris, 1860; Eng. tr. A Pioneer of Social
Christianity, by T. A. Seed, London, 1896); B. Becker, Zinzen-
dorf im Verhaltniss z. Philosophic u. Kirchenthum seiner Zeit (Leipzig,
1886); H. Romer, Zinzendorf's Leben und Werken (Gnaudau, 1900),
and other literature mentioned under MORAVIAN BRETHREN and
in the article " Zinzendorf " by J. Th. Muller in Hauck-Herzog's
Realencyk. fiir prot. Theologie u. Kirche.
ZION, or SIGN (Heb. jV, perhaps from ww " to be dry,"
njst " to set up," or j* " to protect "; Arabic analogies
favour the meaning " hump," " summit of a ridge," and so
" citadel "), the name of the Jebusite stronghold at Jerusalem
captured by David (2 Sam. v.). Zion (which is synonymous
with the Ophel) is properly the southern part of the eastern
hill ' on the top of which was built the temple, so that the name
came to be given to the whole hill (2 Kings xix. 31, Isaiah xxiv.
23 and throughout i Maccabees), to all Jerusalem (Isaiah i. 27,
cf . iv. 3) , and even to the nation or its spiritual nucleus. Thus
the people of Jerusalem are spoken of as " the daughter of
Zion " (Isaiah i. 8), the name being often personified and idealized,
especially in Isaiah ii., and in the Psalter, e.g. Ps. Ixxxvii. 5,
" Every one calls Zion his mother."
See G. A. Smith, Jerusalem (London, 1908).
ZIONISM. One of the most interesting results of the anti-
Semitic agitation (see ANTI-SEMITISM) has been a strong revival
of the national spirit among the Jews in a political form. To
this movement the name Zionism has been given. In the same
way that anti-Semitism differs from the Jew-hatred of the early
and middle ages, Zionism differs from previous manifestations
of the Jewish national spirit. It was originally advocated as an
expedient without Messianic impulses, and its methods and pro-
posals have remained almost harshly modern. None the less
it is the lineal heir of the attachment to Zion which led the
Babylonian exiles under Zerubbabel to rebuild the Temple, and
which flamed up in the heroic struggle of the Maccabees against
Antiochus Epiphanes. Without this national spirit it could,
indeed, never have assumed its present formidable proportions.
The idea that it is a set-back of Jewish history, in the sense that
it is an unnatural galvanization of hopes long since abandoned
for a spiritual and cosmopolitan conception of the mission of
Israel, is a controversial fiction. The consciousness of a spiritual
mission exists side by side with the national idea. The great
bulk of the Jewish people have throughout their history re-
mained faithful to the dream of a restoration of their national
life in Judea. Its manifestations have suffered temporary
modifications under the influence of changing political condi-
tions, and the intensity with which it has been held by individual
Jews has varied according to their social circumstances, but in
the main the idea has been passionately clung to.
The contention of some modern rabbis that the national idea
is Messianic, and hence that its realization should be left to the
Divine initiative (e.g. Chief Rabbi Adler, Jewish Chronicle, 2$th
November 1898), is based on a false analogy between the politics
of the Jews and those of other oppressed nationalities. As all
Hebrew politics were theocratic, the national hope was neces-
sarily Messianic. It was not on that account less practical
or less disposed to express itself in an active political form.
The Messianic dreams of the Prophets, which form the frame-
work of the Jewish liturgy to this day, were essentially politico-
national. They contemplated the redemption of Israel, the
gathering of the people in Palestine, the restoration of the
Jewish state, the rebuilding of the Temple, and the re-establish-
ment of the Davidic throne in Jerusalem with a prince of the
House of David. How little the dispersed Jews regarded this
essentially political programme as a mere religious ideal is
shown by their attitude towards the pseudo-Messiahs who
endeavoured to fulfil it. Bar Cochba (A.D. 117-138) lived at a
period when a Jewish national uprising might well have been
exclusively political, for the dissolution of the kingdom was
1 Christians of the 4th century removed the name to the S.W.
hill, and this tradition has persisted until modern times, when
archaeological and topographical evidence has re-identified Sion
with the E. hill.
ZIONISM
987
scarcely half a century old, and Palestine still had a large
Jewish population. None the less Bar Cochba based his right
to lead the Jewish revolt on Messianic claims, and throughout
the Roman Empire the Jews responded with enthusiasm to his
call. Three centuries later Moses of Crete attempted to repeat
Bar Cochba's experiment, with the same results. In the 8th
century, when the Jews of the West were sufficiently remote
from the days of their political independence to have developed
an exclusively spiritual conception of their national identity,
the Messianic claims of a Syrian Jew named Serene shook the
whole of Jewry, and even among the Jews of Spain there was no
hestitation as to whether they had a right to force the hands of
Providence. It was the same with another pseudo-Messiah
named Abu-Isa Obadia, who unfurled the national banner in
Persia some thirty years later.
During the middle ages, though the racial character of the
Jews was being transformed by their Ghetto seclusion, the
national yearning suffered no relaxation. If it expressed itself
exclusively in literature, it was not on that account under-
going a process of idealization. (Cf. Abrahams's Jewish Life in
the Middle Ages, pp. 24-25.) The truth is that it could not
have expressed itself differently. There could have been no
abandonment of national hopes in a practical sense, unless the
prospect of entering the national life of the peoples among
whom they dwelt had presented itself as an alternative. Of
this there was not the remotest sign. The absence of militant
Zionism during this period is to be accounted for partly by the
want of conspicuous pseudo-Messiahs, and partly by the terror
of persecution. Unlike the modern Greeks, the medieval
Jews could expect no sympathy from their neighbours in an
agitation for the recovery of their country. One may imagine
what the Crusaders would have thought of an international
Jewish conspiracy to recapture Jerusalem. In the isth century
the aversion from political action, even had it been possible,
must have been strengthened by the fact that the Grand Signer
was the only friend the Jews had in the world. The nationalist
spirit of the medieval Jews is sufficiently reflected in their
liturgy, and especially in the works of the poet, Jehuda Halevi.
It is impossible to read his beautiful Zionide without feeling
that had he lived another twenty years he would have gladly
played towards the pseudo- Messiah David Alroy (circa 1160)
the part that Akiba played towards Bar Cochba.
The strength of the nationalist feeling was practically tested
in the i6th century, when a Jewish impostor, David Reubeni
(circa 1530), and his disciple, Solomon Molcho (1501-1532),
came forward as would-be liberators of their people. Through-
out Spain, Italy and Turkey they were received with enthusiasm
by the bulk of their brethren. In the following century the
influence of the Christian Millenarians gave a fresh impulse to
the national idea. Owing to the frenzy of persecution and the
apocalyptic teachings of the Chiliasts, it now appeared in a
more mystical form, but a practical bias was not wanting.
Menasseh ben Israel (1604-1657) co-operated with English
Millenarians to procure the resettlement of the Jews in England
as a preliminary to their national return to Palestine, and he
regarded his marriage with a scion of the Davidic family of
Abarbanel as justifying the hope that the new Messiah might
be found among his offspring. The increasing dispersion of
the Marranos or crypto- Jews of Spain and Portugal through the
Inquisition, and the persecution of the Jews in Poland, deepened
the Jewish sense of homelessness the while the Millenarians
encouraged their Zionist dreams. The Hebraic and Judeophil
tendencies of the Puritan revolution in England still further
stirred the prevailing unrest, and some Jewish rabbis are said
to have visited England in order to ascertain by genealogical
investigations whether a Davidic descent could be ascribed to
Oliver Cromwell. It only wanted a leader to produce a national
movement on a formidable scale. In 1666 this leader presented
himself at Smyrna, in the person of a Jew named Sabbatai Zevi
(1626-1676),' who proclaimed himself the Messiah. The news
spread like wildfire, and despite the opposition of some of the
leading rabbis, the Jews everywhere prepared for the journey
to Palestine. Not alone was this the case with the poor Jews
of Lithuania and Germany, but also with well-to-do communities
like those of Venice, Leghorn and Avignon, and with the great
Jewish merchants and bankers of Hamburg, Amsterdam and
London. Throughout Europe the nationalist excitement was
intense. Even the downfall and apostasy of Sabbatai were
powerless to stop it. Among the wealthier Jews it partially
subsided, but the great bulk of the people refused for a whole
century to be disillusionized. A Messianic frenzy seized upon
them. Encouraged on the one hand by Christian Millenarians
like Pierre Jurien, Olige'r Pauli, and Johannes Speeth, pandered
to by Sabbataic impostors like Cardoso, Bonafoux, Mordecai
of Eisenstadt, Jacob Querido, Judah Chassid, Nehemiah
Chayon and Jacob Franks, and maddened by fresh oppressions,
they became fanaticized to the verge of demoralization.
The reaction arrived in 1778 in the. shape of the Mendels-
sohnian movement. The growth of religious toleration, the
attempted emancipation of the English Jews in 1753, and the
sane Judeophilism of men like Lessing and Dohm, showed that
at length the dawn of the only possible alternative to national-
ism was at hand. Moses Mendelssohn (1720-1786) sought to
prepare his brethren for their new life as citizens of the lands
in which they dwelt, by emphasizing the spiritual side of Judaism
and the necessity of Occidental culture. His efforts were suc-
cessful. The narrow nationalist spirit everywhere yielded
before the hope or the progress of local political emancipation.
In 1806 the Jewish Sanhedrin convened by Napoleon virtually
repudiated the nationalist tradition. The new Judaism, how-
ever, had not entirely destroyed it. It had only reconstructed
it on a wider and more sober foundation. Mendelssohn ian
culture, by promoting the study of Jewish history, gave a fresh
impulse to the racial consciousness of the Jews. The older
nationalism had been founded on traditions so remote as to be
almost mythical; the new race consciousness was fed by a
glorious martyr history, which ran side by side with the histories
of the newly adopted nationalities of the Jews, and was not
unworthy of the companionship. From this race consciousness
came a fresh interest in the Holy Land. It was an ideal rather
than a politico-nationalist interest a desire to preserve and
cherish the great monument of the departed national glories.-
It took the practical form of projects for improving the circum-
stances of the local Jews by means of schools, and for reviving
something of the old social condition of Judea by the establish-
ment of agricultural colonies. In this work Sir Moses Monte-
fiore, the Rothschild family, and the Alliance Israelite Uni-
verselle were conspicuous. More or less passively, however,
the older nationalism still lived on especially in lands where
Jews were persecuted and it became strengthened by the
revived race consciousness and the new interest in the Holy
Land. Christian Millenarians also helped to keep it alive.
Lord Ashley, afterwards Lord Shaftesbury, Colonel Gawler,
Mr Walter Cresson, the United States consul at Jerusalem,
Mr James Finn, the British consul, Mr Laurence Oliphant and
many others organized and supported schemes for the benefit
of the Jews of the Holy Land on avowedly Restoration grounds.
Another vivifying element was the reopening of the Eastern
Question and the championship of oppressed nationalities in
the East by the Western Powers. In England political writers
were found to urge the re-establishment of a Jewish state under
British protection as a means of assuring the overland route to
India (Hollingsworth, Jews in Palestine, 1852). Lord Palmerston
was not unaffected by this idea (Finn, Stirring Times, vol. i.
pp. 106-112), and both Lord Beaconsfield and Lord Salisbury
supported Mr Laurence Oliphant in his negotiations with the
Porte for a concession which was to pave the way to an auton-
omous Jewish state in the Holy Land. In 1854 a London Jew
attempted to float a company " for the purpose of enabling
the descendants of Israel to obtain and cultivate the Land of
Promise " (Hebrew Observer, I2th April). In 1876 the publica-
tion of George Eliot's Daniel Deronda gave to the Jewish
nationalist spirit the strongest stimulus it had experienced
since the appearance of Sabbatai Zevi.
ZIONISM
It was not, however, until the spread of anti-Semitic doctrines
through Europe made men doubt whether the Mendelssohnian
denationalization of Judaism possessed the elements of per-
manency that the Jewish nationalist spirit reasserted itself in
a practical form. As long as the anti-Semites were merely
polemical, the nationalists were mute, but when in Russia their
agitation took the form of massacres and spoliation, followed
by legislation of medieval harshness, the nationalist remedy
offered itself. In 1882 several pamphlets were published by
Jews in Russia, advocating the restoration of the Jewish state.
They found a powerful echo in the United States, where a young
Jewish poetess, Miss Emma Lazarus, passionately championed
the Zionist cause in verse not unworthy of Jehuda Halevi.
But the movement did not limit itself to literature. A society,
" Chovevi Zion," was formed with the object of so extending
and methodizing the establishment of agricultural colonies
in Palestine as to make the eventual acquisition of the country
by the Jews possible. From the beginning it was a great
success, and branches, or " tents " as they were called, were
established all over the world. At the same time two other
great schemes for rescuing the Jewish people from oppression
were brought before the public. Neither was Zionist, but both
served to encourage the Zionist cause. One was due to the
initiative of Mr Cazalet, a financier who was interested in the
Euphrates Valley Railway project. With the assistance of
Mr Laurence Oliphant he proposed that the concession from
the Porte should include a band of territory two miles wide on
each side of the railway, on which Jewish refugees from Russia
should be settled. Unfortunately the scheme failed. The
other was Baron de Hirsch's colossal colonization association
(see HIRSCH, MAURICE DE). This was neither political nor
Zionist, but it was supported by a good many members of the
" Chcvevi Zion," among them Colonel Goldsmid, on the ground
that it might result in the training of a large class of Jewish
yeomen who would be invaluable in the ultimate settlement of
Palestine. (Interview in Daily Graphic, loth March 1892.)
None of these projects, however, proved sufficiently inspiring
to attract the great mass of Jewish nationalists. The Chovevi
Zion was too timid and prosaic; the Hirsch scheme did not
directly appeal to their strongest sympathies. In 1897 a
striking change manifested itself. A new Zionist leader arose
in the person of a Viennese journalist and playwright, Dr
Theodore Herzl (1860-1004). The electoral successes of the
anti-Semites in Vienna and Lower Austria in 1895 had impressed
him with the belief that the Jews were unassimilable in Europe,
and that the time was not far distant when they would be once
more submitted to civil and political disabilities. The Hirsch
scheme did not, in his view, provide a remedy, as it only trans-
planted the Jews from one uncongenial environment to another.
He came to the conclusion that the only solution .of the problem
was the segregation of the Jews under autonomous political
conditions. His first scheme was not essentially Zionist. He
merely called for a new exodus, and was ready to accept any
grant of land in any part of the world that would secure to the
Jews some form of self-government. The idea was not new.
In 1566 Don Joseph Nasi had proposed an autonomous settle-
ment of Jews at Tiberias, and had obtained a grant of the city
from the Sultan for the purpose. In 1652 the Dutch West India
Company in Curacao, in 1654 Oliver Cromwell in Surinam, and
in 1659 the French West India Company at Cayenne had at-
tempted similar experiments. Marshal de Saxe in 1749 had
projected the establishment of a Jewish kingdom in South
America, of which he should be sovereign; and in 1825 Major
M. M. Noah purchased Grand Island, in the river Niagara, with
a view to founding upon it a Jewish state. All these projects
were failures. Dr Herzl was not slow to perceive that without
an impulse of real enthusiasm his scheme would share the fate
of these predecessors. He accordingly resolved to identify it
with the nationalist idea. His plan was set forth in a pamphlet,
entitled The Jewish Slate, which was published in German,
French and English in the spring of 1896. It explained in
detail how the new exodus was to be organized and how the
state was to be managed. It was to be a tribute-paying state
under the suzerainty of the Sultan. It was to be settled by a
chartered company and governed by an aristocratic republic,
tolerant of all religious differences. The Holy Places were to be
exterritorialized. The pamphlet produced a profound sensa-
tion. Dr Herzl was joined by a number of distinguished Jewish
literary men, among whom were Dr Max Nordau and Mr Israel
Zangwill, and promises of support and sympathy reached him
from all parts of the world. The haute finance and the higher
rabbinate, however, stood aloof.
The most encouraging feature in Dr Herzl's scheme was that
the Sultan of Turkey appeared favourable to it. The motive
of his sympathy has not hitherto been made known. The
Armenian massacres had inflamed the whole of Europe against
him, and for a time the Ottoman Empire was in very serious
peril. Dr Herzl's scheme provided him, as he imagined, with a
means of securing powerful friends. Through a secret emissary,
the Chevalier de Newlinsky, whom he sent to London in May
1896, he offered to present the Jews a charter in Palestine pro-
vided they used their influence ip. the press and otherwise to
solve the Armenian question on lines which he laid down.
The English Jews declined these proposals, and refused to
treat in any way with the persecutor of the Armenians. When,
in the following July, Dr Herzl himself came to London, the
Maccabaean Society, though ignorant of the negotiations with
the Sultan, declined to support the scheme. None the less, it
secured a large amount of popular support throughout Europe,
and in 1910 Zionism had a following of over 300,000 Jews,
divided into a thousand electoral districts. The English
membership is about 15,000.
Between 1897 and 1910 the Zionist organization held nine
international Congresses. At the first, which met at Basel,
a political programme was adopted on the following terms:
" Zionism aims at establishing for the Jewish people a publicly
and legally assured home in Palestine. For the attainment of this
purpose the Congress considers the following means serviceable:
(l) The promotion of the settlement of Jewish agriculturists,
artisans and tradesmen in Palestine. (2) The federation of all
Jews into local or general groups, according to the laws of the
various countries. (3) The strengthening of the Jewish feeling
and consciousness. (4) Preparatory steps for the attainment of
those governmental grants which are necessary to the achievement
of the Zionist purpose."
Subsequent congresses founded various institutions for the
promotion of this programme, notably a People's Bank known as
the Colonial Trust, which is the financial instrument of political
Zionism, a National Fund for the purchase of land in Palestine
and a Palestine Commission with subsidiary societies for the
study and improvement of the social and economic condition
of the Jews in the Holy Land. For the purposes of these
bodies about 400,000 was collected in small sums and invested.
Very little practical work of any abiding value, however, was
accomplished, and on the political side the career of Zionism
had up to the end of 1910 proved a failure.
In May 1901 and August 1902 Dr Herzl had audiences of the
Sultan Abdul Hamid, and was received with great distinction,
but the negotiations led to nothing. Despairing of obtaining
an immediate charter for Palestine, he turned to the British
government with a view to securing a grant of territory on an
autonomous basis in the vicinity of the Holy Land, which would
provisionally afford a refuge and a political training-ground
for persecuted Jews. His overtures met with a sympathetic
reception, especially from Mr Chamberlain, then Colonial
Secretary, and Earl Percy, who was Under-Secretary for Foreign
Affairs (October 1902). At first a site for the proposed settle-
ment was suggested in the Sinai peninsula, but owing to the
waterless character of the country the project had to be
abandoned. Then Mr Chamberlain, who in the interval had
paid a visit to Africa, suggested the salubrious and uninhabited
highlands of the East Africa Protectorate, and in 1903 the
British government formally offered Dr Herzl the Rasin Gishiu
plateau, 6000 sq. m. in area. No such opportunity for creating
a Jewish self-governing community had presented itself since
ZIRCON
989
the Dispersion, and for a moment it seemed as if Zionism were
really entering the field of practical politics. Unhappily it
only led to bitter controversies, which nearly wrecked the whole
movement. The British offer was submitted to the Sixth
Congress, which assembled at Basel in August 1903. It was
received with consternation and an explosion of wrath by the
ultra-nationalist elements, who interpreted it as an abandon-
ment of the Palestine idea. By his personal influence Dr Herzl
succeeded in obtaining the appointment of a commission to
examine the proposed territory, but its composition was largely
nationalist, and in the following year the Congress gladly availed
itself of certain critical passages in the report to reject the whole
scheme.
Meanwhile Zionism had suffered an irreparable blow by the
death of Dr Herzl (1904). He was succeeded by Mr David
Wolffsohn, a banker of Cologne, but there was in truth nobody
who in ability and personal dignity and magnetism could take
his place. The movement was further shaken by the dis-
sensions which followed the rejection of the East African project.
Mr Israel Zangwill led an influential minority which combined
with certain non-Zionist elements to found a rival organization
under the name of the ITO (Jewish Territorial Organization)
with a view to taking over the East African offer or to establish
an autonomous place of refuge elsewhere. Thus freed from all
moderating elements the Zionists hardened into an exclusively
Palestinian body, and under the auspices of Mr Wolffsohn
fresh negotiations were opened with the Porte. These, how-
ever, were rendered finally hopeless by the Turkish revolution,
which postulated a united Ottoman nationality, and resolutely
set its face against any extension of the racial and religious
autonomies under which the integrity of the Empire had
already severely suffered.
During 1905-1910 the Jewish national idea, for all practical
purposes, was in a state of suspended animation. The re-
covery of the Holy Land appeared more distant than ever,
while even the establishment of an independent or autonomous
Jewish state elsewhere, for which the ITO was labouring, had
encountered unexpected difficulties. On the rejection of the
British offer by the Zionists Mr Zangwill approached the Colonial
Office, but he was too late, as the reserve on the Nasin Gishiu
plateau had already been officially withdrawn. The ITO then
turned its attention to Cyrenaica, and an expedition to examine
the country was sent out (1908), but it was not found suitable.
A project for combining all the Jewish organizations in an
effort to secure an adequate foothold in Mesopotamia in con-
nexion with the scheme for the irrigation of that region was
subsequently proposed by Mr Zangwill, but up to January
1911 it had not been found practicable. The ITO, however,
did valuable work by organizing an Emigration Regulation
Department for deflecting the stream of Jewish emigration
from the overcrowded Jewry of New York to the Southern
states of the American Union, where there is greater scope for
employment under wholesome conditions. For this purpose a
fund was formed, to which Mr Jacob Schiff contributed 100,000
and Messrs Rothschild 20,000.
Although the Zionist organization was numerically strong
indeed, the strongest popular movement Jewish history had ever
known its experience from 1897 to 1910 rendered it very
doubtful whether its nationalist aspirations could, humanly
speaking, ever be fulfilled. From Turkey, either absolutist
or democratic, it appeared hopeless to expect any willing re-
laxation of the Ottoman hold on Palestine, while in the event
of a dissolution of the Empire it was questionable whether
Christendom and especially the Roman and Greek Churches
would permit the Holy Land to pass to the Jews, even though
the Holy Places were exterritorialized. Should these obstacles
be overcome, still more formidable difficulties would await the
Jewish state. The chief of these is the religious question. The
state would have to be orthodox or secular. If it were orthodox
it would desire to revive the whole Levitical polity, and in these
circumstances it would either pass away through internal chaos
or would so offend the modern political spirit that it would be
soon extinguished from outside. If it were secular it would not
be a Jewish state. The great bulk of its supporters would refuse
to live in it, and it would ultimately be abandoned to an
outlander population consisting of Hebrew Christians and
Christian Millenarians.
Modern Zionism is vitiated by its erroneous premises. It is
based on the idea that anti-Semitism is unconquerable, and
thus the whole movement is artificial. Under the influence of
religious toleration and the naturalization laws, nationalities
are daily losing more of their racial character. The coming
nationality will be essentially a matter of education and
economics, and this will not exclude the Jews as such. With
the passing away of anti-Semitism, Jewish nationalism will
disappear. If the Jewish people disappear with it, it will only
be because either their religious mission in the world has been
accomplished or they have proved themselves unworthy of it.
LITERATURE. A Zionist bibliography has been published by
the Federation of American Zionists. Besides the works already
cited in the body of this article, see on the early nationalist move-
ment Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, under the heads of the various
pseudo-Messiahs and their adherents. Jewish agricultural colonies
will be found discussed very fully in The Jewish Encyclopedia,
vol. i. pp. 240-262. For early Zionist projects see Publications of
the American Jewish Historical Society, No. 8, pp. 75-118; Laurence
Oliphant, Land ofGilead; Mrs Oliphant, Life of Laurence Oliphant,
pp. 168 et seq. The Zionist movement since 1895 is fully recorded
in its official organ, Die Welt (Vienna). For proceedings of the
Congresses see the Official Protocols published for each year by
the society "Erez Israel" of Vienna; also Herzl, Der Baseler
Congress (Vienna, 1897). On the movement generally, see Herzl's
Zionistische Schriften, edited by Dr Leon Kellner; Ten Years of
Zionism (Cologne, 1007); Nordau, Zionism, its History and its
Aims (London, 1905); j. de Haas, Zionism, Jewish Needs and
Jewish Ideals; also articles bv I. Zangwill in Cosmopolis (October
1897), Contemporary Review (October 1899) and* Fortnightly Review
(April IQIO); Dr Caster in Asiatic Quarterly Review (October
1897); H. Bentwitch in Nineteenth Century (October 1897), and
Fortnightly Review (December 1898); Reich in Nineteenth Century
(August 1897); Lucien Wolf in Jewish Quarterly Review (October
1904; " The Zionist Peril "). On the ITO see pamphlets and leaflets
published by the Jewish Territorial Organization; also the Report
of the Commission on Cyrenaica (London, 1909). (L. W.)
ZIRCON, a mineral composed of zirconium silicate, some-
times used as a gem-stone. It is believed that the name comes
from the Arabic zargun, and is essentially the same as " jar-
goon," the name given to certain varieties of zircon. The
mineral crystallizes in the tetragonal system, generally in com-
binations of square prisms and square pyramids, as in figs. I
and 2. Zircon is isomorphous with cassiterite and rutile, and
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
like them may occur in geniculated twins. There is no distinct
cleavage, and the mineral breaks with a conchoidal fracture.
The hardness is about 7-5. It is notable that the specific
gravity has a very wide range, extending from a little below
4 to rather more than 4-7, and being thus greater than that
of any other gem-stone. Rarely colourless, zircon is usually
brown or red, sometimes orange, yellow or green, and occasionally
parti -coloured or zoned. Whilst common zircon is opaque, the
gem-varieties are transparent. The dichroism of coloured
zircons is always feeble; |the double refraction usually strong
and of positive sign; and the optical properties of some zircons
suggest a biaxial mineral. It was pointed out long ago by
Sir A. H. Church that many transparent zircons afford a spectrum
990
ZIRCONIUM
marked by certain absorption-bands, a property perhaps due
to the presence of uranium.
The effect of heat on zircon is remarkable. Most coloured
zircons, exposed to a high temperature, either change or lose
their colour, but this loss is attended by a gain in brilliancy.
The " Matura diamonds " of Ceylon are zircons which have been
thus artificially decolorized. Certain zircons when heated in
a Bunsen-flame glow with an orange incandescence, whilst
others may emit an orange glow when ground on a copper-
wheel fed with diamond-dust. Even exposure to sunlight will
sometimes modify the colour and lustre of a zircon. Some
zircons suffer contraction when heated, so that the specific
gravity becomes raised; but the behaviour of zircons in this
respect shows such anomalies that S. Stevanovic has been led to
suggest the existence of three classes of zircon. One group has
a specific gravity of 4-0 and another of 4-7, both remaining un-
changed in density when heated. L. J. Spencer, who has studied
some remarkable crystals from Ceylon, calls the former a-zircon,
and the latter /3-zircon. A third class has specific gravity
between 4-0 and 4-7, and increases in density on heating.
These stones consist, according to Spencer, of an inter-
growth of a-zircon or /3-zircon, with a third unstable modifica-
tion which he distinguishes as 7-zircon.
Whilst zircon is usually regarded as a zirconium silicate
(ZrSiO) it is sometimes placed with the oxides as consisting
of ZrCySiOj. A small proportion of ferric oxide seems to be
always present, and to this the colour of zircon, according to
G. Spezia, may be ascribed. Traces of so many elements have
been recorded in certain zircons that it was at one time pro-
posed to call the species polycrasilite from the Greek xoXus
(many) and Kpams (mixture). Zircon is used as a source
of zirconia in various preparations, for incandescent gas-
mantles, &c. It was in this mineral that zirconia was originally
discovered by M. H. Klaproth in 1789.
Zircon fit for use as a gem-stone is often known as " noble "
or " precious zircon." The red and orange stones are termed
hyacinth (<?..) and jacinth, whilst those of other colours,
as also the colourless transparent zircons, are called jargoon
(q.v.). The lyticurium of the ancients, described as an amber-
coloured stone used for signets, is supposed by some authorities
to have been zircon and by others amber. The gem varieties of
zircon are found in detrital deposits, especially in Ceylon and in
New South Wales, where they accompany sapphire, &c. They
occur also in the Anakie sapphire district, near Emerald, in
Queensland. A. K. Cooma.raswa.my has pointed out that most
of the stones in the gem-gravels of Ceylon, known locally as
toramalli, are zircons rather than tourmalines.
Zircon is an accessory constituent of many rocks, especially
granite, where it appears to have crystallized at an early stage of
consolidation. In microscopic sections, viewed by transmitted
light, the zircon by virtue of its high refractive power appears to
stand out in relief. It forms an important constituent of the
zircon-syenite of Norway. Zircon occurs also in many basic
eruptive rocks, notably the basalts of the Rhine and Central France.
Being but little subject to alteration, it is common in secondary
deposits, as in auriferous and other sands, occurring usually in
small characteristic crystals, with rounded angles. Fine crystals
of zircon are found in the llmen Mountains in Russia, and in
Renfrew co., Ontario, where it occurs in crystalline limestone.
Many localities in the United States yield zircon, especially in
New York state and in North Carolina : it has been largely worked
in Henderson co., N.C. Zircon occurs also in Tasmania. Certain
varieties of zircon have received distinctive names, such as the
azorite, which occurs in sanidine-trachyte in the Azores. Several
other minerals seem to be altered zircon, generally hydrated. such
as malacon, cyrtolite and oerstedite, the last being a Norwegian
mineral containing titanium and magnesium. Auerbachite is a
Russian mineral closely related to zircon. (F. W. R.*)
ZIRCONIUM [symbol Zr, atomic weight 90-6 (O=i6)], a
metallic chemical element. Klaproth in 1789 analysed the
mineral zircon or hyacinth and found it to contain a new earth,
which he called " zirconia." The metal was obtained by
Berzelius as an iron-grey powder by heating potassium zircono-
fluoride with metallic potassium. The amorphous metal also
results when the chloride is heated with sodium; the oxide
reduced with magnesium; or when fused potassium zircono-
fluoride is electrolysed (Wedekind, Zeil. Elektrochem., 1904,
I0 > P- 33 1 )- Troost produced crystallized zirconium by fusing
the double fluoride with aluminium in a graphite crucible at the
temperature of melting iron, and extracting the aluminium
from the melt with hydrochloric acid. It is more conveniently
prepared by heating the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace.
The crystals look like antimony, and are brittle, and so hard as
to scratch glass and rubies; their specific gravity is 4-25. The
powdery metal burns readily in air; the crystalline metal re-
quires to be heated in an oxyhydrogen flame before it catches
fire. Mineral acids generally attack the crystallized metal very
little even in the heat; aqua regia, however, dissolves it readily,
and so does hydrofluoric acid. In its chemical affinities
zirconium resembles titanium, cerium and thorium; it occurs
in company with these elements, and is tetravalent in its more
important salts.
Zirconium oxide or zirconia, ZrOj, has become important since
its application to the manufacture of mantles for incandescent
gas-lighting. For its extraction from zircon the mineral is heated
and quenched in water to render it brittle, and then reduced to a
fine powder, which is fused with three to four parts of acid potassium
fluoride in a platinum crucible. When the mass is quietly fusing,
the crucible is heated for two hours in a wind-furnace. The
porcelain-like melt is powdered, boiled with water, and acidified
with hydrofluoric acid, and the residual potassium fluosilicate is
filtered off. The filtrate on cooling deposits crystals of potassium
zirconofluoride, ^ZrFt, which are purified by crystallization from
hot water. The double fluoride is decomposed with hot concen-
trated sulphuric acid; the mixed sulphate is dissolved in water;
and the zirconia is precipitated with ammonia in the cold. The
precipitate, being difficult to wash, is (after a preliminary washing)
re-dissolved in hydrochloric acid and re-precipitated with ammonia.
Zirconium hydroxide, Zr(OH), as thus obtained, is quite appre-
ciably soluble in water and easily in mineral acids, with formation
of zirconium salts, e.g. ZrCU. But, if the hydroxide is precipitated
in the heat, it demands concentrated acids for its solution. The
hydroxide readily loses its water at a dull red heat and passes into
anhydride with vivid incandescence. Zirconia can be obtained
crystalline, in a form isomorphpus with cassiterite and rutile, by
fusing the amorphous modification with borax, and dissolving out
with sulphuric acid. The anhydrous oxide is with difficulty soluble
even in hydrofluoric acid; but a mixture of two parts of concen-
trated sulphuric acid and one of water dissolves it on continued
heating as the sulphate, Zr(SO<)j. Zirconia, when heated to white-
ness, remains unfused, and radiates a fine white light, which sug-
gested its utilization for making incandescent gas mantles; and,
in the form of disks, as a substitute for the lime-cylinders ordi-
narily employed in " limelight." Zirconia, like stannic and titanic
oxides, unites not only with acids but also with basic oxides. For
instance, if it be fused with sodium carbonate, sodium zirconate,
NajZrOs, is formed. If the carbonate be in excess, the salt NaZrO4
results, which when treated with water gives NajZrgOn !2HjO,
which crystallizes in hexagonal plates. When heated in a loosely
covered crucible with magnesium the nitride Zr s Ns is formed
(Wedekind, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 45, p. 385).
Zirconium hydride, ZrHz, is supposed to be formed when zirconia
is heated with magnesium in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Zirconium
fluoride, ZrF4, is obtained as glittering monoclinic tables (with
3HsO) by heating zirconia with acid ammonium fluoride. It forms
double salts, named zircono- fluorides, which are isomorphous with
the stanni- and titani-fluorides. Zirconium chloride, ZrCU, is pre-
pared as a white sublimate by igniting a mixture of zirconia and
charcoal in a current of chlorine. It has the exact vapour-density
corresponding to the formula. It dissolves in water with evolution
of heat; on evaporation a basic salt, ZrOCU-SHjO, separates out
in star-shaped acicular aggregates. Zirconium bromide, ZrBn, is
formed similarly to the chloride. Water gives the oxybromide
ZrOBr z . Zirconium iodide, Zrlt, was obtained as a yellow, micro-
crystalline solid by acting with hydriodic acid on heated zirconium
(Wedekind, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1135). It fumes in air; with water
it gives ZrOIs-SHjO; and with alcohol ethyl iodide and zirconium
hydroxide are formed. The iodide combines with liquid ammonia
to form ZrI 4 -8NHj; and with ether to give Zrl4-4(C2Hs)jO.
Zirconium combines with sulphur to form a sulphide, and with
carbon to form several carbides. The sulphate, Zr(SO4)s, is a white
mass obtained by dissolving the oxide or hydroxide in sulphuric
acid, evaporating and heating the mass to nearly a red heat. Since
it forms a series of double sulphates, Ruer (Zeit. anorg. Chem.,
1904, 42, p. 87) regards it as a dibasic acid, ZrOSCVSC^Hs, and
that the crystalline sulphate is ZrOSC^-SC^HrsHjO (not
Zr(SC>4)2-4HjO). Zirconium also forms double sulphates of the
type Zr 2 O 3 (SO4M) 2 -nH 2 O, where M=K, Rb, Cs, and n=8 for K,
15 for Rb, II for Cs (Rosenheim and Frank, Ber., 1905, 38, p. 812).
The atomic weight was determined by Marignac to be 90-03:
Bailey (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 46, p. 74) deduced the value 89-95.
ZIRKEL ZITTEL
991
ZIRKEL, FERDINAND (1838- ), German geologist and
petrographer, was born at Bonn on the 2oth of May 1838. He
was educated in his native town, and graduated Ph.D. at the
university in 1861. In early years he was engaged in teaching
geology and mineralogy in Vienna. He became professor of
geology in 1863 in the university of Lemberg, in 1868 at Kiel,
and in 1870 professor of mineralogy and geology in the university
of Leipzig.
His numerous papers and essays include Geologiscne Skizze von
der Westkiiste Schotuands (1871); Die Struktur der Variolite (1875);
Microscopical Petrography (in Report of U.S. Geol. Exploration
of 4Oth Par., vol. vi., 1876); Limurit aus der Vallee de Lesponne
(1879); Vber den Zirkon (1880). His separate works incjude
Lehrbuch der Petrographie (1866; 2nd ed. 1893, 1894); Die mikro-
skopische Beschaffenhett der Mineralien und Gesteine (1873).
ZITHER (Ger. Zither, Schlagzither, Streichzither; Ital. cithard),
a name applied in modern Germany to the ancient cithara (q.v.),
to the cittern (q.v.), and to an instrument which is a kind of
psaltery, consisting of a shallow sound-chest with ribs having
the outline of a flattened jug (termed in German Flaschen-
form, bottle-shape). In the centre of the sound-board is a rose
sound-hole, and the finger-board with frets lies along the straight
side of the zither in front of the performer. The number of the
strings varies, but 36, 38 and 42 are the most usual. Over the
finger-board are four or five strings known as violin, on which the
melody is played. These five melody strings are stopped with
the thumb and fingers of the left
12345 hand and plucked with the thumb
P== of the right hand, which usually
* J I - has a thumb ring with plectrum.
"^ -p Nos. i and 2 are steel strings;
No. i is only used for pas- No. 3 of brass, and 4 and 5 of
sages in double notes and spun wire; the bass is played
for chords. w ith the fingers of the right
hand, ' and in order to facilitate
the fingering the strings are tuned in fourths and fifths.
Most of the other strings from the 6th are of gut. All the
strings lie horizontally across the sound-board, being fastened
in the usual manner to hitch and wrest pins. The zither is
placed on the table in front of the performer, who holds his right
arm so that the wrist rests on the side of the zither parallel with
the hitch pins, the thumb being over the finger-board.
The foregoing remarks apply to the discant and concert zither;
the elegiac or bass zither is of similar construction but larger, and
is a transposing instrument, having the same notation as the former,
the real sounds being a fourth lower. These zithers are the favourite
instruments of the peasants in the Swiss and Bavarian highlands,
and are sometimes seen in the concert halls of north and western
Germany. The Streichzither, or bowed zither, has a body of heart-
or pear-shape similar to that of the cittern, but without the long
neck of the latter. The finger-board covers the whole of the sound-
board with the exception of a few inches at the tapering end, which
is finished off with a raised nut or bridge, the bow being applied
in the centre of this gap. The bowed zither has little feet and is
placed On a table when being played. There are four strings
corresponding to those of the violin or viola, but the tone is nasal
and glassy.
The spelling of the word with a " Z " had already become usual
in the early I7th century, for, although the instrument described
above did not then exist, Cither was the name by which the cittern
was known in Germany, and Michael Praetorius, writing in 1618,
spells it with both " C " and " Z."
ZITTAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on
the left bank of the Mandau, near its confluence with the Neisse,
close to the Bohemian and Silesian frontier, 25 m. by rail S.E.
of Bautzen, 48 E.S.E. of Dresden and at the junction of lines
to Reichenberg (in Bohemia), Eibau and Hermsdorf. Pop.
(1905) 34>76- The town hall dates from 1844, and contains a
beautiful hall with rich stained glass windows. Among the six
Evangelical churches, the following are noticeable: that of
St John, rebuilt in 1834-37, with twin spires, and the church of
St Peter and St Paul, with its elegant tower, which formerly
belonged to an old Franciscan monastery. The latter was
restored in 1882 and part of it fitted up as an historical
museum. Another wing of this building contains the muni-
cipal library of 40,000 volumes and valuable manuscripts.
Zittau is well equipped with schools, including a gymnasium
and a commercial school, which are both accommodated in the
Johanneum, and several technical institutions. There are also
a theatre, well-equipped public baths and a richly endowed
hospital. Zittau is one of the chief manufacturing towns of
Saxony. The leading branch of industry is linen and damask
weaving; but woollen stuffs, trimmings, &c., are also produced
in the factories of the town, and in the surrounding weaving
villages, sixty-six of which, with 113,455 (190) inhabitants,
are included in the municipal jurisdiction. The corporation
owns valuable forests on the mountains of Upper Lusatia and
other estates, the annual income of which is about 15,000.
There are various steam-mills, iron-foundries, brick-fields and
potteries near the town, and extensive deposits of lignite.
Zittau is of Wendish origin (Chytawa is its Wendish name),
and was made a town by Ottocar II. of Bohemia. It was one
of the six towns of the Lusatian League (1346), at which period
it belonged to Bohemia. It suffered severely in the Hussite
wars and in the Thirty Years' War, and was bombarded and
burnt by the Austrians in 1757 during the Seven Years' War.
The musical composer Marschner (1795-1861) was born at
Zittau.
See Carpzov, Analecta fastorum Zitlavicnsium (Leipzig, 1716);
Moschkau, Zittau und seine Umgebung (5th ed., Zittau, 1893); and
Lamprecht, Wegweiser durch Zittau und das Zittauer Gebirge (Zittau,
1901).
ZITTEL, KARL ALFRED VON (1830-1904), German palae-
ontologist, was born at Bahlingen in Baden on the 25th of
September 1839. He was educated at Heidelberg, Paris and
Vienna. For a short period he served on the Geological Survey
of Austria, and as assistant in the mineralogical museum at
Vienna. In 1863 he became teacher of geology and mineralogy
in the polytechnic at Carlsruhe, and three years later he suc-
ceeded Oppel as professor of palaeontology in the university
of Munich, with the charge of the state collection of fossils.
In 1880 he was appointed to the geological professorship, and
eventually to the directorship of the natural history museum
of Munich. His earlier work comprised a monograph on the
Cretaceous bivalve mollusca of Gosau (1863-66); and an
essay on the Tithonian stage (1870), regarded as equivalent
to the Purbeck and Wealden formations. In 1873-74 he
accompanied the Rohlfs expedition to the Libyan desert, the
primary results of which were published in Uber den geolo-
gischen Bau der libyschen Wiiste (1880), and further details in
the Palaeoniographica (1883). Dr Zittel was distinguished for
his palaeontological researches. From 1869 until the close of_
his life he was chief editor of the Palaeontographica (founded
in 1846 by W. Dunker and H. von Meyer). In 1876 he com-
menced the publication cf his great work, Handbuch der Palaeon-
lologie, which was completed in 1893 in five volumes, the fifth
volume on palaeobotany being prepared by W. P. Schimper
and A. Schenk. To make his work as trustworthy as possible
Dr Zittel made special studies of each great group, commencing
with the fossil sponges, on which he published a monograph
,(1877-79). 1 '895 he issued a summary of his larger work
entitled Grundziige der Palaeontologie (ed. 2, part i, Invertc-
brata, revised by Dr Zittel in 1903; the American edition of
1900 by C. R. Eastman is so revised, sometimes in opposition
to Zittel's views, as to be practically an independent work).
He was author of Aus der Uneit (1873, ed. 2, 1875); and Die
Sahara (1883). In 1899 he published Geschichte der Geologic
und Palaeontologie bis Ende des 19 Jahrhunderts, a monumental
history of the progress of geological science (Eng. trans.,
Mrs Maria M. Ogilvie-Gordon, 1901). Dr Zittel was from 1899
president of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, and in
1894 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological
Society of London. He died on the 5th of January 1904.
Obituary with portrait and bibliography, by Dr F. L. Kitchin.
Geol. Mag. (February 1904).
992
ZIZKA ZOBEIR RAHAMA
ZIZKA, JOHN (c. 1376-1424), Bohemian general and Hussite
leader, was born at Trocnov in Bohemia, of a family which
belonged to the gentry. He took part in the civil wars in
Bohemia in the reign of Wenceslaus IV., during which he lost
one eye in a skirmish. He was from his youth connected with
the court, and held the office of chamberlain to Queen Sophia.
Zizka's name first became prominent when the Hussite movement
began. When in 1419 a Hussite procession was stoned at
Prague from the town hall, Zizka headed those who threw the
town councillors from its windows. When a temporary armis-
tice was concluded between the partisans of King Sigismund
and the citizens of Prague, Zizka marched to Plzen (Pilsen)
with his followers, but soon left that city, and, after defeating
at Sudomer the partisans of Sigismund, arrived at Tabor, the
newly founded stronghold of the advanced Hussites. Zizka
took a large part in the organization of the new military com-
munity and became one of the four captains of the people
(hejtmane) who were at its head. Meanwhile Sigismund,
king of the Germans and king of Hungary, invaded Bohemia,
claiming the crown as the heir of his brother Wenceslaus.
Menaced by Sigismund, the citizens of Prague entreated the
Taborites for assistance. Led by Zizka and their other captains,
the Taborites set out to take part in the defence of the capital.
At Prague Zizka and his men took up a strong position on the
hill then known as the Vitkov, on the spot where Zizkoz, a
suburb of Prague, now stands. At the end of June (1420)
the siege of the city began, and on the i4th of July the armies
of Sigismund made a general attack. A strong German force
assaulted the position on the Vitkov which secured the Hussite
communications with the open country. Mainly through the
heroism of Zizka, the attack was repulsed, and the forces of
Sigismund abandoned the siege. Shortly afterwards (August
22, 1420) the Taborites left Prague and returned to Tabor.
Zizka was now engaged in constant warfare with the partisans
of Sigismund, particularly with the powerful Romanist, Ulrich
of Rosenberg. By this struggle, in which Zizka was invariably
successful, the Hussites obtained possession of the greatest
part of Bohemia, which Sigismund now left for a time. It was
proposed to elect a Polish prince to the throne; but meanwhile
the estates of Bohemia and Moravia, who met at Caslav on the
ist of June 1421, decided to appoint a provisional government,
consisting of twenty members chosen from all the political
and religious parties of the country, Zizka, who took part in
the deliberations at Caslav, being elected as one of the two
representatives of Tabor. He summarily suppressed some
disturbances on the part of a fanatical sect called the Adamites.
He continued his campaigns against the Romanists and ad-
herents of Sigismund; and having captured a small castle
near Litome'fice (Leitmeritz) he retained possession of it the
only reward for his great services that he ever received or
claimed. According to the Hussite custom he gave the biblical
name of " Chalice " to this new possession, and henceforth
adopted the signature of " Zizka of the Chalice." Later, in
1421, he was severely wounded while besieging the castle of
Rabi, and lost the use of his remaining eye. Though now
totally blind, he continued to command the armies of Tabor.
At the end of 1421 Sigismund, again attempting to subdue
Bohemia, obtained possession of the important town of Kutna
Hora (Kuttenberg). Zizka, who was at the head of the united
armies of Tabor and Prague, at first retreated to Kolin; but
after having received reinforcements he attacked and defeated
Sigismund's army at the village of Nebovid between Kolin and
Kutna Hora (January 6, 1422). Sigismund lost 12,000 men
and only escaped himself by rapid flight. Sigismund's forces
made a last stand at Ngmecky Brod (Deutschbrod) on the loth
of January, but the city was stormed by the Bohemians, and,
contrary to ZizTsa's orders, its defenders were put to the sword.
Early in 1423 internal dissensions among the Hussites led to
civil war. Zizka, as leader of the Taborites, defeated the men
of Prague and the Utraquist nobles at H6ric on the 27th of
April; but shortly afterwards the news that a new crusade
against Bohemia wa being prepared, induced the Hussites to
conclude an armistice at Konopist on the 24th of June 1423.
As soon, however, as the so-called crusaders had dispersed with-
out even attempting to enter Bohemia, the internal dissensions
broke out afresh. During his temporary rule over Bohemia
Prince Sigismund KorybutoviC of Poland had appointed as
governor of the city of Kralove Hradec (Koniggratz) Borek,
lord of Miletinek, who belonged to the moderate Hussite, the
so-called Utraquist, party. After the departure of the Polish
prince the city of Kralove Hradec, in which the democratic
party now obtained the upper hand, refused to recognize Borek
as its ruler, and called Ziika to its aid. He acceded to the
demand and defeated the Utraquists under Borek at the farm
of Strachov, near the city of Kralove Hradec (August 4, 1423).
Zizka now attempted to invade Hungary, which was under the
rule of his old enemy King Sigismund. Though this Hungarian
campaign was unsuccessful owing to the great superiority of
the Hungarians, it ranks among the greatest military exploits
of Zizka, on account of the skill he displayed in retreat. In
1424, civil war having again broken out in Bohemia, Zizka
decisively defeated the Praguers and Utraquist nobles at Skalic
on the 6th of January, and at Malesov on the 7th of June. In
September he marched on Prague, but on the i4th of that
month peace was concluded between the Hussite parties through
the influence of John of Rokycan, afterwards Utraquist arch-
bishop of Prague. It was agreed that the now reunited Hussites
should attack Moravia, part of which country was still held by
Sigismund's partisans, and that Zizka should be the leader in
this campaign. But he died of the plague at Pribyslav (October
n, 1424) before reaching the Moravian frontier.
See Count Lutzow, Bohemia: an Historical Sketch (London,
1896); Louis L6ger, Jean Ziika in " Nouvelles Eludes Slaves,"
deuxieme sirie (Paris, 1886), the best account of Zizka's career for
those unacquainted with the Bohemian language; Tomek, Jan
Zizka, and Dtjepis Mesta Prahy; Palacky, History of Bohemia.
Zizka is the hero of a novel by George Sand, of a German epic by
Meissner, and of a Bohemian tragedy by Alois Jirasek. (L.)
ZLATOUST, a town of Russia, in the government of Ufa,
close to the river Ufa, in a picturesque valley of the middle
Urals, 1925 ft. above sea level, 199 m. by rail E.N.E. of the
town of Ufa. Pop. 20,973. The town has a first-class meteoro-
logical and magnetical observatory, a cathedral and a museum;
it is the seat of the mining administration for the Zlatoust
district, and has a brisk trade in agricultural produce and
manufactured wares.
ZNAIM (Czech Znojmo), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 50 m.
S.W. of Briinn by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,261, mostly German.
It is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Thaya.
The site of the former fortifications is occupied by a promenade.
The Rauberturm is a relic of the old castle of the margraves
of Moravia; the round castle-chapel, known as the heathen
temple (Heiden-Tempel), in the Romanesque style of the i2th
century, was at one time considered the most ancient building
in Moravia. The Gothic church of St Nicholas was built about
1348 by the emperor Charles IV.; the town house, with a
Gothic tower, 250 ft. high, dates from about 1446. The ancient
and once powerful Premonstratensian abbey of Bruck, east of
the town, is now occupied as barracks.
The present town of Znaim was founded in 1226 by Ottacar I.
of Bohemia on the site of Znojmo, the ancient capital of the
tributary margraves of Moravia, which had been destroyed in
1145. Znaim is best known to history for the armistice con-
cluded here in 1809 after the battle of Wagram between
Napoleon I. and the archduke Charles. In 1866 the Prussians
occupied the town from July i3th till September 3rd. The
novelist Karl Postl (1793-1864), who wrote under the pseudonym
of Charles Sealsfield, was born at Poppitz, 2$ m. S.W.
ZOBEIR RAHAMA (1830- ), Egyptian pasha and
Sudanese governor, came of the Gemaab section of the Jaalin,
and was a member of a family which claims descent from the
Koreish tribe through Abbas, uncle of Mahomet. He became
prominent as the most energetic and intelligent of the Arab
ivory and slave traders who about 1860 established themselves
ZODIAC
993
on the White Nile and in the Bahr-el-Ghazal. Nominally a
subject of Egypt, he raised an army of several thousand well-
armed blacks and became a dangerous rival to the Egyptian
authorities. At the height of his power Zobcir was visited
(1871) by Georg Schweinfurth, who found him "surrounded
with a court which was little less than princely in its details"
(Heart of Africa, vol. ii., chap. xv.). In i86gan expedition sent
from Khartum into the Bahr-el-Ghazal was attacked by Zobeir
and completely defeated, its commander being slain. Zobeir
represented that he was blameless in this matter, received a
" pardon," and was himself appointed governor of the Bahr-
el-Ghazal, where he was practically independent. In 1873 he
attacked the sultan of Darfur, and the khedive Ismail gave him
the rank of bey and sent troops to co-operate. After he had
conquered Darfur (1874), Zobeir was made a pasha, but he claimed
the more substantial reward of being made governor-general of
the new province, and went to Cairo in the spring of 1876 to
press his title. He was now in the power of the Egyptian
authorities, who prevented his return, though he was allowed to
go to Constantinople at the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War.
In 1878, however, his son Suleiman, having got possession of the
Bahr-el-Ghazal, . and acting on instructions from his father,
defied the authority of General Gordon, the new governor-
general of the Sudan. Gordon sent Romolo Gessi against
Suleiman, who was subdued after an arduous campaign and
executed. During the campaign Zobeir offered, if he were
allowed to return to the Sudan, to restore order and to pay a
revenue of 25,000 a year to the khedive. Gordon declined this
help, and subsequently, for his instigation of the revolt, Zobeir
was condemned to death, but the trial was a farce, the sentence
was remitted, and he remained at Cairo, now in high favour
with the khedival court. In March 1884, Gordon, who had been
sent to Khartum to effect, if possible, the relief of the Egyptian
garrisons in the Sudan, astonished Europe by requesting that
Zobeir, whose son he had overthrown and whose trade he had
ruined, should be sent to Khartum as his successor. 1 Zobeir,
described by Sir Reginald Wingate, who knew him well, as " a
quiet, far-seeing, thoughtful man of iron will a born ruler of
men " (Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan, book v.), might
have been able to stem the mahdist movement. But to re-
instate the notorious slave-dealer was regarded in London as
too perilous an expedient, even in the extreme circumstances
then existing, although Colonel Stewart (Gordon's companion
in Khartum), Sir Evelyn Baring and Nubar Pasha in Cairo,
and Queen Victoria and Mr Gladstone, all favoured such a
course. In March 1885 Zobeir was arrested in Cairo by order
of the British government for treasonable correspondence with
the mahdi and other enemies of Egypt, and was interned at
Gibraltar. In August 1887 he was allowed to return to Cairo,
and after the reconquest of the Sudan was permitted (1899) to
settle in his native country. He established himself on his
estates at Geili, some 30 m. N. of Khartum.
See GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE, and the authorities there cited.
ZODIAC (6 f<o6ieuc6s KincXos, from u&iov, " a little
animal "), in astronomy and astrology, an imaginary zone of the
heavens within which lie the paths of the sun, moon and prin-
cipal planets. It is bounded by two circles equidistant from
the ecliptic, about eighteen degrees apart; and it is divided
into twelve signs, and marked by twelve constellations. These
twelve constellations, with the symbols of the signs which corre-
spond to them, are as follows:
Aries, the Ram
Taurus, the Bull
Gemini, the Twins
Cancer, the Crab
Leo, the Lion
Virgo, the Virgin
Libra, the Balance
Scorpio, the Scorpion
Sagittarius, the Archer
Capricornus, the Goat
Aquarius, the Water-carrier
Pisces, the Fishes
$
S3
1 Gordon and Zobeir met in Cairo on the 25th and 26th of January
(see Egypt No. 12 of 1884) and Gordon from that time onward
asked for Zobeir's help. It was not, however, until the loth of
March that his wish was made public, in a telegram from Khartum
published in The Times.
xxvm. 32
The signs the Greek 5<o6</ca7-ijpi6pta are geometrical
divisions thirty degrees in extent, counted from the spring
equinox in the direction of the sun's progress through them.
The whole series accordingly shifts westward through the effect
of precession by about one degree in seventy-two years. At
the moment of crossing the equator towards the north the sun
is said to be at the first point of Aries; some thirty days later
it enters Taurus, and so on through Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo,
Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius and Pisces.
The constellations bearing the same names coincided approxi-
mately in position, when Hipparchus observed them at Rhodes,
with the divisions they designate. The discrepancy now, how-
ever, amounts to the entire breadth of a sign, the sun's path in
Aries lying among the stars of Pisces, in Taurus among those
of Aries, &c.
Assyria and Babylonia. The twelvefold division of the zodiac
was evidently suggested by the occurrence of twelve full moons
in successive parts of it in the course of each year. This ap-
proximate relation was first systematically developed by the
early inhabitants of Mesopotamia, and formed the starting-
point for all their divisions of time. As the year separated,
as it were of itself, into twelve months, so the day was divided
into twelve " double hours," and the great cosmical period of
43,200 years into twelve " sars." Each sar, month and hour
was represented at once visibly and symbolically by a twelfth
part of the " furrow " drawn by the solar Bull across the heavens.
The idea of tracing the sun's path among the stars was, when it
occurred to Chaldaean astronomers, an original and, relatively
to their means, a recondite one. We owe to its realization by
them the constitution and nomenclature of the twelve signs
of the zodiac. Assyrian cylinders and inscriptions indicate for
the familiar series of our text-books an antiquity of some four
thousand years. Ages before Assur-bani-pal reigned at Nineveh
the eighth month (Marchesvan) was known as " the month of
the star of the Scorpion," the tenth (Tebet) belonged to the
" star of the Goat," the twelfth (Adar) to the " star of the Fish
of Ea." 2 The motive underlying the choice of symbols is in
a few cases obvious, but in most remains conjectural. The
attributes of the deities appointed to preside over the months
and signs were to some extent influential. Two of them, in-
deed, took direct possession of their respective portions of the
sky. The zodiacal Virgo is held to represent the Assyrian
Venus, Ishtar, the ruling divinity of tie sixth month, and
Sagittarius the archer-god Nergal, to whom the ninth month
was dedicated. But no uniform system of selection was pur-
sued; or rather perhaps the results of several systems, adopted
at various epochs, and under the influence of varying currents
of ideas, became amalgamated in the final series.
This, there is reason to believe, was the upshot of a pre-
historic reform. So far as positive records go, Aries was always
the first sign. But the arrangement is, on the face
of it, a comparatively modern one. None of the
brighter stars of the constellation could be said even roughly
to mark the equinox much before 1800 B.C.; during a long
stretch of previous time the leading position belonged to the
stars of Taurus.* Numerous indications accordingly point to
a corresponding primitive zodiac. Setting aside as doubtful
evidence derived from interpretations of cuneiform inscriptions,
we meet, in connexion with Mithraic and Mylittic legends,
reminiscences of a zodiac and religious calendar in which the
Bull led the way. 4 Virgil's
Candidus auratis aperit cum cornibus annum
Taurus
perpetuates the tradition. And the Pleiades continued, within
historical memory, to be the first asterism of the lunar zodiac.
1 Lenormant, Origines de I'Histoire, i. 236.
* The possibility should not, however, be overlooked that the
" stars of the months " were determined by their heliacal risings
(see Bosanquet and Sayce on Babylonian astronomy, in Monthly
Notices Roy. Astr. Soc. xl. 117). This would give a further exten-
sion backwards of over 1000 years, during which the equinox might
have occurred in the month of the Ram.
4 J. B. F. Lajard, Recherches sur le Culte de Mithra, p. 605.
994
ZODIAC
Taurus.
Gemini.
Leo.
Virgo.
In the Chaldaean signs fragments of several distinct strata
of thought appear to be embedded. From one point of view
they shadow out the great epic of the destinies of the human
race; again, the universal solar myth claims a share in them;
hoary traditions were brought into ex post facto connexion with
them; or they served to commemorate simple meteorological
and astronomical facts.
The first Babylonian month Nisan, dedicated to Anu and Bel,
was that of "sacrifice"; and its association with the Ram
as the chief primitive object of sacrifice is thus intelligible. 1
According to an alternative explanation, the heavenly Ram,
placed as leader in front of the flock of the stars, merely em-
bodied a spontaneous figure of the popular imagination. An
antique persuasion, that the grand cycle of creation opened under
the first sign, has been transmitted to modern cognizance by
Dante (Inf. i. 38). The human race, on the other hand, was
supposed to have come into being under Taurus. The
solar interpretation of the sign goes back to the far-
off time when the year began with Taurus, and the sun
was conceived of as a bull entering upon the great furrow of
heaven as he ploughed his way among the stars. In the third
month and sign the building of the first city and the
fratricidal brothers theRomulusand Remus of Roman
legend were brought to mind. The appropriate symbol was
at first indifferently a pile of bricks or two male children, always
_ on early monuments placed feet to feet. The retro-
grade movement of a crab typified, by an easy asso-
ciation of ideas, the retreat of the sun from his farthest
northern excursion, and Cancer was constituted the sign of the
summer solstice. The Lion, as the symbol of fire,
represented the culmination of the solar heat. In
the sixth month, the descent of Ishtar to Hades in search
of her lost husband Tammuz was celebrated, and
the sign of the Virgin had thus a purely mytho-
logical signification.
The history of the seventh sign is somewhat complicated.
The earlier Greek writers Eudoxus, Eratosthenes, Hip-
parchus knew of only eleven zodiacal symbols, but made
one do double duty, extending the Scorpion across the seventh
and eighth divisions. The Balance, obviously indicating the
equality of day and night, is first mentioned as the sign of the
Libra autumnal equinox by Geminus and Varro, and ob-
"<* tained, through Sosigenes of Alexandria, official re-
Scorple. cognition in the Julian calendar. Nevertheless,
Virgil (Georg. i. 32) regarded the space it presided over as so
much waste land, provisionally occupied by the " Claws " of
the Scorpion, but readily available for the apotheosis of
Augustus. Libra was not of Greek invention. Ptolemy, who
himself chiefly used the " Claws " (XT/Xeu), speaks of it as a
distinctively Cbaldaean sign; 2 and it occurs as an extra-
zodiacal asterism in the Chinese sphere. An ancient Chinese
law, moreover, prescribed the regularization of weights and
measures at the spring equinox. 3 No representation of the
seventh sign has yet been discovered on any Euphratean monu-
ment; but it is noticeable that the eighth is frequently doubled, 4
and it is difficult to avoid seeing in the pair of zodiacal scorpions
carved on Assyrian cylinders the prototype of the Greek
scorpion and claws. Both Libra and the sign it eventually
superseded thus owned a Chaldaean birthplace. The struggle
of rival systems of nomenclature, from which our zodiacal
series resulted, is plainly visible in their alternations; and the
claims of the competing signs were long sought to be conciliated
by representing the Balance as held between the claws of the
Scorpion.
The definitive decline of the sun's power after the autumnal
1 Sayce, Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, iii.
162.
1 In citing a Chaldaean observation of Mercury dating from
235 B.C. (Almagest, ii. 170, ed. Halma).
' See Uranographit Chinoise, by Gustav Schlegel, who, however,
claims an extravagant antiquity for the Chinese constellational
system.
4 Lenormant, Origines, i. 267.
equinox was typified by placing a Scorpion as the symbol of
darkness in the eighth sign. Sagittarius, figured later as a
Centaur, stood for the Babylonian Mars. Capricornus Sogit-
the sign of the winter solstice, is plausibly connected tarlua,
with the caprine nurse of the young solar god in Oriental
legends, of which that of Zeus and Amalthia is a Capri-
variant. 6 The fish-tailed Goat of the zodiac presents coraus.
a close analogy with the Mexican calendar sign Cipactli,
a kind of marine monster resembling a narwhal. 6 Aquarius is
a still more exclusively meteorological sign than Leo. The
eleventh month was known in Euphratean regions as
that of "want and rain." The deluge was tradi- '
tionally associated with it. It was represented in zodiacal
symbolism by the god Ramman, crowned with a tiara and
pouring water from a vase, or more generally by the vase and
water without the god. The resumption of agricultural labours
after the deluge was commemorated in the twelfth month, and
a mystical association of the fishes, which were its _.
sign, with the life after death is evident in a monu-
ment of Assyrian origin described by Clermont-Ganneau,
showing a corpse guarded by a pair of fish-gods. 7 The doubling
of the sign of Pisces still recalls, according to Sayce, 8 the arrange-
ment of the Babylonian calendar, in which a year of 360 days
was supplemented once in six years by a thirteenth month, a
second Adar. To the double month corresponded the double
sign of the " Fishes of Hea."'
Cyclical Meaning of the Succession of Signs. The cyclical
meaning of the succession of zodiacal signs, though now ob-
scured by interpolations and substitutions, was probably once
clear and entire. It is curiously reflected in the adventures of
the Babylonian Hercules, the solar hero Gilgamesh (see GIL-
GAMESH, EPIC OF). They were recorded in the comparatively
late surviving version of the 7th century B.C., on twelve tablets,
with an obvious design of correlation with the twelve divisions
of the sun's annual course. Gilgamesh's conquest of the divine
bull was placed under Taurus; his slaying of the tyrant Khum-
baba (the prototype of Geryon) in the fifth month typified the
victory of light over darkness, represented in plastic art by the
group of a lion killing a bull, which is the form ordinarily given
to the sign Leo on Ninevite cylinders. w The wooing of Ishtar by
the hero of the epic falls under Virgo, and his encounter with
two scorpion men, guardians of the rising and the setting sun,
under Scorpio. The eleventh tablet narrates the deluge; the
twelfth associates the apotheosis of Eabani with the zodiacal
emblems of the resurrection.
In the formation of the constellations of the zodiac little
regard was paid to stellar configurations. The Cbaldaeans
chose three stars in each sign to be the " councillor gods " of
the planets. 11 These were called by the Greeks " decans,"
because ten degrees of the ecliptic and ten days of the year were
presided over by each. The college of the decans was con-
ceived as moving, by their annual risings and settings, in an
" eternal circuit " between the infernal and supernal regions.
Modern asterisms first appear in the Phaenomena of Eudoxus
about 370 B.C. But Eudoxus, there is reason to believe, con-
sulted, not the heavens, but a celestial globe of an anterior
epoch, on which the stars and the signs were forced into un-
natural agreement. The representation thus handed down (in
the verses of Aratus) has been thought to tally best with the
state of the sky about 2000 B.C.; 12 and the mention of a pole-
star, for which Eudoxus was rebuked by Hipparchus, seems, as
W. T. Lynn pointed out, 13 to refer to the time when a Draconis
6 Lenormant, Origines, i. 267.
Humboldt, Vues des Cordilltres (1810), p. 157.
7 Rev. Archeol. (1879), p. 344.
8 Trans. Soc. Bibl. Archaeol., iii. 166.
The god Ea or Hea, the Cannes of Berossus, equivalent to the
fish-god Dagon, came to the rescue of the protagonist in the Chal-
daean drama of the deluge.
10 Lenormant, Origines, i. 240.
11 Diod. Sic., Hist., ii. 30, where, however, by an obvious mistake
the number of " councillor gods " is stated at only thirty.
12 R. Brown, Babylonian Record, No. 3, p. 34.
" Babylonian Record, No. 5, p. 79.
ZODIAC
995
stood near the pole. The data afforded by Eudoxus, however,
are far too vague to serve as the basis of any chronological
conclusion.
Egyptian Zodiacal Signs. The Egyptians adopted from the
Greeks, with considerable modifications of its attendant sym-
bolism, the twelve-fold division of the zodiac. Aries became the
Fleece; two Sprouting Plants, typifying equality or resem-
blance, stood for Gemini; Cancer was re-named Scarabaeus;
Leo was converted, from the axe-like configuration of its chief
stars, into the Knife: Libra into the Mountain of the Sun, a
reminiscence, apparently, of the Euphratean association of
the seventh month with a " holy mound," designating the
biblical tower of Babel. A Serpent was the Egyptian equi-
valent of Scorpio; the Arrow only of Sagittarius was retained;
Capricornus became " Life," or*a Mirror as an image of life;
Aquarius survived as Water; Taurus, Virgo and Pisces re-
mained unchanged. 1 The motive of some of the substitutions
was to avoid the confusion which must have ensued from the
duplication of previously existing native asterisms; thus, the
Egyptian and Greek Lions were composed of totally different
stars. Abstractions in other cases replaced concrete objects,
with the general result of effacing the distinctive character of
the Greek zodiac as a " circle of living things."
Spread of Greek System. Early Zoroastrian writings, though
impregnated with star-worship, show no traces of an attempt
to organize the heavenly array. In the Bundahish, however
(pth century), the twelve " Akhtars," designated by the same
names as our signs, lead the army of Ormazd, while the seven
"Awakhtars" or planets (including a meteor and a comet)
fight for Ahriman. The knowledge of the solar zodiac thus
turned to account for dualistic purposes was undoubtedly de-
rived from the Greeks. By them, too, it was introduced into
Hindustan. Aryabhata, about the beginning of the Christian
era, reckoned by the same signs as Hipparcbus. They were
transmitted from India by Buddhist missionaries to China, but
remained in abeyance until the Jesuit reform of Chinese
astronomy in the iyth century.
Chinese Zodiacal Signs. The native Chinese zodiacal system
was of unexampled complexity. Besides divisions into twenty-
eight and twenty-four parts, it included two distinct duodenary
series. The tse or " stations " were referred by E. C. Biot to
the date mi B.C. Measured from the winter solstice of that
epoch, they corresponded, in conformity with the Chinese
method of observation by intervals of what we now call right
ascension, to equal portions of the celestial equator. 2 Projected
upon the ecliptic, these were considerably unequal, and the tse
accordingly differed essentially from the Chaldaean and Greek
signs. Their use was chiefly astrological, and their highly
figurative names " Great Splendour," " Immense Void,"
" Fire of the Phoenix," &c. had reference to no particular
stars. They became virtually merged in the European series,
stamped with official recognition over two centuries ago. The
twenty-four tsieki or demi-tee were probably invented to mark
the course of weather changes throughout the year. Their
appellations are purely meteorological.
The characteristic Chinese mode of dividing the "yellow
road " of the sun was, however, by the twelve " cyclical animals "
Rat, Ox, Tiger, Hare, Dragon or Crocodile, Serpent, Horse,
Sheep, Monkey, Hen, Dog, Pig. The opening sign corresponds
to our Aquarius, and it is remarkable that the rat is, in the far
East, frequently used as an ideograph for "water." But here
the agreement ceases. For the Chinese series has the strange
peculiarity of proceeding in a retrograde direction or against
the course of the sun. Thus, the second sign (of the Ox)
occupies the position of Capricorn, the third that of Sagittarius,
and so on. The explanation of this seeming anomaly is to be
found in the primitive destination of the " animals " to the
purposes of an " horary zodiac." Their succession, established
to mark the hours of day and night, was not unnaturally
1 Brugsch, Z. D. M. G., ix. 513.
'Biot, Journ. des Savans, 1839, p. 729, and 1840, p. 151;
Gaubil, Hist, de VAstr. Chinoise, p. 9.
associated with the diurnal revolution of the sphere from east
to west.* They are unquestionably of native origin. Tradition
ascribes their invention to Tajao, minister of the emperor
Hwang-ti, who reigned c. 2697 B.C., and it can scarcely be placed
later than the 7th century B.C. 4
The Chinese circle of the " animals " obtained early a wide
diffusion. It was adopted by Tatars, Turks and Mongols, in
Tibet and Tong-king, Japan and Korea. It is denominated by
Humboldt 6 the "zodiac of hunters and shepherds," and he
adds that the presence in it of a tiger gives it an exclusively
Asiatic character. It appears never to have been designed for
astronomical employment. From the first it served to char-
acterize the divisions of time. The nomenclature not only of
the hours of the day and of their minutest intervals was supplied
by it, but of the months of the year, of the years in the Oriental
sixty-year cycle, and of the days in the " little cycle " of twelve
days. Nor has it yet fallen into desuetude. Years " of the
Rat," "of the Tiger," " of the Pig," still figure in the almanacs
of Central Asia, Cochin China and Japan.
Aztec Zodiacal Signs. A large detachment of the " cyclical
animals " even found its way to the New World. Seven of the
twenty days constituting the Aztec month bore names evidently
borrowed from those of the Chinese horary signs. The Hare
(or Rabbit), Monkey, Dog and Serpent reappeared without
change; for the Tiger, Crocodile and Hen, unknown in America,
the Ocelot, Lizard and Eagle were substituted as analogous.'
The Aztec calendar dated from the 7th century; but the zodiacal
tradition embodied by it was doubtless much more ancient.
Of the zodiac in its true sense of a partitioned belt of the sphere
there was no aboriginal knowledge on the American continent.
Mexican acquaintance with the signs related only to their
secondary function as dies (so to speak) with which to stamp
recurring intervals of time.
Lunar Zodiac. The synodical revolution of the moon laid
down the lines of the solar, its sidereal revolution those of the
lunar zodiac. The first was a circlet of " full moons "; the
second marked the diurnal stages of the lunar progress round the
sky, from and back again to any selected star. The moon was
the earliest " measurer " both of time and space; but its
services can scarcely have been rendered available until stellar
" milestones " were established at suitable points along its
path. Such were the Hindu naksftalras, a word originally
signifying stars in general, but appropriated to designate certain
small stellar groups marking the divisions of the lunar track.
They exhibit in an exaggerated form the irregularities of dis-
tribution visible in our zodiacal constellations, and present the
further anomaly of being frequently reckoned as twenty-eight
in number, while the ecliptical arcs they characterize are in-
variably twenty-seven. Now, since the moon revolves round
the earth in 27$ days, hesitation between the two full numbers
might easily arise; yet the real explanation of the difficulty
appears to be different. The superfluous asterism, named
Abhijit, included the bright star a Lyrae, under whose influence
the gods had vanquished the Asuras. Its invocation with the
other nakshatras, remoteness from the ecliptic notwithstanding,
was thus due (according to Max Miiller's plausible conjecture) 7
to its being regarded as of especially good omen. Acquaintance
with foreign systems of twenty-eight lunar divisions tended
doubtless to fix its position, which remained, nevertheless,
always equivocal. 8 Alternately admitted into or rejected from
the series, it was finally, some six or seven centuries ago,
eliminated by the effects of precession in reversing the order of
culmination of its limiting stars.
The notion of a twenty-seven-fold division of the zodiac was
deeply rooted in Hindu tradition. The number and the name
were in early times almost synonymous. Thus a nakshalra-mola
* Humboldt, Vues des Cordilleres, p. 168.
4 G. Schlegel, Ur. Chin., pp. 37, 561. ' Op. cit., p. 219.
'Ibid., p. 152; Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, Hi. 321 (ed.
i860).
7 Rie-Veda Samhita, vol. iv. (1862), Preface, p. Ixii.
1 Whitney, Journ. Am. Orient. Soc., viii. 394.
99 6
ZODIAC
denoted a necklace of twenty-seven pearls; 1 and the funda-
mental equality of the parts was figured in an ancient legend,
by the compulsion laid upon King Soma (the Moon) to share
his time impartially between all his wives, the twenty-seven
daughters of Prajipati. Everything points to a native origin
for the system of nakshatras. Some were named after ex-
clusively Vedic deities; they formed the basis of the sacrificial
calendar of the Brahmins; the old Indian names' of the months
were derived from them; their existence was pre-supposed in
the entire structure of Hindu ritual and science. 2 They do not,
however, obtain full recognition in Sanskrit literature until the
Brahmana period (yth or 8th century B.C.). The Rig-Veda
contains only one allusion to them, where it is said that " Soma
is placed in the lap of the nakshatras "; and this is in a part
including later interpolations.
Positive proof of the high antiquity of the Hindu lunar zodiac
is nevertheless afforded by the undoubted fact that the primitive
series opened with Krittika. (the Pleiades) as the sign of the
vernal equinox. The arrangement would have been correct
about 2300 B.C.; it would scarcely have been possible after
1800 B.C. 3 We find nowhere else a well-authenticated zodiacal
sequence corresponding to so early a date. The reform by which
Krittika, now relegated to the third place, was superseded as the
head of the series by " Acvini " 4 was accomplished under Greek
influence somewhere near the beginning of the Christian era.
For purposes of ritual, however, the Pleiades, with Agni or
" Fire " as their presiding deity, continued to be the first sign.
Hindu astronomy received its first definite organization in the
6th century, with results embodied in the Surya-Siddhanta.
Here the " signs " and the " constellations " of the lunar zodiac
form two essentially distinct systems. The ecliptic is divided
into twenty-seven equal parts, called bhogas or arcs, of 800' each.
But the nakshatras are twenty-eight, and are represented by as
many " junction stars " (yogatara), carefully determined by
their spherical co-ordinates. The successive entries of the
moon and planets into the nakshatras (the ascertainment of
which was of great astrological importance) were fixed by means
of their conjunctions with the yogataras. These, however, soon
ceased to be observed, and already in the nth century, al-
Blrunl could meet with no Hindu astronomer capable of point-
ing out to him the complete series. Their successful identifi-
cation by Colebrooke 6 in 1807 had a purely archaeological
interest. The modern nakshatras are twenty-seven equal
ecliptical divisions, the origin of which shifts, like that of the
solar signs, with the vernal equinox. They are, in fact, the
bhogas of the Surya-Siddhanta. The mean place of the moon
in them, published in all Hindu almanacs, is found to serve
unexceptionally the ends of astral vaticination. 6
The system upon which it is founded is of great antiquity. Belief
in the power of the nakshatras evidently inspired the invocations
of them in the Athana-Veda. In the Brahmana period they
were distinguisfied as " deva " and " yama," the fourteen lucky
asterisms being probably associated with the waxing, the four-
teen unlucky with the waning moon. 7 A special nakshatra was
appropriated to every occurrence of life. One was propitious
to marriage, another to entrance upon school-life, a third to
the first ploughing, a fourth to laying the foundation of a house.
Festivals for the dead were appointed to be held under those
that included but one star. Propitiatory abstinences were
recommended when the" natal asterism was menaced by un-
favourable planetary conjunctions. The various members of the
body were parcelled out among the nakshatras, and a rotation
of food was prescribed as a wholesome accompaniment of the
moon's revolution among them. 8
1 Max Miiller, op. cit., p. Ixiv. * Ibid., p. 42. -
* A. Weber, Indische Studien. x. 241.
4 Named from the Agvins, the Hindu Castor and Pollux. It is
composed of the stars in the head of Aries, and is figured by a
horse's head. ' As. Res., ix. 330.
6 J. B. Biot, Etudes sur I' Astronomic Indienne, p. 225.
7 A. Weber, " Die Vedischen Nachrichten von den Naxatra," in
Berliner Abhandluneen (1861), p. 309.
'Ibid., p. 322; H. Kern, Die Yegatara des Varamihira; Weber's
Ind. Stud., xv. 174-181.
The nomenclature of the Hindu signs of the zodiac, save as
regards a few standard asterisms, such as Acvini and Krittika,
was far from uniform. Considerable discrepancies occur in
the lists given by different authorities. 9 Hence it is not sur-
prising to meet in them evidence of foreign communications.
Reminiscences of the Greek signs of Gemini, Leo, Libra, Sagit-
tarius, Capricornus and Pisces are obvious severally in the
Hindu Two Faces, Lion's Tail, Beam of a Balance, Arrow,
Gazelle's Head (figured as a marine nondescript) and Fish. The
correspondence does not, however, extend to the stars; and
some coincidences adverted to by Humboldt between the
nakshatras and the zodiacal animals of Central Asia are of the
same nominal character. 10 Mexican loans are more remarkable.
They were apparently direct as well as indirect. The Aztec
calendar includes nakshatra titles borrowed, not only through
the medium of the Tatar zodiac, but likewise straight from the
Indian scheme, apart from any known intervention. The
" three footprints of Vishnu," for example, unmistakably gave
its name to the Mexican day Ollin, signifying the " track of the
sun "; and both series further contain a " flint weapon," a
"stick," and a "house." 11 Several houses and couches were
ranged along the Hindu zodiac with the naive idea of providing
resting-places for the wandering moon.
Relative Antiquity of Hindu, Chinese and Arabian Systems.
Relationship of a more intimate kind connects the Hindu lunar
mansions with those of the Arabs and Chinese. The resem-
blance between the three systems is indeed so close that it has
been assumed, almost as axiomatic, that they must have been
framed from a single model. It appears nevertheless to have
become tolerably clear that the nakshatras were both native to
India, and the sieu to China, but that the mandzil were mainly
of Indian derivation. The assertion, paradoxical at first sight,
that the twenty-eight " hostelries " of the Chinese sphere had
nothing to do with the moon's daily motion, seems to convey
the actual fact. Their number, as a multiple of four, was pre-
scribed by the quaternary partition of the heavens, funda-
mental in Chinese astronomy. It was considered by Biot to have
been originally twenty-four, but to have been enlarged to
twenty-eight about noo B.C., by the addition of determinants
for the solstices and equinoxes of that period. 12 The essential
difference, however, between the nakshatras and the sieu is that
the latter were equatorial, not ecliptical, divisions. They were
measured by the meridian-passages of the limiting stars, and
varied in amplitude from 2 42' to 30 24' . n The use of the
specially observed stars constituting or representing the sieu
was as points of reference for the movements of sun, moon and
planets. They served, in fact, and still serve (though with
astrological ends in view), the precise purpose of " fundamental
stars " in European astronomy. All that is certainly known
about the antiquity of the sieu is that they were well established
in the 3rd century B.C. Their initial point at the autumnal
equinox marked by Kio (Spica Virginis) suits a still later date;
and there is no valid evidence that the modern series resulted
from the rectification of an older superannuated arrangement,
analogous to the Krittika sequence of nakshatras. The Hindu
zodiacal constellations belong then to an earlier epoch than the
Chinese " stations," such as they have been transmitted to our
acquaintance. Yet not only were the latter an independent
invention, but it is almost demonstrable that the nakshatras,
in their more recent organization, were, as far as possible,
assimilated to them. The whole system of junction stars was
doubtless an imitation of the sieu; the choice of them by the
Hindu astronomers of the 6th century A.D. was plainly instigated
by a consideration of the Chinese list, compiled with a widely
different intent. Where they varied from it, some intelligible
reason can generally be assigned for the change. Eight junc-
tion stars lie quite close to, seven others are actually identical
with, Chinese determinants; 14 and many of these coincidences
9 Sir William Jones, As. Res., ii. 294-95.
Humboldt, Vues des Cordilleres, p. 154. u Ibid., p. 152.
12 Biot, Journ. des Savans (1845), p. 40.
G. Schlegel, Ur. Chin., p. 77. "Biot, Etudes, p. 136.
ZODIAC
997
are between insignificant and, for the purposes of ecliptical
division, inconveniently situated objects.
Arabian Mansions of the Moon. The small stellar groups
characterizing the Arab " mansions of the moon " (manazil al-
bamar) were more equably distributed than either the Hindu
or Chinese series. They presented, nevertheless, striking re-
semblances to both. Twenty-four out of twenty-eight were
formed, at least in part, of nakshatra or sieu stars. 1 That the
Arab was essentially a copy of the Hindu lunar zodiac can
scarcely admit of doubt. They were divided on the same
principle; each opened at the spring equinox; the first Arab
sign SharatSn was strictly equivalent to the Hindu Agvini; and
eighteen constellations in each were virtually coincident. The
model of the sieu was, however, also regarded. Eighteen
Chinese determinants were included in the Arab asterisms,
and of these five or six were not nakshatra stars; consequently,
they must have been taken directly from the Chinese series.
Nor were the Greek signs without effect in determining the names
of the manazil, 1 the late appearance of which, in a complete
form, removes all difficulty in accounting for the various foreign
influences brought to bear upon them. They were first
enumerated by Alfarghani early in the gth century, when the
Arabs were in astronomy the avowed disciples of the Hindus.
But, although they then received perhaps their earliest quasi-
scientific organization, the mansions of the moon had for ages
previously figured in the popular lore of the Bedouin. A set of
twenty-eight rhymes associated their heliacal risings with the
changes of season and the vicissitudes of nomad life; their
settings were of meteorological and astrological import; 3 in
the Koran (x. 5) they are regarded as indispensable for the
reckoning of time. Yet even this intimate penetration into the
modes of thought of the desert may be explained by prehistoric
Indian communication. The alternative view, advocated by
Weber, that the lunar zodiac was primitively Chaldaean, rests
on a very shadowy foundation. It is true that a word radically
identical with manazil occurs twice in the Bible, under the
forms mazzaloth and mazsaroth (2 Kings xxiii. 5; Job xxxviii.
32); but the heavenly halting-places which it seems to designate
may be solar rather than lunar. Euphratean exploration has
so far brought to light no traces of ecliptical partition by the
moon's diurnal motion, unless, indeed, zodiacal associations be
claimed for a set of twenty-eight deprecatory formulae against
evil spirits inscribed on a Ninevite tablet. 4
The safest general conclusions regarding this disputed subject
appear to be that the sieu, distinctively and unvaryingly Chinese,
cannot properly be described as divisions of a lunar zodiac,
that the nakshatras, though of purely Indian origin, became
modified by the successive adoption of Greek and Chinese
rectifications and supposed improvements; while the manazil
constituted a frankly eclectic system, in which elements from
all quarters were combined. It was adopted by Turks, Tatars
and Persians, and forms part of the astronomical paraphernalia
of the Bundahish. The sieu, on the other hand, were early
naturalized in Japan.
Astrological Systems. The refined system of astrological predic-
tion based upon the solar zodiac was invented in Chaldaea, obtained
a second home and added elaborations in Egypt, and spread irre-
sistibly westward about the beginning of the Christian era. For
genethliacal purposes the signs were divided into six solar and
six lunar, the former counted onward from Leo, the " house " of
the sun, the latter backward from the moon's domicile in Cancer.
Each planet had two houses a solar and a lunar distributed
according to the order of their revolutions. Thus Mercury, as the
planet nearest the sun, obtained Virgo, the sign adjacent to Leo,
with the corresponding lunar house in Gemini; Venus had Libra
(solar) and Taurus (lunar) ; and so for the rest. A ram frequently
stamped on coins of Antiochus, with head rever ed towards the
moon and a star (the planet Mars), signified Aries to be the lunar
house of Mars. With the respective and relative positions in the
zodiac of the sun, moon and planets, the character of their action
1 Whitney, Notes to Surya-Siddhanta, p. 200.
1 Ibid., p. 206.
A. Sprenger, Z. D. M. G., xiii. 161; BirQni, Chronology, trans,
by Sachau (London, 1879), p. 336 seq.
4 Lenormant, Chaldean Magic, p. I.
on human destiny varied indefinitely. The influence of the signs,
though secondary, was hence overmastering: Julian called them
6tSa> Jwd/Mtt,' and they were the objects of a corresponding
veneration. Cities and kingdoms were allotted to their several
patronage on a system fully expounded by Manilius :
Hos erit in fines orbis pontusque notandus,
Quern Deus in partes per singula dividit astra,
Ac sua cuique dedit tutelae regna per orbem,
Et proprias gentes atque urbes addidit altas,
In quibus exercent praestantia sidera vires.*
Syria was assigned to Aries, and Syrian coins frequently bear the
effigy of a ram; Scythiaand Arabia fell to Taurus, India to Gemini.
Palmyra, judging from numismatic evidence, claimed the favour of
Libra, Zeugma that of Capricorn; Leo protected Miletus, Sagit-
tarius Singara. 7 The " power of the signs " was similarly dis-
tributed among the parts of the human body :
Et quanquam communis eat tutela per omne
Corpus, et in proprium divisis art ubus exit :
Namque aries capiti, taurus cervicibus haeret ;
Brachia sub geminis censentur, pectora cancro.'
Warnings were uttered against surgical treatment of a member
through whose sign the moon happened to be passing;* and
zodiacal anatomy was an indispensable branch of the healing art
in the Middle Ages. Some curious memorials of the superstition
have survived in rings and amulets, engraven with the various
signs, and worn as a kind of astral defensive armour. Many such,
of the I4th and isth centuries, have been recovered from the
Thames." Individuals, too, adopted zodiacal emblems. Capri-
cornus was impressed upon the coins of Augustus, Libra on those
of Pythodoris, queen of Pontus; a sultan of Iconium displayed
Leo as his "horoscope" and mark of sovereignty; Stephen of
England chose the protection of Sagittarius.
Egyptian Astrology. In Egypt celestial influences were con-
sidered as emanating mainly from the thirty-six " decans " of the
signs. They were called the " media of the whole circle of the
zodiac"; u each ten-day period of the Egyptian year was con-
secrated to the decanal god whose section of the ecliptic rose at
its commencement; the body was correspondingly apportioned,
and disease was cured by invoking the zodiacal regent of the part
affected. 12 As early as the I4th century B.C. a complete list of the
decans was placed among the hieroglyphs adorning the tomb of
Seti I.; they figured again in the temple of Rameses II., " and
characterize every Egyptian astrological monument. Both the
famous zodiacs of Dendera display their symbols, unmistakably
identified by Lepsius. The late origin of these representations
was established by the detection upon them of the cartouches of
Tiberius and Nero. As the date of inception of the circular zodiac
now at Paris the year 46 B.C. has, however, been suggested with
high probability, from (among other indications) the position among
the signs of the emblem of the planet Jupiter. 14 Its design was
most likely to serve as a sort of thema coeli at the time of the birth
of Caesanon. The companion rectangular zodiac still in situ on
the portico of the temple of Isis at Dendera suits, as to constella-
tional arrangements, the date 29 A.D. It set forth, there is reason
to believe, the natal scheme, not of the emperor Tiberius, as had
been conjectured by Lauth," but of the building it served to decorate.
The Greek signs of the zodiac, including Libra, are obvious upon
both these monuments, which have thrown useful light upon the
calendar system and method of stellar grouping of the ancient
Egyptians. 1 *
Planispheres. An Egypto-Greek planisphere,' first described by
Bianchini, 17 resembles in its general plan the circular zodiac of
Dendera. The decans are ranged on the outermost of its five
concentric zones; the planets and the Greek zodiac in duplicate
occupy the next three; while the inner circle is unaccountably
reserved for the Chinese cyclical animals. The relic was dug up on
the Aventine in 1705, and is now in the Louvre. It dates from the
2nd or 3rd century A.D. The Tatar zodiac is not unfrequently
found engraven on Chinese mirrors in polished bronze or steel of
the yth century, and figured on the " plateau of the twelve hours "
" Oral, in Solem," Op., i. 148 (ed. 1696).
Astr., bk. iv. ver. 696 seq.
7 Eckhel, Descriptio Nummorum Antiochiae Syriae, pp. 18, 25.
" Manilius, Astr., bk. iv. ver. 702-5.
' A. J. Peirce, Science of the Stars, p. 84.
10 Journ. Arch. Sac. xiii. 254, 310, and xx. 80.
u In a fragment of Hermes translated by Th. Taylor at p. 362
of. his version of lamblichus.
u Pettigrew, Superstitions Connected with Hist, of Medicine, p. 30.
11 Lepsius, Chronologie der Aegypter, part i. p. 68.
14 Ibid., p. 102.
" Les Zodiaques de Denderah, p. 78.
' See Kiel's Das feste Jahr von Denderah (1878).
" Mem. de V Acad., Paris, 1708, Hist., p. no; see also Hum-
boldt, Vues des Cordilleres, p. 170; Lepsius, op. cii., p. 83; Frohner,
Sculpture du Louvre, p. 17.
99 8
ZODIACAL LIGHT
in the treasury of the emperors of the Tang dynasty. 1 Probably
the most ancient zodiacal representation in existence is a fragmen
of a Chaldaean planisphere in the British Museum, once inscribec
with the names of the twelve months and their governing signs
Two only now remain. 2
A zodiac on the " astrological altar of Gabies " in the Louvre
illustrates the apportionment of the signs among the inmates of the
Roman Pantheon; 3 and they occur as a classical reminiscence in
the mosaic pavements of San Miniato and the baptistery at Florence
the cathedral of Lyons, and the crypt of San Sayino at Piacenza. 4
Zodiacal symbolism became conspicuous in medieval art. Nearly
all the French cathedrals of the I2th and I3th centuries exhibit
on their portals a species of rural calendar, in which each month
and sign has its corresponding labour. The zodiac of Notre Dame
of Paris, opening with Aquarius, is a noted instance. 6 A similar
series, in which sculptured figures of Christ and the Apostles are
associated with the signs, is to be seen in perfect preservation on
the chief doorway of the abbey church at Vezelay. The cathedrals
of Amiens, Sens and Rheims are decorated in the same way. In
Italy the signs and works survive fragmentarily in the baptistery
at Parma, completely on the porch of the cathedral of Cremona
and on the west doorway of St Mark's at Venice. They are less
common in England; but St Margaret's, York, and the church
of Iffley in Oxfordshire offer good specimens. In the zodiac of
Merton College, Oxford, Libra is represented by a judge in his
robes and Pisces by the dolphin of Fitzjames, warden of the college,
1482-1507.* The great rose-windows of the Early Gothic period
were frequently painted with zodiacal emblems; and some frescoes
in the cathedral of Cologne contain the signs, each with an attendant
angel, just as they were depicted on the vault of the church at
Mount Athos. Giotto's zodiac at Padua was remarkable (in its
undisturbed condition) for the arrangement of the signs so as to be
struck in turns, during the corresponding months, by the sun's
rays. 7 The " zodiac of labours " was replaced in French castles
and_ h&tels by a " zodiac of pleasures," in which hunting, hawking,
fishing and dancing were substituted for hoeing, planting, reaping
and ploughing. 8
It is curious to find the same sequence of symbols employed for
the same decorative purposes in India as in Europe. A perfect
set of signs was copied in 1764 from a pagoda at Verdapettah near
Cape Comprin, and one equally complete existed at the same period
on the ceiling of a temple near Mindurah. 9
The hieroglyphs representing the signs of the zodiac in astrono-
mical works are found in manuscripts of about the loth century,
but in carvings not until the I5th or 16th. 10 Their origin is unknown ;
but some, if not all of them, have antique associations. The hiero-
glyph of Leo, for instance, occurs among the symbols of the Mithraic
worship. 11
See also the article ASTROLOGY, and the separate articles on the
constellations. The whole subject of the history of the zodiac is
very obscure. See generally Franz Boll, Sphaera (Leipzig, 1903) ;
also the bibliographies to ASTROLOGY and BABYLONIAN AND
ASSYRIAN RELIGION. (A. M. C.)
ZODIACAL LIGHT, a faint illumination of the sky, sur-
rounding the sun and elongated in the direction of the ecliptic
on each side of the sun. It is lenticular in form, brightest
near the sun, and shades off by imperceptible gradations,
generally becoming invisible at a distance of 90 from the sun.
Until a recent time it was never observed except in or near the
zodiac; hence its designation. Its breadth varies with the
time and place of observation, depending upon the position of
the ecliptic with respect to the horizon. In the tropics, where
the ecliptic is nearly perpendicular to the horizon, it may be
seen after the end of twilight on every clear evening, and before
1 Schlegel, Ur. Chin., p. 561 ; Pettigrew, Journ. Arch. Soc.,
viii. 21.
1 Fox Talbot, Trans. Soc. Bibl. Archaeol. iv. 260.
I Menard, La Mythologie dans I' Art, p. 388.
_ Fowler, Archaeologia, xliv. 172.
6 Viollet-le-Duc, Diet, de I' Arch. Franc,aise, ix. 551 ; Le Gentil,
Mem. de FAcad., Paris, 1785, p. 20.
Fowler, Archaeologia, xliv. 150. 7 Ibid., p. 175.
' Viollet-le-Duc, Diet, de t 'Arch., ix. 551.
John Call, Phil. Trans. Ixii. 353. Cf. Houzeau, Bibliographie
Astronomique, vol. i. pt. i. p. 136, where a useful sketch of the
general results of zodiacal research will be found.
10 R. Brown, Archaeologia, xlvii. 341 ; Sayce, in Nature, xxv.
525-
II See Lajard, Culte de Mithra, pi. xxvii. fig. 5, &c. The actual
symbol V can be carried back to about 250 B.C. (see Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 50 (1881), 171, No. 20, and plate 17,
No. 6) ; it occurs there with an Assyrian winged bull. But there is
nothing to prove that it there, or elsewhere, means Taurus; it is
found, in the same early period, with a lion as well as with a bull
on coins, seals, &c.
twilight on every clear morning, unless blotted out by moon-
light. It then presents a nearly vertical wedge-shaped form,
the base of which extends 15 or 20 on each side of the point
at which the ecliptic intersects the horizon. The point of the
wedge is quite indefinite, the extremely diffuse light gradually
fading into invisibility at a height which may range from 50
to 70 or even more, according to the keenness of the observer's
vision. The boundary everywhere is ill defined so that no
exact statement of the extent of the light can be made. The
brightness is at its maximum along its central line, called the
axis of the light. Along this axis the brightness continually
increases as the sun is approached. Owing to the softness of
the outline, it is not possible to fix the position of the axis with
precision; but, so far as observations have been made, it is
found that it lies near the ecliptic, though deviating from it by
a quite sensible amount.
Having this position, the conditions of visibility will be best
when the ecliptic, and therefore the axis of the light, are nearly
perpendicular to the horizon, and, as the angle between the
ecliptic and horizon becomes acute, will deteriorate, slowly at
first, more and more rapidly afterwards, owing to the increasing
effect of atmospheric absorption. This effect is enhanced by
the light being brighter as we approach the sun. More and
more of the brighter regions of the light will then be near the
horizon the more acute the angle. The result is that the light
can be only indistinctly seen when the angle with the horizon
is less than 45, unless in a region where the atmosphere is un-
usually clear. From this statement of the conditions it will be
seen that the tropical zone is the most favourable for observa-
tion, and that the most favourable hour of the day at which the
light can be seen must always be the earliest after sunset
and the last before sunrise. Practically this is when twilight
is first ended in the evening, and about to begin in the morning.
At these hours the angle of the ecliptic with the horizon varies
with the season. At the close of evening twilight the angle is
greatest about three weeks before the vernal equinox. The
months of February and March are therefore best for the evening
observations in the northern hemisphere, but the light can
generally be seen from January until April. Similar favourable
conditions prevail in the morning from September to November.
It is clear that the light proceeds from a region surrounding
the sun, and lenticular in form, the axis of the lens being nearly
perpendicular to the ecliptic, while the circumference extends
at least to the orbit of the earth. If it did not extend so far
as this it could not be seen as frequently as it is at a distance of
90 from the sun. The accompanying figure shows the form of
the outline, as it would appear to an observer on an outer planet
were the light of the sun cut off. The hypothesis which best
explains all the phenomena is that the light is that of the sun
reflected from an extremely tenuous cloud of particles having
the form and extent described, and becoming more and more
tenuous as the earth's orbit is approached until, immediately
outside the orbit, it fades into complete invisibility. The fact
that the light widens out toward the sun leads to the inference
that it entirely surrounds the sun. It is therefore of interest
to test this inference by observations at midnight in such a lati-
tude that the distance of the sun below the horizon is no more
than necessary to preclude the possibility of twilight. Such an
opportunity is offered when the sun is near the summer solstice,
in latitudes not differing much from 50 north. A transparent
atmosphere and clear horizon are necessary, conditions which can
best be secured on a mountain top. The visibility of a light
corresponding to the inference was shown by Simon Newcomb,
ay observations at the top of the Brienzer Rothorn, in 1905.
Previously to this, E. E. Barnard had observed the same
phenomenon at Chicago. The only source of doubt as to the
validity of the conclusion that this is really the zodiacal light
arises from the possibility that, after the close of the ordinarily
recognized twilight, there may be a faint illumination arising
>om the reflection of light by the very rare upper atmosphere,
shown by the phenomena of meteors to extend some hundred
miles or more above the earth's surface. The problem of
ZODIACAL LIGHT
999
separating a possible effect produced in this way from the zodiacal
light proper may seem to offer some difficulty. But the few
observations made show that, after ordinary twilight has ended
in the evening, the northern base of the zodiacal light extends
more and more toward the north as the hours pass until, towards
midnight, it merges into the light of the sky described by the
two observers mentioned. Yet more conclusive are the ob-
servations of Maxwell Hall at Jamaica, who reached con-
clusions identical with those of Barnard and Newcomb, from
observations of the base of the light at the close of twilight,
which he estimated at 60 in the line through the sun.
These observations show that the outline on that portion of
the light commonly seen in the morning or evening is concave
instead of convex, as it would be were the cloud strictly lenti-
cular. The actual outline of the cloud is that of which a section
through the sun is shown in the figure. Since the tenuous edge
of the lens extends beyond the earth's orbit it follows that there
must be some zodiacal light, whether it can be seen or not,
passing entirely across the sky, along or near the ecliptic. Ob-
servations of this zodiacal band are therefore of great interest.
It has been seen to stretch across the sky at midnight by several
observers, especially Barnard, to whom it appears 3 to 4 wide.
He found it to be best seen during the months of October,
November and May.
. Intimately connected with this band and with the zodiacal
light is the Gegenschein, or counter-glow, a faint illumination
of the sky in the region opposite the sun, which may generally
be seen by a trained eye when all the conditions are favourable.
Unfavourable conditions are moonlight, nearness to the Milky
Way, and elevation of the light above the horizon (and there-
fore a depression of the sun below the horizon) of less than 20,
and the presence in the region of any bright planet. The
Milky Way renders the object invisible during the months of
June, July, December and January. Its light is so faint and
diffuse that it is impossible to assign dimensions to it, except
to say it covers a region of several degrees in extent. Barnard,
the most successful observer, assigns diameters of 5 or even 10
or more. From what has been said of its position it is evident
that the zodiacal band, when seen across the sky, must include
it. It may therefore be regarded as an intensification of this
band, possibly produced by the increased intensity of the light
when reflected nearly back toward the sun, and therefore
toward the earth. From the description given of the zodiacal
band and the Gegenschein, it is clear that these objects should
be best seen at the highest elevation, especially within the
tropics. But the only well-authenticated observations we have
of this kind show anomalies which have never been cleared up.
This is especially the case with those of Chaplain George Jones,
who spent eight months at Quito, Peru, at an elevation of more
than 90x5 ft., for the express purpose of observing the pheno-
menon in question. He saw the zodiacal band at midnight
as a complete arch spanning the sky, agreeing in this point
with the observations of Barnard. One anomaly of his ob-
servations is his description of the arch as sometimes so bright
as to resemble the Milky Way, a condition which would make it
easily visible at ordinary altitudes. Another anomaly is that
he never saw the Gegenschein, but describes the band as equally
bright in all its parts, except near the horizon. We are there-
fore forced to the conclusion that either he must have been a
quite untrustworthy observer, or that there are anomalies in
the phenomena which are yet to be explained.
The latter possibility is also suggested by the curious fact
that the visibility of the light does not seem to be proportional
to the transparency of the atmosphere. Barnard reports it as
sometimes best seen when the sky is slightly milky, while
during the observations already mentioned from the Rothorn
the Gegenschein was scarcely, if at all, visible, though the
conditions were exceptionally favourable. It has even been
said that observers at great elevations have failed to see the
zodiacal light; but it is scarcely credible that this failure could
arise from any other cause than not knowing what it was or
where to look for it. Moreover, it has been well seen by Hansky
from the observatory on the summit of Mont Blanc.
In studying the causes of the phenomenon we must clearly
distinguish between the apparent form as seen from the earth,
and the real form of the lenticular-shaped cloud. The former
refers to the earth, which is continually changing the point
of view of the observer as he is carried around the sun, while
the latter relates to the invariable position of the matter which
reflects the light. First in importance is the question of the
position of the principal plane, passing through the sun, and
containing the circumferential regions of the cloud. This
plane must be near, but not coincident with, that of the ecliptic.
It has therefore a node and a certain inclination to the ecliptic.
The determination of these elements requires that, at some
point within the tropics where the atmosphere is clear, observa-
tions of the position of the axis of the light among the stars
should be made from time to time through an entire year. In
view of the simplicity of the necessary appliances, and of the
small amount of labour that would be required, we find a singular
paucity of such observations. The most elaborate attempt in
the required direction was made by the American chaplain, George
JoneSj during a voyage of the "Mississippi " in the Pacific Ocean,
in 1852-54. Owing to the varying latitude of the ship, and the
fact that the observer attempted to draw curves of equal
brilliancy instead of the central line, the required conclusions
cannot be drawn with certainty from these observations. More
recently Maxwell Hall in Jamaica made a satisfactory deter-
mination during the months from January to March, July and
October, and carefully discussed his results. But the observa-
tions do not extend continuously throughout the year, and do
not include a sufficient length of the central line on each evening
to enable us to distinguish certainly the heliocentric latitude
of the central line, as distinct from its apparent geocentric
position. Yet his observations are of the first importance as
showing the smallness of the deviation of the central line from
the ecliptic. When smoothed out, the maximum latitude is
less than 3, which seems to preclude the coincidence of the
central plane of the light with that of the sun's equator. Hall
also reaches the interesting conclusion that the plane in question
seems to lie near the invariable plane of the solar system, a
result which might be expected if the light proceeded from a
swarm of independent meteoric particles moving around the
sun. Chaplain Jones concluded, from his observations at
Quito, that the central line of the arch made an angle of 3 20'
with the ecliptic, the ascending node being in Taurus, near
longitude 62. This is about 40 from the ascending node of
the invariable plane, so that there is a well-marked deviation
of his results from those of Hall.
Yet more divergent are the conclusions of Francis J. Bayldon,
R.N.R., who made many observations while on voyages through
the Pacific Ocean between Australia and the west coast of North
America. He places the ascending node at the vernal equinox,
and assigns an inclination of 4. He found that as the ob-
server moved to the north or south the axis of the light appeared
to be displaced in the direction of the motion, which is the op-
posite of the effect due to parallax, but in the same sense as
the effect of the greater atmospheric absorption of the light
on the side nearest the horizon. He also describes the moon
as adding to the zodiacal light during her first and last quarters,
a result so difficult to explain that it needs confirmation. It is
noteworthy that he could see the zodiacal band across the entire
sky during the whole of every very clear moonless night in
tropical regions.
If we accept the general conclusion already drawn as to the
IOOO
ZOFFANY ZOISITE
form and boundary of the region from which the light emanates,
the next question is that of the matter sending it forth. The
most plausible view is that we have to do with sunlight reflected
from meteoric particles moving round the sun within the region
of the lens. The polariscope and the spectroscope are the only
instruments by the aid of which the nature of the matter can be
inferred. The evidence afforded by these instruments is not,
however, altogether accordant. In 1867, Angstrom, observing
at Upsala in March, obtained the bright auroral line (W.L. 5567),
and concluded that in the zodiacal light there was the same
material as is found in the aurora and in the solar corona,
and probably through all space. Upsala, however, is a place
where the auroral spectrum can often be observed in the sky,
even when no aurora is visible, and it has generally been
believed that what Angstrom really saw was an auroral and
not a zodiacal spectrum.
Professor A. W. Wright, of New Haven, also made careful
observations leading to the conclusion that the spectrum differs
from sunlight only in intensity. Some evidence has also been
found by the same observer of polarization, showing that a
considerable portion of the light must be reflected sunlight.
The observations of Maxwell Hall also embraced some made
with the spectroscope. He was unable to see any marked
deviation of the spectrum from that of the sun; but it does
not appear that either he or any other of the observers dis-
tinctly saw the dark lines of the solar spectrum. Direct proof
that we have to do with reflected sunlight is therefore still
incomplete.
The question whether the Gegenschein can be accounted for
by the reflection of light from the same matter as the zodiacal
band is still unsettled. Taking the general consensus of the
observations it would seem that its light must be so much
brighter than that of the band as to imply the action of some
different cause. In this connexion may be mentioned the in-
genious suggestion of S. Arrhenius, that the phenomenon is
due to corpuscles sent off by the earth and repelled by the sun
in the same way that they are sent off from a comet and form
its tail. In other words, the light may be an exceedingly tenuous
cometary tail to the earth, visible only because seen through its
very great length. The view that no cause intervenes addi-
tional to that producing the zodiacal band is strengthened,
though not proved, by a theorem due to F. R. Moulton of
Chicago. He shows that, supposing the cloud of particles
to move around the sun in nearly circular orbits immediately
outside the earth, the perturbations by the earth in the motion
of the particles will result in their retardation in that part
of the orbit nearest the earth, and therefore in their always being
more numerous in a given space in this part of the orbit than in
any other. This view certainly accounts for some intensifica-
tion of the light, to which may be added the intensification
produced by the vertical reflection of the sunlight.
A new interest was given to the subject by the investigations
of H. H. Seeliger, published in 1006, who showed that the
observed excess of motion of the perihelion of Mercury may be
accounted for by the action of that portion of the matter re-
flecting the zodiacal light which lies nearest to the sun. Plaus-
ible though his result is, the subject still requires investigation.
It seems not unlikely that the final conclusion will be that
instead of the reflecting matter being composed of solid particles
it is an exceedingly tenuous gaseous envelope surrounding the
sun and revolving on an axis the mean position of which is
between that of the sun's equator and that of the .invariable
plane of the solar system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Childrey, Natural History of England (1659) and
Britannia Baconica, p. 183 (1661); D. Cassini, Nouv. Phenom.
d'une lumiere celeste [zodiacale] (1683) and Decouverte de la lumikre
celeste qui paroist dans le zodtaque (1685); R. Hpoke, Explication
of a Glade of Light, &c. (1685); Mairan, Observations de la lumiere
zodiacale; L. Euler, Sur la cause de la lumiere zodiacale (1746);
Mairan, Sur la cause de la lumiere zodiacale (1747); R. Wolf,
Beobachtungen des Zodiacallichtes (1850-52); Brorsen Ueber den
Gegenschein des Zodiacallichts (1855) and in Schumacher, 998;
J. F. J. Schmidt, Das ZodiacaUtcht (Brunswick,. 1856) and in
Astron. Nachr., Ixxiii. p. 190; Jacob, Memoirs R.A.S., xxviii.
p. 119; G. Jones, in Gould, No. 84, Monthly Notices R.A.S., xvi.
p. 18, Amer. Journ. of Science, Series II., vol. 24, p. 274, and in U.S.
Exploring Expedition Narrative, vol. iii. (1856); Humboldt,
Monatsber, d. k. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. (July 1855), M. Not. R.A.S.,
xvi. p. 16; C. P. Smyth, Trans. R.S.E., xx. p. 489 (1852), M. Not.
R.A.S., xvii. p. 204, xxxii. p. 277; T. W. Backhouse, M. Not.
R.A^.S., xxxvi. p. J and xli. p. 333; Tupman, M. Not. R.A.S.,
xxxii. p. 74; Liais, Comptes Rendus, Ixiv. p. 262 (January 1872);
t. W. Wright, Amer. Jour, of Science, cvii. p. 451 and cviii. p. 39;
ngstrom, Pogg. Anna!., cxxxvii. p. 162; Arthur Searle, Proc.
Amer. Acad., xix. p. 146, vol. xi. p. 135, and Annals of the Harvard
Observatory, vol. xix.; Trouvelot, Proc. Amer. Acad., xiii. p. 183
(1877); Barnard, Popular Astronomy^, vii. (1899) p. 171; Bayldon,
Pub. Ast. Soc. of the Pacific, vol. xii. (1900) ; Maxwell Hall, U.S.
Monthly Weather Review (March 1906); Newcomb, Astrophysical
Journal (1905) ii. (S. N.)
ZOFFANY, JOHANN (1733-1810), British painter, whose
father was architect to the prince of Thurn and Taxis, was born
in Frankfort-on-Main. He ran away from home at the age of
thirteen and went to Rome, where he studied art for nearly
twelve years. In 1758 he left for England, and after under-
going some hardships was brought into fashion by royal
patronage, and in 1769 was included among the foundation
members of the Royal Academy. He went to Florence in 1772
with an introduction from George III. to the grand duke of
Tuscany, and did not return until 1779. During this second
stay in Italy he met with much success, and was commanded
by the empress Maria Theresa to paint a picture of the royal
family of Tuscany; this work he executed so much to the
satisfaction of the empress that in 1778 he was created a baron
of the Austrian empire. He went next to India, where he lived
from 1783 to 1790, to which period belong some of his best-
known paintings; but the last twenty years of his life were
spent in England. He died in 1810 and was buried in Kew
churchyard. His portrait groups of dramatic celebrities are,
perhaps, the most highly esteemed of his many productions;
they have considerable technical merit and show much shrewd
insight into character. Several of the best are in the Garrick
Club, London.
ZOILUS (c. 400-320 B.C.), Greek grammarian of Amphipolis
in Macedonia. According to Vitruvius (vii., preface) he lived
during the age of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.), by whom
he was crucified as the punishment of his criticisms on the king.
This account, however, should probably be rejected. Zoilus
appears to have been at one time a follower of Isocrates, but sub-
sequently a pupil of Polycrates, whom he heard at Athens, where
he was a teacher of rhetoric. Zoilus was chiefly known for the
acerbity of his attacks on Homer (which gained him the name of
Homeromastix, " scourge of Homer "), chiefly directed against
the fabulous element in the Homeric poems. Zoilus also wrote
against Isocrates and Plato, who had attacked the style of
Lysias of which he approved. The name Zoilus came to be
generally used of a spiteful and malignant critic.
See U. Friedlander, De Zoilo aliisque Homeri Obtrectatoribus
(Konigsberg, 1895); J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship
(2nd ed. 1906).
ZOISITE, a rock-forming mineral, consisting of basic calcium
and aluminium silicate, Ca 2 (AlOH)Al 2 (SiO 4 )3, crystallizing in
the orthorhombic system. It is closely related to epidote (q.v.)
both in the angles of the crystals and in chemical composition:
a zoisite containing some iron replacing aluminium may be
identical in composition with an epidote (" clinozoisite ")
poor in iron. The crystals are prismatic in habit and are deeply
furrowed parallel to their length; terminal planes are rare;
there is a perfect cleavage parallel to the brachy-pinacoid.
Columnar and compact masses are more common. The hard-
ness is 65 and the specific gravity 3-25-3-37. The colour is
often grey; a rose-red variety, known as " thulite," occurs
with sky-blue vesuvianite at Telemarken in Norway, and has
been used to a limited extent as an ornamental stone. Accord-
ing to differences in the optical characters, two kinds of zoisite
have been distinguished. Zoisite is a product of dynamo-
metamorphism, and occurs as a constituent of some crystalline
ZOLA ZOLKIEWSKI
1001
schists, such as amphibolite and eclogite. It was first observed
by Baron Zois (after whom it was named) in the eclogite of
Sau-Alpe in Carinthia; other localities are the Ducktown
copper mines in Tennessee, where it occurs embedded in
chalcopyrite; Loch Garve in Ross-shire, &c. The " saus-
surite " of the Alps and elsewhere, which has resulted from the
alteration of the plagioclase felspar of gabbro, consists largely
of zoisite with epidote. (L. J. S.)
ZOLA, EMILE EDOUARD CHARLES ANTOINE (1840-1002),
French novelist, was born in Paris on the and of April 1840, his
father being an engineer, part Italian and part Greek, and his
mother a Frenchwoman. The father seems to have been an
energetic, visionary man, who, dying while his only son was a
little lad, left to his family no better provision than a lawsuit
against the municipality of the town of Aix It was at Aix,
which figures as Plassans in so many of his novels, that the boy
received the first part of his education. Thence he proceeded,
in 1858, to Paris, where, as later at Marseilles, he failed to
obtain his bachelor's degree. Then came a few years of terrible
poverty; but at the beginning of 1862 he obtained a clerkship,
at the modest salary of a pound a week, in the house of Hachette
the publisher. Meanwhile he was writing apace, but nothing
of particular merit. His first book, Conies a Ninon, appeared
on the 24th of October 1864, and attracted some attention,
and in January 1866 he determined to abandon clerking and
take to literature. Vigorous and aggressive as a critic, his
articles on literature and art in Villemessant's paper L'Evene-
ment created a good deal of interest. So did the gruesome but
powerful novel, Therese Raquin (1867). Meanwhile, with
characteristic energy, Zola was projecting something more im-
portant: the creation of a world of his own, like that of Balzac's
Comtdie Humaine the history of a family in its various rami-
fications during the Second Empire. The history of this family,
the Rougon-Macquart, was to be told in a series of novels con-
taining a scientific study of heredity science was always Zola's
ignis fatuus and a picture of French life and society. The
first novel of the series, La Fortune des Rougon, appeared in
book form at the end of 1871. It was followed by La Curie
(1874), Le Venire de Paris (1874), La Conquete de Plassans
(1875), La Faute de I' Abbe Mouret (1875), Son Excellence Eugene
Rougon (1876) all books unquestionably of immense ability,
and in a measure successful, but not great popular successes.
Then came L'Assommoir (1878?), the epic of drink, and the
author's fortune was made. Edition followed edition. He
became the most discussed, the most read, the most bought
novelist in France the sale of L'Assommoir being even exceeded
by that of Nana (1880) and La Debacle (1892). From the
Fortune des Rougon to the Docteur Pascal (1893) there are some
twenty novels in the Rougon-Macquart series, the second half
of which includes the powerful novels Germinal (1885) and
La Terre (1888). In 1888 Zola departed from his usual vein in
the idyllic story of Le Reve. Zola also wrote a series of three
romances on cities, Lourdes, Rome, Paris (1894-98), novels on
the " gospels " of population (Fecondite) and work (Travail), a
volume of plays, and several volumes of criticism, and other
things. These books are based on study and observation; the
novels are crowded with characters. The whole is a gigantic
opus, the fruit of immense labour, of an admirable tenacity
so many pages written, morning after morning, without inter-
mission, during some thirty years. He prided himself on his
motto, Nulla dies sine linea.
Zola, was the apostle of the " realistic " or " naturalistic "
school; but he was in truth not a " naturalist " at all, in so
far as " naturalism " is to be regarded as a record of fact. He
was an idealist, but while other idealists idealize the nobler
elements in human nature, so has he, for the most part the
later books, however, show improvement idealized the elements
that are bestial. He saw man's lust, greed, gluttony, as in a
vision, magnified, overwhelming, portentous. And what he
saw he presented with tremendous power. His style may lack
the classic qualities of French prose lightness, delicacy,
sparkle; it certainly has not Daudet's colour and felicity of
touch. The first impression it produces may be one of heaviness,
and the later " gospels " on population and work are distinctly
ponderous. But for rendering the gloomy horror of the sub-
jects in which he most delights detail on detail being accumu-
lated till the result is overwhelming Zola has no superior.
Some of his descriptions of crowds in movement have never
been surpassed.
Zola played a very important part in the Dreyfus affair,
which convulsed French politics and social life at the end of the
i9th century. At an early stage he came to the conclusion that
Dreyfus was the innocent victim of a nefarious conspiracy, and
on the i3th of January 1898, with his usual intrepidity, he pub-
lished in the Aurore newspaper, in the form of a letter beginning
with the words J'occuse, a terrible denunciation of all those
who had had a hand in hounding down that unfortunate officer.
Zola's object was a prosecution for libel, and a judicial inquiry
into the whole affaire, and at the trial, which took place in Paris
in February, a fierce flood of light was thrown on the case.
The chiefs of the army put forth all their power, and Zola was
condemned. He appealed. On the 2nd of April the Cour de
Cassation quashed the proceedings. A second trial took place
at Versailles, on the i8th of July, and without waiting the result
Zola, by the advice of his counsel and friends, and for reasons
of legal strategy, abruptly left France and took refuge in
England. Here he remained in hiding, writing Feconditi, till
the 4th of June 1899, when, immediately on hearing that there
was to be a revision of the first Dreyfus trial, he returned to
Paris. Whatever may be thought of the affaire itself, there
can be no question of Zola's superb courage and disinterested-
ness.
On the morning of the 2gth of September 1902 Zola was
found dead in the bedroom of his Paris house, having been
accidentally asphyxiated by the fumes from a defective flue.
He received a public funeral, at which Captain Dreyfus was
present. Anatole France delivered an impassioned oration at
the grave. At the time of his death Zola had just completed
a novel, Virile, dealing with the incidents of the Dreyfus trial.
A sequel, Justice, had been planned, but not executed. After
a life of constant struggle and an obloquy which never relaxed,
the sensational "close of Zola's career was the signal for an
extraordinary burst of eulogy. The verdict of posterity will
probably be kinder than the first, and less unmeasured than
the second. Zola's literary position would have more than
qualified him for the French Academy.' He was several times
a candidate in vain. (F. T. M.)
See Entile Zola, Novelist and Reformer (1904), giving a full account
of his life and work, by E. A. Vizetelly, who translated and edited
many of his works in English; also P. Alexis, Entile Zola, Notes
fun ami; F. Brunetiere, Le Roman Naturalistt (1883); vols. iji.,
v. and vi. of the Journal des Goncovrt (1888-92) ; E. Hennequin,
Quelques Ecrivains francflis (1890); R. H. Sherard, Emile Zola: a
biographical and critical study (1903); A. Laporte, Emile Zola,
I'homme el I'ceuvre (1894) with a bibliography. A complete report
of the proceedings against Zola is printed in Le Proces Zola (2 vols.
1898, Eng. trans. 1898).
ZOLKIEWSKI, STANISLAUS (1547-1619), the most illustrious
member of an ancient Ruthcnian family which emigrated to
Galicia in the isth century. During the interregnum in Poland
after the death of Henry of Valois, Zolkiewski was an ardent
partisan of the chancellor Zamoyski, and supported the can-
didature of Stephen B&thory, under whose banner he learned
the art of war in the Muscovite campaigns. On the death of
Stephen, Zolkiewski vigorously supported the policy of Zamoyski,
and took an active part in the battle of Byczyna, when the
Austrian archduke Maximilian was defeated by the Polish
chancellor. Shortly afterwards Zolkiewski was made castellan
of Lemberg and acting commander-in-chief. On the accession
of Sigismund III. he retired from court and divided his time
between improving his estates, where he built towns and for-
tresses, and disciplining the Cossacks, with whom he enjoyed
great influence. In 1601-2 he served with distinction in the
Livonian war against the Swedes, whom he defeated at Reval.
During the insurrection of Nicholas Zebrzydowski he led the
IOO2
ZOLLNER ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
army which routed the rebels at Guzow in 1607, though pro-
testing against the necessity of shedding " his brothers' blood."
For his services he received the palatinate of Kiev. He was
opposed to the expedition sent to place the false Demetrius
on the throne of Muscovy; but nevertheless accompanied the
king to Smolensk and was sent thence with a handful of men
against Moscow. On his way thither he defeated and captured
Tsar Vasily Shuiski at the battle of Klushino (July 14, 1610),
and two months later entered the Russian capital in triumph.
His tactful and conciliatory diplomacy speedily won over the
boyars, whom he persuaded to offer the Muscovite crown to
the Polish crown prince, Wladislaus. For a moment it seemed
possible that the Vasa family might occupy the throne of Ivan
the Terrible; but Sigismund III. would not consent to the re-
ception of his son into the Greek Church, and refused to ratify
the terms made with the boyars. Zolkiewski then returned
to the Polish camp and assisted in the reduction of Smolensk,
but Moscow in the meantime drove out the Polish garrison and
proclaimed a native dynasty under Michael Romanov. When
Zolkiewski presented his captives, Tsar Vasily and his family,
to the Polish diet, he received an ovation and was rewarded with
the dignity of hetman wielki (commander-in-chief). For the
next few years he defended the Ukraine against the Tatars
and Cossacks, and in 1617 was involved in a war with the Porte
owing to the unauthorized interference of the Polish nobles
in the affairs of Wallachia and Moldavia. Unable to defeat
the vastly superior forces of the Turkish commander Skinder,
he concluded with him an advantageous truce at Jaruda (27th
of August 1618), by the terms of which he pledged himself to
curb the Cossacks and at the same time renounced all the claims
of Poland to the Danubian principalities. Thus he saved the
one army of Poland to guard her southern frontier from appa-
rently inevitable destruction. On his return he was fiercely
assailed by the diet for not risking everything in a pitched
battle, but Zolkiewski defended himself with an eloquence which
silenced his most venomous opponents. The peace of Jaruda
was then confirmed, and the king conferred upon Zolkiewski
the grand-chancellorship, an honour he had neither desired
nor expected. Fresh attacks were presently made against him
for failing, it was alleged, to prevent the Tatar incursions.
So deeply wounded was the hero by these calumnies that when
in 1619 he was sent against the Turks he publicly declared that
he would never return alive unless victorious. He was as good
as his word. Surrounded near the Dniester by countless hosts
of Turks, Tatars and Janissaries, he retreated through the
Steppes, fighting night and day without food or water, towards
Cecora. By the time he reached it, he saw clearly that success
was impossible, and deliberately determined to die where he
stood. Disguising himself so that his dead body might not be
recognized, he turned upon the pursuers and was slain after
a desperate resistance (6th of October 1620). His head was
cut off, exhibited in the Turkish camp and then sent to Con-
stantinople as a present to the sultan, from whom it was subse-
quently ransomed at a great price. Zolkiewski is one of the
most heroic figures in Polish history. An accomplished general,
a skilful diplomatist, and a patriot who not only loved his
country above all things, but never feared to tell his countrymen
the truth, he excelled in all private and public virtues. As a
writer he made a name by an important history of his Muscovite
campaigns.
See Stanislaw Gabryel Kozlowski, Life of Stanislaus Zolkiewski
(Pol.) (Cracow, 1904). (R. N. B.)
ZOLLNER, JOHANN KARL FRIEDRICH (1834-1882),
German astronomer and physicist, was born at Berlin on the
8th of November 1834. From 1872 he held the chair of astro-
physics at Leipzig University. He wrote numerous papers
on photometry and spectrum analysis in Poggendorff's Annalen
and Berichte der k. siichsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften,
two works on celestial photometry (Grundzitge einer allgemeinen
Photometric des Himmels, Berlin, 1861, 4to, and Pholometrische
Untersuchungen, Leipzig, 1865, 8vo), and a curious book, Ueber
die Natur der Cometen (Leipzig, 1872, 3rd ed. 1883). He died
at Leipzig on the 25th of April 1882.
ZOLLVEREIN (Ger. Zoll, toll, customs, and Verein, union),
a term used generally for a certain form of Customs Union, but
specially for the system among the German states which was in
force between 1819 and 1871 (see TARIFF, and GERMANY:
History).
ZOMBOR, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Bacs
Bodrog, 146 m. S. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 29,036,
two-thirds Servians. It is situated in a fertile plain near the
Franz Josef canal, which connects the Danube and the Theiss,
and is the centre of the corn and cattle trade of an extensive
area.
ZONARAS, JOANNES (JOHN), Byzantine chronicler and theo-
logian, nourished at Constantinople in the I2th century. Under
Alexius I. Comnenus he held the offices of commander of the
bodyguard and private secretary to the emperor, but in the
succeeding reign he retired to Hagia Glykeria (one of the Princes'
Islands), where he spent the rest of his life in writing books.
His most important work, 'EwiTo^ "laropuav (compendium
of history), in eighteen books, extends from the creation of the
world to the death of Alexius (1118). The earlier part is largely
drawn from Josephus; for Roman history he chiefly followed
Dio Cassius, whose first twenty books are not otherwise known to
us. His history was continued by Nicetas Acominatus. Various
ecclesiastical works have been attributed to Zonaras com-
mentaries on the Fathers and the poems of Gregory of Nazianzus;
lives of Saints; and a treatise on the Apostolical Canons
and there is no reason to doubt their genuineness. The lexicon,
however, which has been handed down under his name (ed.
J. A. H. Tittmann 1808) is probably the work of a certain
Antonius Monachus (Stein's Herodotus, ii. 479 f.).
Complete edition in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxxiv. cxxxv.
cxxxvii.; the Chronicon by M. Finder and T. Buttner-Wobst in
the Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz. (1841-97) and by L. Din-
dorf in the Teubner series (1868-76); see bibliography in C. Krum-
bacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (2nd ed. 1897).
ZONE (Gr. &vri, a girdle, from favvvvai, to gird), a term
for a belt or girdle, now used chiefly in the transferred sense
of a demarcated area. Thus the earth's surface is divided, for
classification of climates, into five climatic zones: the two
temperate and the two frigid zones and the tropical or torrid
zone. (See CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY.)
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION (also known as Zoogeography),
the science dealing, in the first place, with the distribution of
living animals on the surface of the globe (both land and water),
and secondly with that of their forerunners (both in time and
in space). The science is thus a side-branch of zoology, 1 in-
timately connected on the one hand with geography and on the
other with geology. It is a comparatively modern science,
which dates, at all events in its present form, from the second
half of the igth century.
Different parts of the land-surface of the globe are inhabited
by different kinds of animals, or, in other words, by different
faunas. These differences, in many cases at any rate, are not
due to differences of temperature or of climate; and they do
not depend on the distance of one place from another. The
warm-blooded land-animals of Japan are, for example, very
much more closely related to those of the British Isles than
is the corresponding fauna of Africa to that of Madagascar.
Again, on the hypothesis of the evolution of one species from
another, in the case of land-animals unprovided with the means
of flight such resemblances and differences between the faunas
of different parts of the world depend in a great degree on the
presence or absence of facih'ties for free communication by
land between the areas in question. Prima facie, therefore,
it is natural to suppose that the fauna of an island will differ
more from that of the adjacent continent than will those of
different parts of that continent from one another.
_ To a great extent this is the case; and if the present con-
tinents and islands had always been in slatu quo, the proposition
1 For the distribution of plants, see PLANTS: Distribution.
GENERAL]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1003
would, for the most part at any rate, be universally true.
Geology has, however, taught us that many parts of what are
now continents formed at earlier periods of the earth's history
portions of the ocean-bed, while what are now islands have in
some instances been connected with the adjacent mainlands,
or even with land-masses the sites of which are now occupied
by the open sea.
We can hope, therefore, to understand and explain the present
distribution of terrestrial animal life only by taking into account
what geology teaches us as to past changes in the configuration
of the land-masses of the globe, accompanied by investigations
into the past history of animals themselves, as revealed by their
fossil remains.
Although to understand the reason of many facts in the present
distribution of animals as, for example, why tapirs are con-
fined to the Malay countries and South America it is essential
to study fossil faunas, yet it has been found possible from the
consideration of existing faunas alone to map out the land-
surface of the globe into a number of zoological " regions," or
provinces, more or less independent of the ordinary geographical
boundaries, and severally characterized by a greater or smaller
degree of distinctness in the matter of their faunas. One of
the pioneers in this line of research was Dr P. L. Sclater, who in
a paper on the geographical distribution of birds, published in
the Journal of the Linnean Society of London for 1858, was
enabled to define and name six of such zoological regions;
these being mainly based on the distribution of the perching
or passerine birds. Two years later Dr A. Russel Wallace, in the
same journal, discussed in some detail the problems presented
by the distribution of animals in the Malay Archipelago and
Australasia. This preliminary essay was followed in 1876
by the appearance of the latter author's Geographical Distribu-
tion of Animals, an epoch-making work, which may be said to
have first put the study of the distribution of animals generally
on a thoroughly firm and scientific basis. With some slight
modifications, the names proposed for the six zoological regions
by Dr Sclater were adopted by Dr Wallace. Certain changes
in regard to the limits and number of the zoological regions
adopted by Sclater and Wallace have been proposed; but the
original scheme forms the basis of all the later modifications,
and these eminent naturalists are entitled to be regarded as the
fathers of the study of distributional zoology. T. H. Huxley
was also one of those who did much to advance the science
in its early days, while among those who have proposed more
or less important modifications of the original scheme special
mention may be made of Dr W. T. Blanford, Dr A. Heilprin,
Prof. P. Matschie and Prof. Max Weber.
The zoological regions proposed by Dr Sclater were based
mainly on the distribution of the perching birds; but in the
writings of Dr Wallace and of later authors mammals were
very largely taken into consideration, and in later schemes
there has been a similarly extensive use of the evidence afforded
by mammalian distribution. That different groups of animals
do not agree with another in the matter of geographical distri-
bution will be evident when we reflect that in many instances
there are very great differences in the relative ages of such groups,
or, at all events, in the dates of their dispersal, or " radiation,"
over the surface of the earth. The radiation and dominance of
reptiles, for example, greatly antedated that of either birds or
mammals. Consequently, the zoological regions indicated by
the present geographical distribution of the former group are
very different from those suggested by the distribution of the
two latter. If zoological regions are based on the evidence of
the existing distribution of animals, groups with a relatively
late radiation are clearly to be preferred to those the dispersal
of which was earlier. Mammals and birds, therefore, are of
greater value from this point of view than reptiles; while the
absence of the power of flight in the great bulk of the class
renders the evidence afforded by mammals superior to that
derived from birds. The marked general agreement between
the geographical distribution of birds on the one hand and of
mammals on the other is, however, a fact of the greatest im-
portance in regard to the value of the zoological regions estab-
lished on their evidence. Further testimony in the same direc-
tion is afforded by the distribution of certain other groups,
more especially spiders (Arachnida); and it is also noteworthy
that the distribution of the three main divisions of the human
race accords to a certain extent with the boundaries of some of
the zoological regions based on the distribution of the lower
animals.
With regard to the theory of the polar origin of life and the
gradual dispersal of animals from the arctic regions, it may be
briefly stated that the presumed series of .radiations of life
southward from the northern pole can have nothing to do with
the present geographical distribution of animals, since we have
abundant evidence that mammals have been spread over the
whole of the warmer parts of the globe since, at any rate, the
commencement of the Tertiary period, while the radiation of
reptiles commenced at a much earlier epoch.
As regards barriers to the free dispersal of nonvolant terrestrial
animals these may be grouped under two main heads, namely,
climatic and geographical, of which the second is by far the more
important. At the present day a certain number of animals
are fitted to live respectively only in hot and in cold climates.
The man-like apes and elephants among mammals, and trogons
and parrots among birds, are, for example, now exclusively
dwellers in tropical or subtropical climates; whereas the polar
bear, the musk-ox and ptarmigan are equally characteristic
of the arctic zone. To a great extent this must be regarded
as a comparatively modern adaptive feature, since many of
these arctic and tropical animals belong to groups the distribu-
tion of which, either in the past or the present, is more or less
independent of climate. Elephants, for instance, formerly in-
habited Siberia at a time when the climate, although probably
less cold than at present, was certainly not tropical; while
the polar bear is a specialized member of a group some of the
representatives of which are denizens of the tropics.
It is true, indeed, that within the limits of the different
zoological regions temperature-control has had an important
influence on the distribution of animals, and has resulted in
certain cases in the formation of life-zones, as in North America.
As remarked, however, by H. A. Pilsbry and J. H. Ferriss l in
connexion with, the distribution of land-molluscs," the life-
zones of the United States as mapped by Dr C. H. Merriam
emphasize the secondary and not the primary facts of distribu-
tion. The laws of temperature-control do not define trans-
continental zones of primary import zoologically. These zones
are secondary divisions of vertical life-areas of which the mol-
luscan faunas were evolved in large part independently." And
what is true of molluscs will hold good in the case of several
other groups.
1 Proc. Academy of Philadelphia, 1906, p. 123.
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[TERRESTRIAL
There is also the phenomenon of vertical temperature-control.
On this subject Dr A. R. Wallace has written (Ency. Brit.,
gth ed., art. " Distribution "): " As we ascend lofty mountains,
the forms of life change in a manner somewhat analogous to
the changes observed in passing from a warm to a cold country.
This change is, however, far less observable in animals than in
plants; and it is so unequal in its action, and can so frequently
be traced to mere change of climate and deficiency of food,
that it must rank as a phenomenon of secondary importance.
Vertical distribution among animals will be found in most
cases to affect species rather than generic or family groups,
and to involve in each case a mass of local details. . . . The
same remarks apply to the bathymetrical zones of marine life.
Many groups are confined to tidal, or shallow, or deeper waters;
but these differences of habit are hardly geographical, but in-
volve details, suited rather to the special study of individual
groups." Temperature-control is therefore mainly a factor
which has acted independently in the different zoological
regions of the globe, and as such demands little or no further
mention in a general sketch of the present nature.
The same remark will apply in the case of the influence of
humidity on distribution, and also as regards " station." To
illustrate the latter we may take the instances of the European
squirrel and the chamois, the former of which is found only
in wooded districts and is entirely absent from the open plains,
while the latter occurs only in the isolated mountain ranges of
the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines and the Caucasus. The
distributional area of both may, however, be regarded as includ-
ing Europe generally, so that these local restrictions of range
have nothing to do with the wider problems of distribution.
Very different is the case with regard to geographical barriers
to the free dispersal of terrestrial animals. It should be ob-
served, however, that even these act with different degrees of
intensity in the case of different groups. From the fact that
the great majority of them are oviparous, reptiles, whose powers
of dispersal in the adult state are generally as restricted as those
of mammals, have an advantage over the latter in that their
eggs may be carried long distances on floating timber down
rivers and thence across the ocean, or may even be occasionally
transported by birds. The eggs of batrachians, like those of
fresh-water fishes, will in some cases at any rate withstand
being frozen, and hence conceivably may be transported by
floating ice. Adult insects may be carried in the same manner
as the eggs of reptiles. After all, however, such unusual means
of transport are probably of no great importance; and it seems
most likely that the varying features in the geographical dis-
tribution of different groups of animals are due much more to
differences in the dates of radiation, or dispersal of those groups,
than to varying degrees of facility for overcoming natural
geographical barriers to dispersal.
The greatest barriers of all are formed by the ocean and the
larger rivers; and from the former factor it follows that zoo-
logical regions coincide to a considerable extent although by
no means altogether with the main geographical (as distinct
from political) divisions of the earth's surface. In the main,
mammals and other nonvolant terrestrial animals are debarred
from crossing anything more than comparatively narrow
channels of the sea, while even these and the larger rivers form
a more or less effectual barrier to the dispersal of the great
majority of the species. Hence it results that oceanic islands
are usually devoid of such forms of life; while it may be laid
down, as a general rule, that the existence of nearly allied types
of terrestrial animals in countries now separated by stretches
of sea implies a former land-connexion between them. There
are, however, in many cases great difficulties in determining
the nature of such connexions, largely owing to the fact
that we are still in the dark as to whether the dispersal
of many groups of animals has taken place down the lines of
the present continents from north to south or equatorially
by means of belts of land long since swallowed up by the ocean.
In this connexion it may be remarked, as tending against the
old idea of the radiation of all the modern groups of terrestrial
animals from the north towards the south, that there is decisive
evidence to prove the existence during the Tertiary period (so
far at least as mammals are concerned) of certain great centres
of development, and in some instances, at all events, also of
radiation, in the southern hemisphere; one of these develop-
mental centres being in Africa a second in South America, and
a third hi Australia.
To the general law that straits and arms of the sea form an
effectual barrier to the dispersal of the larger land-animals,
and more especially mammals, certain exceptions may be
pleaded. Jaguars have, for instance, been known to cross the
Rio de la Plata, while tigers constantly swim from island to
island in the delta of the Ganges and probably also in the Malay
Archipelago, and a polar bear has been observed swimming
twenty miles away from land in Bering Sea. Deer, certain
antelopes, pigs and elephants are also good swimmers; while
hippopotamuses and crocodiles especially the latter can
cross channels of considerable width. The great tropical and
subtropical rivers also carry down masses of floating soil or
large trees upon which mammals and reptiles are borne, and
although in many or most instances such are swept out to sea
and their occupants drowned, in other instances they may be
stranded upon the opposite bank or shore where their living
freight can effect a landing. Such instances, however, cannot
be very frequent, and they cannot affect widely sundered
countries, owing to the lack of food supplies. Moreover,
supposing a mammal to have reached a new land, unless it
happened to be a pregnant female, or unless another
individual of the opposite sex be similarly stranded, it would
eventually die without progeny. Even in the case of a pregnant
female, there is no certainty that the offspring, if but one,
would be a male; and even supposing this to be the case, the
progeny might perish from the attacks of other animals or from
inbreeding. On the whole, it may be said, that instances of
such methods of dispersal must be relatively few and can affect
only countries not very widely sundered. The most important
case that can be cited is the occurrence of a pig and an extinct
hippopotamus in Madagascar, which probably reached that
island by swimming from Africa. As a rule, a strait like that
separating Ceylon from India may be considered an effectual
barrier to the dispersal of large land-animals.
Although the Rio de la Plata has effectually prevented the
a.mphibious carpincho from reaching Argentina, deserts form
even more impassable barriers than large rivers, the Sahara
having prevented the North African fauna from reaching the
heart of that continent. High and continuous mountain-
ranges are likewise most effective in restricting the range of
animals; this being more especially the case when, like the
Himalaya, their trend is equatorial instead of, as in the case
of the Rocky Mountains and the Andes, from north to south in
the direction of the main continental extension. Forests also
present great obstacles to animal migration, although this is to
a great extent of a local nature and comes, in fact, under the
category of " station." Indeed, there appears to be no in-
stance of the separation of one zoological region from another
by forest alone.
Lastly it should be mentioned that ice may serve as a factor
in the dispersal of animals by acting as a bridge between
different land-areas; and at some period this means of communi-
cation may have aided in the great migrations of animals that
have taken place between the Old and the New World by way
of what is now Bering Sea.
I. TERRESTRIAL DISTRIBUTION
The zoological regions recognized by Dr A. R. Wallace in
1876, which are in the main identical with those Zoological
proposed by Dr P. L. Sclater in 1858, and are chiefly Regions.
based on the distribution of birds and mammals, are as
follows:
I. Poloearctic, which includes Europe to the Azores and Iceland,
temperate Asia from the high Himalaya and west of the Indus,
with Japan, and China from Ningpo and to the north of the watershed
TERRESTRIAL]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1005
of the Yane-tse-kiang ; also North Africa and Arabia, to about
the line of the tropic of Cancer.
2. Ethiopian, including Africa south of the tropic of Cancer,
as well as the southern part of Arabia, with Madagascar and the
adjacent islands.
3. Oriental, or Indo-Malay, comprising India and Ceylon, the
Indo-Chinese countries and southern China, and the Malay Archi-
pelago as far as the Philippines, Borneo and Java.
4. Australian, composed of the remainder of the Malay Archi-
pelago, Australia, New Zealand and all the tropical islands of the
Pacific, as far east as the Marquesas and the Low Archipelago.
5. Neotropical, which comprises South America and the adjacent
islands, the West Indies or Antilles, and Central America and Mexico.
6. Nearctic, consisting of temperate and arctic North America,
with Greenland.
" These six regions," remarks Dr Wallace, " although all
of primary importance from their extent, and well marked
by their total assemblage of animal forms, vary greatly in their
zoological richness, their degree of isolation and their relation-
ship to each other. The Australian region is the most peculiar
and the most isolated, but it is comparatively small and poor
in the higher animals. The Neotropical region comes next in
peculiarity and isolation, but it is extensive and excessively
rich in all forms of life. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions are
also very rich, but they have much in common. The Palae-
arctic and Nearctic regions being wholly temperate are less
rich, and they too have many resemblances to each other; but
while the Nearctic region has many groups in common with
the Neotropical, the Palaearctic is closely connected with the
Oriental and Ethiopian regions."
In Dr Sclater's original scheme the first four of the above regions
were bracketed together under the designation of Palaeogaea,
and the fifth and sixth, or those belonging to the New World,
as Neogaea. T. H. Huxley, in a paper on the distribution of
game-birds, published in the Proceedings of the Zoological
Society of London for 1868, instead of dividing the world into
an eastern and a western division, adopted a northern and a
southern division, calling the former Arctogaea, and the latter
(which included Australasia and the Neotropical region of Messrs
Sclater and Wallace, but not the Ethiopian region) Notogaea.
In 1874 Dr Sclater, 1 taking mammals as well as birds into
consideration, adopted Huxley's Arctogaea as the major northern
division to include the Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental and
Ethiopian regions; and instead of Huxley's Notogaea recognized
three primary divisions, namely, Dendrogaea for the Neotropical
region, Antarctogaea for the Australian region (in a somewhat
restricted sense), and Ornithogaea for New Zealand and Poly-
nesia.
The tendency of these amendments on the original scheme
of a simple division into six regions was to recognize three
primary divisions of higher rank than such " regions." This
view was adopted in 1890 by Dr W. T. Blanford, 2 who proposed
to designate these three major divisions of the earth's land
surface respectively the Australian, the South American and
the Arctogaean regions. A weak point in this scheme is that
since the term " region " is likewise applied to the subdivisions
of Arctogaea, there is a danger of confusion between the primary
and secondary divisions. An amendment proposed anony-
mously s in 1893 was to substitute the names Notogaea,
Neogaea and Arctogaea for the three primary divisions of
Dr Blanford. Yet another emendation, suggested by R.
Lydekker 4 and subsequently adopted by Prof. H. F. Osborn, 6
was to designate these three primary divisions as " realms,"
and to reserve the name " region " for their subdivisions.
Emendations on the original scheme also included modifica-
tions in the limits of the regions themselves. In 1878, for
instance, Dr A. Heilprin (in accordance with a suggestion of
1 Manchester Science Lectures, ser. 5 and 6, p. 202 seq.
1 Proc. Geol. Soc. (London, 1890), p. 76.
Natural Science, iii. 289.
4 Geographical Distribution of Mammals (London, 1896), p. 27.
6 " Correlation between Tertiary Mammal Horizons of Europe
and America," Annals New York Academy, xiii. 48 (1900).
The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals
(London, 1878).
Prof. A. Newton) proposed to nuite the Nearctic with the
Palaearctic region under the name of Holarctic; separating at the
same time from the former a " transitional " Sonoran, and from
the latter a similar Mediterranean, or Tyrrhenian, region, while
he also recognized a distinct Polynesian region, distinguished in
the main by negative characters. The Sonoran region was
subsequently adopted by Dr C. H. Merriam ' in 1892, and later
on by Dr Blanford in the address already cited, the title being,
however, changed to Medio-Columbian. A most important
proposal was also embodied in Dr Blanford's scheme, namely,
the separation from the Ethiopian region of Madagascar and
the Comoro islands to form a separate Malagasy region. Another
modification of the original scheme was to transfer the island of
Celebes, together with Lombok, Flores and Timor, from the
Australian to the Oriental region, or to regard them as repre-
senting a transitional region between the two. 8 The effect of
this change was practically to abolish " Wallace's line " (the
deep channel between the islands of Bali and Lombok and thence
northward through the Macassar Strait), the deepest channel
being really situated to the eastward of Timor.
The later evolution of the scheme, as presented by Dr Max
Weber,' may be tabularized, with some slight alteration, as
follows, the " realms " being printed in capitals, the regions
and sub-regions in ordinary type, and the transitional regions
in italics:
i. Holarctic.
I. ARCTOGAEA
2. Ethiopian. 3. Malagasy. 4. Oriental.
Nearctic Palaearctic
Sonoran Mediterranean Austro-Malayan
II. NEOGAEA III. NOTOGAEA.
5. Neotropical. 6. Australian
7. Polynesian
8. Hawaiian.
In the accompanying map the Sonoran and Mediterranean
transitional regions are represented as equivalent in value to
the main regions, and the Austro-Malayan transitional region
is not indicated. The recognition of a Polynesian and still
more of a Hawaiian region, is provisional.
The most distinct of the three primary realms is undoubtedly
Notogaea, the Australian section of which is the sole habitat of
egg-laying mammals (Monotremat*) and of a great yvofqfaea.
variety of marsupials, inclusive of the whole of the
diprotodonts, with the exception of the few (cuscuses) found in
the Austro-Malayan transitional region. Apart from monotremes
and marsupials, the only indigenous mammals found in Notogaea
are rodents and bats, with perhaps a pig in New Guinea; although
it is most probable that the latter is introduced, as is almost cer-
tainly the dingo, or native dog, in Australia. The rodents are all
referable to the family Muridae, and are mostly of peculiar types,
such as the golden water-rat (Hydromys) and the jerboa-rats (Coni-
lurus, Notomys, &c.); they are, however, in many instances more
or less nearly related to species found in Celebes, the mountains
of the Philippines and Borneo, and apparently represent an ancient
fauna. The mammalian fauna of Notogaea is practically _ limited
to the Australian region, its indigenous representatives in New
Zealand being only a couple of bats. The monotremes are in all
yrobability the survivors of a group which was widely spread in
urassic times; while marsupials, as represented by the American
opossums (Didelphyidae), had a very wide range even as late as the
Oligocene division of the Tertiary period. The diprotodont mar-
supials may not improbably have originated within the Australian
region, or this region conjointly with the Austro-Malayan transi-
tional region.
Notogaea is likewise the home of a number of peculiar types of
birds, some of which range, however, into the Austro-Malayan area,
that is to say, Celebes and Ceram. In the Australian region the
7 " The Geographical Distribution of Life in North America with
special reference to the Mammalia," Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington,
vol. vii. pp. 1-64 (1892).
See W. L. Sclater, " The Geography of Mammals," part v.,
Geographical Journal, 1806; M. Weber, " On the Origin of the
Fauna of Celebes," Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. iii. pp. 121-136
(1899), and Der Indo-australische Archipel und die Geschichte
seiner Tierwelt (Jena, 1902); Lydekker, " Celebes: a Problem
in Distribution," Knowledge, vol. xxi. pp. 175-177 (1898); see also
Deer of All Lands, p. 168 (1898).
Dte Saugetiere (Jena, 1904), p. 308.
ioo6
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[TERRESTRIAL
peculiar avian families include the birds-of-paradise (Paradiseidae),
the honeysuckers (Meliphagidae), and the lyre-birds (Menuridae)
among the perching group, the cockatoos (Cacatuidae) and lories
(Loriidae) among the parrots, the mound-builders, or brush-turkeys
(Megapodiidae) among the game-birds, and the cassowaries and
emeus (Casuariidae and Dromaeidae) in the ostrich group. The
peculiarity of the region is also marked by the absence of certain
widely spread family groups, such as the barbels (Megalaemidae),
the otherwise cosmopolitan woodpeckers (Picidae), the trogons
(Trogonidae), and the pheasant and partridge tribe (Phasianidae).
The reptiles, owing probably to tneir earlier radiation, are much
less peculiar, such widely spread types as the monitors (Varanidae)
and skinks, (Scincidae) being abundant, as are also crocodiles (Croco-
dilidae). The tortoises belong, however, exclusively to the side-
necked group (Pleurodira), now restricted to the southern hemi-
sphere; among these the most noteworthy being the giant horned
tortoise (Mioiania) from the Pleistocene of Queensland, which
belongs to a genus elsewhere known only from the South American
Tertiary. The Australian lung-fish (Ceratodus, or Neoceratodus) is
the sole survivor of a widely spread Triassic and Jurassic type.
The salmon tribe (Salmonidae), however, is notable for its absence,
although one peculiar form occurs in New Zealand; and the
Cyprinidae, or carps, are wanting throughout 'the realm, this
absence extending to Celebes, although in Borneo the group is
abundantly represented.
New Zealand, here provisionally included in a separate Poly-
nesian region, is characterized by the absence of all indigenous
mammals except two bats, each representing a peculiar genus.
Among birds, the Neogaeic family Meliphagidae includes several
peculiar genera, as does also the widely spread starling group
(Sturnidae) ; while the parrots of the genera Siringops and Nestor
are likewise peculiar. Still more noteworthy is the abundance of
the ostrich group, represented by the living kiwis (Apteryx), and
the moas (Dinornithidae) which have been exterminated within
comparatively recent times. Reptiles are scarce, but among them
the tuatera lizard (Sphenodon) is especially noteworthy on account
of being the sole survivor of an ordinal group (Rhynchocephalia)
widely spread during Triassic and Jurassic times.
Of the Hawaiian area (whether or no rightly regarded as a dis-
tinct region), it must suffice to state that it is the sole habitat of
the gorgeously coloured birds known as mamos, or sickle-bills
(Drepanididae).
With regard to the origin of the modern fauna of Notogaea,
and 'more especially the Australian region, as here restricted, we
enter extremely debatable ground. Dr Wallace, who refused to
admit the existence of any great inter-continental connexions in
the past, was of opinion that Australia received the ancestors of
its marsupials and monotremes from Asia by way of the Austro-
Malayan area (as it certainly has its rodents) " far back in the
Secondary period." This view has been endorsed by the present
writer 1 who suggested the early Eocene as the most probable date
of immigration; and it has also received the assent of Dr Max
Weber, 2 who is of opinion that in pre-Tertiary very likely Creta-
ceous times Australia was united by land with Asia. A Euro-
Asiatic fauna inhabited this land, from which during the Eocene
a southern portion was cut off by partial submergence, this southern
portion being the modern Australia and New Guinea, the home of
monotremes, marsupials and ancient forms of other groups, such
as cassowaries and birds-of-paradise, while widely distributed
specialized types are wanting. Northwards extended a coral-sea,
in the islands of which dwelt primitive rodents, insectivores and
other ancient groups, with perhaps cuscuses. During the Miocene,
great changes of level took place in the archipelago, which attained
its present form in the Pleistocene. Celebes was insulated early,
Java later. Intermittent land-connexions took place, which allowed
of periodical immigrations of Asiatic forms from one side and of
Australian types from the other. The question is left undecided
whether the cuscuses of the Austro-Malayan islands are remnants
of the primitive Euro-Asiatic fauna or later immigrants from
Australia. The suggestion is also made that the Australian and
Philippine rodents are survivors of the original pre-Tertiary fauna,
although it is admitted that the specialization of Hydromys is
against this. The author fails to see [any evidence in favour of a
former connexion of Australasia with either South America or a
former large antarctic continent (Antarctica).
While admitting that this may be the true explanation, Mr B. A.
Bensley* considers it possible that opossums (Didelphyidae), which
he regards as the ancestral stock of the marsupials, may have
effected an entrance into Neogaea by way of Antarctica. In
either event, he would place the date of entry as post-Eocene;
but against this view is the occurrence of remains of a diprotodont
marsupial (Wynyardia) in Tasmanian strata believed to be of
Eocene age. Prof. Baldwin Spencer* is also of opinion that the
1 Lydekker, Geographical Distribution of Mammals (1896).
2 Der Indo-Australische Archipel, &c. (Jena, 1902).
3 American Naturalist, xxy. 260 and 261 (1902).
4 Report of Horn Expedition to Central Australia, pp. 187 and
J88 (1896).
Australian marsupials and monotremes reached their present
habitat by means of a land-connexion in the south subsequent to
the insulation of New Zealand. This, of course, implies the exist-
ence of an extinct southern marsupial fauna of which we have no
knowledge except in the case of the Epanorthidae of Patagonia.
That Australia formed part of a great equatorial land-belt con-
necting the southern continents in Jurassic times appears to be
demonstrated by the evidence of the " Gondwana flora." The
question is whether such a connexion either by way of Antarctica
or not persisted in the case of Neogaea long enough to admit of
the ancestors of the modern fauna (supposing it all to have come
by a southern route) having effected an entrance. The existence
of such a land-bridge was suggested by Sir Joseph Hooker in 1847;
and the idea of a late connexion between Neogaea and Notogaea
has been adopted by L. Riitimeyer (1867), Captain F. W. Hutton
(1873), Prof. H. O. Forbes (1803), Mr C. Hedley (1895), Dr H. von
Ihering (1891 and 1900), Prof. H. F. Osborn, who takes an inter-
mediate view of the extent of the part played by Antarctica (1900),
and by Dr A. F. Ortmann (1902). On the other hand, Dr T. Gill
(1875) believed in the existence of an " Epgaea " connecting the
three great continents exclusive of Antarctica; and in 1884 ,Capt.
Hutton, abandoning his former view, suggested the connexion of
Australia and South America by means of a mid-Pacific continent.
A summary of these views, with references, is given by Dr Ortmann
in vol. xxxv. pp. 139-142 of the American Naturalist (1901).
So far as mammals are concerned, the evidence in favour of a
comparatively late land-connexion is weakened by the recent view
that certain supposed Patagonian Tertiary marsupials, such as
Prothylacinus, are really creodont Carnivora. On the other hand
(putting aside these carnivores), Mr W. J. Sinclair 6 is of opinion
that the living South American marsupial Caenolestes and its extinct
relatives are annectant forms between diprotodonts and polypro-
tpdonts, and not far removed from the ancestral stock which gave
rise to the Australian phalangers. The occurrence in the Tertiary
of Patagonia of primitive opossums, which cannot be regarded as
ancestral to the modern South American forms, is also an important
determination. From this, coupled with the testimony afforded
by the invertebrate faunas, he considers himself justified in stating
that " considerable evidence is now available to show that a land-
connexion between Patagonia and the Australian region existed not
later than the close of the Cretaceous or the beginning of the
Tertiary, and it is possible that at this time the interchange of
marsupials between the two continents was effected. Whether the
marsupials originated in South America and migrated thence to
Australia, or the reverse, cannot at present be determined." The
above-mentioned tortoises of the genus Mioiania also appear to
afford strong evidence of the persistence of the Jurassic connexion
between Notogaea and Neogaea to a comparatively late epoch.
Again, Prof. W. B. Benham,* from the evidence of earthworms,
is strongly disposed to believe in a late connexion between the
areas in question. From their invariable association with angio-
spermous plants, this author is of opinion that earthworms are a
comparatively modern group, which did not attain any important
development before the Cretaceous. The ancestral type would
appear to have been more or less nearly related to the existing
Notiodrilus, of which the headquarters, if not the birthplace, was
the " Melanesian plateau." New Zealand and the neighbouring
islands, which possess the most ancient worm-fauna, were separated
at an early date from this plateau. From this area the primitive
worms travelled in one direction into the Austro-Malayan countries,
while in another, by way of Antarctica, they reached South America
and Africa. With this brief summary of the chief views, this part
of the subject must be dismissed without the writer being com-
mitted to any definite conclusion.
Next to Notogaea the most distinct faunistic continental area,
so far at any rate as its present and later Tertiary mammals are
concerned, is Neogaea, containing, as we have seen, only Neogaea.
the Neotropical region. It is remarkable as being, with
the exception of Notogaea, the only land-area which contains at
the present day more than one living genus of marsupials, and also
a large middle Tertiary marsupial fauna. The living marsupials
include a large number of true opossums, constituting the family
Didelphyidae and Caenolestes the surviving representative of the
Epanorthidae of the Patagonian Tertiaries. The opossums are
represented by the genera Chironectes and Didelpkys; the latter
divisible into a number of sub-genera of which the typical group
alone ranged into North America. Whether the modern opossums
belong to the endemic Neogaeic fauna, or whether they are late
immigrants from the north (where they were represented in the
Oligocene of both hemispheres), is a question in regard to which
a definite answer can scarcely at present be given. It appears,
however, that Microbiotherium and certain allied forms from the
middle Tertiary of Patagonia are endemic representatives of the
Didelphyidae which did not give rise to the modern types. The
Epanorthidae, in the opinion of Prof. Max Weber, indicate a sub-
ordinal group by themselves; and if this be correct their evidence
* Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xlix. 73 (1905).
Report, Australian Assoc., ix. 319 (1903)-
TERRESTRIAL]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1007
in favour of a land-connexion between Neogaea and Notogaea
cannot have the weight attributed to it by Mr VV. J. Sinclair.
The typical Edentata (sloths, anteaters and armadillos) are at
the present day practically confined to Neogaea where they have
existed from the date of the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia (which
are probably of Miocene age). A few armadillos, however, have
penetrated into Texas ; and in the Pleistocene epoch several repre-
sentatives of the extinct ground-sloths (Megatheriidae) and a
glyptodon, or giant armadillo, also ranged into North America.
The group is, however, essentially Neogaeic. Among the monkeys
the Cebidae, or American monkeys, and their relatives the Hapalidae,
or marmosets, are likewise peculiar to Neogaea, where they date
from the Santa Cruz epoch. The vampire-bats, or Phvllostoma-
tidae, are likewise peculiar to this realm, and are doubtless also
endemic. With the exception of a few shrew-mice, which have
evidently entered from the north, continental Neogaea is at the
present day devoid of Insectiyora. It is, however, very note-
worthy that one peculiar family (Solenodontidae) of the order,
apparently nearly allied to the Malagasy Centetidae (tenrecs), occurs
in the West Indies, while the extinct Necrolestes, believed to be
near akin to the African golden moles (Chrysochloridae), is found
in the Santa Cruz beds. Rodents of more or less peculiar types
are highly characteristic of Neogaea and for the most part date
from the Santa Cruz epoch. Among these the Caviidae, Chin-
chillidae and Octodontidae are peculiar to this realm, while the
Capromyidae are common to the Ethiopian region of Arctogaea,
but are unknown elsewhere.
Ungulates are in the main very poorly represented in Neogaea
and include only the llama group (guanaco, &c.), tapirs, and
certain small or medium-sized deer related to North American
types. Palaeontological evidence tells us that these, like certain
peculiar genera of horses now extinct (such as Hippidium) and
mastodons, were comparatively recent intruders into the realm
from the north. On the other hand, Neogaea at the date of the
deposition of the Santa Cruz beds was the home of certain endemic
groups of ungulates, such as the Toxodontia and Litopterna, some
of the representatives of which (Toxodonand Macrauchenia) flourished
during the Pleistocene Pampean epoch.
Of the Carnivora, the civet group (Viverridae) is absent, and the
representatives of_the dog tribe (Canidae), bears (Ursidae), of which
there is only a single existing representative, cats (Felidae), and
probably raccoons (Procyonidae), must be regarded as intruders
from the north, although several genera of the last-named group
are peculiar to the area. In the Santa Cruz epoch the place of
these modern specialized Carnivora was taken by marsupial-like
creodonts, such as Prothylacinus.
In birds Neogaea is especially rich and contains more than a
score of family groups unknown elsewhere. Several of these, such
as the tyrant-birds (Tyrannidae), manakins (Pipridae), chatterers
(Cotingidae), ant-thrushes (Formicariidae), the oven-bird group
(Dendrocolaptidae) , plant-cutters(Phytotomidae) , and wren-thrushes
(Pteroptychidae), belong to a low and generalized type of the perch-
ing, or passerine, group. Among the so-called picarian birds,
which are likewise a generalized type, the big-billed toucans (Rham-
phasiidae), puff-birds (Bucconidae), jacamars (Galbulidae), motmots
(Momotidae) , and the vast assemblage of humming-birds (Trochilidae)
are in the main peculiar to this realm, although some of the last-
named family wander to the northward in summer. The condors
(Cathartidae), form a highly characteristic Neogaeic family; while
the hoatzin (Opisthocomus) represents another. Of the higher
forms of perching-birds the quit-quits (Coerebidae), greenlets
(Vireonidae), the hang-nests and many other representatives of the
Icteridae, and the tanagers (Tanagridae) are exclusively Neogaeic ;
while crows, starlings, thrushes, warblers and flycatchers are
either rare or wanting, although the finches are abundant. Parrots
are numerous, and represented by peculiar forms such as the macaws
(Ara) and conures or ordinary South American parrots (Conurus).
Very characteristic of the rea'm, and unknown elsewhere are the
curassows and guans (Cracidae) among the game-birds, the chajas,
or screamers (Palamedeidae), the trumpeters (Psophiidae), sun-
bitterns (Eurypygidae), and the seriema (Cariamidae). Allied
apparently to the last is Phororhachos, a giant extinct bird from
the Santa Cruz beds with a skull nearly as Targe as that of a pony.
The tinamous (Tinamidae), possibly an annectant type between
game-birds and the ostrich group, and the rheas or American
ostriches (Rheidae) are likewise exclusively Neogaeic. It may be
added that the distribution of all the members of the ostrich group
affords a strong argument in favour of a former union of the
southern continents, especially as their earliest known represen-
tative is African.
Among reptiles, the tortoises, with the exception of representa-
tives of the terrestrial genus Testudo, all belong to the Pleurodira,
and include several peculiar generic types such as Chelys (matamata)
and one, Podocnemis, common to Madagascar. The occurrence in
the Tertiary of Patagonia of a representative of Miolania, else-
where known only from the Pleistocene of Queensland, has been
already mentioned. A number of snakes of the boa group (Boinae)
occur in the realm, to which the genus Eunectes (anacondas) is
restricted; but Boa itself, like Podocnemis among the tortoises, is
common to Neogaea and Madagascar. The blind burrowing-
snakes of the family Glauconiidae occur throughout the warmer
parts of the realm, and are also found in Africa and south-western
Asia. The caimans or South American alligators (Caiman) are
solely Neogaean; the iguanas (Iguanidae) are mainly peculiar to
the realm, although a Tew inhabit North America, and there are
two outlying genera in Madagascar and a third in Fiji. The tejus
(Tejidae) are wholly Neogaean. The Xantusiidae are exclusively
Central American and Antillean; while the Amphisbaenidae are
practically restricted to Neogaea and Africa. On the other hand,
Lacertidae, Varanidae and Agamidae are absent. Tailed amphi-
bians are unknown south of Central America; but the region is
the home of several peculiar types of toads, such as Pipa (Surinam
toad) belonging to an otherwise Ethiopian section, and the majority
of the family Cystignathidae, as exemplified by the horned toad
and the escuerso (Ceratophrys), the remainder of the group being
Australian.
Freshwater fishes are very abundant in Neogaea, where they are
represented by a number of peculiar generic and certain family
types; some of the members have developed the remarkable habit
of feeding upon the floating fruits abundant in the rivers of the
tropical forest-districts.
The electric eels (Gymnotidae) are peculiar to the waters of
Neogaea, as are certain other groups, such as the armoured cat-
fishes (Loricariidae), while true cat-fishes (Siluridae) are extremely
abundant. Perhaps, however, the most remarkable feature of the
fish-fauna of Neogaea is its affinity to that of the Ethiopian region.
Among the lung-fishes the family Lepidosirenidae is, for example,
restricted to the two areas, with one genus in each, as is also the
family Characinidae. Much the same may be said of the Cichlidae,
which have, however, representatives in the Malagasy and Oriental
regions; and the Cyprinodontidae, which are extremely abundant
in Neogaea (where certain of their representatives are separated by
some naturalists as a distinct family, Poeciliidae) likewise present
the same general type of distribution, although their area includes
the southern fringe of the Palaearctic sub-region and a considerable
portion of the Oriental region.
As regards the past history of Neogaea, Professor Carl Eigen-
mann, writing in the Popular Science Monthly for June 1906,
observes that " in the earliest Tertiary tropical America consisted
of two land-areas, Archiguiana and Archamazonia, separated by
the lower valley of the Amazon, which was still submerged. There
was a land-mass, Hellenis, between Africa and South America,
possibly in contact with Guiana and some point in tropical Africa.
This land-mass, which was inhabited, among other things, by fishes
belonging to the families Lepidosirenida (lung-fishes), Poeciliidae,
Characinidae, Cichlidae and Siluridae (cat-fishes), sank beneath the
surface of the ocean, forcing the fauna in two directions, towards
Africa and towards South America, exterminating all types not
moved to the east or to the west. From these two rudiments have
developed the present diverse faunas of Africa and South America,
each reinforced by intrusions from the ocean and neighbouring
land-areas, and by autochthonous development within its own
border. . . . The connexion between Africa and South America
existed before the origin of present genera, and even before the
origin of some of the present families and sub-families, some time
before the early Tertiary. There has never been any exchange
between Africa and South America since that time."
This connexion between Neogaea and Africa was doubtless a
continuation of the old Jurassic equatorial land-belt to which
allusion has been already made; freshwater fishes being probably
a group of earlier radiation than mammals. Perhaps the distri-
bution of the reptilian genera common to Neogaea and Madagascar
may be explained in the same manner, although tortoises apparently
identical with Podocnemis occur ki the Eocene of Europe (as well
as in that of Africa and India), so that this group may have radiated
from the north. Whether the evidence of the Cystignathidae
among the amphibians and of the extinct Miolania among chelonians
is also evidence of the persistence of the Jurassic connexion between
Neogaea and Notogaea till a considerably later epoch must, for the
present, be left an open question. The distribution of other
families of lizards is, however, not in favour of such a connexion,
the Lacertidae and Agamidae being confined to the Old World,
inclusive of Australia but exclusive of Madagascar, while the cosmo-
politan Scincidae, so abundant in Notogaea, are extremely scarce
in Neogaea.
Reverting to the mammalian fauna, its evidence, combined with
that of geology, indicates that during the greater portion of the
Tertiary period South America was isolated from North America,
and inhabited by its autochthonous fauna of monkeys, marmosets,
sloths, ground-sloths, ant-eaters, armadillos, glyptodonts, toxodonts,
macrauchenias (together with certain other peculiar ungulates),
rodents, marsupials and creodonts, as well as by Phororhachos,
rheas, tinamous and probably some of the other groups of birds
now peculiar to the area. This state of things continued till the
later Miocene or Pliocene epoch, during some portion of which a
connexion was established with North America by way of the
isthmus of Darien. By means of this new land-bridge a certain
proportion of the autochthonous fauna of Neogaea was enabled
ioo8
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[TERRESTRIAL
to effect an entrance into North America, as is exemplified by the
occurrence there of ground-sloths and glyptodonts. Simultaneously
a large immigration of northern forms took place into Neogaea;
these invaders from Arctogaea, including cats and sabre-toothed
tigers, bears, fox-like dogs, raccoons, llamas, horses, tapirs, deer,
mastodons and perhaps opossums. While representatives of most
of these invaders have persisted to the present day, some groups,
such as horses and mastodons, have entirely disappeared, as has
also a large portion of the autochthonous fauna. Here it may be
well to notice that the evidence for the Insulation of Neogaea during
a large portion of the Tertiary period does not by any means rest
only on that supplied by mammals. C. H. Gilbert and E. C. Starks, 1
for instance, in a work on the fishes of the two sides of the isthmus
of Darien, wrote as follows: " The ichthyological evidence is over-
whelmingly in favour of the existence of a former open communica-
tion between the two oceans, which must have become closed at a
period sufficiently remote from the present to have permitted the
specific differentiation of a very large majority of the forms
involved. ... All evidence concurs in fixing the date of that
connexion at some time prior to the Pleistocene, probably in the
early Miocene." This, it will be observed, agrees almost precisely
with the conclusions drawn from the fossil mammalian faunas of
North and South America, which indicate that land-communication
between those two continents was interrupted during a consider-
able portion of the Tertiary epoch, and only re-established (or [?]
established for the first time) either towards the close of the Miocene
or the early part of the Pliocene epoch.
The South American mammalian fauna, as we now know it, is,
then, a complex, consisting of an original autochthonous element
and of a large foreign infusion from the north. As to the origin
of the latter, there is no difficulty; but some degree of obscurity
still prevails with regard to the source of the autochthonous fauna.
According to Prof. Eigenmann's interpretation of the evidence of
the fresh-water fishes the early Tertiary Atlantic " Hellenis " may
have been in contact with Guiana on the one side and tropical
Africa on _ the other. That such a connexion did really exist in
Tertiary times is the conclusion reached by Dr C. W. Andrews, 2
as the result of his studies of the Tertiary vertebrate fauna of the
Fayum district of Egypt, as expressed in the following passage:
" Speaking generally, it appears that (i) probably in Jurassic
times Africa and South America formed a continuous land-mass;
(2) in the Cretaceous period the sea encroached southwards over
this land, forming what is now the South Atlantic. How far this
depression had advanced southwards at the end of the Secondary
period is not clear, but it appears certain that the final separation
of the two continents did not take place till Eocene times, and
that there may have been a chain of islands between the northern
part of Africa and Brazil which persisted even till the Miocene."
By this route, as was suggested considerably earlier by Prof.
W. B. Scott and subsequently by the present writer, Neogaea may
have received a considerable portion pi its autochthonous mammal-
fauna. Further reference to this point is made later; but it may
be added that the evidence of the land-faunas is supplemented by
that of the shallow-water marine faunas on the two sides of the
Atlantic, which present a striking similarity.
In an address to the British Association at the meeting in 1905
in South Africa Mr G. A. Boulenger expressed himself, nowever,
as by no means satisfied with the evidence of a Tertiary connexion
between Africa and South America. " It is undeniable," he
observed, " that the hypothesis of a South Atlantic land-com-
munication in the Eocene has much in its favour, and when this
is really established, all difficulty in explaining the distribution of
the Cichlidae will have disappeared. In the meanwhile ... we
must not construct bridges without being sure of our points of
attachment." In this connexion it may be mentioned that those
who explain the distribution of certain forms -of life by the former
existence of a land-connexion between the southern continents ^by
way of " Antarctica," have attached some importance to the exist-
ence of fishes of the genus Galaxias in the freshwaters of New
Zealand, Australia, South America and the Cape. This evidence
has been shattered by Mr Boulenger's description (in a memoir of
the fishes of the Congo) of a marine representative of the genus
in question from the Southern Ocean.
For the zoological subregions of Neogaea the reader must refer,
as in the case of most of the other regions, to special works on
zoological distribution.
As Arctogaea includes the whole of the rest of the land-surface
of the globe (with the exception of Antarctica) it is almost impossible
Arct a. * 8' ve an Y general diagnosis even of its mammalian
fauna. It may be mentioned, however, that at the
present day monotremes are wholly wanting, while marsupials are
represented only by one or two species 01 opossums (Dtdelphys)
in North America and by cuscuses (Phalangcr) in the Austro-
Malayan subregion. The true or typical Edentata are, if we
except late wanderers from Neogaea into North America, absent
from this realm at the present date and during the Pleistocene;
the alleged occurrence of a ground-sloth in the Pleistocene of
1 Mem. Californian Academy, vol. iv. (1904).
1 Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrate, of the Fayum (London, 1906).
Madagascar being probably due to a misinterpretation. On the
other hand, this region, and more especially its eastern half, is the
great home of the ungulate mammals. Indeed rhinoceroses may be
considered absolutely characteristic of Arctogaea, since at one time
or another they have ranged over the whole area, except Mada-
gascar, and are quite unknown elsewhere. The modern land
Carnivora are likewise an essentially Arctogaeic group, which only
found its way into Neogaea at a comparatively recent epoch; and
the realm may be said to have been the birthplace of most of the
higher groups of placental mammals. The tortoises of the family
Trionychidae form an exclusively Arctogaean group, once ranging
all over the realm, although long since extinct in Europe.
If Madagascar be excepted, the Ethiopian region (or Ethiopia)
is the most distinct of all the regions of Arctogaea. So distinct
is it that, on the evidence of the distribution of moths,
Dr H. S. Packard 3 has suggested that it should be sepa-
rated from Arctogaea to form a realm by itself, under
the name of Apogaea. The mammalian fauna, even exclusive of
the Tertiary one of Egypt, does not, however, countenance such a
separation. By Sclater and Wallace, Madagascar was included in
the Ethiopian region, but that island was subsequently made a
region by itself by Dr Blanford. This separation of Madagascar
to form a Malagasy region has met with general acceptance; but
in the opinion of Mr R. I. Pocock, 4 who bases his conclusion on
the distribution of trapdoor-spiders (which in other respects accords
curiously well with that of mammals), it is not justified. The
mammalian evidence appears, however, to be overwhelmingly
strong in its favour; and it also receives support from reptilian
distribution. All are agreed that the Ethiopian region should
exclude that part of Africa which lies, roughly speaking, north-
ward of the tropic of Cancer. By Sclater and Wallace the region
was taken to include that portion of Arabia lying to the south
of the same tropic; but Mr Pocock 6 has pointed out that this
separation of Arabia into two portions is not supported by the
distribution of scorpions, and he would refer the whole of it to
the Mediterranean transitional region. The occurrence of a tahr-
gpat (Hemitragus) in Oman lends some support to this proposal
since that genus has no representative in Africa, and occurs else-
where only in the Himalaya and the mountains of southern India.
Other writers have not accepted Mr Pocock's emendation; and
the reference of the northern half of Arabia to the Mediterranean
and of the southern half to the Ethiopian region is usually followed.
The area is admittedly a meeting-ground of at least two faunas.
Discoveries in the Fayum district of Egypt have conclusively
proved that during the early (Eocene) part of the Tertiary period
Ethiopia was a great centre of development, and subsequently of
dispersal, instead of having received (as was formerly supposed)
the whole of its higher modern mammalian fauna from the north.
In this Ethiopian centre were developed the ancestors of the
elephants (Proboscidea) and of the hyraxes (Hyracoidea) ; the
latter group being represented by species of much larger size than
the existing forms, some of the former of which ranged into southern
Europe during the later Tertiary. It was also the home of a
peculiar subordinal group of ungulates (Barypoda), typified by
Arsinditherium, and may likewise have been the birthplace of the
swine (Suidae) as the earliest known representative of that group
(Geniohyus) occurs in the Fayum Eocene. The hippopotamuses
(Hippopotamidae), which appear to be descended from the Tertiary
Anthracotheriidae, may likewise be of Ethiopian origin, and the
same may turn out to be the case with the giraffe group (Giraffidae)
although definite evidence with regard to the latter point is wanting.
The occurrence of an ostrich-like flightless bird in the Fayum
Eocene the oldest known representative of that group is sugges-
tive that the Ratitae originated in Ethiopia, which would accord
well with their distribution both in the present and the past. A
giant land-tortoise (Testudo) is likewise known from the Fayum
beds, and as it is allied to the species recently or still inhabiting
Madagascar and the Mascarene islands, there is a strong probability
that Ethiopian Africa was likewise the centre of development and
dispersal of that group.
Turning to its existing mammalian fauna, Ethiopia possesses a
number of peculiar family or generic groups, and is also nearly
equally well characterized by the absence of others. As remarked
by Wallace, one of its characteristics is the great number of species
of large size. Among the Primates, it is the home of the typical
group of the Negroid branch of the human species, whose northern
limits coincide approximately with the boundary of the region
itself, being replaced in northern Africa by races of the Caucasian
stock. Gorillas and chimpanzees (Anthropopithecus) are peculiar
to the region, as are also baboons (Papio and Theropithecus), i(
southern Arabia be included. Monkeys abound, and although in
most cases nearly allied to those of the Oriental region, are genencally
' Science, ser. 2, vol. xix. p. 221 (1904). Dr Packard groups
Notogaea and Neogaea in a single realm under the name Antarc-
togaea. Some other writers, such as Dr H. Gadow, take Notogaea
to include all the three southern continents, and employ the term
Arctogaea for the rest of the world.
4 Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1903, pp. 340-368.
6 Natural Science, vol. iv., pp. 353-364 (1894).
TERRESTRIAL!
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1009
distinct. The Prosimiae, or lemuroids, include the galagos (Galago)
and pottos (Perodictycus), of which the latter are akin to the Oriental
loriscs, while the former are quite distinct from the Malagasy
lemurs. Among the Carnivora, the aard-wolf (Proteles), the
hunting-dog (Lycaon) and the long-eared fox (Otocyon) are peculiar
generic types, as are several forms of mungooses (Herpestinae) ;
while the spotted hyaena forms a subgenus by itself. The bear-
family (Ursidae), on the other hand, is totally absent. In the
great ungulate order the African elephant is widely sundered from
its Asiatic cousin, as are the two species of rhinoceros from their
representatives in the Oriental region; indeed each group is sub-
generically distinct. The hyraxes, forming the suborder Hyra-
coidea, are, with the exception of a single outlying Syrian species,
confined to Ethiopia. Zebras and true wild asses are likewise
peculiar to the region. More remarkable is the extraordinary
number of peculiar genera of antelopes, a few of which range,
however, into North Africa, Syria and Arabia; the African
buffaloes are markedly different from those of Asia; and sheep
and goats are absent from the region, with the exception of intruding
.into it to some extent in the mountains of the Sudan and Abyssinia.
The giraffe-family (Giraffidae), as represented by giraffes ((riraffa)
and the okapi (Ocapia), is absolutely confined to this region, from
which the deer-tribe (Cervidae) is completely absent. Chevrotains,
or mouse-deer, are represented by the peculiar genus Dorcatheriitm
(or Hyomoschus) ; in the pigs the wart-hogs (Phacochoerus), forest-
hogs (Hylochoerus), and the bush-pigs (subgenus Potamochoerus) ,
with the exception of one Malagasy species, are now unknown
elsewhere, as are also hippopotamuses. Rodents include a number
of peculiar types, among which may be noticed the scaly-tailed
squirrels (Anomaluridae), the jumping-hares (Pedetes), the strand-
moles (Bathyergidae), the crested-rats (Lophiomys), and the cane-
rats (Thryonomys, or Aulacodus); the last being nearly allied to
South American forms. In the Insectiyora, moles (Talpidae) are
absent, the jumping-shrews (Macroscelididae) are solely African,
although ranging north of the Sahara, while the golden moles
(Chrysochloridae) and the Potamogalidae are exclusively Ethio-
pian. Lastly, the ant-bears, or aard-varks (Orycteropodidae),
represent a suborder of the Edentata unknown elsewhere; while
the African pangolins (Manidae) differ markedly from their Oriental
kindred.
The Ethiopian birds are less peculiar. The ostrich (Struthio)
ranges, in suitable localities, all over the region, thus entering
the Mediterranean transition-region in the north. The guinea-
fowls (Numidinae) form a subfamily confined to Ethiopia and
Madagascar, where true pheasants are unknown. Other peculiar
types are plantain-eaters (Musophagidae), colics (Coliidae), wood-
hoopoes (frrisoridae), barbets (Megalaemidae), ground-hornbills
(Bucorvus), secretary-birds (Serpentariidae), glossy starlings (Lam-
protornis), ox-peckers (Buphaga), the genera Laniarius and Tele-
phorus, as well as a number of others, all of which are unknown
in Madagascar. In addition to true pheasants, wrens (Troglodyt-
idae) and water-ousels (Cinclidae) are unknown in the Ethiopian
region.
Apart from the widespread Trionychoidea (of which there are
two genera peculiar to the region), the Ethiopian fresh-water
tortoises belong to the section Pleurodira; the two genera Pelo-
medusa and Sternothaerus being common to Africa and Madagascar,
and unknown elsewhere. The Amphisbaenidae are common to
Neogaea and Ethiopia, to the exclusion of Madagascar; but the
Gerrnosauridae and Zonuridae, on the other hand, are restricted to
the present region and Madagascar, which also form the head-
quarters of chameleons. In contrast to the latter community is
the absence in Madagascar of Agamidae and Varanidae, which are
common in Ethiopia. The absence of slow-worms and their kindred
(Anguidae) is a marked negative feature of the present region.
As regards batrachians, the region has no salamanders or other
tailed forms, but, in common with India, possesses caecilians
(Apoda); while it shares the group of tongueless toads (Aglossa)
with Neogaea, its peculiar family being the Xenopodidae, in contra-
distinction to the South American Pipidae. The Pelobatidae are
absent, and true toads are few, but frogs are abundant.
Among fishes, Africa south of the Sahara possesses a number of
peculiar types. With Neogaea it shares the possession of the
typical lung^-fishes (Lepidosirenidae), while it is the habitat of the
species of bichir (Polypterus) and Caiamoichthys, the sole survivors
of the ancient group of fringe-finned ganoids (Crossopterygii).
The other families peculiar to Ethiopia are the Mormyridae (pro-
boscis-fishes), Pantodontidae, and Phractolaemidae ; the two latter
being represented only by a single species each. The Notopteridae,
Ophiocephalidae, Anabantidae, Osphromenidae and Mastacembe-
lidae are common to Ethiopia and the Oriental region. In addition
to the Lepidosirenidae, the Characinidae are peculiar to this region
and Neogaea. The Cichlidae occur in Madagascar, Ethiopia, the
Oriental region and Neogaea; and the Osteoglossidae are common
to the last three of these regions, as well as Australia, while the
Nandidae are Ethiopian, Oriental and Neotropical. On the
whole, the affinities of the fish-fauna of Ethiopia are nearest to
that of the Oriental region, and, secondly, to that of South
America.
Although invertebrates do not come within the scope of the
present article, it may be mentioned that Ethiopia is remarkable
for the total absence of fresh-water cray-fishes.
As regards its past history, Ethiopian Africa was in connexion
with India during the Triassic and Jurassic periods, the two areas
collectively forming " Gondwanaland," which doubtless constituted
a portion of the equatorial land-belt referred to as existing during
the epochs in question. Gondwanaland was the home of a large
section of the anomodont reptiles from which mammals have
sprung; and it is quite probable that the evolution of the latter
group took place within the present area. Between the Trias
and the Eocene little or nothing is known of the vertebrate palae-
ontology of Ethiopia; 1 and in Egypt there is also a long gap
between the lower Miocene and certain Pliocene beds in the Vvadi
Natrun. The Tertiary deposits of southern Europe and northern
India indicate, however, that Ethiopian Africa was m"free communi-
cation with these countries during the upper Miocene and Pliocene
epochs. There occur, for instance, either in south-eastern Asia or
southern Europe, or both, during the_ latter period numerous genera of
antelopes now restricted to Ethiopia, as well as giraffes, okapi-like
ruminants (Palaeotragus), elephants and rhinoceroses of an African
type, probably zebras, hippopotamuses, baboons, chimpanzees and
ostriches. Owing to imperfect knowledge of Pliocene Africa, it is
impossible to say whether these types were first developed in
Ethiopia or to the north-east, and consequently whether or not
Professor Huxley was right in his theory that the modern higher
mammalian fauna of Ethiopia came from the north. It has, how-
ever, been suggested that while the Bovidae are an autochthonous
Ethiopian group, the Cervidae originated in either the Holarctic
or the Oriental region; a theory which if confirmed will materially
aid in explaining the absence of the latter group from Ethiopia.
It is supported to some extent by the fact that we are acquainted
with primitive ancestral deer in the European Tertiary, while the
ancestors of the Bovidae are at present unknown. Whatever be
the truth on this point, it is manifest that whether the middle
Tertiary Bovidae migrated from Ethiopia to Asia or in the opposite
direction, there must have been some cause which barred the
entrance by the same route into the latter area of all members
of the deer-tribe (as well as bears). It should be added that
although the ancestral Proboscidea were Ethiopian, the passage
from the mastodons into the true elephants appears to have taken
place in Asia; a circumstance which would imply the Asiatic
origin of the African elephant.
The evidence in favour of the continuation of the Mesozoic land-
bridge between Ethiopia and Neogaea has been discussed under
the heading of the latter area. If the arguments in favour of
suoh a connexion are valid, it is to the old mammal fauna of
Ethiopia that we must probably look for the progenitors of the
Santa Cruz fauna of Patagonia. Very noteworthy is the alleged
occurrence of remains of primitive armadillos in the Oligocene beds
of southern Europe in association with those of pangolins and
aard-varks; since, if these fossils be rightly determined, there at
once arises the probability of Africa having been the original home
of the entire Edentate order.
In the case of an island lying so close to the African continent
as does Madagascar the natural expectation would be that its
fauna should be intimately related to that of the former. ..
As a matter of fact in the case of mammals and birds, j"^
at any rate ^it is much more distinct from the Ethiopian
fauna than is the latter from the fauna of either the Oriental or
the Holarctic region. The evidence^ from the above-mentioned
groups in favour of recognizing a distinct Malagasy region is in
fact positively overwhelming, while it is also supported in some
degree by the distribution of groups other than those named. In
place of the Ethiopian assemblage of apes, monkeys, baboons,
galagos and pottos, Madagascar (together with the Comoro islands)
possesses an absolutely unique fauna of lemurs, constituting the
family Lemuridae, which, as now understood, is confined to this
island, where it is represented by the three subfamily-groups of
sifakas (Indrisinae), true lemurs (Lemurinae), and aye-ayes (Chiro-
myinae). All these animals agree with one another in the char-
acters of the tympanic region of the skull; thereby differing from
the African and Oriental Prosimiae, but agreeing with the European
Oligocene Adapts,^ which must apparently be regarded as the ances-
tral form. This is a striking confirmation of the theory advanced
many years ago by Huxley that Madagascar received its lemuroid
fauna from Europe at a very early date, since which time, at any
rate, it has been isolated from Africa. Some of the Pleistocene
Malagasy lemurs were much larger than any of the living forms,
rivalling in this respect a chimpanzee. The Carnivora are repre-
sented only by a small number of species, mostly referable to
peculiar genera, of Viverridae, among which the fossa (Cryplo-
procta) is the largest. In the ungulates there are only two extinct
species of hippopotamus and a living bush-pig, the ancestors of all
three of which probably crossed the Mozambique channel by swim-
ming; and Edentata are equally conspicuous by their absence.
Insectivora, on the other hand, are represented by the tenrecs
(Centetidae), with numerous generic types, whose nearest relatives
1 The fossils of the Uitenhage beds, now generally classed as
Jurassic, consist chiefly of invertebrates and plants.
IOIO
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[TERRESTRIAL
appear to be the west Indian solenodons. The bats are likewise
different from those of the mainland; a notable feature being the
occurrence of flying-foxes of the Asiatic and Australian genus
Pteropus. Of the countless rodents of Africa, all are wanting;
while the only members of that group inhabiting the island are
certain rat-like animals collectively constituting the family Neso-
myidae.
The birds are scarcely less remarkable than the mammals, such
common Ethiopian types as the ostrich, secretary-bird, honey-
guides (Indicator), wood-hoopoes, ground-hornbills, ox-peckers,
barbets and glossy starlings being entirely unknown. On the
other hand, the Malagasy region, inclusive of the Mascarene islands,
comprises quite a number of distinctive bird-genera, such as Mesites,
Tylas, Artamia, Calicalicus, Euryceros, Philepitta, Atelornis and
Leptosomus; the first of these representing a peculiar family of
game-birds, while the last, including only the kirombo, forms a
subfamily of rollers (Coraciidae). In the Pleistocene the ostrich
group was represented by various species of Aepyornis, probably
the original of the legendary roc; while within historic times
Mauritius and Reunion were the respective homes of the two species
of dodo (Didus), and Rodriguez was inhabited by the solitaire
(Pezophaps), the three constituting the family Dididae. The
guinea-fowls, on the contrary, form a group common to the Ethiopian
and Malagasy regions and are unknown elsewhere.
Many of the features of the reptilian fauna are alluded to under
the headings of Neogaea and the Ethiopian region. Among lizards,
the absence of Agamidae, Veranidae, Lacertidae, Amphisbaenidae
and Anguidae is very remarkable, since all these except the last
are Ethiopian. In addition, Madagascar possesses, apart from the
cosmopolitan skinks and geckos, only Gerrhosauridae, Zonuridae
and chameleons (Chamaeleontidae), which are essentially African
groups. Affinity with Neogaea is indicated by the presence of a
few iguanas, of snakes of the boa group (especially the genus Boa),
and of Podocnemis among the tortoises. The other pleurodiran
tortoises are, however, of an Ethiopian type. The same may
perhaps be said with regard to the giant land-tortoises of the genus
Testudo, which in Pleistocene or modern times were spread over
all the islands of the region, while they existed in Africa in the
Eocene, as well as in India in the Pliocene. The spider-tortoise
(Pyxis) is a peculiar cryptodiran Malagasy genus. In the matter
of batrachians the Malagasy region lacks both coecilians (Apoda)
and tongueless toads (Aglossa), while it has abundance of true frogs
(Raninae), among them the Oriental jjenus Rhacophorus. Of fishes,
the peculiar Ethiopian types are absent frpm the present region,
although the community of the Cichlidae to Neogaea and the
Ethiopian, Malagasy and Oriental regions is noteworthy. It may
be added that Madagascar differs from Ethiopia in possessing one
fresh-water cray-fish, the representative of a genus by itself.
The radical distinctness of the Malagasy fauna is thus demon-
strated from all sides. That the island has been separated from
Ethiopia during the greater portion of the Tertiary period is self-
evident. The interpretation of its relationships with other regions
is, however, exceedingly difficult. It is generally considered that
the Comoro and Seychelle groups mark the line of a former con-
nexion between Madagascar and India, and also with South Africa;
but it is evident that this line must have been closed to the passage
of mammals since a very remote date, as is exemplified by the
fact that the lorises of Ceylon and southern India are quite distinct
from the Malagasy lemurs, and much nearer to the African pottos.
Whether the occurrence of South American types of reptiles (boas,
Podocnemis, and iguanas) in Madagascar and not in Africa can be
held to indicate a late connexion with Neogaea by way of the
Pacific, cannot yet be decided. The occurrence of iguanas in Fiji
is, however, as noteworthy as is the community of Miolania to
Patagonia and Queensland. Moreover, Polynesia is evidently a
subsiding area. In the opinion of Captain F. Hutton 1 the land-
shells of the genus Endodonta, which range all through Polynesia,
New Zealand, eastern Australia, New Guinea and the Philippines,
with an outlier in Ceylon, afford the best evidence in favour of a
Polynesian continent, the Singhalese outlier pointing to the conclu-
sion that this group of molluscs originally came from the north.
The molluscan evidence will not, however, explain the South
American connexion.
Zoological evidence of the latter connexion, by way of Antarctica,
is afforded by the earthworms of the family Acanthodrilidae, which
are unknown north of the equator, although their occurrence in
Madagascar may point to a northern origin. Additional evidence
of a connexion with Patagonia is afforded by the occurrence in the
Tertiary strata of South America and New Zealand of a number of
shallow-water marine invertebrates. Further, the occurrence of
these forms in older strata in South America than in New Zealand
suggests that the migration took place from the former to the
latter area.
The relatively small and wholly tropical or subtropical Oriental
region was originally taken to include the Punjab ; but in a memoir,
of which an abstract appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London for 1900 (vol. Ixvii. p. 484), Dr Stanford came
1 Index Faunae Novae- Zealandiae (London, 1904).
to the conclusion that the Punjab differs so remarkably in its
fauna from the rest of India that it cannot be included in the
Oriental region, and must be assigned to the Mediter- oriental
ranean transitional region. To the latter belongs also the rexlon
Himalayan area above the forests, as does Tibet. India
proper, together with Ceylon, is regarded as a single subdivision
of the Oriental region, under the title of Cisgangetic, while the
Himalaya and Burma form a second subregion, the Transgangetic,
which also includes southern China, Tonquin, Siam and Cambodia.
A third subregion, the Malayan, includes southern Tenasserim, the
Malay Peninsula, and the Malay Archipelago exclusive of Celebes.
In the map in the present article the last-named island is included
in the present region, although, as stated, it is by preference referred
to an Austro-Malay transitional region. Wallace drew the main
line dividing the Oriental from the Australian region between the
islands of Bali and Lombok, and between Borneo and Celebes:
" The strait [between Bali and Lombok] is here fifteen miles wide,
so that we may pass in two hours from one great division of the
earth to another, differing as essentially in their animal life as
Europe does from America. If we travel from Java or Borneo to
Celebes or the Moluccas, the difference is still more striking." The
hydrographic results obtained by the Dutch Siboga Expedition
show, however, that although there exists a line of great depth
separating the two areas, this line on no point corresponds to
" Wallace's line." On the contrary, it passes east of Timor and
through the Banda and Molucca seas, separating Sula from Buru,
Obi and Halmaheira. For this line which replaces " Wallace's
line," Dr A. Pelseneer has proposed the name of " Weber's line."
It is this " Weber's line " which marks the real division between
the Arctogaeic and the Notogaeic faunas, although it has been
convenient to make Celebes the centre of an intermediate transi-
tional region.
The Oriental region agrees with the Ethiopian in being inhabited
by elephants, rhinoceroses, buffaloes, several large representatives
of the Felidae (among which the lion, leopard and hunting-leopard
are common to the two areas), and numerous civets and mungooses.
The elephant and the three species of rhinoceros are, however,
subgenerically distinct from their Ethiopian relatives, and the
buffaloes are also widely different from those of Africa. Wild
cattle (of the subgenus Bibos), as represented by the gaur and the
bantin, are peculiar to this region; and, with the exception of
gazelles, antelopes are poorly represented, although the three
genera Antilope (blackbuck), Tetroceros (chousingha), and Trago-
camelus (nilgai) are restricted to the area. Southern India has
one tahr (Hemitragus) in its mountains, and this genus also occurs
in the Himalaya, where serows (Nemorhaedus) and gorals ( Urptrag-us)
-^-goat-like antelopes ranging through the Malay countries are
likewise met with. Deer (Cervidae) are abundant, and include
three peculiar subgenera of Cervus, namely Rusa, Hyelaphus and
Rucervus, to the exclusion of the typical red deer group. The
typical Tragulus represents the chevrotains; and the pigs, unlike
those of Ethiopia, belong to the typical section of Sus. In addition
to Neogaea, the Malay subregion is now the sole habitat of tapirs
(Tapiridae). A notable distinction from Ethiopia is the presence
of bears, which are, however, distinct from the typical Ursus arctus
group of the north. 4 Borneo and Sumatra form the home of the
orang-utan (Simia), the sole Oriental representative of the Simiidae,
while the gibbons (Hylobatidae), which range as far west as the
eastern Himalaya, are restricted to the region. The monkeys are
all generically distinct from those of Ethiopia. The tarsier repre-
sents a family (Tarsiidae) by itself; and the lorises a subfamily
(Nycticebinae) peculiar to the forest-tracts. Fruit-bats of the genera
Pteropus, Rousettus and Cynopterus help to distinguish the region
from Ethiopia; while among the Insectivora the tupais, or tree-
shrews (Tupaiidae), .with three genera, and the rat-shrews (Gym-
nurinae), also with three generic modifications, are likewise solely
Oriental. The cobegos, or flying-lemurs (Galeopithecus) , represent
an ordinal group (Dermoptera) peculiar to this region; while there
are several distinctive genera of rodents, especially in the mountains
of the Philippines, where some approximate closely to the Australian
type represented by Hydromys.
Pangolins, of a type different from those of Ethiopia, alone repre-
sent the Edentata. A striking feature of the mammalian fauna of
the region is the presence of so many peculiar and probably archaic
types in the Malay subregion, and the affinity of the fauna of this
area to that of western Africa. Both districts may be said to be
highly conservative in the matter of their faunas.
The birds are extremely abundant, and include a number of
peculiar genera to which detailed reference is impossible. There is
no representative of the ostrich group; and the place of guinea-
fowls is taken by pea-fowl (Pavo) and argus-pheasants (Argusiana),
while francolins (Francolinus) abound. Attention may be directed
to the abundance of pheasants, pigeons, king-fishers, sunbirds,
flycatchers and starlings. The babblers (Timeliidae) are especially
numerous, the group allied to the hill-robin (Liothrix) being peculiar
to the region, as are also the green bulbuls (Chloropsis). True
2 One member of this group has . recently been described from
the Shan States.
TERRESTRIAL]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
ion
bulbuls (Pycnonotidae) and king-crows (Dicruridac) are also more
abundant than elsewhere; while the broad-bills (Eurylaemidae) are
peculiar.
Among reptiles, the long-snouted crocodiles of the genera Gavialis
and Tomistoma are elsewhere unknown at the present day. The
river-tortoises of the family Trionychidae have three peculiar genera ;
while the other fresh-water tortoises differ from those of Ethiopia
in belonging to the section Cryptodira, of which there are a number
of peculiar generic types. The family Platysternidae is solely repre-
sented by a tortoise confined to the Malay countries. In the
lizards the family Anguidae is represented by one genus; Agamidae
are rery abundant; and include several types peculiar to the
region, among which may be noticed the flying-dragons (Draco).
Chameleons are rare. The burrowing-snakes of the genus Typhlops
are exceedingly numerous; the allied Ilysiidae are common to
India and Neogaea; while the Uropeltidae are restricted to India
and Ceylon. In the presence of pythons the region agrees wjth
Ethiopia, as it does in possessing cobras; but it divides with
Neogaea the range of the Amblycepnalidae, while it is also inhabited
by pit-vipers (Crotalinae), which form an exclusively Asiatic and
American group. Among the Amphibia, the region agrees with
Ethiopia in possessing representatives of the limbless Apoda, but
differs in the presence of frogs of the family Pelobatidae, while
toads (Bufonidae) and true frogs (Raninae), especially those of
the genus Rhacophorus, are abundant.
Of the fishes it must suffice to state that lung-fishes and ganoids
are absent, as are also Mormyridae. But the families Ophio-
cephalidae (serpent-heads) and Rhynchobdellidae (or Mastacem-
belidae), which have a few African representatives, are abundant;
while the Cobitidae are a group unknown in Ethiopia. Siluridae
and Cyprinidae are common.
Allusion has been already made to the presence of African forms
of mammals in the Tertiary deposits of northern India (some of
which are, however, within the Mediterranean transition-region) ;
and it may be added that remains of a baboon (Papio) and of a
large pangolin allied to the west African species have been found
in Madras.
Few words must suffice for the Malayan transitional area, which
embraces Celebes, the Moluccas, &c. ; and has a fauna showing a
blending of that of the Oriental with that of the Australian
region. While Celebes possesses a small buffalo allied
* lay * a to the Indian species, a monkey (Cynopithecus), and a
Hloa ' peculiar type of pig (Babirusa), it has also cuscuses
re * loa - (Phalanger), while cassowaries, cockatoos and other
Notogaeic types occur in the area. A notable feature is also the
absence of Cyprinidae (carps) from Celebes, although they are
abundant in Borneo.
The Mediterranean transition-region, the limitations of which
are approximately shewn on the map, must likewise be dismissed
with brief notice; its fauna at the eastern end being
intermediate between those of the Oriental and the
"*" Holarctic region, while in the west it serves as the
" No-man's-land between the Holarctic and the Ethiopian
rf * loa ' faunas. The most distinct portion of the Mediterranean
fauna is undoubtedly that of Tibet, where are such peculiar types
among mammals as the takin (Budorcas), the chiru antelope (Pan-
tholops), the yak, representing a subgenus of Bos, snub-nosed
monkeys (Rhinopithecus), the giant panda (Aeluropus), and certain
peculiar shrews (Nectogale).
Farther west the great mole-rat (Spalax), the rabbit (subgenus
Oryciolagus) and the two species of fallow-deer (subgenus Dama),
are very characteristic of the Mediterranean zone, which is also
the home of the addax antelope (Addax),the Barbary sheep (sub-
genus Ammotragus), and numerous true sheep, wild goats and
gazelles. Ctenodaclylus, the gundi, is a characteristic North African
genus of rodents. It is also noteworthy that with the Mediter-
ranean zone we enter the domain of typical deer of the red deer
group (Cervus), and of bears of the brown bear group ( Ursus arctus).
The wolf and the fox are also animals whose territory we reach
on entering the Mediterranean zone, although neither of these, or
the brown bear, are confined to this tract, or even to the Palae-
arctic section of the Holarctic region.
Reference to many other animals of the Mediterranean tract
will be found under the heading of the Palaearctic subregion.
The Holarctic region, which comprises the whole of the land
lying northward of the Mediterranean transitional zone in the
^^ eastern, and north of the Sonoran zone in the western
t " : hemisphere, is the largest of all the zoological provinces
n f loa - of the globe. The whole territory is extra-tropical, and
it is inhabited at the present day neither by monotremes, mar-
supials, edentates, lemurs nor monkeys, although representatives
of the three latter occur in portions of the Mediterranean transi-
tional region. The types common to the eastern and western
halves of this region are to be met with on the two sides of the
northern Pacific, and it is evident that the main communication
took place by way of, Bering Strait, although it has been suggested
that there was also a land-bridge connecting the European continent
with Iceland, and thus with Greenland.
Among characteristic groups of mammals common to the two
halves of the Holarctic region (or in some instances of portions ot
the adjacent transitional zones to the southward) the following
may be mentioned t elk (Alces), reindeer (Rangifer), wapiti (Cervus
canadensis and its Asiatic representatives), bison (subgenus Bison),
bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis and its representatives in north-
eastern Asia), musk-ox (Ovibos), now extinct in the eastern hemi-
sphere, glutton or wolverine (Gulo), brown bear (Ursui arctus and
its representatives in north-east Asia and America), lynx (Felis
lynx), wolf (Canis lupus), fox (C. wipes), pine-marten (Mustela
martes and the allied American form), ermine and weasel (Putorius),
variable hare (Lepus timidus and its relatives), picas (Ochotona, or
Lagomys'), beavers (Castor), marmots (Arctomys), chipmunks (Tamias),
susliks (Spermophilus, or Citillus), jumping-mice (Zapus), field-mice,
or voles (Microtus, or Arvicola), lemmings (Lemmus and Dicro-
stonyx), mole-shrews (Urotrichus), 1 and several genera of bats. To
these may be added, as more exclusively arctic forms, the polar
bear (Ursus maritimus), and the arctic fox (Canis lagopus). There
are likewise many groups or species of birds common to the two
divisions of the region. Among reptiles, the pond-tortoises of the
genus Emys, it we include their Pleistocene range, are an essentially
Holarctic (and Mediterranean-Sonoran) group. In regard to
fishes, the whole area is characterized by the abundance of sturgeons
(Acipenseridae), carps (Cyprinidae), pike (Esocidae), and the salmon-
grpup (Salmonidae), coupled with the scarcity of cat-fishes
(Siluridae).
Further testimony in favour of the unity of the Holarctic region
is afforded by the presence on the two sides of the Pacific (and
in most cases nowhere else) of true alligators (Alligator), giant
salamanders (Cryptobranchus and Megalobatrachus, really scarcely
worthy of separation), and shovel-beaked sturgeons (Scaphirhynckus).
Again, it is highly probable that Pere David s deer of Central Asia,
alone representing the genus Elaphurus, is akin to the fork-antlered
deer, Manama, of North America; and many other analogous
instances might be quoted. Finally, the distribution of earth-
worms affords the strongest confirmation of the view that the two
halves of the Holarctic region form but a single zoological province,
with the Mediterranean and Sonoran zones as transitional appen-
dages.
In briefly reviewing some of the chief faunistic areas of the
Palaearctic, as distinct from the Nearctic, subregion, it will be
convenient to include some of the groups and species
inhabiting the transitional Mediterranean zone, much of 5" .
which is in reality only a portion of the Palaearctic sub- *
region. Distinctive of the area in this wider sense are n * loa -
a number of wild sheep, such as Ovis musimon, gmelini, ammon,
poli, &c., which have no representatives on the other side of Bering
Strait, as well as wild goats, like Capra hircusaeeaerus, C. ibex,
and C. sibirica, belonging to an exclusively Old World genus.
The saiga antelope (Saiga) and the chamois (Rupicapra) may also
be regarded as Palaearctic (in the sense of Old World) types; as
are also wild horses (Equus caballus przewalskii), and the kiang
(E. hemionus) and onager (E. hemippus), the two latter being
commonly termed wild asses, although widely different from the
African animals properly so-called. There are also many peculiar
types of deer, inclusive of the red deer (Cervus elaphus), Pere
David's deer (Elaphurus), the roe-deer (Capreolus), and the musk-
deer (Moschus); while the Chinese water-deer (Hydrelaphus) is
one of the characteristic forms from the Mediterranean zone.
Camels (Camelus) are a type quite unknown east of Bering Sea.
Among the Carnivora, reference may be made to the raccoon-dog
(Nyctereutes), the panda (Aelurus), now a Himalayan and Chinese
type, but occurring in the later Tertiary of England and the con-
tinent, and the tiger (Felis tigris); the last being essentially a
Siberian and Mongolian animal which only reached India at a
comparatively recent date, and never penetrated to Ceylon.
Badgers (Meles) are unknown in the Nearctic region. In the
Insectivora the water-shrew (Neomys or Crossopus) is exclusively
Palaearctic, as is the allied Diplomesodon, while the desmans
(Myogale), although a Mediterranean type, are solely Old World.
Among the rodents, reference may be made to the Old World
family of the dormice (Gliridae or Myoxidae), of which the genera
Glis and Muscardinus are restricted to the area; as are the hamsters
(Cricetus) and zokors (Ellobius and Siphneus)^ in the Muridae, and
Euchoreutes, Alactaga, and Plaiycercomys in the jerboa-group
(Jaculidae, or Dipodidae). Sminthus is another characteristic
Palaearctic (and Mediterranean) rodent. To continue the list
would merely be wearisome, without any compensating advantage;
but it may be added that there are a number of characteristic
extinct forms, among the most notable of the latter of which _ are
the aurochs or wild bull (Bos taurus primigenius) and the giant
Irish deer (Cervus [Megaceros] giganieus).
Of the remaining groups of vertebrates characteristic of this
subregion space admits of but scant mention. Among abundant
and more or less characteristic birds, reference may be made to
thrushes, warblers, jays, magpies, buntings, sparrows, and (in the
eastern pa rt of the Mediterranean zone) pheasants, pratincoles,
1 The American form is often separated as Neurotrichus, but
this does not affect the relationship of the two areas.
1012
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
(TERRESTRIAL
coursers (Glareolidae), and bustards (Otididae), of which there are
numerous genera confined to the area. The two families last
named, together with that of the Panuridae (represented by the
bearded tit), being solely Old World, are of themselves sufficient
to distinguish the Palaearctic from the Nearctic fauna.
Of reptiles there is not much to be said, the Palaearctic subregion,
in its restricted sense, being characterized by the poverty of its
fauna, several of the widely spread families of the Old World, such
as the Varanidae and Agamidae, stopping short of its southern
limits. Among batrachians, the tailed salamanders are common
in this and the Mediterranean region (as in the northern hemi-
sphere generally), the genera Salamandra and Chioglossa, as well
as the frogs and toads of the genera Alytes and Pelobates, being
unknown in the Nearctic subregion, while newts (Molge) abound
in the Palaearctic and are rare in the Nearctic subregion. The
olm (Proteus) is a native of the Mediterranean rather than the
proper Palaearctic area.
As regards fishes, the subregion differs from the Nearctic province
by the absence of bony-pike (Lepidosteidae), bow-fins (Amiidae),
and the family Catostomatidae, as typified by the " suckers," " red
horses " and " stone-rollers " of the genus Catostomus, and the
presence of loaches (Cobitidae) and barbels (Barbus).
As compared with the Palaearctic (and Mediterranean) province
of the Holarctic region the Nearctic subregion (together with the
Sonoran transitional zone) is characterized by the extreme
Neerctlc
poverty of its fauna of hollow-horned ruminants. Of
" these the bison is genetically (and subgenerically) identical
with its European relative, while the musk-ox can scarcely be
regarded as a distinctive Nearctic type, seeing that it is only since
the Pleistocene epoch that it has ceased to be a denizen of northern
Europe and Asia. The only other living members of the group
are the bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), which has representatives
in Kamchatka and north-eastern Siberia, and the white, or Rocky
Mountain goat (Oreamnus, or Haploceros), which is a peculiar type.
Alj must be regarded as originally immigrants from Europe; and
it is noteworthy that in the Nearctic Pleistocene are several extinct
types of musk-oxen, together with certain other genera which may
possibly serve to connect the white goat and the musk-ox with
the serow and the takin of the Old World. The deer (Cervidae),
apart from the three Old World types alluded to under the heading
of the Holarctic region, are altogether peculiar types referable to
the genus Mazama (subgenus Dorcelaphus, Cariacus or Odocoileus),
but they may be akin to the Asiatic Elaphurus, and the group is
certainly of Old World origin. The same may be said of the bears
(Ursidae), in which the black bear (Ursus americanus) is a peculiar
species, although probably allied to the Himalayan U. torqualus.
In the brown bear group (U. arctus) it is noteworthy that while
the Alaskan forms are very close to those inhabiting Kamchatka
and Amurland, the Rocky Mountain grizzly, which has penetrated
farther into the continent, is more distinct. The grey-fox (subgenus
Urocyon) is a characteristic Nearctic type. Among other groups
of mammals, the following generic groups distinguish the Nearctic
from the Palaearctic subregion, although some of them enter the
Sonoran area. In the Insectivora we have Blarina, Scalops and
Scapanus; in the Carnivora Procyon among the raccoons, Mephitis
among the skunks, and Taxidea among the badgers. Cynomys
(" prairie-dog ") is a characteristic rodent; and in the same order
a very important feature is the replacement of all the true rats
and mice (Murinae) of the Old World by the deer-mice and their
allies belonging to the subfamily Cricetmae, which is but poorly
represented in the Old World. Peromyscus is a very characteristic
Nearctic genus, although it has an analogue in the Old World in
the form of the single representative of the Persian Calomyscus.
The wood-rats of the genus Neotoma and the musquash (Fiber)
are characteristic Nearctic types of the vole-group. More important
is the family Haplodontidae, represented only by the sewellels
(Haplodon, or Aplodon), all the members of which are exclusively
North American, although some are Sonoran. The pocket-gophers
(Geomyidae) and kangaroo-rats (Heteromyidae) are also solely
American, though more developed in the Sonoran than in the
Nearctic area; Geomys and Thomomys in the former and Pero-
gnathus in the latter family are, however, found in the Nearctic
area. Lastly, among the rodents, we have the Canadian porcupine
(Erithizon), typifying the New World family Erithizontidae. Among
bats it must suffice to state that the genus Lasiurus (Atalapha)
is solely North American.
Reference to the Tertiary mammal-faunas of North America
must be of the briefest. It may be mentioned that even in the
Pleistocene these display a much greater development of large
forms than occurs at the present day; while a notable feature
at this epoch is the mingling of Arctogaeic and Neogaeic types,
as exemplified by the occurrence of elephants and mastodons
alongside of ground-sloths (Megalonyx and Mylodori). In the
Pliocene and Miocene, the fauna was more of an Old World type,
including a great development of camels (Tylopoda) , horses (Equidae) ,
rhinoceroses (Rhinocerotidae) , mastodons, &c., but also a number
of peculiar types, such as the ruminating oreodonts (Oreodontidae,
or Merycodidae), the perissodactyleTitanotheriidae, and the more
generalized Uintatheriidae, which typify a subordinal ungulate group
by themselves. It has been suggested that some of the more
widely spread of these groups, such as the camels and horses, may
have originated in the New World, but there seems at least an
equal probability that Central Asia jor a land-area common to
Asia and America may have been their birthplace.
The earliest Tertiary North American fauna is that of the lowest,
or Puerco, Eocene, which includes a number of mammals of various
types, some of the largest being of the approximate dimensions
of a mastiff. Evidently the Puerco epoch was a period of great
development and radiation on the part of mammals; its fauna
including primitive creodont Carnivora, amblypodous and condy-
larthrous Ungulata, and a number of smaller types, some of which
were probably related to the modern Rodentia, Insectivora and
Primates. As only a foreshadowing of the Puerco mammals is
found in the under upper Cretaceous Laramie beds, it has been
suggested that the fauna was largely of northern origin.
Bv the middle of the Eocene period the more generalized types
of the Puerco fauna had almost disappeared, although a few creo-
donts survived till the Oligocene. It is surmised that the low
brain-capacity of the members of this fauna rendered them unfit
to cope with the irruption of more highly organized mammals
which suddenly appeared on the scene in the Lower Eocene; this
new fauna, it is conjectured, may have developed from a side-line
of the original Puerco stock which had remained in the old northern
home at the time of the earlier radiation.
" Assuming that the Puerco mammals," observes Mr Madison
Grant, 1 " were driven out of more northerly or boreal lands, where
they had originally developed, by a declining temperature, it is
conceivable that some animals remained behind and adjusted
themselves to the changed conditions, until a still further increase
of cold freed them also to follow the path of their predecessors,
southward.
"Some of these Lower Eocene types of this second radiation,
which are found in the Wasatch beds of Wyoming, have sent down
lines of descendants, which have ultimately culminated in existing
animals. At this time first appear the horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses,
camels and dogs (or rather the ancestral stocks thereof). Some of
these animals, such as the horses and rhinoceroses, are found con-
temporaneously in Europe, others, like the (ancestral) camels, are
peculiar to America [some of the later types have recently been
discovered in Asia].
"Being more highly organized and better adapted to their
environment, these new types entirely supplanted the older fauna,
and by the Oligocene this transformation was complete, and the
older fauna had disappeared. This Wasatch fauna culminated,
and then faded gradually away on this [American] continent, until
in the Middle Pleistocene it was largely supplanted by arrivals
from Asia."
The relationship of the fauna to that of South America, and the
interchanges which took place between the two during the Pleis-
tocene and Pliocene epochs, have been already sufficiently discussed
when treating of Neogaea.
Of the birds of the Nearctic subregion and the adjacent Sonoran
zone, there are a very large number of peculiar genera in the pas-
serine order, a large proportion of which are referable to the finch-
group (Fringillidae), and the American warblers (Mniotiltidae), the
latter being solely a New World family; there are also a few
stragglers from the Neogaeic family of tanagers (Tanagridae).
Among game-birds the turkeys (Meleagris), the ruffed grouse
(Bonasa), the prairie-grouse (Tympanuchus, or Cupidonia), the
sage-cock (Centrocercus) , the prairie-chicken (Pedioecetes), and
several genera of the American partridges (Odpntophorinae), such
as Lophortyx and Ortyx(" bob-white "), may be cited as characteristic
Nearctic groups, although some extend farther south. Turning to
reptiles, the presence of rattlesnakes (Crotalus) is a feature broadly
distinguishing the Nearctic subregion (together with America
generally) from the Palaearctic; in the more southern territories
we also enter the domain of iguanas; while among chelonians we
have the family of snappers (Chelydridae) , the " stink-pot terrapins "
(Cinosternidae), and in the Testudinidae the box-tortoises (Cisludo),
and the terrapins of the genera Chrysemys and Malacoclemmys are
solely American, although some of them range far to the south,
while during the Pliocene the snappers were represented in Europe.
There are several more or less peculiar types of North American
amphibians, but since these are for the most part Sonoran in range,
they may be best noticed in a later paragraph.
From that of the Palaearctic (+Mediterranean) subregion the fish-
fauna of the Nearctic subregion (together with that of at least
much of the Sonoran area) is broadly distinguished by the presence
of bony-pike (Lepidosteidae), bow-fins (Amiidae), and the members
of the family Catostomatidae, for which there appears to be no
collective English name, as well as by the absence of the loach
family (Cobitidae), and barbels (Barbus) among the Cyprinidae.
The last of the zoological provinces into which the land-surface
of the globe_is divided on the evidence of the distribution of mammals
and birds is the Sonoran, which, although often regarded as an
1 " The Origin and Relationship of the Large Mammals of North
America," Rep. New York Zool. Soc. (1904), p. 7.
TERRESTRIAL]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1013
independent region, is best ranked (on Prof. Max Weber's scheme)
as a transitional zone between the Nearctic subregion of the
Sonoraa Holarctic region of Arctogaea, on the one hand, and
transition- Neogaca on the other. Its fauna is indeed essentially a
zone. mixture of Nearctic and Neotropical types (inclusive of
_ those originally indigenous to Neogaea and such as are
properly immigrants from the north) together with a few more or
less wholly endemic forms. Marsupials are represented by opossums
(Didelphys), and armadillos by Tatusia. Peccaries (Dicotyles, or
" Tagassu ") make their appearance, but the fork-antlered deer
(Mazama) are mainly of the northern type. The pronghorn
antelope, representing the family Antilocapndae, may be regarded
as mainly a Sonoran type; and the same may be said with regard to
the pocket-gophers (Geomyidae) and kangaroo-rats (Heteromyidae),
some of the genera of which are peculiar to this area. Among
cricetine rats, Rhithrodonlomys, Sigmodtm and Neofiber are charac-
teristically Sonoran. In the Carnivora the three genera of skunks,
Mephitis, Conepatus and Spilogale are represented, as are the
three raccoon genera Procyon, Nasua and Bassariscus ; the third
in each case being mainly confined to this zone. Scalops and
Notiosorex among the Insectivora are almost exclusively Sonoran,
while Blarina and Scapanus here attain their maximum develop-
ment.
Omitting all reference to birds, it may be mentioned that among
reptiles the poisonous lizards (Helodermatidae) and the chelonian
family Dermatemydidae, with two or three genera, are almost or
quite exclusively Sonoran; while such southern types as iguanas
become more numerous than in the north. The Mississippi alli-
gator is also Sonoran, although with a congener in China. Among
Batrachians the salamanders of the genera Cryplobranchus (if dis-
tinct from the Old World Megalobatrachus) , Amphiuma, Typhlo-
molge, Necturus and Siren, together with Scaphiopus and certain
other genera of the frog and toad groups, are exclusively American
and mainly Sonoran. The axolotls, or tiger-salamanders (Ambly-
stonta), are also a group attaining a great development in this zone,
although also ranging to the northward, and likewise recurring in
south-eastern Asia.
So far as birds and mammals are concerned, the Antarctic con-
tinent can scarcely represent a distinct zoological province; its
fauna consisting mainly of certain peculiar generic groups
Antarctica. Q j gggjg ( w hich are a t least as much inhabitants of the
pack-ice as of the continent) together with a number of species of
penguins a group common to the extremities of the three great
southern continents and certain other birds.
The zoological provinces already discussed are based on the
present distribution of mammals and birds (see further MAMMALIA
_ ... and BIRD). The distribution of reptiles and batrachians,
like that of fresh-water fishes, by no means accords with
that indicated by mammals and birds, probably owing
to the earlier radiation, or rather radiations, of the
former groups, and different zoological provinces have
been proposed to indicate their distribution, as is more fully recorded
in the articles BATRACHIA and REPTILES.
From the evidence of batrachian distribution Dr H. Gadow
adopts the view that the world may be divided into a northern
and a southern half, for the_ former of which the name Arctogaea
is adopted, while Notogaea is used for the latter. It would, how-
ever, be much better if entirely new terms were proposed, since
the use of the former in a sense different from that in which they
are now employed in the case of mammals is liable to create con-
fusion. Notogaea, which (in this sense) includes Australia, Poly-
nesia and the Neotropical region, is characterized by the presence
of that family of frogs known as the Cystignathidae, combined with
the preponderance of the section Arcifera, the representatives of
which form nearly 90 per cent, of the Anura (frogs and toads)
inhabiting this half of the globe. Arctogaea, on the other hand,
is characterized by the absence of Cystignathidae, and is divisible
into two main provinces, or regions, respectively termed Periarctic
and Palaeotropical. Of these latter, the Penairtic province is
characterized by the presence of salamanders and their allies
(Urodela), which are indeed almost peculiar to the area. It is
divisible into the (l) Western Palaearctic, (2) Eastern Palaearctic
and (3) Nearctic subregions, of which the first two approximately
correspond to the Palaearctic subregion plus the Mediterranean
transition-zone of the mammalian scheme, while the third repre-
sents the combined Nearctic and Sonoran areas. The Palaeo-
tropjcal region has few salamanders or newts; but possesses
caecilians (Appda) which are wanting in the Periarctic; and
includes the Ethiopian, Oriental, Malagasy and Austro-Malayan
areas of the system based on mammalian distribution, together
with Melanesia. Whether the region should be broken up into
the four above-named divisions, or regarded as indivisible, may be
a matter of opinion; but if such divisions be adopted, they have
no approach to the corresponding mammalian areas, the Oriental
tract not even possessing a peculiar subfamily. It is thus evident,
as might have been expected, that the zoological provinces indi-
cated by the distribution of batrachians are in no wise comparable
to those based on mammalian evidence.
As regards reptiles, Dr H. Gadow has remarked that since the
various orders have come into existence at very different geological
periods, and have each followed their own line of dispersal, no
scheme of zoological distribution can be formulated for the class
as a whole. In the case of the crocodilian order little informa-
tion of importance can be gathered from its present distribution,
seeing that representatives of all the principal groups occur together
in the older Tertiary deposits of Europe. It is, however, of some
interest to note that caimans (Caiman) are restricted to Neogaea
(in the mammalian sense); while the long-snouted Caviulis and
Tomistoma are equally confined to the Oriental region. An impor-
tant feature in the present distribution of chelonians is the restric-
tion of the section Pleurodira to the southern hemisphere (inclusive
of all the three southern continents, as well as Madagascar), and
thus in no wise corresponding to the " batrachian Notogaea." The
value of this feature in chelonian distribution is to some extent
discounted by the occurrence of Pleurodira in the northern hemi-
sphere during the Eocene period.
In regard to lizards (Lacertilia), Dr Gadow remarks that their
distribution does not support the division of the land-areas of the
globe into a northern and a southern half; the marked distinctness
of the lacertian fauna of the New from that of the Old World point-
ing in the same direction. On the other hand, lizards countenance
the view " that the Palaeotropical region is but the tropical and
therefore richer continuation of the now impoverished Palaearctic
subregion."
The present distribution of snakes, according to the same natu-
ralist, indicates that the Ophidia are a group of late radiation, while
it further suggests that some of the divisions adopted in classifica-
tion are not natural ones. Perhaps the most important fact is
that the two families, Boidae (boas and pythons) and Typhlopidae
(blind burrowing-snakes), which alone retain vestiges of hind-limbs,
occur all over the tropical zone, while certain allied families are
found in portions of the same. The restriction of true vipers
(Viperinae) to the Palaeotropical and Periarctic areas of the batra-
chian distributional scheme is a noteworthy fact. The pit-vipers
(Crotalinae), however, may perhaps be presumed to have originated
in the Palaearctic area, whence they reached and spread all over
America, although they were unable to enter either Africa or
Australia. The absence of all venomous snakes (which abound in
Africa and India) from Madagascar, is a fact harmonizing with
mammalian distribution, so far as the peculiarity of the fauna
of that island is concerned.
For a fuller account of the distribution of fishes, both fresh-
water and marine, see ICHTHYOLOGY; here it will suffice to refer
to a zoo-geographical scheme, based on the present ny-^K
distribution of the freshwater families, adopted by t .
Dr A. C. L. G. Gunther. According to this scheme, "
the land-surface of the earth is divided into three parallel
zones, the Northern, the Equatorial and the Southern. The J! a ' er
Northern zone is characterized by the presence of sturgeons
(Acipenseridae), the paucity of cat-fishes (Siluridae), and the abund-
ance of carps (Cyprinidae), the salmon-tribe (Salmonidae), and
pike (Esocidae). This zone falls naturally into an eastern and a
western section. In the first, forming the Palaearctic, or Europe-
Asiatic region, bony-pikes (Lepidosteidae) are lacking, while loaches
(Cobitidae) and barbels (Barbus) abound. In the second section,
constituting the Nearctic or North American region, bony-pikes,
bow-fins (Amiidae), and the family Catostomatidae, all of which are
unknown in the Palaearctic area, are present, while loaches and
barbels are lacking.
The Equatorial zone is divisible into two provinces: an Eastern,
characterized by the presence of carps and of the family (Anaban-
tidae) typified by the well-known " climbing-perch," and a Western
province, in which these two groups are wanting. The Eastern
province includes an Indian (Oriental) region, in which lung-fishes
(Dipnoi) are absent, while serpent-heads (Ophiocephalidae), Masta-
cembelidae and loaches are numerous; and an African (Ethiopian)
region, distinguished by the presence of lung-fishes, bichirs (Crossop-
terygii), and proboscis-fishes (Mormyridae), the abundance of
chromids (Chromididae) and characinids (Characinidae), and the
lack of loaches. The Western Equatorial province is likewise
divisible into two regions, namely, a Tropical American (Neotropical),
distinguished by the possession of lung-fishes and electric eels and
the abundance of chromids and characinids, and a Tropical Pacific
(Australian and Hawaiian) characterized by the presence of Dipnoi
(widely different, however, from those of Africa and South America,
which are nearly related), and the lack of chromids and characinids.
Lastly, the Southern zone is characterized by the absence of
carps and the scarcity of cat-fishes, while the salmon tribe is replaced
by the Haplochitomdae and pike by the Galaxiidae (since this
classification was proposed a marine Galaxias has been discovered).
This zone includes only a single (Antarctic) region, embracing
Tasmania and the south-eastern point of Australia, New Zealand
and Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
It will be seen that the present distribution of fishes, although
showing certain features in common, by no means accords as a
whole with that of mammals. Indeed, it is suggestive of the
period of the earth's history when there was an extensive and
more or less continuous belt of equatorial land
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[MARINE
For the distribution of invertebrate animals generally, the reader
may be referred to the articles dealing with the various groups
of that assemblage. An exception must, however, be
*?' made with regard to that group of spiders known as
Iders tne Mygalomorphae (which includes the trap-door spiders)
on account of the remarkable general similarity presented
by its distribution to that of mammals. According to Mr R. I.
Pocock, 1 the distribution of this group justifies the mapping of the
world into the following zoological regions: (i) The Holarctic,
including Europe north of the southern mountain-chains, North
Asia, and North America north of about the 45th parallel of latitude.
(2) The Mediterranean, including South Europe, Africa north of the
Sahara and the desert-regions of south-western Asia. (3) The
Sonoran, comprising the United States of America south of about
the 45th parallel and the plateau of Mexico. (4) The Ethiopian,
embracing Africa south of the Sahara, South Arabia and Mada-
gascar. The last-mentioned island ranks merely as a subregion of
the Ethiopian. (5) The Oriental, including India, Ceylon, Burma,
Siam, and all the Indo- and Austro-Malayan Islands to Australia;
" Wallace's line " being non-existent so far as spiders are con-
cerned. (6) The Australian, containing Australia and New Zea-
land; the latter being worthy of recognition as a subregion.
(7) The Neotropical, including Central America, apart from the
Mexican plateau, the West Indiesand South America^
These spiders furnish, moreover, strong evidence in favour of a
former union between Africa and South America, and of a con-
nexion between the Afro-Mascarene and Austro-Zealandian con-
tinents on the one hand and Austro-Zealandia and the southern
extremity of South America on the other. As regards the " regions, "
apart from the greater divisions, or " realms, the distribution of
these spiders accords with remarkable closeness to that of mammals,
if we except the more intimate connexion indicated between the
faunas of Ethiopian Africa and Madagascar.
The fact that the generally accepted scheme of division of
the land-surface of the globe into zoological regions is based
almost entirely upon the present distribution of mammals and
birds has already been emphasized. It is perhaps only fair to
quote the views of Dr A. E. Ortmann 2 (who has devoted much
study to the distribution of animals), although they by no
means wholly commend themselves to the present writer:
" (i) Any division of the earth's surface into zoo-geographical
regions which starts exclusively from the present distribution of
animals, without considering its origin, must be unsatisfactory,
since always only certain cases can be taken in, while others remain
outside of this scheme. (2) Considering the geological development
of the distribution of animals, we must pronounce it impossible to
create any scheme whatever that covers all cases. _ (3) Under these
circumstances, it is incorrect to regard the creation of a scheme
of animal distribution as an important feature or purpose of zoo-
geographical research. "
Dr Ortmann adds in a later paragraph, " the chief aim of
zoo-geographical study consists as in any other branch of
biology in the demonstration of its geological development."
II. MARINE DISTRIBUTION
That the fauna of the ocean, apart from the influence of
temperature, would be much more uniform, and therefore less
susceptible of being divided into zoological provinces, or regions,
will be apparent from a glance at the map of the world on
Mercator's projection, in which the fact that the three great
oceans the Pacific, the Atlantic and the Indian are in free
communication with one another in the southern hemisphere
is clearly brought out. There is, however, more than this;
for there is evidence that during the early part of the Tertiary
period the Pacific and the Atlantic were not separated by the
isthmus of Darien; while there is a probability that the Medi-
terranean was at one time in communication with the Red Sea,
and that other connexions of a like nature have existed.
In addition to this general community of the marine fauna
of the world, there is the further important fact that such
faunas may be divided into three main, and for the most part
perfectly distinct, groups: namely, the littoral, or shallow water,
fauna, the abyssal, or deep-sea, fauna, and the pelagic, or
surface, fauna. Of these three the first alone is really suscep-
tible of division into more or less ill-defined zoological regions,
the other two being practically uniform in character. More-
1 Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1903, vol. i. p. 340.
1 Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xli. p. 267 (1902).
over, these three faunas are for the most part perfectly well
defined; the pelagic being very sharply sundered from the
abyssal, although there may in certain instances be a tendency
for the littoral to merge locally into the abyssal. As regards
the sharp demarcation between the pelagic and the abyssal
faunas, an idea was formerly current that whales, which are
essentially pelagic animals, when " sounding," descended to
abyssal depths in the ocean. A moment's reflection will show
the absurdity of such a supposition; for no surface-dwelling
animal could possibly support the enormous pressure existing
at great depths, which would crush in the body-cavities. Evi-
dence of this is afforded by the fact that when fishes are brought
to the surface from great depths their bodies are practically
broken to pieces by the removal of the normal pressure, while
their scales start from the skin and the eyes from their sockets.
The absolute darkness prevailing at great depths would be
another bar to pelagic animals descending to the ocean abysses.
We may accordingly regard the pelagic and the abyssal faunas
as perfectly distinct and widely sundered from one another;
as widely sundered in the case of some species as are beings
living in three-dimension space from these (if such there be)
inhabiting space of four or more dimensions.
Modern research shows that inyertebrates, and probably also
fishes, live at the greatest depths that have yet been reached by
the dredge, and the inference from this is that they Df ei} . sea
occur everywhere. The general results of these explora- /%.
tions is indeed to show that the fauna of the ocean
depths is much the same all the world over, and that identical
species occur at points sundered as widely as possible from one .
another. The ocean floor, as has been well remarked, with its
uniformity in the matter of temperature, food, station and general
conditions of life, contains, in fact, no effectual barriers to the
almost indefinite dispersal of species.
The following general conclusions with regard to the deep-sea
fauna were arrived at after working out the material and evidence
obtained during the cruise of H.M.S. " Challenger " : (i) Animal-
life is present at all depths on the ocean floor. (2) At extreme
depths life is not nearly so abundant as at moderate depths; but
since representatives of all classes of marine invertebrates are met
with at all depths, this poverty probably depends more upon
certain causes affecting the composition of the bottom deposits,
and the degree to which the bottom-water is provided with chemical
substances necessary for animals, rather than upon conditions
immediately associated with depth. (3) There is reason to believe
that the fauna of " blue water is chiefly restricted to two belts;
one at or near the surface, and the other near the bottom, the
intervening zone being more or less completely devoid of inhabitants.
From the surface-zone a continual ram of organic debris is falling
to the bottom, which, however, in the case of the greatest depths
may be completely dissolved in descensu. (4) Although all the
chief groups of invertebrates are represented in the abyssal fauna,
their relative proportions are unequal; molluscs, crabs and annelids
being, as a rule, scarce, while echinoderms and sponges predominate.
(5) Depths below 500 fathoms are inhabited by a practically uniform
fauna, the genera being usually cosmopolitan, although the species
may differ, and be represented by allied forms in widely sundered
areas. (6) The abyssal fauna, so far as invertebrates are con-
cerned, is of an archaic type as compared with shallow-water
faunas. (7) The most characteristic and archaic abyssal types seen
to be most abundant and to attain their maximum dimensions in
the southern ocean. (8) In general character the abyssal fauna
approximates to that of shallower water in polar latitudes, doubt-
less owing to the fact that the conditions of temperature, on which
the distribution of marine animal life mainly depends, are nearly
the same.
In reference to the abundance of sponges in the deep-sea fauna,
it may be mentioned that the calcareous group is absent, and
that among the siliceous section, the Hexactinellidae. of which the
Venus flower-basket (Euplectella) and glass-rope sponge (Hyalonema)
are familiar representatives, are exceedingly abundant; this group
being likewise of great geological antiquity. Corals are sparse
and belong for the most part to the Turbinolidae. Echinoderms
are represented by all the existing ordinal groups; some of the
crinoids, or stone-lilies, belong to the family Apiocrinidae, which
attained its maximum development during the Jurassic epoch;
and somewhat similar relationships are exhibited by certain of the
brittle-stars (Ophiuroidea). Very noteworthy is the great develop-
ment of the sea-cucumber group (Holothuroidea), and likewise
the bizarre forms assumed by some of its abyssal representatives.
Molluscs, however, are poorly represented, and it is not improbable
that cephalopods (nautilus and cuttlefish group) are wanting.
Bivalves of the genera Leda and Area have, however.'been obtained
from a depth of 16,000 ft. Lamp-shells (Brachiopoda) are likewise
scarce.
MARINE]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1015
Considerable difficulty exists in determining from what depths
fishes are dredged. Although many species display various struc-
tural peculiarities, such as a huge head, or an attenuated ribbon-
like body, while special phosphorescent organs are very generally
present, yet deep-sea fishes as a whole do not represent an ordinal
or sectional group by themselves, but are drawn from a number of
families, certain members of which have adapted themselves to an
abyssal existence. A preponderance of representatives of the
families Macruridae, Ophidiidae and Scorpclidae is, however, notice-
able.
Whether light or temperature is the prepotent agency in regu-
lating the limitations of the deep-sea fauna, has long been a debated
question. It may be noted that reef-building corals, which require
an average temperature of from 70 to 75 F. and one which never
falls below 68, are never found below a depth of 20 fathoms
(120 ft.). Nevertheless, there are several areas where a tempera-
ture of from 70" to 77 obtains to depths of between 80 and
100 fathoms. It is further remarkable that well-characterized
deep-sea faunas are locally met with in comparatively shallow
waters, one such area occurring in the European Atlantic and a
second in the Mediterranean, where they live within the loo-fathom
zone. Light, which was formerly supposed not to penetrate to a
greater depth than the 40 to 50 fathom-line, has also been regarded
as the chief agent controlling vertical distribution. It appears,
however, as Prof. Heilprin has remarked, " more than likely that
not a single cause, but a combination of causes, is operative in
bringing about the general results. That the deep-sea fauna is a
fauna of darkness must be admitted ; but this is so from the nature
of the case rather than a matter of choice resting with the animals
composing it."
After referring to the fact of the dissimilarity between the faunas
of the two poles, Dr A. E. Ortmann, in a paper on the origin of the
deep-sea fauna, 1 observes that we have reason to believe that each
of these faunas had a separate origin, " the north-polar fauna being
a derivate of the old Mesozoic Mediterranean, the south-polar
fauna of the old Pacific fauna. The first developed along the
shores of the northern continents, while the second had its original
home on the shores of the Antarctic continent. We know that
there is a strange element among the littoral fauna of the southern
extremities of the continents, differing entirely from the arctic
fauna, and we cannot but think that this is a remnant of the old
Tertiary antarctic fauna. The above considerations give us a
threefold origin of the present deep-sea fauna: (i) An ancient
Mesozoic (or pre-Tertiary) constituent, derived from a transformed
part of the old warm-water fauna of the deep sea, adapted to the
changed climatic conditions. It is clearly autochthonous. (2) A
more modern, immigrant, Tertiary constituent, which came from
the north-polar littoral waters, and immigrated into the deep sea
together with the cool water (or after it had cooled). This element
goes back to an old pre-Tertiary stock that lived in the warm
littoral waters of the old Tethys (Mediterranean Sea), but as a
cool-water fauna, it is not older than Tertiary. (3) Another Ter-
tiary element, corresponding to the second one, but belonging to
the south pole, which is finally to be traced back to the warm
waters of the old Pacific Ocean of pre-Tertiary times."
The surface, or pelagic, fauna contains some of the smallest and
actually the largest of all living animals, for among its members
_. are included a host of so-called animalcules on the one
' hand and the whales on the other. The essential char-
acteristic of pelagic animals is that they pass the whole
of their existence swimming at or near the surface of the
ocean, and only by accident touch the shores or the bottom. Much
information with regard to the smaller pelagic creatures will be
found in the article PLANKTON. Among the groups included in the
pelagic fauna may be mentioned the radiolarian animalcules,
together with certain representatives of the Foraminifera ; the
siphon-bearing jelly-fishes, such as Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war),
Velella, Porptta, &c. ; all the pteropod molluscs, such as Clio,
Clione and Cavolinia (Hyalaea), together with less aberrant gas-
tropods, like Janthina (violet-snail), Atlanta and Glaucus; a few
cephalopodous molluscs, such as the paper-nautilus (Argonauta)
and Spirula; and a number of social ascidians, like Scdpa and
Pyrosonta. Crustaceans belonging to the entomostracous (shelled)
and schizopod divisions abound; and there is a group of insects
(Halobates), belonging to the order Hemiptera, whose home is on
the ocean-surface at, practically, any distance from land. Fishes
form no inconsiderable portion of the pelagic fauna, among these
being the true flying-fishes, or flying-herrings (Exocoetus), herrings,
mackerel, tunny, flying-gurnards (Dactyloptera), sword-fishes (Histto-
phorus), sea-horses (Hippocampus), pipe-fishes (Fistularia) and
many of the sharks. With the exception of the comparatively
few fluviatile species, the whole of the cetacean mammals that is
to say, whales, grampuses, porpoises, dolphins, &c. claim a place
among the surface-fauna of the ocean. Whether the sea-cows
(Sirenia) should likewise be included is doubtful, as they hold a
somewhat intermediate position in regard to habits between ceta-
ceans and seals. While they agree with the former in never (or
very rarely) landing and in bringing forth their young at sea, they
1 Rep. Eighth International Geographic Congress, p. 619.
come inshore to feed. Turtles certainly cannot be considered truly
pelagic, since they come ashore to lay their eggs.
A large proportion of the smaller pelagic animals are more or
less completely transparent, while others, such as the violet-snail,
have developed an azure tint which renders them as inconspicuous
as possible in the waste of waters. In the case of the larger animals,
like mackerel and the finner-whales, the same result is attained by
the under surface of the body being silvery white (thus rendering
them invisible when looked at from below against the sky), and the
upper surface olive or blackish green, sometimes, as in the mackerel,
mottled to harmonize with the ripple of the waves.
The distribution of whales and dolphins has been taken by P. L.
and W. L. Sclater to some extent as a basis in dividing the ocean
into zoological regions. Since, however, such regions were mainly
defined on the distributional evidence afforded by seals and sea-
cows, they are best considered in connexion with the shallow-
water fauna.
The shallow-water, or littoral, fauna includes all marine animals
which belong neither to the deep-sea nor to the surface fauna, and
is the most important of all three. In addition to the ThtmbMl ,
great bulk of marine invertebrates, the littoral fauna .' _ "* "
may be taken to include the reef-building corals (whose ffu ' a
distributional limitations under the influence of tempera-
ture-control have been already mentioned) and likewise seals and
sea-cows among mammals, and turtles among reptiles.
" The fauna of the coast," observes Prof. H. N. Moseley, " has
not only given origin to the terrestrial and fresh-water faunas, it
has through all time, since life originated, given additions to the
pelagic fauna in return for having received from it its starting-
point. It has also received some of these pelagic forms back again
to assume a fresh littoral existence. The terrestrial fauna has
returned some forms to the shores, such as certain shore-birds,
seals and the polar bear; and some of these, such as the whales
and a small oceanic insect (Halobates), have returned thence to
pelagic life.
" The deep-sea fauna has probably been formed almost entirely
from the littoral, not in most remote antiquity, but only after
food, derived from the debris of the littoral and terrestrial faunas
and floras, became abundant in deep water. It was in the littoral
region that all the primary branches of the zoological family-tree
were formed ; all terrestrial and deep-sea forms have passed through
a littoral phase, and amongst the representatives of the littoral
fauna the recapitulative history, in the form of series of larval
conditions, is most completely retained."
From the distribution of certain groups of animals,
it has been attempted (as stated) to divide the ocean
into a number of zoological provinces, or regions. n f loas -
Among the more important of such schemes, the following may be
mentioned.
The reef-building corals, whose limitations are defined by con-
ditions of temperature and depth, are necessarily restricted to
certain seas and coasts within or near the tropics.
" They abound," wrote Dr A. R. Wallace in the ninth
edition of the present work, " in and near the West
Indies, on the east coast of Africa, in the Indian Ocean, in the
Malay and Pacific archipelagoes, and on the coast of Australia;
while they are absent from the whole of the west coasts of South
America and of Africa, from the Indian peninsula, and from much
of the east coast of South America. The coral-reefs of the Ber-
mudas, in 33 N. lat., are the farthest from the equator; in the
Red Sea they reach 30 N., in the Pacific 27 N., while they nowhere
extend to more than 29 S. of the equator. . . . The coral regions
are therefore somewhat peculiar, and differ considerably from those
which best exhibit the distribution of other marine animals. The
regions adopted by Prof. J. D. Dana are three the first com-
prising the Red Sea and Indian Ocean; the second, the whole of
the Pacific islands and the adjacent coasts of Australia; and the
third the Wes_t Indies. This last region is the most isolated in
position ; and it is not surprising that it should contain the largest
proportion of peculiar forms. The corals of the Central Pacific
are also very peculiar, as are those of the Red Sea and Indian
Ocean."
Prof. J. D. Dana 1 proposed to divide the oceans into three main
areas according to the distribution of Crustacea. These areas are
respectively termed the Occidental, the Africo-European
and the Oriental. The first comprises both coasts of
America; the second, the western shores of the Atlantic, ^.
both African and European; while the third comprehends
the vast area from the east coast of Africa to the Central Pacific.
Each of these regions is subdivided into climatal and local provinces
but the primary divisions can alone be mentioned here. The
facts adduced in support of this scheme of distribution are interest-
ing. At the _ date of Prof. Dana's memoir 47 genera were known
to be exclusively American, 15 being common to both the east
and west coasts; but as 26 genera were said to be confined to the
west and 6 to the east coast, these two provinces are really distinct,
even if they do not form primary regions. The Africo-European
region had 19 peculiar genera, and only 8 in common with the
'See Amer. Journ. Science, ser. 2, vol. xvi. p. 155 (1853).
ioi6
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[IN TIME
American region; so that the eastern and western shores of the
Atlantic appear decidedly more distinct than the eastern and
western coasts of America. The extensive Oriental region is by
far the richest.
From the distribution of the species (not genera) of barnacles,
or cirrhipeds, which are an aberrant group of Crustacea, Darwin
considered that the ocean might be divided into the following
regions, viz.: (i) The North Atlantic, comprising North America
and Europe down to N. lat. 30 ; (2) The West American, from
Bering Strait to Tierra del Fuego; (3) The Malayan, from India
to New Guinea, and (4) The Australian, comprising Australia and
New Zealand: the Malayan and Australian regions being the
richest in cirrhipeds.
One of the earliest students of the geographical distribution of
marine animals was Dr S. P. Woodward, who, in his Manual of
M ll ^ Mollusca, proposed a scheme_ of zoo-geographical
regions. He adopted three main divisions for the
warmer parts of the ocean, namely, the Atlantic, the
Indo-Pacific and the West American; and these Wallace was
inclined to regard as the only valid marine molluscan regions.
The Indo-Pacific region extends from the Red Sea and the east
coast of Africa to the eastern Pacific islands, and corresponds to
Prof. Dana's Oriental region for Crustacea, many species ranging
over nearly the whole area. The Atlantic region unites the fauna
of the east coast of America with that of West Africa and South
Europe, but has considerable affinity with that of West America,
many genera being common to both areas. Several genera appear
restricted to the north temperate zone, which in Wallace's opinion
should perhaps form a distinct region. Numerous genera are con-
fined to the Indo-Pacific region. The Atlantic coasts have few
peculiar genera of importance, while the west coast of America
has hardly any, the difference of its fauna from that of the Atlantic
on the one side and the Pacific on the other being chiefly specific.
It is stated that while there is not a single species common to the
east and west coasts of tropical South America, the corresponding
coasts of North America have a large number in common, while
others are so closely representative as to be almost identical.
Inclusive of an Arctic province of somewhat doubtful value,
Dr Woodward's three mam regions were divided into 18 sub-
regions; but, according to a somewhat modified later scheme,
these may be arranged in four main groups, as follows:
Regions.
Subregions.
Regions.
Subregions.
.4. ATLANTIC
)i. Arctic.
2. Boreal.
1 fpltir
C. AUSTRALIAN
{I. Australian.
2. Neozealanian.
and CIR-
4. Lusitanian.
(i. Aleutian.
CUM POLAR
5. W. African.
2. Calif ornian.
6. S. African.
3. Panamic.
B. INDO-
PACIFIC .
fi. Indo-Pacific.
"^2. Japanese.
D. AMERICAN .
^ 4. Peruvian.
* 5. Magellanic.
6. Argentinian.
7. Caribbean.
18. Transatlantic.
Fish Regions. From the distribution of shore-haunting fishes,
Dr A. C. L. G. Gunther l suggested the following marine zoological
regions, the characteristic family and generic types of which we
are prevented by limitations of space from discussing :
I. Arctic Ocean.
II. Northern Temperate Zone.
A. Temperate N. Atlantic.
1. British district.
2. Mediterranean district.
3. N. American district.
B. Temperate N. Pacific.
1. Kamchatkan district.
2. Japanese district.
3. Californian district.
III. Equatorial Zone.
A. Tropical Atlantic.
B. Tropical Indo-Pacific.
C. Pacific Coast of Tropical America.
1. Central American district.
2. Galapagos district.
3. Peruvian district.
IV. Southern Temperate Zone.
1. Cape of Good Hope district.
2. South Australian district.
3. Chilean district.
4. Patagonian district.
V. Antarctic Ocean.
Mammalian Regions. The last scheme of marine zoological
regions necessary to mention is one proposed by P. L. and W. L.
Sclater * on the distributional evidence afforded by seals, sea-cows
1 See Study of Fishes (London, 1880).
1 The Geography of Mammals (London, 1899).
and cetaceans. According to this, we have the following six
regions, viz. :
(i) Arctatlantica (North Atlantic), characterized by the pre-
sence of seals of the subfamily Phocinae, with the genera
Halichoerus peculiar to it, and Phoca common to it and
No. iv. ; the absence of sea-cows; and (it is stated) by
the bottle-nosed whales (Hyperoodon) being peculiar to
this area.
(ii) Mesatlantica (Mid Atlantic), the sole habitat of the monk-
seal (Monachus) and the manatis (Manatus).
(iii) Philopelagica (Indian Ocean, &c.), characterized by the
presence of dugongs and the absence of seals,
(iv) Arctirenia (North Pacific), agreeing with No. i. in the pos-
session of Phoca but distinguished by also having sea-
bears and sea-lions (Otariidae) ; formerly the habitat of
the northern sea-cow (Rhytina), and now of the grey
whale (Rhachianectes).
(v) Mesirenia (Mid Pacific), without Phocinae or sea-cows, but
with the elephant-seal (Macrorhinus), from the south,
and also Otanidae.
(vi) Notopelagica (Southern Ocean), with four peculiar genera
of seals (Phocidae), numerous sea-bears and sea-lions,
and two peculiar genera of cetaceans, the pigmy-whale
(Neobalaena) and Arnoux's beaked-whale (Berardius).
To explain the absence of sea-bears and sea-lions from the North
Atlantic, and likewise the existence of manatis on both Atlantic
coasts, the authors of this scheme call in the aid of a land-con-
nexion between Africa and South America, which presented a
barrier to the northward progress of the former, while its coasts
afforded a means of dispersal to the latter. As the Otariidae are
at present unknown previous to the Miocene, such an explanation,
if valid, requires the persistence of the ancient land-bridge across
the Atlantic to a much later date than is commonly supposed.
III. DISTRIBUTION IN TIME
The subject of the distribution of animals in time, i.e. the
relative dates of their first appearance on the earth, and in the
case of extinct forms the length of their sojourn there, can be
treated but briefly; reference being restricted to the larger
groups, and not even all of these being mentioned. The dates
of appearance and disappearance of the various groups are
only relative, for although many more or less vague attempts
have been made to determine the age of the earth, there is no
possibility of indicating in years the length of time occupied
by the deposition of any one stratum or series of strata. All
that can be attempted is to say that one stratum (and conse-
quently the remains of animals that may be entombed in it)
is older or younger, as the case may be, than another. For the
sequence and names of the various strata, or time-periods of
the geological record, see GEOLOGY. An important factor in
regard to the past history of animals is the imperfection of the
geological record. Recent discoveries have rendered this im-
perfection much less marked than was formerly the case.
There are, however, still many very serious gaps; and we
have, for instance, no definite information as to where and
when the transformation from reptiles into mammals took
place.
It may nevertheless be emphatically affirmed that the geo-
logical, or rather the palaeontological, record indicates a gradual
progression in the status of animals from the lowest to the highest
fossiliferous strata. That is to say, the earlier animals were
creatures of comparatively low grade (although certain repre-
sentatives of such groups may have attained a relatively high
degree of specialization), and that as we ascend the geological
ladder higher and higher types of animals make their appearance,
till the series culminates in man himself the crowning effort
of creation, in the modern evolutionary signification of that
term. It is not, indeed, to be supposed that the higher groups
made their appearance exactly according to their relative
grades (or what we regard as such) ; all that can be affirmed is
that in the main the higher forms have made their appearance
later than the lower. The record is thus almost exactly what
it might be expected to be on the theory of evolution; while
it also accords fairly well if regarded with sufficient breadth
of view with the Biblical narrative of creation.
A brief survey of the time-distribution of the leading groups
of animals may now be undertaken, commencing with the highest
and concluding with the lowest groups.
IN TIME]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1017
As the highest of all vertebrates, it is natural to expect that
mammals should be one of the latest groups of that assemblage
to make their appearance; and this as a matter of fact
they are, although it is by no means improbable that
birds are the latest of all. Mammals are commonly stated to
commence in the Trias, where they are presumed to t>2 repre-
sented by Microlesles in Europe and by Dromatherium in North
America. From the fact, however, that the approximately con-
temporary Tritylodon, which has cheek-teeth very like those of
the former, appears to be in great degree intermediate between
reptiles and mammals, it is by no means improbable that none
of these Triassic creatures were true mammals. Undoubted
mammals occur in the lower Jurassic Stonesfield Slate, in the
upper Jurassic Permian beds, and, very sparingly, in the Wealden
of England; while a large fauna has been discovered in the upper
Cretaceous of North America. The mammals included among
these Mesozoic forms appear, for the most part at any rate, to be
referable to the Marsupialia, Insectivora, and, not improbably,
the Monotremata (see MARSUPIALIA). After the lowest Eocene
(when the Puerco fauna represented an inferior and apparently
non-progressive type) mammals became abundant; and during
that epoch most if not all of the existing orders made their appear-
ance. The lower Eocene representatives of several of the orders,
such as the Condylarthra among the Ungulata and the Creodonta
among Carnivora, belonged, however, to low suborders which dis-
appeared more or less completely by the Oligocene. Several sub-
ordinal groups of Ungulata developed and became extinct at later
periods than the Eocene; but with the exception of the Ancylo-
poda and Tillodontia (whose right to ordinal distinction is by no
means universally admitted), none of the Tertiary orders of mammals
are extinct. At the present day as during the greater part of
the Tertiary epoch mammals are the dominant terrestrial repre-
sentatives of the Vertebrata. We have at present no evidence of
the existence of Cretacea before the lower Eocene.
Although some of the three-toed bipedal tracks in the Trias of
the Connecticut valley were formerly supposed to have been made
Birds ky birds, there is little doubt that they are really due
to dinosaurian reptiles. The class Aves, so far as we
know, is therefore first represented by the long-tailed Archaeo-
pteryx of the upper Jurassic, which represents a subclass (or order)
by itself. Toothed birds also existed in the upper Cretaceous of
both Europe and North America, but all these appear referable
to existing ordinal (or subordinal) groups. By the lower Eocene,
when teeth appear to have been entirely lost, most or all of the
existing ordinal groups were developed, since which date the
majority at all events have steadily increased.
In contradistinction to both the preceding classes, reptiles, which
date from the Permian, are a waning group, at all events so far
Reotllcs as both terrestrial and marine forms of large bodily
size are concerned. The Permian reptiles vere small
or medium-sized creatures, few in number, and of generalized
character. The one existing order dating from that epoch (when
it was represented by Protorosaurus) is the Rhynchocephalia, of
which the sole survivor is the New Zealand tuatara (Sphenodon).
The Mesozoic period, from the Trias to the Chalk, is the true " age
of reptiles," a number of orders being confined to that period. It
is noteworthy, however, that the Triassic forms were in the case
of the marine groups very generally of small size, and apparently
amphibious, or perhaps freshwater. Of the various extinct Meso-
zoic orders, the Dinosauria, as demonstrated by their footprints
in the sandstone of the Connecticut valley, were represented by
species of huge size even in the Trias. The other extinct orders
whose distribution was approximately coequal with the Mesozoic
riod were the ichthyosaurs (Ichthyopterygia), the plesiosaurs
auropterygia), and the pterodactyles (Ornithosauna). The
iclonia and Crocodilia (if we include the Phytosauria) date from
the Trias, but are also dominant forms at the present day. But
the mammal-like Anomodontia (Theromorpha), which ranged from
South Africa to India and Russia, were solely Triassic. The
Squamata, including lizards and snakes, together with the extinct
Cretaceous Pythonomorpha (Mosasaurus, &c.), did not come into
being till the upper Jurassic, or lower Cretaceous, and constitute
the great bulk of the existing members of the class.
Batrachia, as represented by the labyrinthodonts, or Stego-
cephalia, carry the origin of vertebrates one stage further back,
namely, to the upper Carboniferous. The stegocephalians,
which appear to have included the ancestors of the anomo-
_ dont reptiles, died out at the close of the Triassic epoch.
The existing representatives of the class date, so far as is known,
only from the Tertiary, but it is not improbable that the limbless
caecilians (Apoda) may really be much older, since they appear
to be related to the Stegocephalia.
The class Pisces is the lowest and at the same time the oldest
representative of the Vertebrata, dating from the lower Ludlow
Fishes keds ' t ' >e u PP er Silurian. The oldest group is that
of the sharks and rays (Elasmobranchii), in which the
orders Pleuropterygii, Ichthyotomi and Acanthodii are confined
to the Palaeozoic. The lung-fishes (Dipnoi) are also an ancient
group, although surviving in the form of three genera widely
.,
"
sundered in space; the order Arthrodira (as represented by Coc-
costeus of the Devonian) was solely Palaeozoic. Of the subclass
Telepstomi, the fringe-finned group (Crossopterygii) attained its
maximum in the Palaeozoic, although it survives in the shape of
two African genera. In the case of the subclass Teleostomi the
enamel-scaled, or ganoid, division was abundant during the Palaeo-
zoic and early Mesozoic periods (and still survives in North America) ,
but the modern soft-scaled bony fishes did not make their appear-
ance till the Cretaceous, or thereabouts.
Of the class Agnatha, as typified by the modern lampreys, the
palaeontological record is very imperfect. There is, however, an
armoured subclass, the Ostracodermi, represented by
Pterichthys, Cephalaspis, &c., which was confined to the Lam P n y-
upper Silurian and Devonian ; and Palaeospondylus of the Devonian
has been regarded as an early lamprey (Cyclostomi). Whether
the so-called conodonts, ranging from the upper Cambrian to the
Carboniferous, are really teeth of lampreys, has not been definitely
ascertained.
The lamp-shells, or Brachiopoda, form an exceedingly ancient
group, dating from the lower Cambrian, and surviving at the
present day, although in greatly diminished numbers com- __,,,
pared to the Palaeozoic epoch, when they far surpassed
the now dominant bivalve molluscs. The group attained poa * -
its maximum in the Silurian, when, as in the Palaeozoic genera,
nearly all the forms belonged to the hingeless section. With the
beginning of the Mesozoic period the waning of the brachiopods,
which had set in with the Devonian, became more pronounced,
and was continued throughout the Mesozoic formations. A remark-
able feature is the survival to the present day of the Cambrian
genera Lingula, Discma and Crania (or closely allied types).
The Polyzoa, of which the sea-mats (Flustra) are well-known
representatives, date from the Ordovician ; the Palaeozoic _,
forms belonging almost exclusively to the section Cyclo- "***<
stomata, which attained its maximum in the Jurassic; while the
dominant modern Chilpstomata came in with the Tertiary.
The Mollusca, of which the great bulk are marine and the majority
of the remainder freshwater, are perhaps the most important of all
fossils from the chronological point of view. Since the n
three principal classes (Pelecypoda, Gastropoda and M aaK *-
Cephalopoda) are represented in the upper Cambrian, it is evident
that the origin of the group was much earlier. In the Palaeozoic
the chambered cephalopods of the section Tetrabranchiata (now
represented by the nautilus) were the dominant forms ; the bivalves
(Pelecypoda) and gastropods showing a relatively poor develop-
ment. The tetrabranchiate cephalopods continued throughout the
Mesozoic, when they were specially represented by the ammonites;
but by the Tertiary they had become almost extinct. The section
Dibranchiata (cuttle-fishes) commenced with the Mesozoic. The
bivalves and gastropods have shown a steady increase to the present
day, and are now the dominant forms.
Insects date from the Ordovician graptolite-slates of Sweden,
where they are represented by Protocimex; the next oldest being
Palaeoblattina of the French upper Silurian. From the . ^.
Devonian about a dozen forms are known, belonging '**
to several groups; and from the Coal-measures extensive insect-
faunas have been described. All the Palaeozoic forms lack most
of the distinctive features by which the modern groups are char-
acterized, the majority of them showing kinship to the cockroach
group.
The Myriapoda (centipedes and millipedes) are of comparatively
jittle importance as fossils. The class dates from the Devonian, and
is abundant in the Coal-measures; the Palaeozoic forms ._<-
for the most representing two orders Archipolypoo*a
and Protosyngnatha peculiar to that period, of which P"*-
the second has only a single known species. The modern centipedes
(Chilopoda) date mainly from the Tertiary, although several Car-
boniferous genera have been assigned to the group. Millipedes
(Diplopoda), although known from the Cretaceous of Greenland,
elsewhere date from the Tertiary.
The class Arachnida, _now taken to include trilobites and king-
crabs, as well as scorpions and spiders, is ancient. Scorpions
not far removed from existing types are known in the
Silurian, while true spiders occur in the Coal-measures.
The great majority of the more typical Palaeozoic arachnids
are, however, referred to an order by themselves the An thracomart i.
King-crabs (Xiphosura) date from the Silurian, the existing genus
Limulus occurring in the Trias; but the gigantic eurypterids
(Eurypterida) and the trilobites (Trilobita) are exclusively Palaeo-
zoic, the former dating from the Ordovician, and the latter from
the upper Cambrian.
Most of the existing ordinal groups of the class Crustacea appear
to date from the Palaeozoic; the decapods (lobsters and crabs)
which represent the highest development of the class, _
did not, however, attain a dominant position till well ;
on in the Mesozoic, and are at their maximum in the ""*"
present day; genuine crabs (Brachyura) apparently not having
come into existence till the Cretaceous.
Among the Echinodermata, the classes Blastoidea and Cystoidea
are exclusively Palaeozoic, while the stone-lilies (Crinoidea) form a
ioi8
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
Annelids.
group, dating from the same epoch, now on the verge of extinction.
The sea-urchins (Echinoidea), which date from the Ordovician but
Echiao- attain no great development till the Mesozoic, the
starfishes (Asteroidea) and brittle-stars (Ophiuroidea),
which also date from the Ordovician, and the sea-
cucumbers (Holothuroidea), which appear to be represented in
the Carboniferous, do not seem, however, to have attained their
full development till the modern period.
That the Annelida are a very ancient group is indicated by the
occurrence of remains of marine worms in the Ordovician; while
" tracks " or " burrows " apparently point to the exist-
ence of the class in the lower Cambrian, if not indeed
in the Laurentian.
The earliest-known representatives of the Coelenterata occur in
the upper Cambrian, where we find primitive types of hydroid
_. polyps, especially the graptolites, which lived only till
the Silurian, and have no near relatives. The equally
isolated stromatoporids, on the other hand, commenced
in the Ordovician and survived till the Devonian. The corals
(Actinozoa) were completely differentiated from the Hydrozoa in
the Ordovician. Most of the Palaeozoic actinozoans belong to the
Rugosa (inclusive of the four-rayed corals) which did not survive
the Permian, but the Aporosa are also well represented. In the
Mesozoic and Tertiary as well as at the present day the Aporosa
and Porosa became, however, the dominant forms.
As might have been expected from their low grade of organiza-
tion, the sponges (Porifera) were strongly represented in the early
formations; the oldest known form occurring in the
Sponges. Welgh Cambrian. In the Silurian and Carboniferous
silicious sponges were extraordinarily abundant, and are repre-
sented by several extinct groups.
Foraminifera, extremely abundant in the Carboniferous, date at
any rate from the Ordovician, where the existing genus Saccam-
.. . mina has been identified. The Chalk consists almost
' entirely of foraminifers. The Radiolaria, as represented
by the Polycystina, are believed to date from the Silurian, or even
the Cambrian, but did not attain their maximum till the Mesozoic
or Tertiary. The so-called Eozoon of the Laurentian is not admitted
to be of organic origin.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. T. A. Allen, " The Geographical Distribution of
Mammals," Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, vol. iv. pp. 313-76 (1878);
F. E. Beddard, A Text-book of Zoogeography (Cambridge, 1895);
W. B. Benham, " The Geographical Distribution of Earthworms
and the Palaeogeography of the Antarctic Region," Rep. Austral.
Assoc., vol. ix., pp. 319-43 (1903); B. A. Bensley, " A Theory
of the Origin and Evolution of the Australian Marsupialia," Amer.
Naturalist, vol. xxxv. pp. 245-69 (1901); W. T. Blanford, "The
African Element in the Fauna of India," Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 4, vol. xviii. pp. 277-94 (1876); " Anniversary Address to the
Geological Society," Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 1894, pp. 43-110;
" The Distribution of Vertebrate Animals in India, Ceylon and
Burma," Proc. Royal Soc. London, vol. Ixvii. pp. 484-92 (1900),
and Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (B), vol. cxciv. pp. 335-436 (1901);
G. A. Boulenger, " The Distribution of African Freshwater Fishes,"
Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1905, 21 pp.; C. Burckhardt, " Traces Geolo-
giques d'un Ancien Continent Pacifique," Revist. Mus. La Plata,
vol. x. pp. 177-90 (1900); J. D. Dana, "An Isothermal Oceanic
Chart, illustrating the geographical distribution of marine animals,"
Amer. Journ. Sci. and Art., vol. xyi. pp. 153-80 (1853); C. H.
Eigenmann, " The Fresh-water Fishes of South and Middle
America," Popular Science Monthly, vol. Ixviii. pp. 515-30
(1906) ; H. O. Forbes, " The Chatham Islands, their relation to a
former Southern Continent," Supplemental Papers, R. Geogr. Soc.,
London, 1893, pp. 607-37; M. Grant, "The Origin and Relation-
ship of the Large Mammals of North America,' Rep. New York
Zool. Soc., 1904, 30 pp.; A. Heilprin, The Geographical and Geo-
logical Distribution of Animals (London, 1887); F. W. Hutton,
" Theoretical Explanations of the Distribution of Southern Faunas,"
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1896, pp. 36-47; T. H. Huxley,
" On the Classification and Distribution of Alectoromorphae and
Heteromorphae," Proc. Zool. Soc. London, iS68, pp. 294-319;
R. Lydekker, A Geographical History of Mammals (Cambridge,
1896); "South American Animals and their Origin," Quarterly
Review, 1903, pp. 41-67; "The Animals of Africa," op. cit.,
1904, pp. 465-92; C. H. Merriam, "The Geographic Distribu-
tion of Life in North America, with special reference to the Mam-
malia," Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. vii. pp. 1-64 (1892);
" Laws of Temperature-Control of the Geographic Distribution of
Terrestrial Animals and Plants," Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. vi. pp. 229-
338 (1894); A. E. Ortmann, "The Theories of the Origin of the
Antarctic Faunas and Floras," Amer. Naturalist, vol. xxxv. pp. 130-
142 (1901); "The Geographical Distribution of Freshwater Deca-
pods and its Bearing upon Ancient Geography," Proc. Amer. Phil.
Soc., vol. xli. pp. 267-400 (1902); H. F. Osborn, "The Rise of
the Mammalia in North America," Stud. Biol. Laborat. Columbia
College, Zoology, vol. i. art. 2 (1893) ; " The Geological and Faunal
Relations of Europe and America during the Tertiary period and
the theory of the successive Invasions of an African Fauna,"
Science, ser. 2, vol. xi. pp. 561-74 (1900) ; " The Law of Adaptive
Radiation," Amer. Naturalist, vol. xxxvi. pp. 353-63 (1902); A. S.
Packard, " The Two Chiet Faunae of the Earth," Science, ser. 2,
vol. xix. pp. 220 and 221 (1904), abstract; R. I. Pocock, " The
Geographical Distribution of Spiders of the Order Mygalomorphae,"
Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1903, vol. i. pp. 340-68; R. F. Scharff,
The History of the European Fauna (London, 1899), " Remarks
on the Atlantic Problem," Proc. R. Irish Acad., vol. xxiv. (B),
pp. 268-302 (1903); P. L. Sclater, "On the General Geographic
Distribution of the Members of the Class Aves," Journ. Linn. Sec.,
Zool., vol. ii. pp. 130-45 (1858); "The Geographical Distribu-
tion of Mammals," Manchester Science Lectures, ser. 5 and 6,
pp. 202-19 (i 8 74); P- L. Sclater and W. L. Sclater, The Geo-
graphy of Mammals (London, 1899); B. Spencer, " Summary of.
the Zoological, Botanical and Geological Results of the (Horn)
Expedition," Rep. Horn Exped. to Central Australia (1896); A. R.
Wallace, The Geographical Distribution of Animals (London, 1876),
2 yols. ; M. Weber, Der Indo-Australische Archipel und die Geschichte
seiner Tierwell (Jena, 1902); K. A. yon Zittel, " Die Geologische
Entwickelung, Herkunft, und Verbreitung der Saugetiere," Sitzber-
bayer. Akad., vol. xxiii. pp. 137-98 (1893). See also C. W.
Andrews, Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebra-la, of the Fayum (London,
1906) ; and numerous text-books on various groups of animals,
such as A. Gunther's The Study of Fishes (1880), together with
works like H. A. Nicholson and R. Lydekker's A Manual of Palaeon-
tology (London, 1889) ; K. A. Zittel's Handbuch der Palaeontologie
(Munich and Leipzig, 1876-93), &c. &c. (R. L.*)
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, sometimes called ZOOLOGICAL
PARKS, institutions in which wild animals are kept in captivity.
Their primary object is to gratify the pleasure most persons
take in viewing at close range the curious and beautiful living
products of nature, but they serve also as means of instruction
in natural history, providing material for museums and for
investigations in comparative anatomy and pathology, while
they may have a commercial value as pleasure resorts, or as
show grounds for the display of animals that have been imported
or bred for sale.
According to Captain Stanley Flower, director of the Zoological
Gardens at Giza, Cairo, Egypt, the ancient Egyptians kept
various species of wild animals in captivity, but the first Zoo-
logical Garden of which there is definite knowledge was founded
in China by the first emperor of the Chou dynasty, who reigned
about 1 100 B.C. This was called the "Intelligence Park,"
and appears to have had a scientific and educational object.
The ancient Greeks and Romans kept in captivity large numbers
of such animals as leopards, lions, bears, elephants, antelopes,
giraffes, camels, rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses, as well as
ostriches and crocodiles, but these were destined for slaughter
at the gladiatorial shows. In later times royal persons and great
feudal magnates frequently kept menageries of wild animals,
aviaries and aquaria, and it is from these that modern public
Gardens have taken their origin. Henry I. (1100-1135) estab-
lished a menagerie at Woodstock, Oxfordshire, England. This
was transferred to the Tower of London, apparently in the reign
of Henry III., and kept up there until at least 1828. Philip VI.
had a menagerie in the Louvre at Paris in 1333, Charles V.
maintained collections at Conflans, Tournelles and in Paris,
and Louis XI. formed a menagerie at Plessis les Tours in
Touraine, which after his death was re-established at the Louvre
in Paris and enlarged by collections obtained in North Africa.
It was destroyed by Henry III. Henry IV. had a small
collection, which included an elephant. Louis XIII. kept some
animals at Versailles, whilst his son Louis XIV. founded the
famous "Menagerie du Pare" at Versailles, which received
many animals from Cairo, was maintained for over a century,
and furnished much valuable material to French naturalists
and anatomists. It gradually decayed, however, and was
almost extinguished by the mob in 1789. In 1793 the Paris
Museum of Natural History was re-established by law, and
Buffon's idea of attaching to it a menagerie was carried out;
the latter, as the collection in the Jardin des Plantes, still
survives.
In Germany the elector Augustus I. founded a menagerie at
Dresden in 1554. In the New World, according to Prescott,
King Nezahualcoyotl had zoological gardens at Tezcuco in
Mexico in the middle of the isth century, whilst in the next
century Cortes found aviaries and fishponds at Iztapalapan
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
1019
and Montezuma II., emperor of Mexico in the beginning of
the i6th century, maintained large collections of animals in
the gardens of his capital.
Most of the modern zoological gardens date from com-
paratively recent years, and there are a larger number stocked
with a finer collection of animals, more suitably housed, than at
any past time in the history of the world. According to a
reference list compiled by Captain Stanley Flower, there were
102 actually existing public gardens or parks containing col-
lections of wild animals in 1910, while there are also a consider-
able number of private collections. It is possible to refer here
only to the more important of these.
Africa. The Zoological Gardens at Giza, Cairo, are a govern-
ment institution administered by the Public Works Department.
The grounds are beautifully laid out and the collection is particularly
rich in African animals, to which the climate is well adapted. The
Khartum Zoological Gardens are free to the public and are under
the control of the municipality, but the collection of animals is
under the Game Preservation Department. The Transvaal Zoo-
logical Gardens at Pretoria are a government institution, and are
associated with the Museum.
America, North. The Zoological Park at Bronx Borough, New
York City, opened in 1899, is one of the largest in the world. It is con-
trolled by the Zoological Society of New York, with representatives
of the municipality of the City of New York, and is financed largely
out of municipal funds, and is open free to the public five days
a week. The Park occupies nearly 300 acres, of great natural
beauty, which has been increased by the judicious arts of the
landscape gardener. It contains many fine buildings, designed on
the most modern lines, but its special feature is a series of spacious
enlosures for large herds of bison and deer. In a sense it serves
also as a national reserve, and has already been an important
factor in the preservation of the American bison. The National
Zoological Park at Washington, D.C., was founded by Congress
in 1889-1890 " for the advancement of science and the instruction
and recreation of the people." The site was purchased by the
United States government, and all the expenses come from national
funds, the management being vested in the Smithsonian Institution.
The Park consists of about 265 acres of undulating land with
natural woods and rocks, traversed by a gorge cut by Rock Creek,
a tributary of the Potomac. The river and gorge extend into the
country far beyond the Park, and in addition to the animals that
have been introduced, there are many wild creatures living in
their native freedom, such as musk rats in the creek, grey squirrels,
crested cardinals and turkey buzzards. The varied natural con-
ditions form an almost ideal site for a collection of animals; great
care and skill have been expended on the designing and construc-
tion of the houses, the collection receives many accessions from
various government departments, including the foreign consular ser-
vice, and the whole institution is rapidly becoming a model of what
is possible. The Zoological Gardens in Fairmount Park, Phila-
delphia, resemble the gardens of the Zoological Society of London,
on which they were modelled. They are controlled by the Zoo-
logical Society of Philadelphia, founded in 1859, and are supported
partly by subscriptions of members, partly by gate-money and
partly by an allowance from the city of Philadelphia. They
contain an admirable collection, well housed and carefully managed,
a specially interesting feature being the careful quarantine system
of new arrivals and the post-mortem examinations of animals that
have died. There are many smaller collections in the United
States and several in Canada, but none of these present features
of special interest.
America, South. The Zoological Gardens at Buenos Aires are
supported by the municipality, and contain many interesting
animals, well housed in beautiful surroundings. The director
issues a popular illustrated guide and a valuable quarterly scientific
journal. At Para, Brazil, is a good collection attached to the
Museum Goeldi, and there are unimportant collections at Rio de
Janeiro and Bahia.
Asia. There are many small collections in different parts of
Asia, but the only garden of great interest is at Alipore, Calcutta,
supported chiefly by gate-money and a contribution from govern-
ment, and managed by an honorary committee. It was estab-
lished in 1875 by the government of Bengal, in co-operation with
the public, and is 33 acres in area. An extremely interesting
collection is maintained, the variety of bird life, both feral and in
captivity, being notable.
Australia and New Zealand. There are Zoological Gardens at
Melbourne (founded in 1857), Adelaide, Sydney and Perth, and
small gardens at Wellington, New Zealand, supported partly by
private societies and partly by the municipalities. These collec-
tions are not specially rich in the very interesting and peculiar
native fauna, but devote themselves preponderatingly to imported
animals.
Europe. There are a large number of zoological gardens in
Europe, but those of real importance are not numerous. The
Imperial Menagerie of the palace of Schonbrunn, Vienna, was
founded about 1752. The public are admitted free to the greater
part of the grounds, but the gardens and collection are the pro-
perty of and are supported by the emperor of Austria. The collec-
tion is fine and well cared for in beautiful surroundings. The
garden and large menagerie of the Royal Zoological Society of
Antwerp were founded in 1843, and have been maintained at a
very high level. The collection is not usually very rich in species,
but there have been great and long-continued successes in the
breeding of large animals such as hippopotamuses, lions and ante-
lopes, and a very large business is done in domesticated birds,
water-fowl and cage birds. The annual sales of wild animals,
held in the Gardens, chiefly surplus stock from various European
Gardens, are famous. The revenue is derived partly from sub-
scriptions, partly from gate-money, from the fine concert-hall and
refreshment pavilions, and from sales. The Gardens of the Zoo-
logical Society of London in Regent's Park, founded in 1828,
extend to only about 35 acres, but the collection, if species and
rare animals be considered rather than the number of individuals,
has always been the finest in existence. The Society is not assisted
by the state or the municipality, but derives its revenue from the
subscriptions of Fellows, gate-money, Garden receipts and so forth.
In addition to the menagerie, there is an infirmary and operating
room, an anatomical and pathological laboratory, and the Society
holds scientific meetings and publishes stately volumes containing
the results of zoological research. Partly because of its long and
successful existence, and partly because of the extensive possessions
of Great Britain throughout the world, the Zoological Society of
London has been able to exhibit for the first time in captivity a
greater number of species of wild animals than probably the total
of those shown by all other collections. The Royal Zoological
Society of_Ireland, founded in 1830, maintains a fine collection in
the Phoenix Park at Dublin, and has been specially successful in
the breeding of lions. The Bath, Clifton and West of England
Zoological Society owns small but extremely well-managed Zoo-
logical Gardens, well situated on the edge of Clifton Downs. Messrs
Jennison have maintained since 1831 a Zoological Collection in
their pleasure Park at Belle Vue, Manchester. The animals
exhibited are selected chiefly because of their popular interest,
but the arrangements for housing are' specially ingenious and
successful, those for monkeys and snakes being notable. The
Zoologistc Have at Copenhagen, founded in 1859, contains a good
collection, with a specially well-designed monkey-house. At Lyons
and at Marseilles in France there are beautifully situated Gardens
with small collections, in each case owned and controlled by the
municipalities. In Paris there are two well-known Gardens. That
of the Jardin des Plantes was founded in 1793 an d is under the
control of the Museum authorities. It is open free to the public
and generally contains a good collection of mammals. The larger
and better known Jardin d'Acclimatation in the Bois de Boulogne
is owned and conducted by a private company. It was founded in
1858 and is beautifully situated and well laid out. In addition to
wild animals it usually contains many domesticated creatures of
commercial value. In recent years it has been somewhat neglected
and presents no features of special interest, but efforts are being
made to revive its prosperity. Germany contained in 1910 nineteen
Zoological Gardens in active existence whilst several others were
in process of formation. In most cases they are associated with
concert-halls and open-air restaurants, which account for much of
their material prosperity, but the natural taste of the people for
wild animals, and the increasing scientific and commercial enter-
prise of the nation have combined to make the collections rich
and interesting. The great Gardens at Berlin were founded in
1844, and belong to a private company, but owe much to the
interest and beneficence of the Royal House. The collection is
extremely good, the houses are well constructed and sumptuously
decorated, and the general management is conducted on the most
adequate scientific lines. The Zoological Gardens at Breslau,
founded in 1863 and owned by a private company, although not
large, contain many fine buildings and are a notably well-managed
institution. They possessed a fine gorilla, keeping it alive for a
longer period than has been done in any other zoological collec-
tion. The beautiful Gardens at Cologne, founded in 1860, contain
many interesting features and in particular one of the finest aviaries
in Europe. The Gardens of the Zoological Society of Hamburg,
founded in 1863, always contain a large and fine collection and
display many ingenious devices for the housing of the animals.
More recently C. Hagenbeck has constructed a remarkable zoo-
logical park at Stellingen, near Hamburg. The chief feature of
this is a magnificent panorama, from the central point of which
large collections of wild animals are visible without any inter-
vening bars. The background consists of artificial rockwork, sup-
ported on huge wooden scaffoldings. The surface is formed of
cement moulded over metal gimmel-work, and arranged to form
ledges and boulders, peaks and escarpments, and faced with coloured
sand and_ paint. It is made sufficiently strong to bear the weight
of the animals, which are confined within their bounds by undercut
overhanging ridges, and by deep and wide ditches, masked by
rockwork. The arrangement is extremely successful from the
IO2O
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
spectacular point of view, and very suitable where most of the
animals are young and in process of training. The chief gardens
in Holland are at Amsterdam, owned by the society "Natura
Artis Magistra." In addition to the menagerie, founded in 1838,
and since then remaining one of the chief collections of the world,
the Society owns a fine aquarium, and supports a museum and library.
The garden at Rotterdam is also of high interest. The zoological
collections of other European countries are of little importance.
Certain general remarks may be made on the efficient manage-
ment of the zoological gardens.
Finance. Disbursements for rent, rates and taxes naturally vary
according to the special conditions; in a large number of cases
public land is provided free of cost, and in a smaller number of
cases the institutions, in view of their useful public functions, are
relieved of the ordinary burden of taxation. In London, where
rent, rates and taxes have all to be paid, precisely as if the gardens
were a profit-distributing private institution, the annual expendi-
ture under these headings amounts to about 2000. The staff,
excluding purely scientific departments, costs about 6coo per
annum; gardening department, about 1500 per annum; main-
tenance of buildings, enclosures, paths and so forth, about 4000
per annum; provisions for animals, about 5000 per annum;
litter, water, heating and general menagerie expenses about 3000
per annum. These figures are based chiefly on the London expendi-
ture and relate to a collection which is probably more varied than
any other, but not specially large in numbers, containing on an
average a little over 3000 individuals. The cost of maintaining
the collection depends on the numbers received by purchase, in
exchange, or presented, but for an average of about 2000 per
annum a collection such as that in London can be adequately
maintained. The cost of new buildings varies too much to make
any individual figures useful.
Many of the zoological gardens are owned by private companies
and derive their income entirely from gate-money, menagerie sales,
rent of refreshment rooms, concert-halls and other auxiliary public
attractions, any profits being distributed amongst the members of
the company. In other cases the gardens are assisted by public
authorities, in return for which a certain number of free days are
given. In other cases again, as in the case of London, the income
is derived partly from the subscriptions of members, who in return
receive privileges as to admission, and partly from gate-money and
menagerie receipts, all the income being expended on the main-
tenance of the institution and on scientific purposes.
Nature of Collection. This depends to a certain extent on the
object of the institution. The species and varieties of mammals
and birds that have a commercial value as farmyard stock or as
pets, are for the most part easy to keep, are attractive to the
public and may be a source of profit. Some of the smaller gardens
in Europe, and perhaps a majority of those in other parts of the
world, pay much attention to this side, but the more important
collections are as much as possible limited to natural species and
wild animals. In theory every wild species has its place in a
zoological collection, but the actual choice is limited by so many
practical considerations that the better-known collections are
remarkably alike. Birds and mammals take the first place; the
leading collections devote a good deal of attention to reptiles and
batrachians; fishes and aquatic inyertebrata are most often to be
found only when there are special aquaria, whilst non-aquatic
invertebrates are seldom to be seen and at most consist of a few
moths and butterflies, spiders, scorpions and centipedes, molluscs
and crustaceans. Within these limits, the first choice falls on large
and well-known creatures which every one can recognize and desires
to see. The large Carnivora, lions, tigers, jaguars and leopards
are the first favourites; then follow monkeys, then the large un-
gulates, elephants, rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses, camels and
giraffes, deer and antelopes and equine animals, whilst birds are
appreciated chiefly for plumage and song. Animals vary very
greatly in viability (see LONGEVITY), and practical experience has
shown that certain species bear captivity well, whilst others for
reasons that appear to be psychological as well as physical quickly
succumb. Many animals of great zoological interest, from their
nocturnal habits, or natural disposition, display themselves so
seldom that their possession is valueless from the point of view
of the public, whilst closely allied species are not distinguished
except by trained observers. If the object of a collection is simply
to provide a hardy and popular exhibition, it is neither difficult
nor very costly to get together and to maintain. But if the object
be, as in the case of the greater zoological institutions, to get
together as many species as possible, and to exhibit animals that
have not been hitherto obtained, the possible range is enormous
and the cost very great.
Sources of Animals. A certain number of wild animals are born
in captivity and from time to time the possession of a successful
stock enables one collection to supply many others. At one time
London was able to supply many Continental gardens with giraffes,
and Dublin and Antwerp have had great successes with lions,
whilst antelopes, sheep and cattle, deer and equine animals are
always to be found breeding in one collection or another. Such
stocks, however, usually fail in time, partly from too close inter-
breeding, partly from the ordinary chances of mortality, and partly
from the cumulative effects of strange conditions. Fresh-caught
wild animals have to be obtained to replenish the stock. In the
majority of cases the conditions of success are that the wild creatures
should be obtained as young as possible, kept in their native
localities until they have become accustomed to man and to such
food as they can be given at their ultimate destinations. The
percentage of failure is greatest when fresh-caught adults are
hurried to Europe or America. Individuals, moreover, vary greatly
in their capacity to respond successfully to new conditions of life,
and it is less costly and more practical if the selection be made
in their natural homes. The most promising sources of new
animals for collections are young creatures which have been partly
tamed by hunters, traders or natives, and which have been
acquired by travellers. Many of these find their way to the great
shipping-ports, where there have grown up establishments that
trade in wild animals. Occasionally special expeditions are arranged
to procure numbers of particular birds or mammals, but these
are extremely costly and the mortality is usually high.
Area and Site. The areas occupied vary from about 300 acres
(New York) to about 8 acres (Bristol, England). In the larger
gardens, however, the greater part of the space is engaged by a
few extensive enclosures for herds of herbivorous animals, and
where no attempt is made to associate the function of a game
reserve with that of a menagerie a smaller area is quite satisfactory.
From the point of view of public convenience, too large a space is
fatiguing and makes it more difficult to see the animals, whilst
the expenses of maintenance, drainage and supervision increase out
of proportion to the advantages. The older gardens have followed
too closely the idea of small cages, designed to guard an animal
securely rather than to display it in a fitting environment, but if
exercise, light and air are provided, animals do better in a relatively
small than in a relatively large enclosure. With regard to situation,
the ideal would be to have the collection placed in the open country,
far from centres of population. But as menageries are supported
for the public and in most cases by the public, such a site is im-
practical, and if the soil, drainage and exposure are reasonably
good, experience shows that a thriving collection may be main-
tained in the immediate vicinity of large towns.
Hygiene. The first requisite is strict attention to cleanliness.
A collection of animals must be compared with public institutions
such as barracks, or infirmaries. There must be an abundant
supply of fresh air and of water, and a drainage system as complete
as possible. The soil of yards and the floors and walls of houses
rapidly become contaminated, and the ideal condition would be
to have an impermeable flooring covering the whole area, and
supplied with suitable layers of sand, sawdust, peat-moss or other
absorbent substances which can be changed at frequent intervals.
The buildings should be constructed on the most modern hospital
lines, with smooth walls and rounded corners, so that complete
cleansing and disinfecting are possible. It has been shown
abundantly, however, that even the best designed and best cared
for buildings rapidly become contaminated, and it is probable that
the costly and massive buildings of the more modern Gardens are
erroneous in principle, and should be replaced by light and cheap
structures not intended to last longer than a few years. In most
temperate climates, artificial heating is necessary, at least occa-
sionally, in many cases, but the tendency has been to be more
sedulous of warmth than of ventilation. Cold-blooded animals,
such as reptiles and batrachians, thrive best in an equable tem-
perature, and, especially in the case of snakes, frequently can be
induced to feed only when their temperature has been raised to a
certain point. But the vast majority of birds and mammals not
only can endure a large range of temperature, but thrive best
when they are subjected to it. Protection from violent draught
and shelter from extremes of heat and cold are necessary, but in
most cases the choice is best left to the animals themselves, and
the most successful arrangements consist of free exposure to the
open air, with access to warmth and shelter. All collections of
living beings are subject to epidemics, and in an ideal menagerie
special precautions should be taken. New arrivals should be
quarantined, until it is certain that they are in a satisfactory
condition of health. Sickly animals should be at once isolated,
and their cages and enclosures disinfected, whilst as a matter of
routine the enclosure in which any animal has died should be
cleansed, and according to the results of post-mortem examination,
which should be made in every case, appropriate measures of
disinfection employed.
Feeding. The food must be as varied as possible, and special
attention should be given to the frequency and quantity of the
supply. It_ is important that no more should be supplied at a
time than is necessary, as most animals rapidly foul their food,
and except in a few special cases, wild animals are peculiarly liable
:o the evil results of stale or putrid substances. Quantities can
pe learned from experience, and from watching individual cases;
requency varies within very wide limits, from reptiles which at
most may feed once a week and fast for long periods, to the smaller
nsectivorous birds which require to be fed every two or three
ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
1021
hours, and which in the winter dark of northern latitudes must
be lighted up once or twice in the night to have the opportunity
of feeding. Knowledge of the habits of animals and experience
are the best guides to the nature of food to be supplied, but the
keepers should be required to observe the droppings of their charges
and to judge from these of the extent to which any particular
substances are being digested. The feeding of carnivores is on the
whole the most easy; the chief pitfall being the extreme liability
of all except the larger forms to fatal digestive disturbances from
food that is not quite fresh. The more powerful creatures in a
state of nature are accustomed to kill a prey too large to be devoured
at once, and to return to it again and again, long after it has become
putrid ; the smaller forms, for the most part, devour nothing but
small creatures immediately after they have been captured and
killed, and consequently in an absolutely fresh condition. The
chief danger with herbivorous and frugivorous creatures is that
their constitutions are not adapted to the richness of cultivated
fruits and cereals, and, in captivity, they may suffer mechanically
from the want of bulk in their food supply, or if they eat a quantity
sufficient in bulk, it contains an excess of nutritive material. A
minor problem in menageries is injudicious feeding by visitors.
Many authorities attempt to restrain visitors from feeding the
animals in their charge, but such a restriction, even if practicable,
is not all gain, for animals in captivity are less inclined to mope,
and are more intelligent and tamer, if they become accustomed
to regard visitors as pleasant sources of tit-bits.
LITERATURE. S. S. Flower, Notes on Zoological Collections
visited in Europe in 1907 (Public Works Dept., Cairo); Reference
List of the Zoological Gardens of the World (1910); C. V. A. Peel,
The Zoological Gardens of Europe (London, 1903); " Bulletins of the
Zoological Society of New York " (with many photographs and plans
of buildings and enclosures); Annual Reports of the Smithsonian
Institution, Washington; G. Loisel, Rapport sur une mission scienti-
fique dans les jardins et etablissements zoologiques publics et prives du
Royaume-Uni, de la Belgique et des Pays-Bas, et des Etats-Unis et du
Canada, et conclusions generates (Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1907,
1908; with many photographs and plans). (P. C. M.)
ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE, the system by which it is
attempted to designate, exactly and conveniently, the animals
which exist now or are known to have existed. It is, in fact,
the grammar of classification, and has the advantage that it
is international. The popular names of animals differ from
country to country, but even amongst civilized peoples, and
still more amongst uneducated persons and the lower races,
the animals denoted by popular names are a very small part of
existing forms, whilst the connotation of the names is vague
and varying. Linnaeus was the first to adopt a precise system,
which he explained and applied in 1751 in his Philosophia
botanica, and later extended to animals in the tenth edition of
his Sy 'sterna naturae (1758). The foundation of the system
was the application of a binomial nomenclature to species (see
SPECIES). Each species was to be designated by two latinized
names, the first being that of the genus to which it belonged,
and the second the appellation peculiar to the species. There
are many different cat-like animals, such as the common cat,
lion, tiger and so forth, more obviously related to one another
than they are to dog-like or hyaena-like carnivores. The
assemblage of cats constitute the genus Felis, the wild cat being
one species, Felis catus, the lion another, Felis leo, the tiger yet
another, Felis tigris, and so forth. The various genera were
grouped into families, the family taking its designation from
the leading genus, as, for instance, the family Felidae for the cats.
Families were associated in orders, as the Cats, Dogs, Bears, &c.,
in the order Carnivora, and the orders in Classes. There is
still little uniformity in the designation of the assemblages
higher than families, and less agreement as to the degree or
measure of separation to be indicated by the use of the de-
signations employed. For the system adopted in the present
work, see ZOOLOGY.
Linnaeus named very many species and genera, but the
number known continues to increase at a prodigious rate, while
precision of description has far surpassed his conceptions, with
the result that his rules have long ceased to meet the needs of
modern science. In 1842 the English ornithologist, H. E.
Strickland, assisted by a committee of which Charles Darwin
was a member, elaborated rules which became known as the
Strickland Code, and were adopted in 1845 by the American
Society of Geologists and Naturalists, and in 1846 by the
British Association for the Advancement of Science. In 1881,
the International Congress of Geology, meeting at Bologna,
constructed a code differing in many respects from that of
Strickland and specially applicable to fossil forms. In 1881
the Zoological Society of France agreed on new rules, based on
those of Strickland, but formulated by a committee of which
Maurice Chaper and R. Blanchard were leading members. In
1885 the American Ornithologists' Union, urged by the needs
of the great advance in ornithology in America, adopted rules
which were still further modified from the Strickland Code.
In 1894 the Zoological Society of Germany framed another set
of rules drawn up by J. V. Carus, L. Doderlein and K. Mobius.
In 1896 the English entomologist Lord Walsingham devised
another modification of the Strickland Code, which became
known as the Merton Rules, followed by many entomologists.
The existence of so many conflicting authorities caused much
confusion and an impractical condition of anarchy in which
many distinguished and active systematists elaborated practices
individual to themselves. When the International Congress
of Zoology held its first meeting in Paris in 1889, one of the
chief objects submitted to it was the necessity of framing rules
which should be uniform in their application to the whole
animal kingdom and which might receive international sanction.
The discussion was carried over to the second meeting of the
Congress, held at Moscow in 1892, when a code prepared by
R. Blanchard was accepted. Further modifications were made,
partly to reconcile it with the German Code, and a permanent
commission was appointed to consider fresh points that might
arise. In 1905 there was published, with the sanction of the
Congress, in French, English and German (International Rules of
Zoological Nomenclature, Paris, 1905, F. R. de Rudeval) a set of
rules finally codified by MM. R. Blanchard, von Maehrenthal
and C. W. Stiles, which appears to be a close approach to an
international system applicable to every group in the animal
kingdom. At subsequent meetings of the Congress minor
alterations have been proposed and no doubt will continue
to be proposed and occasionally adopted, but with one im-
portant exception, to be referred to later, fundamental lines of
agreement appear to have been reached, and many of the most
active workers have accepted the international code as binding.
It is possible here to give only a short summary of the more
important rules.
The goal to be reached is that the connotation and denotation
of every zoological designation should be definite. One name is to
be used for each sub-genus or higher group, two names for each
species (following the invention of Linnaeus) and three names for
each sub-species (a refinement not necessary in the time of Linnaeus).
The scientific names must be Latin or Latinized forms. The name
of a family is to be formed by adding the ending idae, the name
of the sub-family by adding the ending inae to the root of the
name of the genus from which it is de_rived, as Felidae and Felinae
from Felis. When a generic name is changed there must be a
corresponding change in the name of the family or sub-family
derived from it. A generic name must consist of a single word,
written with a capital initial letter, and treated as a substantive
in the nominative singular. When a genus is divided into sub-
genera the name of the typical sub-genus must be the same as the
name of the genus, and when it is desired to cite the name of a
sub-genus this name must be placed in parentheses between the
generic and the specific names, as, for instance, Vanessa (Vanessa)
cardui and Vanessa (myrameis) cardui respectively, for the typical
sub-genus and another sub-genus of the genus Vanessa.
Specific names are adjectives, substantives in apposition with
the generic name or substantives in the genitive; they are written
with a small initial letter except when they are substantives derived
from the name of a person, but even in the latter case it is permitted
and is becoming usual to employ the small initial letter, as Gazella
cuvieri. If it be desired to cite the sub-specific name, such name
is written immediately following the specific name without the
interposition of any mark of punctuation, as Rana esculenta mar-
morata. The author of a scientific name is that person who first
publishes the name in association with a clear indication of what
the name denotes, and if it be desired to cite the author's name,
it should follow the specific name in a different type but without the
interposition of any mark of punctuation, e.g. Felis catus Linnaeus.
Names are merely designations^ or recognition marks, and not
descriptions, and hence a name is not to be rejected or changed if
it is otherwise valid, because it gives a wrong description; there
is no more reason why Felis rufus should be a ruddy cat than John
Black a person of swarthy complexion ; nor is a name to be rejected
1022
ZOOLOGY
[HISTORY
because of tautonomy, and thus Apus apus apus may be a valid
designation of a sub-species if the names are otherwise valid.
It has happened frequently and continues to happen that a
creature is discovered to have been given more than one name.
Which of these is valid ? The decision of this is one of the most
difficult and controverted problems in nomenclature. In the
hope of settling it by some system which should be as nearly
as possible automatic and should leave the least possible to the
inclination or choice of the individual worker, there was formu-
lated what is called the rule of priority. The valid name of a
genus or species is that name under which it was first designated,
but with the conditions first that the name was published and
accompanied by an indication, definition or description, and
second that the author applied the principles of binary nomen-
clature. The tenth edition of Linnaeus' Systema naturae (1758)
is the work that first consistently applied the binary system to
zoology generally and is accepted as the starting-point of
zoological nomenclature. Beginning from this the oldest avail-
able name is therefore to be retained. The application of
the rule of priority is in many cases very difficult, but the
labours of zoologists in many groups are rapidly succeeding in
making the necessary direct and incidental changes in nomen-
clature, whilst, with regard to recent work, the rule is invaluable.
A special difficulty has, however, arisen and is pressing so acutely
that a most important modification is likely to be introduced.
To systematists working with a large series of species in a
museum or collection, one species is as important as another,
and changes of names even of familiar animals are matters of
little moment. But a comparatively small number of animals
hold a prominent place in the attention of zoologists who are
not specially systematists and of the public interested in natural
history. It is complained that application of the rules of priority
is changing the names of many familiar animals, designations
that are sanctioned by long usage in museums and laboratories,
in the famous treatises of comparative anatomy, of general
biology, of travel, medicine, and the sciences and subjects
closely related to zoology. There is being claimed, in fact,
protection against the law of priority for a certain number of
such familiar and customary appellations. The machinery
for drafting such a list of exceptions exists in the permanent
nomenclature commission of the International Congress of
Zoology, and there is more than a hope that this change will
come into operation.
To make the denotation of zoological names precise, exact
workers are endeavouring to associate the conception of types
with names, a process which can be made simple and definite
with new work, but which presents great difficulties in the
attempt to apply it to existing terms. Every family should
have designated one of its genera as the type genus, every
genus a type species and so forth. In the case of species or
sub-species the type is a single specimen, either the only one
before the author when writing his description, or one definitely
selected by him, the others being paratypes. Such type speci-
mens are the keynote of modern expert systematic work and
their careful preservation and registration is of fundamental
importance. A co-type is one of several specimens which have
together formed the basis of a species, no one of them having
been selected by the author as a type. A topotype is a specimen
killed at the typical locality. (P. C. M.)
ZOOLOGY (from Gr. foioi', a living thing, and Xoyos, theory),
that portion of biology (?..) which relates to animals, as dis-
tinguished from that portion (Botany) which is concerned with
plants.
HISTORY
There is something almost pathetic in the childish wonder
and delight with which mankind in its earlier phases of
civilization gathered up and treasured stories of strange animals
from distant lands or deep seas, such as are recorded in the
Physiologus, in Albertus Magnus, and even at the present
day in the popular treatises of Japan and China. That
omnivorous universally credulous stage, which may be called
the " legendary'," was succeeded by the age of collectors and
travellers, when many of the strange stories believed in were
actually demonstrated as true by the living or pre- cbaa
served trophies brought to Europe. The possibility of ia the
verification established verification as a habit; and character
the collecting of things, instead of the accumulat-
ing of reports, developed a new faculty of minute
observation. The early* collectors of natural curiosities were
the founders of zoological science, and to this day the naturalist-
traveller and his correlative, the museum curator and sys-
tematist, play a most important part in the progress of zoology.
Indeed, the historical and present importance of this aspect
or branch of zoological science is so great that* the name " zoo-
logy " has until recently been associated entirely with it, to
the exclusion of the study of minute anatomical structure and
function which have been distinguished as anatomy and physio-
logy. Anatomy and the study of animal mechanism, animal
physics and animal chemistry, all of which form part of a true
zoology, were excluded from the usual definition of the word
by the mere accident that the zoologist had his museum but
not his garden of living specimens as the botanist had; 1 and,
whilst the zoologist was thus deprived of the means of anato-
mical and physiological study only later supplied by the
method of preserving animal bodies in alcohol the demands
of medicine for a knowledge of the structure of the human
animal brought into existence a separate and special study of
human anatomy and physiology.
From these special studies of human structure the knowledge
of the anatomy of animals has proceeded, the same investigator
who had made himself acquainted with the structure of the
human body desiring to compare with the standard given by
human anatomy the structures of other animals. Thus com-
parative anatomy came into existence as a branch of inquiry
apart from zoology, and it was only in the latter part of the igth
century that the limitation of the word " zoology " to a know-
ledge of animals which expressly excludes the consideration
of their internal structure was rejected by the general con-
sent of those concerned in the progress of science. It is now
generally recognized that it is mere tautology to speak of
zoology and comparative anatomy, and that museum natu-
ralists must give attention as well to the inside as to the outside
of animals.
Scientific zoology really started in the i6th century with
the awakening of the new spirit of observation and exploration,
but for a long time ran a separate course uninfluenced by the
progress of the medical studies of anatomy and physiology.
The active search for knowledge by means of observation and
experiment found its natural home in the universities. Owing
to the connexion of medicine with these seats of learning, it
was natural that the study of the structure and functions of
the human body and of the animals nearest to man should
take root there; the spirit of inquiry which now for the first
time became general showed itself in the anatomical schools of
the Italian universities of the i6th century, and spread fifty
years later to Oxford.
In the 1 7th century the lovers of the new philosophy, the
investigators of nature by means of observation and experi-
ment, banded themselves into academies or societies for mutual
support and intercourse. The first founded of surviving
European academies, the Academia Naturae Curiosorum (i6si), 2
especially confined itself to the description and illustration of
the structure of plants and animals; eleven years later (1662)
the Royal Society of London was incorporated by royal charter,
having existed without a name or fixed organization for
1 The medieval attitude towards both plants and animals had no
relation to real knowledge, but was part of a peculiar and in itself
highly interesting mysticism. A fantastic and elaborate doctrine of
symbolism existed which comprised all nature; witchcraft, alchemy
and medicine were its practical expressions. Animals as well as
plants were regarded as " simples " and used in medicine, and a
knowledge of them was valued from this point of view.
2 The Academia Secretorum Naturae was founded at Naples in
1560, but was suppressed by the ecclesiastical authorities.
HISTORY]
ZOOLOGY
1023
seventeen years previously (from 1645). A little later the Aca-
demy of Sciences of Paris was established by Louis XIV. The
influence of these great academies of the 1 7 th century on the
progress of zoology was precisely to effect that bringing together
of the museum-men and the physicians or anatomists which was
needed for further development. Whilst the race of collectors
and systematizers culminated in the latter part of the i8th
century in Linnaeus, a new type of student made its appearance
in such men as John Hunter and other anatomists, who, not
satisfied with the superficial observations of the popular " zoo-
logists," set themselves to work to examine anatomically the
whole animal kingdom, and to classify its members by aid of
the results of such profound study. Under the influence of the
touchstone of strict inquiry set on foot by the Royal Society,
the marvels of witchcraft, sympathetic powders and other
relics of medieval superstition disappeared like a mist before
the sun, whilst accurate observations and demonstrations of
a host of new wonders accumulated, amongst which were
numerous contributions to the anatomy of animals, and none
perhaps more noteworthy than the observations, made by the
aid of microscopes constructed by himself, of Leeuwenhoek,
the Dutch naturalist (1683), some of whose instruments were
presented by him to the society.
It was not until the igth century that the microscope, thus
early applied by Leeuwenhoek, Malpighi, Hook and Swammer-
dam to the study of animal structure, was perfected as an
instrument, and accomplished for zoology its final and most
important service. The perfecting of the microscope led to a
full comprehension of the great doctrine of cell-structure and
the establishment of the facts (i) that all organisms are either
single corpuscles (so-called cells) of living material (microscopic
animalcules, &c.) or are built up of an immense number of such
units; (2) that all organisms begin their individual existence as
a single unit or corpuscle of living substance, which multiplies
by binary fission, the products growing in size and multiplying
similarly by binary fission; and (3) that the life of a multi-
cellular organism is the sum of the activities of the corpuscular
units of which it consists, and that the processes of life must
be studied in and their explanation obtained from an under-
standing of the chemical and physical changes which go on
in each individual corpuscle or unit of living material or
protoplasm.
Meanwhile the astronomical theories of development of the
solar system from a gaseous condition to its present form, put
forward by Kant and by Laplace, had impressed men's minds
ideas of with the conception of a general movement of spon-
deveiop- taneous progress or development in all nature. The
*""' science of geology came into existence, and the whole
panorama of successive stages of the earth's history, each with
its distinct population of strange animals and plants, unlike
those of the present day and simpler in proportion as they
recede into the past, was revealed by Cuvier, Agassiz and others.
The history of the crust of the earth was explained by Lyell as
due to a process of slow development, in order to effect which
he called in no cataclysmic agencies, no mysterious forces differ-
ing from those operating at the present day. Thus he carried
on the narrative of orderly development from the point at which
it was left by Kant and Laplace explaining by reference to the
ascertained laws of physics and chemistry the configuration of
the earth, its mountains and seas, its igneous and its stratified
rocks, just as the astronomers had explained by those same
laws the evolution of the sun and planets from diffused gaseous
matter of high temperature. The suggestion that living
things must also be included in this great development was
obvious.
The delay in the establishment of the doctrine of organic
evolution was due, not to the ignorant and unobservant, but to
the leaders of zoological and botanical science. Knowing the
almost endless complexity of organic structures, realizing that
man himself with all the mystery of his life and consciousness
must be included in any explanation of the origin of living things,
they preferred to regard living things as something apart from
the rest of nature, specially cared for, specially created by a
Divine Being. Thus it was that the so-called " Natur-philoso-
phen " of the last decade of the i8th century, and The
their successors in the first quarter of the loth, N*tur-
found few adherents among the working zoologists p *^j*"
and botanists. Lamarck, Treviranus, Erasmus Dar-
win, Goethe, and Saint-Hilaire preached to deaf ears, for they
advanced the theory that living beings had developed by a slow
process of transmutation in successive generations from simpler
ancestors, and in the beginning from simplest formless matter,
without being able to demonstrate any existing mechanical
causes by which such development must necessarily be brought
about. They were met by the criticism that possibly such a
development had taken place; but, as no one could show as
a simple fact of observation that it hod taken place, nor as a
result of legitimate inference that it must have taken place, it
was quite as likely that the past and present species of animals
and plants had been separately created or individually brought
into existence by unknown and inscrutable causes, and (it was
held) the truly scientific man would refuse to occupy himself
with such fancies, whilst ever continuing to concern himself
with the observation and record of indisputable facts. The
critics did well; for the " Natur-philosophen," though right
in their main conception, were premature.
It was reserved for Charles Darwin, in the year 1859, to
place the whole theory of organic evolution on a new footing,
and by his discovery of a mechanical cause actually Darwta - t
existing and demonstrable by which organic evolution doctrine
must be brought about, entirely to change the attitude f organic
in regard to it of even the most rigid exponents of J^'""
the scientific method. Darwin succeeded in estab-
lishing the doctrine of organic evolution by the introduction
into the web of the zoological and botanical sciences of a new
science. The subject-matter of this new science, or branch of
biological science, had been neglected: it did not form part of
the studies of the collector and systematist, nor was it a branch
of anatomy, nor of the physiology pursued by medical men,
nor again was it included in the field of microscopy and the cell-
theory. The area of biological knowledge which Darwin was
the first to subject to scientific method and to render, as it were,
contributory to the great stream formed by the union of the
various branches, is that which relates to the breeding of animals
and plants, their congenital variations, and the transmission
and perpetuation of those variations. This branch of biological
science may be called thremmatology (Opinna, " a thing bred ").
Outside the scientific world an immense mass of observation
and experiment had grown up in relation to this subject. From
the earliest times the shepherd, the farmer, the horticulturist,
and the " fancier " had for practical purposes made themselves
acquainted with a number of biological laws, and successfully
applied them without exciting more than an occasional notice
from the academic students of biology. It is one of Darwin's
great merits to have made use of these observations and to have
formulated their results to a large extent as the laws of variation
and heredity. As the breeder selects a congenital variation
which suits his requirements, and by breeding from the animals
(or plants) exhibiting that variation obtains a new breed specially
characterized by that variation, so in nature is there a selection
amongst all the congenital variations of each generation of a
species. This selection depends on the fact that more young
are born than the natural provision of food will support. In
consequence of this excess of births there is a struggle for
existence and a survival of the fittest, and consequently an
ever-present necessarily acting selection, which either maintains
accurately the form of the species from generation to generation
or leads to its modification in correspondence with changes in
the surrounding circumstances which have relation to its fitness
for success in the struggle for life.
Darwin's introduction of thremmatology into the domain of
scientific biology was accompanied by a new and special de-
velopment of a branch of study which had previously been
known as teleology, the study of the adaptation of organic
IO24
ZOOLOGY
[HISTORY
structures to the service of the organisms in which they occur.
It cannot be said that previously to Darwin there had been
anv verv P r f un d study of teleology, but it had
been the delight of a certain type of mind that of
ofteieo- the lovers of nature or naturalists par excellence, as
they were sometimes termed to watch the habits
of living animals and plants, and to point out the remarkable
ways in which the structure of each variety of organic life was
adapted to the special circumstances of life of the variety or
species. The astonishing colours and grotesque forms of some
animals and plants which the museum zoologists gravely de-
scribed without comment were shown by these observers of
living nature to have their significance in the economy of the
organism possessing them; and a general doctrine was re-
cognized, to the effect that no part or structure of an organism
is without definite use and adaptation, being designed by the
Creator for the benefit of the creature to which it belongs, or
else for the benefit, amusement or instruction of his highest
creature man. Teleology in this form of the doctrine of design
was never very deeply rooted amongst scientific anatomists
and systematists. It was considered permissible to speculate
.somewhat vaguely on the subject of the utility of this or that
startling variety of structure; but few attempts, though some of
great importance, were made systematically to explain by obser-
vation and experiment the adaptation of organic structures to
particular purposes in the case of the lower animals and plants.
Teleology had, indeed, an important part in the development of
physiology the knowledge of the mechanism, the physical
and chemical properties, of the parts of the body of man and
the higher animals allied to him. But, as applied to lower and
more obscure forms of life, teleology presented almost insur-
mountable difficulties; and consequently, in place of exact
experiment and demonstration, the most reckless though in-
genious assumptions were made as to the utility of the parts
and organs of lower animals. Darwin's theory had as one of its
results the reformation and rehabilitation of teleology. Accord-
ing to that theory, every organ, every part, colour and pecu-
liarity of an organism, must either be of benefit to that organism
itself or have been so to its ancestors: * no peculiarity of
structure or general conformation, no habit or instinct in any
organism, can be supposed to exist for the benefit or amusement
of another organism, not even for the delectation of man him-
self. Necessarily, according to the theory of natural selection,
structures either are present because they are selected as useful
or because they are still inherited from ancestors to whom they
were useful, though no longer useful to the existing representa-
tives of those ancestors. Structures previously inexplicable
were now explained as survivals from a past age, no longer
useful though once of value. Every variety of form and colour
was urgently and absolutely called upon to produce its title
to existence either as an active useful agent or as a survival.
Darwin himself spent a large part of the later years of his life
in thus extending the new teleology.
The old doctrine of types, which was used by the philo-
sophically minded zoologists (and botanists) of the first half
1 A very subtle and important qualification of this generalization
.has to be recognized (and was recognized by Darwin) in the fact
that owing to the interdependence of the parts of the bodies of living
things and their profound chemical interactions and peculiar struc-
tural balance (what is called organic polarity) the variation of one
single part (a spot of colour, a tooth, a claw, a leaflet) may, and
demonstrably does in many ca^es entail variation of other parts
what are called correlated variations. Hence many structures which
are obvious to the eye, and serve as distinguishing marks of separate
species, are really not themselves of value or use, but are the necessary
concomitants of less obvious and even altogether obscure qualities,
which are the real characters upon which selection is acting. Such
" correlated variations " may attain to great size and complexity
without being of use. But eventually they may in turn become,
in changed conditions, of selective value. Thus in many cases the
difficulty of supposing that selection has acted on minute and
imperceptible initial variations, so small as to have no selective
value, may be got rid of. A useless " correlated variation " may
have attained great volume and quality before it is (as it were)
seized upon and perfected by natural selection. All organisms are
essentially and necessarily built up by such correlated variations.
of the i gth century as a ready means of explaining the failures
and difficulties of the doctrine of design, fell into its proper
place under the new dispensation. The adherence to type,
the favourite conception of the transcendental morphologist,
was seen to be nothing more than the expression of one of the
laws of thremmatology, the persistence of hereditary trans-
mission of ancestral characters, even when they have ceased
to be significant or valuable in the struggle for existence, whilst
the so-called evidences of design which was supposed to modify
the limitations of types assigned to Himself by the Creator were
seen to be adaptations due to the selection and intensification
by selective breeding of fortuitous congenital variations, which
happened to prove more useful than the many thousand other
variations which did not survive in the struggle for existence.
Thus not only did Darwin's theory give a new basis to the
study of organic structure, but, whilst rendering the general
theory of organic evolution equally acceptable and Effecta ot
necessary, it explained the existence of low and simple Darwin's
forms of life as survivals of the earliest ancestry of theory
more highly complex forms, and revealed the classi-
fications of the systematist as unconscious attempts
to construct the genealogical tree or pedigree of plants
and animals. Finally, it brought the simplest living matter
or formless protoplasm before the mental vision as the starting-
point whence, by the operation of necessary mechanical causes,
the highest forms have been evolved, and it rendered unavoid-
able the conclusion that this earliest living material was itself
evolved by gradual processes, the result also of the known and
recognized laws cf physics and chemistry, from material which
we should call not living. It abolished the conception of life
as an entity above and beyond the common properties of matter,
and led to the conviction that the marvellous and exceptional
qualities of that which we call " living " matter are nothing
more nor less than an exceptionally complicated development
of those chemical and physical properties which we recognize
in a gradually ascending scale of evolution in the carbon com-
pounds, containing nitrogen as well as oxygen, sulphur and
hydrogen as constituent atoms of their enormous molecules.
Thus mysticism was finally banished from the domain of
biology, and zoology became one of the physical sciences the
science which seeks to arrange and discuss the phenomena of
animal life and form, as the outcome of the operation of the
laws of physics and chemistry.
A subdivision of zoology which was at one time in favour
is simply into morphology and physiology, the study of form
and structure on the one hand, and the study of scope
the activities and functions of the forms and structures ofioo-
on the other. But a logical division like this is not to *y-
necessarily conducive to the ascertainment and remembrance
of the historical progress and present significance of the science.
No such distinction of mental activities as that involved in the
division of the study of animal life into morphology and physio-
logy has ever really existed: the investigator of animal forms
has never entirely ignored the functions of the forms studied
by him, and the experimental inquirer into the functions and
properties of animal tissues and organs has always taken very
careful account of the forms of those tissues and organs. A more
instructive subdivision must be one which corresponds to the
separate currents of thought and mental preoccupation which
have been historically manifested in western Europe in the
gradual evolution of what is to-day the great river of zoological '
doctrine to which they have all been rendered contributory.
It must recognize the following five branches of zoological
study:
1. Morphography. The work of the collector and systematist:
exemplified by Linnaeus and his predecessors, by Cuvier,
Agassiz, Haeckel.
2. Bionomics. The lore of the farmer, gardener, sportsman,
fancier and field-naturalist, including thremmatology, or
the science of breeding, and the allied teleology, or science
of organic adaptations: exemplified by the patriarch Jacob,
the poet Virgil, Sprengel, Kirby and Spence, Wallace and
Darwin.
ZOOLOGY
CLASSIFICATION]
3. Zoo-Dynamics, Zoo-Physics, Zoo-Chemistry The pursuit of
the learned physician, anatomy and physiology: exem-
plified by Harvey, Haller, Hunter, Johann Muller.
4. Plasmology. The study of the ultimate corpuscles of living
matter, their structure, development and properties, by the
aid of the microscope; exemplified by Malpighi, Hook,
Schwann, Kowalewsky.
5. Philosophical Zoology. General conceptions with regard to the
relations of living things (especially animals) to the universe,
to man, and to the Creator, their origin and significance:
exemplified in the writings of the philosophers of classical
antiquity, and of Linnaeus, Goethe, Lamarck, Cuvier, Lyell,
H. Spencer and Darwin.
It is unnecessary to follow in this article all these subjects,
since they are for the most part treated under separate headings,
not indeed under these names which are too comprehensive
for that purpose but under those of the more specific questions
which arise under each. Thus Bionomics is treated in such
articles as EVOLUTION, HEREDITY, VARIATION, MENDELISM, RE-
PRODUCTION, SEX, &c.; Zoo-dynamics under MEDICINE, SURGERY,
PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY, EMBRYOLOGY, and allied articles; Plas-
mology under CYTOLOGY, PROTOPLASM, &c.; and Philosophical
Zoology under numerous headings, EVOLUTION, BIOLOGY, &c.
See also ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION, PALAEONTOLOGY, OCEANO-
GRAPHY, MICROTOMY, &c.
It will be more appropriate here, without giving what would
be a needless repetition of considerations, both historical and
theoretical, which appear in other articles, to confine ourselves
to two general questions, (i) the history of the various schemes
of classification, or Morphography, and (2) the consideration of
the main tendencies in the study of zoology since Darwin.
SYSTEMS or CLASSIFICATION
Morphography includes the systematic exploration and
tabulation of the facts involved in the recognition of all the
recent and extinct kinds of animals and their distribution in
space and time, (i) The museum-makers of old days and their
modern representatives the curators and describers of zoo-
logical collections, (2) early explorers and modern naturalist-
travellers and writers on zoo-geography, and (3) collectors of
fossils and palaeontologists are the chief varieties of zoological
workers coming under this head. Gradually since the time
of Hunter and Cuvier anatomical study has associated itself
with the more superficial morphography until to-day no one
considers a study of animal form of any value which does
not include internal structure, histology and embryology in
its scope.
The real dawn of zoology after the legendary period of the
middle ages is connected with the name of an Englishman,
Edward Edward Wotton, born at Oxford in 1492, who practised
Wottoo. as a physician in London and died in 1555. He pub-
lished a treatise De dijfferentiis animalium at Paris in 1552. In
many respects Wetton was simply an exponent of Aristotle
whose teaching, with various fanciful additions, constituted
the real basis of zoological knowledge throughout the middle
ages. It was Wotton's merit that he rejected the legendary
and fantastic accretions, and returned to Aristotle and the
observation of nature.
The most ready means of noting the progress of zoology
during the i6th, lyth and i8th centuries is to compare the
Aristotle's classificatory conceptions of successive naturalists
ciassin- with those which are to be found in the works ol
union. Aristotle himself. Aristotle did not definitely and in
tabular form propound a classification of animals, but from
a study of his treatises Historia animalium, De generations
animalium, and De partibus animalium the following classi-
fication can be arrived at:
A. 'Evcujio, blood-holding animals (= Vertebrate).
1. ZuortxoCira tv ofrroij, viviparous Enaema ( = Mammals, in-
cluding the Whale).
2. "OpviBa ( = Birds).
3. TTpdToia <( iToia woroxoCira, four-footed or legless Enaema
which lay eggs ( = Reptiles and Amphibia).
4. '\\9bts ( = Fishes).
XXVTO. 33
1025
B. "Av<H|ia, bloodless animals ( = Invertebrate).
1. MoXdicto, soft-bodied Anaema ( = Cephalopoda).
2. MaXox6ffrp<uo, soft-shelled Anaema ( = Crustacea) .
3. 'Evr^a, inserted Anaema or Insects ( = Arthropoda, ex-
clusive of Crustacea).
4. 'OoTpaxo&ipnaTa, shell-bearing Anaema ("Echini, Gastropoda
and LameUibranchia).
Wotton follows Aristotle 1 in the division of animals into the
Enaema and the Anaema, and in fact in the recognition of all
the groups above given, adding only one large group wottoa-t
to those recognized by Aristotle under the Anaema,
namely, the group of Zoophyta, in which Wotton
ncludes the Hololhuriae, Star-Fishes, Medusae, Sea-Aaemones
and Sponges. Wotton divides the viviparous quadrupeds into
the many-toed, double-hoofed and single-hoofed. By the
introduction of a method of classification which was due to the
superficial Pliny depending, not on structure, but on the
medium inhabited by an animal, whether earth, air or water
Wotton is led to associate Fishes and Whales as aquatic animals.
But this is only a momentary lapse, for he broadly distin-
guishes the two kinds.
The Swiss professor, Konrad Gesner (1516-1565), is the most
voluminous and instructive of these earliest writers on sys-
tematic zoology, and was so highly esteemed that Qg^ f ,
his Historia animalium was republished a hundred
years after his death. His great work appeared in successive
parts e.g. Vivipara, ovipara, ayes, pisces, serpentes et scorpio
and contains descriptions and illustrations of a large number
of animal forms with reference to the lands inhabited by them.
Gesner's work, like that of John Johnstone (b. 1603), who was
of Scottish descent and studied at St Andrews, and like that
of Ulysses Aldrovandi of Bologna (b. 1522), was essentially a
compilation, more or less critical, of all such records, pictures
and relations concerning beasts, birds, reptiles, fishes and
monsters as could be gathered together by one reading in the
great libraries of Europe, travelling from city to city, and fre-
quenting the company of those who either had themselves
passed into distant lands or possessed the letters written and
sometimes the specimens brought home by adventurous persons.
The exploration of parts of the New World next brought to
hand descriptions and specimens of many novel forms of animal
life, and in the latter part of the i6th century and the M edkai
beginning of the i7th that careful study by " special- aaatom-
ists " of the structure and life-history of particular '*< <
groups of animals was commenced, which, directed
at first to common and familiar kinds, was gradually
extended until it formed a sufficient body of knowledge to serve
as an anatomical basis for classification. This minuter study
had two origins, one in the researches of the medical anatomists,
such as Fabricius (1537-1619), Severinus (1580-1656), Harvey
(1578-1657), and Tyson (1649-1708), the other in the careful
work of the entomologists and first microscopists, such as
Malpighi (1628-1694), Swammerdam (1637-1680), and Hook
(1635-1702). The commencement of anatomical investiga-
tions deserves notice here as influencing the general accuracy
and minuteness with which zoological work was prosecuted,
but it was not until a late date that their full influence was
brought to bear upon systematic zoology by Georges Cuviei
(1769-1832).
The most prominent name between that of Gesner and
Linnaeus in the history of systematic zoology is that of John
Ray (1628-1705). A chief merit of Ray is to have Joba
limited the term " species " and to have assigned to *v-
it the significance which it bore till the Darwinian era, whereas
previously it was loosely and vaguely applied. He also made
1 If we remember that by " blood " Aristotle understood " red
blood," and that he did not know of the existence of colourless
blood, his primary division is not a bad one. One can imagine
the interest and astonishment with which the great Greek would
have been filled had some unduly precocious disciple shown to him
the red-blood-system of the marine terrestrial Annelids; the red
blood of Flanorbis, of A pus cancriformis, and of the Mediterranean
razor shell, Solen legumen.
IO26
ZOOLOGY
[CLASSIFICATION
considerable use of anatomical characters in his definitions
of larger groups, and may thus be considered as the father of
modern zoology. Associated with Ray in his work, and more
especially occupied with the study of the Worms and Mollusca,
was Martin Lister (1638-1712), celebrated also as the author
of the first geological map.
After Ray's death the progress of anatomical knowledge,
and of the discovery and illustration of new forms of animal life
From from distant lands, continued with increasing vigour.
Ray to We note the names of Vallisnieri (1661-1730) and
Llaaaeus. Alexander Monro (1697-1767); the travellers Tourne-
fort (1656-1708) and Shaw (1692-1751); the collectors
Rumphius (1637-1706) and Hans Sloane (1660-1753); the
entomologist Reaumur (1683-1757); Lhwyd (1703) and Linck
(1674-1734), the students of Star-Fishes; Peyssonel (b. 1694),
the investigator of Polyps and the opponent of Marsigli and
Reaumur, who held them to be plants; Woodward, the
palaeontologist (1665-1722) not to speak of others of less
importance.
Two years after Ray's death Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) was
born. Unlike Jacob Theodore Klein (1685-1759), whose careful
Linnaeu* treatises on various groups of plants and animals were
published during the period between Ray and Lin-
naeus, the latter had his career marked out for him in a
university, that of Upsala, where he was first professor of
medicine and subsequently of natural history. His lectures
formed a new departure in the academic treatment of zoology
and botany, which, in direct continuity from the middle ages,
had hitherto been subjected to the traditions of the medical
profession and regarded as mere branches of " materia medica."
Linnaeus taught zoology and botany as branches of knowledge
to be studied for their own intrinsic interest. His great work,
the Systema naturae, ran through twelve editions during his
lifetime (ist ed. 1735, izth 1768). Apart from his special dis-
coveries in the anatomy of plants and animals, and his descrip-
tions of new species, the great merit of Linnaeus was his intro-
duction of a method of enumeration and classification which
may be said to have created systematic zoology and botany
in their present form, and establishes his name for ever as the
great organizer, the man who recognized a great practical want
in the use of language and supplied it. Linnaeus adopted Ray's
conception of species, but he made species a practical reality
by insisting that every species shall have a double Latin name
the first half to be the name of the genus common to several
species, and the second half to be the specific name. Previously
to Linnaeus long many-worded names had been used, sometimes
with one additional adjective, sometimes with another, so that
no true names were fixed and accepted. Linnaeus by his
binomial system made it possible to write and speak with
accuracy of any given species of plant or animal. He was, in
fact, the Adam of zoological science. He proceeded further
to introduce into his enumeration of animals and plants a series
of groups, viz. genus, order, class,, which he compared to the
subdivisions of an army or the subdivisions of a territory, the
greater containing several of the less, as follows:
Class. Order. Genus. Species. Variety.
Genus sum- Genus inter- Genus proxi- Species. Individuum.
mum. medium. mum.
Provihcia. Territorium. Paroecia. Pagus. Domicilium.
Legio. Cohors. Manipulus. Contubernium. Miles.
Linnaeus himself recognized the purely subjective character
of his larger groups; for him species were, however, objective:
" there are, " he said, " just so many species as in the beginning
the Infinite Being created." It was reserved for a philosophic
zoologist of the igth century (Agassiz, Essay on Classification,
1859) to maintain that genus, order and class were also ob-
jective facts capable of precise estimation and valuation. This
climax was reached at the very moment when Darwin was
publishing the Origin of Species (1859), by which universal
opinion has been brought to the position that species, as well
as genera, orders and classes, are the subjective expressions of
a vast ramifying pedigree in which the only objective existences
are individuals, the apparent species as well as higher groups
being marked out, not by any distributive law, but by the inter-
action of living matter and its physical environment, causing
the persistence of some forms and the destruction of vast series
of ancestral intermediate kinds.
The classification of Linnaeus (from Syst. Nat., izth ed.,
1766) should be compared with that of Aristotle. It ciassm-
is as follows the complete list of Linnaean genera cation of
being here reproduced: Linnaeo*.
Class I. MAMMALIA.
Order I. Primates,
Genera : Homo, Simia, Lemur, Vespertilio.
2. Bruta.
Genera : Elephas, Tricher.us, Brady pus, Myrme-
cophaga, Manis, Dasypus.
3. Ferae.
Genera: Pkoca, Canis, Felis, Viverra, Mustela,
Ursus, Didelphys, Talpa, Sorex, Erinaceus.
4. Glires.
Genera: Hystrix, Lepus, Castor, Mus, Sciurus,
Noctilio.
5. Pecora.
Genera: Camelus, Moschus, Cervus, Capra, Ovis,
Bos.
6. Belluae.
Genera: Equus, Hippopotamus, Sus, Rhinoceros.
7. Cete.
Genera: Monodon, Balaena, Physeter, Delphinus.
Class II. AVES.
Order I. Accipitres.
Genera: Vultur, Falco, Strix, Lanius.
2. Picae.
Genera: (a) Trochilus, Certhia, Upupa, Buphaga,
Sitta, Oriolus, Coracias, Gracula, Corvus, Para-
disea; (b) Ramphastos, Trogon, Psittacus, Croto-
phaga, Picus, Yunx, Cuculus, Bucco; (c) Buce-
ros, Alcedo, Merops, Todos.
3. Anseres.
Genera: (a) Anas, Mergus, Phaethon, Plotus;
(b) Rhyr.cops, Diomedea, Alca, Procellaria,
Pelecanus, Larus, Sterna, Colymbus.
4. Grallae.
Genera: (a) Phoenicopterus, Platalea, Palamedea,
Mycteria, Tantalus, Ardea, Recurvirostra, Scolo-
pax, Tringa, Fulica, Parra, Rallus, Psophia,
Cancroma; (b) Hematopus, Charadrius, Otis,
Struthio.
5. Gallinae.
Genera : Didus, Pavo, Meleagris, Crax, Phasianus,
Tetrao, Numida.
6. Passeres.
Genera: (a) Loxia, Fringitta, Emberiza; (b)
Caprimulgus, Hirundo, Pipra; (c) Turdus,
Ampelis, Tanagra, Muscicapa; (d) Parus,
Motacilla, Alauda, Sturnus, Columba.
Class III. AMPHIBIA.
Order I. Reptilia.
Genera: Testudo, Draco, Lacerta, Rana.
2. Serpentes.
Genera: Crotalus, Boa, Coluber, Anguis, Amphis-
baena, Caecilia.
3. Nantes.
Genera: Petromyzon, Raja, Squalus, Chimaera,
Lophius, Acipenser, Cyclopterus, Balistes, Os-
tracion, Tetrodon, Diodon, Centriscus, Syn-
gnathus, Pegasus.
Class IV. PISCES.
Order i. Apodes.
Genera: Muraena, Gymnotus, Trichiurus, Anar-
rhickas, Ammodytes, Ophidium, Stromateus,
Xiphias.
2. Jugulares.
Genera: Callionymus, Uranoscopus, Trachinus,
Gadus, Blennius.
3. Thoracici.
Genera: Cepola, Echeneis, Coryphaena, Gobius,
Coitus, Scorpaena, Zeus, Pleuronectes, Chaetodon,
Sparus, Labrus, Sciaena, Perca, Gasterosteus,
Scomber, Mullus, Trigla.
4. Abdominales.
Genera: Cobitis, Amia, Silurus, Zeuthis, Lori-
caria, Salmo, Fistularia, Esox, Elops, Argen-
tina, Atherina, Mugil, Mormyrus, Exocoetus,
Polynemus, Clupea, Cyprinus.
CLASSIFICATION!
ZOOLOGY
1027
Class V. INSECT A.
Order I. Coleoptera.
Genera: (a) Scarabaeus, Lucanus, Dermestes,
Hister, Byrrhus, Gyrinus, Attelabus, Curculio,
Silpka, Coccinella; (b) Bruchus, Cassida, Ptinus,
Chrysomela, Hispa, Meloe, Tenebrio, Lampyris,
Moidella, Staphylinus; (c) Cerambyx, Leptura,
Cantharis, Elater, Cicindela, Buprestis, Dytiscus,
Carabus, Necydalis, Forficula.
a. Hemiptera.
Genera: Blatta, Mantis, Gryllus, Fulgora, Cicada,
Notonecta, Ntpa, Cimex, Aphis, Chermes, Coc-
cus, Thrips.
3. Lepidoptera.
Genera : Papilio, Sphinx, Phalaena.
4- Neuroptera.
Genera: Libellula, Ephemera, Myrmeleon, Phry-
ganea, Hemcrobius, Panorpa, Raphidia.
5. Hymenoptera.
Genera: Cynips, Tenthredo, Sirex, Ichneumon,
Sphex, Chrysis, Vespa, Apis, Formica, Mutilla.
6. Diptera.
Genera: Oestrus, Tipula, Musca, Tabanus, Culex,
Empis, Conops, Astius, Bombylius, Hippobosca.
7. Aptera.
Genera: (a) Pedibus sex; capite a thorace dis-
creto: Lepisma, Podura, Termes, Pedicu-
lus, Pulex.
(b) Pedibus 8-14; capite thoraceque unitis:
Acarus, Phalangium, Aranea, Scorpio,
Cancer, Monoculus, Oniscus.
(c) Pedibus pluribus; capite a thorace discrete :
Scolopendra, Julus.
Class VI. VERMES.
Order I. Intestina.
Genera: (a) Pertusa lateral! poro: Lumbricus,
Sipunculus, Faidola.
(b) Imperforata poro lateral! nullo: Gordius,
Ascaris, Hirudo, Myxine.
2. Mollusca.
Genera: (a) Ore supero; basi se affigens:
Actinia, Ascidia.
(6) Ore antico; corpore pertuso lateral! fora-
minulo: Limax, Aplysia, Doris, Tethis.
(c) Ore antico; corpore tentaculis antice
cincto: Helothuria, Terebella.
(d) Ore antico; corpore brachiato: Triton,
Sepia, Clio, Lernaea, Scyllaea.
(e) Ore antico; corpore peda.to: Aphrodita,
Nereis.
(f) Ore infero central!: Medusa, Aster ia,
Echinus.
3. Testacea.
Genera: (a) Multivalvia: Chiton, Lepas, Pholas.
(b) Bivalyia ( = Conchae) : Mya, Solen, Tcllina,
Cardium, Mactra, Donax, Venus, Span-
dylus, Chama, Area, Ostrea, Anemia,
Mytilus, Pinna.
(c) Univalvia spira regular! ( = Cochleae) : A rgo-
nauta, Nautilus, Conus, Cypraea, Bulla,
Valuta, Buccinum, Strombus, Murex,
Trpchus, Turbo, Helix, Nerita, Haliotis.
(d) Univalvia absque spira regular!: Patella,
Dentalium, Serpula, Teredo, Sabella.
4. Lithophyta.
Genera: Tubipora, Madrepora, Millepora, Celle-
pora.
5. Zoophyta.
Genera: (a) Fixata: I sis, Gorgonia, Alcyonium,
Spongia, Flustra, Tubularia, Corallina,
Serttuaria, Vorticella.
(b) Locomotiva: Hydra, Pennatula, Taenia,
Volvox, Furia, Chaos.
The characters of the six classes are thus given by Linnaeus:
Cor biloculare, biauritum ; > viyiparis, Mammalibus;
Sanguine calido, rubro: i oviparis, Avibus.
Cor uniloculare, uniauntum ; * ) pulmone arbitrario, Amphibiis;
> branchiis externis, Pisctbus.
Sanguine frigido, rubro :
'or uniloculare, inaurltu
Sanie frigida, albida:
Cor uniloculare, inaurltum; ) antennatis, Insectis;
' tentaculatis, Vermibus.
1 The anatomical error in reference to the auricles of Reptiles and
Batrachians on the part of Linnaeus is extremely interesting, since
it shows to what an extent the most patent facts may escape the
observation of even the greatest observers, and what an amount
of repeated dissection and unprejudiced attention has been necessary
before the structure of the commonest animals has become known.
Between Linnaeus and Cuvier there are no very great names;
but under the stimulus given by the admirable method and
system of Linnaeus observation and description From
of new forms from all parts of the world, both Liaaaea*
recent and fossil, accumulated. We can only cite the ' Cuvler -
names of Charles Bonnet (1720-1793), the entomologist, who
described the reproduction of Aphis; Banks and Solander,
who accompanied Captain Cook on his first voyage(i768-i77i);
Thomas Pennant (1726-1798), the describer of the English
fauna; Peter Simon Pallas (1741-1811), who specially extended
the knowledge of the Linnaean Vermes, and under the patronage
of the empress Catherine explored Russia and Siberia; De Geer
(1720-1778), the entomologist; Lyonnet (1707-1789), the
author of the monograph of the anatomy of the caterpillar of
Cossus ligniperdus; Cavolini (1756-1810), the Neapolitan
marine zoologist and forerunner of Delia Chiaje (fl. 1828);
O. F. Mtiller (i 730-1 784), the describer of fresh-water Oligochaeta;
Abraham Trembley (1700-1784), the student of Hydra; and
O. F. Ledermiiller (1719-1769), the inventor of the term In-
fusoria. The effect of the Linnaean system upon the general
conceptions of zoologists was no less marked than were its
results in the way of stimulating the accumulation of accurately
observed details. The notion of a scale naturae, which had
since the days of classical antiquity been a part of the general
philosophy of nature amongst those who occupied themselves
with such conceptions; now took a more definite form in the
minds of skilled zoologists. The species of Linnaeus were
supposed to represent a cries of steps in a scale of ascending
complexity, and it was thought possible thus to arrange the
animal kingdom in a single series the orders within the classes
succeeding one another in regular gradation, and the classes
succeeding one another in a similar rectilinear progression.
J. B. P. de Lamarck (1744-1829) represents most completely,
both by his development theory (to be further Lamarck'*
mentioned below) and by his scheme of classifica- d***m-
tion, the high- water mark of the popular but ***
fallacious conception of a scola naturae. His classification
(1801-1812) is as follows:
Invertebrata.
1. Apathetic Animals.
Class I. INFUSORIA.
Orders: Nuda, Appendtculata.
Class II. POLYPI.
Orders: Ciliati (Rotifera), Denudati (Hydroids), Vagi-
nati (Anthozoa and Polyzoa), Natantes (Crinoids).
Class III. RADIARIA.
Orders: Mollia (Acalephae), Echinoderma (including
Actiniae).
Class IV. TUNICATA.
Orders: Bothryllaria, Ascidia.
Class V. VERMES.
Orders: Molles (Tape- Worms and Flukes), Rigiduli
(Nematoids), Hispiduli (Nais, &c.), Epizoariae
(Lernaeans, &c.)-
2. Sensitive Animals.
Class VI. INSECTA (Hexapoda).
Orders: Aptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera,
Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, Orthoptera, Coleoptera.
Class VII. ARACHNIDA.
Orders: Antennato-Trachealia ( = Thysanura and
Myriapoda), Exantennato-Trachealia, Exantennato-
Branchialia.
Class VIII. CRUSTACEA.
Orders: Heterobranchia (Branchiopoda, Isopoda, Am-
phipoda, Stomapoda), Homobranchia (Decapoda).
Class IX. ANNELIDA.
Orders: Apoda, Antennata, Sedentaria.
Class X. CIRRIPEDIA.
Orders : Sessilia, Pedunculate.
Class XI. CONCHIFERA.
Orders: Dimyaria, Monomyarta.
Class XII. MOLLUSCA.
Orders: Pteropoda, Gasteropoda, Trackelipoda, Cepha-
lopoda, Heteropoda.
Vertebrate.
3. Intelligent Animals.
Class XIII. FISHES.
XIV. REPTILES.
Class XV. BIRDS-
, XVI. MAMMALS.
1028
ZOOLOGY
Cuvler.
The enumeration of orders above given will enable the reader
to form some conception of the progress of knowledge relating
to the lower forms of life during the fifty odd years which inter-
vened between Linnaeus and Lamarck. The number of genera
recognized by Lamarck is more than ten times as great as that
recorded by Linnaeus.
We have mentioned Lamarck before his great contemporary
Cuvier because, in spite of his valuable philosophical doctrine
of development, he was, as compared with Cuvier and estimated
as a systematic zoologist, a mere enlargement and logical out-
come of Linnaeus.
The distinctive merit of G. L. Cuvier (1760-1832) is that he
started a new view as to the relationship of animals, which he
may be said in a large measure to have demon-
strated as true by his own anatomical researches. He
opposed the scala naturae theory, and recognized four distinct
and divergent branches or embranchemens, as he called them,
in each of which he arranged a certain number of the Linnaean
classes, or similar classes. The embranchemens were charac-
terized each by a different type of anatomical structure. Cuvier
thus laid the foundation of that branching tree-like arrangement
of the classes and orders of animals now recognized as being
the necessary result of attempts to represent what is practically
a genealogical tree or pedigree. Apart from this, Cuvier was
a keen-sighted and enthusiastic anatomist of great skill and
industry. It is astonishing how many good observers it re-
quires to dissect and draw and record over and over again the
structure of an animal before an appr iximately correct account
of it is obtained. Cuvier dissected many Molluscs and other
animals which had not previously been anatomized; of others
he gave more correct accounts than had been given by earlier
writers. Another special distinction of Cuvier is his remarkable
work in comparing extinct with recent organisms, his descriptions
of the fossil Mammalia of the Paris basin, and his general applica-
tion of the knowledge of recent animals to the reconstruction of
extinct ones, as indicated by fragments only of their skeletons.
It was in 1812 that Cuvier communicated to the Academy
of Sciences of Paris his views on the classification of animals.
He says:
" Si Ton considere le regne animal d'apres les principes que nous
venons de poser, en se debarassant des prejuges etablis surges
divisions anciennement admises, en n'ayant egard qu' a 1'organisa-
tion et a la nature des animaux, et non pas a leur grandeur, a leur
utilit^, au plus ou moins de connaissance que nous en avons, ni &
toutes les autres circonstances accessoires, on trouvera qu'il existe
quatre formes principales, quatre plans generaux, si 1'on peut s'ex-
primer ainsi, d'apres lesquels tous les animaux semblent avoir ete
modeles et dont les divisions ulterieures, de quelque titre que les
naturalistes les aient decorees, ne sont que des^ modifications assez
legeres, fondees sur le developpement, ou 1'addition de quelques
parties qui ne changent rien a I'essence du plan."
H i s classification as finally elaborated in Le Regne
Animal (Paris, 1829) is as follows:
First Branch. Animalia Vertebrata.
Class I. MAMMALIA.
Orders: Bimana, Quadrumana, Carmvora, Marsupialia,
Rodentia, Edentata, Pachydermala, Ruminanlia, Cetacea.
Class II. BIRDS.
Orders: Accipitres, Passeres, Scansores, GalUnae, brallae,
Palmipedes.
Class III. REPTILIA.
Orders: Chelonia, Sauria, Ophidia, Batrachia.
Class IV. FISHES.
Orders: (a) Acanthopterygtt, Abdominales, Subbrachii,
Apodes, Lophobranchii, Plectognathi; (b) Sturiones,
Selachii, Cyclostomi.
Second Branch. Animalia Mollusca.
Class I. CEPHALOPODA.
Class II. PTEROPODA.
Class III. GASTROPODA.
Orders: Ptdmonata, Nudibranchia, Inferobranchta, lecti-
branchia, Heteropoda, Pectinibranchia, Tubulibranchta,
Scttlibranchia, Cydobranchia.
Class IV. ACEPHALA.
Orders: Testacea, Tunicata.
Class V. BRACHIOPODA.
Class VI. CIRRHOPODA.
Third Branch. Animalia Articulata.
Class I. ANNELIDES.
Orders: Tubicolae, Dorsibranchiae, Abranchiae.
Class II. CRUSTACEA.
Orders: (a) Malacostraca : Decapoda, Stomapoda, Am-
phipoda, Laemodipoda, Isopoda; (b) Entomostraca :
Branchiopoda, Poecilopoda, Trilobitae.
Class III. ARACHNIDES.
Orders: Pulmonariae, Tracheariae.
Class IV. INSECTS.
Orders: Myriapoda, Thysanura, Parasita, Suctoria, Coleo-
ptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera,
Lepidoptera, Rhipiptera, Diptera.
Fourth Branch. Animalia Radiata.
Class I. ECHINODERMS.
Orders: Pedicettata, Apoda.
Class II. INTESTINAL WORMS.
Orders: Nematoidea, Parenchymatosa.
Class III. ACALEPHAE.
Orders: Simplices, Hydrostaticae.
Class IV. POLYPI (including the Coelentera of later authorities
and the Polyzoa).
Orders: Carnosi, Gelatinosi, Polypiarii.
Class V. INFUSORIA.
Orders: Rotifera, Homogenea (this includes the Protozoa
of recent writers and some Protophyta).
The leading idea of Cuvier, his four embranchemens, was con-
firmed by the Russo-German naturalist Von Baer (1792-1876),
who adopted Cuvier's divisions, speaking of them as Voa Baer
the peripheric, the longitudinal, the massive, and the
vertebrate types of structure. Von Baer, however, has another
place in the history of zoology, being the first and most striking
figure in the introduction of embryology into the consideration
of the relations of animals to one another.
Cuvier may be regarded as the zoologist by whom anatomy was
made the one important guide to the understanding of the rela-
tions of animals. But the belief, dating from Malpighi Th emar .
(1670), that there is a relationship to be discovered,
and not merely a haphazard congregation of varieties of
structure to be classified, had previously gained ground.
Cuvier was familiar with the speculations of the " Natur-philo-
sophen," and with the doctrine of transmutation and filiation by
which they endeavoured to account for existing animal forms.
The noble aim of F. W. J. Schelling, " das ganze System der Natur-
lehre von dem Gesetze der Schwere bis zu den Bildungstrieben
der Organismus als ein organisches Ganze darzustellen," which
has ultimately^ been realized through Darwin, was a general one
among the scientific men of the year 1800. Lamarck accepted
the development theory fully, and pushed his speculations
far beyond the realm of fact. The more cautious Cuvier adopted
a view of the relationships of animals which, whilst denying genetic
connexion as the explanation, recognized an essential identity of
structure throughout whole groups of animals. This identity was
held to be due to an ultimate law of nature or the Creator's plan.
The tracing out of this identity in diversity, whether regarded as
evidence of blood-relationship or as a remarkable display of skill
on the part of the Creator in varying the details whilst retaining
the essential, became at this period a special pursuit, to which
Goethe, the poet, who himself contributed importantly to it, gave
the name " morphology." C. F. Wolff, Goethe and Oken share
the credit of having initiated these views, in regard especially
to the structure of flowering plants and the Vertebrate skull.
Cuvier's doctrine of four plans of structure was essentially a morpho-
logical one, and so was the single-scale doctrine of Buffon and
Lamarck, to which it was opposed. Cuvier's morphological doctrine
received its fullest development in the principle of the " correla-
tion of parts," which he applied to palaeontological investigation,
namely, that every animal is a definite whole, and that no part
can be varied without entailing correlated and law-abiding varia-
tions in other parts, so that from a fragment it should be possible,
had we a full knowledge of the laws of animal structure or morpho-
logy, to reconstruct the whole. Here Cuvier was imperfectly
formulating, without recognizing the real physical basis of the
phenomena, the results of the laws of heredity, which were sub-
sequently investigated and brought to bear on the problems of
animal structure by Darwin.
Sir Richard Owen (1804-1892) may be regarded as the fore-
most of Cuvier's disciples. Owen not only occupied himself
with the dissection of rare animals, such as the Pearly owea.
Nautilus, Lingula, Limulus, Protopterus, Apteryx, &c.,
and with the description and reconstruction of extinct reptiles,
birds and mammals following the Cuvierian tradition but
gave precision and currency to the morphological doctrines
which had taken their rise in the beginning of the century by
ZOOLOGY
1029
the introduction of two terms, " homology " and " analogy,"
which were denned so as to express two different kinds of agree-
ment in animal structures, which, owing to the want of such
" counters of thought," had been hitherto continually confused.
Analogous structures in any two_ animals compared were by
Owen denned as structures performing similar functions, but not
necessarily derived from the modification of one and the same
part in the " plan " or " archetype " according to which the two
animals compared were supposed to be constructed. Homologous
structures were such as, though greatly differing in appearance
and detail from one another, and though performing widely different
functions, yet were capable of being shown by adequate study
of a series of intermediate forms to be derived from one and the
same part or organ of the " plan-form " or " archetype." It is
not easy to exaggerate the service rendered by Owen to the study
of zoology by the introduction of this apparently small
piece of verbal mechanism; it takes place with the classifi-
catory terms of Linnaeus. And, though the conceptions of " arche-
typal morphology," to which it had reference, are now abandoned
in favour of a genetic morphology, yet we should remember, in
estimating the value of this and of other speculations which have
given place to new views in the history of science, the words of
the great reformer himself. " Erroneous observations are in the
highest degree injurious to the progress of science, since they often
persist for a long time. But erroneous theories, when they are
supported by facts, do little harm, since every one takes a healthy
pleasure in proving their falsity " (Darwin). Owen's definition of
analogous structures holds good at the present day. His homo-
logous structures are now spoken of as " homogenetic " structures,
the idea of community of representation in an archetype giving
place to community of derivation from a single representative
structure present in a common ancestor. Darwinian morphology
has further rendered necessary the introduction of the terms homo-
plasy " and " homoplastic " (E. Ray Lankester, in Ann. and Mae.
Nat. Hist. 1870) to express that close agreement in form which
may be attained in the course of evolutional changes by organs or
parts in two animals which have been subjected to similar moulding
conditions of the environment, but have not a close genetic com-
munity of origin, to account for their similarity in form and struc-
ture, although they have a certain identity in primitive quality
which is accountable for the agreement of their response to similar
moulding conditions.
The classification adopted by Cwen in his lectures (1855)
Owen's does not adequately illustrate the progress of zoological
ciassin- knowledge between Cuvier's death and that date, but,
catloa ' suc h as it is, it is worth citing here.
Province: Vertebrata (Myclencephala, Owen).
Classes: MAMMALIA, AVES, REPTIHA, PISCES.
Province: Articulata.
Classes: ARACHNIDA, INSECTA (including Sub-Classes Myria-
poda, Hexapoda), CRUSTACEA (including Sub-Classes Ento-
mostraca, Malacostraca), EPIZOA (Epizootic Crustacea),
ANNELLATA (Chaetopods and Leeches), CIRRIPEDIA.
Province: Mollusc a.
Classes: CEPHALOPODA, GASTEROPODA, PTEROPODA.LAMELLI-
BRANCHIATA, BRACHIOPODA, TlJNICATA.
Province: Radiata.
Sub-Province: Radiaria.
Classes: ECHINODERMATA, BRYOZOA, ANTHOZOA, ACA-
LEPHAE, HYDROZOA.
Sub-Province: Entozoa.
Classes: COELELMINTHA, STERELMINTHA.
Sub-Province: Infusoria.
Classes: ROTIFERA, POLYGASTRIA (the'Protozoa of recent
authors).
The real centre of progress of systematic zoology was no
longer in France nor with the disciples of Cuvier in England,
but after his death moved to Germany. The wave of mor-
phological speculation, with its outcome of new systems and new
theories of classification (see Agassiz, Essay on Classification,
1859), which were as numerous as the professors of zoological
science, was necessarily succeeded in the true progress of the
science by a period of minuter study in which the microscope,
the discovery of embryological histories, and the all-important
cell-theory came to swell the stream of exact knowledge.
The greatest of all investigators of animal structure in the
century was Johann Miiller (1801-1858). the successor in
Germany of the anatomists Rathke (1793-1860)
and Meckel (1781-1833). His true greatness can
only be estimated by a consideration of the fact that he was a
great teacher not only of human and comparative anatomy
and zoology but also of physiology, and that nearly all the most
distinguished German zoologists and physiologists of the period
1850 to 1870 were his pupils and acknowledged his leader-
ship. The most striking feature about Johann Miiller's work,
apart from the comprehensiveness of his point of view, in which
he added to the anatomical and morphological ideas of Cuvier
a consideration of physiology, embryology and microscopic
structure, was the extraordinary accuracy, facility and com-
pleteness of his recorded observations. He could do more with
a single specimen of a rare animal (e.g. in his memoir on
Amphioxus, Berlin, 1844) in the way of making out its complete
structure than the ablest of his contemporaries or successors
could do with a plethora. His power of rapid and exhaustive
observation and of accurate pictorial reproduction was pheno-
menal. His most important memoirs, besides that just
mentioned, are those on the anatomy and classification of
Fishes, on the Caecilians and on the developmental history
of the Echinoderms.
A name which is apt to be forgotten in the period between
Cuvier and Darwin, because its possessor occupied an isolated
position in England and was not borne up by any
great school or university, is that of John Vaughan
Thompson (1770-1847), an army surgeon, who in 1816 * oa -
became district medical inspector at Cork, and then took to the
study of marine Invertebrate by the aid of the microscope.
Thompson made three great discoveries, which seem to have
fallen in his way in the most natural and simple manner, but
must be regarded really as the outcome of extraordinary genius.
He showed (1830) that the organisms like Fluslra are not
hydroid Polyps, but of a more complex structure resembling
Molluscs, and he gave them the name Polyzoa. He discovered
(1823) the Pentacrinus europaeus, and showed that it was
the larval form of the Feather-Star Antedon (Comalula).
He upset (1830) Cuvier's retention of the Cirripedes among
Mollusca, and his subsequent treatment of them as an isolated
class, by showing that they begin life as free-swimming
Crustacea identical with the young forms of other Crustacea.
Vaughan Thompson is a type of the marine zoologists, such as
Dalyell, Michael Sars, P. J. Van Beneden, Claparede, and Allman,
who during the i9th century approached the study of the lower
marine organisms in the same spirit as that in which Trembley
and Schaffer in the i8th century, and Swammerdam in the I7th,
gave themselves to the study of the minute fresh-water forms
of animal life.
It is impossible to enumerate or to give due consideration
to all the names in the army of anatomical and embryological
students of the middle third of the igth century whose labours
bore fruit in the modification of zoological theories and in the
building up of a true classification of animals. Their resu'ts
are best summed up in the three schemes of classification which
follow below those of Rudolph Leuckart (1823-1896), Henri
Milne-Edwards (1800-1884), and T. H. Huxley (1825-1895), all
of whom individually contributed very greatly by their special
discoveries and researches to the increase of exact knowledge.
Contemporaneous with these were various schemes of classi-
fication which were based, not on a consideration of the entire
structure of each animal, but on the variations of a
single organ, or on the really non-significant fact of tact
the structure of the egg. All such single-fact systems *ystemM
have proved to be departures from the true line of
growth of the zoological system which was shaping
itself year by year unknown to those who so shaped it as a
genealogical tree. They were attempts to arrive at a true know-
ledge of the relationships of animals by " royal roads "; their
followers were landed in barren wastes.
R. Leuckart's classification (Die Morpkologie und
die VerwandtschafisverholtHisse der wirbellasen Tkiere,
Brunswick, 1848) is as follows:
Type i. Coelenterata.
Class I. POLYPI.
Orders: Anthozoa and Cylicozoa.
II. ACALEPHAE.
Orders : Discophorae and Ctenophorae.
1030
ZOOLOGY
Type 2. Echinodermata.
Class I. PELMATOZOA.
Orders : Cystidea and 'Crinoidea.
II. ACTINOZOA.
Orders: Echinida and Asterida.
III. SCYTODERMATA.
Orders: Holothuriae and Sipunculida.
Type 3. Vermes.
Class I. ANENTERAETI.
Orders: Cestodes and Acanthocephali.
II. APODES.
Orders: Nemertini, Turbellarii, Trematodes and
Hirudinei.
111. CILIATI.
Orders : Bryozoa and Rotifera.
IV. ANNELIDES.
Orders: Nematodes Lumbricini and Branchiati.
Type d. Arthropoda.
Class I. CRUSTACEA.
Orders : Entomostraca and Malacostraca.
II. INSECTA.
Orders: Myriapoda, Arachnida (Accra, Latr.),
and Hexapoda.
Type 5. Mollusca.
Class I. TUNICATA.
Orders: Ascidiae and Salpae.
II. ACEPHALA.
Orders : Lamellibranchiala and Brachiopoda.
III. GASTEROPODA.
Orders: Heterobranchia, Dermatobranchia, Hetero-
poda, Ctenobranchia, Pulmonata, and Cyclo-
branchia.
IV. CEPHALOPODA.
Type 6. Vertebrata. (Not specially dealt with.)
cation.
The classification given by Henri Milne-Edwards
(Cours Elf.mentaire d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 1855)
is as follows:
Branch I. Osteozoaria or Vertebrata.
Sub-Branch I. Allantoidians.
Class I. MAMMALIA.
Orders: (a) Monodelphia: Bimana, Quadru-
mana, Cheiroptera, Insectiyora, Rodentia, Eden-
tata, Carnivora, Amphibia, Pachydermata,
Ruminantia, Cetacea; (b) Didelphia: Marsu-
pialia, Monotremata.
II. BIRDS.
Orders: Rapaces, Passercs, Scansores, Gattinae,
Grallae, Palmipedes.
,, III. REPTILES.
Orders: Chelonia, Sauria, Ophidia.
Sub-Branch 2. Anallantoidians.
Class I. BATRACHIANS.
Orders: Anura, Urodela, Perennibranchia, Cae-
ciliae.
II. FISHES.
Section i. Ossei.
Orders: Acanthopterygii, Abdominales, Sub-
brachii,Apodes, Lophpbranchii, Plectognathi.
Section 2. Chondropterygii.
Orders: Sturiones, Selachii, Cyclostomi.
Branch II. Entomozoa or Annelata.
Sub-Branch i. Arthropoda.
Class I. INSECTA.
Orders: Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Neuroptera,
Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Di-
ptera, Rhipiptera, Anopleura, Thysanura.
II. MYRIAPODA.
Orders : Chilognatha and Chilopoda.
III. ARACHNIDS.
Orders : Pulmonaria and Trachearia.
IV. CRUSTACEA.
Section i. Podophthalmia.
Orders : Decapoda and Stomopoda.
Section 2. Edriophthalmi.
Orders: Amphipoda, Loemodipoda and Iso-
poda.
Section 3. Branchiopoda.
Orders: Ostracoda, Phyllopoda and Trilo-
bitae.
Section 4. Entomostraca.
Orders: Copepoda, Cladocera, Siphonostoma,
Lernaeida, Cirripedia.
Section 5. Xiphosura.
(The orders of the classes which follow are not given in the work
quoted.)
Sub-Branch 2. Vennes.
Class I. ANNELIDS.
II. HELMINTHS.
.. III. TURBELLARIA.
Class IV. CESTOIDEA.
,, V. ROTATORIA.
Branch III. Malacozoaria or Mollusca.
Sub-Branch i. Mollusca proper.
Class I. CEPHALOPODA.
II. PTEROPODA.
Sub-Branch 2. Molluscoidea.
Class I. TUNICATA.
Bwnch IV. Zoophytes.
Sub-Branch i. Radiaria.
Class I. ECHINODERMS.
,, II. ACALEPHS.
Sub-Branch 2. Sarcodaria.
Class I. INFUSORIA.
Class III. GASTEROPODA.
,, IV. ACEPHALA.
Class II. BRYOZOA.
Class III. CORALLARIA or
POLYPI.
Class II. SPONGIARIA.
In England T. H. Huxley adopted in his lectures Huxley's
(1869) a classification which was in many respects dassiti-
similar to both of the foregoing, but embodied im- catloa -
provements of his own. It is as follows:
Sub-Kingdom I. Protozoa.
Classes: RHIZOPODA.GREGARINIDA, RADIOLARIA, SPONGIDA.
Sub-Kingdom II. Infusoria.
Sub-Kingdom III. Coelenterata.
Classes: HYDROZOA, ACTINOZOA.
Sub-Kingdom IV. Annuloida.
Classes: SCOLECIDA, ECHINODERMATA.
Sub-Kingdom V. Annulosa.
Classes: CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDA, MYRIAPODA, INSECTA.CHAE-
TOGNATHA, ANNELIDA.
Sub-Kingdom VI. Molluscoida.
Classes: POLYZOA, BRACHIOPODA, TUNICATA.
Sub-Kingdom VII. Mollusca.
Classes :LAMELLIBRANCHIATA,BRANCHIOGASTROPODA,PULMO-
GASTROPODA, PTEROPODA, CEPHALOPODA.
Sub-Kingdom VIII. Vertebrata.
Classes: PISCES, AMPHIBIA, REPTILIA, AVES, MAMMALIA.
We now arrive at the period when the doctrine of organic
evolution was established by Darwin, and when naturalists,
being convinced by him as they had not been by the trans-
mutationists of fifty years' earlier date, were compelled to take
an entirely new view of the significance of all attempts at
framing a " natural " classification.
Many zoologists prominent among them in Great Britain
being Huxley had been repelled by the airy fancies and
assumptions of the " philosophical " morphologists. _
The efforts of the best minds in zoology had been atUoas
directed for thirty years or more to ascertaining based oa
with increased accuracy and minuteness the struc- s<ru>
ture, microscopic and gross, of all possible forms of
animals, and not only of the adult structure but of the steps
of development of that structure in the growth of each kind
of organism from the egg to maturity. Putting aside fantastic
theories, these observers endeavoured to give in their classi-
fications a strictly objective representation of the facts of
animal structure and of the structural relationships of animals
to one another capable of demonstration. The groups within
groups adopted for this purpose were necessarily wanting in
symmetry: the whole system presented a strangely irregular
character. From time to time efforts were made by those who
believed that the Creator must have followed a symmetrical
system in his production of animals to force one or other
artificial, neatly balanced scheme of classification upon the
zoological world. The last of these was that of Louis Agassiz
(1807-1873), who, whilst surveying all previous
classifications, propounded a scheme of his own
(Essay on Classification, 1859), in which, as well as in the
criticisms he applies to other systems, the leading notion is
that sub-kingdoms, classes, orders and families have a real
existence, and that it is possible to ascertain and distinguish
characters which are of class value, others which are only of
ordinal value, and so on, so that the classes of one sub-kingdom
should on paper, and in nature actually do, correspond in
relative value to those of another sub-kingdom, and the orders
of any one class similarly should be so taken as to be of equal
Agassiz.
ZOOLOGY
1031
winlan
doctrine
on taxo-
nomy.
value with those of another class, and have been actually so
created.
The whole position was changed by the acquiescence, which
became universal, in the doctrine of Darwin. That doctrine
took some few years to produce its effect, but it
became evident at once to those who accepted Dar-
winism that the natural classification of animals,
after which collectors and anatomists, morphologists,
philosophers and embryologists had been so long
striving, was nothing more nor less than a genea-
logical tree, with breaks and gaps of various extent in its record.
The facts of the relationships of animals to one another, which
had been treated as the outcome of an inscrutable law by most
zoologists and glibly explained by the transcendental morpho-
logists, were amongst the most powerful arguments in support
of Darwin's theory, since they, together with all other vital
phenomena, received a sufficient explanation through it. It
is to be noted that, whilst the zoological system took the form
of a genealogical tree, with main stem and numerous diverging
branches, the actual form of that tree, its limitation to a certain
number of branches corresponding to a limited number of diver-
gences in structure, came to be regarded as the necessary
consequence of the operation of the physico-chemical laws of
the universe, and it was recognized that the ultimate explanation
of that limitation is to be found only in the constitution of
matter itself.
The first naturalist to put into practical form the conse-
quences of the new theory, in so far as it affected zoological
H k 1 classification, was Ernst Haeckel of Jena (b. 1834),
who in 1866, seven years after the publication of
Darwin's Origin of Species, published his suggestive Generelle
Morphologie. Haeckel introduced into classification a number
of terms intended to indicate the branchings of a genealogical
tree. The whole "system" or scheme of classification was
termed a genealogical tree (Stammbaum); the main branches
were termed " phyla," their branchings " sub-phyla "; the great
branches of the sub-phyla were termed " cladi," and the
" cladi " divided, into " classes," these into sub-classes, these
into legions, legions into orders, orders into sub-orders, sub-
orders into tribes, tribes into families, families into genera,
genera into species. Additional branchings could be indicated
by similar terms where necessary. There was no attempt in
Haeckel's use of these terms to make them exactly or more than
approximately equal in significance; such attempts were
clearly futile and unimportant where the purpose was the
exhibition of lines of descent, and where no natural equality of
groups was to be expected ex hypothesi. Haeckel's classifica-
tion of 1866 was only a first attempt. In the edition of the
Natiirliche Schopfungsgeschichte published in 1868 he made a
great advance in his genealogical classification, since he now
introduced the results of the extraordinary activity in the study
of embryology which followed on the publication of the Origin
of Species.
The pre-Darwiian systematists since the time of Von Baer had
attached very great importance to embryological facts, holding that
the stages in an animal's development were often more significant
of its true affinities than its adult structure. Von Baer had gained
unanimous support for his dictum, " Die Entwickelungsgescnichte
ist der wahre LichttrSger fur Untersuchungen iiber organische
Korper." Thus J. Muller's studies on the larval forms of Echino-
derms and the discoveries of Vaughan Thompson were appreciated.
But it was only after Darwin that the cell-tneory of Scnwann was
extended to the embryology of the animal kingdom generally, and
that the knowledge of the development of an animal became a
knowledge of the way in which the millions of cells of which its
body is composed take their origin by fission from a smaller number
of cells, and these at last from the single egg-cell. Kolliker (Develop-
ment of Cephalopods, 1844), Remak (Development of the Frog, 1850),
and others had laid the foundations of this knowledge in isolated
examples; but it was Kovalevsky, by his accounts of the develop-
ment of Ascidians and of Amphioxus (1866), who really made
zoologists see that a strict and complete cellular embryology of
animals was as necessary and feasible a factor in the comprehension
of their relationships as at the beginning of the century the coarse
anatomy had been shown to be by Cuvier. Kovalevsky's work
appeared between the dates of the Generelle Morphologie and the
Schopfungfgeschichie. Haeckel himself, with his pupil Miklucho-
Maclay, had in the meantime made studies on the growth from the
egg of Sponges studies which resulted in the complete separation
of the unicellular or equicellular Protozoa from the Sponges, hitherto
confounded with them. It is this introduction of the consideration
of cell-structure and cell-development which, subsequently to the
establishment of Darwinism, has most profoundly modified the views
of systematists, and led in conjunction with the genealogical doctrine
to the greatest activity in research an activity which culminated
in the work (1873-1882) of F. M. Balfour, and produced the pro-
foundest modifications in classification.
Haeckel's second pedigree is as follows:
Phyla.
Protozoa.
Zoophyta.
Vermes.
Mollusca.
Echinoderma.
Arthropoda.
Vertebrata.
Clades.
(OVULARIA.
BLASTULARIA.
fSPONGIAE.
I ACALEPHAE.
fAcOELOMI.
COELOMATI.
ACEPHALA.
EUCEPHALA.
COLOBRACHIA
LlPOBRACHIA.
CARIDES.
TRACHEATA.
ACRANIA.
MONORRHINA.
ANAMNIA.
AMNIOTA
Classes.
cArchezoa.
J Gregarinae.
[Infusoria.
( Planaeada .
\Gastraeada.
Porifera.
(Corolla.
J. Hydromedusae.
[ Ctenophora.
Platyhelminthes.
Nemathelminthes.
Bryozoa.
Tunicate.
Rhynchocoela.
Gephyraea.
Rotatoria.
^Annelida.
/ Spirobranchia.
\ Lamellibranchia.
5 Cochlides.
* Cephalopoda.
\Asterida.
( Crinoida.
5 Echinida.
< Holothuriae.
Crustacea.
(Arachnida.
i Myriapoda.
I Insecta.
Leptocardia.
Cyclostoma.
[Pisces.
J Dipneusta.
I Halisauria.
[Amphibia.
(Reptiiia.
J Aves.
[Mammalia.
Hatcktr*
1868
arraogt-
animal
kingdom.
In representing pictorially the groups of the 'animal kingdom
as the branches of a tree, it becomes obvious that a distinction
may be drawn, not merely between the individual
main branches, but further as to the level at which
they are given off from the main stem, so that one
branch or set of branches may be marked off as be- a " of
longing to an earlier or lower level than another set
of branches; and the same plan may be adopted
with regard to the clades, classes and smaller branches. The
term " grade " was introduced by Ray Lankester (" Notes, on
Embryology and Classification," in Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.
1877), to indicate this giving off of branches at a higher or
lower, i.e. a later or earlier, level of a main stem. 1 The mech-
anism for the statement of the genealogical relationships of
the groups of the animal kingdom was thus completed. Re-
newed study of every group was the result of the acceptance
of the genealogical idea and of the recognition of the importance
1 Sir Edwin Ray Lankester (b. 1847) was the eldest son of Edwin
Lankester (1814-1874), a physician and naturalist (F.R.S. 1845), who
became well known as a scientific writer and lecturer, editor of
the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science from 1853 to 1871,
and from 1862, in succession to Thomas Wakley, coroner for Central
Middlesex. Educated at St Pad's and both at Downing College,
Cambridge, and Christ Church, Oxford, E. Ray Lankester obtained
the Radcliffe Travelling Fellowship at Oxford in 1870, and became
a fellow and lecturer at Exeter College in 1872. From 1874 to
1890 he was professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at
University College, London; ana from 1891 to 1898 Linacre pro-
fessor of comparative anatomy at Oxford. From 1898 to 1907 he
was director of the Natural History Department of the British
Museum. He was made K.C.B. in 1907. [Ed. E. B.].
1032
ZOOLOGY
of cellular embryology. On the one hand, the true method of
arriving at a knowledge of the genealogical tree was recognized
as lying chiefly in attacking the problem of the genealogical
relationships of the smallest twigs of the tree, and proceeding
from them to the larger branches. Special studies of small
families or orders of animals with this object in view were taken
in hand by many zoologists. On the other hand, a survey of
the facts of cellular embryology which were accumulated in
regard to a variety of classes within a few years of Kovalevsky's
work led to a generalization, independently arrived at by Haeckel
and Lankester, to the effect that a lower grade of animals may
be distinguished, the Protozoa or Plastidozoa, which consist
either of single cells or colonies of equiformal cells, and a higher
grade, the Metazoa or Enterozoa, in which the egg-cell by " cell
division " gives rise to two layers of cells, the end'oderm and
the ectoderm, surrounding a primitive digestive chamber, the
archenteron. Of these latter, two grades were further distin-
guished by Lankester those which remain possessed of a
single archenteric cavity and of two primary cell-layers (the
Coelentera or Diploblastica) , and those which by nipping off the
archenteron give rise to two cavities, the coelom or body-cavity
and the metenteron or gut (Coelomata or Triploblastica) . To the
primitive two-cell-layered form, the hypothetical ancestor of all
Metazoa or Enterozoa, Haeckel gave the name Gastraea; the em-
bryonic form which represents in the individual growth from the
egg this ancestral condition he called a " gastrula." The term
" diblastula " was subsequently adopted in England for the gas-
trula of Haeckel. The tracing of the exact mode of development,
cell by cell, of the diblastula, the coelom, and the various tissues
of examples of all classes of animals was in later years pursued
with immense activity and increasing instrumental facilities.
Two names in connexion with post-Darwinian taxonomy
and the ideas connected with it require brief mention here.
Fritz MUller, by his studies on Crustacea (Fiir Darwin,
1864), showed the way in which genealogical theory
may be applied to the minute study of a limited group.
He is also responsible for the formulation of an im-
portant principle, called by Haeckel " the biogenetic funda-
mental law," viz. that an animal in its growth from the egg to
the adult condition tends to pass through a series of stages
which are recapitulative of the stages through which its ancestry
has passed in the historical development of the species from a
primitive form; or, more shortly, that the development of the
individual (ontogeny) is an epitome of the development of the
race (phylogeny). Pre-Darwinian zoologists had been aware
of the class of facts thus interpreted by Fritz Mtiller, but the
authoritative view on the subject had been that there is a
parallelism between (a) the series of forms which occur in in-
dividual development, (b) the series of existing forms from lower
to higher, and (c) the series of forms which succeed one another
in the strata of the earth's crust, whilst an explanation of this
parallelism was either not attempted, or was illusively offered
in the shape of a doctrine of harmony of plan in creation. It
was the application of Fritz Muller's law of recapitulation
which gave the chief stimulus to embryological investigations
between 1865 and 1890; and, though it is now recognized that
" recapitulation " is vastly and bewilderingly modified by special
adaptations in every case, yet the principle has served, and
still serves, as a guide of great value.
Another important factor in the present condition of zoolo-
gical knowledge as represented by classification is the doctrine of
degeneration propounded by Anton Dohrn. Lamarck believed
in a single progressive series of forms, whilst Cuvier introduced
Dobra't the conception of branches. The first post-Darwinian
doctrine systematists naturally and without reflexion accepted
otdegea- the idea that existing simpler forms represent stages
cmtioa. - R tne g,- a( j ua i progress of development are in fact
survivors from past ages which have retained the exact grade
of development which their ancestors had reached in past ages.
The assumption made was that (with the rare exception of para-
sites) all the change of structure through which the successive
generations of animals have passed has been one of progressive
Frltr
Muller's
recftpttu-
Mloo.
elaboration. It is Dohrn's merit to have pointed out 1 that
this assumption is not warranted, and that degeneration or pro-
gressive simplification of structure may have, and in many
lines certainly has, taken place, as well as progressive elaboration
and in other cases continuous maintenance of the status quo.
The introduction of this conception necessarily has had a most
important effect in the attempt to unravel the genealogical
affinities of animals. It renders the task a more complicated
one; at the same time it removes some serious difficulties and
throws a flood of light on every group of the animal kingdom.
One result of the introduction of the new conceptions dating
from Darwin was a healthy reaction from that attitude of mind
which led to the regarding of the classes and orders recognized
by authoritative zoologists as sacred institutions which were
beyond the criticism of ordinary men. That state of mind
was due to the fact that the groupings so recognized did not
profess to be simply the result of scientific reasoning, but were
necessarily regarded as the expressions of the " insight " of
some more or less gifted persons into a plan or system which
had been arbitrarily chosen by the Creator. Consequently there
was a tinge of theological dogmatism about the whole matter.
lub-G'deA. CCELENfERA,
Grade 2. ENTEROZOA.
Grade I. PROTOZOA.
A genealogical tree of animal kingdom (Lankester, 1884).
To deny the Linnaean, or later the Cuvierian, classes was very
much like denying the Mosaic cosmogony. But systematic
zoology is now entirely free from any such prejudices, and the
Linnaean taint which is apparent even in Haeckel and Gegen-
baur may be considered as finally expunged.
There are, and probably always will be, differences of opinion
as to the exact way in which the various kinds of animals may
be divided into groups and those groups arranged tan-
in such an order as will best exhibit their probable kester's
genetic relationships. The main divisions which, sysl
writing in 1910, the present writer prefers, are those adopted
in his Treatise on Zoology (Part II. ch. ii.) except that Phylum
17, Diplochorda (a name doubtfully applicable to Phoronis) is
replaced by Podaxonia, a term employed by Lankester in the
9th edition of this encyclopaedia and now used to include a
number of groups of doubtful but possible affinity. The terms
used for indicating groups are " Phylum " for the large diverging
branches of the genealogical tree as introduced by Haeckel,
each Phylum bears secondary branches which are termed
" classes," classes again branch or divide into orders, orders
into families, families into genera, genera into species. The
general purpose is to give something like an equivalence of
importance to divisions or branches indicated by the same
term, but it is not intended to imply that every phylum has the
1 Ursprung der Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1875); and Lankester, Degen-
eration (London, 1880).
ZOOLOGY
1033
same range and distinctive character as every other, nor to
make such a proposition about classes, orders, families and
genera. Where a further subdivision is desirable without
descending to the next lower term of grouping, the prefix " sub "
is made use of, so that a class may be divided first of all into sub-
classes each of which is divided into orders, and an order into
sub-orders each of which bears a group of families. The term
" grade " is also made use of for the purpose of indicating
the conclusion that certain branches on a larger or smaller
stem of the genealogical tree have been given off at an earlier
period in the history of the evolution of the stem in question
than have others marked off as forming a higher grade. Thus,
to begin with, the animal pedigree is divided into two very
distinct grades, the Protozoa and the Metazoa. The Metazoa
form two main branches; one, Parazoa, is but a small unpro-
ductive stock comprising only the Phylum Porifera or Sponges;
the other, the great stem of the animal series Enterozoa, gives
rise to a large number of diverging Phyla which it is necessary to
assign to two levels or grades a lower, Enterocoela (often called
Coelentera) , and a higher, Coelomocoela (often called Coelomata) .
These relations are exhibited, by the two following diagrams.
(NTIROIM
Branch A.
8rnch 8.
Gradt B METAZOA.
Grade A PROTOZOA.
Diagram showing the primary grades and branches
of the Animal Pedigree.
"***
Grade A. ENTEROCOELA
Branch 8. ENTEROZOA
Diagram to show the division of the great branch Enterozoa
into two grades and the Phyla given off therefrom.
The Phylum Vertebrata in the above scheme branches into
the sub-phyla Hemichorda, Urochorda, Cephalochorda and
Craniata. The Phylum Appendiculata similarly branches into
sub-phyla, viz. the Rotifera, the Chaetopoda and the Arthro-
poda. Certain additional small groups should probably be
recognized as independent lines of descent or phyla, but their
relationships are obscure they are the Mesozoa, the Polyzoa,
the Acanthocephala and the Gastrotricha.
We may now enumerate these various large groups in tabular
form.
BIONTA PHYTA, ANIMALIA.
GRADE A. Protozoa (various groups included).
GRADE B. Metazoa.
Branch a. Parazoa.
Phylum i. PORIFERA.
Branch b. Enterozoa.
Grade I. ENTEROCOELA.
Phylum 2. HYDROMKDUSAE.
3. SCYPHOMEDUiAE.
4. ANTHOZOA.
5. CTENOPHOBA.
Grade 2. COELOMOCOELA.
Phylum 6. PLATYELMIA.
7. NEMATOIDEA.
8. CHAETOGNATHA
9. NEMERTINA.
10. MOLLUSCA.
11. APPENDICULATA.
Sub-phyla: ROTIFERA, CHAETOPODA, AR-
THROPODA.
12. ECHINODERMA.
13. VERTEBRATA.
Sub-phyla: HEMICHORDA, ' UROCHORDA,
CEPHALOCHORDA, CRANIATA.
14. MESOZOA.
15. POLYZOA.
16. ACANTHOCEPHALA
17. PODAXONIA.
18. GASTROTRICHA.
Clissl-
tkattoa
adopted
lathe
present
work.
A statement may now be given of the classes and orders in
each group, as recognized by the writers of the
various special zoological articles in the Eleventh
Edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica. These sub-
divisions of the larger groups are not necessarily
those theoretically approved by the present writer,
but they have the valuable sanction of the individual
experts who have given special attention to different portions
of the vast field represented by the animal kingdom. 1
GRADE A. Protozoa (q.v.).
Phylum I. Sarcodina (q.v.).
Class i. PROTEOMYXA (q.v.)
Class 2. RHIZOPODA (q.v.).
Orders: Lobosa, Filosa.
Class 3. HELIOZOA (q.v.).
Class 4. FORAMINIFERA (q.V.).
Orders: Nuda, Allogromidiaceae, Aslrorhizidiaceae,
Lituolidaceae, Mtliolidaceae, Textididaridaceae,
Cheilostomellaceae, Lagenidaceae, Globigerinidaceae,
Rotalidaceae, Nummtuidiaccae.
Insertae sedis. Xenophyophoridae (see FORAMINI-
FERA).
Class 5. RADIOLARIA.
Orders: Spumdlaria ( = Peripylaea), Acantharia
(=Aclipylaea), Nasselaria ( = Monopylaea), Phaeo-
daria ( = Tripylaea).
Class 6. LABYRINTHULIDEA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 7. MYXOMYCETES.
No Orders.
Phylum 2. Mastigophora (q.v.).
Class i. FLAGELLATA (q.v.).
Sub-class A. Rhizoflagellata.
Orders: Holomastigaceae, Rhizomastigaceae.
Sub-class B. Euflagellata.
Orders : Protomastigaceae, Chrysomonadaceae, Cr
monadaceae, CUoromonadaccae, Euglenaceae, T
caceae.
Class 2. DlNOFLAGELLATA.
Orders: Cymnodiniaceoii, Prorocentraceae, Peridini-
aceae.
Class 3. CYSTOFLAGELLATA.
No Orders.
Phylum 3. Spprozoa (q.v.).
Class i. ENDOSPORA (q.v.).
Orders : Myxosporidia,
sporidia, tiaplosporidia.
Class 2. ECTOSPORA (q.v.).
Orders: Gregarina (seeGREGARlNES), Coccidia (q.v.),
Haemosporidia (q.v.).
Phylum 4. Infusoria (q.v.).
Class i. CILIATA.
Orders : Gymonoslomaceae, Trickoslamata,
trifhaceae, Spirotricho, Heterotrichaceae ,
truhaceoe, Hypotrichaceae, Peritrichaceae.
Class 2. SUCTORIA.
No orders.
Actinomyxidia, Sarco-
Aspiro-
Oligo-
1 It is to be noted that the terms used for designating categories
in the classification are not always identical in this summary and
separate articles, as authors differ as to the use of these.
ZOOLOGY
GRADE B. Metazoa.
Branch a. Parazoa.
Phylum i. Porifera (se<> SPONGES).
Sub-phylum i. Calcarea.
Class. CALCAREA.
Orders: Homocoela, Heterecoela.
Sub-phylum 2. Non-Calcarea.
Class i. MYXOSPONGIDA.
Order: Myxospongida.
Class 2. TRIAXONIDA ( = HEXACTINELLIDA).
Orders: Amphidiscophom, Hexasterophora.
Class 3. TETRAXONIDA.
Sub-Class i. Tetractinellida.
Orders: Homosclerophora, Astrophora, Sigmato-
phora.
Sub-class 2. Lithistida.
No Orders.
Sub-class 3. Monaxonellida.
Orders: Astromonaxonettida, Sigmatomonaxonel-
lida.
Class 4. EUCERATOSA.
Order: Euceratosa.
Branch b. Enterozoa.
Grade i. ENTEROCOELA (see COELENTERA).
Phylum 2. Hydromedusae or Hydrozoa (q.v.).
Class. HYDROMEDUSAE, (q.v.).
Orders: Eleutheroblastea, Hydroidae seu Leptolinae
(Sub-orders: Anthomedusat, Leptomedusae), Hy-
drocorallinae, Graptolitoidea Trachylinae (Sub-
orders: Trachomedusae, Narcomedusae), Siphono-
phora.
Phylum 3. Scyphomedusae (q.v.).
Class. SCYPHOMEDUSAE.
Orders: Cubomedusae, Stauromedusae, Coronata,
Discophora.
Phylum 4. Anthozoa (q.v.).
Class. ANTHOZOA.
Sub-class i. Alcyonaria.
Orders: Stolonifera, Alcyonacea, Pseudaxonia, Axi-
fera, Stelechotokea, Coenothecalia.
Sub-class 2. Zoantharia.
Orders: Zoanthidea, Cereanthidea, Antipathidea,
Actiniidea (Sub-orders: Malacactiniae and Scler-
acliniae or Madreporia).
Phylum 5. Ctenophora.
Class. CTENOPHORA.
Sub-class I. Tentaculata.
Orders: Cydippidea, Lobata, Cestoidea.
Sub-class 2. Nuda.
No Orders.
Grade 2. COELOMOCOELA.
Phylum 6. Platyelmia (q.v.).
Class i. PLANARIA (see PLANARIANS).
Order : Turbellaria.
Class 2. TEMNOCEPHALOIDEA (see appendix to PLAN-
ARIANS).
No Orders.
Class 3. TREMATODA (see TREMATODES).
Orders: Heterocotylea, Aspidocotylea, Malacoco-
tylea.
Class 4. CESTODA (see TAPEWORMS).
Orders: Monozoa, Merozoa.
Phylum 7. Nematoidea.
Class i. NEMATODA (see NEMATODE).
No Orders.
Class 2. CHAETOSOMIDAE (see CHAETOSOMATIDA).
No Orders.
Class 3. DESMOSCOLECIDA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 4. NEMATOMORPHA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Phylum 8. Chaetognatha (q.v.).
No Orders.
Phylum 9. Nemertina.
Class. NEMERTINA (q.v.).
Orders: Protonemertini, Mesonemertini, Mela-
nemertini, Heteronemertini.
Phylum 10. Mollusca (q.v.).
Grade A. ISOPLEURA.
Class i. AMPHINEURA (see CHITON).
Orders: Polyplacophora, Aplacophora.
Grade B. PRORHIPIDOGLOSSOMORPHA.
Class 2. GASTROPODA (q.v.).
Sub-class i. Streptoneura.
Orders: Aspidobranchia, Pectin ibranchia.
Sub-class 2. Euthyneura.
Orders: Opisthobranchia, Pulmonata.
Class 3. SCAPHOPODA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 4. LAMELLIBRANCHIA (q.v.).
Orders: Protobranchia, Filibranchia, Eulamelli-
branchia, Septibranchia.
Grade C. SIPHONOPODA.
Class 5. CEPHALOPODA (q.v.).
Orders : Tetrabranchia, Dibranchia.
Phylum ii. Append! culata.
Sub-phylum I. Rotifera (q.v.).
Class. ROTIFERA.
Orders: Aspianchnaceae, Melicerlaceae, Trocho-
sphaeraceae, Ploimoidaceae, Bdelloidaceae, Floscu-
laraceae, Ploima, Seisonaceae.
Sub-phylum 2. Chaetopoda (q.v.).
Class I. POLYCHAETA.
Orders: Nereidiformia, Cryptoceplmla, Capitelli-
formia, Terebeliiformia, Spioniformia, Scoleci-
formia.
Class 2. OLIGOCHAETA.
Orders: Aphaneura, Limicolae, Moniligasires,
Terricolae.
Class 3. HIRUDINAE (see LEECH).
Orders: Rhynchobdettidae, Gnathobdellidae, Acan-
thobdellidae.
Class 4. MYZOSTOMIDA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 5. SACCOCIRRIDA.
No Orders.
Class 6. HAPLODRILI (q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 7. ECHIUROIDEA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Sub-phylum 3. Arthropeda (q.v.).
Grade i. CERATOPHORA.
Class i. PERIPATIDEA (see PERIPATUS).
No Orders.
Class 2. CHILOPODA (see CENTIPEDE).
Sub-class I. Pleurostigma.
Orders: Geophilomorpha, Scolopendromorpha, Crate-
rostigmomorpha, Lithobiomorpha.
Sub-class 2. Notostigma.
Order : Scutigeromorpha.
Class 3. DIPIOPODA (see MILLIPEDE).
Sub-class I. Pselaphognatha.
Order: Penicillata.
Sub-class 2. Chilognatha.
Orders: Oniscomorpha, Limacomorpha, Colobog-
natha,Ascospermophora,Proterospermophora, Mero-
chaeta, OpiMospermophora.
Class 3. PAUROPODA (see MILLIPEDE).
No Orders.
Class 4. SYMPHYLA (see MILLIPEDE).
No Orders.
Class 5. HEXAPODA (q.v.).
Sub-class i. Apterygota.
Order: Aptera.
Sub-class 2. Exopterygota.
Orders: Dermaptera, Orthoptera, Plecoptera, Iso-
ptera, Corrodentia, Ephemoptera, Odonata, Thysano-
ptera, Hemiptera, Anoplura.
Sub-class 3. Endopterygota.
Orders: Neuroptera, Coleoplera, Mecaptera, Tricho-
ptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Siphonaptera, Hymeno-
plera.
Grade 2. ACERATA.
Class I. CRUSTACEA (q.v.).
Sub-class I. Entomostraca (q.v.).
Orders: Brcnckiopoda (Sub-orders: Phyttopoda,
Cladocera, Branchiura), Ostracoda, Copepoda.
Sub-class 2. Thyrostraca (q.v.) = (Cirripedia).
No Orders.
Sub-class 3. Leptostraca.
No Orders.
Sub-class 4. Malacostraca (q.v.).
Orders: Decapoda (Sub-orders: Brachyura, Mac-
rura), Schizopoda (including Anaspides), Sloma-
lopoda, Sympoda (Cumacea), Isopoda (including
Tanaidacea), Amphipoda.
Class 2. ARACHNIDA (q.v.).
Grade A. TRILOBITAE (see TRILOBITE).
(Orders not determined.)
Grade B. NOMOMERISTICA.
Sub-class i. Pantopoda.
Orders: Nymphonomorpha, Ascorhynchomorpha,
Pycnogonomorpha.
Sub-class 2. Eu-Arachna..
Grade a. Delobrancha (or Hydropneusta).
Orders: Xiphosura, Gigantostraca.
ZOOLOGY
1035
Grade b. Embolobranchia (or Aeropneusta).
Section. Pectinifera.
Order: Scorpionidea.
Section. Epectinata.
Orders: Pedipalpi, Araneae, Palpigradi, Soli-
fugae, Pseudoscorpiones, Podogona, Opiliones,
Rnynckoslomi (Acari).
Class 3. TARDIGRADA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 4. LINGUATALINA (see PENTASTOMIDA).
No Orders.
Phylum 12. Echinoderma (see ECHINODERMS).
Branch A. PELMATOZOA.
Class i. CYSTIDEA.
Orders: Amphoridea, Carpoidea, Rhombifera, Apo-
rita, DiploporiUi.
Class 2. BLASTOIDEA.
Divisions: Protoblastoidea, Eublastoidea.
No Orders.
Class 3. CRINOIDEA.
Orders: Monocyclica Inadunata, Adunata, Monp-
cyclica Camerala, Dicydica Inadunata, Flexibilia,
Dicyclica Cameraia.
Class 4. EDRIOASTEROIDEA.
No Orders.
Branch B. ELEUTHEROZOA.
Class I. HOLOTHUROIDEA.
Orders: Aspidochirota, Dendrochirota.
Class 2. STELLIFORMIA.
Sub-class I. Asterida.
Orders: Phanerozonia, Cryptozonia.
Sub-class 2. Ophiurida.
Orders: Streptophiurae, Zygophiurae, Cladophiurae.
Class 3. ECHINOIDEA.
Orders: Bothriocidaroida, Melonitoida, Gystocida-
roida, Cidaroida, Diademoida, Holectypoida,
Spatangoida, Clypeastroida.
Phylum 13. Vertebrata (q.v.).
Sub-phylum a. Hemichorda (q.v.).
Class. ENTEROPNEUSTA (see BALANOGLOSSUS).
No Orders.
Sub-phylum 6. Urochorda.
Class. TUNICATA (q.v.).
Orders: Larvacea, Thaliacea (Sub-orders: Cyclo-
myaria, Hemimyaria), Ascidiacea (Sub-orders:
Ascidiae Simplices, Ascidiae Compositae, Ascidiae
Luciae).
Sub-phylum c. Cephalochorda (see AMPHIOXUS).
Class. CEPHALOCHORDA.
No Orders.
Sub-phylum d. Craniata. 1
Class i. PISCES (see ICHTHYOLOGY).
Sub-class i. Cyclostomata (q.v.).
Orders: Myxinoides (or Hyperotreti), Petromyzontes
(or Hyperoartii).
Sub-class 2. Selachia or Elasmobranchii (see SELA-
CHIANS).
Orders: Pleuropterygii, Acanthodii, Ichthyotomi,
Plagiostomi, Holocephali.
Sub-class 3. Teleostoma.
Orders: Ganoidea, Crossoplerygii, Dipneusti, Tele-
ostei.
Class 2. BATRACHIA (q.v.).
Orders: Stegocephalia, Apoda (or Peromela), Caudata
(or Urodela), Ecaudata (or Anura).
Class 3. REPTILIA (see REPTILES).
Orders: Anomodontia, Chelonia, Samopterygia,
Ichthyopterygia, Rhyncoctphalia, Dinosauria, Cro-
f ad ilia, Ormthosauria, Squamata.
Class 4. AVES (see BIRD and ORNITHOLOGY).
Sub-class i. Archaeornithes.
No Orders.
Sub-class 2. Neornithes.
Division i. Ratitae.
Orders: Struthiones, Rheae, Casuariae, Apteryges,
Dinornithes, Aepyomithes.
Division 2. Odontolcae.
No Orders.
Division 3. Carinatae.
Orders: Ichthyornes, Colymbifortnes, Sphenisci-
formes, Procettariiformes, Ctconiiformes, (Sub-
orders: Steganopsdes, Ardeae, Ciconiae, Pkoeni-
copterf). Anserifermes (Sub-orders: Palamedeae,
Anseres), Falconiformes (Sub-orders: Catharlae,
1 Craniata may be usefully divided into 3 grades : (a) Branchiata
Hetcrodactyla, which includes Pisces except Cvclostomes. (b) Bran-
chiata Pentadactyla, which includes Batrachia. (c) Lipobranchia
Pentadactyla, which includes Reptiles, Birds and Mammals.
Accipitres), Tinamiformts,GaUiformes (Sub orders:
Mesites, Turn-ices, Galli, Opisthocomi), Gruiformes,
Charadriiformes (Sub-orders: Limicolae, Lari,
Pttrocles, Columbae), Cuculiformes (Sub-orders:
Cuculi, Psitlaci), Coraciiformes (Sub-orders: Cor-
aciae, Striges, Caprimulgi, Cypseli, Colii, Tro-
gones, Pici), Passeriformes (Sub-orders: Passeres
Anisomyodae, Passeres Diacromyodae).
Class 4. MAMMALIA (q.v.).
Sub-class i. Monotremata (q.v.) (Prototheria).
No Orders.
Sub-class 2. Marsupialia (q.v.) (Metatheria).
One Order: Marsupialia.
Sub-orders: Polyprotodonta, Paucituberculata, Di-
protodonta.
Sub-class 3. Placentalia (Monodelphia, q.v. ; or
Eutheria).
Orders: Insectivora, Chiroptera, Dermopkra, Eden-
tata (Sub-orders : Xenarthra, Pholidota, Tubuliden-
tata), Rodentia (Sub-orders: Duplicidentata, Sim-
plicidentata), TUlodontia, Carnivora (Sub-orders:
Fissipedia, Pinnipedia, Creodonta), Celacea (Sub-
orders: Archaeoceti, Odontoceti, Mystacoceti),
Sirenia, Ungulata (Sub-orders: Proboscidea,
Hyracoidea, Barypoda, Toxedontia, Amblypoda,
Lttopterna, Ancylopoda, Condylarthra, Perissu-
dactyla, Artiodactyla), Primates (Suborders: Pro-
simiae, Anthropotdea).
Phylum 14. Mesozoa (q.v.).
Class i. RHOMBOZOA.
No Orders.
Class 2. ORTHONECTIDA.
No Orders.
Phylum 15. Polyzoa (q.v.).
Class i. ENTOPROCTA.
No Orders.
Class 2. ECTOPROCTA.
Orders: Gymnolaemata (Sub-orders: Tripostomata,
Cryptostomata, Cyclostomata, Ctenostomata , Cheilo-
stomata), Phylactolaemata.
Phylum 16. Acanthocephala (q.v.).
Class. ACANTHOCEPHALA.
No Orders.
Phylum 17. Podaxonia.
Class i. SIPUNCULOIDEA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 2. PRIAPULOIDEA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 3. PHORONIDEA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 4. PTEROBRACHIA (q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 5. BRACHIOPODA (q.v.).
Sub-class i. Ecardines (Inarticulata).
Orders: Atremata, Neotremata.
Sub-class 2. Testicardines (Articulata).
Orders: Protremata, Telotremata.
Phylum 18. Gastrctricha (q.v.).
Class. GASTROTRICHA.
Sub-orders: Ichthydina, Cepodina. (Possibly Kino-
rhyncha (q.v.) with only Echinoderes is to be
placed here).'
GENERAL TENDENCIES SINCE DARWIN
Darwin may be said to have founded the science of bionomics,
and at the same time to have given 'new stimulus and new
direction to morphography, physiology, and plasmology. by
uniting them as contributories to one common biological
doctrine the doctrine of organic evolution itself but a part
of the wider doctrine of universal evolution based on the laws
of physics ' and chemistry. The immediate result was, as
pointed out above, a reconstruction of the classification of
animals upon a genealogical basis, and an investigation of the
individual development of animals in relation to the steps of
their gradual building up by cell-division, with a view to obtain-
ing evidence of their genetic relationships. On the other hand,
the studies which occupied Darwin himself so largely subse-
quently to the publication, of the Origin of Species, viz. the
explanation of animal (and vegetable) mechanism, colouring,
habits, &c., as advantageous to the species or to its ancestors,
are only gradually being carried further. The most important
work in this direction has been done by Fritz Muller (Fur
Danrin), by Herman Muller (Fertilization of Plants by Insects),
1036
ZOOLOGY
by August Weismann (memoirs translated by Meldola) by
Edward B. Poulton (see his addresses and memoirs published
in the Transactions of the Entomological Society and else-
where), and by Abbot Thayer (Concealing Coloration in the
Animal Kingdom, Macmillan & Co. 1910). In the branch of
bionomics, however, concerned with the laws of variation and
heredity (thremmatology), there has been considerable progress.
In the first place, the continued study of human population
has thrown additional light on some of the questions involved,
whilst the progress of microscopical research has given us a
clear foundation as to the structural facts connected with the
origin of the egg-cell and sperm-cell and the process of fertili-
zation.
Great attention has been given lately to the important ex-
periments upon the results of hybridizing certain cultivated
varieties of plants which were published so long ago as 1865, by
the Abbe Mendel, but failed to attract notice until thirty-five
years later, sixteen years after his death (see MENDELISM).
Mendel- Mendel's object was to gain further knowledge as to
Ism, t jj e resu it o f mixing by cross-fertilization or inter-
breeding two strains exhibiting diverse characters or structural
features. The whole question as to the mixture of characters
in offspring thus produced was and remains very imper-
fectly observed. Mendel's observations constitute an ingenious
attempt to throw light on the matter, and in the opinion of
some biologists have led to the discovery of an important
principle. Mendel made his chief experiments with cultivated
varieties of the self-fertilizing edible pea. He selected a variety
with some one marked structural feature and crossed it with
another variety in which that feature was absent. Instances
of his selected varieties are the tall variety which he hybridized
with a dwarf variety, a yellow-seeded variety which he hybridized
with a green-seeded variety, and again a smooth-seeded variety
which he hybridized with a wrinkle-seeded variety. In each
set of experiments he concentrated his attention on the one
character selected for observation. Having obtained a first
hybrid generation, he allowed the hybrids to self-fertilize, and
recorded the result in a large number of instances (a thousand
or more) as to the number of individuals in the first, second,
third and fourth generations in which the character selected
for experiment made its appearance. In the first hybrid gene-
ration formed by the union of the reproductive germs of the
positive variety (that possessing the structural character
selected for observation) with those of the negative variety, it
is not surprising that all or nearly all the individuals were found
to exhibit, as a result of the mixture, the positive character. In
subsequent generations produced by self -fertilizat ion of the
hybrids it was found that the positive character was not present
in all the individuals, but that a result was obtained showing
that in the formation of the reproductive cells (ova and sperms)
of the hybrid, half were endowed with the positive character
and half with the negative. Consequently the result of the
haphazard pairing of a large number of these two groups of
reproductive cells was to yield, according to the regular law of
chance combination, the proportion iPP, aPN, iNN, where P
stands for the positive character and N for its absence or
negative character the positive character being accordingly
present in three-fourths of the offspring and absent from one-
fourth. The fact that in the formation of the reproductive
cells of the hybrid generation the material which carries the
positive quality is not subdivided so as to give a half-quantity
to each reproductive cell, but on the contrary is apparently
distributed as an undivided whole to half only of the repro-
ductive cells and not at all to the remainder, is the important
inference from Mendel's experiments. Whether this inference
is applicable to other classes of cases than those studied by
Mendel and his followers is a question which" is still under
investigation. The failure of the material carrying a positive
character to divide so as to distribute itself among all the
reproductive cells of a hybrid individual, and the limitation of
its distribution to half only of those cells, must prevent the
" swamping " of a newly appearing character in the course of
the inter-breeding of those individuals possessed of the character
with those which do not possess it. The tendency of the pro-
portions in the offspring of iPP, 2PN, iNN is to give in a series
of generations a regular reversion from the hybrid form PN to
the two pure races, viz. the race with the positive character
simply and the race with the total absence of it. It has been
maintained that this tendency to a severance of the hybrid
stock into its components must favour the persistence of a new
character of large volume suddenly appearing in a stock, and
the observations of Mendel have been held to favour in this
way the views of those who hold that the variations upon
which natural selection has acted in the production of new
species are not small variations but large and " discontinuous."
It does not, however, appear that " large " variations would
thus be favoured any more than small ones, nor that the
eliminating action 01 natural selection upon an unfavourable
variation could be checked.
A good deal of confusion has arisen in the discussions of this
latter topic, owing to defective nomenclature. By some writers
the word " mutation ". is applied only to large and suddenly
appearing variations which are found to be capable of here-
ditary transmission, whilst the term " fluctuation " is applied
to small variations whether capable of transmission or not.
By others the word " fluctuation " is apparently applied only
to those small " acquired " variations due to the direct action
of changes in food, moisture and other features of the environ-
ment. It is no discovery that this latter kind of variation is
not hereditable, and it is not the fact that the small variations,
to which Darwin attached great but not exclusive importance
as the material upon which natural selection operates, are of
this latter kind. The most instructive classification of the
" variations " exhibited by fully formed organisms consists
in the separation in the first place of those which arise from
antecedent congenital, innate, constitutional or germinal
variations from those which arise merely from the operation
of variation of the environment or the food-supply upon normally
constituted individuals. The former are " innate " variations,
the latter are " superimposed " variations (so-called " ac-
quired variations "). Both innate and superimposed varia-
tions are capable of division into those which are more and
those which are less obvious to the human eye. Scarcely
perceptible variations of the innate class are regularly and in-
variably present in every new generation of every species of
living thing. Their greatness or smallness so far as human
perception goes is not of much significance; their real import-
ance in regard to the origin of new species depends on whether
they are of value to the organism and therefore capable of
selection in the struggle for existence. An absolutely imper-
ceptible physiological difference arising as a variation may be of
selective value, and it may carry with it correlated variations
which appeal to the human eye but are of no selective value
themselves. The present writer has, for many years, urged
the. importance of this consideration.
The views of de Vries and others as to the importance of
" saltatory variation," the soundness of which was still by no
means generally accepted in 1910, may be gathered from the
articles MENDELISM and VARIATION. A due appreciation of
the far-reaching results of " correlated variation " must, it
appears, give a new and distinct explanation to the phenomena
which are referred to as " large mutations," " discontinuous
variation " and " saltatory evolution." Whatever value is to
be attached to Mendel's observation of the breaking up of
self-fertilized hybrids of cultivated varieties into the two
original parent forms according to the formula " iPP, zPN,
iNN," it cannot be considered as more than a contribution
to the extensive investigation of heredity which still remains
to be carried out. The analysis of the specific variations of
organic form so as to determine what is really the nature and
limitation of a single " character " or " individual variation,"
and whether two such true and strictly defined single variations
of a single structural unit can actually " blend " when one is
transmitted by the male parent and the other by the female
ZOOLOGY
1037
parent, are matters which have yet to be determined. We do
not yet know whether such absolute blending is possible or not,
or whether all apparent blending is only a more or less minutely
subdivided "mosaic" of non-combinable characters of the
parents, in fact whether the combinations due to heredity in
reproduction are ever analogous to chemical compounds or
are always comparable to particulate mixtures. The attempt
to connect Mendel's observation with the structure of the sperm-
cells and egg-cells of plants and animals has already been made.
The suggestion is obvious that the halving of the number of
nuclear threads in the reproductive cells as compared with the
number of those present in the ordinary cells of the tissues a
phenomenon which has uow been demonstrated as universal
may be directly connected with the facts of segregation of
hybrid characters observed by Mendel. The suggestion requires
further experimental testing, for which the case of the partheno-
genetic production of a portion of the offspring, in such insects
as the bee, offers a valuable opportunity for research.
Another important development of Darwin's conclusions
deserves special notice here, as it is the most distinct advance
varia- in the department of bionomics since Darwin's own
tioa. writings, and at the same time touches questions of
fundamental interest. The matter strictly relates to the con-
sideration of the " causes of variation," and is as follows.
The fact of variation is a familiar one. No two animals, even
of the same brood, are alike: whilst exhibiting a close similarity
to their parents, they yet present differences, sometimes very
marked differences, from their parents and from one another.
Lamarck had put forward the hypothesis that structural
alterations acquired by (that is to say, superimposed upon) a
parent in the course of its life are transmitted to the offspring,
and that, as these structural alterations are acquired by an
animal or plant in consequence of the direct action of the
environment, the offspring inheriting them would as a conse-
quence not unfrequently start with a greater fitness for those
conditions than its parents started with. In its turn, being
operated upon by the conditions of life, it would acquire a
greater development of the same modification, which it would
in turn transmit to its offspring. In the course of several
generations, Lamarck argued, a structural alteration amounting
to such difference as we call " specific " might be thus acquired.
The familiar illustration of Lamarck's hypothesis is that of the
giraffe, whose long neck might, he suggested, have been acquired
by the efforts of a primitively short -necked race of herbivores
who stretched their necks to reach the foliage of trees in a land
where grass was deficient, the effort producing a distinct elonga-
tion in the neck of each generation, which was then transmitted
to the next. This process is known as " direct adaptation ";
and there is no doubt that such structural adaptations are
acquired by an animal in the course of its life, though such
changes are strictly limited in degree and rare rather than fre-
quent and obvious.
Whether such acquired characters can be transmitted to the
next generation is a separate question. It was not proved by
Lamarck that they can be, and, indeed, never has been proved
by actual observation. Nevertheless it has been assumed, and
also indirectly argued, that such acquired characters must be
transmitted. Darwin's great merit was that he excluded from
his theory of development any necessary assumption of the
transmission of acquired characters. He pointed to the ad-
mitted fact of congenital variation, and he showed that con-
genital variations are arbitrary and, so to speak, non-significant.
Cause* of T^ 6 ' 1 " causes are extremely difficult to trace in detail,
congeal- but it appears that they are largely due to a " shaking
taivaria- U p " o { the living matter which constitutes the
fertilized germ or embryo-cell, by the process of
mixture in it of the substance of two cells the germ-
cell and the sperm-cell derived from two different individuals.
Other mechanical disturbances may assist in this production
of congenital variation. Whatever its causes, Darwin showed
that it is all-important. In some cases a pair of animals pro-
duce ten million offspring, and in such a number a large range
of congenital variation is possible. Since on the average only
two of the young survive in the struggle for existence to take
the place of their two parents, there is a selection out of the ten
million young, none of which are exactly alike, and the selection
is determined hi nature by the survival of the congenital variety
which is fittest to the conditions 'of life. Hence there is no
necessity for an assumption of the perpetuation of direct adapta-
tions. The selection of the fortuitously (fortuitously, Tnn*-
that is to say, so far as the conditions of survival are mission
concerned) produced varieties is sufficient, since it
is ascertained that they will tend to transmit those
characters with which they themselves were born,
although it is not ascertained that they could transmit char-
characters acquired on the way through life. A **"*
simple illustration of the difference is this: a man born
with four fingers only on his right hand is ascertained to
be likely to transmit this peculiarity to some at least of his
offspring; on the other hand, there is not the slightest ground
for supposing that a man who has had one finger chopped off,
or has even lost his arm at any period of his life, will produce
offspring who are defective in the slightest degree in regard
to fingers, hand or arm. Darwin himself, influenced by the
consideration of certain classes of facts which seem to favour
the Lamarckian hypothesis, was of the opinion that acquired
characters are in some cases transmitted. It should be observed,
however, that Darwin did not attribute an essential part to this
Lamarckian hypothesis of the transmission of acquired char-
acters, but expressly assigned to it an entirely subordinate
importance.
The new attitude which has been taken since Darwin's
writings on this question is to ask for evidence of the asserted
transmission of acquired characters. It is held * that the
Darwinian doctrine of selection of fortuitous congenital varia-
tions is sufficient to account for all cases, that the Lamarckian
hypothesis of transmission of acquired characters is not sup-
ported by experimental evidence, and that the latter should
therefore be dismissed. Weismann has also ingeniously argued
from the structure of the egg-cell and sperm-cell, and from the
way in which, and the period at which, they are derived in the
course of the growth of the embryo from the egg from the
fertilized egg-cell that it is impossible (it would be better to
say highly improbable) that an alteration in parental structure
could produce any exactly representative change in the sub-
stance of the germ or sperm-cells.
The one fact which the Lamarckians can produce in their
favour is the account of experiments by Brown-S6quard, in
which he produced epilepsy in guinea-pigs by section of the large
nerves or spinal cord, and in the course of which he was led to
believe that in a few rare instances the artificially produced
epilepsy and mutilation of the nerves was transmitted. This
instance does not stand the test of criticism. The record of
Brown-Sequard's original experiment is not satisfactory, and
the subsequent attempts to obtain similar results have not been
attended with success. On the other hand, the vast number of
experiments in the cropping of the tails and ears of domestic
animals, as well as of similar operations on man, are attended
with negative results. No case of the transmission of the results
of an injury can be produced. Stories of tailless kittens,
puppies and calves, born from parents one of whom had been
thus injured, are abundant, but they have hitherto entirely
failed to stand before examination.
Whilst simple evidence of the fact of the transmission of an
acquired character is wanting, the a priori arguments in its
favour break down one after another when discussed. The
very cases which are advanced as only to be explained on the
Lamarckian assumption are found on examination and experi-
ment to be better explained, or only to be explained, by the
Darwinian principle. Thus the occurrence of blind animals
in caves and in the deep sea was a fact which Darwin himself
regarded as best explained by the atrophy of the organ of vision
in successive generations through the absence of light and
1 Weismann, Vererbung, &c. (1886).
1038
ZOOLOGY
consequent disuse, and the transmission (as Lamarck would
have supposed) of a more and more weakened and structurally
impaired eye to the offspring in successive generations, until
the eye finally disappeared. But this instance is really fully
explained (as the present writer has shown) by the theory of
natural selection acting on congenital fortuitous variations.
It is definitely ascertained that many animals are thus born with
distorted or defective eyes whose parents have not had their
eyes submitted to any peculiar conditions. Supposing a number
of some species of arthropod or fish to be swept into a cavern
or to be carried from less to greater depths in the sea, those
individuals with perfect eyes would follow the glimmer of light
and eventually escape to the outer air or the shallower depths,
leaving behind those with imperfect eyes to breed in the dark
place. A natural selection would thus be effected. In every
succeeding generation this would be the case, and even those
with weak but still seeing eyes would in the course of time
escape, until only a pure race of eyeless or blind animals would
be left in the cavern or deep sea.
It is a remarkable fact that it was overlooked alike by the
supporters and opponents of Lamarck's views until pointed
out by the present writer (Nature, 1894, p. 127), that the two
statements called by Lamarck his first and second laws are
contradictory one of the other. Lamarck's first law assert?
that a past history of indefinite duration is powerless to create
Educn- a bias by which the present can be controlled. He
baity. declares that in spite of long-established conditions
and correspondingly evoked characters new conditions will
cause new responsive characters. Yet in the second law he
asserts that these new characters will resist the action of yet
newer conditions or a reversion to the old conditions and be
maintained by heredity. If the earlier characters were not
maintained by heredity why should the later be? If a char-
acter of much longer standing (certain properties of height,
length, breadth, colour, &c.) had not become fixed and con-
genital after many thousands of successive generations of
individuals had developed it in response to environment, but
gave place to a new character when new moulding conditions
operated on an individual (Lamarck's first law), why should
we suppose that the new character is likely to become fixed
and transmitted by mere heredity after a much shorter time of
existence in response to environmental stimulus? Why should
we assume that it will be able to escape the moulding by environ-
ment (once its evoking cause is removed) to which, according
to Lamarck's first law, all parts of organisms are subject ?
Clearly Lamarck gives us no reason for any such assumption,
and his followers or latter-day adherents have not attempted
to do so. His enunciation of his theory is itself destructive
of that theory. Though an acquired or " superimposed "
character is not transmitted to offspring as the consequence
of the action of the external agencies which determine the
" acquirement," yet the tendency to react to such agencies
possessed by the parent is transmitted and may be increased
and largely developed by survival, if the character developed
by the reaction is valuable. This newly discovered inheritance
of " variation in the tendency to react " has a wide application
and has led the present writer to coin the word " educability."
It has application to all kinds of organs and qualities, but is of
especial significance in regard to the development of the brain
and the mental qualities of animals and of man (see the
jubilee volume of the Soc. de Biologic, 1899, and Nature,
1900, p. 624).
It has been argued that the elaborate structural adaptations
of the nervous system which are the corporeal correlatives of
Theory complicated instincts must have been slowly built
of trans- up by the transmission to offspring of acquired ex-
perience, that is to say, of acquired brain structure.
At first sight it appears difficult to understand how
the complicated series of actions which are definitely
exhibited as so-called " instincts " by a variety of animals can
have been due to the selection of congenital variations, or can
be otherwise explained than by the transmission of habits
stincts.
acquired by the parent as the result of experience, and con-
tinuously elaborated and added to in successive generations.
It is, however, to be noted, in tne first place, that the imitation
of the parent by the young possibly accounts for some part of
these complicated actions, and, secondly, that there are cases
in which curiously elaborate actions are performed by animals
as a characteristic of the species, and as subserving the general
advantage of the race or species, which, nevertheless, can not
be explained as resulting from the transmission of acquired
experience, and must be supposed to be due to the natural
selection of a fortuitously developed habit which, like fortuitous
colour or form variation, happens to prove beneficial. Such
cases are the habits of " shamming dead " and the combined
posturing and colour peculiarities of certain caterpillars (Lepidop-
terous larvae) which cause them to resemble dead twigs or
similar surrounding objects. The advantage to the animal of
this imitation of surrounding objects is that it escapes the
pursuit of (say) a bird which would, were it not deceived by the
resemblance, attack and eat the caterpillar. Now it is clear
that preceding generations of caterpillars cannot have acquired
this habit of posturing by experience. Either the caterpillar
postures and escapes, or it does not posture and is eaten; it is
not half eaten and allowed to profit by experience. We seem
to be justified in assuming that there are many movements of
stretching and posturing possible to caterpillars, and that some
caterpillars had a congenital fortuitous tendency to one position,
some to another, and, finally that among all the variety of
habitual movements thus exhibited one has been selected and
perpetuated because it coincided with the necessary conditions
of safety, since it happened to give the caterpillar an increased
resemblance to a twig.
The view that instinct is the hereditarily fixed result of
habit derived from experience long dominated all inquiry into
the subject, but we may now expect to see a renewec} and careful
study of animal instincts carried out with the view of testing
the applicability to each instance of the pure Darwinian theory
without the aid of Lamarckism.
Nothing can be further from the truth than the once favourite
theory that instincts are the survivals of lapsed reasoning
processes. Instincts, or the inherited structural mechanisms
of the nervous centres, are in antagonism to the results of the
reasoning process, which are not capable of hereditary trans-
mission. Every higher vertebrate animal possesses the power
of forming for itself a series of cerebral mechanisms or reasoned
conclusions based on its individual experience, in proportion
as it has a large cerebrum and has got rid of or has acquired
the power of controlling its inherited instincts. Man, The
compared with other animals, has the fewest inherited Record
mental mechanisms or instincts and at the same time f the
the largest cerebrum in proportion to the size of his Pa * t '
body. He builds up, from birth onwards, his own mental
mechanisms, and forms more of them, that is to say, is more
" educable," and takes longer in doing so, that is to say, in
growing up and maturing his experience, than any other animal.
The later stages of evolution leading from his ape-like ancestors
to man have consisted definitely in the acquirement of a larger
and therefore more educable brain by man and in the conse-
quent education of that brain. A new and most important
feature in organic development makes its appearance when we
set out the facts of man's evolutional history. It amounts
to a new and unprecedented factor in organic development,
external to the organism and yet produced by the activity of the
organism upon which it permanently reacts. This factor is the
Record of the Past, which grows and develops by laws other
than those affecting the perishable bodies of successive genera-
tions of mankind, and exerts an incomparable influence upon the
educable brain, so that man, by the interaction of the Record
and his educability, is removed to a large extent from the status
of the organic world and placed in a new and unique position,
subject to new laws and new methods of development unlike
those by which the rest of the living world is governed. That
which we term the Record of the Past comprises the " taboos,"
ZORILLA ZOROASTER
1039
the customs, the traditions, the beliefs, the knowledge which
are handed on by one generation to another independently
of organic propagation. By it a new heredity, free from the
limitations of protoplasmic continuity, is established. Its first
beginnings are seen in the imitative tendencies of animals by
which the young of one generation acquire some of the habits
of their parents, and by which gregarious and social animals
acquire a community of procedure ensuring the advantage of
the group. " Taboo," the systematic imposition by the com-
munity of restrictions upon the conduct of the individual, is
one of its earliest manifestations in primitive man and can
be observed even in animal communities. But with the de-
velopment of the power of inter-communication by the use of
language, the Record rapidly acquired an increased develop-
ment, which was enormously extended by the continuous growth
in mankind of the faculty of memory. To the mere tradition
preserved by memory and handed on by speech was then added
the written record and its later multiplication by the mechanical
arts of printing, by which it acquired permanence and universal
distribution. The result is the creation of an almost incon-
ceivably vast body of traditional custom, law and knowledge
into which every human being is born, less in the more isolated
and barbarous communities, but large everywhere. Educa-
tion is not in its essential nature a training administered to the
young by an older generation, but is the natural and unaided
assimilation of the Record of the Past by the automatically
educable brain an assimilation which is always in all races
very large but becomes far larger in civilized communities. It
is among them so important whilst the Record in all its details
is so far beyond the receptive capacity of the brain, that selec-
tion and guidance are employed by the elders in order to enable
the younger generation to benefit to the utmost by the absorp-
tion (so to speak) in the limited span of a lifetime of the most
valuable influences to be acquired from this prodigious envelope
of Recorded Experience. The imperishable Record invests
the human race like a protective atmosphere, a new and yet
a natural dispensation, giving to man, as compared with his
animal ancestry, a new heaven and a new earth !
A result of the very greatest importance arising from the
application of the generalizations of Darwinism to human
development and to the actual phase of existing human popu-
lation is that education has no direct effect upon the mental or
physical features of the race or stock: it can only affect those
of the individual. Educability, defects or excellences, or
peculiarities of mind or body, can be handed on from parent
to offspring by protoplasmic continuity in reproduction. But
the results of education cannot be so handed on. The educated
man who has acquired new experiences, new knowledge, can
place these on the great Record for the benefit of future genera-
tions of men, but he cannot bodily transmit his acquirements
to his offspring. Were acquired (superimposed) characters
really transmissible by breeding, then every child born would
inherit, more or less completely, the knowledge acquired by
both its parents. But we know this is not the case: the child
has to begin with a clean slate and learn for itself. Aptitudes
and want of aptitude, which are innate and constitutional,
are transmitted to offspring, but not the results of experience,
education and training. Blemishes in the stock, defects of
mind or body, though they may be to some extent corrected
in the individual by training, cannot be got rid of from the stock
by any such process. A defective stock, if allowed to breed,
will perpetuate its defects, in spite of the concealment of those
defects in an individual by training or other treatment. Equally
it must be concluded that the weakness and degradation pro-
duced by semi-starvation and insanitary conditions of life are
only an effect on the individual and cannot affect the stock.
The stock may be destroyed, killed out by adverse conditions,
but its quality is not directly affected, and if removed to more
favourable conditions it will show no hereditary results of the pre-
vious adversity; indeed it will probably have been strengthened
in some ways by the destruction in severe conditions of its
weaker members and the survival of the stronger individuals.
Such considerations have the very greatest importance for the
guidance of the action of civilized man in seeking the health
and happiness of the community. But it must not be forgotten
that the problems presented by human communities are ex-
tremely complex, and that the absence of any selection of healthy
or desirable stock in the breeding of human communities leads
to undesirable consequences. The most thrifty and capable
sections of the people at the present day are not (it has been
shown) in overcrowded areas, producing offspring at such a
rate as to contribute to the increase of the population. That
increase, it has been shown, is due to the early marriage and
excessive reproduction of the reckless and hopeless, the poorest,
least capable, least desirable members of the community. The
questions raised by these considerations have attracted much
public attention under the newly invented name of "eugenics,"
but they are of an exceedingly difficult and delicate nature.
(E.R.L.)
ZORILLA, MANUEL RUIZ, DON (1834-1895), Spanish
politician, was born at Burgo de Osma in 1834. He began his
education at Valladolid, and studied law afterwards at Madrid
University, where he leaned towards Radicalism in politics.
In 1856 he was elected deputy, and soon attracted notice among
the most advanced Progressists and Democrats. He took
part in the revolutionary propaganda that led to the military
movement in Madrid on the zand of June 1866. He had to
take refuge in France for two years, like his fellow-conspirators,
and only returned to Spain when the revolution of 1868 took
place. He was one of the members of the first cabinet after
the revolution, and in 1869, under the regency of Marshal
Serrano, he became minister of grace and justice. In 1870
he was elected president of the House of Deputies, and seconded
Prim in offering the throne to Amadeus of Savoy. He went to
Italy as president of the commission, carrying to the prince at
Florence the official news of his election. On the arrival of
Amadeus in Spain, Ruiz Zorilla became ministei of public
works for a short time, and resigned by way of protesting
against Serrano and Topete entering the councils of the new
king. Six months later, in 1871, he was invited by Amadeus
to form a cabinet, and he continued to be the principal councillor
of the king until February 1873, when the monarch abdicated
in disgust at the resistance he met with in the army, and at
the lack of sincerity on the part of the very politicians and
generals who had asked him to ascend the throne. After the
departure of Amadeus, Ruiz Zorilla advocated the establish-
ment of a republic. Notwithstanding this, he was not called
upon either by the Federal Republicans to help them during
the year 1873, or by Marshal Serrano during 1874 to join Martos
and Sagasta in his cabinet. Immediately after the restora-
tion of Alphonso XII., early in 1875, Ruiz Zorilla went to
France. He was for nearly eighteen years the soul of the
republican conspiracies, the prompter of revolutionary propa-
ganda, the chief inspirer of intrigues concerted by discon-
tented military men of all ranks. He gave so much trouble to
the Madrid governments that they organized a watch over him
with the assistance of the French government and police,
especially when it was discovered that the two military move-
ments of August 1883 and September 1886 had been prepared
and assisted by him. During the last two years of his life Ruiz
Zorilla became less active; failing health and the loss of his
wife had decreased his energies, and the Madrid government
allowed him to return to Spain some months before he died
at Burgos, on the i3th of June 1895, of heart disease.
ZORNDORF, a village of Prussia, in the Oder valley, north-
east of Ctistrin. It is famous as the scene of a battle in which
the Prussians under Frederick the Great defeated the Russians
commanded by Fermor, on the 25th of August 1758 (see SEVEN
YEARS' WAR).
ZOROASTER, one of the great teachers of the East, the
founder of what was the national religion of the Perso-Iranian
people from the time of the Achaemenidae to the close of the
Sassanian period. The name (Zojpootrrpjjs) is the corrupt
Greek form of the old Iranian Zarathustra (new Persian,
1040
ZOROASTER
Zardusht). Its signification is obscure; but it certainly contains
the word ushtra, " camel."
Zoroaster was already famous in classical antiquity as the
founder of the widely renowned wisdom of the Magi. His
Evidence name is not mentioned by Herodotus in his sketch
tor his of the Medo-Pe*rsian religion (i. 131 seq.). It occurs
afe - for the first time in a fragment of Xanthus (29), and
in the Alcibiades of Plato (i. p. 122), who calls him the son
of Oromazdes. For occidental writers, Zoroaster is always
the Magus, or the founder of the whole Magian system (Plut.
de Is. et Osir. 46 ; Plat. loc. cit.; Diog. Lae'rt. prooem. 2:
other passages in Jackson's Zoroaster, 6 seq.). They sometimes
call him a Bactrian, sometimes a Median or Persian (cf. Jackson,
op. cit. 1 86). The ancients also recount a few points regarding
the childhood of Zoroaster and his hermit-life. Thus, according
to Pliny (Nat. Hist. vii. 15), he laughed on the very day of his
birth a statement found also in the Zardusht-N ama and
lived in the wilderness upon cheese (xi. 97). Plutarch speaks of
his intercourse with the deity, and compares him with Lycurgus
and Numa (Numa, 4). Dio Chrysostom, Plutarch's contem-
porary, declares that neither Homer nor Hesiod sang of the
chariot and horses of Zeus so worthily as Zoroaster, of whom
the Persians tell that, out of love to wisdom and righteousness,
he withdrew himself from men, and lived in solitude upon a
mountain. The mountain was consumed by fire, but Zoroaster
escaped uninjured and spoke to the multitude (vol. ii. p. 60).
Plutarch, drawing partly on Theopompus, speaks of his religion
in his Isis and Osiris (cc. 46-47). He gives a faithful sketch of
the doctrines, mythology and dualistic system of the Magian
Zoroaster.
As to the period in which he lived, most of the Greeks have already
lost the true perspective. Hermodorus and Hermippus of Smyrna
place him 5000 years before the Trojan war, Xanthus 6000 years
before Xerxes, Eudoxus and Aristotle 6000 years before the death
of Plato. Agathias remarks (ii. 24), with perfect truth, that it is
no longer possible to determine with any certainty when he lived
and legislated. " The Persians," he adds, " say that Zoroaster
lived under Hystaspes, but do not make it clear whether by this
name they mean the father of Darius or another Hystaspes. But,
whatever may have been his date, he was their teacher and in-
structor in the Magian religion, modified their former religious
customs, and introduced a variegated and composite belief."
He is nowhere mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions of the
Achaemeuidae, although Darius and his successors were without
doubt devoted adherents of Zoroastrianism. The Avesta is, indeed,
our principal source for the doctrine of Zoroaster; on the subject
of his person and his life it is comparatively reticent; with
regard to his date it is, naturally enough, absolutely silent. The
I3th section, or Spend Nask, which was mainly consecrated to the
description of his life, has perished; while the biographies founded
upon it in the 7th book of the Dinkard (9th century A.D.), the
Shah-Nama, and the Zardusht- Ndma (i3th century), are thoroughly
legendary full of wonders, fabulous histories and miraculous
deliverances.
Under all circumstances we must imitate the ancient authors in
holding fast to the historic personality of Zoroaster; though he
like many another name of the dim past has failed to escape the
fate of being
Kern
1880,
the Avesta is a mere myth, a divinity invested with human attri-
butes, an incarnation of the storm-god, who with his divine word,
the thunder, comes and smites the demons. Darmesteter has
failed to realize sufficiently the distinction between the Zoroaster
of the later Avesta and the Zoroaster of the Gathas. It cannot be
denied that in the later Avesta, and still more in writings of more
recent date, he is presented in a legendary light and endowed with
superhuman powers. At his appearing all nature rejoices (Yasht,
I 3i 93.) ; he enters into conflict with the demons and rids the earth
of their presence (Yasht, 17,19); Satan approaches him as tempter
to make him renounce his faith (Vendidad, 19, 6).
The Gathas alone within the Avesta make claim to be the
ipsissima verba of the prophet; in the rest of that work they are
put into Zoroaster's own mouth (Yasna, 9, i) and are expressly
called "the Gathas of the holy Zoroaster" (Yasna, 57, 8). The
litanies of the Yasna, and the Yashts, refer to him as a personage
belonging to the past. The Vendidad also merely gives accounts
of the dialogues between Ormazd and Zoroaster. The Gathas alone
claim to be authentic utterances of Zoroaster, his actual expressions
in presence of the assembled congregation. They are the last genuine
survivals of the doctrinal discourses with which as the promulgator
of a new religion he appeared at the court of King Vishtaspa
The person of the Zoroaster whom we meet with in these hymns
differs toto coelo from the Zoroaster of the younger Avesta. He is
the exact opposite of the miraculous personage of later legend
a mere man, standing always on the solid ground of reality, whese
only arms are trust in his God and the protection of his powerful allies.
At times his position is precarious enough. He whom we hear
in the Gathas has had to face, not merely all forms of outward
opposition and the unbelief and lukewarmness of adherents, but
also the inward misgivings of his own heart as to the truth and
final victory of his cause. At one time hope, at another despond-
ency, now assured confidence, now doubt and despair, here a firm
faith in the speedy coming of the kingdom of heaven, there the
thought of taking refuge by flight such is the range of the emotions
which find their immediate expression in these hymns. And the
whole breathes such a genuine originality, all is psychologically
so accurate and just, the earliest beginnings of the new religious
movement, the childhood of a new community of faith, are reflected
so naturally in them all, that it is impossible for a moment to think
of a later period of composition by a priesthood whom we know to
have been devoid of any historical sense, and incapable of recon-
structing the spiritual conditions under which Zoroaster lived. So
soon as the point of view is clear that in the Gathas we have firm
historical ground on which Zoroaster and his surroundings may rest,
that here we have the beginnings of the Zoroastrian religion then
it becomes impossible to answer otherwise than affirmatively every
general question as to the historical character of Zoroaster. Yet
we must not expect too much from the Gathas in the way of definite
detail. They give no historical account of the life and teaching
of their prophet, but rather are, so to say, versus memoriales, which
recapitulate the main points of interest, often again in brief outlines.
They are more of general admonitions, asseverations, solemn
prophecies, sometimes directed to the faithful flock or to the princes,
but generally cast in the form of dialogues with God and the arch-
angels, whom he repeatedly invokes as witnesses to his veracity.
Moreover, they contain many allusions to personal events which
later generations have forgotten. It must be remembered, too,
that their extent is limited, and their meaning, moreover, frequently
dubious or obscure.
The Person of the Prophet. As to his birthplace the testi-
monies are conflicting. According to the Avesta (Yasna, 9, 17),
Airyanem Vaejo, on the river Daitya, the old sacred country
of the gods, was the home of Zoroaster, and the scene of his
first appearance. There, on the river Darejya, assuming that
the passage (Vend., 19, 4) is correctly interpreted, stood the
house of his father; and the Bundahish (20, 32 and 24, 15) says
expressly that the river Daraja lay in Airan Vej, on its bank
was the dwelling of his father, and that there Zoroaster was born.
Now, according to the Bundahish (29, 12), Airan Vej was
situated in the direction of Atropatene, and consequently
Airyanem Vaejo is for the most part identified with the district
of Arran on the river Aras (Araxes), close by the north-western
frontier of Media. Other traditions, however, make him a
native of Rai (Ragha, 'P6.yai). According to Yasna, 19, 18,
the zaralhushirotema, or supreme head of the Zoroastrian priest-
hood, had at a later (Sasanian) time, his residence in Ragha.
The Arabic writer Shahrastan! endeavours to bridge [the diver-
gence between the two traditions by means of the following
theory: his father was a man of Atropatene, while the mother was
from Rai. In his home tradition recounts he enjoyed the celestial
visions and the conversations with the archangels and Ormazd
which are mentioned already in the Gathas. There, too,
according to Yasht, 5, 105, he prayed that he might succeed in
converting King Vishtaspa. He then appears to have quitted
his native district. On this point the Avesta is wholly silent:
only one obscure passage (Yasna, 53, 9) seems to intimate that
he found an ill reception in Rai. Finally, in the person of
Vishtaspa, who seems to have been a prince resident in east
Iran, he gained the powerful protector and faithful disciple of
the new religion whom he desired though after almost super-
human dangers and difficulties, which the later books depict
in lively colours. According to the epic legend, Vishtaspa was
king of Bactria. Already in the later Avesta he has become a
half-mythical figure, the last in the series of heroes of east
Iranian legend, in the arrangement of which series priestly
influence is unmistakably evident. He stands at the meeting-
point between the old world and the new era which begins with
Zoroaster. In the Gathas he appears as a quite historical
personage; it is essentially to his power and good example
that the prophet is indebted for his success. In Yasna, 53, 2,
ZOROASTER
1041
he is spoken of as a pioneer of the doctrine revealed by Ormazd.
In the relation between Zoroaster and VIshtaspa already lies
the germ of the state church which afterwards became com-
pletely subservient to the interests of the dynasty and sought
its protection from it.
Among the grandees of the court of VIshtaspa mention is
made of two brothers, Frashaoshtra and Jtmaspa; both were,
according to the later legend, vizirs of VIshtaspa. Zoroaster
was nearly related to both: his wife, HvSvi, was the daughter
of Frashaoshtra, and the husband of his daughter, Pourucista,
was Jamaspa. The actual r61e of intermediary was played by
the pious queen Hutaosa. Apart from this connexion, the new
prophet relies especially upon his own kindred (hvaetush). His
first disciple, MaidhySimaongha, was his cousin: his father
was, according to the later Avesta, Pourushaspa, his mother
DughdSva, his great-grandfather HaeYataspa, and the ancestor
ef the whole family Spitama, for which reason Zarathushtra
usually bears this surname. His sons and daughters are re-
peatedly spoken of. His death is, for reasons easily intelligible,
nowhere mentioned in the Avesta; in the Shdh-Nama he is
said to have been murdered at the altar by the Turanians in
the storming of Balkh.
We are quite ignorant as to the date of Zoroaster; King
VIshtaspa does not seem to have any place in any historical
chronology, and the Gathas give no hint on the subject. In
former times the assertion often was, and even now is often
put forward, that VIshtaspa was one and the same person with
the historical Hystaspes, father of Darius I. This identifica-
tion can only be purchased at the cost of a complete renuncia-
tion of the Avestan genealogy. Hutaosa is the same name as
Atossa: but in history Atossa was the wife of Cambyses and
Darius. Otherwise, not one single name in the entourage of
our VIshtaspa can be brought into harmony with historical
nomenclature. According to the Arda Viraf, i, 2, Zoroaster
taught, in round numbers, some 300 years before the invasion
of Alexander. The testimony of Assyrian inscriptions relegates
him to a far more ancient period. If these prove the name
Mazdaka to have formed part of Median proper names in the
year 715 B.C., Eduard Meyer (v. Ancient Persia) is justified in
maintaining that the Zoroastrian religion must even then have
been predominant in Media. Meyer, therefore, conjecturally
puts the date of Zoroaster at 1000 B.C., as had already been done
by Duncker (Geschichte des Altertums, 4*, 78). This, in its
turn, may be too high: but, in any case, Zoroaster belongs to a
prehistoric era. Probably he emanated from the old school of
Median Magi, and appeared first in Media as the prophet of a
new faith, but met with sacerdotal opposition, and turned his
steps eastward. In the east of Iran the novel creed first ac-
quired a solid footing, and subsequently reacted with success
upon the West.
Zoroastrianism. Zoroaster taught a new religion; but this
must not be taken as meaning that everything he taught came,
so to say, out of his own head. His doctrine was rooted in the
old Iranian or Aryan folk-religion, of which we can only
form an approximate representation by comparison with the
religion of the Veda. The newly discovered Hittite inscrip-
tions have now thrown a welcome ray of light on the primitive
Iranian creed (Ed. Meyer, Sitzungsberichte der Preuss. Akademie,
1908). In these inscriptions Mitra, Varuna, Indra and NSsatya
are mentioned as deities of the Iranian kings of Mitani at the
beginning of the i4th century all of them names with which
we are familiar from the Indian pantheon. The Aryan folk-
religion was polytheistic. Worship was paid to popular
divinities, such as the war-god and dragon-slayer Indra, to
natural forces and elements such as fire, but the Aryans also
believed in the ruling of moral powers and of an eternal law in
nature (v. Ed. Meyer in the article PERSIA: History, Ancient).
On solemn occasions the inspiring drink soma (haoma) ministered
to the enjoyment of the devout. Numerous coincidences with
the Indian religion survive in Zoroastrianism, side by side with
astonishing diversities.
The most striking difference between Zoroaster's doctrine
of God and the old religion of India lies in this, that while in
the Avesta the evil spirits are called daeva (Modern Persian dlv),
the Aryans of India, in common with the Italians, Celts and
Letts, gave the name of deva to their good spirits, the spirits of
light. An alternative designation for deity in the Rig- Veda is
asura. In the more recent hymns of the Rig-Veda and in later
India, on the other hand, only evil spirits are understood by
asuras, while in Iran the corresponding word ahura was, and
ever has continued to be, the designation of God the Lord.
Thus ahura-daeva, deva-asura in Zoroastrian and in later Brah-
man theology are in their meanings diametrically opposed.
Asura-daiva represent originally two distinct races of gods
(like the Northern Aser and Vaner) two different aspects of
the conception of deity, comparable to dalfuav and 6<6j.
Asura indicates the more sublime and awful divine character,
for which man entertains the greater reverence and fear:
daiiia denotes thciind gods of light, the vulgar more sensuous
and anthropomorphic deities. This twofold development of
the idea of God formed the point of leverage for Zoroaster's
reformation. While in India the conception of the asura had
veered more and more towards the dreadful and the dreaded,
Zoroaster elevated it again at the cost, indeed, of the daivas
(daevas), whom he degraded to the rank of malicious powers and
devils. In one Asura, whose Aryan original was Varuna, he
concentrated the whole of the divine character, and conferred
upon it the epithet of "the wise" (mazdao). This culminating
stage in the oira-conception is the work of Zoroaster. The
Wise Lord (Ahuro Mazdao later Ormazd) is the primeval
spiritual being, the All-father, who was existent before ever
the world arose. From him that world has emanated, and its
course is governed by his foreseeing eye. His guiding spirit
is the Holy Spirit, which wills the good: yet it is not free, but
restricted, in this temporal epoch, by its antagonist and own
twin-brother (Yasna, 30, 3), the Evil Spirit (angro mainyush,
Ahriman), who in the beginning was banished by the Good
Spirit by means of the famous ban contained in Yasna, 45, 2,
and since then drags out his existence in the darkness of Hell
as the principle of ill the arch-devil. In the Gathas the Good
Spirit of Mazda and the Evil Spirit are the two great opposing
forces in the world, and Ormazd himself is to a certain extent
placed above them both. Later the Holy Spirit is made directly
equivalent to Ormazd; and then the great watchword is:
" Here Ormazd, there Ahrimanl" The very daevas are only the
inferior instruments, the corrupted children of Ahriman, from
whom come all that is evil in the world. The daevas, unmasked
and attacked by Zoroaster as the true enemies of mankind, are
still, in the Gathas, without doubt the perfectly definite gods
of old popular belief the idols of the people. For Zoroaster
they sink to the rank of spurious deities, and in his eyes their
priests and votaries are idolaters and heretics. In the later,
developed system the daevas are the evil spirits in general, and
their number has increased to millions. Some few of these
have names; and among those names of the old Aryan divinities
emerge here and there, e.g. Indra and Naonhaitya. With some,
of course such as the god of fire the connexion with the good
deity was a priori indissoluble. Other powers of light, such as
Mitra the god of day (Iranian Mithra), survived unforgotten
in popular belief till the later system incorporated them in the
angelic body. The authentic doctrine of the Gathas had no
room either for the cult of Mithra or for that of the Haoma.
Beyond the Lord and his Fire, the Gathas only recognize the
archangels and certain ministers of Ormazd, who are, without
exception, personifications of abstract ideas. This hypo-
stasization and all-egotization is especially characteristic of the
Zoroastrian religion. The essence of Ormazd is Truth and Law
o$Aa = Vedic rta): this quality he embodies, and its personifica-
tion (though conceived as sexless) is always by his side, a con-
stant companion and intimate. The essence of the wicked
spirit is falsehood: and falsehood, as the embodiment of the
evil principle, is much more frequently mentioned in the Gathas
than Ahriman himself.
Zoroaster says of himself that he had received from God a
1042
ZOROASTER
commission to purify religion (Yasna, 44, 9). He purified it
from the grossly sensual elements of daeva worship, and up-
lifted the idea of religion to a higher and purer sphere. The
motley body of Aryan folk-belief, when subjected to the unify-
ing thought of a speculative brain, was transformed to a self-
contained theory of the universe and a logical dualistic principle.
But this dualism is a temporally limited dualism no more
than an episode in the world-whole and is destined to ter-
minate in monotheism. Later sects sought to rise from it to
a higher unity in other ways. Thus the Zarvanites represented
Ormazd and Ahriman as twin sons proceeding from the funda-
mental principle of all Zrvana Akarana, or limitless time.
Ethically, too, the new doctrine stands on a higher plane,
and represents, in its moral laws, a superior civilization. The
devil-worshippers, at their sacrifices, slay the ox; and this
the daevas favour, for they are foes to the cattle and to cattle-
breeding, and friends to those who work ill to the cow. In
Zoroaster's eyes this is an abomination: for the cow is a
gift of Ormazd to man, and the religion of Mazda protects the
sacred animal. It is the religion of the settled grazier and the
peasant, while the ruder daeva-cv\t holds its ground among
the uncivilized nomadic tribes. In an old confession of faith,
the convert is pledged to abjure the theft and robbery of cattle
and the ravaging of villages inhabited by worshippers of Mazda
(Yasna, 12, 2).
Zoroaster's teachings show him to have been a man of a highly
speculative turn, faithful, however, with all his originality, to the
Iranian national character. With zeal for the faith, and boldness
and energy, he combined diplomatic skill in his dealings with his
exalted protectors. His thinking is consecutive, self-restrained,
practical, devoid of everything that might be called fantastic or
excessive. His form of expression is tangible and concrete: his
system is constructed on a clearly conceived plan and stands on a
high moral level ; for its time it was a great advance in civilization.
The doctrine of Zoroaster and the Zoroastrian Church may be sum-
marized somewhat as follows:
At the beginning of things there existed the two spirits who repre-
sented good and evil (Yasna, 30, 3). The existence of evil in the
world is thus presupposed from the beginning. Both spirits possess
creative power, which manifests itself positively in the one and
negatively in the other. Ormazd is light and life, and creates all
that is pure and good in the ethical world of law, order and
truth. His antithesis is darkness, filth, death, and produces all
that is evil in the world. Until then the two spirits had counter-
balanced one another. The ultimate triumph of the good spirit
is an ethical demand of the religious consciousness and the quint-
essence of Zoroaster's religion.
The evi! spirit with his wicked hosts appears in the Gathas much
less endowed with the attributes of personality and individuality
than does Ahura Mazda. Within the world of the good Ormazd
is Lord and God alone. In this sense Zoroastrianism is often referred
to as the faith of Ormazd or as Mazdaism. Ormazd in his exalted
majesty is the ideal figure of an Oriental king. He is not alone in his
doings and conflicts, but has in conjunction with himself a number
of genii for the most part personifications of ethical ideas. These
are his creatures, his instruments, servants and assistants. They
are comprehended under the general name of amesha spenta (" im-
mortal holy ones ") and are the prototypes of the seven amshaspands
of a later date. These are (i) Vohu Mano (fCcwo), good sense,
i.e. the good principle, the idea of the good, the principle that works in
man inclining him to what is good; (2) Ashem, afterwards Ashem
Vahishtem (Plutarch's 4X^0o), the genius of truth and the em-
bodiment of all that is true, good and right, upright law and rule
ideas practically identical for Zoroaster; (3) Khshathrem, after-
wards Khshathrem Vairim (efo-o/ua) , the power and kingdom of
Ormazd, which have subsisted from the first but not in integral
completeness, the evil having crept in like tares among the wheat :
the time is yet to come when it shall be fully manifested in all its
unclouded majesty; (4) Armaiti (Po^(o), due reverence for the
divine, verecundia, spoken of as daughter of Ormazd and regarded
as having her abode upon the earth; (5) Hauryatat (irXoDros), per-
fection; (6) Ameretat, immortality. Other ministering angels are
Geush Urvan (" the genius and defender pi animals "), and Sraosha,
the genius of obedience and faithful hearing.
As soon as the two separate spirits (cf. Bundahish, I, 4) encounter
one another, their creative activity and at the same time their
permanent conflict begin. The history of this conflict is the
history of the world. A great cleft runs right through the world:
all creation divides itself into that which is Ahura's and that which
is Ahriman's. Not that the two spirits carry on the struggle in
person ; they leave it to be fought out by their respective creations
and creatures which they sent into the field. The field of battle
is the present world.
In the centre of battle is man: his soul is the object of the war.
Man is a creation of Ormazd, who therefore has the right to call
him to account. But Ormazd created him free in his determina-
tions and in his actions, wherefore he is accessible to the influences
of the evil powers. This freedom of the will is clearly expressed
in Yasna, 31, n: " Since thou,_O Mazda, didst at the first create
our being and our consciences in accordance with thy mind, and
didst create our understanding and our life together with the body,
and works and words in which man according to his own will can
Frame his confession, the liar and the truth-speaker alike lay hold of
the word, the knowing and the ignorant each after his own heart
and understanding. Armaiti searches, following thy spirit, where
errors are found." Man takes part in this conflict by all his life and
activity in the world. By a true confession of faith, by every good
deed, word and thought, by continually keeping pure his body
and his soul, he impairs the power of Satan and strengthens the
might of goodness, and establishes a claim for reward upon
Ormazd; by a false confession, by every evil deed, word and
thought and defilement, he increases the evil and renders service
to Satan.
The life of man falls into two parts its earthly portion and that
which is lived after death is past. The lot assigned to him after
death is the result and consequence of his life upon earth. No
religion has so clearly grasped the ideas of guilt and of merit. On
the works of men here below a strict reckoning will be held in
heaven (according to later representations, by Rashnu, the genius
of justice, and Mithra). All the thoughts, words and deeds of
each are entered in the book of life as separate items all the
evil works, <&c., as debts. Wicked actions cannot be undone, but
in the heavenly account can be counterbalanced by a surplus of
good works. It is only in this sense that an evil deed can be atoned
for by a good deed. Of a real remission of sins the old doctrine
of Zoroaster knows nothing, whilst the later Zoroastrian Church
admits repentance, expiation and remission. After death the soul
arrives at the cinvato peretu, or accountant's bridge, over which lies
the way to heaven. Here the statement of his life account is made
out. If he has a balance of good works in his favour, he passes
forthwith into paradise (Card demana) and the blessed life. If his
evil works outweigh his good, he falls finally under the power of
Satan, <and the pains of hell are his portion for ever. Should
the evil and the good be equally balanced, the soul passes into an
intermediary stage of existence (the Hamestakans of the Pahlavi
books) and its final lot is not decided until the last judgment.
This court of reckoning, the indicium particidare, is called akd.
The course of inexorable law cannot be turned aside by any sacrifice
or offering, nor yet even by the free grace of God.
But man has been smitten with blindness and ignorance: he
knows neither the eternal law nor the things which await him
after death. He allows himself too easily to be ensnared by the
craft of the evil powers who seek to ruin his future existence. He
worships and serves false gods, being unable to distinguish between
truth and lies. Therefore it is that Ormazd in his grace deter-
mined to open the eyes of mankind by sending a prophet to lead
them by the right way, the way of salvation. According to later
legend (Vd.,.2, l), Ormazd at first wished to entrust this task to
Yima (Jemshid), the ideal of an Iranian king. But Yima, the
secular man, felt himself unfitted for it and declined it. He con-
tented himself therefore with establishing in his paradise (vara) a
heavenly kingdom in miniature, to serve at the same time as a
pattern for the heavenly kingdom that was to come. Zoroaster
at last, as being a spiritual man, was found fit for the mission. He
experienced within himself the inward call to seek the ameliora-
tion of mankind and their deliverance from ruin, and regarded this
inner impulse, intensified as it was by long, contemplative solitude
and by visions, as being the call addressed to him by God Him-
self. Like Manommed after him he often speaks of his conversations
with God and the archangels. He calls himself most frequently
manthran (" prophet "), ratu (" spiritual authority "), and saoshyant
(" the coming helper " that is to say, when men come to be judged
according to their deeds).
The full contents of his dogmatic and ethical teaching we cannot
gather from the GSthas. He speaks for the most part only in
general references of the divine commands and of good and evil
works. Among the former those most inculcated are renunciation
of Satan, adoration of Ormazd, purity of soul and body, and care
of the cow. We learn little otherwise regarding the practices con-
nected with his doctrines. A ceremonial worship is hardly men-
tioned. He speaks more in the character of prophet than in that
of lawgiver. The contents of the Gathas are essentially eschato-
logical. Revelations concerning the last things and the future lot,
whether bliss or woe, of human souls, promises for true believers,
threatenings for misbelievers, his firm confidence as t the future
triumph of the good such are the themes continually dwelt on
with endless variations.
It was not without special reason so Zoroaster believed that
the calling of a prophet should have taken place precisely when
it did. It was, he held, the final appeal of Ormazd to mankind
at large. Like John the Baptist and the Apostles of Jesus, Zoroaster
also believed that the fulness of time was near, that the kingdom
of heaven was at hand. Through the whole of the Gathas runs
ZORRILLA Y MORAL
1043
the pious hope that the end of the present world is not far distant.
He himself hopes, with his followers, to live to see the decisive
turn of things, the dawn of the new and better aeon. Ormazd
will summon together all his powers for a final decisive struggle
and break the power of evil for ever; by his help the faithful will
achieve the victory over their detested enemies, the daeva wor-
shippers, and render them impotent. Thereupon Ormazd will hold
a judicium universal, in the form of a general ordeal, a great test
of all mankind by fire and molten metal, and will judge strictly
according to justice, punish the wicked, and assign to the good
the hoped-for reward. Satan will be cast, along with all those who
have been delivered over to him to suffer the pains of hell, into
the abyss, where he will henceforward lie powerless. Forthwith
begins the one undivided kingdom of God in heaven and on earth.
This is called, sometimes the good kingdom, sometimes simply the
kingdom. Here the sun will for ever shine, and all the pious and
faithful will live a happy life, which no evil power can disturb, in
the eternal fellowship of Ormazd and his angels. Every believer
will receive as his guerdon the inexhaustible cow and the gracious
gifts of the Vohu mono. The prophet and his princely patrons
will be accorded special honour.
History and Later Development. For the great mass of the
people Zoroaster's doctrine was too abstract and spiritualistic.
The vulgar fancy requires sensuous, plastic deities, which admit
of visible representation; and so the old gods received honour
again and new gods won acceptance. They are the angels
(yazala) of New Zoroastrianism. Thus, in the later Avesta,
we find not only Mithra but also purely popular divinities such
as the angel of victor}', Verethraghna, Anahita (Ariaitis),
the goddess of the water, Tishrya (Sirius), and other heavenly
bodies, invoked with special preference. The Gathas know
nothing of a new belief which afterwards arose in the Fravashi,
or guardian angels of the faithful. Fravashi properly means
" confession of faith," and when personified comes to be re-
garded as a protecting spirit. Unbelievers have nofravashi.
On the basis of the new teaching arose a widely spread priest-
hood (athravano) who systematized its doctrines, organized and
carried on its worship, and laid down the minutely elaborated
laws for the purifying and keeping clean of soul and body, which
are met with in the Vendidad. To these ecclesiastical precepts
and expiations belong in particular the numerous ablutions, bodily
chastisements, love of truth, beneficial works, support of comrades
in the faith, alms, chastity, improvement of the land, arboriculture,
breeding of cattle, agriculture, protection of useful animals, as the
dog, the destruction of noxious animals, and the prohibition either
to burn or to bury the dead. These are to be left on the appointed
places (dakkmas) and exposed to the vultures and wild dogs. In
the worship the drink prepared from the haoma (Indian soma)
plant had a prominent place. Worship in the Zoroastrian Church
was devoid of pomp; it was independent of temples. Its centre
was the holy fire on the altar. The fire altars afterwards developed
to fire temples. In the sanctuary of these temples the various
sacrifices and high and low masses were celebrated. As offerings
meat, milk, show-bread, fruits, flowers and consecrated water were
used. The priests were the privileged keepers and teachers of
religion. They only performed the sacrifices (Herodotus, i. 132),
educated the young clergy, imposed the penances; they in person
executed the circumstantial ceremonies of purification and exercised
a spiritual guardianship and pastoral care of the laymen._ Every
young believer in Mazda, after having been received into the
religious community by being girt with the holy lace, had to choose
a confessor and a spiritual guide (ratu).
Also in eschatology, as may be expected, a change took place.
The last things and the end of the world are relegated to the close
of a long period of time (3000 years after Zoroaster), when a new
Saoshyant is to be born of the seed of the prophet, the dead are
to come to life, and a new incorruptible world to begin.
Zoroastrianism was the national religion of Iran, but it was not
permanently restricted to the Iranians, being professed by Turanians
as well. The worship of the Persian gods spread to Armenia and
Cappadocia and over the whole of the Near East (Strabo, xv. 3, 14;
xi. 8, 4; 14, 76). Of the Zoroastrian Church under the Achae-
menides and Aeracides little is known. After the overthrow of
the dynasty of the Achaemenides a period of decay seems i.o have
set in. Yet the Aeracides and the Indo-Scythian kings as well
as the Achaemenides were believers in Mazda. The national
restoration of the Sasanides brought new life to the Zoroastrian
religion and lon^-lasting sway to the Church. Protected by this
dynasty, the priesthood developed into a completely organized
state church, which was able to employ the power of the state
in enforcing strict compliance with the religious law-book hitherto
enjoined by their unaided efforts only. The head of the Church
(Zara-Shushtrotema) had his seat at Rai in Media and was the
first person in the state next to the king. The formation of
sects was at this period not infrequent (cf. MANICHAEISM). The
Mohammedan invasion (636) , with the terrible persecutions of the fol-
lowing centuries, was the death-blow of Zoroastrianism. In Persia
itself only a few followers of Zoroaster are now found (in Kerman
and Yezd). The PAKSEES (q.v.) in and around Bombay hold by
Zoroaster as their prophet and by the ancient religious usages,
but their doctrine has reached the stage of a pure monotheism.
LITERATURE. See under ZEND-AVESTA. Also Hyde, Historia
Religionis velerum Purarum (Oxon, 1700); Windischmann, Zoro-
astrische Studien (Berlin, 1863); A. V. Williams Jackson, Zoroaster,
the Prophet of Ancient Iran (New York, 11(99); Jackson, in the
Grundnss der iranischen Phiiologie, vol. ii. 612 sqq. (Strassburg,
1896-1904); Tiele, Die Religion bei den iranischen Volkern (Gotha,
1898); Tiele, Kompendium der Religionsgeschichte, German transl.
by Ssderb'om (Breslau, 1903); Rastamji Edulji Dastoor Peshotan
Sanjana, Zarathushtra and Zarathushtrianism in the Avesta (Bombay,
1906); E. Lehmann, Zarathushtra, 2 vols. (Copenhagen, 18991902);
E. W. West, " Marvels of Zoroastrianism ' in the Sacred Books
of the East, vol. xlvii. ; Z. A. Ragozin, The_ Story of Media, Babylon
and Persia (New York, 1888); Dosabhai Framji Karaka, History
of the Parsis (2 vols., London, 1884). (K. G.)
ZORRILLA Y MORAL, JOSfi (1817-1803), Spanish poet and
dramatist, son of a magistrate in whom Ferdinand VII. placed
special confidence, was born at Valladolid on the zist of
February 1817. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Real
Seminario de Nobles in Madrid, wrote verses when he was
twelve, became an enthusiastic admirer of Scott and Chateau-
briand, and took part in the school performances of plays by
Lope de Vega and Calderon. In 1833 he was sent to read law
at the University of Toledo, but, after a year of idleness, he
fled to Madrid, where he horrified the friends of his absolutist
father by making violent speeches and by founding a newspaper
which was promptly suppressed by the government. He
narrowly escaped transportation to the Philippines, and passed
the next few years in poverty. The death of the satirist Larra
brought Zorrilla into notice. His elegiac poem, declaimed at
I.arra's funeral in February 1837, served as an introduction
to the leading men of letters. In 1837 he published a book of
verses, mostly imitations of Lamartine and Hugo, which was so
favourably received that he printed six more volumes within
three years. His subjects are treated with fluency and grace,
but the carelessness which disfigures much of his work is pro-
minent in these juvenile poems. After collaborating with
Garcfa Gutierrez, in a piece entitled Juan Ddndole (1839)
Zorrilla began his individual career as a dramatist with Coda
cual con su raz6n (1840), and during the following five years
he wrote twenty-two plays, many of them extremely successful.
His Cantos del trovador (1841), a collection of national legends
versified with infinite spirit, -showed a decided advance in skill,
and secured for the author the place next to Espronceda in
popular esteem. National legends also supply the themes of
his dramas, though in this department Zorrilla somewhat com-
promised his reputation for originality by adapting older plays
which had fallen out of fashion. For example, In El Zapatero
y el Rey he recasts El montanfs Juan Pascual by Juan de la
Hoz y Mota; in La mcjor razdn la espada he borrows from
Moreto's Travesuras del estudiante Panloja; in Don Juan
Tenorio he adapts from Tirso de Molina's Burlador de SeviUa
and from the elder Dumas's Don Juan de Marana (which itself
derives from Les Ames du purgatoire of Prosper Merimee). But
his rearrangements usually contain original elements, and in
Sancho Garcia, El Rey loco, and El Alcalde Ronquillo he ap-
parently owes little to any predecessor. The last and (as he
himself believed) the best of his plays is Traidor, inconfeso y
mdrlir (1845). Upon the death of his mother in 1847 Zorrilla
left Spain, resided for a while at Bordeaux, and settled in Paris,
where his incomplete Granada, a. striking poem of gorgeous
local colour, was published in 1852. In a fit of depression,
the causes of which are not known, he emigrated to America
three years later, hoping, as he says, that yellow fever or small-
pox would carry him off. During eleven years spent in Mexico
he produced little, and that little was of no merit. He returned
in 1866, to find himsrlf a half-forgotten classic. His old fertility
was gone, and new standards of taste were coming into fashion.
A small post, obtained for him through the influence of Jovellar
and Canovas del Castillo, was abolished by the republican
1044
ZOSIMUS ZOUAVE
minister. He was always poor, and for some twelve years after
1871 he was in the direst straits. The law of copyright was not
retrospective, and, though some of his plays made the fortunes
of managers, they brought him nothing. In his untrustworthy
autobiography, Reciter dos del tiempo viejo (1880), he complained
of this. A pension of 30,000 reales secured him from want in
his old age, and the reaction in his favour became an apotheosis.
In 1885 the Spanish Academy, which had elected him a member
many years before, presented him with a gold medal of honour,
and in 1889 he was publicly crowned at Granada as the national
laureate. He died at Madrid on the 23rd of January 1893.
Zorrilla is so intensely Spanish that it is difficult for foreign
critics to do him justice. It is certain that the extraordinary
rapidity of his methods seriously injured his work. He declares
that he wrote El Caballo del Rey Don Sancho in three weeks, and
that he put together El Punal del Godo (which, like La Calentura,
owes much to Southey) in two days; if so, his deficiencies need
no other explanation. An improvisator with the characteristic
faults of redundance and verbosity, he wrote far too much, and
in most of his numbers there are numerous technical flaws. Yet
the richness of his imagery, the movement, fire and variety of
his versification, will preserve some few of his poems in the antho-
logies. His appeal to patriotic pride, his accurate dramatic instinct,
together with the fact that he invariably gives at least one of his
characters a most effective acting part, have enabled him to hold
the stage. It is by Don Juan Tenorio, the play of which he thought
so meanly, that Zorrilla will be best remembered. (J- F.-K.)
ZOSIMUS, bishop of Rome from the i8th of March 417 to the
26th of December 418, succeeded Innocent I. and was followed
by Boniface I. For his attitude in the Pelagian controversy,
see PELAGIUS. He took a decided part in the protracted
dispute in Gaul as to the jurisdiction of the see of Aries over that
of Vienne, giving energetic decisions in favour of the former,
but without settling the controversy. His fractious temper
coloured all the controversies in which he took part, in Gaul,
Africa and Italy, including Rome, where at his death the clergy
were very much divided.
ZOSIMUS, Greek historical writer, flourished at Constanti-
nople during the second half of the sth century A.D. According
to Photius, he was a count, and held the office of " advocate "
of the imperial treasury. His New History, mainly a compilation
from previous authors (Dexippus, Eunapius, Olympiodorus),
is in six books: the first sketches briefly the history of the early
emperors from Augustus to Diocletian (305); the second, third
and fourth deal more fully with the period from the accession of
Constantius and Galerius to the death of Theodosius; the fifth
and sixth cover the period between 395 and 410. The work,
which is apparently unfinished, must have been written between
450-502. The style is characterized by Photius as concise,
clear and pure. The historian's object was to account for the
decline of the Roman empire from the pagan point of view, and
in this undertaking he at various points treated the Christians
with some unfairness.
The best edition is by Mendelssohn (1887), who fully discusses
the question of the authorities used by Zosimus; there is an
excellent appreciation of him in Ranke's Weltgeschichte, iv. French
translation by Cousin (.1678); English (anonymous), 1684, 1814.
ZOSTEROPS, 1 ! originally the scientific name of a genus of
birds founded by N. A. Vigors and T. Horsfield (Trans. Linn.
Society, xv. p. 235) on an Australian species called by them
Z. dorsalis, but subsequently shown to be identical with the
Certhia caerulescens, and also with the Sylvia laleralis, previously
described by J. Latham. The name has been Anglicized in the
same sense, and, whether as a scientific or a vernacular term,
applied to a great number of species 2 of little birds which inhabit
for the most part the tropical districts of the Old World, from
Africa to most of the islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans,
and northwards in Asia through India and China to the Amur
regions and Japan.
1 The derivation is fwrrfip-iipos and ity, whence the word should
be pronounced with all the vowels long. The allusion is to the
ring of white feathers round the eyes, which is very conspicuous
in many species.
1 In 1883 R. B. Sharpe (Cat. B. Brit. Museum, ix. pp. 146-203)
admitted 85 species, besides 3 more which he had not been able
to examine.
The birds of this group are mostly of unpretending appearance,
the plumage above being generally either mouse-coloured or
greenish olive; but some are varied by the white or bright yellow
of their throat, breast or lower parts, and several have the
flanks of a more or less lively bay. Several islands are inhabited
by two perfectly distinct species, one belonging to the brown
and the other to the green section, the former being wholly
insular. The greater number of species seem to be confined to
single islands, often of very small area, but others have a very
wide distribution, and the type-species, Z. caertilescens, has
largely extended its range. First described from New South
Wales, where it is very plentiful, it had been long known to
inhabit all the eastern part of Australia. In 1856 it was found
in the South Island of New Zealand, when it became known to
the Maories by a name signifying" Stranger," and to the British
as the " Blight-bird," 3 from its clearing the fruit-trees of a
blight. It soon after appeared in the North Island, where it
speedily became common, and thence not only spread to the
Chatham Islands, but was met with in considerable numbers
300 miles from land, as though in search of new countries to
colonize. In any case it is obvious that this Zosterops must be
a comparatively modern settler in New Zealand.
All the species of Zosterops are sociable, consorting in large
flocks, which only separate on the approach of the pairing season.
They build nests sometimes suspended from a horizontal fork
and sometimes fixed in an upright crctch and lay (so far as is
known) pale blue, spotless eggs, thereby differing wholly from
several of the groups of birds to which they have been thought
allied. Though mainly insectivorous, they eat fruits of various
kinds. The habits of Z. caerulescens have been well described
by Sir W. Buller (Birds of New Zealand), and those of a species
peculiar to Ceylon, Z. ceylonensis, by Col. Legge (B. Ceylon), while
those of the widely ranging Indian Z. palpebrosa and of the South-
African Z. capensis have been succinctly treated by Jerdon (B.India,
ii.) and Layard (B. South Africa) respectively.
It is remarkable that the largest known species of the genus,
Z. albigularis, measuring nearly 6 in. in length, is confined to so
small a spot as Norfolk Island, where also another, Z. tenuirostris,
not much less in size, occurs; while a third, of intermediate stature,
Z. strenua, inhabits the still smaller Lord Howe's Island. A fourth,
Z. vatensis, but little inferior in bulk, is found on one of the New
Hebrides; the rest are from one-fifth to one-third less in length,
and some of the smaller species hardly exceed 3J in.
Placed by some writers, if not systematists, with the Paridae
(see TITMOUSE), by others among the Meliphagidae (see HONEY-
EATER), and again by others with the Nectariniidae (see SUNBIRD),
the structure of the tongue, as shown by H. F. Gadow (Proc. Zool.
Society, 1883, pp. 63, 68, pi. xvi. fig. 2), entirely removes it from
the first and third, and from most of the forms generally included
among the second. It seems safest to regard the genus, at least
provisionally, as the type of a distinct family Zosteropidae as
families go among Passerine birds. (A. N.)
ZOUAVE, the name given to certain infantry regiments in
the French army. The corps was first raised in Algeria in 1831
with one and later two battalions, and recruited solely from
the Zouaves, a tribe of Berbers, dwelling in the mountains of
the Jurjura range (see KABYLES). In 1838 a third battalion
was raised, and the regiment thus formed was commanded
by Lamoriciere. Shortly afterwards the formation of the
Tirailleurs algtriens, the Turcos, as the corps for natives, changed
the enlistment for the Zouave battalions, and they became, as
they now remain, a purely French body. Three regiments
were formed in 1852, and a fourth, the Zouaves of the Imperial
Guard, in 1854. The Crimean War was the first service which
the regiments saw outside Algeria. There are now four regi-
ments, of five battalions each, four of which are permanently in
Africa, the fifth being stationed in France as a dep6t regiment.
For the peculiarly picturesque uniform of these regiments, see
UNIFORM.
The Papal Zouaves were formed in defence of the Papal states
by Lamoriciere in 1860. After the occupation of Rome by Victor
Emmanuel in 1870, the Papal Zouaves served the government of
National Defence in France during the Franco-Prussian war, and
were disbanded after the entrance of the German troops into Paris.
* By most English-speaking people the prevalent species of
Zosterops is commonly called " White-eye " or "Silver-eye."
ZOUCH ZRINYI
1045
ZOUCH, RICHARD (c. 1590-1661), English jurist, was born
at Anstey, Wiltshire, and educated at Winchester and after-
wards at Oxford, where he became a fellow of New College in
1609. He was admitted at Doctor's Commons in January
1618, and was appointed regius professor of law at Oxford in
1620. In 1623 he became principal of St Alban Hall and
chancellor of the diocese of Oxford; in 1641 he was made judge
of the High Court of Admiralty. Under the Commonwealth,
having submitted to the parliamentary visitors, he retained his
university appointments, though not his judgeship; this last
he resumed at the Restoration, dying soon afterwards at his
apartments in Doctor's Commons, London, on the ist of March
1661.
He published Elementa jurisprudentiae (1629), Descriptio juris
et judicii feudalis, secundum consuetudines Mediolani et Normanniae,
pro introdtiftione ad jurisprudentiam Anglicanam (1634), Descriptio
juris et judicii temporalis, secundum consuetudines feudales et Nor-
mannicas (1636), Descriptio juris et judicii ecclesiastici, secundum
canones et consuetudines Anglicanas (1636), Descriptiones juris et
judicii sacri, . . . militaris, . . . maritimi (16.10), Juris et judicii
fecialis siye juris inter gentes . . . explicatio (1650), and Solutio
quaestionis de leeati delinqusntis judice competente (1657). In virtue
of the last two he has the distinction of being one of the earliest
systematic writers on international law. He was also the author
of a poem, The Dove, or Passages of Cosmography (1613).
ZOUCHE, or ZOUCH, the name of an English family descended
from Alan la Zouche, a Breton, who is sometimes called Alan
de Porrhoet. Having settled in England during the reign of
Henry II., Alan obtained by marriage Ashby in Leicestershire
(called after him Ashby de la Zouch) and other lands. His
grandson, another Alan la Zouche, was justice of Chester and
justice of Ireland under Henry III.; he was loyal to the king
during the struggle with the barons, fought at Lewes and helped
to arrange the peace of Kenilworth. As the result of a quarrel
over some lands with John, Earl Warenne, he was seriously
injured in Westminster Hall by the earl and his retainers, and
died on the loth of August 1270. Alan's elder son Roger
(d. 1285) had a son Alan la Zouche, who was summoned to
parliament as a baron about 1298. He died without sons, and
this barony fell into abeyance between his daughters and has
never been revived. The elder Alan's younger son, Eades or
Ivo, had a son William (c. 1276-1352), who was summoned to
parliament as a baron in 1308, and this barony, 'which is still
in existence, is known as that of Zouche of Haryngworth.
John, 7th baron Zouche of Haryngworth (c. 1460-1526),
was attainted in 1485 as a supporter of Richard III., but was
restored to his honours in 1495. His descendant, Edward, the
nth baron (c. 1556-1625), was one of the peers who tried Mary,
queen of Scots, and was sent by Elizabeth as ambassador to
Scotland and to Denmark. He was president of Wales from
1602 to 1615 and lord warden of the Cinque Ports from 1615 to
1624. He was a member of the council of the Virginia Company
and of the New England council. He had many literary friends,
among them being Ben Jonson and Sir Henry Wotton. Zouche
left no sons, and the barony remained in abeyance among the
descendants of his two daughters until 1815, when the abeyance
was terminated in favour of Sir Cecil Bisshopp, Bart. (1753-
1828), who became the i2th baron. He died without sons, a
second abeyance being terminated in 1829 in favour of his
daughter Harriet Anne (1787-1870), wife of the Hon. Robert
Curzon (1771-1863). In 1873 her grandson, Robert Nathaniel
Curzon (b. 1851), became the isth baron.
Two antiquaries, Henry Zouch (c. 1725-1795) and his brother.
Thomas Zouch (1737-1815), claimed descent from the family of
Zouche. Both were voluminous writers, Thomas's works including
a Life of Izaak Walton (1823) and Memoirs of Sir Philip Sidney
(1808).
ZOUTPANSBERG, the north-eastern division of the Transvaal.
This was the district to which Louis Trichard and Jan van
Rensburg, the forerunners of the Great Trek, journeyed in
1835. In 1845 Hendrik Potgieter, a prominent leader of the
Trek Boers, removed thither. The Zoutpansberg Boers formed
a semi-independent community, and in 1857 Stephanus Schoe-
man, their commandant-general, sided against Marthinus
Pretorius and Paul Kruger when they invaded the Orange Free
State. It was not until 1864 that Zoutpansberg was definitely
incorporated in the South African Republic. Trichard and his
companions had been shown gold workings by the natives, and
it was in this district in 1867-70, and in the neighbouring region
of Lydenburg, that gold mines were first worked by Europeans
south of the Limpopo. The white settlers in Zoutpansberg
had for many years a reputation for lawlessness, and were later
regarded as typical " back velt Boers." Zoutpansberg contains
a larger native population than any other region of the Transvaal.
It is highly mineralized, next to gold, copper, found near the
Limpopo (where is the Messina mine) being the chief metal
worked. The district long suffered from lack of railway com-
munications, but in 1910 the completion of the Selati line giving
it direct access to Delagoa Bay was begun. The chief towns
are Pietersburg and Leydsdorp.
See S. Hofmeyr, Twintig jaren in Zoutpansberg (Cape Town,
1890); Report on a Reconnaissance of the N.-W. Zoutpansberg
District (Pretoria, 1908).
ZRINYI, MIKL6S, COUNT (1508-1566), Hungarian hero,
was a son of Miklos Zrinyi and D6na Karlovics. He distin-
guished himself at the siege of Vienna in 1529, and in 1542
saved the imperial army from defeat before Pest by intervening
with 400 Croats, for which service he was appointed ban of
Croatia. In 1542 he routed the Turks at Somlyo. In 1543 he
married Catherine Frangipan, who placed the whole of her
vast estates at his disposal. The Emperor Ferdinand also
gave him large possessions in Hungary, and henceforth the
Zrinyis became as much Magyar as Croatian magnates. In
1556 Zrinyi won a series of victories over the Turks, culminating
in the battle of Bab6csa. The Croatians, however, overwhelmed
their ban with reproaches for neglecting them to fight for the
Magyars, and the emperor simultaneously deprived him of the
captaincy of Upper Croatia and sent 10,000 men to aid the
Croats, while the Magyars were left without any help, where-
upon Zrinyi resigned the banship (1561). In 1563, on the
coronation of the Emperor Maximilian as king of Hungary,
Zrinyi attended the ceremony at the head of 3000 Croatian and
Magyar mounted noblemen, in the vain hope of obtaining the
dignity of palatine, vacant by the death of Thomas Nadasdy.
Shortly after marrying(in 1564)^3 second wife, Eva Rosenberg,
a great Bohemian heiress, he hastened southwards to defend
the frontier, defeated the Turks at Segesd, and in 1566 from
the sth of August to the 7th of September heroically defended
the little fortress of Szigetvar against the whole Turkish host,
led by Suleiman the Magnificent in person, perishing with every
member of the garrison in a last desperate sortie.
See F. Salamon, Ungarn im Zeitalter der Turkenherrschaft (Leipzig,
1887); J. Csuday, The Zrinyis in Hungarian History (Hung.),
Szombathely. 1884, 8vo. (R. N. B.)
ZRINYI, MIKL6S, COUNT (1620-1664), Hungarian warrior,
statesman and poet, the son of George Zrinyi and Magdalena
Szechy, was born at Csakvar. At the court of P6ter Pasmany
the youth conceived a burning enthusiasm for his native lan-
guage and literature, although he always placed arms before
arts. From 1635 to 1637 he accompanied Szenkveczy, one of
the canons of Esztergom, on a long educative tour through
Italy. During the next few years he learnt the art of war in
defending the Croatian frontier against the Turks, and approved
himself one of the first captains of the age. In 1645 ne acted
against the Swedes in Moravia, equipping an army corps at
his own expense. At Szkalec he scattered a Swedish division
and took 2000 prisoners. At Eger he saved the emperor, who
had been surprised at night in his camp by Wrangel. Subse-
quently he routed the army of Rik6czy on the Upper Theiss.
For his services the emperor appointed him captain of Croatia.
On his return from the war he married the wealthy Eusebia
Draskovics. In 1646 he distinguished himself in the Turkish
war. At the coronation of Ferdinand IV. he carried the sword
of state, and was made ban and captain-general of Croatia.
In this double capacity he presided over many Croatian diets,
always strenuously defending the political rights of the Croats
1046
ZSCHOKKE ZUCCARELLI
and steadfastly maintaining that as regarded Hungary they were
to be looked upon not as paries annexae but as a regnum. During
1652-53 he was continually fighting against the Turks, yet from
his castle at Csaktornya he was in constant communication
with the learned world; the Dutch scholar, Jacobus Tollius,
even visited him, and has left in his Epistolae itinerariae a lively
account of his experiences. Tellius was amazed at the linguistic
resources of Zrinyi, who spoke German, Croatian, Hungarian,
Turkish and Latin with equal facility. Zrinyi's Latin letters
(from which we learn that he was married a second time, to
Sophia Lobel) are fluent'and agreeable, but largely interspersed
with Croatian and Magyar expressions. The last year of his
life was also its most glorious one. He set out to destroy the
strongly fortified Turkish bridge at Esseg, and thus cut off the
retreat of the Turkish army, re-capturing all the strong fortresses
on his way. He destroyed the bridge, but the further pur-
suance of the campaign was frustrated by the refusal of the
imperial generals to co-operate. Still the expedition had covered
him with glory. All Europe rang with his praises. It was
said that only the Zrinyis had the secret of conquering the Turks.
The emperor offered him the title of prince. The pope struck
a commemorative medal with the effigy of Zrinyi as a field-
marshal. The Spanish king sent him the Golden Fleece. The
French king created him a peer of France. The Turks, to wipe
out the disgrace of the Esseg affair, now laid siege to Uj-Zerin,
a fortress which Zrinyi had built, and the imperial troops under
Montecuculi looked on while he hastened to relieve it, refusing
all assistance, with the result that the fortress fell. It was
also by the advice of Montecuculi that the disgraceful peace
of Vasvar was concluded. Zrinyi hastened to Vienna to protest
against it, but in vain. Zrinyi quitted Vienna in disgust, after
assuring the Venetian minister, Sagridino, that he was willing
at any moment to assist the Republic against the Turks with
6000 men. He then returned to Csaktornya, and there, on
the iSth of November, was killed by a wild boar which he had
twice wounded and recklessly pursued to its lair in the forest
swamps, armed only with his hunting-knife.
His poetical works first appeared at Vienna in 1651, under
the title of The Siren of the Adriatic (Hung.) ; but his principal
work, Obsidio Szigetiana, the epopoeia of the glorious self-
sacrifice of his heroic ancestor of the same name, only appeared
in fragments in Magyar literature till Arany took it in hand. It
was evidently written under the influence of both Virgil and
Tasso, though the author had no time to polish and correct
its rough and occasionally somewhat wooden versification.
But the fundamental idea the duty of Hungarian valour to
shake off the Turkish yoke, with the help of God is sublime,
and the whole work is intense with martial and religious en-
thusiasm. It is no unworthy companion of the other epics
of the Renaissance period, and had many imitators. Arany
first, in 1848, began to recast the Zrinyiad, as he called it, on
modern lines, and the work was completed by Antal Vek6ny
in 1892.
See J. Arany and Kazmir Greksa, Zrinyi and Tasso (Hung.),
Eger, 1892; Karoly Szechy," Life of Count Nicholas Zrinyi, the
poet (Hung.), Budapest, 1896; Sandor Korosi, Zrinyi and Macchia-
velli (Hung.), Budapest, 1893. (R. N. B.)
ZSCHOKKE, JOHANN HEINRICH DANIEL (1771-1848),
German author, was born at Magdeburg on the 22nd of March
1771. He was educated at the monasterial (kloster) school and
at the Altstadter gymnasium of his native place. He spent
some time as playwright with a company of strolling actors, but
afterwards studied philosophy, theology and history at the
university of Frankfort -on-the-Oder, where in 1792 he established
himself as Privatdozent. He created much sensation by an
extravagant novel, Aballino, der grosse Bandit (1793; subse-
quently also dramatized) , modelled on Schiller's Rauber, and the
melodramatic tragedy, Julius von Sassen (1796). The Prussian
government having declined to make him a full professor,
Zschokke in 1796 settled in Switzerland, where he conducted
an educational institution in the castle of Reichenau. The
authorities of the Grisons admitted him to the rights of a
citizen, and in 1798 he published his Geschichte des Freistaals der
drei Biinde im hohen Ratten. The political disturbances of this
year compelled him to close his institution. He was, however,
sent as a deputy to Aarau, where he was made president of the
educational department, and afterwards as government com-
missioner to Unterwalden, his authority being ultimately
extended over the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Zug. Zschokke
distinguished himself by the vigour of his administration and
by the enthusiasm with which he devoted himself to the interests
of the poorer classes of the community. In 1800 he reorganized
the institutions of the Italian cantons and was appointed
lieutenant-governor of the canton of Basel. Zschokke retired
from public life when the central government at Bern proposed
to re-establish the federal system, but after the changes effected
by Bonaparte he entered the service of the canton of Aargau,
with which he remained connected. In 1801 he attracted
attention by his Geschichte' iiom Kampfe und Untergange der
schweizerischen Berg- und Wald-Kantone. Through his Schieei-
zerbote, the publication of which began in 1804, he exercised a
wholesome influence on public affairs; and the like may be
said of his M iscellen fur die neueste Weltkunde, issued from 1807
to 1813. In 1811 he also started a monthly periodical, the
Erheiterungen. He wrote various historical works, the most
important of which is Des Sckweizerlandes Geschichte fiir das
Schweizeniolk (1822, 8th ed. 1849). Zschokke's tales, on which
his literary reputation rests, are collected in several series,
Bilder aus der Schweiz (5 vols., 1824-25), Ausgewahlte Novellen
und Dichtungen (16 vols., 1838-39). The best known are:
Addrich im Moos (1794); Der Freihof von Aarau (1794);
Alamontade (1802); Der Creole (1830); Das Goldmacherdorj
(1817); and Meister Jordan (1845). In Stunden der Andacht
(1809-1816; 27 editions in Zschokke's lifetime), which was
widely read, he expounded in a rationalistic spirit the funda-
mental principles of religion and morality. Eine Selbstschau
(1842) is a kind of autobiography. Zschokke was not a great
original writer, but he secured an eminent place in the literature
of his time by his enthusiasm for modern ideas in politics and
religion, by the sound, practical judgment displayed in his works,
and by the energy and lucidity of his style. He died at bis
country house of Blumenhalde on the Aar on the 27th of June
1848.
An edition of Zschokke's selected works, in forty volumes, was
issued in 182428. In 185154 an edition in thirty-five volumes
was published. A new edition of the Novellen was published by
A. vogtlin in twelve volumes (1904). There are biographies of
Zschokke by E. Munch (1831); Emil Zschokke (3rd ed. 1876);
R. Sauerlander (Aarau, 1884); and R. Wernly (Aarau, 1894).
See also M. Schneiderreit, Zschokke, seine Weltanschauung und
Lebensweisheit (1904).
ZSCHOPAU, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left
bank of the Zschopau, 18 m. S.E. from Chemnitz by the railway
to Annaberg. Pop. (1900) 6748. It contains a handsome
parish church dedicated to St Martin, a town hall and a castle
(Wildeck), built by the Emperor Henry I. in 932. The indus-
tries include ironfounding, cotton and thread-spinning, cloth-
weaving and furniture making.
ZUCCARELLI, FRANCESCO (1702-1788), Italian painter,
was born at Pitigliano in Tuscany, and studied in Rome under
Onesi. Morandi, and Nelli. At Rome, and later in Venice, he
became famous as one of the best landscape painters of the
classicizing i8th century. Having visited England on a previous
occasion, he was induced by some patrons to return thither
in 1752, remaining until 1773, when he settled in Florence,
dying there in 1788. Zuccarelli, who was one of the foundation
members of the Royal Academy, enjoyed the patronage of
royalty and of many wealthy English collectors, for whom he
executed his principal works generally landscapes with classic
ruins and small figures. A large number of them are at Windsor
Castle, and of the seven examples which formed part of the
John Samuel collection two are now at the National Gallery.
The royal palace in Venice contains as many as twenty-one,
and the academy four. Others are at the Vienna Gallery and
at the Louvre in Paris. His work was very unequal, but at his
ZUCCARO ZUG
1047
best he rivals the leading landscape painters of his time. His
paintings often bear a mark representing a pumpkin, a pictorial
representation of his name, which signifies " little pumpkin."
ZUCCARO, or ZUCCHERO,' the name of two Italian painters.
I. TADDEO ZUCCARO (1520-1566), one of the most popular
painters of the so-called Roman mannerist school, was the son
of Ottaviano Zuccaro, an almost unknown painter at St Angelo
in Vado, where he was born in 1529. Taddeo found his way to
Rome, and he succeeded at an early age in gaining a knowledge
of painting and in finding patrons to employ him. When he
was seventeen a pupil of Correggio, named Daniele da Parma,
engaged him to assist in painting a series of frescoes in a chapel
at Vitto near Sora, on the borders of the Abruzzi. Taddeo re-
turned to Rome in 1 548, and began his career as a fresco painter,
by executing a series of scenes in monochrome from the life of
Furius Camillus on the front of the palace of a wealthy Roman
named Jacopo Mattel. From that time his success was assured,
and he was largely employed by the popes Julius III. and Paul
IV., by Delia Rovere, duke of Urbino, and by other rich patrons.
His best frescoes were a historical series painted on the walls of
a new palace at Caprarola, built for Cardinal Alessandro Farnese,
for which Taddeo also designed a great quantity of rich decora-
tions in stucco relief after the style of Giulio Romano and other
pupils of Raphael. Nearly all his paintings were in fresco, very
large in scale, and often in chiaroscuro or monochrome; they
were more remarkable for rapidity of execution and a certain
boldness of style than for any higher qualities. His work is
mannered in style, artificial and pompous in conception, and
lacks any close or accurate knowledge of the human form and
its movements. He died in Rome in 1566, and was buried in the
Pantheon, not far from Raphael.
Taddeo's easel pictures are less common than his decorative
frescoes. A small painting on copper of the Adoration of the
Shepherds, formerly in the collection of James II., is now at
Hampton Court; it is a work of very small merit. The Capra-
rola frescoes were engraved and published by Prenner, Illustri
Fatti Farnesiani Colonti nel Real Palazzo di Caprarola (Rome,
1748-50).
II. FEDERIGO ZUCCARO (1543-1609) was in 1550 placed under
his brother Taddeo's charge in Rome, and worked as his assist-
ant; he completed the Caprarola frescoes. Federigo attained
an eminence far beyond his very limited merits as a painter,
and was perhaps the most popular artist of his generation.
Probably no other painter has ever produced so many enormous
frescoes crowded with figures on the most colossal scale, all
executed under the unfortunate delusion that grandeur of
effect could be attained merely by great size combined with
extravagance of attitude and exaggeration of every kind.
Federigo's first work of this sort was the completion of the
painting of the dome of the cathedral at Florence; the work
had been begun by the art-historian Vasari, who wrote in the
most generous language about his more successful rival. Re-
gardless of the injury to the apparent scale of the interior of the
church, Federigo painted about 300 figures, each nearly 50 ft.
high, sprawling with violent contortions all over the surface.
Happily age has so dimmed these pictures that their presence
is now almost harmless. Federigo was recalled to Rome by
Gregory XIII. to continue in the Pauline chapel of the Vatican
the scheme of decoration begun by Michelangelo during his
failing years, but a quarrel between the painter and members of
the papal court led to his departure from Italy. He visited
Brussels, and there made a series of cartoons for the tapestry-
weavers. In 1574 he passed over to England, where he received
commissions to paint the portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Mary,
queen of Scots, Sir Nicholas Bacon, Sir Francis Walsingham,
Lord High Admiral Howard, and others. A curious full-length
portrait of Elizabeth in fancy dress, now at Hampton Court,
is attributed to this painter, though very doubtfully. Another
picture in the same collection appears to be a replica of his
painting of the " Allegory of Calumny," as suggested by Lucian's
description of a celebrated work by Apelles; the satire in the
1 So spelt by Vasari.
original painting, directed against some of his courtier enemies,
was the immediate cause of Federigo's temporary exile from
Rome. His success as a painter of portraits and other works
in oil was more reasonable than the admiration expressed for
his colossal frescoes. A portrait of a " Man with Two Dogs,"
in the Pitti Palace at Florence, is a work of some real merit,
as is also the " Dead Christ and Angels " in the Borghese Gallery
in Rome. Federigo was soon recalled to Rome to finish his work
on the vault of the Pauline chapel. In 1585 he accepted an
offer by Philip II. of Spain to decorate the new Escorial at
a yearly salary of 2000 crowns, and worked at the Escorial
from January 1586 to the end of 1588, when he returned to
Rome. He there founded in 1595, under a charter confirmed
by Sixtus V., the Academy of St Luke, of which he was the first
president. Its organization suggested to Sir Joshua Reynolds his
scheme for founding the English Royal Academy.
Like his contemporary Giorgio Vasari, Federigo aimed at
being an art critic and historian, but with very different success.
His chief book, L'Idea de' Pittori, Scultori, ed Architctti (Turin.
1607), is a senseless mass of the most turgid bombast. Little
can be said in praise of his smaller works, consisting of two
volumes printed at Bologna in 1608, describing his visit to Parma
and a journey through central Italy. Federigo was raised to
the rank of a cavalier e not long before his death, which took
place at Ancona in 1609.
For both Taddeo and Federigo Zuccaro, see Vasari, pt. Hi., and
Lanzi, Storia Pitlorica, Roman School, epoch iii. (J. H. M.)
ZUG (Fr. Zoug), a canton of central Switzerland. It is the
smallest undivided cantcn, both as regards area and as regards
population. Its total area is but 92-3 sq. m., of which, however,
no fewer than 75-1 sq. m. are reckoned as " productive," forests
covering 19-9 sq. m. Of the rest 10 sq. m. are occupied by the
cantonal share of the lake of Zug (?..), and 2\ sq. m. by the
lake of Aegeri, which is wholly within the canton.
It includes the fertile strips on the eastern and western shores
of the lower portion of the lake of Zug, together with the alluvial
plain at its northern extremity. The lower range, culminating
in the Zugerberg (3255 ft.), and the Wildspitz (5194 ft.), the highest
summit of the Rossberg, that rises east of the lake of Zug, separates
it from the basin and lake of Aegeri, as well as from the hilly district
of Menzingen. The Lorze issues from the lake of Aegeri, forces its
way through moraine deposits in a deep gorge with fine stalactite
caverns and falls into the lake of Zug, issuing from it very soon to
flow into the Reuss. The canton thus belongs to the hilly, not to
the mountainous, Swiss cantons, but as it commands the entrance
to the higher ground it has a certain strategical position. Railways
connect it both with Lucerne and with Zurich, while lines running
along either shore of the lake of Zug join at the Arth-Goldau station
of the St Gotthard railway. On the eastern shore 01 the lake
of Aegeri, and within the territory of the canton, is the true site of
the famous battle of Morgarten (q.v.) won by the Swiss in 1315.
Till 1814 Zug was in the diocese of Constance, but on the recon-
struction of the diocese of Basel in 1828 it was assigned to it. In
1900 the population of the canton was 25,093, of whom 24,042 were
German-speaking, 819 Italian-speaking, and 157 French-speaking,
while 23,362 were Romanists, 1701 Protestants, and 19 Jews. Its
capital is Zug, while the manufacturing village of Baar, 2 m. N.,
had 4484 inhabitants, and the village of Cham, 3 m. N.W., had
3025 inhabitants. In both cases the environs of the villages are
included, and this is even more the case with the wide-spreading
parishes of Unter Aegeri with 2593 inhabitants, of Menzingen with
2495 inhabitants, and the great school for girls and female teachers,
founded in 1844 by Father Theodosius Florentini, and of Ober
Aegeri with 1891 inhabitants.
In the higher regions of the canton the population is mainly
engaged in pastoral pursuits and cattle-breeding. There are 61
" alps," or high pastures, in the canton. At Cham is a well-known
factory of condensed milk, now united with that of Nestl6 of
Vevey. At Baar there are extensive cotton-spinning mills and
other factories. Round the town of Zug there are great numbers
of fruit trees, and " Kirschwasser " (cherry-water) and cider are
largely manufactured. Apiculture too flourishes greatly. A num-
ber of factories have sprung up in the new quarter of the town,
but the silk-weaving industry has all but disappeared. The canton
forms a single administrative district, which comprises eleven
communes. The legislature, or Kantensrat, has one member to
every 350 inhabitants, and the seven members of the executive, or
Rrgifrur.gsrai, are elected directly by popular vote, proportional
representation obtaining in both cases if more than two members
are to be elected in the same electoral district to posts in the same
1048
ZUG ZUHAIR
authority. The term of office in both cases is four years. Besides
the " facultative Referendum " by which, in case of a demand by
one-third of the members of the legislative assembly, or by 800
citizens, any law, and any resolution involving a capital expenditure
of 40,000, or an annual one of 10,000 francs, must be submitted
to a direct popular vote, and the " initiative " at the demand of
1000 citizens in case of amendments to the cantonal constitution;
there is also an " initiative " in case of bills, to be exercised at the
demand of 800 citizens. The two members of the Federal Stdnderat,
as well as the one member of the Federal Nationalrat, are also
elected by a popular vote.
The earlier history of the canton is practically identical with
that of its capital Zug (see below). From 1728 to 1738 it was
distracted by violent disputes about the distribution of the
French pensions. In 1798 its inhabitants opposed the French,
and the canton formed part of the Tellgau, and later of one
of the districts of the huge canton of the Waldstatten in the
Helvetic republic. In 1803 it regained its independence as a
separate canton, and by the constitution of 1814 the " Landsge-
meinde," or assembly of all the citizens, which had existed for
both districts since 1376, became a body of electors to choose
a cantonal council. The reform movement of 1850 did not
affect the canton, which in 1845 was a member of the Sonderbund
and shared in the war of 1847. In 1848 the remaining functions
of the Landsgemeinde were abolished. Both in 1848 and in
1874 the canton voted against the acceptance of the federal
constitutions. The constitution of 1873-76 was amended in
1881, and was replaced by a new one in 1894.
AUTHORITIES. J. J. Blumer, Stoats- und Rechtsgeschichte der
schweiz. Demokratien, 3 vols. (St. Gall, 1850-9); Geschichtsfreund,
from 1843; A. Lutolf, Sagen, Brduche, Legenden aus den funf Orten
(Lucerne, 1862) ; Achille Renaud, Stoats- und Rechtsgeschichte d.
Kant. Zug (Pforzheim, 1847); H. Ryffel, Die schweiz. Landsge-
meinden (Zurich, 1903); F. K. Stadlin, Die Topographic d. Kant.
Zug, 4 parts (Lucerne, 1819-24); B. Staub, Der Kant. Zug, 2nd ed.
(Zug, 1869); A. Struby, Die Alp- und Weidewirthschaft im Kant.
Zue (Soleure, 1901); and the Zugerisches Neujahrsblatt (Zug from
1882). (W. A. B. C.)
ZUG, capital of the Swiss canton of that name, a picturesque
little town at the N.E. corner of the lake of Zug, and at the
foot of the Zugerberg (3255 ft.), which rises gradually, its lower
slopes thickly covered with fruit trees. Pop. (1900) 6508,
mainly German-speaking and Romanists. The lake shore has
been embanked and forms a promenade, whence glorious views
of the snowy peaks of the Bernese Oberland, as well as of the
Rigi and Pilatus, are gained. Towards its northerly end a
monument marks the spot where a part of the shore slipped
into the lake in 1887. The older part of the town is rather
crowded together, though only four of the wall towers and a
small part of the town walls still survive. The most striking
old building in the town is the parish church of St Oswald (late
iSth century), dedicated to St Oswald, king of Northumbria
(d. 642), one of whose arms was brought to Zug in 1485. The
town hall, also a i sth-century building, now houses the Historical
and Antiquarian Museum. There are some quaint old painted
houses close by. A little way higher up the hill-side is a Capuchin
convent in a striking position, close to the town wall and leaning
against it. Still higher, and outside the old town, is the fine new
parish church of St Michael, consecrated in 1902. The business
quarter is on the rising ground north of the old town, near the
railway station. Several fine modern buildings rise on or close
to the shore in the town and to its south, whilst to the south-
west is a convent of Capuchin nuns, who manage a large girls'
school, and several other educational establishments.
The town, first mentioned in 1240, is called an " oppidum "
in 1242, and a " castrum " in 1255. In 1273 it was bought by
Rudolph of Habsburg from Anna, the heiress of Kyburg and
wife of Eberhard, head of the cadet line of Habsburg, and in
1278 part of its territory, the valley of Aegeri, was pledged by
Rudolph as security for a portion of the marriage gift he pro-
mised to Joanna, daughter of Edward I. of England, who was
betrothed to his son Hartmann, whose death in 1 281 prevented
the marriage from taking place. The town of Zug was governed
by a bailiff, appointed by the Habsburgs, and a council, and
was much favoured by that family. Several country districts
(Baar, Menzingen, and Aegeri) had each its own " Landsge-
meinde " but were governed by one bailiff, also appointed by the
Habsburgs; these were known as the " Aeusser Amt," and were
always favourably disposed to the Confederates. On the 27th
of June 1352 both the town of Zug and the Aeusser Amt entered
the Swiss Confederation, the latter being received on exactly
the same terms as the town, and not, as was usual in the case of
country districts, as a subject land; but in September 1352
Zug had to acknowledge its own lords again, and in 1355 to
break off its connexion with the league. About 1364 the town
and the Aeusser Amt were recovered for the league by the men
of Schwyz, and from this time Zug took part as a full member
in all the acts of the league. In 1379 the German king Wences-
laus exempted Zug from all external jurisdictions, and in 1389
the Habsburgs renounced their claims, reserving only an annual
payment of twenty silver marks, and this came to an end in
1415. In 1400 Wenceslaus gave all criminal jurisdiction to the
town only. The Aeusser Amt then, in 1404, claimed that the
banner and seal of Zug should be kept in one of the country
districts, and were supported in this claim by Schwyz. The
matter was finally settled in 1414 by arbitration and the banner
was to be kept in the town. Finally in 1415 the right of electing
their " landammann " was given to Zug by the Confederates,
and a share in the criminal jurisdiction was granted to the
Aeusser Amt by the German king Sigismund. In 1385 Zug
joined the league of the Swabian cities against Leopold of
Habsburg and shared in the victory of Sempach, as well as in
the various Argovian (1415) and Thurgovian (1460) conquests
of the Confederates, and later in those in Italy (1512), having
already taken part in the occupation of the Val d'Ossola. Be-
tween 1379 (Walchwil) and 1477 (Cham) Zug had acquired
various districts in her own neighbourhood, principally to the
north and the west, which were ruled till 1798 by the town
alone as subject lands. At the time of the Reformation Zug
clung to the old faith and was a member of the " Christliche
Vereinigung " of 1529. In 1586 it became a member of the
Golden League. (W. A. B. C.)
ZUG, LAKE OF, one of the minor Swiss lakes, on the out-
skirts of the Alps and N. of that of Lucerne. Probably at some
former date it was connected by means of the Lake of Lowerz
and the plain of Brunnen with the Lake of Lucerne. At present
it is formed by the Aa, which descends from the Rigi and enters
the southern extremity of the lake. The Lorze pours its waters
into the lake at its northern extremity, but ij m. further W.
issues from the lake to pursue its course towards the Reuss.
The Lake of Zug has an area of about 15 sq. m., is about 9 m.
in length, 2$ m. in breadth, and has a maximum depth of 650 ft.,
while its surface is 1368 ft. above sea-level. For the most part
the lake is in the Canton of Zug, but the southern end is, to the
extent of 3$ sq. m., in that of Schwyz, while the Canton of
Lucerne claims about J sq. m., to the N. of Immensee. Toward
the S.W. extremity of the lake the Rigi descends rather steeply
to the water's edge, while part of its east shore forms a narrow
level band at the foot of the Rossberg (5194 ft.) and the Zugerberg.
At its northern end the shores are nearly level, while on the west
shore the wooded promontory of Buonas (with its castles, old
and new) projects picturesquely into the waters. The principal
place on the lake is the town of Zug, whence a railway (formerly
part of the St Gotthard main route) runs along its eastern
shore past Walchwil to Arth at its south end, which is con-
nected by a steam tramway with the Arth-Goldau station of the
St Gotthard line. This line runs from Arth along the western
shore to Immensee, where it bears S.W. to Lucerne, while from
Immensee another railway leads (at first some way from the
shore) to Cham, 3 m. W. of Zug. The first steamer was placed
on the lake in 1852. Many fish (including pike and carp of
considerable weights) are taken in the lake, which is especially
famous by reason of a peculiar kind of treut (Salmo salvelinus,
locally called Rotheli). (W. A. B. C.)
ZUHAIR [Zuhair ibn Abt Sulma Rabi' a ul-Muzani] (6th
century), one of the six great Arabian pre-Islamic poets. Of
his life practically nothing is known save that he belonged to
ZUIDER ZEE ZULOAGA
1049
a family of poetic power; his stepfather, Aus ibn Hajar, his
sister, Khansa, and his son, Ka'b ibn Zuhair, were all poets of
eminence. He is said to have lived long, and at the age of
one hundred to have met Mahomet. His home was in the land
of the BanI Ghatafan. His poems are characterized by their
peaceful nature and a sententious moralizing. One of them
is contained in the Moallakdl.
As a whole his poems have been published by W. Ahlwardt in his
The Diwans of the six Ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870); and
with the commentary of al-A'lam (died 1083) by Count Landberg
in the second part of his Primeurs arabes (Leiden, 1889). Some
supplementary poems are contained in K. Dyroff's Zur Geschichte
der Oberlieferung des Zuhairdiwans (Munich, 1892). (G. W. T.)
ZUIDER ZEE, or ZUYDER ZEE, a land-locked inlet on the
coast of Holland, bounded N. by the chain of the Frisian Islands,
and W., S., and E. by the provinces of North Holland, Utrecht,
Gelderland, Overysel, and Friesland. It is about 85 m. long
N. to S., and from 10 to 45 m. broad, with an area of 2027 sq.
m., and contains the islands of Marken, Schokland, Urk, Wierin-
gen, and Griend. In the early centuries of the Christian era the
Zuider (i.e. Southern) Zee was a small inland lake situated in
the southern part of the present gulf, and called Flevo by
Tacitus, Pliny, and other early writers. It was separated from
the sea by a belt of marsh and fen uniting Friesland and North
Holland, the original coast-line being still indicated by the line
of the Frisian Islands. Numerous streams, including the
Vecht, Eem, and Ysel, discharged their waters into this lake
and issued thence as the Vh'e (Latin Flews), which reached the
North Sea by the Vliegat between the islands of Vlieland and
Terschelling. In the Lex Frisonum the Vlie (Fli, or Flehi) is
accepted as the boundary between the territory of the East and
West Frisians. In time, however, and especially during the
1 2th century, high tides and north-west storms swept away the
western banks of the Vlie and submerged great tracts of land.
In 1170 the land between Stavoren, Texel, and Medemblik was
washed away, and a century later the Zuider Zee was formed.
The open waterway between Stavoren and Enkhuizen, however,
as it now exists, dates from 1400. In the south and east the
destruction was arrested by the high sandy shores of Gooi,
Veluwe, Voorst, and Gasterland in the provinces of Utrecht,
Gelderland, Overysel, and Friesland respectively.
The mean depth of the Zuider Zee is 11-48 ft.; depth in the
southern basin of the former lake, 19 ft.; at Val van Urk (deep
water to the west of the island of Urk), 14! ft. If a line be drawn
from the island of Urk to Marken, and thence westwards to Hoorn
(North Holland) and N.N.E. to Lemmer (Friesland), these lines
will connect parts of the Zuider Zee having a uniform depth
of 8 ft. The other parts on the coast are only 3 ft. deep or less.
This shallowness of its waters served to protect the Zuider Zee
from the invasion of large ships of war. It also explains how many
once flourishing commercial towns, such as Stavoren, Medemblik,
Enkhuizen, Hoorn, Monnikendam, declined to the rank of provincial
trading and fishing ports. The fisheries of the Zuider Zee are of
considerable importance. Eighty per cent, of the bottom consists
of sea clay and the more recent silt of the Ysel; 20 per cent, of
sand, partly in the north about Urk and Enkhuizen, partly in the
south along the high shores of Gooi, Veluwe, &c. The shallowness
of the sea and the character of its bottom, promising fertile soil,
occasioned various projects of drainage. The scheme recommended
by the Zuider Zee Vereeniging (1886) formed the subject of a report
in 1894 by a state commission. The principal feature in the
scheme was the building of a dike from the island of Wieringen to
the coast of Friesland. The area south of this would be divided
into four polders, with reservation, however, of a lake, Yselmeer, in
the centre, whence branches would run to Yse! and the Zwolsche
Diep, to Amsterdam, and, by sluices near Wieringen, to the northern
part of the sea. The four polders with their areas of fertile soil
would be:
(1) North-west polder, area 53,599 acres; fertile soil, 46,189 acres.
(2) South-west 77.854 68,715
(3) South-east ,, 266,167 222,275
(4) North-east 125,599 120,783
The Lake Yselmeer would have an area of 560 sq. m. The gain
would be the addition to the kingdom of a new and fertile pro-
vince of the area of North Brabant, a-saving of expenses on dikes,
diminution of inundations, improvement of communication between
the south and the north of the kingdom, protection of isles of the
sea, &c. The costs were calculated as follows: (i) enclosing dike,
sluices, and regulation of Zwolsche Diep, 1,760,000; (2) reclama-
tion of four polders, 5,200,000; (3) defensive works, 400,000;
(4) indemnity to fishermen, 180,000; total, 7,540,000.
In 1901 the government introduced a bill in the States General,
based on the recommendations of the commission, providing for
enclosing the Zuider Zee by building a dike from the North Holland
coast, through the Amsteldiep to Wieringen and [from that island
to the Friesland coast at Piaam; and further providing for the
draining of two portions of the enclosed area, namely the N.W.
and the S.W. polders shown in the table. The entire work was
to be completed in 18 years at an estimated cost of 7,916,000.
The bill failed to become law and in consequence of financial diffi-
culties the project had not, up to 1910, advanced beyond the stage
of consideration.
With the exception of Griend and Schokland, the islands of the
Zuider Zee are inhabited by small fishing communities, who retain
some archaic customs and a picturesque dress. Urk is already
mentioned as an island in 966. The inhabitants of Schokland were
compelled to leave the island by order of the state in 1859, it being
considered insecure from inundation. The island of Griend (or
Grind) once boasted a walled town, which was destroyed by flood
at the end of the i.3th century. But the island continued for some
centuries to serve as a pasturage for cattle, giving its name to a
well-known description of cheese. Like some of the other islands,
sheep are still brought to graze upon it in summer, and a large
number of birds' eggs are collected upon it in spring. Several
of the islands were once the property of religious houses on the
mainland.
The British Foreign Office report, Draining of the Zuiderzee (1901),
gives full particulars of the Dutch government's scheme and a
retrospect of all former proposals. See also De economised beteekens
van de af slutting en drooglegging der Zuiderzee vom Zuiderzee- Verein
(2nd ed., 1901), and D. Bellet, " Le desschement du Zuiderzee,"
Rev. Geog. (1902) and W. J. Tuyn, Oude Hottandsche Dorpen aan
de Zuiderzee (Haarlem, 1900).
ZULA, a small town near the head of Annesley Bay on the
African coast of the Red Sea. It derives its chief interest from
ruins in its vicinity which are generally supposed to mark the
site of the ancient emporium of Adulis ("A&wXij, 'ASovXti), the
port of Axum (q.v.) and chief outlet in the early centuries of
the Christian era for the ivory, hides, slaves and other exports
of the interior. Cosmas Indicopleustes saw here an inscription
of Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 B.C.); and hence, as the earliest
mention of Adulis is found in the geographers of the first century
A.D., it is conjectured that the town must have previously
existed under another name and may have been the Berenice
Panchrysus of the Ptolemies. Described by a Greek merchant
of the time of Vespasian as " a well-arranged market," the place
has been for centuries buried under sand. The ruins visible
include a temple, obelisks and numerous fragments of columns.
In 1857 an agreement was entered into by Dejaj Negusye, a
chief of Tigre, in revolt against the Negus Theodore of Abyssinia,
to cede Zula to the French. Negusye was defeated by Theodore,
and the commander of a French cruiser sent to Annesley Bay
in 1859 found the country in a state of anarchy. No farther steps
were taken by France to assert its sovereignty, and Zula with the
neighbouring coast passed, nominally, to Egypt in 1866. Zula
was the place where the British expedition of 1867-68 against
Theodore disembarked, Annesley Bay affording safe and ample
anchorage for the largest ocean-going vessels. The road made
by the British from Zula to Senafe on the Abyssinian plateau is
still in use. The authority of Egypt having lapsed, an Italian
protectorate over the district of Zula was proclaimed in 1888, and
in 1890 it was incorporated in the colony of Eritrea (q.v.).
See Eduard Riippell, Reise in Abyssinien, i. 266 (1838) ; G. Rohlfs
in Zeitschr. d. Gesett. f. Erdkunde in Berlin, iii. (1868), and, for
further references, the editions of the Periplus by C. Muller (Geog.
Gr. Min., i. 259) and Fabricius (1883). Consult also ETHIOPIA:
The Axumite Kingdom.
ZULOAGA, IGNACIO (1870- ), Spanish painter, was
born at Eibar, in the Basque country, the son of the metal-
worker and damascener Placido Zuloaga, and grandson of the
organizer and director of the royal armoury in Madrid. The
career chosen for him by his father was that of an architect,
and with this object in view he was sent to Rome, where he
immediately followed the strong impulse that led him to paint-
ing. After only six months' work he completed his first picture,
which was exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1800. Continuing
his studies in Paris, he was strongly influenced by Gauguin and
Toulouse Lautrec. Only on his return to his native soil he
found his true style, which is based en the national Spanish
1050
ZULULAND
tradition embodied in the work of Velazquez, Zurbaran, El
Greco, and Goya. His own country was slow in acknowledging
the young artist whose strong, decorative, rugged style was the
very negation of the aims of such well-known modern Spanish
artists as Fortuny, Madrazo, and Benlliure. It was first in
Paris, and then in Brussels and other continental art centres,
that Zuloaga was hailed by the reformers as the regenerator of
Spanish national art and as the leader of a school. He is now
represented in almost every great continental gallery. Two
of his canvases are at the Luxembourg, one at the Brussels
Museum ("Avant la Corrida"), and one ("The Poet Don
Miguel") at the Vienna Gallery. The Pau Museum owns an
interesting portrait of a lady, the Barcelona Municipal Museum
the important group " Amies," the Venice Gallery, " Madame
Louise"; the Berlin Gallery, "The Topers." Other examples
are in the Budapest, Stuttgart, Ghent and Posen galleries
and in many important private collections.
A fully illustrated account of the artist and his work, by M. Utrillo,
was published in a special number of Forma (Barcelona^ 1907).
ZULULAND. a country of south-east Africa, forming the
N.E. part of the province of Natal in the Union of South Africa.
The " Province of Zululand," as it was officially styled from
1898 to 1910, lies between 26 50' and 29 15' S. and 30 40'
and 33 E., and has an area of 10,450 sq. m. It includes in the
north the country of the Ama Tonga, Zaambanland, and other
small territories not part of the former Zulu kingdom and
stretches north from the lower Tugela to the southern frontier
of Portuguese East Africa. Bounded S.E. by the Indian Ocean
it has a coast line of 210 m. North and north-west it is bounded
by the Utrecht and Vryheid districts of Natal and by Swaziland.
Its greatest length in a direct line is 185 m., its greatest breadth
105 m. (For map see SOUTH AFRICA.)
Physical Features. Zululand is part of the region of hills and
plateaus which descend seaward from the Drakensberg the great
mountain chain which buttresses the vast tableland of inner South
Africa. The coast, which curves to the N.E., is marked by a line
of sandhills covered with thick bush and rising in places to a height
of 500 ft. There are occasional outcrops of rock and low per-
pendicular cliffs. Behind the sandhills is a low-lying plain in
which are a number of shallow lagoons. Of these St Lucia Lake
and Kosi Lake are of considerable size and communicate with the
sea by estuaries. St Lucia, the larger of the two, is some 35 m.
long by 10 m. broad with a depth of 9 to 10 ft. It runs parallel to
the ocean, from which it is separated by sandhills. The opening
to the sea, St Lucia river, is at the south end. Kosi Lake lies
further north, in Tongaland. It is not more than half the size
of St Lucia and its opening to the sea is northward. Between
Kosi and St Lucia lakes lies Lake Sibayi, close to the coast but
not communicating with the sea. The coast plain extends inland
from 5 to 30 m., increasing in width northward, the whole of Tonga-
land being low lying. The rest of the country is occupied by ranges
of hills and plateaus 2000 to 4000 ft. above sea level. Behind
Eshowe, in the south, -are the Entumeni Hills (3000 ft.), beyond
which stretch the Nkandhla. uplands (rising to 4500 ft.) densely
wooded in parts and abounding in flat-topped hills with precipitous
sides. Westward of the uplands are the Kyudeni Hills (5000 ft.),
also densely wooded, situated near the junction of the Buffalo
and Tugela rivers. Further north, along the S.W. frontier, are
Isandhlwana and the Nqutu hills. To the N.W. the Lebombo
Mts. (1800 to 2000 ft.), which separate the coast plains from the
interior, mark the frontier between Swaziland and Zululand. On
their eastern (Zululand) side the slope of the Lebombo mountains
is gentle, but on the west they fall abruptly to the plain.
The geological structure of the country is comparatively simple,
consisting in the main of plateaus formed of sedimentary rocks,
resting on a platform of granitic and metamorphic rocks (see
NATAL: Geology).
The country is well watered. Rising in the high tablelands or
on the slopes of the Drakensberg or Lebombo mountains the rivers
in their upper courses have a great slope and a high velocity. In
the coast plains they become deep and sluggish. Their mouths
are blocked by sand bars, which in the dry season check their
flow and produce the lagoons and marshes which characterize the
coast. After the rains the rivers usually clear the bars for a time.
The following are the chief rivers in part or in whole traversing
the country: The Pongola, in its lower course, flows through
Tongaland, piercing the Lebombo Mts. through a deep, narrow
gorge with precipitous sides.. Its point of confluence with the
Maputa (which empties into Delagoa Bay) marks the parallel along
which the frontier between Zululand and Portuguese East Africa
is drawn. The Umgavuma which rises in Swaziland and also
pierces the Lebombo, joins the Pongola about ten miles above
its confluence with the Maputa. The Umkuzi which rises in the
Vryheid district of Natal forces its way through the Lebombo
Mts. at their southern end and flows into the northern end of
St Lucia Lake. The Umfolosi, with two main branches, the Black
and White Umfolosi, drains the central part of the country and
reaches the ocean at St Lucia Bay. In the bed of the White
Umfolosi are dangerous quicksands. Farther south the Umhla-
tuzi empties into a lagoon which communicates with the ocean
by Richards Bay. For a considerable part of their course the
Blood, Buffalo and Tugela rivers form the S.W. frontier of Zulu-
land (see TUGELA). There are numerous other rivers every valley
has its stream, for the most part unnavigable.
Climate. The climate of the coast belt is semi-tropical and
malaria is prevalent; that of the highlands temperate. The
summer is the rainy season, but in the higher country snow and
sleet are not uncommon in the winter months of May, June and
July. On the coast about 40 in. of rain fall in the summer months
and about 7 in. in the winter months. A fresh S.E. wind is fairly
constant in the inland regions during the middle of the day. A
hot wind from the N.W. is occasionally experienced in the high-
lands.
Flora and Fauna. The coast plain (in large part), the river
valleys, and the eastern sides of the lower hills are covered with
mimosa and other thorn trees. This is generally known as thorn-
bush and has little undergrowth. " Coast forests " grow in small
patches along the jower courses of the rivers, at their mouths,
and on the sandhills along the coast. They contain stunted
timber trees, palms, mangroves and other tropical and sub-tropical
plants and have an almost impenetrable undergrowth. The largest
coast forest is that of Dukuduku, some 9 m. by 15 m. in extent,
adjacent to St Lucia Bay. The upland regions are those of high
timber forests, the trees including the yellow-wood and iron-wood.
The most noteworthy timber forests are those of Nkandhla and
Kyudeni and that near Eshowe. Large areas of the plateau are
covered with grass and occasional thorn trees. Orchids are among
the common flowers.
The fauna includes the lion and elephant, found in the neigh-
bourhqpd of the Portuguese frontier (the lion was also found as
late as 1895 in the Ndwandwe district), the white and the black
rhinoceros, the leopard, panther, jackal, spotted hyena, aard-wolf,
buffalo, zebra, gnu, impala, inyala, oribi, hartebeeste, kudu, spring-
bok, waterbuck, eland, roan antelope, duiker, &c., hares and rabbits.
Hippopotami are found on the coast, and alligators are common
in the rivers and lagoons of the low country. Venomous snakes
abound. The great kori bustard, the koorhan, turkey buzzards
(known as insingisi), wild duck, and paauw are among the game
birds. The ostrich and secretary-bird are also found. Of domestic
animals the Zulus possess a dwarf breed of smooth-skinned humped
cattle. Locusts are an occasional pest.
Inhabitants. The population in 1004 was estimated at
230,000. Of these only 5635 lived outside the area devoted to
native locations. The white population numbered 1693. The
vast majority of the natives are Zulu (see KAFFIRS), but there
is a settlement of some 2000 Basutos in the Nqutu district.
After the establishment of the Zulu military ascendancy early
in the igth century various Zulu hordes successively invaded
and overran a great part of east-central Africa, as far as and
even beyond the Lake Nyasa district. Throughout these regions
they are variously known as Ma-Zitu, Ma-Ravi, Wa-Ngoni
(Angoni), Matabele (Ame-Ndebeli), Ma-Viti, and Aba-Zanzi.
Such was the terror inspired by these fierce warriors that many
of the tribes, such as the Wa-Nindi of Mozambique, adopted
the name of their conquerors or oppressors. Hence the impres-
sion that the true Zulu are far more numerous north of the
Limpopo than has ever been the case. In most places they have
become extinct or absorbed in the surrounding populations
owing to their habit of incorporating prisoners in the tribe.
But they still hold their ground as the ruling element in the
region between the Limpopo and the middle Zambezi, which
from them takes the name of Matabeleland. The circumstances
and history of the two chief migrations of Zulu peoples north-
ward are well known; the Matabele were led by Mosilikatze
(Umsiligazi), and the Angoni by Sungandaba, both chiefs of
Chaka who revolted from him in the early igth century.
The Zulu possess an elaborate system of laws regulating the
inheritance of personal property (which consists chiefly of cattle),
the complexity arising from the practice of polygamy and the
exchange of cattle made upon marriage. The giving of cattle
in the latter case is generally referred to as a barter and sale of
the bride, from which indeed it is not easily distinguishable. But
it is regarded in a different light by the natives. The kraal is
ZULULAND
1051
under the immediate rule of its headman, who is a patriarch respon-
sible for the good behaviour of all its members. Over the headman,
whose authority may extend to more than one kraal, is the tribal
chief, and above the tribal ch ; .ef was the king, whose authority
is now exercised by a British commissioner. By the custom of
hlonipa a woman carefully avoids meeting her husband's parents
or the utterance of any word which occurs in the names of the
principal members of her husband's- family: e.g. if she have a
brother-in-law named U'Nkomo, she would not use the Zulu for
" cow," inkomo, but would invent some other word for it. The
husband observes the same custom with regard to his mother-in-
law. The employment of " witch doctors for " smelling out "
criminals or abatagati (usually translated " wizards," but meaning
evildoers of any kind, such as poisoners), once common in Zulu-
land, as in neighbouring countries, was discouraged by Cetywayo,
who established " kraals of refuge " for the reception of persons
rescued by him from condemnation as abataeati. " Smelling out "
was finally suppressed by the British in the early years of the
2oth century. (For the Zulu speech, see BANTU LANGUAGES.)
Towns. The Zulus live in kraals, circular enclosures with,
generally, a ring fence inside forming a cattle pen. Between this
Fence and the outer fencing are the huts of the inhabitants. The
royal kraal for a considerable period was at Ulundi, in the valley
of the White Umfolosi. The last king to occupy it was Cetywayo;
Dinizulu's kraal was farther north near the Ndwandwe, magistracy.
The chief white settlements are Eshowe and Melmcth. Eshowe
(pop. 1904, 1855 f whom 570 were whites) is about 95 m. N.E.
of Durban, lies 15 m. inland and some 1800 ft. above the sea.
Eshowe is 2 m. W. of the mission station of the same name in
which Col. Pearson was besieged by the Zulus in 1879, and was
laid out in 1883. It is picturesquely situated on a well-wooded
plateau and has a bracing climate. Two hundred acres of forest
land in the centre of the town have been reserved as a natural
park. Melmoth, 25 m. N.N.E. of Eshowe, lies in the centre of a
district farmed by Boers. Somkele is the headquarters of the
St Lucia coal-fields district. Nkandhla is a small settlement in
the south-west of the country.
Communications. Notwithstanding its 210 m. of coast-line Zulu-
land possesses no harbours. Thirty-six miles N.E. of the mouth
of the Tugela there is, however, fairly safe anchorage, except in
S.S.W. or W. winds, about 1500 yds. from the shore. The landing-
place is or. the open sandy beach, where a small stream enters the
sea. This landing-place is dignified with the name of Port Durn-
ford. It was used to land stores in the war of 1879. Well-made
roads connect all the magistracies. The Tugela is crossed by
well-known drifts, to which roads from Natal and Zululand con-
verge. Two, the Ixjwer Tugela and Bond's Drift, are both near the
mouth of the river. The Middle Drift is 36 m. in a direct line
above the mouth of the Tugela. Rorke's Drift, 48 m., also in a
direct line, above the Middle Drift, is a crossing of the Buffalo
river a little above the Tugela confluence. A railway, completed
in 1904, which begins at Durban and crosses into Zululand by a
bridge over the Tugela near the Lower Drift, runs along the coast
belt over nearly level country to the St Lucia coal-fields in Hlabisa
magistracy 167 m. from Durban, of which 98 are in Zululand.
There is telegraphic communication between the magistracies and
townships and with Natal.
Industries. The Zulu gives little attention to the cultivation of
the soil. Their main wealth consists in their herds of cattle and
flocks of sheep. They raise, however, crops of maize, millet, sweet
potatoes and tobacco. Sugar, tea and coffee are grown in the
coast belt by whites. Anthracite is mined in the St Lucia Bay
district, and bituminous coal is found in the Nqutu and Kyudeni
hills. Gold, iron, copper and other minerals have also been found,
but the mineral wealth of the country is undeveloped. There is a
considerable trade with the natives in cotton goods, &c., and numbers
of Zulu seek service in Natal (Trade statistics are included in
those cf Natal.)
Administration. Zululand for provincial purposes is governed by
the provincial council of Natal; otherwise it is subject to the
Union parliament, to which it returns one member of the House
of Assembly. It was formerly represented in the Natal legis-
lature by three members, one member sitting in the Legislative
Council, and two being elected to the Legislative Assembly, one
each for the districts of Eshcwe and Melmoth. Their selection
and election were governed by the same laws as in Natal proper,
and on the establishment of the Union the franchise qualifications
which practically exclude natives remained unaltered. The
parliamentary voters in 1910 numbered 1442. The executive
power is in the hands of a civil commissioner whose residence is
at Eshowe. Zululand is divided into eleven magistracies, and the
district of Tongaland (also called Mputa or Arnaputaland). In
the magistracies the authority of the chiefs and indumas (headmen)
is exercised under the control of resident magistrates. The Ama-
Tonga enjoy a larger measure of home rule, but are under the
general supervision 01 the civil commissioner. The Ingwavuma
magistracy, like Tongaland, formed no part of the dominions of
the Zulu kings, but was ruled by independent chiefs until its annexa-
tion by Great Britain in 1895.
With the exception of the townships and a district of Emton-
ianeni magistracy known as " Proviso B," ' mainly occupied by
Boer farmers, all the land was vested in the crown and very little
has been parted with to Europeans. The crown lands are, in
effect, native reserves. A hut tax of ids. per annum is levied on
all natives. The tax has to be paid for each wife a Zulu may
possess, whether or not each wife has a separate hut. Since 1906
a poll tax of i a head is also levied on all males over eighteen,
European or native.
History. At what period the Zulu (one of a number of
closely allied septs) first reached the country te which they have
given their name is uncertain; they were probably settled
in the valley of the White Umfolosi river at the beginning of
the 1 7th century, and they take their name from a chief who
flourished about that time. The earliest record of contact
between Europeans and the Zulu race is believed to be the
account of the wreck of the " Doddington " in 1756. The
survivors met with hospitable treatment at the hands of the
natives of Natal, and afterwards proceeded up the coast to
St Lucia Bay. They describe the natives as " very proud and
haughty, and not so accommodating as those lately left."
They differed from the other natives in the superior neatness
of their method of preparing their food, and were more cleanly
in their persons, bathing every morning, apparently as an act
of devotion. Their chief pride seemed to be to keep their hair
in order. It is added that they watched strictly over their
women.
At the close of the i8th century the Zulu were an unimportant
tribe numbering a few thousands only. At that time the most
powerful of the neighbouring tribes was the Umtetwa (mTetwa
or Aba-Tetwa) which dwelt in the country north-east of the
Tugela. The ruler of the Umtetwa was a chief who had had
in early life an adventurous career and was known as Dingiswayo
(the Wanderer). He had lived in Cape Colony, and g^g
there, as is supposed, had observed the manner in of the
which the whites formed their soldiers into disciplined Zulu
regiments. He too divided the young men of his aatioa -
tribe into impis (regiments), and the Umtetwa became a formid-
able military power. Dingiswayo also encouraged trade and
opened relations with the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay, bartering
ivory and oxen for brass and beads. In 1805 he was joined by
Chaka, otherwise Tshaka (born c. 1783), the son of the Zulu
chief Senzangakona; on the ktter's death in 1810 Chaka,
through the influence of Dingiswayo, was chosen as ruler of the
Ama-Zulu, though not the rightful heir. Chaka joined in his
patron's raids, and in 1812 the Umtetwa and Zulu drove the
Amangwana across the Buffalo river. About this time Dingis-
wayo was captured and put to death by Zwide, chief of the
Undwandwe clan, with whom he had waged constant war. The
Umtetwa army then placed themselves under Chaka, who not
long afterwards conquered the Undwandwe. By the incorpora-
tion of these tribes Chaka made of the Zulu a power- chatm.
ful nation. He strengthened the regimental system
adopted by Dingiswayo and perfected the discipline of his army.
A new order of battle was adopted the troops being massed
in crescent formation, with a reserve in the shape of a parallelo-
gram ready to strengthen the weakest point. 8 Probably Chaka's
greatest innovation was the introduction of the stabbing assegai.
The breaking short of the shaft of the assegai when the weapon
was used at close quarters was already a common practice among
the Ama-Zulu, but Chaka had the shaft of the assegais made
short, and their blades longer and heavier, so that they could be
used for cutting or piercing. At the same time the size of the
shield was increased, the more completely to cover the body of
the warrior. Military kraals were formed in which the warriors
1 The Boers obtained the right to settle in this district in virtue
of Proviso B of an agreement made, on the 22nd of October 1886,
between the settlers in the " New Republic " and Sir A. E. Have-
lock, governor of Natal.
* Dr G. McCall Theal states that the ancestors of the tribes
living in what is now Natal and Zululand were acquainted with
the regimental system and the method of attack in crescent shape
formation in the I7th century. Memories of these customs lingered
even if the practice had died out. Among the Ama-Xosa section
of Kaffirs they appear to have been quite unknown.
1052
ZULULAND
were kept apart. Members of a regiment were of much the
same age, and the young warriors were forbidden to marry until
they had distinguished themselves in battle.
Chaka had but two ways of dealing with the tribes with
whom he came in contact; either they received permission
to be incorporated in the Zulu nation or they were practically
exterminated. In the latter case the only persons spared were
young girls and growing lads who could serve as carriers for
the army. No tribe against which he waged war was able
successfully to oppose the Zulu arms. At first Chaka turned
his attention northward. Those who could fled before him, the
first of importance so to do being a chief named Swangendaba
(Sungandaba), whose tribe, of the same stock as the Zulu, was
known as Angoni. He was followed by another tribe, which
under Manikusa for many years ravaged the district around
and north of Delagoa Bay (see GAZALAND). Chaka next attacked
the tribes on his southern border, and by [1820 had made
himself master of Natal, which he swept almost clear of in-
habitants. It was about 1820 that Mosilikatze (properly
Umsilikazi), a general in the Zulu army, having incurred Chaka's
wrath by keeping back part of the booty taken in an expedition,
fled with a large following across the Drakensberg and began to
lay waste a great part of the country between the Vaal and
Limpopo rivers. Mosilikatze was not of the Zulu tribe proper,
and he and his followers styled themselves Abaka-Zulu. Chaka's
own dominions, despite his conquests, were not very extensive.
He ruled from the Pongolo river on the north to the Umkomanzi
river on the south, and inland his power extended to the foot
of the Drakensberg; thus his territory coincided almost exactly
with the limits of Zululand and Natal as constituted in 1905.
His influence, however, extended from the Limpopo to the
borders of Cape Colony, and through the ravages of Swangen-
daba and Mosilikatze the terror of the Zulu arms was carried
far and wide into the interior of the continent.
Chaka seems to have first come into contact with Europeans
in 1824. In that year (see NATAL) he was visited by F. G.
Arrival Farewell and a few companions, and to them he made
of the a grant of the district of Port Natal. Farewell found
British. the k m g a t Umgungindhlovu, the royal kraal on the
White Umfolosi, " surrounded by a large number of chiefs and
about 8coo or 9000 armed men, observing a state and ceremony
in our introduction little expected." At this time an attempt
was made to murder Chaka; but the wound he received was
cured by one of Farewell's companions, a circumstance which
made the king very friendly to Europeans. Anxious to open
a political connexion with the Cape and British governments,
Chaka entrusted early in 1828 one of his principal chiefs,
Sotobi, and a companion to the care of J. S. King, one of the
Natal settlers, to be conducted on an embassage to Cape Town,
Sotobi being commissioned to proceed to the king of England.
But they were not allowed to proceed beyond Port Elizabeth,
and three months later were sent back to Zululand. In July
of the same year Chaka sent an army westward which laid
waste the Pondo country. The Zulu force did not come into
contact with the British troops'' guarding the Cape frontier,
but much alarm was caused by the invasion. In November
envoys from Chaka reached Cape Town, and it was determined
to send a British officer to Zululand to confer with him. Before
this embassy started, news came that Chaka had been murdered
(23rd of September 1828) at a military kraal on the Umvote
about fifty miles from Port Natal. Chaka was a victim to a
conspiracy by his half brothers Dingaan and Umthlangana,
while a short time afterwards Dingaan murdered Umthlangana,
overcame the opposition of a third brother, and made himself
king of the Zulu.
Bloodstained as had been Chaka's rule, that of Dingaan
appears to have exceeded it in wanton cruelty, as is attested
Dia an ^ v several trustworthy European travellers and
merchants who now with some frequency visited
Zululand. The British settlers at Port Natal were alternately
terrorized and conciliated. In 1835 Dingaan gave permission
to the British settlers at Port Natal to establish missionary
stations in the country, in return for a promise made by the
settlers not to harbour fugitives from his dominions. In 1836
American missionaries were also allowed to open stations; in
1837 he permitted the Rev. F. Owen, of the Church Missionary
Society, to reside at his great kraal, and Owen was with the king
when in November 1837 he received Pieter Relief, the leader
of the first party of Boer immigrants to enter Natal.
Coming over the Drakensberg in considerable numbers
during 1837, the Boers found the land stretching south from
the mountains almost deserted, and Relief went to Arrival
Dingaan to obtain a formal cession of the country of the
west of the Tugela, which river the Zulu recognized Boers.
as the boundary of Zululand proper. After agreeing to Relief's
request Dingaan caused the Boer leader and his companions
to be murdered (6th of February 1838), following up his Ireachery
by slaying as many as possible of Ihe olher Boers who had
enlered Natal. After two unsuccessful atlempls to avenge
their slain, in which the Boers were aided by the British setllers
at Port Natal, Dingaan's army was tolally defeated on the
i6th of December 1838, by a Boer force under Andries Pretorius.
Operating in open country, mounted on horseback, and with
rifles in their hands, the Boer farmers were able to inflict fearful
losses on their enemy, while their own casualties were few. On
" Dingaan's day " the Boer force received the attack of the Zulu
while in laager; the enemy charged in dense masses, being met
both by cannon shot and rifle fire, and were presently attacked
in the rear by mounted Boers. After the defeat Dingaan set
fire to the royal kraal (Umgungindhlovu) and for a time took
refuge in Ihe bush; on the Boers recrossing the Tugela he
eslablished himself at Ulundi at a litlle dislance from his former
capilal. His power was greally weakened and a year laler was
overthrown, the Boers in Nalal (January 1840) supporling his
brolher Mpande (usually called Panda) in rebellion againsl him.
The movement was completely successful, several of Dingaan's
regiments going over to Panda. Dingaan passed into Swaziland
in advance of his retreating forces, and was there murdered,
while Panda was crowned king of Zululand by the Boers.
When in 1843 the British succeeded the Boers as masters
of Natal they entered into a treaty with Panda, who gave up
to the British the counlry between the upper Tugela
and the Buffalo rivers, and also the district of St
Lucia Bay. (The bay was not then occupied by the Brilish,
whose object in obtaining Ihe cession was lo prevent its acquisi-
lion by Ihe Boers. Long aflerwards Ihe Irealy with Panda was
successfully invoked to prevent a German occupation of Ihe
bay.) No sooner had Ihe Brilish become possessed of Nalal
lhan there was a large immigration into it of Zulu fleeing from
the misgovernment of Panda. That chief was not, however, as
warlike as his brolhers Chaka and Dingaan; and he remained
Ihroughout his reign at peace with the governmenl of Nalal. 1
Wilh Ihe Boers who had seltled in the Transvaal, however, he
was involved in various fronlier disputes. He had wars with
Ihe Swazis, who in 1855 ceded lo Ihe Boers of Lydenburg a
Iracl of land on Ihe north side of Ihe Pongolo in order lo place
Europeans belween Ihetaselves and Ihe Zulu. In 1856 a
civil war broke oul belween two of Panda's sons, Cetywayo and
Umbulazi, who were rival claimanls for Ihe succession. A
battle was fought between them on Ihe banks of Ihe Tugela in
December 1856, in which Umbulazi and many of his followers
were slain. The Zulu counlry conlinued, however, exciled and
dislurbed unlil Ihe governmenl of Nalal in 1861 oblained Ihe
formal nominalion of a successor lo Panda; and Celywayo
was appoinled. The agenl chosen lo preside al Ihe nominalion
ceremony was Mr (aflerwards Sir) Theophilus Shepslone, who
was in charge of nalive affairs in Nalal and had won in a
1 Bishop Schreuder, a Norwegian missionary long resident in
Zululand, gave Sir Battle Frere the following estimate of the three
brothers who successively reigned over the Zulu: " Chaka was a
really great man, cruel and unscrupulous, but with many great
qualities. Dingaan was simply a beast on two legs. Panda was
a weaker and less able man, but kindly and really grateful, a very
rare quality among Zulus. He used to kill sometimes, but never
wantonly or continuously."
ZULULAND
1053
remarkable degree the respect and liking of the Zulu. Panda
died in October 1872, but practically the government of Zululand
had been in Cetywayo's hands since the victory of 1856, owing
both to political circumstances and the failing health of his
father. In 1873 the Zulu nation appealed to the Natal govern-
ment to preside over the installation of Cetywayo as king; and
this request was acceded to, Shepstone being again chosen
as British representative. During the whole of Panda's reign
the condition of Zululand showed little improvement. Bishop
Colenso visited him in 1857 and obtained a grant of land for
a mission station, which was opened in 1860, by the Rev. R.
Robertson, who laboured in the country for many years, gaining
the confidence both of Panda and Cetywayo. German, Nor-
wegian and other missions were also founded. The number of
converts was few, but the missionaries exercised a very whole-
some influence and to them in measure was due the comparative
mildness of Panda's later years.
The frontier disputes between the Zulu and the Transvaal
Boers ultimately involved the British government and were one
Disputes f tne causes of the war which broke out in 1879.
wHh the They concerned, chiefly, territory which in 1854 was
Treat- proclaimed the republic of Utrecht, the Boers who
vaat ' had settled there having in that year obtained a deed
of cession from Panda. In 1860 a Boer commission was ap-
pointed to beacon the boundary, and to obtain, if possible,
from the Zulu a road to the sea at St Lucia Bay. The com-
mission, however, effected nothing. In 1861 Umtonga, a
brother of Cetywayo, fled to the Utrecht district, and Cetywayo
assembled an army on that frontier. According to evidence
brought forward later by the Boers, Cetywayo offered the
farmers a strip of land along the border if they would surrender
his brother. This they did on the condition that Umtonga's
life was spared, and in 1861 Panda signed a deed making over
the land to the Boers. The southern boundary of the strip
added to Utrecht ran from Rorke's Drift on the Buffalo to a
point on the Pongolo. The boundary was beaconed in 1864,
but when in 1865 Umtonga fled from Zululand to Natal, Cety-
wayo, seeing that he had lost his part of the bargain (for he
feared that Umtonga l might be used to supplant him as Panda
had been used to supplant Dingaan), caused the beacon to be
removed, the Zulu claiming also the land ceded by the Swazis
to Lydenburg. The Zulu asserted that the Swazis were their
vassals and denied their right to part with the territory. During
the year a Boer commando under Paul Kruger and an army
under Cetywayo were posted along the Utrecht border. Hos-
tilities were avoided, but the Zulu occupied the land north of
the Pongolo. Questions were also raised as to the validity of
the documents signed by the Zulu concerning the Utrecht
strip; in 1869 the services of the lieut.-governor of Natal were
accepted by both parties as arbitrator, but the attempt then
made to settle the difficulty proved unsuccessful.
Such was the position when by his father's death Cetywayo
(q.v.) became absolute ruler of the Zulu. As far as possible
Cetywayo he revived the military methods of his uncle Chaka,
Ua f- and even succeeded in equipping his regiments with
firearms. It is believed that he instigated the Kaffirs in the
Transkei to revolt, and he aided Sikukuni in his struggle with
the Transvaal. His rule over his own people was tyrannous.
By Bishop Schreuder he was described as " an able man, but
for cold, selfish pride, cruelty and un truthfulness worse than
any of his predecessors." In September 1876 the massacre of
a large number of girls (who had married men of their own age
instead of the men of an older regiment, for whom Cetywayo
had designed them) provoked a strong remonstrance from the
government of Natal, inclined as that government was to look
leniently on the doings of the Zulu. The tension between
Cetywayo and the Transvaal over border disputes continued,
and when. in 1877 Britain annexed the Transvaal the dispute
was transferred to the new owners of the country. A commission
1 Umtonga had been originally designated by Panda as his
successor. He afterwards served in the Zulu war with Wood's
column.
was appointed by the lieut.-governor of Natal in February
1878 to report on the boundary question. The commission
reported in July, and found almost entirely in favour of the
contention of the Zulu. Sir Bartle Frere, then High Com-
missioner, who thought the award " one-sided and unfair to
the Boers " (Martineau, Life of Frere, ii. xix.), stipulated that,
on the land being given to the Zulu, the Boers living on it
should be compensated if they left, or protected if they remained.
Cetywayo (who now found no defender in Natal save Bishep
Colenso) was in a defiant humour, and permitted outrages by
Zulu both on the Transvaal and Natal borders. Frere was
convinced that the peace of South Africa could be
preserved only if the power of Cetywayo was curtailed.
Therefore in forwarding his award on the boundary
dispute the High Commissioner demanded that the
military system should be remodelled. The youths
were to be allowed to marry as they came to man's estate, and
the regiments were not to be called up except with the consent
of the council of the nation and also of the British government.
Moreover, the missionaries were to be unmolested and a British
resident was to be accepted. These demands were made to
Zulu deputies on the nth of December 1878, a definite reply
being required by the 3ist of that month.
Cetywayo returned no answer, and in January 1879 a British
force under General Thesiger (Lord Chelmsford) invaded Zulu-
land. Lord Chelmsford had under him a force of 5000
Europeans and 8200 natives; 3000 of the latter were employed
in guarding the frontier of Natal; another force of 1400 Euro-
peans and 400 natives were stationed in the Utrecht district.
Three columns were to invade Zululand, from the Lower Tugela,
Rorke's Drift, and Utrecht respectively, their objective being
Ulundi, the royal kraal. Cetywayo's army numbered fully
40,000 men. The entry of all three columns was unopposed.
On the 22nd of January the centre column (1600 Europeans,
2500 natives), which had advanced from Rorke's Drift, was
encamped near Isandhlwana; on the morning of
that day Lord Chelmsford moved out with a small
force to support a reconnoitring party. After he had left,
the camp, in charge of Col. Durnford, was surprised by a Zulu
army nearly 10,000 strong. The British were overwhelmed and
almost every man killed, the casualties being 806 Europeans
(more than half belonging to the 24th regiment) and 471 natives.
All the transport was also lost. Lord Chelmsford and the
reconnoitring party returned to find the camp deserted; next
day they retreated to Rorke's Drift, which had been the scene
of an heroic and successful defence. After the victory at
Isandhlwana several impis of the Zulu army had Rorte'*
moved to the Drift. The garrison stationed there, orift<
under Lieuts. Chard and Bromhead, numbered about 80
men of the 24th regiment, and they had in hospital between
30 and 40 men. Late in the afternoon they were attacked by
about 4000 Zulu. On six [occasions, the Zulu got within the
entrenchments, to be driven back each time at the bayonet's
point. At dawn the Zulu withdrew, leaving 350 dead. The
British loss was 17 killed and 10 wounded.
In the meantime the right column under Colonel Pearson had
reached Eshowe from the Tugela; on receipt of the news of
Isandhlwana most of the mounted men and the native troops
were sent back to the Natal, leaving at Eshowe a garrison of 1300
Europeans and 65 natives. This force was hemmed in by the
enemy. The left column under Colonel (afterwards Sir) Evelyn
Wood, which had done excellent work, found itself obliged to
act on the defensive after the disaster to the centre column. 2
For a time an invasion of Natal was feared. The Zulu, however,
made no attempt to enter Natal, while Lord Chelmsford awaited
reinforcements before resuming his advance. During this time
(March the i2th) an escort of stores marching to Luneberg,
the headquarters of the Utrecht force, was attacked when en-
camped on both sides of the Intombe river. The camp was
surprised, 62 out of 106 men were killed, and all the stores were
1 With the column were 40 Boers, the Uys clan, under Piet
Uys, whose father had been killed in 1838 in the wars with Dingaan.
1054
ZULULAND
lost. News of Isandhlwana reached England on the nth of
February, and on the same day about 10,000 men were ordered
out to South Africa. The first troops arrived at Durban on the
1 7th of March. On the 2pth a column, under Lord Chelmsford,
consisting of 3400 Europeans and 2300 natives, marched to the
relief of Eshowe, entrenched camps being formed each night.
On the 2nd of April the camp was attacked at Ginginhlovo, the
Zulu being repulsed. Their loss was estimated at 1200 while
the British had only two killed and 52 wounded. The next
day Eshowe was relieved. Wood, who had been given leave
to make a diversion in northern Zululand, on the 28th of March
occupied Hlcbane (Inhlobane) mountain. The force was, how-
ever, compelled to retreat owing to the unexpected appearance
of the main Zulu army, which nearly outflanked the British.
Besides the loss of the native contingent (those not killed
deserted) there were 100 casualties among the 400 Europeans
engaged. 1 At mid-day next day the Zulu army made a desperate
attack, lasting over four hours, on Wood's camp at Kambula;
the enemy over 20,000 strong was driven off, losing fully
1000 men, while the British casualties were 18 killed and
65 wounded.
By the middle of April nearly all the reinforcements had
reached Natal, and Lord Chelmsford reorganized his forces.
The ist division, under major-general Crealock, advanced along
the coast belt and was destined to act as a support to the 2nd
division, under major-general Newdigate, which with Wood's
flying column, an independent unit, was to march on Ulundi
from Rorke's Drift and Kambula. Owing to difficulties of
transport it was the beginning of June before Newdigate was
ready to advance. On the ist of that month the prince imperial
of France (Louis Napoleon), who had been allowed to accompany
the British troops, was killed while out with a reconnoitring
party. On the ist of July Newdigate and Wood had reached
the White Umfolosi, in the heart of the enemy's country. During
their advance messengers were sent by Cetywayo to treat for
peace, but he did not accept the terms offered. Meantime Sir
Garnet (afterwards Lord) Wolseley had been sent out to super-
sede Lord Chelmsford, and on the 7th of July he
" '' reached Crealock's headquarters at Port Durnford.
But by that time the campaign was practically over. The 2nd
division (with which was Lord Chelmsford) and Wood's column
crossed the White Umfolosi on the 4th of July the force
numbering 4200 Europeans and 1000 natives. Within a mile
of Ulundi the British force, formed in a hollow square, was
attacked by a Zulu army numbering 12,000 to 15,000. The
battle ended in a decisive victory for the British, whose losses
were about 100, while of the Zulu some 1500 men were killed
(see ULUNDI).
After this battle the Zulu army dispersed, most of the leading
chiefs tendered their submission, and Cetywayo became a
Worthy's fugitive. On the 27th of August the king was cap-
settie- tured and sent to Cape Town. His deposition was
"""" formally announced to the Zulu, and Wolseley drew
up a new scheme for the government of the country. The
Chaka dynasty was deposed, and the Zulu country portioned
among eleven Zulu chiefs, John Dunn, 2 a white adventurer,
and Hlubi, a Basuto chief who had done good service in the war.
A Residentwas appointed who was to be the channel of com-
munication between the chiefs and the British government.
This arrangement was productive of much bloodshed and
disturbance, and in 1882 the British government determined
to restore Cetywayo to power. In the meantime, however,
blood feuds had been engendered between the chiefs Usibepu
1 For his action on this occasion Colonel (afterwards General
Sir) Redvers Buller, who was Wood's principal assistant, received
the V.C. Piet Uys was among the slain.
2 Dunn was a son of one of the early settlers in Natal and had
largely identified himself with the Zulu. In 1856 he fought for
Umbulazi against Cetywayo, but was high in that monarch's favour
at the time of his coronation in 1873. When Frere's ultimatum
was delivered to Cetywayo, Dunn, with 2000 followers, crossed the
Tugela into Natal (loth of January 1879). In 1888 he fought
against Dinizulu..
(Zibebu) and Hamu 3 on the one side and the tribes who sup-
ported the ex-king and his family on the other. Cetywayo's
party (who now became known as Usutus) suffered severely
at the hands of the two chiefs, who were aided by a band of
white freebooters. When Cetywayo was restored Usibepu
was left in possession of his territory, while Dunn's land and
that of the Basuto chief (the country between the Tugela and
the Umhlatuzi, i.e. adjoining Natal) was constituted a reserve,
in which locations were to be provided for Zulu unwilling to
serve the restored king. This new arrangement proved as
futile as had Wolseley's. Usibepu,' having created a formidable
force of well-armed and trained warriors, and being left in
independence on the borders of Cetywayo's territory, viewed
with displeasure the re-installation of his former king, and
Cetywayo was desirous of humbling his relative. A collision
very soon took place; Usibepu's forces were victorious, and
on the 22nd of July 1883, led by a troop of mounted whites,
he made a sudden descent upon Cetywayo's kraal at Ulundi,
which he destroyed, massacring such of the inmates of both
sexes as could not save themselves by flight. The king escaped,
though wounded, into the Reserve; there he died in February
1884.
Cetywayo left a son, Dinizulu, who sought the assistance of
some of the Transvaal Boers against Usibepu, whom he defeated
and drove into the Reserve. These Boers, led by Lukas Meyer
(1846-1902), claimed as a stipulated reward for their services
the cession of the greater and more valuable part of central
Zululand. On the 2 ist of May the Boer adventurers fhe
had proclaimed Dinizulu king of Zululand; in August New
following they founded the " New Republic," carved Kepubik.
out of Zululand, and sought' its recognition by the British
government. The Usutu party now repented of their bad
bargain, for by the end of 1885 they found the Boers claiming
some three-fourths of their country. The British government
intervened, took formal possession of St Lucia Bay (to which
Germany as well as the Transvaal advanced claims), caused the
Boers to reduce their demands, and within boundaries agreed
to recognize the New Republic whose territory was in 1888
incorporated in the Transvaal and has since 1903 formed the
Vryheid division of Natal.
Seeing that peace could be maintained between the Zulu
chiefs only by the direct exercise of authority, the British
government annexed Zululand (minus the New Re- _
public) in 1887, and placed it under a commissioner laa j
responsible to the governor of Natal. In the following annexed
year Dinizulu, who continued his feud with Usibepu, by Great
rebelled against the British. After a sharp campaign
(June to August 1888), the Usutu losing 300 killed in one
encounter, Dinizulu fled into the Transvaal. He surrendered
himself to the British in November; in April 1889 he and
two of his uncles (under whose influence he chiefly acted) were
found guilty of high treason and were exiled to St Helena.
Under the wise administration of Sir Melmoth Osborn, the
commissioner, whose headquarters were at Eshowe, and the
district magistrates, the Zulu became reconciled to British
rule, especially as European settlers were excluded from the
greater part of the country. Large numbers of natives sought
employment in Natal and at the Rand gold mines, and Zulu-
land enjoyed a period of prosperity hitherto unknown. Order
was maintained by a mounted native police force.
At the end of 1888 and at the beginning of 1890 some small
tracts of territory lying between Zululand and Tongaland,
under the rule of petty semi-independent chiefs, The Boer
were added to Zululand; and in 1895 the territories road to
of the chiefs Zambaan (Sambana) and Umtegiza, the se *
688 sq. m. in extent, lying between the Portuguese blocked -
territories, Swaziland, Zululand and Tongaland, were also
added. In the same year a British protectorate was declared
over Tongaland. The coast-line was thus secured for Great
Britain up to the boundary of the Portuguese territory at
* Both these chiefs were members of the royal family.
ZUMALACARREGUI
'055
Delagoa Bay. At that time the Transvaal government which
had been the first to reap the benefit of Great Britain's defeat
of the Zulu by acquiring the " New Republic " was endea-
vouring to obtain the territories of Zambaan and Umtegiza,
hoping also to secure a route through Tongaland to Kosi Bay.
President Kruger protested in vain against this annexation,
Great Britain being determined to prevent another Power
establishing itself on the south-east African seaboard.
In 1893 Sir M. Osborn was succeeded as resident commissioner
by Sir Marshal Clarke, 1 who gained the confidence and good
will of the Zulu. At the close of 1897 Zululand, in
mad* part wmc h Tongaland had been incorporated, was handed
of Natal, over by the imperial government to Natal, and Sir
(then Mr) C. J. R. Saunders was appointed civil
commissioner of the province, with whose government he had
been associated since 1887. In 1898 Dinizulu was allowed to
return and was made a " government induna." Officially one of
several chiefs subject to the control of the resident magistrate,
he was, in fact, regarded by most of the Zulu as the head
of their nation. His influence appeared to be in the main
exercised on the side of order. During the war of 1899-1902
there was some fighting between the Zulu and the Boers, pro-
voked by the Boers entering Zulu territory. A Zulu kraal
having been raided, the Zulu retaliated and, surrounding a
small Boer commando, succeeded in killing every member of it.
In September 1901 Louis Botha made an attempt to invade
Boer Natal by way of Zululand, but the stubborn defence
raids. made by the small posts at Itala and Prospect Hill,
both within the Zulu border, caused him to give up the project.
Throughout the war the Zulu showed marked partiality for
the British side.
At the close of the war the Natal government decided to
allow white settlers in certain districts of Zululand, and a Lands
Delimitation Commission was appointed. The commission,
however, reported (1905) that four-fifths of Zululand was unfit
for European habitation, and the remaining fifth already densely
populated. The commissioners urged that the tribal system
should be maintained. Meantime the coal mines near St
Lucia Bay were opened up and connected with Durban by
railway. At this time rumours were current of disaffection
among the Zulu, but this was regarded as the effervescence
natural after the war. In 1905 a poll tax of i on all adult
males was imposed by the Natal legislature; this tax was the
ostensible cause of a revolt in 1906 among the natives of Natal,
The He- wno were ^rgely of Zulu origin. Bambaata, the
volt of leader of the revolt, fled to Zululand. He took
1906: refuge in the dense bush in the Nkandhla highlands,
D/a/zu/u'* w jj ere Cetywayo's grave became the rallying-point
of the rebels, who in April were joined by an aged
chief named Sigananda and his tribe. After an arduous cam-
paign, the Natal force (about 5000 strong) being commanded
by Col. Sir Duncan McKenzie, the rebellion was crushed by
July 1906, without the aid of imperial troops. Bambaata was
killed in battle (June loth); his head was cut off for purposes
of identification, but afterwards buried with the body. Siga-
nanda surrendered. In all some 3500 Zulus were killed and
about 3000 taken prisoners, the majority of the prisoners being
released in 1907 (see further NATAL: History). Zululand re-
mained, however, in a disturbed condition, and a number of
white traders and officials were murdered. Dinizulu had been
accused of harbouring Bambaata, and in December 1907 the Natal
government felt justified in charging him with high treason,
murder and other crimes. A military force entered Zululand,
and Dinizulu surrendered without opposition. He was brought
to trial in November 1908, and in March 1909 was found guilty
of harbouring rebels. The more serious charges against him
1 Lieut.-Col. Sir Marshal James Clarke, R.A. (1811-1909) was
A.D.C.toSir Theophilus Shepstone when the Transvaal was annexed
in 1877. He served in the Boer war of 1880-81 ; was resident
commissioner of Basutoland from 1884 to 1893, and after leaving
Zululand became resident commissioner in Southern Rhodesia
(1898). He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1886.
were not proved. He was sentenced to four years' imprison-
ment and deprived of his position as a government induna.
Other Zulu chiefs were convicted of various offences and sen-
tenced to imprisonment. At his trial Dinizulu was defended
by W. P. Schreiner, ex-premier of Cape Colony, while Miss
H. E. Colenso (a daughter of Bishop Colenso) constituted herself
his champion in the press of Natal and Great Britain. On the
day that the Union of South Africa was established (3ist of
May 1910), the Botha ministry released Dinizulu from prison.
He was subsequently settled on a farm in the Transvaal and
given a pension of 500 a year.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. British War Office, Precis of information con-
cerning Zululand (1894) and Precis . . . concerning Tongaland and
North Zululand (1905); Report on the Forests of Zululand (Col.
Off., 1891); J. S. Lister, Report on Forestry in Natal and Zululand
(Maritzburg, 1902); Zululand Lands Delimitation Commission,
1902-4, Reports (Maritzburg, 1905); A. T. Bryant, A Zulu-English
Dictionary with . . . a. concise history of the Zulu People from the
most Ancient Times (1905); G. McC. Theal, History of South Africa
since 1795, 5 vo!s. (1308), vols. i.^and iv. are specially valuable
for Zululand; J. Y. Gibson, The Story of the Zulus (Maritzburg,
1008) ; J. A. Farrer, Zululand and the Zulus: their History, Beliefs,
Customs, Military System, &c. Uth ed. 1879). For more detailed
study consult Saxe Bannister, Humane Policy (1830), and autho-
rities collected in Appendix; A. Delegorgue, Voyage de I'Afrique
Australe (Paris, 1847); A. F. Gardiner, Narrative of a Journey to
the Zoolu Country (1836); N. Isaacs, Travels . . . descriptive of
the Zoolus: their Manners, Customs, &c. (2 vols. 1836); Zululand
under Dingaan: Account of Mr Owen's Visit in 1837 (Cape Town,
1880); Rev. B. Shaw. Memorials of South Africa (1841); Rev.
G. H. Mason, Life with the Zulus of Natal (1852) and Zululand:
a Mission Tour (1862); D. Leslie, Among the Zulus and Amatongas
(2nd ed. Edinburgh, 1875) ; Bishop Colenso, Langalibalele and the
Amahlubi Tribe (1874); Zulu Boundary Commission (Books i.-iv.,
1878, MSS. in Colonial Office Library, London) ; C. Vijn (trans,
from the Dutch by Bishop Colenso), Celshwaya's Dutchman (1880);
British official Narrative of ... the Zulu War of 1879 (1881):
A. Septans, Les Expeditions anglaises en Afrique: Zulu, 1879
(Paris, 1896); Frances E. Colenso and Col. E. Durnford, History of
the Zulu War and its Origin (2nd ed. 1881); F. E. Colenso, The Ruin
of Zululand (2 vols. 1884-85); Capt. H. H. Parr, A Sketch of the
Kaffir and Zulu Wars ( 1 880) ; Cetywayo's Story of the Zulu Nation, ' '
Macmillan's Magazine (1880); H. Rider Haggard, Cetywayo and his
White Neighbours (1882); B. Mitford, Through the Zulu Country
(1883); J. Tyler, Forty Years among the Zulus (Boston, 1891);
British official Military Report on Zululand (1906) ; W. Bosnian, The
Natal Rebellion of 1906 (1907) ; Rosamond Southey, Storm and
Sunshine in South Africa (1910). See also the Lives of Sir Barde
Frere, Bishop Colenso, Sir G. Pomeroy Colley and Sir J. C. Molteno,
and the authorities cited under Natal. (F. R. C.)
ZUMALACARREGUI, THOMAS (1788-1835), Spanish Carlist
general, was born at Ormaiztegui in Navarre on the 29th of
December 1788. His father, Francisco Antonio Zumalacarregui,
was a lawyer who possessed some property, and the son was
articled to a solicitor. When the French invasion took place
in 1808 he enlisted at Saragossa. He served in the first siege,
at the battle of Tudela, and during the second siege until he was
taken prisoner in a sortie. He succeeded in escaping and in
reaching his family in Navarre. For a short time he served
with Caspar de Jauregui, known as " The Shepherd " (El Pastor),
one of the minor guerrillero leaders. But Zumalacarregui, who
was noted for his grave and silent disposition and his strong
religious principles, disliked the disorderly life of the guerrillas,
and when regular forces were organized in the north he entered
the ist battalion of Guipuzcoa as an officer. During the re-
mainder of the war he served in the regular army. In 1812 he
was sent with despatches to the Regency at Cadiz, and received
his commission as captain. In that rank he was present at
the battle of San Marcial (3151 of August 1813). After the
restoration of Ferdinand VII. he continued in the army, and is
said to have made a careful study of the theory of war. Zumala-
carregui had no sympathy with the liberal principles which were
spreading in Spain, and became noted as what was called
a Senil or strong Royalist. He attracted no attention at
headquarters; and was still a captain when the revolution of
1820 broke out. His brother officers, whose leanings were
liberal, denounced him to the revolutionary government, and
asked that he might be removed. The recommendation was
not acted on, but Zumalacarregui knew of it, and laid up the
1056
ZUMPT ZURBARAN
offence in his mind. Finding that he was suspected (probably
with truth) of an intention to bring the soldiers over to the
royalist side, he escaped to France. In 1823 he returned as an
officer in one of the royalist regiments which had been organized
on French soil by the consent of the government. He was now
known as a thoroughly trustworthy servant of the despotic
royalty, but he was too proud to be a courtier. For some years
he was employed in bringing regiments which the government
distrusted to order. He became lieutenant-colonel in 1825 and
colonel in 1829. In 1832 he was named military governor of
Ferrol. Before Ferdinand VII. died in 1833, Zumalacarregui
was marked out as a natural supporter of the absolutist party
which favoured the king's brother, Don Carlos. The pro-
clamation of the king's daughter Isabella as heiress was almost
the occasion of an armed conflict between him and the naval
authorities at Ferrol, who were partisans of the constitutional
cause. He was put on half pay by the new authorities and
ordered to live under police observation at Pamplona. When
the Carlist rising began on the death ef Ferdinand he is said to
have held back because he knew that the first leaders would be
politicians and talkers. He did not take the field till the Carlist
cause appeared to be at a very low ebb, and until he had received
a commission from Don Carlos as commander-in-chief in Navarre.
The whole force under his orders when he escaped from Pamplona
on the night of the 29th of October 1833, and took the command
next day hi the Val de Araquil, was a few hundred ill-armed
and dispirited guerrilleros. In a few months Zumalacarregui
had organized the Carlist forces into a regular army. The
difficulty he found in obtaining supplies was very great, for
the coast towns and notably Bilbao were constitutional in
politics. It was mainly by captures from the government
troops that he equipped his forces. He gradually obtained full
possession of Navarre and the Basque provinces, outside of the
fortresses, which he had not the means to besiege. Whether
as a guerrillero leader, or as a general conducting regular war
in the mountains, he proved unconquerable. By July 1834
he had made it safe for Don Carlos to join his headquarters.
The pretender was, however, a narrow-minded, bigoted man,
who regarded Zumalacarregui with suspicion, and was afraid
of his immense personal influence with the soldiers. Zumala-
carregui had therefore to drag behind him the whole weight of
the distrust and intrigues of the court. Yet by the beginning
of June 1835 he had made the Carlist cause triumphant to the
north of the Ebro, and had formed an army of more than 30,000
men, of much better quality than the constitutional forces.
If Zumalacarregui had been allowed to follow his own plans,
-which were to concentrate his forces and march on Madrid, he
might well have put Don Carlos in possession of the capital.
But the court was eager to obtain command of a seaport, and
Zumalacarregui was ordered to besiege Bilbao. He obeyed
reluctantly, and on the i4th of June 1835 was wounded by a
musket bullet in the calf of the leg. The wound was trifling
and would probably have been cured with ease if he had been
allowed to employ an English doctor whom he trusted. But
Don Carlos insisted on sending his own physicians, and in their
hands the general died on the 24th of June 1835 not without
suspicion of poison. Zumalacarregui was a fine type of the old
royalist and religious principles of his people. The ferocity
with which he conducted the war was forced on" him by the
.government generals, who refused quarter.
An engaging account of Zumalacarregui will be found in The
Most Striking Events of a Twelvemonth Campaign with Zumala-
cdrregui in Navarre and the Basque Provinces, by C. F. Henningsen
(London, 1836). A chap-book called Vida politico y militar de
Don Tomas Zumalacdrregui, which gives the facts of his life
fair accuracy, is still very popular in Spain.
with
(D. H.)
ZUMPT, the name of two German classical scholars. KARL
GOTTLOB ZUMPT (1792-1894), who was educated at Heidelberg
and Berlin, was from 1812 to 1827 a schoolmaster in Berlin, and
in 1827 became professor of Latin literature at the university.
His chief work was his Lateinische Grammatik (1818), which
stood as a standard work until superseded by Madvig'sin 1844.
He edited Quintilian's Institutio oratoria (1831), Cicero's Ver-
rines and De officiis (1837), and Curtius. Otherwise he devoted
himself mainly to Roman history, publishing Annales iieterum
regnorum et populorum (3rd ed. 1862), a work in chronology
down to A.D. 476, and other antiquarian studies. His nephew,
AUGUST WILHELM ZUMPT (1815-1877), studied in Berlin, and
in 1851 became professor in the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium.
He is known chiefly in connexion with Latin epigraphy, his
papers on which (collected in Commentaliones epigraphicae,
2 vols., 1850-54) brought him into conflict with Mommsen in
connexion with the preparation of the Corpus inscriptionum
Latinarum, a scheme for which, drawn up by Mommsen, was
approved in 1847. His works include Monumentum Ancyranum
(with Franck, 1847) and De monumento Ancyrano supplendo
(1869); Studia Romano, (1859); Das Kriminalrecht der rom.
Republik (1865-69); Der Kriminalprozess der rom. Republik
(1871); editions of Namatianus (1840), Cicero's Pro Murena
(1859) and De lege agraria (1861). Ihne incorporated materials
left by him in the 7th and 8th vols. of his Romische Geschichte
(1840).
ZUNZ, LEOPOLD (1794-1886), Jewish scholar, was born at
Detmold in 1794, and died in Berlin in 1886. He was the
founder of what has been termed the " science of Judaism,"
the critical investigation of Jewish literature, hymnology and
ritual. Early in the igth century he was associated with Cans
Moser and Heine in an association which the last named called
" Young Palestine." The ideals of this Verein were not des-
tined to bear religious fruit, but the " science of Judaism "
survived. Zunz took no large share in Jewish reform, but never
lost faith in the regenerating power of " science " as applied
to the traditions and literary legacies of the ages. He had
thoughts of becoming a preacher, but found the career un-
congenial. He influenced Judaism from the study rather than
from the pulpit. In 1832 appeared what E. H. Hirsch rightly
terms " the most important Jewish book published in the igth
century." This was Zunz's Goltesdienstliche Vortriige der Juden,
i.e. a history of the Sermon. It lays down principles for the
investigation of the Rabbinic exegesis (Midrash, q.v.) and of the
prayer-book of the synagogue. This book raised Zunz to the
supreme position among Jewish scholars. In 1840 he was
appointed director of a Lehrerseminar, a post which relieved
him from pecuniary troubles. In 1845 appeared his Zur
Geschichte und Literatur, in which he threw light on the literary
and social history of the Jews. Zunz was always interested in
politics, and in 1848 addressed many public meetings- In 1850
he resigned his headship of the Teachers' Seminary, and was
awarded a pension. He had visited the British Museum in
1846, and this confirmed him in his plan for his third book,
Synagogale Poesie des Mitlelalters (1855). It was from this
book that George Eliot translated the following opening of a
chapter of Daniel Deronda: " If there are ranks in suffering,
Israel takes precedence of all the nations "... &c. After its
publication Zuuz again visited England, and in 1859 issued his
Riius. In this he gives a masterly survey of synagogal rites.
His last great book was his Literatur geschichte der synagogalen
Poesie (1865). A supplement appeared in 1867. Besides these
works, Zunz published a new translation of the Bible, and wrote
many essays which were afterwards collected as Gesammelte
Schriften. Throughout his early and married life he was the
champion of Jewish rights, and he did not withdraw from
public affairs until 1874, the year of the death of his wife Adelhei
Beermann, whom he had married in 1822.
See Emil G. Hirsch, in Jewish Encyclopedia, xii. 699-704.
(I. A.)
ZURBARAN, FRANCISCO (1598-1662), Spanish painter, was
born at Fuente de Cantos in Estremadura on the 7th of
November 1598. His father was Luis Zurbaran, a country
labourer, his mother Isabel Marquet. In childhood he set about
imitating objects with charcoal; and his father sent him, still
young, to the school of Juan de Roelas in Seville. Francisco
soon became the best pupil in the studio of Roelas, surpassing
the master himself; and before leaving him he had achieved a
ZURICH
1057
solid reputation, full though Seville then was of able painters.
He may have had here the opportunity of copying some of the
paintings of Michelangelo da Caravaggio; at any rate he gained
l he name of " the Spanish Caravaggio," owing to the forcible
realistic style in which he excelled. He constantly painted
direct from nature, following but occasionally improving on
his model; and he made great use of the lay-figure in the study
of draperies, in which he was peculiarly proficient. He had a
special gift for white draperies; and, as a consequence, Car-
thusian houses are abundant in his paintings. To these rigid
methods Zurbaran is said to have adhered throughout his career,
which was prosperous, wholly confined to Spain, and varied by
few incidents beyond those of his daily labour. His subjects
were mostly of a severe and ascetic kind religious vigils, the
flesh chastised into subjection to the spirit the compositions
seldom thronged, and often reduced to a single figure. The
style is more reserved and chastened than Caravaggio's, the
tone of colour often bluish to excess. Exceptional effects are
attained by the preciSe finish of foregrounds, largely massed out
in light and shade. Zurbaran married in Seville Leonor de
Jordera, by whom he had several children. Towards 1630 he
was appointed painter to Philip IV.; and there is a story that
on one occasion the sovereign laid his hand on the artist's
shoulder, saying, " Painter to the king, king of painters." It
was only late in life that Zurbaran made a prolonged stay in
Madrid, Seville being the chief scene of his operations. He
died, probably in 1662, in Madrid.
In 1627 he painted the great altarpiece of St Thomas Aquinas,
now in the Seville museum; it was executed for the church of the
college of that saint there. This is Zurbaran's largest composition,
containing figures of Christ and the Madonna, various saints,
Charles V. with knights, and Archbishop Deza (founder of the
college) with monks and servitors, all the principal personages
being beyond the size of life. It had been preceded by the
numerous pictures of the screen of St Peter Nolasco in the cathedral.
In the church of Guadalupe he painted various large pictures,
eight of which relate to the history of St Jerome, and in the church
of St Paul, Seville, a famous figure of the Crucified Saviour, in
grisaille, presenting an illusive effect of marble. In 1633 he finished
the paintings of the high altar of the Carthusians in Jerez. In the
palace of Buenretiro, Madrid, are four large canvases representing
the Labours of Hercules, an unusual instance of non-Christian
subjects from the hand of Zurbaran. A fine specimen is in the
National Gallery, London, a whole-length, life-sized figure of a
kneeling Franciscan holding a skull. It seems probable that
another picture in the same gallery, the " Dead Roland," which used
to be ascribed to Velasquez, is really by Zurbaran. His principal
scholars, whose style has as much affinity to that of Kibera as to
Caravaggio's, were Bernabe de Ayala and the brothers Polanco.
(W. M. R.)
ZURICH (Fr. Zurich; Ital. Zurigo), one of the cantons of
north-eastern Switzerland, ranking officially as the first in the
Confederation. Its total area is 665-7 sq. m., of which 625-2
sq. m. are reckoned as "productive" (forests covering 180-8
sq. m., and vineyards 16-9 sq. m., the most extensive Swiss
wine district save in Vaud and in Ticino). Of the rest, 21 sq. m.
are occupied by the cantonal share of the lake of Zurich, while
wholly within the canton are the smaller lakes of Greifen (3$
sq. m.) and Pfaffikon (ij sq. m.). The canton is of irregular
shape, consisting simply of the acquisitions made in the course
of years by the town. Of these the more important were the
whole of the lower part of the lake (1362), Kiissnacht (1384),
Thalwil (1385), Erlenbach (1400), Greifensee (1402), Horgen
(1406), Griiningen and Stafa (1408), Bttlach and Regensberg
(1409), Wald (1425), Kyburg (1452), Winterthur (1467), Eglisau
(1496), Konau (1512), and Wadenswil (1549) Stein was held
from 1484 to 1798, while in 1798 the lower part of the Stammheim
glen, and finally in 1803 Rheinau, were added to the canton.
In 1 798 the town ruled nineteen " inner " bailiwicks and nine
rural bailiwicks, besides the towns of Stein and of Winterthur.
The canton at present extends from the left bank of the Rhine
(including also Eglisau on the right bank) to the region west of
the lake of Zurich. It is bounded on the E. and \V. by low hills
that divide it respectively from the valleys of the Thur, and from
those of the Reuss and of the Aar. In itself the canton consists
of four shallow river valleys, separated by low ranges, all
xxvrrr. 34
running from S.E. to N.W. The most important of these is
that of the Linth (</*'). which foims the lake of Zurich. To
the east are the valleys of the Glatt (forming lake Greifen) and
of the Toss (forming lake Pfaffikon), both sending their streams
direct to the Rhine. The highest point in the canton is the
Albishorn (3012 ft.) in the Albis range, which limits the Sihl
valley to the west. All the valleys named are traversed by
railway lines, while many lines branch off in every direction
from the town of Zurich. The first railway line opened (1847)
in Switzerland was that from Zurich to Baden in Aargau (14 m.).
From the town of Zurich mountain railways lead S.W. to near
the summit of the Uetliberg (2864 ft.) and N.E. towards the
Zurichberg (2284 ft.).
In 1900 the population was 431,036, of whom 413,141 were
German-speaking, 11,192 Italian speaking, 3894 French-speaking,
and 610 Romonsch-spcaking, while there were 345,446 Protestants,
80,752 Catholics (Roman or " Old "), and 2933 Jews. The capital
of the canton is Zurich (q.v.), but Winterthur (g.r.) is the only
other considerable town, Uster (7623 inhabitants), and Horgen (6883
inhabitants) being rather large manufacturing villages. The land
in the canton is highly cultivated and much subdivided. But the
canton is above all a great manufacturing district, especially of
machinery and railway "rolling-stock, while both silk weaving and
cotton weaving are widely spread. It is divided into n adminis-
trative districts, which comprise 189 communes. In 1869 the
cantona! constitution was revised in a democratic sense, and with
the exception of a few changes made later, it is the existing con-
stitution. There is an executive or Rcgierungsrai of seven members
and a legislature or Kantonsrat (one member to every 1500 resident
Swiss citizens or a fraction over 750), each holding office for three
years and elected at the same time directly by the vote of the
people. The referendum exists in both forms, compulsory and
optional : all laws and all money grants of a total sum over 250,000
frcs. or an annual sum of 20,000 must be submitted to a popular
vote, the people meeting for that purpose at least twice in each
year, while the executive_ may submit to a popular vote any other
matter, though it fall within its powers as defined bylaw. One-
third of the members of the legislature or 5000 legally qualified
voters can force the government to submit to the people any matter
whatsoever (initiative). Both members of the Federal Standerat
and the 22 members of the Federal Nationalrat are elected simul-
taneously by a popular vote and hold office for three years. The
constitution provides for the imposition of a graduated and pro-
gressive income tax. In '885 the penalty of death was abolished
in the canton. (\V. A. B. C.)
ZURICH (Fr. Zurich; Ital. Zurigo), the capital of the Swiss
canton of the same name. It is the most populous, the most
important, and on the whole the finest town in Switzerland,
and till 1848 was practically the capital of the Swiss Confedera-
tion. It is built on both banks of the Limmat (higher up called
Linth) as it issues from the lake of Zurich, and also of its
tributary, the Sihl, that joins it just below the town. That
portion of the town which lies on the right bank of the Limmat
is called the " Grosse Stadt " and that on the left bank the
" Kleine Stadt." Till 1893 the central portion of the town
on either bank of the Limmat formed the " city " and ruled
the outlying communes or townships that had sprung up
around it. But at that time the eleven outer districts (including
Aussersihl. the workmen's quarter on the left bank of the Sihl)
or suburbs were incorporated with the town, which is now
governed by a town council of 125 members (one to every 1200
inhabitants), and an executive of 9 members, both chosen direct
by a popular vote. Much land has been rescued from the lake,
and is the site of fine quays, stately public buildings, and
splendid private villas. The older quarters are still crowded.
But the newer quarters stretch up the slope of the Zurichberg
(above the right bank of the Limmat) while the fine Bahnhof-
strasse (extending from the railway station to the lake) has the
best shops and is in the neighbourhood of the more important
public buildings.
Zurich has always been wealthy and prosperous. It has increased
enormously, as is shown by the following figures. Its population
in 1900 (including the eleven suburbs above named) was 150,703,
while (without these) in 1888 it was 94,129; in 1880, 78,345; in
1870, 58,657; in 1860, 44,978; and in 1850 only 35,483. Of the
inhabitants in 1900 no fewer than 43.7_6i (as against 20,928 in
1888 and 3155 in 1850) were not Swiss citizens, Germans number-
ing 31.125, Italians 5350, Austrians 4210, Russians 683, French 652.
British subjects 157, and citizens of the United States 232. In
1058
ZURICH
1900 there were in the town 140.803 German-speaking persons,
5100 Italian-speaking, 2586 French-speaking, ana 415 Romonsch-
speaking. In 1888 the corresponding figures were 90,500, 1135,
1320, and 148. In 1900 the town numbered 102,794 Protestants,
43,655 " Catholics " (Roman or " Old ") and 2713 Jews. In 1888
the religious figures were 70,970, 20,571 and 1221 respectively,
while in 1850 the numbers were 32,763, 2664 and 56. The inter-
national character of the town has thus become much more marked.
This is partly due to the immigration of many foreign workmen,
and partly to the arrival of Russian and Polish exiles. Both have
added a turbulent cosmopolitan element to the town, in which
the Socialist party is strong, and is increasing in power and influ-
ence, even in matters concerned with civic government.
Of the old buildings the finest and most important is the Gross
Munster (or Propstei), on the right bank of the Limmat. This
was originally the church of the king's tenants, and in one of
the chapels the bodies of Felix, Regula and Exuperantius, the
patron saints of the city, were buried, the town treasury being
formerly kept above this chapel. The present building was
erected at two periods (c. iogo-ii5oand c. 1225-1300), the high
altar having been consecrated in 1278. The towers were first
raised above the roof at the end of the i5th century and took
their present form in 1779. The chapter consisted of twenty-four
secular canons; it was reorganized at the Reformation (1526),
and suppressed in 1832. On the site of the canons' houses
stands a girls' school (opened 1853), but the fine Romanesque
cloisters (i2th and i3th centuries) still remain. There is a
curious figure of Charlemagne in a niche on one of the towers;
to him is attributed the founding or reform of the chapter. On
the left bank of the Limmat stands the other great church of
Zurich, the Frau Miinster (or Abtei), founded for nuns in 853,
by Louis the German. The high altar was consecrated in 1170;
but the greater part of the buildings are of the i3th and i4th
centuries. It was in this church that the relics of the three
patron saints of the town were preserved till the Reformation,
and it was here that the burgomaster Waldmann was buried
in 1489. There were only twelve nuns of noble family, com-
paratively free from the severer monastic vows; the convent
was suppressed in 1524. Of the other old churches may be
mentioned St Peter's, the oldest parish church, though the
present buildings date in part from the I3th century only
(much altered in the early i8th century), and formerly the
meeting-place of the citizens; the Dominican church (i3th
century), in the choir of which the cantonal library of 80,000
volumes has been stored since 1873; the church of the Austin
friars (i4th century), now used by the Old Catholics, and the
Wasserkirche. The last-named church is on the site of a pagan
holy place, where the patron saints of the city were martyred;
since 1631 it has housed the Town Library, the largest in Switzer-
land, which contains 170,000 printed volumes and 4500 MSS.
(among these being letters of Zwingli, Bullinger and Lady
Jane Grey), as well as a splendid collection of objects from the
lake dwellings of Switzerland. The building itself was erected
from 1479 to 1484, and near it is a statue of Zwingli, erected in
1885. The existing town-hall dates from 1698, while the gild
houses were mostly rebuilt in the i8th century. One of the
most magnificent of the newer buildings is the Swiss National
Museum, behind the railway station. This museum, which
was opened in 1898, contains a wonderful collection of Swiss
antiquities (especially medieval) and art treasures of all kinds,
some of which are placed in rooms of the actual date, removed
from various ancient buildings. There are some fine old
fountains (the oldest dating back to 1568). There are several
good bridges, Roman traces being seen in the case of the Nieder-
briicke (now called the Rathausbriicke). The mound of the
Lindenhof was formerly crowned by the king's house, which
disappeared in the I3th century, and the hillock was planted
with limes as early as 1422.
The town is noted for its numerous clubs and societies, and is
the intellectual capital of German-speaking Switzerland. Cotton-
spinning and the manufacture of machinery are two leading indus-
tries, but by far the most important is the silk-weaving industry.
This flourished in Zurich in the I2th and I3th centuries, but dis-
appeared about 1420; it was revived by the Protestant exiles
(such as the Muralti and Orelli families) from Locarno (1555) and
by the Huguenot refugees from France (1682 and 1685). '!").;
value of the silk annually exported (mainly to France, the United
States and England) is estimated at over three millions sterling.
Zurich is the banking centre of Switzerland. Besides the excellent
primary and secondary schools, there are the Cantonal School,
including a gymnasium and a technical side (opened 1842), and a
high school for girls (opened 1875). The Cantonal University and
the Federal Polytechnic School are housed in the same building,
but have no other connexion. The university was opened in 1833,
no doubt as a successor to the ancient chapter school at the Gross
Miinster, said to date back to Charlemagne's time hence its name
the Carolinum reorganized at the Reformation, and suppressed
in 1832. The Polytechnic School, opened in 1855, includes seven
main sections (industrial chemistry, industrial mechanics, engineer-
ing, training of scientific and mathematical teachers, architecture,
forestry and agriculture, and the military sciences), besides a
general philosophical and political science department. The Poly-
technic School has good collections of botanical specimens and of
engravings. Near it is the observatory (1542 ft.). There are also
in Zurich many institutions for special branches of education
e.g. veterinary surgery, music, industrial art, silk-weaving, &c.
The earliest inhabitants of the future site of Zurich were the
lake dwellers. The Celtic Helvetians had a settlement on the
Lindenhof when they were succeeded by the Romans, who
established a custom station here for goods going to and coming
from Italy; during their rule Christianity was introduced early
in the 3rd century by Felix and Regula, with whom Exuperantius
was afterwards associated. ' The district was later occupied by
the Alamanni, who were conquered by the Franks.
The name Zurich is possibly derived from the Celtic dur
(water). It is first mentioned in 807 under the form
" Turigus," then in 853 as " Turegus." The true Latinized
form is Turicum, but the false form Tigurum was given
currency by Glareanus and held its ground from 1512 to 1748.
It is not till the 9th century that we find the beginnings of
the Teutonic town of Zurich, which arose from the union of
four elements: (i) the royal house and castle on the Lindenhof,
with the king's tenants around, (2) the Gross Miinster, (3) the
Frau Minister, (4) the community of " free men " (of Alamannian
origin) on the Ztirichberg. Similarly we can distinguish four
stages in the constitutional development of the town: (i.) the
gradual replacing (c. 1250) of the power of the abbess by that
(real, though not nominal) of the patricians, (ii.) the admittance
of the craft gilds (1336) to a share with the patricians in the
government of the town, (iii.) the granting of equal political
rights (1831) to the country districts, hitherto ruled as subject
lands by the burghers, and (iv.) the reception as burghers of
the numerous immigrants who had settled in the town (town
schools opened in 1860, full incorporation in 1893).
The Prankish kings had special rights over their tenants, were
the protectors of the two churches, and had jurisdiction over the
free community. In 870 the sovereign placed his powers over
all four in the hands of a single official (the Reichsvogt), and
the union was still further strengthened by the wall built round
the four settlements in the loth century as a safeguard against
Saracen marauders and feudal barons. The " Reichsvogtei "
passed to the counts of Lenzburg (1063-1173), and then to the
dukes of Zahringen (extinct 1218). Meanwhile the abbess of
the Benedictine Frau Miinster had been acquiring extensive
rights and privileges over all the inhabitants, though she never
obtained the criminal^jurisdiction. The town flourished greatly
in the I2th and i3th centuries, the silk trade being introduced
from Italy. In 1218 the " Reichsvogtei " passed back into the
hands of the king, who appointed one of the burghers as his
deputy, the town thus becoming a free imperial city under the
nominal rule of a distant sovereign. The abbess in 1 234 became
a princess of the empire, but power rapidly passed from her
to the council which she had originally named to look after
police, &c., but which came to be elected by the burghers,
though the abbess was still " the lady of Zurich." This council
(all powerful since 1304) was made up of the representatives of
certain knightly and rich mercantile families (the " patricians "),
who excluded the craftsmen from all share in the government,
though it was to these last that the town was largely indebted
for its rising wealth and importance.
In October 1291 the town made an alliance with Uri and
ZURICH
I0 59
Schwyz, and in 1292 failed in a desperate attempt to sei/.t- the
llabsburg town of Winterthur. After that Zurich began to
display strong Austrian leanings, which characterize much of its
later history. In 1315 the men of Zurich fought against the
Swiss Confederates at Morgarten. The year 1336 marks the
admission of the craftsmen to a share in the town government,
which was brought about by Rudolf Brun. a patrician. Under
the new constitution (the main features of which lasted till
i/<)S) the Little Council was made up of the burgomaster and
thirteen members from the " Constafel " (which included the
old patricians and the werJthiest burghers) and the thirteen
masters of the craft gilds, each of the twenty-six holding office
for six months. The Great Council of 200 (really 212) members
consisted of the Little Council, plus 78 representatives each of
the Constafel and of the gilds, besides 3 members named by the
burgomaster. The office of burgomaster was created and given
to Brun for life. Out of this change arose a quarrel with one of
the branches of the Habsburg family, in consequence of which
Brun was induced to throw in the lot of Ziirich with the Swiss
Confederation (ist May 1351). The double position of Zurich
as a free imperial city and as a member of the Everlasting
League was soon found to be embarrassing to both parties (see
SWITZERLAND). In 1373 and again in 1393 the powers of the
Constafel were limited and the majority in the executive secured
to the craftsmen, who could then aspire to the burgomastership.
Meanwhile the town had been extending its rule far beyond
its walls a process which began in the I4th, and attained its
height in the isth century (1362-1467). This thirst for terri-
torial aggrandizement brought about the first civil war in the
Confederation (the " Old Zurich War," 1436-50), in which,
at the fight of St Jacob on the Sihl (1443), under the walls of
Zurich, the men of Zurich were completely beaten and their
burgomaster Sttisfi slain. The purchase of the town of Winter-
thur from the Habsburgs (1467) marks the culmination of the
territorial power of the city. It was to the men of Zurich and
their leader Hans Waldmann that the victory of Moral (1476)
was due in the Burgundian war; and Zurich took a leading
part in the Italian campaign of 1512-15, the burgomaster
Schmid naming the new duke of Milan (1512). No doubt her
trade connexions with Italy led her to pursue a southern policy,
traces of which are seen as early as 1331 in an attack on the
Val Leventina and in 1478, when Zurich men were in the van at
the fight or Giornico, won by a handful of Confederates over
12,000 Milanese troops.
In i4oo-the town obtained from the Emperor Wenceslaus the
Reichsvogtei, which carried with it complete immunity from
the empire and the right of criminal jurisdiction. As early as
1393 the chief power had practically fallen into the hands of
the Great Council, and in 1498 this change was formally
recognized.
This transfer of all power to the gilds had been one of the
aims of the burgomaster Hans Waldmann (1483-89), who
wished to make Zurich a great commercial centre. He also
introduced many financial and moral reforms, and subordinated
the interests of the country districts to those of the town. He
practically ruled the Confederation, and under him Zurich
became the real capital of the League. But such great changes
excited opposition, and he was overthrown and executed. His
main ideas were embodied, however, in the constitution of 1498.
by which the patricians became the first of the gilds, and which
remained in force till 1798; some special rights were also given
to the subjects in country districts. It was the prominent part
taken by Zurich in adopting and propagating (against the
strenuous opposition of the Constafel) the principles of the
Reformation (the Frau Munster being suppressed in 1524) which
finally secured for it the lead in the Confederation (see SWITZER-
LAND and ZWINGLI).
The environs of Zurich are famous in military history on account
of the two battles of 1799. In the first battle (4th June) the French
under Masse'na.on the defensive, were attacked by the Austrians
under the Archduke Charles, Mass^na retiring behind the Limmat
before the engagement had reached a decisive stage. The second
and far more important battle took place on the 25th and 26th of
September. Mass^na, having forced the passage of the Limmat,
auacked and totally defeated the Russians and their Austrian
allies under Korsakov's command. (See FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
WARS.)
In the i7th and i8th centuries a distinct tendency becomes
observable in the town government to limit power to the actual
holders. Thus the country districts were consulted for the
last time in 1620 and 1640; and a similar breach of the charters
of 1489 and 1531 (by which the consent of these districts was
required for the conclusion of important alliance.?, war and
peace, and might be asked for as to other matters) occasioned
disturbances in 1777. The council of 200 came to be largely
chosen by a small committee of the members of the gilds actually-
sitting in the council by the constitution of 1713 it consisted
of 50 members of the Little Council (named for a fixed term by
the Great Council), 18 members named by the Constafel, and
144 selected by the 12 gilds, these 162 (forming the majority)
being co-opted for life by those members of the two councils who
belonged to the gild to which the deceased member himself had
belonged. Early in the i8th century a determined effort was
made to crush by means of heavy duties the flourishing rival
silk trade in Winterthur. It was reckoned that about 1650 the
number of privileged burghers was oooo, while their ruK
tended over 170,000 persons. The first symptoms of active
discontent appeared later among the dwellers by the lake, who
founded in 1794 a club at Stafa and claimed the restoration of
the liberties of 1489 and 1531, a movement which was put down
by force of arms in 1795. The old system of government
perished in Zurich, as elsewhere in Switzerland, in February
1798, and under the Helvetic constitution the country districts
obtained political liberty. The cantonal constitution was
rather complicated, and under it the patrician party obtained a
small working majority. That constitution was meant to
favour the town as against the country districts. But under
the cantonal constitution of 1814 matters were worse still, for
the town (10,000 inhab.) had 130 representatives in the Great
Council, while the country districts (200,000 inhab.) had only
82. A great meeting at Uster on the 22nd of November 1830
demanded that two-thirds of the members in the Great Council
should be chosen by the country districts; and in 1831 a new
constitution was drawn up on these lines, the town getting 71
representatives as against 141 allotted to the country districts,
though it was not till 1837-38 that the town finally lost the
last relics of the privileges which it had so long enjoyed as com-
pared with the country districts. From 1803 to 1814 Zurich
was one of the six " directorial cantons," its chief magistrate
becoming for a year the chief magistrate of the Confederation,
while in 1815 it was one of the three cantons, the government of
which acted for two years as the Federal government when the
diet was not sitting. In 1833 Zurich tried hard to secure a
revision of the Federal constitution and a strong central govern-
ment. The town was the Federal capital for 1830-40, and
consequently the victory of the Conservative party there in 1839
(due to indignation at the nomination by the Radical govern-
ment to a theological chair in the university of D. F. Strauss,
the author of the famous Life of Jesus) caused a great stir
throughout Switzerland. But when in 1845 the Radicals re-
gained power at Zurich, which was again the Federal capital for
1845-46, that town took the lead in opposing the Sonderbund
cantons. It of course voted in favour of the Federal con-
stitutions of 1848 and of 1874, while the cantonal constitution
of 1869 was remarkably advanced for the time. The enormous
immigration from the country districts into the town from the
" thirties " onwards created an industrial class which, though
" settled " in the town, did not possess the privileges of burgher-
ship, and consequently had no share in the municipal govern-
ment. First of all in 1860 the town schools, hitherto open to
" settlers " only on paying high fees, were made accessible to
all. next in 1875 ten years' residence ipso facto conferred the
right of burghership, while in 1803 the eleven outlying districts
(largely peopled by working folk) were incorporated with the
io6o
ZURICH, LAKE OF ZWEIBRUCKEN
town proper. The town and canton continued to be on the
Liberal, or Radical, or even Socialistic side, while from 1848 to
1907 they claimed 7 of the 37 members of the Federal executive
or Bundesral, these 7 having filled the presidential chair of the
Confederation in twelve years, no canton surpassing this record.
Frem 1833 onwards the walls and fortifications of Zurich were
little by little pulled down, thus affording scope for the ex-
tension and beautification of the town.
AUTHORITIES. J. Amiet, Die Grundungs-Sage der Schwesterstadte
Solothurn, Zurich, und Trier (Soleure, 1890); F. Becker, Die erste
Schlacht bei Zurich, Juni, 1799 (Zurich, 1899); J. C. Bluntschli,
Stoats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. Stadt und Landschaft Zurich (and ed.,
Zurich, 1856); A. Btirkli-Meyer, Geschichte d. ziirch. Seidenin-
dustrie vom Schlusse d. 13 ten Jahrhunderts an bis in die neuere
Zeit (Zurich, 1884); K. Dandliker, Hans Waldmann und die Zurcher
Revolution von 1489 (Zurich, 1889); E. Egli, Actensammlung z.
Geschichte d. Zurcher Reformation, 1519-1533 (Zurich, 1897-99), Die
Schlacht von Kappel, 1531 (Zurich, 1873) and Zwinglis Tod nach
seiner Bedeutung fur Ktrche und Vaterland (Zurich, 1893); Fest-
schrift zur Feier des sojahrigen Bestehens des eidgenoss. Polytech-
nicums, 2 vols. (one by W. Oechsli as to the history of the institu-
tion, and the other by various hands as to the general develop-
ment of the town) (Frauenfeld, 1905) ; G. Finsler, Zurich in der
sweiten Hdlfte d. iSten Jahrhunderts (Zurich, 1884); G. Heer,
Die Zurcher-Heiligen, St Felix u. Regula (Zurich, 1889); Max
Huber, " Das Staatsrecht d. Republik Zurich vor dem Jahr 1798 "
(article in vol. i. of the Schweiz. Geschlechterbuch, Basel, 1905);
W. Meyer, Die zweite Schlacht bei Zurich, Sept. 1799 (Zurich, 1899) ;
G. Meyer von Knonau, Der Kanton Zurich (2 vols., St Gall and
Bern, 1834 and 1846); Mittheilungen d. antiquarisch. Gesellschafi
in Zurich (from 1837); E. Mviller, Eine reindemokratische Repub-
lik. Der Kanton Zurich zu Anfang des 20 Jahrhunderts (Zurich, 1908) ;
R. von Reding-Biberegg, per Zug Suworofs durch die Schweiz
in 1799 (Stt.ns, 1895) ; K. Ritter, Die Politik Ziirichs in der zweiten
Hdlfte d. i^ten Jahrhunderts (Zurich, 1886); P. Rutsche, Der
Kanton Zurich zur Zeit. d. Helvetik (1798-1803) (Zurich, 1900);
Stadtbucher, Zurcher (1314-1515), edited by H. Zeller-Werdmuller
and Hans Nabholz, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1899-1906); H. Strauli, Die
Verfassung von Zurich von 1869 (Winterthur, 1902); J. J. Treichler,
Politische Wandlungen d. Stadt Zurich (Berlin, 1886); Turicensia
Beitrage z. zurch. Geschichte (Zurich, 1891); Urkundenbuch d. Stadt
u. Landschaft Zurich, edited by H. Escher and P. Schweizer, in
course of pubjication since 1888 (vol. vii. reaches 1301) an appen-
dix is the Siegelbildungen (2 parts, Zurich, 1891-93), edited by
P. Schweizer and H. Zeller-Werdmuller; S. Vogelin, Das alte
Zurich, 2 vols. (Zurich, 1878 and 1890); W. Wettstein, Die Regene-
ration d. Kant. Zurich (1830-39) (Zurich. 1907); G. H. Wunderli,
Hans Waldmann und seine Zeit (Zurich, 1889); F. von Wyss,
" Die Reichsvogtei Zurich " (reprinted in his Abhandlungen zur
Geschichte d. schweiz. 6/entlich. Rechts (Zurich, 1892); G. von
Wyss, " Geschichte d. Abtei Zurich " (in vol. viii. of the Mittheil.
d. antiq. Gesellschaft in Zurich, 1851-58), and Zurich am Ausgange
d. I3ten Jahrhunderts (Zurich, 1876); Zurcher Taschenbuch (from
1878). For the present state of the town see Nos. 126-29 of
Illustrated Europe (Zurich), and Nos. 101-2 of StddtebUder und
Landschaften aus oiler Welt (Zurich). Many of the recent general
works on Swiss history, e.g. those of Dandliker, Oechsli, Orelli,
Schollenberger, Schweizer, Strickler, are by Zurich men and pay
special attention to Zurich matters. See also ZWINGLI.
(W. A. B. C.)
ZtiRICH, LAKE OF, a Swiss lake, extending S.E. of the
town of Zurich. It is formed by the river Linth, which, rising
in the glaciers of the Todi range in Glarus, was diverted by the
Escher canal (completed in 1811) into the Walensee, whence, by
means of the Linth canal (completed in 1816), its waters are
carried to the east end of the lake of Zurich. This river issues
from the lake at its north-west end, passing through the town
of Zurich, but is then called the Limmat. No streams of im-
portance flow into the lake. Its area is about 34 sq. m., its
extreme length 25 m., its greatest breadth a| m., and its greatest
depth 469 ft., while its surface is 1342 ft. above sea-level. It is
included, or the greater portion, in the Canton of Zurich, but
at its east end 8| sq. m. towards the southern shore are in that
of Schwyz, and 4 sq. m. towards the northern shore in that of
St Gall. The great dam of masonry, carrying the railway line
and carriage road from Rapperswil to Pfaffikon, which cuts off
the extreme eastern part of the lake from the rest, is passed
only by small boats; steamers (of which the first was placed
on the lake in 1835) do not go beyond the dam, as the eastern
portion of the lake is shallow and choked by weeds. West of
this dam is the small island of Ufenau, where in 1523 Ulrich von
Hutten took refuge and died. Both shores are well cultivated
and fertile. There are many villas, particularly near Zurich,
and elsewhere numerous factories in the various flourishing
villages. Zurich, at the north end of the lake, is the principal
place on it. On the west shore (which gradually becomes the
south shore) are Thalwil, Horgen, Wadenswil, Richterswil,
Pfaffikon, and Lachen. On the opposite shore are Meilen (near
which the first lake dwellings were discovered in 1853-54), Stafa,
and the quaint town of Rapperswil, the castle of which shelters a
Polish museum, wherein is the heart of Kosciuszko. Schmerikon
is close to the east end of the lake, and a little beyond is the
more important town of Uznach. (W. A. B. C.)
ZURITA Y CASTRO, JER6NIMO (1512-1580). Spanish his-
torian, was born at Saragossa, and studied at Alcala de Henares
under the celebrated Hellenist, Hernan Nunez. Through the
influence of his father, Miguel de Zurita, physician to Charles Y.,
he entered the public service as magistrate at Barbastro, and in
1537 was appointed assistant -secretary of the Inquisition. In
1548 Zurita was nominated official chronicler of the kingdom of
Aragon, and in 1566 Philip II. attached him as secretary to
the council of the Inquisition, delegating to him the conduct of
all matters sufficiently important to require the king's signature.
Zurita resigned these posts on the 2ist of January 1571, obtained
a sinecure at Saragossa, and dedicated himself wholly to the
composition of his Anales de la corona de Aragdn, the first part
of which had appeared in 1562; he lived to see the last volume
printed at Saragossa on the 22nd of April 1580, and died on the
3rd of November following. Zurita's style is somewhat crabbed
and dry, but his authority is unquestionable; he displayed a
new conception of an historian's duties, and, not content with the
ample materials stored in the archives of Aragon, continued his
researches in the libraries of Rome, Naples and Sicily; he
founded the school of historical scholarship in Spain.
ZUTPHEN, or ZUTFE^, a town in the province of Gelderland,
Holland, on the right bank of the Ysel at the influx of the
Berkel, and a junction station 18 m. by rail N.N.E. of Arnhem.
Pop. 19,000. It is a picturesque old town with several brick
houses of the i6th and i/th centuries. The most important
building is the Groote Kerk, of St Walpurgis. which dates from
the 1 2th century and contains monuments of the former counts
of Zutphen, a 13th-century candelabrum, an elaborate copper
font (1527), and a fine modern monument to the van Heeckeren
family. The chapter-house contains a pre-Reformation library
which includes some valuable MSS. and incunabula. There are
some remains of the old town walls. The place has an active
trade, especially in grain and in the timber floated down from
the Black Forest by the Rhine and the Ysel; the industries
include tanning, weaving, and oil and paper manufactures.
Not far from Zutphen on the west at Monnikhuizen once stood
the Carthusian convent founded by Reinald III., duke of Gelder-
land, in 1342 and dissolved in 1572. About 3 m. to the north of
Zutphen is the agricultural colony of Nederlandsch-Mettray,
founded by a private benefactor for the education of poor
friendless boys in 1851, and since that date largely extended.
In the middle ages Zutphen was the seat of a line of counts,
which became extinct in the I2th century. Having been fortified
the town stood several sieges, specially during the wars of freedom
waged by the Dutch, the most celebrated fight under its walls
being the one in September 1586 when Sir Philip Sidney was mor-
tally wounded. Taken by the Spaniards in 1587 Zutphen was
recovered by Maurice, prince of Orange, in 1591, and except for
two short periods, one in 1672 and the other during the French
Revolutionary Wars, it has since then remained a part of the United
Netherlands. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1874.
ZWEIBRUCKEN, a town of Germany, in the Palatinate, on
the Schwarzbach, and on the railway between Germersheim and
Saarbriicken. Pop. (1905) 14,711. The town was the capital of
the former duchy cf Zweibrucken, and the Alexander-Kirche
contains the tombs of the dukes. The ducal castle is now
occupied by the chief court of the Palatinate. There is a fine
Gothic Catholic church. Weaving and brewing and the manu-
1 facture of machinery, chicory, cigars, malt, boots, furniture
, and soap are the chief industries.
ZWICKAU ZWINGLI
1 06 1
Zweibrucken (" two bridges ") is the Latin Bipontinum; it
appears in early documents also as Geminus Pans, and was called
by the French Deux-Ponls. The independent territory was at
1'irst a countship, the counts being descended from Henry I.,
youngest son of Simon I., count of Saarbriicken (d. 1180). This
line became extinct on the death of Count Eberhard (1393), who
in 1385 had sold half his territory to the count palatine of the
Rhine, and held the other half as his feudatory. Louis (d. 1489),
.son of Stephen, count palatine of Zimmern-Veldenz, founded
I he line of the dukes of Zweibriicken, which became extinct in
1731, when the duchy passed to the Birkenfeld branch, whence
it came under the sway of Bavaria in 1799. At the peace of
Luneville Zweibrucken was ceded to France; on its reunion
with Germany in 1814 the greater part of the territory was
given to Bavaria, the remainder to Oldenburg and Prussia. At
the ducal printing office at Zweibriicken the fine edition of the
classics known as the Bipontine Editions was published
(1799 sqq.)-
See Lehmann, Geschichte des Uerzogtums Zweibriicken (Munich,
1867).
ZWICKAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
situated in a pleasant valley at the foot of the Erzgebirge, on
the left bank of the Zwickauer Mulde, 41 m. S. of Leipzig and
20 m. S.W. of Chemnitz on the main line of railway Dresden-
Hof and at the junction of several other lines. Pop. (1834)
6701; (1880) 35,005; (1800) 44,198; (1905) 68,502. Among
the nine churches, the fine Gothic church of St Mary (1451-1536
and restored 1885-91), with a spire 285 ft. high and a bell
weighing 5^ tons, is remarkable. The church contains an altar
with wood-carving and eight pictures by Michael Wohlgemuth
and a remarkable Pieta in carved and painted wood, probably by
Veil Stoss. The late Gothic church of St Catharine (restored
1893-94) has an altarpiece ascribed to Lucas Cranach the Elder,
and is memorable for the pastorate (1520-22) of Thomas
Mtinzer. Of the secular buildings the most noteworthy are
the town-hall of 1581, with the municipal archives, including
documents dating back to the I3th century and an autograph
MS. of the works of Hans Sachs, and the late Gothic Gewandhaas
(cloth merchants' hall), built 1522-24 and now in part converted
into a theatre. The manufactures of Zwickau include spinning
and weaving, machinery, motor-cars, chemicals, porcelain, paper,
glass, dyestuffs, wire goods, tinware, stockings, and curtains.
There are also steam saw-mills, diamond and glass polishing
works, iron-foundries, and breweries. Though no longer
relatively so important as when it lay on the chief trade route
from Saxony to Bohemia and the Danube, Zwickau carries on
considerable commerce in grain, linen, and coal. The mainstay
of the industrial prosperity of the town is the adjacent coalfield,
which in 1908 employed 13,000 hands, and yields i\ million tons
of coal annually. The mines are mentioned as early as 1348;
but they have only been actively worked since 1823, during
which time the population has increased more than tenfold.
Zwickau is of Slavonic origin, and is mentioned in 1118 as u
trading place. The name is fancifully derived from the Latin
cygnea, from a tradition that placed a " swan lake " here which
had the property of renewing the youth of those who bathed
in it. Zwickau was an imperial possession, but was pledged
to Henry the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen (d. 1288). The
German king Charles VI. conferred it as a fief in 1348 on the
margraves of Meissen, and it thus passed to their successors
the electors of Saxony. The discovery of silver in the Schnee-
berg in 1470 brought it much wealth. The Anabaptist move-
ment of 1525 began at Zwickau under the inspiration of the
" Zwickau prophets." Robert Schumann (1810-1856), the
musical composer, was born here in a house which still stands
in the market-place.
See Herzog, Chronik der Kreisstadt Zwickau (2 vols., Zwickau,
1839-45), Geschichte des Zwickauer Steinkohlenbaues (Dresden,
1852); Hansch, Das Zwickau-Chemnitzer Kohlengebiet (Meissen,
1908).
ZWIEDINECK VON SUDENHORST, HANS (1845-1906),
German historian, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main on the
of April 1845. He studied at the university of Gratz,
where he became a professor in 1885, .and died at Gratz on the
22nd of November 1906.
SUdenhorst's principal writings are Dorflfben im 1 8 Jahrhundert
(Vienna, 1877); Hans Ulrich, Fursl von Eggenberg (Vienna, 1880);
Die Politik der Republic Venedig wdhrend des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges
(Stuttgart, 1882-85); Venedig els Weltmacht undWeltstadt (Biele-
feld, 1899 and 1906); Kriegsbilder aus der Zeit der Landsknechte
(Stuttgart, 1883); Die offentliche Meinung in Deulschland im
ZeitalUr Ludwigs XIV. 1650-1700 (Stuttgart, 1888); Erzherzog
Johann im Feldzuge von 1800 (Gratz, 1892); and Maria Theresia
(Bielefeld, 1905). He edited the Bibliothek deutscher Geschichte,
writing for this series, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Grundung
des preussischen Konigtums (Stuttgart, 1887-94); and Deutsche
Geschichte von der Auflosung des alien bis zur Grundung des neuen
Reiches (Stuttgart, 1897-1905). He completed A. Wolf's Oester-
reich unter Maria Theresia, Josef II. und Leopold II. (Berlin,
1882-84), and edited the Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Geschichte (Stutt-
gart, 1884-88).
ZWINGLI, HULDREICH (1484-1531), Swiss reformer, was
born on the ist of January 1484, at Wildhaus in the Toggenburg
valley, in the canton of St Gall, Switzerland. He came of a
free peasant stock, his father being amtmannoi the village; his
mother, Margaret Meili, was the sister of the abbot of Fischingen
in Thurgau. His uncle, Bartholomew Zwingli, afterwards dekan
or superintendent of Wesen, had been elected parish priest of
Wildhaus. As he was keen at his books and fond of music ho
was destined for the Church, and when eight years old was sent
to school at Wesen, where he lived with his uncle, the dean.
Two years later he was sent to a school in Basel, where he
remained three years, passing thence to the high school at Bern,
where his master, Heinrich Wolflin, inspired him with an enthusi-
asm for the classics. After some two years there the boy took up
his abode in the Dominican monastery. But his father had no
thoughts of letting him become a monk, and in 1500 he was sent
to the university of Vienna, where he remained for another
two years and " included in his studies all that philosophy
embraces. " He then returned to Basel, where he graduated in
the university and became a teacher of the classics in the school
of St Martin's church.
The circumstances and surroundings of Zwingli's early life
were thus dissimilar from those of his contemporary, Martin
Luther. Zwingli, moreover, never knew anything of those
spiritual experiences which drove Luther into a cloister and
goaded him to a feverish " searching of the Scriptures " in the
hope of finding spiritual peace. Zwingli was a humanist, a
type abhorred of Luther; and he was far more ready for the
polite Erasmian society of Basel than for a monastery. Luther
never quite shook off scholasticism, whereas Zwingli had early
learnt from Dr Thomas Wyttenbach that the time was at hand
when scholastic theology must give place to the purer and
more rational theology of the early Fathers and to a fearless
study of the New Testament. He heard from this same teacher
bold criticisms of Romish teaching concerning the sacraments,
monastic vows and papal indulgences, and unconsciously he
was thus trained for the great remonstrance of his maturer
life.
At the age of twenty-two Zwingli was ordained by the bishop
of Constance (1506), preached his first sermon at Rapperswyl,
and said his first mass among his own people at Wildhaus. In
the same year he was elected parish priest of Glarus, in spite ef
the pope's nomination of Heinrich Goldli, an influential pluralist
of Zurich, whom Zwingli found it necessary to buy off at an
expense of more than a hundred gulden. The Holy See, much
dependent at that time on its Swiss mercenaries in the pursuit
of its secular ends, expressed no resentment on this occasion.
Zwingli indeed seemed still to be devoted to the pope, whom
he styled " beatissimus Christ! vicarius," and he publicly pro-
claimed the mercenary aid given by the Swiss to the papal cause
to be its dutiful support of the Holy See. The Curia, following
its accustomed policy, rewarded his zeal with a pension of
50 gulden.
The ten years which Zwingli spent at Glarus laid the founda-
tions of his work as a reformer. He there began the study of
1062
ZWINGLI
Greek that he might " learn the teaching of Christ from the
original sources," and gave some attention to Hebrew. He read
also the older Church Fathers and soon won for himself fame as
a student, whilst his skill in the classics led his friends to hail him
as " the undoubted Cicero of our age." He had an unbounded
admiration for Erasmus, with whom he entered into corre-
spondence, and from whom he received a somewhat chilling
patronage; whilst the brilliant humanist, Pico della Mjrandola
(1463-1494), taught him to criticize, in a rationalizing way, the
medieval doctrines of Rome. His first publications, which ap-
peared as rhymed allegories, were political rather than religious,
being aimed at what he deemed the degrading Swiss practice
of hiring out mercenaries in the European wars. His con-
victions on this matter were so much intensified by his later
experiences as army chaplain that in i52r he prevailed upon
the authorities of the canton of Zurich to renounce the practice
altogether. Especially did he oppose alliances with France;
but the French party in Glarus was strong, and it retaliated so
fiercely that in 1516 Zwingli was glad to accept the post of
people's priest at Einsiedeln. He always in later days dated
his arrival at evangelical truth from the three years (1516-19)
which he spent in this place. There he studied the New Testa-
ment in the editions of Erasmus and began to found his preaching
on " the Gospel," which he declared to be simple and easy to
understand. He held that the Bible was the sufficient revela-
tion of the will of God, and he threw away the philosophy and
theology of the later Roman Church, whereas he declared that
the early Church Fathers were helpful, though still fallible,
interpreters of the Word. In his definite recognition of the
theological place of Scripture he showed, says Dr T. M. Lindsay
(History of the Reformation), clearer insight than the Lutherans,
and Zwingli rather than Luther was in this matter Calvin's guide,
and the guide of the reformed churches of Switzerland, France,
England and the Netherlands. All these set forth in their
symbolical books the supreme place of Scripture, accepting
the position which Zwingli laid down in 1536 in The First
Helvetic Confession, namely, that " Canonic Scripture, the Word
of God, given by the Holy Spirit and set forth to the world by
the Prophets and Apostles, the most perfect and ancient of all
philosophies, alone contains perfectly all piety and the whole
rule of life."
Zwingli began to preach " the Gospel " in 1516, but a con-
temporary says that he did it so cunningly (listiglich) that none
could suspect his drift. He still, to use his own words, hung his
new exposition on to " the old doctrines, however much they at
times pained me, rather than on to the purer and clearer ";
for he hoped that the reformation of the Church would proceed
quietly and from within. The papal curia had no wish to
bring things to a quarrel with him. The Swiss, who furnished
them with troops, were to be treated with consideration; and
the pope sought to silence the reformer by offers of promotion,
which he refused. He held himself, as did the Swiss in general,
very free of papal control. They had long been used, in their
orderly democratic life, to manage their own ecclesiastical
affairs. Church property paid its share of the communal taxes,
and religious houses were subject to civil inspection. Zwingli
looked rather to the City Fathers than to the pope, and as long
as he had them with him he moved confidently and laboured
for reforms which were as much political and moral in character
as religious. He had none of Luther's distrust of " the common
man " and fear of popular government, and this fact won for
his teaching the favour of the towns of South Germany not less
than of Switzerland.
As yet he had preached his Gospel without saying much
about corruptions in the Roman Church, and it was his political
denunciation of the fratricidal wars into which the pope, not
less than others, was drawing his fellow-countrymen, that first
led to rupture with the papal see. Three visits which he had
paid to Italy in his capacity of army chaplain had done much
to open his eyes to the worldly character of the papal rule, and
it was not long before he began to attack at Einsiedeln the
superstitions which attended the great pilgrimages made to
that place. Zwingli denounced the publication of plenary
indulgence to all visitors to the shrine, and his sermons in the
Swiss vernacular drew great crowds and attracted the attention
of Rome. His quarrel was turned more immediately against
the pope himself when in August 1518 the Franciscan monk
Bernardin Samson, a pardon-seller like Johann Tetzel, made
his appearance in Switzerland as the papally commissioned
seller of indulgences. Zwingli prevailed on the council to
forbid his entrance into Zurich; and even then the pope
argued that, so long as the preacher was still receiving a
papal pension, he could not be a formidable adversary,
and he gave him a further sop in the form of an acolyte
chaplaincy.
Zwingli had never meant to remain at Einsiedeln long, and
he now threw himself into a competiticn for the place of people's
priest at the Great Minster of Zurich, and obtained it (i.siSi
after some opposition. He stipulated that his liberty to preach
the truth should be respected. In the beginning of 1519 he-
began a series of discourses on St Matthew's Gospel, the Acts
of the Apostles, and the Pauline epistles; and with these it
may be said that the Reformation was fairly begun in Zurich.
He had made a copy of St Paul's epistles and committed them
to memory, and from this arsenal of Scripture he attacked the
unrighteousness of the state no less than the superstition of the
Church. His correspondence of this year shows him jealous
of the growing influence of Luther. It was his claim that he
had discovered the Gospel before ever Luther was heard of in
Switzerland, and he was as anxious as Erasmus to make it clear
that he was not Luther's disciple. Towards the end of September
he fell a victim to the plague which was ravaging the land, and
his illness sobered his spirit and brought into his message a
deeper note than that merely moral and common-sense one with
which, as a polite humanist, he had hitherto been content. He
began to preach against fasting, saint worship and the celibacy
of priests; and some of his hearers began to put his teachings
into practice. The monasteries raised an outcry when people
were found eating flesh in Lent, and the bishop of Constance
accused them before the council of Zurich. Zwingli was heard
in their defence and the accusation was abandoned. His first
Reformation tract, April 1522, dealt with this subject: " Vim
Erkiesen und Fryheit der Spysen." The matter of the celibacy
of the clergy was more serious. Zwingli had joined in an
address to the bishop of Constance calling on him no longer to
endure the scandal of harlotry, but to allow the priests to marry
wives, or, at least, to wink at their marriages. He and his
co-signatories confessed that they had lived unchastely, but
argued that priests could not be expected to do otherwise, seeing
that God had not seen fit to give the gift of continence. Pope
Adrian VI. interfered and asked the Ziirichers to abandon
Zwingli, but the reformer persuaded the council to allow a
public disputation (1523), when he produced sixty-seven theses '
and vindicated his position so strongly that the council de-
cided to uphold their preacher and to separate the canton from
the bishopric of Constance. Thus legal sanction was given in
Zurich to the Reformation. In 1522 Zwingli produced his first
considerable writing, the Architeles, " the beginning and the
end," in which he sought by a single blow to win his spiritual
freedom from the control of the bishops, and in a sermon of that
year he contended that only the Holy Spirit is requisite to make
the Word intelligible, and that there is no need of Church,
council, or pope in the matter.
The progress of the Reformation attracted the attention of all
Switzerland, but there was a strong opposition to it, especially in
the five Forest Cantons: Lucerne, Zug, Schwyz, Uri and Unter-
walden; and the Ziirichers felt it necessary to form a league in
its defence. They were especially anxious to gain Bern, and
Zwingli challenged the Romanists to a public disputation in
that city. No less than 350 ecclesiastics came to Bern from
the various cantons to hear the pleadings, which began on
the- 2nd of January 1523 and lasted nineteen days. Zwingli
1 Cf . P. Schaff, Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches,
p. 197.
ZWINGLI
1063
and liis companions undertook to defend the following pro-
positions:
(i) That the Holy Christian Church, of which Christ is the only
IK, ul, is born of the Word of God, abides therein, and does not
to the voice of a stranger; (2) that this Church inipo i
.ws on the conscience of people without the sanction of the
Word of God, and that the laws of the Church are binding only in
M> far as they agree with the Word; (3) that Christ alone is our
righteousness and our salvation, and that to trust to any other
merit or satisfaction is to deny Him; (4) that it cannot be proved
from the Holy Scripture that the body and blood of Christ are
c orporeally present in the bread and in the wine of the Lord's
s ui>pi ; r; (5) that the mass, in which Christ is offered to God the
Kaihcr for the sins of the living and of the dead, is contrary to
Srripture and a gross affront to the sacrifice and death of the
Saviour; (6) that we should not pray to dead mediators and inter-
cessors, but to Jesus Christ alone; (7) that there is no trace of
purgatory in Scripture; (8) that to set up pictures and to adore
them is also contrary to Scripture, and that images and pictures
ought to be destroyed where there is danger of giving them adora-
tion; (9) that marriage is lawful to all, to the clergy as well as to
i he laity; (10) that shameful living is more disgraceful among the
clergy than among the laity.
The result of the discussion was that Bern was won over to
the side of the reformer, who apprehended the whole struggle
of Protestantism as turning directly on the political decisions
of the various units of the Confederation. He had enunciated in
his theses the far-reaching new principle that the congregation,
and not the hierarchy, was the representative of the Church;
and he sought henceforward to reorganize the Swiss constitution
on the principles of representative democracy so as to reduce
the wholly disproportionate voting power which, till then, the
Forest Cantons had exercised. He argued that the administra-
tion of the Church belongs, like all administration, to the state
aut horities, and that if these go wrong it then lies with Christian
people to depose them.
On the 2nd of April 1524 the marriage of Zwingli with Anna
Reinhard was publicly celebrated in the cathedral, though for
some two years already he had had her to wife. Many of his
colleagues followed his example and openly made profession of
marriage. In the August of that year Zwingli printed a pamphlet
in which he set forth his views of the Lord's Supper. They
proved the occasion of a conflict with Luther which was never
settled, but in the meantime more attention was attracted by
Zwingli's denunciation of the worship of images and of the
Roman doctrine of the mass. These points were discussed at a
fresh congress where about ooo persons were present, and where
Vadian (Joachim von Watt, the reformer of St Gall) presided.
It was decided that images are forbidden by Scripture and that
the mass is not a sacrifice. Shortly afterwards the images were
removed from the churches, and many ceremonies and festivals
were abolished. When a solemn embassy of rebuke was sent to
Zurich from a diet held at Lucerne, on the 26th of January 1524,
the rity replied that in matters relating to the Word of God
and the salvation of souls she would brook no interference.
When a new embassy threatened Zurich with exclusion from
the union she began to make preparations for war.
It was at this moment that the controversy between Luther
and Zwingli took on a deeper significance. In March 1525 the
latter brought out his long Commentary on the True and False
Religion, in which he goes over all the topics of practical
theology. Like others of the Reformers he had been led inde-
pendently to preach justification by faith and to declare that
Jesus Christ was the one and only Mediator between sinful man
and God; but his construction rested upon what he regarded as
biblical conceptions of the nature of God and man rather than
upon such private personal experiences as those which Luther
had made basal. In this Commentary there appear the mature
views of Zwingli on the subject of the Elements of the Lord's
Supper. He was quite as clear as Luther in repudiating the
medieval doctrine of transubstantiation, but he declined to
accept Luther's teaching that Christ's words of institution re-
quired the belief that the real flesh and blood of Christ co-exist
in and with the natural elements. He declared that Luther
was in a fog, and that Christ had warned His disciples against
all such notions, and had proclaimed that by faith alone could
His presence be received in a feast which He designed to be
commemorative and symbolical. Efforts to reach agreement
failed. The landgrave of Hesse brought the two Reformers
together in vain at Marburg in October 1529, and the whole
Protestant movement broke into two camps, with the result that
the attempt made at Schmalkalden in 1530 to form a compre-
hensive league of defence against all foes of the Reformation
was frustrated.
But the close of Zwingli's life was brought about by trouble
nearer home. The long-felt .strain between opposing cantons
led at last to civil war. In Februaiy 1531 Zwingli himself urged
the Evangelical Swiss to attack the Five Cantons, and on the
loth of October there was fought at Kappel a battle, disastrous
to the Protestant cause and fatal to its leader. Zwingli, who as
chaplain was carrying the banner, was struck to the ground, and
was later despatched in cold blood. His corpse, after suffering
every indignity, was quartered by the public hangman, and
burnt with dung by the Romanist soldiers. A great boulder,
roughly squared, standing a little way off the road, marks the
place where Zwingli fell. It is inscribed, " ' They may kill the
body but not the so ! ': so spoke on this spot Ulrich Zwingli,
who for truth and the freedom of the Christian Church died a
hero's death, Oct. n, T 53i."
Zwingli's theological f'ews are expressed succinctly in the sixty-
seven theses published at Zurich in 1523, and at greater length in
the First Helvetic Confession, compiled in 1536 by a number of his
disciples. 1 They contain t"e elements of Reformed as distinguished
from Lutheran doctrine. As opposed to Luther, Zwingli insisted
more firmly on the supreme authority of Scripture, and broke
more thoroughly and radicJJly with the medieval Church. Luther
was content with changes '^i one or two fundamental doctrines;
Xwingli aimed at a reformation of government and discipline as
well as of theology. Zwingli never faltered in his trust in the
people, and was earnest to show that no class of men ought to be
called spiritual simply because they were selected to perform" certain
functions. He thoroughly belfved also that it was the duty ol
ail in authority to rule in Christ's name and to obey His laws
He was led from these ideas to think that there should be no
government in the Church sepai-ate from the civil government
which ruled the commonwealth. Ali rules and regulations about
the public worship, doctrines and Discipline of the Church were
made in Zwingli's time, and with h' consent, by the council <jf
Zurich, which was the supreme civil authority in the state. 1 his
was the ground of his quarrel with the^wiss Anabaptists, for the
main idea in the minds of these greatly maligned men was the
modern thought of a free Church in a frtr- state. Like all the
Reformers, he was strictly Augustinian in thtcVogy, but he dwelt
chiefly on the positive side of predestination the election to salva-
tion and he insisted upon the salvation of infants and of the
pious heathen. His most distinctive doctrine is perhaps his theory
of the sacrament, which involved him and his followers in a long
and, on Luther's part, an acrimonious dispute with the German
Protestants. His main idea was that the sacrament of the Lord's
Supper was not the repetition of the sacrifice of Christ, but the
faithful remembrance that that sacrifice had been made once for
all; and his deeper idea of faith, which included in the act_of
faith a real union and communion of the faithful soul with Christ,
really preserved what was also most valuable in the distinctively
Lutheran doctrine. His peculiar theological opinions were set aside
in Switzerland for the somewhat profounder views of Calvin. The
publication of the Zurich Consensus (Consensus Tigurinus) in 1549
marks the adherence of the Swiss to Calvinist theology.
Zwingli's most important writings are Von Erkiesen und Fryheit
der Spy sen (April 1522); De Canone Missae Epichiresis (September
1523); Commentarius de Vera et Falsa Religione (1525); Vom
Tonf. vom Wiedertouf, und vom Kindertouf (1525): &* klare
Unterrichtung vom Nachtmal Christi (1526); De Providentia Dei
(1530); and Chriitianae Fidei Exppsitio (1531). For a full biblio-
graphy see G. Finsler, Zivingli-Bibliographie (Zurich, 1897).
Works. Collected editions, 4 vols. (Zurich, 1545, 1581); by
M. Schuler and Joh. Schulthess, 8 vols. (Zurich, 1828-42, with
" supplementorum fasciculus," 1861); by E. Egli and G. Finsler
in " Corpus Reformatorum " (Berlin, 1905 sqq.).
Lives. O. Myconius (1532); H. Bullinger's Reformations-
eesckichte (ed. Hottinger and Voegli, 1838); I. M. Schuler (1818); R.
Christoffel (1857, Eng. tr. by J. Cochran, Edinburgh, 1858);!. C
Morikofer, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1867-69); R. Stahelin, 2 vols. (Ba^cl,
1895-97): S. M. Jackson in Heroes of the Reformation (New
York and London. 1901); Prof. Egli's articles in Hauck-Herzog s
Rcalencyklopadie fur prol. Theologie u. Kirche, and Zwinfliana,
1 P. Schaff, Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches, p. 211.
1064
ZWOLLE ZYMOTIC DISEASES
published twice a year since 1897 at Zurich. S. M,. Jackson's
book gives a chapter on Zwingli's Theology by Prof. F. H. Foster,
and full details of further information on the subject, together
with a list of modern English translations of Zwingli's works.
(E. AR.*)
ZWOLLE, the capital of the province of Overysel, Holland,
on the Zwartc Water, and a junction station 24^ m. N.E. of
Ilarderwyk. Pop. (1905) 23,773. It * s the centre of the whole
northern and eastern canal systems, and by means of the short
canal, the Willemsvaart, which joins the Zwartc Water and the
Ysel, has regular steamboat communication with Kampen and
Amsterdam. The Groote Kerk, of St Michael (first half of the
1 5th century) occupies the site of an earlier church of which an
interesting nth-century bas-relief remains. The churck con-
tains a richly carved pulpit, the work of Adam Straes van
Weilborch about 1620, and there is besides some good carving
and a fine organ (1721). The Roman Catholic church, also
dedicated to St Michael, dates from the end of the I4th century.
The modernized town hall was originally built in 1448. Mention
should also be made of the Sassen Poort. one of the old city
gates; a gild-house (1571); the provincial government offices,
containing the archives; and a museuT* of antiquities and
natural history. Three miles from Zwol'*, on a slight eminence
called the Agnietenberg, or hill of St Agnes, once stood the
Augustinian convent in which Thomas a Kempis spent the
greatest part of his life and died in 1471. Zwolle has a consider-
able trade by river, a large fish market, and the most impor-
tant cattle market in Holland after Rotterdam. The more
important industries comprise cotton manufactures, iron works,
boat-building, dyeing and bleaching,- tanning, rope-making
and salt-making.
ZYMOTIC DISEASES (Gr. fii/Hj, ferment), a term in medicine,
formerly applied to the class of acute infectious maladies. As
originally employed by Dr W. Farr, of the British Registrar-
General's department, the term included the diseases which were
" epidemic, endemic and contagious," and were regarded as
owing their origin to the presence of a morbific principle in the
system, acting in a manner analogous to, although not identical
with, the process of fermentation. A large number of diseases
were accordingly included under this designation. The term,
however, came to be restricted in medical nomenclature to the
chief fevers and contagious diseases (e.g. typhus and typhoid
fevers, smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, erysipelas, cholera,
whooping-cough, diphtheria, &c.). The science of bacteriology
has displaced the old fermentation theory, and the term has
practically dropped out of use.
END OF TWENTY-EIGHTH VOLUME
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